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255475	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stress%20management	Stress management	Stress management is a wide spectrum of techniques and psychotherapies aimed at controlling a person's level of stress, especially chronic stress, usually for the purpose of and for the motive of improving everyday functioning. Stress produces numerous physical and mental symptoms which vary according to each individual's situational factors. These can include a decline in physical health as well as depression. The process of stress management is named as one of the keys to a happy and successful life in modern society. Life often delivers numerous demands that can be difficult to handle, but stress management provides a number of ways to manage anxiety and maintain overall well-being. Despite stress often being thought of as a subjective experience, levels of stress are readily measurable; using various physiological tests, similar to those used in polygraphs. There are several models of stress management, each with distinctive explanations of mechanisms for controlling stress. Much more research is necessary to provide a better understanding of which mechanisms actually operate and are effective in practice. Historical foundations Walter Cannon and Hans Selye used animal studies to establish the earliest scientific basis for the study of stress. They measured the physiological responses of animals to external pressures, such as heat and cold, prolonged restraint, and surgical procedures then extrapolated from these studies to human beings. Subsequent studies of stress in humans by Richard Rahe and others established the view that stress is caused by distinct, measurable life stressors, and further, that these life stressors can be ranked by the median degree of stress they produce (leading to the Holmes and Rahe stress scale). Thus, stress was traditionally conceptualized to be a result of external insults beyond the control of those experiencing the stress. More recently, however, it has been argued that external circumstances do not have any intrinsic capacity to produce stress, but instead, their effect is mediated by the individual's perceptions, capacities, and understanding. Models The generalized models are: The emergency response/fight-or-flight response by Walter Cannon (1914, 1932) General Adaptation Syndrome by Hans Selye (1936) Stress Model of Henry and Stephens (1977) Transactional (or cognitive) Stress Model / stress model of Lazarus after Lazarus (1974) Theory of resource conservation by Stevan Hobfoll (1988, 1998; Hobfoll & Buchwald, 2004) Transactional model Richard Lazarus and Susan Folkman suggested in 1981 that stress can be thought of as resulting from an "imbalance between demands and resources" or as occurring when "pressure exceeds one's perceived ability to cope". Stress management was developed and premised on the idea that stress is not a direct response to a stressor but rather one's resources and ability to cope mediate the stress response and are amenable to change, thus allowing stress to be controllable. Among the many stressors mentioned by employees, these are the most common: Conflicts in company The way employees are treated by their bosses/supervisors or company Lack of job security Company policies Co-workers who don't do their fair share Unclear expectations Poor communication Not enough control over assignments Inadequate pay or benefits Urgent deadlines Too much work Long hours Time consumption Uncomfortable physical conditions Relationship conflicts Co-workers making careless mistakes Dealing with rude customers Lack of co-operation How the company treats co-workers In order to develop an effective stress management program, it is first necessary to identify the factors that are central to a person controlling his/her stress and to identify the intervention methods which effectively target these factors. Lazarus and Folkman's interpretation of stress focuses on the transaction between people and their external environment (known as the Transactional Model). The model contends that stress may not be a stressors if the person does not perceive the stressors as a threat but rather as positive or even challenging. Also, if the person possesses or can use adequate coping skills, then stress may not actually be a result or develop because of the stressors. The model proposes that people can be taught to manage their stress and cope with their stressors. They may learn to change their perspective of the stressors and provide them with the ability and confidence to improve their lives and handle all of the types of stressors. Health realization/innate health model The health realization/innate health model of stress is also founded on the idea that stress does not necessarily follow the presence of a potential stressor. Instead of focusing on the individual's appraisal of so-called stressors in relation to his or her own coping skills (as the transactional model does), the health realization model focuses on the nature of thought, stating that it is ultimately a person's thought processes that determine the response to potentially stressful external circumstances. In this model, stress results from appraising oneself and one's circumstances through a mental filter of insecurity and negativity, whereas a feeling of well-being results from approaching the world with a "quiet mind". This model proposes that helping stressed individuals understand the nature of thought—especially providing them with the ability to recognize when they are in the grip of insecure thinking, disengage from it, and access natural positive feelings—will reduce their stress. Techniques High demand levels load the person with extra effort and work. A new time schedule is worked up, and until the period of abnormally high, personal demand has passed, the normal frequency and duration of former schedules is limited. Many of these techniques cope with stresses one may find themselves withholding. Some of the following ways reduce a lower than usual stress level, temporarily, to compensate the biological issues involved; others face the stressors at a higher level of abstraction: Techniques of stress management will vary according to the philosophical paradigm. Stress prevention and resilience Although many techniques have traditionally been developed to deal with the consequences of stress, considerable research has also been conducted on the prevention of stress, a subject closely related to psychological resilience-building. A number of self-help approaches to stress-prevention and resilience-building have been developed, drawing mainly on the theory and practice of cognitive-behavioral therapy. Measuring stress Levels of stress can be measured. One way is through the use of psychological testing: The Holmes and Rahe Stress Scale [two scales of measuring stress] is used to rate stressful life events, while the DASS [Depression Anxiety Stress Scales] contains a scale for stress based on self-report items. Changes in blood pressure and galvanic skin response can also be measured to test stress levels, and changes in stress levels. A digital thermometer can be used to evaluate changes in skin temperature, which can indicate activation of the fight-or-flight response drawing blood away from the extremities. Deep neural network models using photoplethysmography imaging (PPGI) data from mobile cameras can accurately measure stress levels. Cortisol is the main hormone released during a stress response and measuring cortisol from hair will give a 60- to 90-day baseline stress level of an individual. This method of measuring stress is currently the most popular method in the clinic. Effectiveness Stress management has physiological and immune benefits. Positive outcomes are observed using a combination of non-drug interventions: treatment of anger or hostility, autogenic training talking therapy (around relationship or existential issues) biofeedback cognitive therapy for anxiety or clinical depression Types of stress Acute stress Acute stress is the most common form of stress among humans worldwide. Acute stress deals with the pressures of the near future or dealing with the very recent past. This type of stress is often misinterpreted for being a negative connotation. While this is the case in some circumstances, it is also a good thing to have some acute stress in life. Running or any other form of exercise is considered an acute stressor. Some exciting or exhilarating experiences such as riding a roller coaster is an acute stress but is usually very enjoyable. Acute stress is a short term stress and as a result, does not have enough time to do the damage that long term stress causes. Chronic stress Chronic stress is unlike acute stress. It has a wearing effect on people that can become a very serious health risk if it continues over a long period of time. Chronic stress can lead to memory loss, damage spatial recognition and produce a decreased drive of eating. The severity varies from person to person and also gender difference can be an underlying factor. Women are able to take longer durations of stress than men without showing the same maladaptive changes. Men can deal with shorter stress duration better than women can but once males hit a certain threshold, the chances of them developing mental issues increase drastically. Workplace All of us have some position in society, in the workplace, within the family, economic status and so on. Unfortunately, most of us are unwilling to accept where we are. Instead, we wish we were somewhere else, usually at a higher position. Managing that stress becomes vital in order to keep up job performance as well as relationship with co-workers and employers. For some workers, changing the work environment relieves work stress. Making the environment less competitive between employees decreases some amounts of stress. That said, stress in the workplace doesn't always have to be negatively viewed. When managed well, stress can increase employees' focus and productivity. According to the Yerkes Dodson Law, stress is beneficial to human functioning, but only up to a point. People who experience too low levels of stress might feel understimulated and passive; people experiencing stress that are at excessively high levels would feel overwhelmed, anxious, and irritable. Thus, establishing an optimum level of stress is key. Organizational stress levels that an individual faces is dependent not just on external factors such as job characteristics or environment, but also on intrapersonal factors such as personality, temperament, and individual coping and thinking styles. Both aspects need to be managed well. Some examples of stressors in the workplace can be their perception of Organization Commitment, which is the way an employee conceptualizes his/her reasons for staying in the organizations for either Affective, Continuance, or Normative reasons. Affective commitment to the organization is ideal, as it is the situation where an employee strongly identifies with the values and culture of the organization. While this is not directly telling of an employee's stress levels, genuine interest and enjoyment in the employee's work and work relations places the employee in a good position to manage stress well. Employees who stay in an organization for continuance reasons stay as a result of weighing the pros and cons, and then decides that the opportunity cost of leaving the organization is too high. Employees under this category might experience moderate levels of stress, as their reasons for staying is driven more by external rather than internal motivation. Employees who stay for normative reasons, however, are most likely to experience the highest levels of stress, as these are the employees who stay out of obligation and duty. Salary can also be an important concern of employees. Salary can affect the way people work because they can aim for promotion and in result, a higher salary. This can lead to chronic stress. Cultural differences have also shown to have some major effects on stress coping problems. Eastern Asian employees may deal with certain work situations differently from how a Western North American employee would. In order to manage stress in the workplace, employers can provide stress managing programs such as therapy, communication programs, and a more flexible work schedule. There have been many studies conducted demonstrating the benefits of mindfulness practices on subjective well-being and work outcomes. Productivity, organization, and performance increase, while burnout rates decrease. Medical environment A study was done on the stress levels in general practitioners and hospital consultants in 1999. Over 500 medical employees participated in this study done by R.P Caplan. These results showed that 47% of the workers scored high on their questionnaire for high levels of stress. 27% of the general practitioners even scored to be very depressed. These numbers came to a surprise to Dr. Caplan and it showed how alarming the large number of medical workers become stressed out because of their jobs. Managers stress levels were not as high as the actual practitioners themselves. An eye opening statistic showed that nearly 54% of workers suffered from anxiety while being in the hospital. Although this was a small sample size for hospitals around the world, Caplan feels this trend is probably fairly accurate across the majority of hospitals. Stress management programs Many businesses today have begun to use stress management programs for employees who are having trouble adapting to stress at the workplace or at home. Some companies provide special equipments adapting to stress at the workplace to their employees, like coloring diaries and stress relieving gadgets. Many people have spill over stress from home into their working environment. There are a couple of ways businesses today try to reduce the stress levels of their employees. One way is through individual intervention. This starts off by monitoring the stressors in the individual. After monitoring what causes the stress, next is attacking that stressor and trying to figure out ways to alleviate them in any way. Developing social support is vital in individual intervention, being with others to help you cope has proven to be a very effective way to avoid stress. Avoiding the stressors altogether is the best possible way to get rid of stress but that is very difficult to do in the workplace. Changing behavioral patterns, may in turn, help reduce some of the stress that is put on at work as well. Employee assistance programs can include in-house counseling programs on managing stress. Evaluative research has been conducted on EAPs that teach individuals stress control and inoculation techniques such as relaxation, biofeedback, and cognitive restructuring. Studies show that these programs can reduce the level of physiological arousal associated with high stress. Participants who master behavioral and cognitive stress-relief techniques report less tension, fewer sleep disturbances, and an improved ability to cope with workplace stressors. Another way of reducing stress at work is by simply changing the workload for an employee. Some may be too overwhelmed that they have so much work to get done, or some also may have such little work that they are not sure what to do with themselves at work. Improving communications between employees also sounds like a simple approach, but it is very effective for helping reduce stress. Sometimes making the employee feel like they are a bigger part of the company, such as giving them a voice in bigger situations shows that you trust them and value their opinion. Having all the employees mesh well together is a very underlying factor which can take away much of workplace stress. If employees fit well together and feed off of each other, the chances of much stress are minimal. Lastly, changing the physical qualities of the workplace may reduce stress. Changing things such as the lighting, air temperature, odor, and up to date technology. Intervention is broken down into three steps: primary, secondary, tertiary. Primary deals with eliminating the stressors altogether. Secondary deals with detecting stress and figuring out ways to cope with it and improving stress management skills. Finally, tertiary deals with recovery and rehabbing the stress altogether. These three steps are usually the most effective way to deal with stress not just in the workplace, but overall. Aviation industry Aviation is a high-stress industry, given that it requires a high level of precision at all times. Chronically high stress levels can ultimately decrease the performance and compromise safety. To be effective, stress measurement tools must be specific to the aviation industry, given its unique working environment and other stressors. Stress measurement in aviation seeks to quantify the psychological stress experienced by aviators, with the goal of making needed improvements to aviators' coping and stress management skills. To more precisely measure stress, aviators' many responsibilities are broken down into "workloads." This helps to categorise the broad concept of "stress" by specific stressors. Additionally, since different workloads may pose unique stressors, this method may be more effective than measuring stress levels as a whole. Stress measurement tools can then help aviators identify which stressors are most problematic for them, and help them improve on managing workloads, planning tasks, and coping with stress more effectively. To evaluate workload, a number of tools can be used. The major types of measurement tools are: Performance-based measures; Subjective measures, like questionnaires which aviators answer themselves; and Physiological measures, like measurement of heart rate. Implementation of evaluation tools requires time, instruments for measurement, and software for collecting data. Measurement systems The most commonly used stress measurement systems are primarily rating scale-based. These systems tend to be complex, containing multiple levels with a variety of sections, to attempt to capture the many stressors present in the aviation industry. Different systems may be utilised in different operational specialties. The Perceived Stress Scale (PSS) – The PSS is a widely used subjective tool for measuring stress levels. It consists of 10 questions, and asks participants to rate, on a five-point scale, how stressed they felt after a certain event. All 10 questions are summed to obtain a total score from 0 to 40. In the aviation industry, for example, it has been used with flight training students to measure how stressed they felt after flight training exercises. The Coping Skills Inventory – This inventory measures aviators' skills for coping with stress. This is another subjective measure, asking participants to rate, on a five-point scale, the extent to which they use eight common coping skills: Substance abuse, Emotional support, Instrumental support (help with tangible things, like child care, finances, or task sharing), Positive reframing (changing one's thinking about a negative event, and thinking of it as a positive instead), Self-blame, Planning, Humour and Religion. An individual's total score indicates the extent to which he or she is using effective, positive coping skills (like humor and emotional support); ineffective, negative coping skills (like substance abuse and self-blame); and where the individual could improve. The Subjective Workload Assessment Technique (SWAT) – SWAT is a rating system used to measure individuals' perceived mental workload while performing a task, like developing instruments in a lab, multitasking aircraft duties, or conducting air defense. SWAT combines measurements and scaling techniques to develop a global rating scale. Pilot stress report systems Early pilot stress report systems were adapted and modified from existing psychological questionnaires and surveys. The data from these pilot-specific surveys is then processed and analyzed through an aviation-focused system or scale. Pilot-oriented questionnaires are generally designed to study work stress or home stress. Self-report can also be used to measure a combination of home stress, work stress, and perceived performance. A study conducted by Fiedler, Della Rocco, Schroeder and Nguyen (2000) used Sloan and Cooper's modification of the Alkov questionnaire to explore aviators' perceptions of the relationship between different types of stress. The results indicated that pilots believed performance was impaired when home stress carried over to the work environment. The degree of home stress that carried over to work environment was significantly and negatively related to flying performance items, such as planning, control, and accuracy of landings. The questionnaire was able to reflect pilots' retroactive perceptions and the accuracy of these perceptions. Alkov, Borowsky, and Gaynor started a 22-item questionnaire for U.S. Naval aviators in 1982 to test the hypothesis that inadequate stress coping strategies contributed to flight mishaps. The questionnaire consists of items related to lifestyle changes and personality characteristics. After completing the questionnaire, the test group is divided into two groups: "at-fault" with mishap, and "not-at-fault" in a mishap. Then, questionnaires from these two groups were analyzed to examine differences. A study of British commercial airline pilots, conducted by Sloan and Cooper (1986), surveyed 1,000 pilot members from the British Airline Pilots' Association (BALPA). They used a modified version of Alkov, Borowsky, and Gaynor's questionnaire to collect data on pilots' perceptions of the relationship between stress and performance. Being a subjective measure, this study's data was based on pilots' perceptions, and thus rely on how accurately they recall past experiences their relationships to stress. Despite relying on subjective perceptions and memories, the study showed that pilot reports are noteworthy. Beck Depression Inventory (BDI) is another scale used in many industries, including the mental health professions, to screen for depressive symptoms. Parsa and Kapadia (1997) used the BDI to survey a group of 57 U.S. Air Force fighter pilots who had flown combat operations. The adaptation of the BDI to the aviation field was problematic. However, the study revealed some unexpected findings. The results indicated that 89% of the pilots reported insomnia; 86% reported irritability; 63%, dissatisfaction; 38%, guilt; and 35%, loss of libido. 50% of two squadrons and 33% of another squadron scored above 9 on the BDI, suggesting at least low levels of depression. Such measurement may be difficult to interpret accurately. College College can be a stressful time for many students, as they adjust to a new and unfamiliar environment while transitioning from adolescence to adulthood. Nearly 80% of college students report frequently dealing with daily stress. Sources of stress that influence college students’ stress levels include family and friends who are often physically further away, as well as changes in communication patterns with these individuals. Long-held beliefs (i.e. religious beliefs) as well as new opportunities for various behavior (i.e. alcohol and drug use) are also significant influential factors. In addition to these potential sources of stress, college students are also faced with often rigorous academic demands. In order to manage this stress, students rely on many strategies including problem-focused and emotion-focused coping. Problem-focused strategies employ action-oriented behavioral activities like planning, for example. Emotion-focused strategies involve the expression of emotion and often include the altering of expectations. Although problem-focused strategies have often been found to be more effective than emotion-focused strategies, both categories include coping mechanisms that effectively reduce the negative impacts of stress. There are several practical examples of problem-focused or approach-based coping strategies. Notably, developing time management skills, avoiding procrastination, and goal-setting are associated with stress reduction. These skills allow students to better prioritize new responsibilities, leaving them more time for sleep and leisure activities, which have been shown to reduce stress. Additionally, working towards or maintaining healthy sleep habits helps individuals better cope with high levels of stress. Several emotion-focused strategies have also been found to be effective in combating stress. Accommodation strategies that do not directly change the stressor, but rather change one's emotions surrounding the stressors, such as positive re framing, are widely associated with stress reduction. Strategies like finding humor and journaling—especially gratitude journaling—are also effective. Without effective coping skills, students tend to engage in unsafe behaviors as a means of trying to reduce the stress they feel. Ineffective coping strategies popular among college students include drinking excessively, drug use, excessive caffeine consumption, withdrawal from social activities, self-harm, and eating disorders. These ineffective strategies can be dangerous because they often become habitual, addictive, and sometimes fatal. For example, when college students turn to drinking as a way of coping with stress, they begin to drink larger quantities and more frequently, instead of just occasionally with friends. This can lead to alcohol poisoning, addiction, and other dangerous behaviors. The problems these coping methods create can cause more harm than good and often lead to more stress for the student. Researchers have not found significant gender differences in regard to how men and women use problem-focused coping strategies. However, there is gender variation in regard to emotion-focused coping. Women tend to use emotion-focused coping strategies more often than men on average. However, men do report using one emotion-focused coping strategy more often than women—mental disengagement in the form of alcohol use. Overall, women report higher stress levels than men, specifically for social relationships, daily hassles, finances, self-imposed stress, frustration, and academics. This could be because women are often more in-tune to their emotions and are more comfortable expressing their feelings. While stress for college students is part of the transitional experience, there are many strategies that students can use to reduce stress in their lives and manage the impacts of stress. Time management skills which encompass goal setting, scheduling, and pacing are effective approaches to reducing stress. Additionally, students should keep up their physical and mental health with regular exercise, healthy eating, good sleep habits, and mindfulness practices. There are several services, such as counseling and therapy, available to students that can be accessed both on and off campus to support stress management and overall student wellbeing. See also Abusive power and control Bullying Occupational health psychology Occupational Health Science References Stress (biological and psychological) Management by type Treatment of mental disorders Occupational health psychology	[ -0.008207200095057487, 0.16538956761360168, -0.46060484647750854, 0.011354539543390274, 0.2594057321548462, 0.34659701585769653, 0.860020637512207, 0.1030634418129921, -0.08023078739643097, -0.7111481428146362, -0.4576200544834137, 0.9543116688728333, -0.15395669639110565, 0.05828956887125969, -0.30000555515289307, 0.6473674774169922, 0.31804022192955017, 0.2358962446451187, 0.08393626660108566, 0.0144337248057127, -0.6799113750457764, -0.5517449975013733, 0.06230519339442253, -0.20858019590377808, 0.018857160583138466, 0.18568497896194458, 0.07373697310686111, 0.237081378698349, 0.03577312454581261, 0.06807062029838562, 0.1795826256275177, 0.3766161799430847, -0.2630101144313812, -0.4469270706176758, -0.3116655945777893, 0.5470930933952332, 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255479	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Whetstone	Operation Whetstone	The United States's Whetstone nuclear test series was a group of 46 nuclear tests conducted in 1964-1965. These tests followed the Operation Niblick series and preceded the Operation Flintlock series. Two tests were conducted during this series by the United Kingdom: Cormorant and Courser. References Explosions in 1964 Explosions in 1965 Whetstone 1964 in military history 1965 in military history 1964 in Nevada 1965 in Nevada 1964 disasters in the United States 1965 disasters in the United States 1964 in the environment 1965 in the environment	[ 0.0175776444375515, 0.27588027715682983, -0.27052125334739685, -0.18810556828975677, -0.08244897425174713, 0.030303025618195534, 0.9310752153396606, -0.5732715725898743, -0.17891792953014374, 0.42623016238212585, -0.16981498897075653, 0.3867262601852417, -0.02836446277797222, 0.4253704845905304, -0.3191848695278168, 0.38108986616134644, 0.4890888035297394, -0.2291765660047531, 0.3916749060153961, -0.5676950216293335, 0.2259092479944229, -0.503908634185791, 0.5409836173057556, -0.007793474942445755, 0.11294641345739365, -0.10222785919904709, 0.2990921139717102, -0.47235405445098877, 0.758430540561676, 0.38633373379707336, -0.06735755503177643, 0.24544575810432434, 0.09864478558301926, -0.5830366611480713, 0.27747076749801636, 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255482	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Erik%20the%20Viking	Erik the Viking	Erik the Viking is a 1989 British comedy-fantasy film written and directed by Terry Jones. The film was inspired by Jones's children's book The Saga of Erik the Viking (1983), but the plot is completely different. Jones also appears in the film as King Arnulf. Plot The film is based largely upon Norse mythology. In the film's opening scene Erik (Tim Robbins), a young Viking, discovers that he has no taste for rape and pillage, and suffers guilt over the death of Helga (Samantha Bond), an innocent woman. Erik learns from the wise woman Freya (Eartha Kitt) that Fenrir the wolf has swallowed the sun, plunging the world into the age of Ragnarök. Erik resolves to travel to Asgard to petition the gods to end Ragnarök. Freya informs him that to do so he must seek the Horn Resounding in the land of Hy-Brasil. The first note blown upon the Horn will take Erik and his crew to Asgard, the second will awaken the gods, and the third will bring the crew home. Erik sets out with a crew of all ages and professions from his village, including Harald (Freddie Jones), a Christian missionary who disbelieves in the entire narrative. Keitel Blacksmith (Gary Cady) is persuaded by his apprentice Loki (Antony Sher) into secretly opposing Erik's plan, as peace would end the demand for Keitel's swords. Keitel joins Erik's crew to sabotage Erik's plans. Meanwhile, Loki sneaks out to inform Halfdan the Black (John Cleese), a local warlord afraid that peace will mean the end of his reign. Halfdan's crew sets sail in pursuit. Arriving at Hy-Brasil, Erik and crew are astonished to find it a sunlit land where the people, who dress like ancient Greeks, are exceedingly friendly and hospitable (if musically untalented). Erik promptly falls in love with Princess Aud (Imogen Stubbs), daughter of King Arnulf (Terry Jones). During one of their romantic encounters, Erik hides from Arnulf using Aud's magic cloak of invisibility. Aud has warned the Vikings that should blood ever be shed upon Hy-Brasil, the entire island would sink beneath the waves. Erik and his crew defend Hy-Brasil against Halfdan's ship. Loki is found aboard the ship, and pretends to have sneaked aboard to sabotage it. In gratitude for Erik's having saved Hy-Brasil, King Arnulf presents him with the Horn Resounding, which is much larger than Erik had imagined. Loki steals the Horn's mouthpiece in the night, without which it cannot be sounded, and persuades Keitel to throw it in the sea. Snorri, one of Erik's men, catches them in the act, and Loki kills him. A single drop of the man's blood falls from Loki's dagger, triggering an earthquake that causes the island to sink. Erik's crew, joined by Aud, prepare to escape in their ship with the Horn safely aboard, but Arnulf refuses to join them, denying that the island is sinking up to the very moment he and the other islanders are swallowed by the waves. Aud, who witnessed Snorri's murder and was able to recover the mouthpiece, sounds the first note on the Horn. The ship is propelled over the edge of the flat Earth and into space, coming to rest upon the plane of Asgard. Erik sounds the second note to awaken the gods, and he and his crew climb a path made of stars to approach the great Hall of Valhalla. Erik and the crew encounter old friends and enemies slain in battle. The gods are revealed to be petulant children who have no interest in answering mortal prayers. Harald the missionary sees neither hall, nor ghosts or gods, and passes intangibly through its walls due to his Christianity. Odin persuades Fenrir to spit out the sun, but tells Erik that the end of Ragnarök will not bring peace to the world. Odin then informs Erik that he and his crew can neither return home, nor may they remain in Valhalla, since they were not slain in battle; instead they are to be cast into the fiery Pit of Hel. Some of the crew who died earlier in the adventure attempt to save them, but even as they are drawn into the Pit, they hear the Horn Resounding's third note, blown by Harald, who had returned to the ship, which flings them clear. Erik's crew, including the formerly dead men, immediately find themselves back in their home village. They are dismayed to find that Halfdan and his soldiers have arrived before them and are holding the villagers captive. Halfdan and his men are suddenly crushed to death by Erik's ship as it falls out of the sky, with Harald aboard. As the villagers celebrate Erik's return and Halfdan's defeat, the sun rises, ending the age of Ragnarök. Cast Production Principal photography took place at Shepperton Studios in England. Some footage of Erik's village and environments was shot in Norway, while the Hy-Brasil sequence was filmed in Malta. Artwork was made by Tolkien artist Alan Lee. The music score was composed by Neil Innes. Amadeus star Tom Hulce was originally going to star as Erik, but he decided instead to pursue his stage career. The production by the Monty Python company Prominent Features received financial backing from Swedish Svensk Filmindustri, which contributed to the film having its premiere in Sweden on 1 September 1989, followed by the US on 22 September, and the UK on 29 September. On cinema it had a running time of 107 minutes, but unhappy with the film's slow pacing, Jones cut it down to 89 minutes for the VHS release the following year. In 2006 Jones was given the opportunity of re-editing the film for its DVD release. He delegated the actual editing work to his son Bill, who produced a 75-minute "Director's Son's Cut", with re-ordered scenes and much tighter pacing as well as a completely remixed and re-dubbed soundtrack. Media adaptations Graham Thompson adapted the film into a 1989 comic book. A video game for the Nintendo Entertainment System was in development by Eurocom and was to be published by Video System and Kemco but was cancelled before release. Reception On Rotten Tomatoes the film has an approval rating of 47% based on reviews from 19 critics. Variety magazine gave the film a positive review: "The idea of telling the story of a Viking warrior who thought there must be more to life than rape and pillage is an amusing one", and concluded that it was "an enjoyable film". Vincent Canby of The New York Times gave it 3 out of 5 and wrote: "Doesn't measure up to the best of the Python films, but it consistently entertains through the occasional gags that do not work and dialogue that is sometimes obscured by sound effects." Roger Ebert of the Chicago Sun-Times gave the film 0 out of a possible 4 stars, calling it "An utterly worthless exercise in waste and wretched excess, uninformed by the slightest spark of humor, wit or coherence." Chris Willman of the Los Angeles Times gave a it a negative review, and called it "A stillborn comedy in which minutes sometimes mysteriously go by between even attempted gags, and in which virtually no comic scene works up to any kind of viable punch line or payoff." Box office It made £845,436 in the UK. References External links Virtual History: Still photos from Erik the Viking 1989 films 1980s fantasy-comedy films British films 1980s fantasy adventure films British fantasy comedy films British fantasy adventure films British independent films Orion Pictures films Films based on Norse mythology Films directed by Terry Jones Fictional Vikings Films with screenplays by Terry Jones Films set in the Viking Age Films set on fictional islands Films adapted into comics 1989 comedy films	[ -0.8194993734359741, 0.40177425742149353, 0.17855322360992432, -0.3132977783679962, 0.2002245932817459, 0.3952493667602539, 0.33671873807907104, 0.14240063726902008, -0.36833417415618896, 0.5336517095565796, -0.572267472743988, 0.12982742488384247, 0.16560028493404388, 0.10749026387929916, 0.44672641158103943, 0.21047015488147736, -0.13420453667640686, 0.17815952003002167, -0.017343543469905853, -0.5149408578872681, -0.39085716009140015, -0.26009657979011536, 0.6435425281524658, -0.32234901189804077, 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255485	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hrothgar	Hrothgar	Hrothgar ( ; ) was a semi-legendary Danish king living around the early sixth century AD. Hrothgar appears in the Anglo-Saxon epics Beowulf and Widsith, in Norse sagas and poems, and in medieval Danish chronicles. In both Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian tradition, Hrothgar is a Scylding, the son of Halfdan, the brother of Halga, and the uncle of Hrólfr Kraki. Moreover, in both traditions, the mentioned characters were the contemporaries of the Swedish king Eadgils; and both traditions also mention a feud with men named Fróði and Ingeld. The consensus view is that Anglo-Saxon and Scandinavian traditions describe the same person. Names Hrothgar, also rendered Hrōðgār, is an Old English form attested in Beowulf and Widsith, the earliest sources to mention the character. In non-English sources, the name appears in more or less corresponding Old Icelandic, Old Danish, and Latinized versions. He appears as Hróarr, Hroar, etc., in sagas and poetry, and as Ro or Roe in the Danish Latin chronicles. The form Hrōðgār is thought to have derived from the proto-Norse Hrōþigaizaz "famous spear", i.e. Roger. The corresponding Old Norse name Hróarr and its variations are derived from Hrōþigaizaz, and from the very close names Hrōþiwarjaz "famous defender" or Hrōþiharjaz "famous warrior". Anglo-Saxon poems Hrothgar appears in two Anglo-Saxon poems, Beowulf and Widsith. Beowulf gives the fuller account of Hrothgar and how the Geatish hero Beowulf visited him to free his people from the trollish creature Grendel. Widsith only mentions Hrothgar, Heorot, his nephew Hroðulf and their enemy Ingeld, but can complete Beowulf in some cases where Beowulf does not give enough information. This is notably the case concerning the ending of his feud with Ingeld. Beowulf In the epic poem Beowulf, Hrothgar is mentioned as the builder of the great hall Heorot, and ruler of Denmark, when the Geatish hero Beowulf arrives to defeat the monster Grendel. When Hrothgar is first introduced in Beowulf, it is explained that he was the second of four children of King Healfdene: he had an older brother, Heorogar, who was king before him; a younger brother Halga; and a sister, who was married to the king of Sweden. The sister is not named in the manuscript and most scholars agree this is a scribal error, but suggested names are Signy and Yrsa. Friderich Kluge (1896) accordingly suggested that the line be restored as hyrde ic þ [Sigeneow wæs Sæw]elan cwen, rendering the Norse names in Old English forms. However, the only certain Swedish (Scylfing) royal name ending in -ela that has come down to us is Onela, and according to the rules of alliteration, this means that the queen's name must have begun with a vowel. Sophus Bugge consequently identified her with the Swedish queen Yrsa. He thus suggested the line should be emended to read hyrde ic þ[æt Ȳrse wæs On]elan cwen. Most 20th-century translators followed this suggestion. However, in Norse tradition, Yrsa was the daughter and lover/rape victim of Hrothgar's younger brother Halga, and the mother of Halga's son Hroðulf, and most modern translators simply leave the line as it is. The poem further tells that Hrothgar was "given victory in war" and so his kinsmen eagerly followed him. He is both honest and generous: "He broke no oaths, dealt out rings, treasures at his table". When Beowulf leads his men to Denmark, he speaks of Hrothgar to both a coast-guard and to Hrothgar's herald: he calls Hrothgar a "famed king", "famed warrior", and "protector of the Scyldings" (the ruling clan), and describes him as "old and good." The poet emphasizes that the Danes "did not find fault" with Hrothgar, "for that was a good King". When Beowulf defeats Grendel, Hrothgar rewards Beowulf and his men with great treasures, showing his gratitude and open-handedness. The poet says that Hrothgar is so generous that "no man could fault him, who wished to speak the truth." Hrothgar was married to a woman named Wealhþeow, who was a Helming, probably defining her as a relative of Helm, the ruler of the Wulfings. When Hrothgar welcomes Beowulf, he recalls his friendship with Beowulf's family. He met Beowulf's father Ecgþeow "when I first ruled the Danes" after the death of Heorogar; he laments Heorogar's fall ("He was better than I!") and recalls how he settled Ecgþeow's blood feud with the Wulfings. Hrothgar thanks God for Beowulf's arrival and victory over Grendel, and swears to love Beowulf like a son. The poem introduces Hroðulf (Hrólfr Kraki in Scandinavian sources) as Hrothgar's supporter and right-hand man; and we learn that Hroðulf is Hrothgar's nephew and that "each was true to the other". The common piece of information that Hrothgar's younger brother Halga is Hroðulf's father comes from Scandinavian sources (see below), where Halga was unaware that Yrsa was his own daughter and either raped or seduced her. Yrsa herself was tragically also the result of Halga raping a woman. Wealhþeow has borne Hrothgar two sons, Hreðric and Hroðmund, and Hroðulf is to be regent if Hrothgar dies before his sons are grown. (Since Hrothgar is an old man at this time—he tells Beowulf he has been king for "fifty winters"—and Wealhþeow's two sons are not yet grown, it seems likely that Wealhþeow is much younger than Hrothgar, and may not be his first wife.) Hrothgar is plunged into gloom and near-despair after Grendel's mother attacks the hall and kills Hrothgar's best friend and closest advisor; but when Beowulf advises him not to despair, and that "it is better to avenge our friends than to mourn overmuch", Hrothgar leaps to his feet and thanks God for Beowulf's wise words, and leads the Danes and Geats out to attack the small lake (mere) where Grendel's mother lives. After Beowulf defeats Grendel's mother, Hrothgar rewards him again, and then preaches a sermon in which he warns Beowulf to beware of arrogance and forgetfulness of God. Beowulf takes his leave of Hrothgar to return home, and Hrothgar embraces him and weeps that they will not meet again (because Hroðgar is a very old man). This is Hrothgar's last appearance in the poem. When Beowulf reports on his adventure to his lord Hygelac, he mentions that Hrothgar also had a daughter, Freawaru; it is not clear whether Freawaru was also the daughter of Wealhþeow or was born of an earlier marriage. Since the Danes were in conflict with the Heaðobards, whose king Froda had been killed in a war with the Danes, Hrothgar sent Freawaru to marry Froda's son Ingeld, in an unsuccessful attempt to end the feud. Beowulf predicts to Hygelac that Ingeld will turn against his father-in-law Hrothgar. Earlier in the poem, the poet tells us that the hall Heorot was eventually destroyed by fire: It is tempting to interpret the new war with Ingeld as leading to the burning of the hall of Heorot, but the poem separates the two events (by a ne wæs hit lenge þā meaning "nor far way was that day when", in Gummere's translation). According to Widsith (see below), Hrothgar and Hroðulf defeat Ingeld, and if Scandinavian tradition (see the more detailed discussion below) is to be trusted Hrothgar himself is killed by a relative, or by the king of Sweden, but he is avenged by his younger brother Halga. Halga dies in a Viking expedition; Hroðulf succeeds him and rises in fame, and according to Hroðulf's own saga and other sources, Hroðulf's cousin and/or brother-in-law Heoroweard slays Hroðulf (is this the event referred to as the burning of Heorot?). Heoroweard himself dies in that battle, and according to two sources, this happens only a few hours later, as an act of vengeance by a man loyal to Hroðulf, called Wigg. This is the kin-slaying end of the Scylding dynasty. Widsith Whereas Beowulf never dwells on the outcome of the battle with Ingeld, the possibly older poem Widsith refers to Hrothgar and Hroðulf defeating Ingeld at Heorot: This piece suggests that the conflict between the Scyldings Hrothgar and Hroðulf on one side, and the Heaðobards Froda and Ingeld on the other, was well known in Anglo-Saxon England. This conflict also appears in Scandinavian sources, but in the Norse tradition the Heaðobards had apparently been forgotten and the conflict is instead rendered as a family feud (see Gesta Danorum, Hrólf Kraki's saga and Skjöldunga saga, below, for more information). The Norse sources also deal with the defeat of Ingeld and/or Froda. Scandinavian sources In the Scandinavian sources, consisting of Norse sagas, Icelandic poems and Danish chronicles, Hrothgar also appears as a Danish king of the Scylding dynasty. He remains the son of Healfdene and the elder brother of Halga. Moreover, he is still the uncle of Hroðulf. The Scandinavian sources also agree with Beowulf by making Hrothgar contemporary with the Swedish king Eadgils. These agreements with Beowulf are remarkable considering that these sources were composed from oral tradition 700 to 800 years after the events described, and 300 to 400 years later than Beowulf and Widsith. There are also notable differences. The Heaðobards Ingeld and Froda also appear in Scandinavian tradition, but their tribe, the Heaðobards, had long been forgotten, and instead the tribal feud was rendered as a family feud. Their relationship as father and son had also been reversed in some sources, and so either Ingeld or Froda is given as the brother of Healfdene. Ingeld or Froda murdered Healfdene, but was himself killed in revenge by Hrothgar and Halga. Moreover, in Scandinavian tradition, Hrothgar is a minor character in comparison to his nephew Hroðulf. Such differences indicate that Beowulf and Scandinavian sources represent separate traditions. The names of Hrothgar and others appear in the form they had in Old Icelandic or Latinized Old Danish at the time the stories were put to paper, and not in their Old English or more "authentic" Proto-Norse forms. It has been a matter of some debate whether the hero Beowulf could have the same origin as Hroðulf's berserker Bödvar Bjarki, who appears in Scandinavian sources. Among these sources, it is the most famous one, the Hrólfr Kraki's saga, which is most different from Beowulf, and a notable difference is that Hrothgar leaves the rule of Denmark to his younger brother Halga and moves to Northumbria. The focus is consequently on the Hrólfr Kraki's saga when a scholar questions the comparison of Hrothgar and other characters from Beowulf with counterparts in Scandinavian tradition. Scandinavian sources have added some information that appear in Beowulf studies, without having any founding in the work itself, such as the information that Halga was, or probably was, Hroðulf's father. Another example is the existence of a woman named Yrsa, who, however, has been transposed to a role she never had in any source texts, that of Hrothgar's sister. Norse sagas and poems In Icelandic sources, Hrothgar, Halga and Hroðulf appear under the Old Icelandic forms of their names; that is, as Hróarr, Helgi and Hrólfr, the last one with the epithet Kraki. In the case of the Skjöldunga saga ("Saga of the Scyldings") only a Latin summary has survived, and so their names are Latinized. The Icelandic sources can be divided into two groups: the Hrólfr Kraki's saga on the one hand, and the Skjöldunga saga and Bjarkarímur on the other. Both groups tell a version of Hrothgar and Halga's feud with Froda (Fróði) and Ingeld (Ingjaldr). However, whereas the Hrólfr Kraki's saga make Froda the brother of Healfdene, the Skjöldunga saga and Bjarkarímur make Ingeld the brother of Healfdene. Hrólfr Kraki's saga also disagrees with all the other works by moving Hrothgar from the throne of Denmark to Northumbria. Hrólfr Kraki's saga Hrólfr Kraki's saga relates that Halfdan has three children, Hróarr, Helgi, and the daughter Signý, who is married to Sævil Jarl. Halfdan has a brother named Fróði and both of them rule a kingdom, but Halfdan is good-natured and friendly, whereas Fróði is savage. Fróði attacks and kills Halfdan and makes himself the king of a united Denmark. He then sets out to neutralize his nephews Hróarr and Helgi. However, the two brothers survive on an island, protected by a man called Vivil; and after some adventure they avenge their father by killing Fróði. Hróarr is presented as "meek and blithe", and he is completely removed from ruling the kingdom, leaving the rule to his brother Helgi. Instead he joins Norðri, the king of Northumberland, where he marries Ögn, the king's daughter. As recompense for Hróarr's share of the Danish kingdom, Helgi gives him a golden ring. Sævil Jarl's son Hrókr (Hróarr and Helgi's nephew) becomes jealous that he has not inherited anything from his grandfather Halfdan; he goes to his uncle Helgi to claim his inheritance. Helgi refuses to give him a third of Denmark, and so instead he goes to Northumbria to claim the golden ring. He asks Hróarr if he at least could have a look at the ring, whereupon he takes the ring and throws it into the water. Hróarr naturally becomes angry, and cuts off Hrókr's feet and sends him back to his ships. Hrókr cannot live with this, and so he returns with a large army and slays Hróarr. Helgi avenges his brother by also cutting off Hrókr's arms. Hróarr's son Agnar retrieves the ring by diving in the water, which gives him great glory. Agnar is said to have become greater than his father, and much talked of in the old sagas. Helgi attacks Sweden to retrieve Yrsa, his daughter and lover, but is killed by Aðils, the king of Sweden. He is succeeded by Hrólfr Kraki, his son by Yrsa. Although it agrees with all the other Scandinavian sources in telling the story of Halga's incestuous relationship with his daughter Yrsa, it disagrees with all of them and with Beowulf by removing Hrothgar altogether as the king of Denmark. Instead, his place is taken by his brother Halga, and Hrothgar is sent to Northumberland, where he marries Ögn, the daughter of a positively fictive king Norðri who is named after Northumberland (Norðimbraland). Opinion is divided on whether there is any connection between Hrothgar's wife Wealhþeow in Beowulf and his wife Ögn in Hrólfr Kraki's saga; it has been suggested that Ögn shows that Wealhþeow and her family (the Helmings) were Anglo-Saxon. Another difference is that Hrothgar's sons Hreðric and Hroðmund do not appear in the Scandinavian tradition, but correspond to Agnar, in Hrólfr Kraki's saga. Skjöldunga saga and Bjarkarímur The Skjöldunga saga and Bjarkarímur tell a similar version to that of the Hrólfr Kraki's saga, but with several striking differences. Ingeld (Ingjaldus) of Beowulf reappears, but it is Ingeld who is the father of Froda (Frodo), and unlike in Hrólf Kraki's saga, Ingeld takes Froda's place as the half-brother of Healfdene (Haldan). The sources relate that Haldan has a half-brother named Ingjaldus and a queen Sigrith with whom he has three children: the sons Roas and Helgo and the daughter Signy. Ingjaldus is jealous of his half-brother Haldan and so he attacks and kills him, and then marries Sigrith. Ingjaldus and Sigrith then have two sons named Rærecus and Frodo. Their half-sister Signy stays with her mother until she is married to Sævil, the jarl of Zealand. Ingjaldus, who is worried that his nephews will want revenge, tries to find them and kill them, but Roas and Helgo survive by hiding on an island near Skåne. When they are old enough, they avenge their father by killing Ingjaldus. The two brothers both become kings of Denmark, and Roas marries the daughter of the king of England. When Helgo's son Rolfo (whom Helgo begat with his own daughter Yrsa) is eight years old, Helgo dies and Rolfo succeeds him. Not much later, Roas is killed by his half-brothers Rærecus and Frodo, whereupon Rolfo becomes the sole king of Denmark. This version agrees with all other versions of the legend of Hrothgar (Roas) and Halga (Helgo) by making them sons of Healfdene (Haldan) and by presenting Hrothgar as the uncle of Hroðulf (Rolfo). It agrees with Beowulf and Hrólfr Kraki's saga by mentioning that they had a sister, and by dealing with their feud with Froda (Frodo) and Ingeld (Ingjaldus), although there is a role reversal by making Ingeld the father of Froda instead of the other way round. It agrees with the other Scandinavian versions by treating Halga's incestuous relationship with his own daughter Yrsa. Moreover, it agrees with all other versions, except for Hrólfr Kraki's saga, by presenting Hrothgar as a king of Denmark, although it agrees with Hrólfr Kraki's saga by marrying Hrothgar to an Anglo-Saxon woman. Another agreement with Hrólfr Kraki's saga is the information that their sister was married to a Sævil Jarl, and that they had to hide on an island fleeing their kin-slaying uncle, before they could kill him and avenge their father. Hversu Noregr byggdist The Old Norse genealogy work Hversu Noregr byggdist tells that Hróarr had a son named Valdar, the father of Harald the Old, the father of Halfdan the Valiant, the father of Ivar Vidfamne, who was the maternal grandfather of Harald Wartooth. Harald fell at the Battle of the Brávellir against his nephew Sigurd Hring, a king of Sweden and the father of Ragnar Lodbrok. This account is not about presenting the life of Hrothgar, but in presenting how Harald Fairhair was descended from kings and heroes in Scandinavian legend. The only reason for assuming that Hróarr is the same as Hrothgar, the Scylding, is that only Hrothgar would be a personage of old so famous so as not to need any further identification than his name. However, the Skjöldunga saga tells that a Valdar disputed that Rörek, the cousin of Halga succeeded Hroðulf (Hrólfr Kraki) as the king of the Daner. After the war, Rörek took Zealand, while Valdar took Skåne. If based on the same tradition as Hversu Noregr byggdist, Valdar had the right to claim the throne being the son of the former king Hrothgar. Danish medieval chronicles In the Chronicon Lethrense, Annales Lundenses and Gesta Danorum (12th-century works of Danish history, written in Latin), King Hrothgar is mentioned by the Old Danish form of the name Ro or Roe. His father Healfdene appears as Haldan or Haldanus, while his brother Halga appears as Helghe or Helgo. Hroðulf appears with an epithet as Roluo Krage or Rolf Krage. Their Swedish enemy, King Eadgils, appears as Athislus or Athisl (the Chronicon Lethrense calls him Hakon.) The only Danish work that retains traditions of the feud with Ingeld and Froda is the Gesta Danorum. Chronicon Lethrense and Annales Lundenses The Chronicon Lethrense and the included Annales Lundenses report that Ro and Helghe were the sons of Haldan, who died of old age. The two brothers shared the rule, Ro taking the land and Helghe the water. They also tell that Ro founded and gave his name to the market town of Roskilde and that he was buried in Lejre. However, before Ro's nephew Rolf Krage (Hroðulf), who was Helghe's son by his own daughter Yrse, could ascend the throne, the rule of Denmark was given to a dog, on the orders of the Swedish king Hakon/Athisl (that is, Eadgils). The Chronicon Lethrense and the Annales Lundenses agree with Beowulf in presenting Hrothgar (Ro) and his brother Halga (Helghe) as the sons of Healfdene (Haldan). They do not, however, contain a character description as Beowulf does; nor do they mention his spouse or his children. However, they introduce a sharing of power between Hrothgar and Halga where Halga only had power over the fleet. Hrothgar is reported as founding the town of Roskilde, which coincides with the information in Beowulf that he built Heorot. The information that Hroðulf (Rolf) was the result of an incestuous relationship between Halga and his daughter Yrse only appears in Scandinavian tradition. Like Beowulf, the Annales Lundenses makes Hrothgar the contemporary of Eadgils (Athisl), whereas the Chronicon Lethrense calls the Swedish king Hakon. Gesta Danorum The Gesta Danorum (book 2), by Saxo Grammaticus, contains roughly the same information as Beowulf, the Chronicon Lethrense and the Annales Lundenses: that is, that Ro was the son of Haldanus and the brother of Helgo, and the uncle of his successor Roluo Krage (Hroðulf). It is only said about Ro that he was "short and spare", that he founded the town of Roskilde, and that when their father Haldanus died of old age, he shared the rule of the kingdom with his brother Helgo, Ro taking the land and Helgo the water. Ro could not defend his kingdom against the Swedish king Hothbrodd, who was not happy with warring in the East but wished to test his strength against the Danes (Oliver Elton's translation): Ro was, however, avenged by his brother Helgo, who then promptly went east and died in shame (because he discovered that he had fathered Roluo Krake with his own daughter Urse.) Roluo succeeded his father and uncle to the Danish throne. The Gesta Danorum also agrees with Beowulf in presenting Hrothgar (Ro) and Halga (Helgo) as brothers and the sons of Healfdene (Haldanus). Moreover, like the Chronicon Lethrense and the Annales Lundenses, it presents Hroðulf (Roluo) as the son of Halga and his own daughter. A striking difference is that the Swedish king Eadgils (Athisl) is pushed forward a generation, and instead, Saxo introduces Hrothgar's killer Hothbrodd as the father of Eadgils, a place that other sources give to Ohthere. A similar piece of information is also found in the Chronicon Lethrense and the Annales Lundenses, where Halga had to kill a man named Hodbrod to win all of Denmark. However, Saxo also adds the god Höðr as the brother of Eadgils in order to present a euhemerized version of the Baldr myth, later. The tradition of the feud with the Heaðobards Ingeld and Froda appears twice in the Gesta Danorum. The first time it tells of the feud is Book 2, where Ingeld (called Ingild) appears with the son Agnar. In this version, Ingeld's son was about to marry Hroðulf's sister Rute, but a fight broke out and Agnar died in a duel with Bödvar Bjarki (called Biarco). The second time it tells of Froda and Ingeld is in Book 7, but here Hrothgar is replaced by a Harald and Halga by a Haldanus. It is the Scandinavian version of the feud, similar to the one told in the Skjöldunga saga, Bjarkarímur and Hrólfr Kraki's saga, where the Heaðobards are forgotten and the feud with Froda and Ingeld has become a family feud. The main plot is that Ingeld had the sons Frodo (Froda) and Harald (corresponds to Healfdene). The relationship between Ingeld and Froda was thus reversed, a reversal also found in the Skjöldunga saga and in the Bjarkarímur. Froda killed his brother and tried to get rid of his nephews Harald (corresponds to Hrothgar) and Haldanus (corresponds to Halga). After some adventures, the two brothers burnt their uncle to death inside his house and avenged their father. Comments With the exception of Hversu Noregr byggdist, where he is only a name in a list, three elements are common to all of the accounts: he was the son of a Danish king Healfdene, the brother of Halga, and he was the uncle of Hroðulf. Apart from that, the Scandinavian tradition is unanimous in dwelling on the incestuous relationship between Halga and his daughter Yrsa which resulted in Hroðulf, a story which was either not presented in Beowulf or was not known to the poet. The Danish sources (Chronicon Lethrense, Annales Lundenses, Gesta Danorum) all agree with Beowulf by making Hrothgar the king of Denmark. The Icelandic (Skjöldunga saga, Bjarkarímur, Hrólf Kraki's saga) all agree with Beowulf by mentioning that they had a sister, and by mentioning their feud with Froda and Ingeld, albeit with alterations. What is unique to the Icelandic versions are the adventures of Hrothgar and Halga before one of the two brothers could become king. The similarities between Beowulf and the mentioned Scandinavian sources are by far not the only ones. Other personalities mentioned in Beowulf appear in the stories before and after dealing with Hrothgar, but for more, see origins for Beowulf and Hrólf Kraki. Notes Sources Kluge, Friedrich (1896). "Der Beowulf und die Hrolfs Saga Kraka." Englische Studien 22, pp. 144–45. Nerman, Birger (1925). "Det svenska rikets uppkomst". "Sidelights on Teutonic History During the Migration Period", Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1911; pp. 82 ff. Beowulf: Beowulf read aloud in Old English Modern English translation by Francis Barton Gummere Modern English translation by John Lesslie Hall Ringler, Dick. Beowulf: A New Translation For Oral Delivery, May 2005. Searchable text with full audio available, from the University of Wisconsin-Madison Libraries. Several different Modern English translations Widsith: Widsith, A Verse Translation by Douglas B. Killings Widsith, a translation by Bella Millett Chronicon Lethrense and Annales Lundense: Chronicon Lethrense and Annales Lundenses in translation by Peter Tunstall The same translation at Northvegr Book 2 of Gesta Danorum at the Online Medieval & Classical library Book 7 of Gesta Danorum at the Online Medieval & Classical library The Relation of the Hrolfs Saga Kraka and the Bjarkarimur to Beowulf by Olson, 1916, at Project Gutenberg Hrólf Kraki's saga in English translation at Northvegr 6th-century monarchs in Europe Characters in Beowulf English heroic legends Heroes in Norse myths and legends People whose existence is disputed Scyldings	[ -0.8024693727493286, 0.5505139827728271, -0.12687423825263977, -0.09873606264591217, -0.885104775428772, 0.3515280783176422, 0.3691694438457489, -0.03134157881140709, -0.643233597278595, 0.5175641179084778, -0.3000771105289459, 0.15282130241394043, -0.007271793205291033, -0.0721498429775238, 0.08666403591632843, -0.0781819298863411, 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255486	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reinhold%20Messner	Reinhold Messner	Reinhold Andreas Messner () (born 17 September 1944) is an Italian mountaineer, explorer, and author from South Tyrol. He made the first solo ascent of Mount Everest and, along with Peter Habeler, the first ascent of Everest without supplemental oxygen. He was the first climber to ascend all fourteen peaks over above sea level. Messner was the first to cross Antarctica and Greenland with neither snowmobiles nor dog sleds. He also crossed the Gobi Desert alone. Messner has published more than 80 books (only a quarter of which have been translated into English) about his experiences as a climber and explorer. In 2018, he received jointly with Krzysztof Wielicki the Princess of Asturias Award in the category of Sports. Early life and education Messner was born within a German-speaking family settled in St. Peter, Villnöß, near Brixen in South Tyrol which is part of Northern Italy. According to his sister his delivery was difficult as he was a large baby and birth took place during an air raid. His mother Maria (1913–1995) was the daughter of a shop owner and 4 years older than her husband. His father Josef (1917–1985) was drafted to serve the German army and participated in WW II at the Russian front. After the war he was an auxiliary teacher until 1957, when he became the director of the local school. Messner was the second of nine children – Helmut (born 1943), Günther (1946–1970), Erich (born 1948), Waltraud (born 1949), Siegfried (1950–1985), Hubert (born 1953), Hansjörg (born 1955) and Werner (born 1957) and grew up in modest means. Messner spent his early years climbing in the Alps and falling in love with the Dolomites. His father was strict and sometimes severe with him. He led Reinhold to his first summit at the age of five. When Messner was 13, he began climbing with his brother Günther, age 11. By the time Reinhold and Günther were in their early twenties, they were among Europe's best climbers. Since the 1960s, Messner, inspired by Hermann Buhl, was one of the first and most enthusiastic supporters of alpine style mountaineering in the Himalayas, which consisted of climbing with very light equipment and a minimum of external help. Messner considered the usual expedition style ("siege tactics") disrespectful toward nature and mountains. Career Prior to his first major Himalayan climb in 1970, Messner had made a name for himself mainly through his achievements in the Alps. Between 1960 and 1964, he led over 500 ascents, most of them in the Dolomites. In 1965, he climbed a new direttissima route on the north face of the Ortler. A year later, he climbed the Walker Spur on the Grandes Jorasses and ascended the Rocchetta Alta di Bosconero. In 1967 he made the first ascent of the northeast face of the Agnér and the first winter ascents of the Agnér north face and Furchetta north face. In 1968, he achieved further firsts: the Heiligkreuzkofel middle pillar and the direct south face of the Marmolada. In 1969, Messner joined an Andes expedition, during which he succeeded, together with Peter Habeler, in making the first ascent of the Yerupaja east face up to the summit ridge and, a few days later, the first ascent of the Yerupaja Chico. He also made the first solo ascent of the Droites north face, the Philipp-Flamm intersection on the Civetta and the south face of Marmolada di Rocca. As a result, Messner won the reputation of being one of the best climbers in Europe. In 1970, Messner was invited to join a major Himalayan expedition that was going to attempt the unclimbed Rupal face of Nanga Parbat. The expedition, which was the major turning point in his life, turned out to be a tragic success. Both he and his brother Günther reached the summit but Günther died two days later on the descent of the Diamir face. Reinhold lost seven toes, which had become badly frostbitten during the climb and required amputation. Reinhold was severely criticized for persisting on this climb with the less experienced Günther. The 2010 movie Nanga Parbat by Joseph Vilsmaier is based on his account of the events. While Messner and Peter Habeler were noted for fast ascents in the Alps of the Eiger North Wall, standard route (10 hours) and Les Droites (8 hours), his 1975 Gasherbrum I first ascent of a new route took three days. This was unheard of at the time. In the 1970s, Messner championed the cause for ascending Mount Everest without supplementary oxygen, saying that he would do it "by fair means" or not at all. In 1978, he reached the summit of Everest with Habeler. This was the first time anyone had been that high without supplemental oxygen and Messner and Habeler achieved what certain doctors, specialists, and mountaineers thought impossible. He repeated the feat, without Habeler, from the Tibetan side in 1980, during the monsoon season. This was Everest's first solo summit. In 1978, he made a solo ascent of the Diamir face of Nanga Parbat. In 1986, Messner became the first to complete all fourteen eight-thousanders (peaks over 8,000 metres above sea level). Messner has crossed Antarctica on skis, together with fellow explorer Arved Fuchs. He has written over 80 books about his experiences, a quarter of which have been translated. He was featured in the 1984 film The Dark Glow of the Mountains by Werner Herzog. From 1999 to 2004, he held political office as a Member of the European Parliament for the Italian Green Party (Federazione dei Verdi). He was also among the founders of Mountain Wilderness, an international NGO dedicated to the protection of mountains worldwide. In 2004 he completed a expedition through the Gobi desert. In 2006, he founded the Messner Mountain Museum. Expeditions Ascents above 8,000m Messner was the first person to climb all fourteen eight-thousanders in the world and without supplemental oxygen. His climbs were also all amongst the first 20 ascents for each mountain individually. Specifically, these are: Other expeditions since 1970 1971 – Journeys to the mountains of Persia, Nepal, New Guinea, Pakistan and East Africa; 1972 – Noshak () in the Hindu Kush; 1973 – Marmolada West Pillar, first climb; Furchetta West Face, first climb; 1974 – Aconcagua south wall (), partially new "South Tyrol Route"; Eiger North Face with Peter Habeler in 10 hours (a record that stood for 34 years, for a roped party); 1976 – Mount McKinley (), "Face of the Midnight Sun", first climb; 1978 – Kilimanjaro (), "Breach Wall", first climb; 1979 – Ama Dablam rescue attempt; first climbs in the Hoggar Mountains, Africa; 1981 – Chamlang () Centre Summit-North Face, first climb; 1984 – Double-Traverse of Gasherbrum II and I with Hans Kammerlander; 1985 – Tibet Transversale with Kailash exploration; 1986 – Crossing of East Tibet; Mount Vinson (, Antarctic), on 3 December 1986, thus becoming the first person to complete Seven Summits without the use of supplemental oxygen on Mount Everest; 1987 – Bhutan trip; Pamir trip; 1988 – Yeti-Tibet solo expedition; 1989–1990 – Antarctic crossing (over the South Pole) on foot, trek with Arved Fuchs; 1991 – Bhutan crossing (east-west); "Around South Tyrol" as a positioning exercise, where he was peripherally involved in the Ötzi find, being among the groups who inspected the mummy on-site the day after its initial discovery; 1992 – Ascent of Chimborazo (); crossing of Taklamakan Desert in Xinjiang; 1993 – Trip to Dolpo, Mustang and Manang in Nepal; Greenland longitudinal crossing (diagonal) on foot, trek; 1994 – Cleaning project in North India/Gangotri, Shivling region (); to Ruwenzori (), Uganda; 1995 – Arctic crossing (Siberia to Canada) failed; trip to Belukha (), Altai Mountains/Siberia; 1996 – Trip through East Tibet and to Kailash. 1997 – Trip to Kham (East Tibet); small expedition into Karakoram; filming on the Ol Doinyo Lengai (holy mountain of the Maasai) in Tanzania 1998 – Trip to the Altai Mountains (Mongolia) and to Puna de Atacama (Andes) 1999 – Filming: San Francisco Peaks, Arizona (Holy mountain of Navajo); trip into the Thar Desert/India 2000 – Crossing of South Georgia on the Shackleton Route; Nanga Parbat Expedition; filming on Mount Fuji/Japan for the ZDF series Wohnungen der Götter (~"Homes of the Gods") 2001 – Dharamsala and foothills of the Himalayas/India; ZDF series Wohnungen der Götter on Gunung Agung/Bali 2002 – In the "International Year of the Mountains" visit by mountaineers into the Andes and ascent of Cotopaxi (), Ecuador 2003 – Trekking to Mount Everest (fiftieth anniversary of the first successful climb); trip to Franz Joseph Land/Arctic; on 1 October opening of the "Günther Mountain School" in the Diamir Valley on Nanga Parbat/Pakistan 2004 – Longitudinal crossing of the Gobi Desert (Mongolia) on foot, about trek 2005 – Trip to the Dyva Nomads in Mongolia; "time journey" around Nanga Parbat/Pakistan Climbs Nanga Parbat Reinhold Messner took a total of five expeditions to Nanga Parbat. In 1970 and 1978 he reached the summit (in 1978 solo); in 1971, 1973 and 1977, he did not. In 1971 he was primarily looking for his brother's remains. Rupal Face 1970 In May and June 1970, Messner took part in the Nanga Parbat South Face expedition led by Karl Herrligkoffer, the objective of which was to climb the as yet unclimbed Rupal Face, the highest rock and ice face in the world. Messner's brother, Günther, was also a member of the team. On the morning of 27 June, Messner was of the view that the weather would deteriorate rapidly, and set off alone from the last high-altitude camp. Surprisingly his brother climbed after him and caught up to him before the summit. By late afternoon, both had reached the summit of the mountain and had to pitch an emergency bivouac shelter without tent, sleeping bags and stoves because darkness was closing in. The events that followed have been the subject of years of legal actions and disputes between former expedition members, and have still not been finally resolved. What is known now is that Reinhold and Günther Messner descended the Diamir Face, thereby achieving the first traverse of Nanga Parbat and second traverse of an eight-thousander after Mount Everest in 1963. Reinhold arrived in the valley six days later with severe frostbite, but survived. His brother, Günther, however died on the Diamir Face—according to Reinhold Messner on the same descent, during which they became further and further separated from each other. As a result, the time, place and exact cause of death is unknown. Messner said his brother had been swept away by an avalanche. In the early years immediately after the expedition, there were disputes and lawsuits between Messner and Herrligkoffer, the expedition leader. After a quarter-century of peace, the dispute flared up again in October 2001, when Messner raised surprising allegations against the other members of the team for failing to come to their aid. The rest of the team consistently maintained that Messner had told them of his idea for traversing the mountain before setting off for the summit. Messner himself asserts, however, that he made a spontaneous decision to descend the Diamir Face together with his brother for reasons of safety. A number of new books—by Max von Kienlin, Hans Saler, Ralf-Peter Märtin, and Reinhold Messner—stoked the dispute (with assumptions and personal attacks) and led to further court proceedings. In June 2005, after an unusual heat wave on the mountain, the body of his brother was recovered on the Diamir Face, which seems to support Messner's account of how Günther died. The drama was turned into a film Nanga Parbat (2010) by Joseph Vilsmaier, based on the memories of Reinhold Messner and without participation from the other former members of the expedition. Released in January 2010 in cinemas, the film was criticised by the other members of the team for telling only one side of the story. Because of severe frostbite, especially on his feet—seven toes were amputated—Messner was not able to climb quite as well on rock after the 1970 expedition. He therefore turned his attention to higher mountains, where there was much more ice. Solo climb in 1978 On 9 August 1978, after three unsuccessful expeditions, Messner reached the summit of Nanga Parbat again via the Diamir Face. Manaslu In 1972, Messner succeeded in climbing Manaslu on what was then the unknown south face of the mountain, of which there were not even any pictures. From the last high-altitude camp he climbed with Frank Jäger, who turned back before reaching the summit. Shortly after Messner reached the summit, the weather changed and heavy fog and snow descended. Initially Messner became lost on the way down, but later, heading into the storm, found his way back to the camp, where Horst Fankhauser and Andi Schlick were waiting for him and Jäger. Jäger did not return, although his cries were heard from the camp. Orientation had become too difficult. Fankhauser and Schlick began to search for him that evening, but lost their way and sought shelter at first in a snow cave. Messner himself was no longer in a position to help the search. The following day, only Horst Fankhauser returned. Andi Schlick had left the snow cave during the night and disappeared. So the expedition had to mourn the loss of two climbers. Messner was later criticised for having allowed Jäger go back down the mountain alone. Gasherbrum I Together with Peter Habeler, Messner made a second ascent of Gasherbrum I on 10 August 1975, becoming the first man ever to climb more than two eight-thousanders. It was the first time a mountaineering expedition succeeded in scaling an eight-thousander using alpine style climbing. Until that point, all fourteen 8000-meter peaks had been summitted using the expedition style, though Hermann Buhl had earlier advocated "West Alpine Style" (similar to "capsule" style, with a smaller group relying on minimal fixed ropes). Messner reached the summit again in 1984, this time together with Hans Kammerlander. This was achieved as part of a double ascent where, for the first time, two eight-thousander peaks (Gasherbrum I and II) were climbed without returning to base camp. Again, this was done in alpine style, i.e. without the pre-location of stores. Filmmaker Werner Herzog accompanied the climbers along the approach to base camp, interviewing them extensively about why they were making the climb, if they could say; they could not. Messner became emotional on camera when he recalled having to tell his mother about his brother's death. It took a week for the two climbers to summit both peaks and return to camp, after which Herzog interviewed them again. His documentary, The Dark Glow of the Mountains, with some footage the two climbers shot during the expedition on portable cameras, was released the following year. Mount Everest On 8 May 1978, Reinhold Messner and Peter Habeler reached the summit of Mount Everest; the first men known to climb it without the use of supplemental oxygen. Prior to this ascent it was disputed whether this was possible at all. Messner and Habeler were members of an expedition led by Wolfgang Nairz along the southeast ridge to the summit. Also on this expedition was Reinhard Karl, the first German to reach the summit, albeit with the aid of supplemental oxygen. Two years later, on 20 August 1980, Messner again stood atop the highest mountain in the world, without supplementary oxygen. For this solo climb, he chose the northeast ridge to the summit, where he crossed above the North Col in the North Face to the Norton Couloir and became the first man to climb through this steep gorge to the summit. Messner decided spontaneously during the ascent to use this route to bypass the exposed northeast ridge. Prior to this solo ascent, he had not set up a camp on the mountain. K2 For 1979, Messner was planning to climb K2 on a new direct route through the South Face, which he called the "Magic Line". Headed by Messner, the small expedition consisted of six climbers: Italians Alessandro Gogna, Friedl Mutschlechner and Renato Casarotto; the Austrian, Robert Schauer; and Germans Michael Dacher, journalist, Jochen Hölzgen, and doctor Ursula Grether, who was injured during the approach and had to be carried to Askole by Messner and Mutschlechner. Because of avalanche danger on the original route and time lost on the approach, they decided on climbing via the Abruzzi Spur. The route was equipped with fixed ropes and high-altitude camps, but no hauling equipment (Hochträger) or bottled oxygen was used. On 12 July, Messner and Dacher reached the summit; then the weather deteriorated and attempts by other members of the party failed. Shishapangma During his stay in Tibet as part of his Everest solo attempt, Messner had the opportunity to explore Shishapangma. A year later, Messner, with Friedel Mutschlechner, Oswald Oelz and Gerd Baur, set base camp on the north side. On 28 May, Messner and Mutschlechner reached the summit in very bad weather; part of the climb involving ski mountaineering. Kangchenjunga In 1982, Messner wanted to become the first climber ever to scale three eight-thousanders in one year. He was planning on climbing Kangchenjunga first, before tackling Gasherbrum II and the Broad Peak. Messner chose a new variation of the route up the north face. Because there was still a lot of snow at the time of the expedition, Messner and Mutschlechner made very slow progress. In addition, the sheer difficulty of the climb forced the two mountaineers to use fixed ropes. Finally, on 6 May, Messner and Mutschlechner stood on the summit. There, Mutschlechner suffered frostbite to his hands, and later to his feet as well. Whilst bivouacking during the descent, the tent tore away from Mutschlechner and Messner, and Messner also fell ill. He was suffering from amoebic liver abscess, making him very weak. In the end he only made it back to base camp with Mutschlechner's help. Gasherbrum II After his ascent of Kangchenjunga, Mutschlechner flew back to Europe because his frostbite had to be treated and Messner needed rest. Thus the three mountains could not be climbed as planned. Messner was cured of his amoebic liver abscess and then travelled to Gasherbrum II, but could not use the new routes as planned. In any case, his climbing partners, Sher Khan and Nazir Sabir, would not have been strong enough. Nevertheless, all three reached the summit on 24 July in a storm. During the ascent, Messner discovered the body of a previously missing Austrian mountaineer, whom he buried two years later at the G I – G II traverse. Broad Peak In 1982, Messner scaled Broad Peak as his third eight-thousander. At the time, he was the only person with a permit to climb this mountain; he came across Jerzy Kukuczka and Wojciech Kurtyka, who had permits to climb K2, but used its geographic proximity to climb Broad Peak illegally. In early descriptions of the ascent, Messner omitted this encounter, but he referred to it several years later. On 2 August, Messner was reunited with Nazir Sabir and Khan again on the summit. The three mountaineers had decamped and made for Broad Peak immediately after their ascent of Gasherbrum II. The climb was carried out with a variation from the normal route at the start. Cho Oyu In the winter of 1982–1983, Messner attempted the first winter ascent of Cho Oyu. He reached an altitude of about , when great masses of snow forced him to turn back. This expedition was his first with Hans Kammerlander. A few months later, on 5 May, he reached the summit via a partially new route together with Kammerlander and Michael Dacher. Annapurna In 1985, Messner topped out on Annapurna. Using a new route on the northwest face, he reached the summit with Kammerlander on 24 April. Also on the expedition were Reinhard Patscheider, Reinhard Schiestl and Swami Prem Darshano, who did not reach the summit. During Messner and Kammerlander's ascent, the weather was bad and they had to be assisted by the other three expedition members during the descent due to heavy snowfall. Dhaulagiri Messner had already attempted Dhaulagiri in 1977 and 1984, unsuccessfully. In 1985 he finally summited. He climbed with Kammerlander up the normal route along the northeast ridge. After only three days of climbing they stood on the summit in a heavy storm on 15 May. Makalu Messner tried climbing Makalu four times. He failed in 1974 and 1981 on the South Face of the south-east ridge. In winter 1985–1986 he attempted the first winter ascent of Makalu via the normal route. Even this venture did not succeed. Not until February 2009 was Makalu successfully climbed in winter by Denis Urubko and Simone Moro. In 1986, Messner returned and succeeded in reaching the summit using the normal route with Kammerlander and Mutschlechner. Although they had turned back twice during this expedition, they made the summit on the third attempt on 26 September. During this expedition, Messner witnessed the death of Marcel Rüedi, for whom the Makalu was his 9th eight-thousander. Rüedi was on the way back from the summit and was seen by Messner and the other climbers on the descent. Although he was making slow progress, he appeared to be safe. The tea for his reception had already been boiled when Rüedi disappeared behind a snow ridge and did not reappear. He was found dead a short time later. Lhotse Messner climbed his last normal route. Messner and Kammerlander had to contend with a strong wind in the summit area. To reach the summit that year and before winter broke, they took a direct helicopter flight from the Makalu base camp to the Lhotse base camp. Thus Messner became the first person to climb all eight-thousanders. Since this ascent, Messner has never climbed another eight-thousander. In 1989, Messner led a European expedition to the South Face of the mountain. The aim was to forge a path up the as-yet-unclimbed face. Messner himself did not want to climb any more. The expedition was unsuccessful. The Seven Summits In 1985 Richard Bass first postulated and achieved the mountaineering challenge Seven Summits, climbing the highest peaks of each of the seven continents. Messner suggested another list (the Messner or Carstensz list) replacing Mount Kosciuszko with Indonesia's Puncak Jaya, or Carstensz Pyramid (). From a mountaineering point of view the Messner list is the more challenging one. Climbing Carstensz Pyramid has the character of an expedition, whereas the ascent of Kosciuszko is an easy hike. In May 1986 Pat Morrow became the first person to complete the Messner list, followed by Messner himself when he climbed Mount Vinson in December 1986 to become the second. World-first records Messner is listed nine times in the Guinness Book of Records. All of his achievements are classed as "World's Firsts" (or "Historical Firsts"). A "World's First" is the highest category of any Guinness World Record, meaning the ownership of the title never expires. As of 2021, Messner is the second highest record holder of "World's Firsts" (after Icelandic explorer Fiann Paul, who has 13). Messner's world firsts are: First ascent of Manaslu without supplementary oxygen First solo summit of Everest First ascent of Everest and K2 without supplementary oxygen – male First ascent of the top three highest mountains without supplementary oxygen – male First 8,000-metre mountain hat-trick First person to climb all 8,000-metre mountains without supplementary oxygen First person to climb all 8,000-metre mountains First ascent of Everest without supplementary oxygen First ascent of Gasherbrum I without supplementary oxygen Messner Mountain Museum In 2003 Messner started work on a project for a mountaineering museum. On 11 June 2006, the Messner Mountain Museum (MMM) opened, a museum that unites within one museum the stories of the growth and decline of mountains, culture in the Himalayan region and the history of South Tyrol. The MMM consists of five or six locations: MMM Firmian at Sigmundskron Castle near Bozen is the centerpiece of the museum and concentrates on man's relationship with the mountains. Surrounded by peaks from the Schlern and the Texel range, the MMM Firmian provides visitors with a series of pathways, stairways, and towers containing displays that focus on the geology of the mountains, the religious significance of mountains in the lives of people, and the history of mountaineering and alpine tourism. The so-called white tower is dedicated to the history of the village and the struggle for the independence of South Tyrol. MMM Juval at Juval Castle in the Burggrafenamt in Vinschgau is dedicated to the "magic of the mountains", with an emphasis on mystical mountains, such as Mount Kailash or Ayers Rock and their religious significance. MMM Juval houses several art collections. MMM Dolomites, known as the Museum in the Clouds, is located at Monte Rite () between Pieve di Cadore and Cortina d'Ampezzo. Housed in an old fort, this museum is dedicated to the subject of rocks, particularly in the Dolomites, with exhibits focusing on the history of the formation of the Dolomites. The summit observation platform offers a 360° panorama of the surrounding Dolomites, with views toward Monte Schiara, Monte Agnèr, Monte Civetta, Marmolada, Monte Pelmo, Tofana di Rozes, Sorapis, Antelao, Marmarole. MMM Ortles at Sulden on the Ortler is dedicated to the theme of ice. This underground structure is situated at and focuses on the history of mountaineering on ice and the great glaciers of the world. The museum contains the world's largest collection of paintings of the Ortler, as well as ice-climbing gear from two centuries. MMM Ripa at Brunico Castle in South Tyrol is dedicated to the mountain peoples from Asia, Africa, South America and Europe, with emphasis on their cultures, religions, and tourism activities. MMM Corones, opened in July 2015 on the top of the Kronplatz mountain (Plan de Corones in Italian), is dedicated to traditional climbing. Political career In 1999, Messner was elected Member of the European Parliament for the Federation of the Greens (FdV), the Italian green party, receiving more than 20,000 votes in the European election. He fully served his term until 2004, when he retired from politics. Messner was officially a member of South Tyrolean Greens, a regionalist and ecologist political party active only in South Tyrol, which de facto acts as a regional branch of the FdV. During all his life, even after the end of his political career, he has been a strong supporter of green and environmentalist policies and an activist in the fight against global warming. Electoral history Personal life From 1972 until 1977, Messner was married to Uschi Demeter. With his partner, Canadian photographer Nena Holguin, he has a daughter, Làyla Messner, born in 1981. On 31 July 2009, he married his long time girlfriend Sabine Stehle, a textile designer from Vienna, with whom he has 3 children. They divorced in 2019. In late May 2021, Messner married Diane Schumacher, a 41-year-old Luxembourg woman living in Munich, at the town hall in Kastelbell-Tschars near his home in South Tyrol. In media The Dark Glow of the Mountains (Gasherbrum – Der Leuchtende Berg), a 1985 Werner Herzog television documentary Portrait of a Snow Lion, a BBC/France3 1992 documentary on Messner; part 4 of the series The Climbers Messner, a 2002 feature documentary about Messner by Les Guthman Nanga Parbat, a 2010 film based on Messner's achievements The Unauthorized Biography of Reinhold Messner, a 1999 album by Ben Folds Five, unrelated to Messner 14 Peaks: Nothing Is Impossible, a 2021 Netflix documentary film about Nirmal Purja and his mountaineering team's world record breaking ascent of the 14 highest mountains in the world. Reinhold Messner provides commentary in several interview segments. The New York Times described his contribution to the film as "the alpine legend Reinhold Messner waxing beautifully existential". See also List of climbers References Selected bibliography (English translations) Sources Further reading External links Official site Discovery of remains ends controversy about the death of Reinhold Messner's brother Reinhold Messner on the Future of Climbing Mount Everest - an interview with Saransh Sehgal Interviews Gaia Symphony Documentary series (Japanese production). Reinhold Messner Biography and Interview on American Academy of Achievement. Italian explorers Italian mountain climbers Federation of the Greens MEPs Living people Cryptozoologists Free soloists Summiters of the Seven Summits Summiters of all 14 eight-thousanders Germanophone Italian people People from Brixen MEPs for Italy 1999–2004 20th-century Italian politicians 21st-century Italian politicians Year of birth missing (living people) Politicians of South Tyrol Recipients of the Royal Geographical Society Gold Medal	[ -0.1667952537536621, 0.492020845413208, 0.26266565918922424, -0.5016143918037415, 0.3918377757072449, 0.6545721888542175, 1.1745212078094482, 0.07161278277635574, -0.6943535208702087, 0.03720904514193535, -0.48092564940452576, -0.06028224900364876, -0.15217959880828857, 0.4003887176513672, -0.11868288367986679, -0.02572469785809517, 0.049823056906461716, -0.18749380111694336, -0.8375973105430603, -0.12448526173830032, 0.4060201048851013, -0.613196074962616, 0.09332098811864853, 0.025486547499895096, -0.22949013113975525, 0.20608144998550415, 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255488	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Legendre	Legendre	Legendre, LeGendre or Le Gendre is a French surname. It may refer to: Adrien-Marie Legendre (1752–1833), French mathematician Associated Legendre polynomials Legendre's equation Legendre polynomials Legendre symbol Legendre transformation Legendre (crater), a lunar impact crater located near the eastern limb of the Moon 26950 Legendre, a main-belt asteroid discovered on May 11, 1997 Anne Legendre Armstrong (1927–2008), United States diplomat and politician Charles Le Gendre (1830–1899), French-born American general and diplomat François Legendre (1763–1853), surveyor, seigneur and political figure in Lower Canada Géraldine Legendre (born 1953), French-American cognitive scientist and linguist Gertrude Sanford Legendre (1902–2000), American socialite who served as a spy during World War II Jacques Legendre (disambiguation), several people Kevin Le Gendre, British journalist and broadcaster Louis Legendre (1752–1797), French politician of the Revolution period Louis Legendre (oceanographer), Canadian oceanographer Pierre Legendre (historian) (born 1930), French historian of law and psychoanalyst Pierre Legendre (ecologist), Canadian numerical ecologist Richard Legendre (born 1953), former professional tennis player and a Quebec politician Robert LeGendre (1898–1931), American athlete Surnames of French origin	[ -0.18243779242038727, 0.25207096338272095, -0.22119146585464478, -0.432925820350647, -0.18357621133327484, 0.7159008979797363, 0.29242128133773804, 0.25840508937835693, -0.6482870578765869, -0.6455437541007996, -0.5760411024093628, 0.21407020092010498, 0.1738571673631668, 0.5395802855491638, -0.4420463740825653, -0.10833027213811874, -0.02013801783323288, 0.4470463693141937, -0.11482983827590942, -0.695378839969635, -0.32023176550865173, -0.13223929703235626, 0.3286511301994324, -0.44430410861968994, 0.5004058480262756, 0.09552890807390213, -0.2934088706970215, 0.2790413498878479, 0.3580223023891449, 0.5399449467658997, -0.23564790189266205, 0.1833275854587555, 0.32116270065307617, 0.18962885439395905, 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255489	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Janosch	Janosch	Janosch (, born as Horst Eckert on 11 March 1931) is a German children's author and illustrator. Biography Horst Eckert was born in Hindenburg (now Zabrze, Poland) in Upper Silesia to a family of mixed German and Polish origin. He said in an interview that he is Silesian of nationality. The mother strictly Catholic, the father alcoholic and violent. After World War II, the family fled to West Germany. In the area of Oldenburg, Janosch worked in a textile mill. In 1953, he went to Munich, where he studied for some terms at the Academy of Arts, but broke off his studies eventually. Afterwards, he worked as a freelance artist. In 1960, his first book for children was published with George Lentz, a friend of his, who also persuaded him to take on the penname Janosch. Within the next 10 years, numerous books for children followed with different publishing houses. He also published books for adults, in which he deals with his childhood experiences of growing up with an abusive father and a God-fearing mother, constantly recurring topics being friendship, family relationships, and the quest for the meaning of life. Amongst his most famous figures is the Tigerente that appears in Oh, wie schön ist Panama and the stories around the little tiger and the little bear. From 1953 to 1980 the artist lived in Munich. By 1980, he had published over 100 books for children in nearly 30 languages. By then, he had left Germany, and lives since 1980 on the island of Tenerife in the Atlantic Ocean. Awards Among others, he has received the following awards: 1975: Literaturpreis der Stadt München 1979: German Youth Literature Award 1984: Zilveren Griffel 1993: Bundesverdienstkreuz Works In German, Janosch published until today about 150 books which in part were translated into 30 languages. Die Geschichte von Valek dem Pferd. Georg-Lentz-Verlag, Munich 1960. Valek und Jarosch. Georg-Lentz-Verlag, Munich 1960. Das kleine Schiff. Georg-Lentz-Verlag, Munich 1960. Der Josa mit der Zauberfidel. Georg-Lentz-Verlag, Munich 1960. . Parabel-Verlag, Munich 1964. Das Auto hier heißt Ferdinand. Parabel-Verlag, Munich 1964, . Böllerbam und der Vogel. Middelhauve Verlag, Cologne 1968, . Cholonek oder Der liebe Gott aus Lehm. Georg-Bitter-Verlag, Recklinghausen 1970, . Lari Fari Mogelzahn. Beltz-Verlag, Weinheim 1971, . Leo Zauberfloh. dtv, Munich 1975, . Sacharin im Salat. Bertelsmann-Verlag, Munich 1975, . Update on Rumpelstiltskin and other Fairy Tales by 43 Authors. Beltz & Gelberg, Weinheim 1976, . Traumstunde für Siebenschläfer. Beltz-Verlag, Weinheim 1977, . Die Maus hat rote Strümpfe an. Beltz-Verlag, Weinheim 1978, . . Beltz-Verlag, Weinheim 1978, . English translation: The Trip to Panama. Beltz & Gelberg Verlag, Weinheim 1990, . translator: Anthea Bell Sandstrand. Beltz-Verlag, Weinheim 1979, ; Merlin Verlag, Gifkendorf 2001, . . Beltz-Verlag, Weinheim 1979, . Schnuddelbuddel sagt Gutnacht. Deutscher Taschenbuch Verlag, Munich 1979, . . Beltz-Verlag, Weinheim 1980, . The City meets the Country. Beltz & Gelberg, Weinheim 1980, . Das Leben der Thiere. Beltz-Verlag, Weinheim 1981, . Rasputin der Vaterbär. Beltz-Verlag, Weinheim 1983, . . Diogenes-Verlag, Zürich 1985, . Das Lumpengesindel. Diogenes-Verlag, Zürich 1987, . Der Mäuse-Sheriff. Georg Bitter Verlag, Recklinghausen 1989, . Die Kunst der bäuerlichen Liebe 1. Teil. Merlin Verlag, Gifkendorf 1990, . Du bist ein Indianer, Hannes. Bitter Verlag, Recklinghausen 1990, . Polski Blues. Goldmann Verlag, Munich 1991, . . Merlin Verlag, Gifkendorf 1992, . Schäbels Frau. Goldmann Verlag, Munich 1992, . Mutter sag, wer macht die Kinder?. Mosaik-Verlag, Munich 1992, . Von dem Glück, Hrdlak gekannt zu haben. Goldmann Verlag, Munich 1994, . Von dem Glück, als Herr Janosch überlebt zu haben. Merlin Verlag, Gifkendorf 1994, . Franz mit dem verdammten Hut. Little Tiger Verlag, Hamburg 1995, . Schnuddel baut ein Wolkenhaus. Isis Verlag, Chur 1995, . Schnuddels Gute-Nacht-Geschichten. Isis Verlag, Chur 1995, . Wörterbuch der Lebenskunst. Goldmann Verlag, Munich 1995, . Gastmahl auf Gomera. Goldmann Verlag, Munich 1997, . Restaurant & Mutterglück oder Das Kind. Merlin Verlag, Gifkendorf 1998, . Ich liebe eine Tigerente. Mosaik-Verlag, Munich 1999, . Janoschs großer, kleiner Tigeratlas. Bassermann, Munich 2002, . Janoschs Tausend-Bilder-Lexikon. Bassermann, Munich 2002, . Wie der Tiger zählen lernt. Bassermann, Munich 2002, . Wie der Tiger lesen lernt. Bassermann, Munich 2002, . Bei Liebeskummer Apfelmus. Bassermann, Munich 2002, . Morgen kommt der Weihnachtsbär. Bassermann, Munich 2002, . Wenn Schnuddel in die Schule geht und andere Geschichten. cbj, Munich 2006, . Gibt es hitzefrei in Afrika? So leben die Kinder dieser Welt. Heyne Verlag, Munich 2006, . Tigerente The Tigerente ( tiger duck) is a children's book character created by the German artist and author Janosch. It is a little wooden toy duck on wheels, striped black on yellow, that is pulled around on a string by various characters of Janosch's books. It never has a line of dialogue, but still has become by far the most popular figure ever created by the author. The Tigerente has since appeared on a wide range of products including posters, postcards, high school art projects, buttons, mugs, socks, umbrellas, cutlery, and nearly every item of children's furniture imaginable, and has been the namesake and mascot of the German TV show Tigerenten Club, all without ever uttering a single line. The story has been made into a contemporary opera "Oh, the beautiful Panama" by Lin Wang. The opera was premiered at Deutsche Oper Berlin in 2013, and was a sold-out event. References External links Official Homepage About Janosch German children's literature Characters in children's literature 1931 births Living people People from Zabrze People from the Province of Upper Silesia German artists Officers Crosses of the Order of Merit of the Federal Republic of Germany German children's writers German male writers	[ -0.47274327278137207, 0.7955492734909058, -0.020667077973484993, -0.4614255428314209, -0.17411763966083527, 0.8708209991455078, 0.7070938944816589, 0.0672411322593689, -0.2799668312072754, -0.14392440021038055, -0.6082077622413635, -0.19916288554668427, 0.39533406496047974, 0.1977493166923523, 0.41650429368019104, -0.0839168131351471, 0.15606988966464996, 0.43266022205352783, -0.7573306560516357, -0.6017023921012878, -0.19559650123119354, -0.7346358299255371, 0.1990806758403778, -0.1345166265964508, -0.22986763715744019, 0.07828987389802933, 0.1533900648355484, -0.29107239842414856, -0.07158677279949188, 0.2703116834163666, 0.06815917044878006, 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255490	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lymphogranuloma%20venereum	Lymphogranuloma venereum	Lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV; also known as climatic bubo, Durand–Nicolas–Favre disease, poradenitis inguinale, lymphogranuloma inguinale, and strumous bubo) is a sexually transmitted disease caused by the invasive serovars L1, L2, L2a, L2b, or L3 of Chlamydia trachomatis. LGV is primarily an infection of lymphatics and lymph nodes. Chlamydia trachomatis is the bacteria responsible for LGV. It gains entrance through breaks in the skin, or it can cross the epithelial cell layer of mucous membranes. The organism travels from the site of inoculation down the lymphatic channels to multiply within mononuclear phagocytes of the lymph nodes it passes. In developed nations, it was considered rare before 2003. However, a recent outbreak in the Netherlands among gay men has led to an increase of LGV in Europe and the United States. LGV was first described by Wallace in 1833 and again by Durand, Nicolas, and Favre in 1913. Since the 2004 Dutch outbreak many additional cases have been reported, leading to greater surveillance. Soon after the initial Dutch report, national and international health authorities launched warning initiatives and multiple LGV cases were identified in several more European countries (Belgium, France, the UK, Germany, Sweden, Italy and Switzerland) and the US and Canada. All cases reported in Amsterdam and France and a considerable percentage of LGV infections in the UK and Germany were caused by a newly discovered Chlamydia variant, L2b, a.k.a. the Amsterdam variant. The L2b variant could be traced back and was isolated from anal swabs of men who have sex with men (MSM) who visited the STI city clinic of San Francisco in 1981. This finding suggests that the recent LGV outbreak among MSM in industrialised countries is a slowly evolving epidemic. The L2b serovar has also been identified in Australia. Signs and symptoms The clinical manifestation of LGV depends on the site of entry of the infectious organism (the sex contact site) and the stage of disease progression. Inoculation at the mucous lining of external sex organs (penis and vagina) can lead to the inguinal syndrome named after the formation of buboes or abscesses in the groin (inguinal) region where draining lymph nodes are located. These signs usually appear from 3 days to a month after exposure. The rectal syndrome (lymphogranuloma venereum proctitis, or LGVP) arises if the infection takes place via the rectal mucosa (through anal sex) and is mainly characterized by proctocolitis or proctitis symptoms. The pharyngeal syndrome is rare. It starts after infection of pharyngeal tissue, and buboes in the neck region can occur. Primary stage LGV may begin as a self-limited painless genital ulcer that occurs at the contact site 3–12 days after infection. Women rarely notice a primary infection because the initial ulceration where the organism penetrates the mucosal layer is often located out of sight, in the vaginal wall. In men fewer than one-third of those infected notice the first signs of LGV. This primary stage heals in a few days. Erythema nodosum occurs in 10% of cases. Secondary stage The secondary stage most often occurs 10–30 days later, but can present up to six months later. The infection spreads to the lymph nodes through lymphatic drainage pathways. The most frequent presenting clinical manifestation of LGV among males whose primary exposure was genital is unilateral (in two-thirds of cases) lymphadenitis and lymphangitis, often with tender inguinal and/or femoral lymphadenopathy because of the drainage pathway for their likely infected areas. Lymphangitis of the dorsal penis may also occur and resembles a string or cord. If the route was anal sex, the infected person may experience lymphadenitis and lymphangitis noted above. They may instead develop proctitis, inflammation limited to the rectum (the distal 10–12 cm) that may be associated with anorectal pain, tenesmus, and rectal discharge, or proctocolitis, inflammation of the colonic mucosa extending to 12 cm above the anus and associated with symptoms of proctitis plus diarrhea or abdominal cramps. In addition, symptoms may include inflammatory involvement of the perirectal or perianal lymphatic tissues. In females, cervicitis, perimetritis, or salpingitis may occur as well as lymphangitis and lymphadenitis in deeper nodes. Because of lymphatic drainage pathways, some patients develop an abdominal mass which seldom suppurates, and 20–30% develop inguinal lymphadenopathy. Systemic signs which can appear include fever, decreased appetite, and malaise. Diagnosis is more difficult in women and men who have sex with men (MSM) who may not have the inguinal symptoms. Over the course of the disease, lymph nodes enlarge, as may occur in any infection of the same areas as well. Enlarged nodes are called buboes. Buboes are commonly painful. Nodes commonly become inflamed, thinning and fixation of the overlying skin. These changes may progress to necrosis, fluctuant and suppurative lymph nodes, abscesses, fistulas, strictures, and sinus tracts. During the infection and when it subsides and healing takes place, fibrosis may occur. This can result in varying degrees of lymphatic obstruction, chronic edema, and strictures. These late stages characterised by fibrosis and edema are also known as the third stage of LGV, and are mainly permanent. Diagnosis The diagnosis usually is made serologically (through complement fixation) and by exclusion of other causes of inguinal lymphadenopathy or genital ulcers. Serologic testing has a sensitivity of 80% after two weeks. Serologic testing may not be specific for serotype (has some cross reactivity with other chlamydia species) and can suggest LGV from other forms because of their difference in dilution, 1:64 more likely to be LGV and lower than 1:16 is likely to be other chlamydia forms (emedicine). For identification of serotypes, culture is often used. Culture is difficult. Requiring a special medium, cycloheximide-treated McCoy or HeLa cells, and yields are still only 30-50%. DFA, or direct fluorescent antibody test, PCR of likely infected areas and pus, are also sometimes used. DFA test for the L-type serovar of C. trachomatis is the most sensitive and specific test, but is not readily available. If polymerase chain reaction (PCR) tests on infected material are positive, subsequent restriction endonuclease pattern analysis of the amplified outer membrane protein A gene can be done to determine the genotype. Recently a fast realtime PCR (TaqMan analysis) has been developed to diagnose LGV. With this method an accurate diagnosis is feasible within a day. It has been noted that one type of testing may not be thorough enough. Treatment Treatment involves antibiotics and may involve drainage of the buboes or abscesses by needle aspiration or incision. Further supportive measure may need to be taken: dilatation of the rectal stricture, repair of rectovaginal fistulae, or colostomy for rectal obstruction. Common antibiotic treatments include tetracycline (doxycycline) (all tetracyclines, including doxycycline, are contraindicated during pregnancy and in children due to effects on bone development and tooth discoloration), and erythromycin. Azithromycin is also a drug of choice in LGV. Further recommendations As with all STIs, sex partners of patients who have LGV should be examined and tested for urethral or cervical chlamydial infection. After a positive culture for chlamydia, clinical suspicion should be confirmed with testing to distinguish serotype. Antibiotic treatment should be started if they had sexual contact with the patient during the 30 days preceding onset of symptoms in the patient. Patients with a sexually transmitted disease should be tested for other STDs due to high rates of comorbid infections. Antibiotics are not without risks and prophylactic broad antibiotic coverage is not recommended. Prognosis Prognosis is highly variable. Spontaneous remission is common. Complete cure can be obtained with proper antibiotic treatments to kill the causative bacteria, such as tetracycline, doxycycline, or erythromycin. Prognosis is more favorable with early treatment. Bacterial superinfections may complicate course. Death can occur from bowel obstruction or perforation, and follicular conjunctivitis due to autoinoculation of infectious discharge can occur. Long-term complications Genital elephantiasis or esthiomene, which is the dramatic end-result of lymphatic obstruction, which may occur because of the strictures themselves, or fistulas. This is usually seen in females, may ulcerate and often occurs 1–20 years after primary infection. Fistulas of, but not limited to, the penis, urethra, vagina, uterus, or rectum. Also, surrounding edema often occurs. Rectal or other strictures and scarring. Systemic spread may occur, possible results are arthritis, pneumonitis, hepatitis, or perihepatitis. Notes References Original article from the public domain resource here — note that this has not been modified since 1998, and may be out of date. 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255491	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LGV	LGV	LGV may refer to: Transportation and vehicles Large goods vehicle, Europe Laser Guided Vehicle Light goods vehicle, Hong Kong Lignes à Grande Vitesse, French high-speed rail lines: LGV Atlantique LGV Est LGV Interconnexion Est LGV Nord LGV Méditerranée LGV Picardie LGV Rhône-Alpes LGV Rhin-Rhône LGV Sud-Est LGV Sud Europe Atlantique Other Lymphogranuloma venereum, a sexually transmitted disease Državljanska lista Gregorja Viranta (LGV) (Gregor Virant's Civic List), former name of Civic List (Slovenia), a political party in Slovenia Lattitude Global Volunteering, a British charity — volunteering for young people LG V series Android smartphones See also LVG (disambiguation) LG5 (disambiguation)	[ 0.24728696048259735, -0.08971802145242691, 0.2485707700252533, -0.4543394148349762, -0.19241802394390106, 0.22718577086925507, 0.11592178791761398, 0.3989356458187103, -0.6662643551826477, -0.5825918316841125, -0.55384361743927, 0.26669755578041077, 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255496	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/G%C3%A9rard%20Bessette	Gérard Bessette	Gérard Bessette (25 February 1920, in Sainte-Anne-de-Sabrevois, Quebec – 21 February 2005, in Kingston, Ontario) was a French Canadian writer and educator. Bessette grew up in Montreal and attended the Collège Saint-Ignace. He continued his studies at the Université de Montréal, where in 1950 he completed his doctorate entitled Images in French-Canadian poetry. Unable to obtain an academic position in Quebec because of his atheism, he taught at Duquesne University in Pittsburgh from 1951 to 1957. He then found a job in Kingston, Ontario, first at Royal Military College of Canada in 1958, and then in the Department of French Studies at Queen's University from 1959 to 1979. Bessette's novel Le cycle (1971) won the Governor General's Award, and in 1980 he was awarded the Prix Athanase-David, Quebec's highest literary honour. Several of Bessette's works address issues that led to and were representative of the Révolution tranquille, a series of societal shifts that took place in Quebec during the 1960s, which saw increased secularization and a general movement away from the influence of the Catholic Church. His earlier works are written in a realistic style, while his later novels utilize elements of the nouveau roman literary movement and tend to be more experimental. His literary criticism is noted for its Freudian readings of Québécois literature. One of his most noted works is Le libraire (1960), an existential tale of a book store employee in a small Quebec town in the 1950s. The book deals with one of Bessette's most common themes: the stifling culture of Quebec of that time. His work was also part of the literature event in the art competition at the 1948 Summer Olympics. Bibliography La bagarre (1958) (translated as The Brawl) Les Images en poésie canadienne-française (1960) Le libraire (1960) (translated as Not for Every Eye) Les pédagogue (1961) Poèmes temporels (1962) L'incubation (1965) (translated as Incubation) Les images en poésie canadienne-française (1967) Une littérature en ébullition (1968) De Québec à Saint-Boniface (editor, 1968) Histoire de la littérature canadienne-française (edited with Lucien Geslin and Charles Parent, 1968) Le cycle (1971) (translated as The Cycle) Trois romanciers québécois (1973) La commensale (1975) Les anthropoïdes (1977) Mes romans et moi (1979) Le semestre (1979) La garden-party de Christophine (1980) Les dires d'Omer Marin (1985) References France, Peter (Ed.) (1995). The New Oxford Companion to Literature in French. Oxford: Clarendon Press. . "Gérard Bessette," Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009 (Archived 2009-10-31) External links Remise du prix du Québec 1920 births 2005 deaths Canadian male novelists People from Montérégie Writers from Quebec French Quebecers Governor General's Award-winning fiction writers Prix Athanase-David winners Royal Military College of Canada faculty Canadian novelists in French 20th-century Canadian novelists 20th-century Canadian male writers Olympic competitors in art competitions Canadian expatriates in the United States	[ -0.23146286606788635, 0.43802201747894287, -0.8233495354652405, -0.009476973675191402, -0.29201120138168335, 0.5422839522361755, 0.7168516516685486, 0.17347122728824615, 0.101443812251091, -0.9737655520439148, -0.29279327392578125, 0.24761968851089478, 0.2796402871608734, -0.16632652282714844, 0.1312674880027771, 0.16978706419467926, -0.24900145828723907, -0.17398349940776825, -0.3536728024482727, -0.3149029612541199, -0.5452336668968201, -0.29107916355133057, 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255499	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isidor%20Gunsberg	Isidor Gunsberg	Isidor Arthur Gunsberg (also spelled Günzberg, ; 1 November 1854 – 2 May 1930) was a Hungarian chess player, best known for narrowly losing the 1891 World Chess Championship match to Wilhelm Steinitz. Biography Gunsberg began his career as the player operating the remote-controlled chess automaton Mephisto, but later became a chess professional. He moved to Great Britain in 1876, later becoming a naturalized British citizen on 12 May 1908. In the late 1880s and early 1890s Gunsberg was one of the top players in the world. He decisively won a national tournament in London in July 1885, and a few weeks later won the 4th German Chess Congress in Hamburg. In match play, he defeated Joseph Blackburne and Henry Bird in 1886. In 1887, he shared first with Amos Burn in the London tournament. In 1890 he drew a match with Mikhail Chigorin, a former and future challenger for the world chess championship. Later that year, Gunsberg himself challenged Wilhelm Steinitz for the world title. The match took place in New York City and Gunsberg lost with four wins, six losses, and nine draws. In 1916 he sued the Evening News for libel when they said that his chess column contained "blunders". He won the suit after the High Court accepted a submission that in chess matters, eight oversights did not make a "blunder". Chess strength Arpad Elo calculates that Gunsberg's best 5-year average Elo rating was 2560. According to Chessmetrics, Gunsberg's best single performance was his 1887 match against Blackburne, where he scored 8 of 13 possible points (62%). Also, Gunsberg's performance in the world championship match against Steinitz indicated he was a part of the world elite in the late 1880s and early 1890s. However, in the year he qualified for the match against Steinitz, 1889, Gunsberg played in three different international tournaments: Amsterdam, the German Chess Congress, and the US Chess Congress. At Amsterdam, he finished in 5th place out of 9 competitors with an exact 50% score, 4/8, behind Burn, a young Emanuel Lasker, Mason, and Van Vliet. At the German Chess Congress, he finished tied for 4th–7th places out of 18 competitors, with a +3 score, 10/17, behind Tarrasch, Burn, and Mieses. Finally, at the US Chess Congress, his best result, and the reason he was allowed to challenge Steinitz, he finished in lone 3rd place out of 20 competitors, with a +19 score, 28½/38, behind Weiss and Chigorin. Later on, Gunsberg's position among the foremost chess masters would slip. In the famous Hastings 1895 chess tournament, Gunsberg finished with a −3 score of 9/21, good for a share of 15th–16th place out of 22 competitors. See also List of Jewish chess players Notes References External links "Isidor Gunsberg" by Edward Winter "Chess in the Courts" CN 3824, July 2005, "Libel Suit" CN 5113, August 2007, "Isidor Gunsberg" CN 5136, September 2007, "An Interview with Gunsberg" 1854 births 1930 deaths 19th-century chess players 20th-century chess players Hungarian Jews Austro-Hungarian emigrants to the United Kingdom Hungarian chess players British chess players Jewish chess players Sportspeople from Budapest	[ -0.7540909051895142, 0.1838139146566391, -0.12668736279010773, 0.11040017753839493, -0.3284495174884796, 0.8285104036331177, 0.4595944285392761, -0.31734699010849, -0.0469772145152092, -0.5449462532997131, 0.34103164076805115, 0.11606401205062866, -0.4641885757446289, 0.24588869512081146, 0.025771453976631165, -0.14105361700057983, -0.15406054258346558, -0.4825926721096039, -0.7994199991226196, -0.05965316295623779, 0.04829523712396622, -0.3230697810649872, 0.5669500827789307, 0.28255394101142883, 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255508	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity%27s%20Rainbow	Gravity's Rainbow	Gravity's Rainbow is a 1973 novel by American writer Thomas Pynchon. The narrative is set primarily in Europe at the end of World War II and centers on the design, production and dispatch of V-2 rockets by the German military. In particular, it features the quest undertaken by several characters to uncover the secret of a mysterious device, the ('black device'), which is slated to be installed in a rocket with the serial number "00000." Traversing a wide range of knowledge, Gravity's Rainbow transgresses boundaries between high and low culture, between literary propriety and profanity, and between science and speculative metaphysics. It shared the 1974 US National Book Award for Fiction with A Crown of Feathers and Other Stories by Isaac Bashevis Singer. Although selected by the Pulitzer Prize jury on fiction for the 1974 Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, the Pulitzer Advisory Board was offended by its content, some of which was described as 'unreadable,' 'turgid,' 'overwritten' and in parts 'obscene'. No Pulitzer Prize was awarded for fiction that year. The novel was nominated for the 1973 Nebula Award for Best Novel. Time named Gravity's Rainbow one of its "All-Time 100 Greatest Novels", a list of the best English-language novels from 1923 to 2005 and it is considered by many critics to be one of the greatest American novels ever written. Structure and chronology Dedication Gravity's Rainbow carries the dedication "For Richard Fariña". Pynchon had been a good friend of Fariña, a folk singer and novelist, since they had attended Cornell University together. Fariña had died in a motorcycle accident in 1966. The title Gravity's Rainbow is composed of four parts, each segmented into a number of episodes. In the original editions of the book, the episodes were separated by a row of seven small squares. Many readers, reviewers, and scholars, such as Richard Poirier, have suggested that the squares resemble the film perforations known as "sprocket holes" that engage with the teeth in a film camera or projector to advance the strip of film. The squares, however, were inserted by Edwin Kennebeck, an editor at the book's original publisher, Viking Press. Kennebeck denied that interpretation as intentional, and later editions of the novel separate the segments with only one square. Part 1: Beyond the Zero (21 episodes) The name "Beyond the Zero" refers to lack of total extinction of a conditioned stimulus. The events of this part occur primarily during the Christmas Advent season of 1944 from December 18–26, coinciding in part with the Battle of the Bulge. The epigraph is a quotation from a pamphlet written by the rocket scientist Wernher von Braun and first published in 1962: "Nature does not know extinction; all it knows is transformation. Everything science has taught me, and continues to teach me, strengthens my belief in the continuity of our spiritual existence after death." The epigraph reflects themes of anticipated redemption and blurring of the sacred and secular, both of which pervade Part 1. The epigraph is also potentially ironic, given von Braun's central role in the development of Nazi Germany's V-2 rocket. Part 2: Une Perm au Casino Hermann Goering (8 episodes) "" is French for "A Furlough at the Hermann Göring Casino". The events of this section span the five months from Christmas 1944 through to Whitsunday the following year, May 20, 1945. The misrepresentation or reinterpretation of identity is reflected in Slothrop's journey as well as the epigraph, attributed to Merian C. Cooper, speaking to Fay Wray prior to her starring role in King Kong, as recounted by Wray in the September 21, 1969, issue of The New York Times: "You will have the tallest, darkest leading man in Hollywood." Part 3: In the Zone (32 episodes) Part 3 is set during the summer of 1945 with analepses (literary flashbacks) to the time period of Part 2 with most events taking place between May 18 and August 6; the day of the atomic bomb attack on Hiroshima and also the Feast of the Transfiguration. The epigraph is taken from The Wizard of Oz, spoken by Dorothy as she arrives in Oz and shows her disorientation with the new environment: "Toto, I have a feeling we're not in Kansas any more...". Part 4: The Counterforce (12 episodes) Part 4 begins shortly after August 6, 1945, and covers the period up to September 14 of that same year; the day of the Exaltation of the Holy Cross, with extended analepses to Easter/April Fool's weekend of 1945 and culminating in a prolepsis to 1970. The simple epigraphical quotation, "What?" is attributed to Richard M. Nixon, and was added after the galleys of the novel had been printed to insinuate the President's involvement in the unfolding Watergate scandal. The original quotation for this section (as seen in the advance reading copies of the book) was an excerpt from the lyrics to the Joni Mitchell song "Cactus Tree" ("She has brought them to her senses/They have laughed inside her laughter/Now she rallies her defenses/For she fears that one will ask her/For eternity/And she’s so busy being free"), so the change in quotation jumped a large cultural divide. Plot Part 1: "Beyond the Zero": The opening pages of the novel follow Pirate Prentice, an employee of the Special Operations Executive (S.O.E.), first in his dreams, and later around the house in wartime London that he shares with several others in the S.O.E. He soon is driven to the site of a V-2 rocket strike. Pirate's associate Teddy Bloat photographs a map depicting the sexual encounters of U.S. Army Lt. Tyrone Slothrop, an employee of a fictional technical intelligence unit, ACHTUNG. Slothrop and his background are detailed through discussions by some of his co-workers and through references to his family's history, reaching back to early colonial times, in the Berkshire Mountains of western Massachusetts. (There are loose parallels to Pynchon's own family history.) Slothrop's (fictional) home town of Mingeborough is mentioned for the first time (although the town and a young boy named Hogan Slothrop had previously been featured in Pynchon's short story, "The Secret Integration"). That family setting will be mentioned several times much later in the novel, following the family's decline over time within a Puritan legacy of sterility and death. Employees of a fictional top secret psychological warfare agency called PISCES, headquartered at a former insane asylum known as "The White Visitation", investigate Slothrop's map of his presumed sexual encounters in London, finding that each location appears to precede a V-2 rocket strike in the same place by several days. This coincidence intrigues Pavlovian behavioral psychologist Edward W. Pointsman, who thinks there may be a direct causal relationship between Slothrop's erections and the missile strikes, and his associate, statistician Roger Mexico, who suggests that the relationship is only a random coincidence of probabilities, as seen in Poisson distributions, leading to further reflections in this section and later on topics as broad as the occult, Determinism, the reverse flow of time, and the sexuality of the rocket itself. Pointsman is all the more intrigued to find that as a baby, Slothrop had been subjected to behavioral experiments conducted by a Dr. Laszlo Jamf that involved the stimulation of his penis to erections. Many characters not significant until later are introduced in "Beyond the Zero", including one of Dr. Jamf's former students, Franz Pökler, a German engineer who has worked on early German experiments in rocketry and later on the V-2 rocket, and Pökler's wife Leni, a former student radical. Others who appear significant in Part One, such as Pointsman's associate Thomas Gwenhidwy and Roger Mexico's girlfriend Jessica Swanlake, vanish from the narrative and don't re-appear until much later. Indeed, most of the 400 named characters make only single appearances, serving merely to demonstrate the sheer scope of Pynchon's universe. Character names sometimes consist of outrageous puns (such as "Joaquin Stick") but may also relate to particular traits of that character or to themes within the novel. Some names of historical characters also have thematic relevance. Under the influence of sodium amytal administered through Pointsman's maneuvers, Slothrop has a hallucinatory flashback to a scene in Boston's Roxbury district. References here include "Red, the Negro shoeshine boy," who will much later be known as the Black Power leader Malcolm X, and jazz saxophonist Charlie "Yardbird" Parker, both of whom represent a threat to white racism. Another fictional character, Katje Borgesius, is contacted in this section by Pirate in order is to bring her to safety from the Continent to England. Katje had been a Dutch double agent who infiltrated a V-2 rocket-launching battery commanded by a sadistic SS officer named Captain Blicero. Blicero had kept Katje and a young soldier named Gottfried as sex slaves in a perverse enactment of the Hansel and Gretel story. However, Blicero (a Teutonic name connoting Death) is also revealed to be the code name of a former Lieutenant Weissman ("White Man") who earlier appeared in Pynchon's first novel, V. He has had an ongoing but now-severed relationship with Enzian, a Herero he had brought to Germany from German South West Africa (now Namibia), and who is the leader of a group of Herero rocket technicians known as the Schwarzkommando, who had been helping Blicero in his own project to create and fire a rocket. Katje, on the other hand, will come under Pointsman's control in England, while, as the Christmas season ends, Roger Mexico worries about losing Jessica Swanlake to her other, bureaucratic and sedate, boyfriend, Jeremy (also referred to as "Beaver" because of his beard). Part Two: "Une Perm au Casino Hermann Goering": Slothrop is sent away by his superiors under mysterious circumstances to a casino on the recently liberated French Riviera, in which almost the entirety of Part Two takes place. He is in fact being monitored by associates of Pointsman, including Katje and a linguist named Sir Stephen Dodson-Truck. One of the more bizarre Pavlovian episodes involves the conditioning of octopus Grigori to attack Katje. Early in part two, the octopus attacks Katje on the beach in France, and Slothrop is "conveniently" at hand to rescue her. Katje and Slothrop eventually have sex. At the Casino, he learns of a rocket with the irregular serial number 00000 (Slothrop comments that the numbering system doesn't allow for four zeroes in one serial, let alone five), which features a mysterious component called the S-Gerät (short for Schwarzgerät, 'black device'), made out of the hitherto unknown plastic Imipolex G. It is hinted that Slothrop's prescience of rocket hits is due to being conditioned as an infant by the creator of Imipolex G, Laszlo Jamf. Later, the reality of this story is called into question, as is the very existence of Slothrop's original sexual exploits. Meanwhile, at The White Visitation, Pointsman brings the unit and its mission under his control. The unit's nominal commander, Brigadier General Ernest Pudding, who is haunted by his traumatic memories of World War I, is brought to (literal) submission through sado-masochistic rituals with Katje, engineered by Pointsman. Slothrop becomes increasingly paranoid, as old associates disappear. He begins to suspect he is being monitored and adopts the persona (one of many) of "Ian Scuffling," a British war correspondent. He escapes from the casino into "The Zone", the coalescing post-war wasteland of Europe, first to Nice in France and then to Switzerland, searching for the 00000 and S-Gerät. In the closing of Part Two, Katje is revealed to be safe in England, enjoying a day at the beach with Roger Mexico and Jessica, as well as Pointsman, who is in charge of Slothrop's furtive supervision. While unable to contact Slothrop (or prohibited from contacting him), Katje continues to follow his actions through Pointsman, who is showing greater signs of mental instability. Part Three, "In The Zone": Slothrop's quest continues for some time as he meets or is chased by other characters, compared at various times to such characters as Orpheus and Wagner's Tannhauser. He learns more about his own past, Dr. Jamf's experiments on him, and his father's apparent complicity. In this section, Slothrop comes to doubt that his search for the S-Gerat is a Grail quest and finds his paranoia ("the fear that everything is connected") succumbing to "anti-paranoia" ("the fear that nothing is connected"). On the way he meets Geli Tripping, a self-described witch in love with a Russian colonel, Vaslav Tchitcherine, who had previously worked for the Soviet state bringing the New Turkic Alphabet to central Asia, especially Khirghizstan, where he had sought a mystical experience referred to as the "Khirghiz Light". Slothrop and Geli have a near-mystical experience at the summit of the Brocken, the German mountain that was the setting for Walpurgisnacht in Goethe's Faust. Slothrop's travels bring him to Nordhausen, in Germany, and the Mittlewerk, where V-2 rockets were assembled using slave labor from the Dora concentration camp. Confronted by the racist American Major Duane Marvy, he escapes in a slapstick chase. Slothrop meets members of the Schwarzkommando, a fictional cadre of African rocket technicians, descended from survivors of the Herero genocide of 1904 who were brought to Europe by German colonials. An extensive subplot details a schism within the Schwarzkommando; one faction is bent on a program of racial suicide, while the other finds mystical, semi-religious meaning in the V-2 rocket. Another long subplot details Tchitcherine's past and his quest to hunt and kill Enzian, leader of the latter group of Schwarzkommando and, it turns out, Tchitcherine's half-brother. With papers identifying him as former German film star Max Schlepzig in Berlin, Slothrop adopts an operatic Viking costume with the horns removed from the helmet, making it look like a rocket nose-cone and is given the name "Rocketman". One of the people he meets is the American sailor Pig Bodine (who or whose ancestors appear in most of Pynchon's other works). Bodine commissions Slothrop to retrieve a large stash of hashish from the centre of the Potsdam Conference. In the nearby abandoned movie studio that was once the center of the German film industry, Slothrop meets Margherita (Greta) Erdmann, a former silent film actress from the era of German Expressionist film, now in physical and mental decline. Slothrop also comes to meet Gerhardt von Göll, a megalomaniac German director who had previously been seen in Britain, directing a fake propaganda film featuring Black soldiers in Germany. Von Göll is now involved in black market activities. In the longest episode of the book, we learn more of the history of Franz Pökler, who fathered a child, Ilse, with his wife Leni after being aroused by Greta's image in an erotic scene in Alpdrücken, von Göll's "masterpiece". Greta had also become pregnant in the filming of that scene, producing a daughter of her own, Bianca. While working on the V-2 project, Pökler had been coerced into working on the S-Gerät by Blicero, who was holding Ilse in a concentration camp, allowing her to visit Pökler only once a year. As Ilse ages over several years, however, Pökler becomes increasingly paranoid that she is really a series of impostors sent each year to mollify him. Pökler's work for Blicero is tied to the history of organic chemistry, with its own outcomes in the production of dyes and plastics and the international cartels that would come to control them, such as I.G. Farben, and a culture of death-in-life. Slothrop is led by Margherita to northern Germany and onto the Anubis, a private yacht (named for the Egyptian god of the dead) filled with uninhibited European aristocrats. Here, Slothrop has sex with Margherita's teenage daughter, Bianca. Margherita, along with her partner, Thanatz, are revealed to know more about the 00000, S-Gerät, and Imipolex G than they let on. Ensign Morituri, a Japanese liaison officer, tells Slothrop about how Margherita and Thanatz had brought their traveling sado-masochistic act to Captain Blicero's rocket battery, from which Rocket 00000 had apparently been fired in the Spring of 1945, towards the end of the war. Margherita spent many days in a mysterious and ambiguously described factory, where she was clothed in an outfit made from the "erotic" plastic Imipolex G. Slothrop falls overboard and is rescued by black marketeers heading towards Peenemünde, the test site for the V-2 rocket, now occupied by Soviet forces. Slothrop later returns to the Anubis to find Bianca dead, possibly hastening his already hinted-at decline. He continues his pilgrimage through northern Germany, having changed clothing with Tchitcherine, arriving at Lüneberg Heath and the town of Cuxhaven, also sites of tests and launches by Allied forces of captured V-2 rockets. On the way, he again meets Major Marvy, who fails to recognize him. At a village festival, he is invited by children to don the costume of a pre-Christian Pig Hero, "Plechazunga." Meeting Pökler at the abandoned amusement park where Ilse used to meet her father, Slothrop finds out more about his childhood and the 00000. It becomes steadily apparent that Slothrop is connected to Laszlo Jamf through Lyle Bland, a Slothrop family friend who apparently played a role in funding Jamf's experiments on the infant Slothrop. Bland, in turn, is connected to many threads, including pinball machines and the Masons, that implicate him as part of an international conspiracy of industrial cartels. Slothrop is introduced to and sleeps with Solange, a prostitute who is actually Leni Pökler, recently freed from a concentration camp herself. In same building, Major Marvy has found Slothrop's pig costume and dons it, only to be caught, sedated, and castrated by agents working for Pointsman, who believe that Slothrop is still in the suit. Major political and social realignments have been taking place throughout The Zone. Towards the end of this section, several characters not seen since early in the novel make a return, including Pointsman, who is now in official disgrace, as bureaucratic operatives consider how to deal with him. Other characters, including Pirate Prentice and Katje Borgesius, begin to coalesce as a group styling itself as the "Counterforce" in resistance to the emerging post-war industrial-military complex. Part Four: The Counterforce: Elements in this section become increasingly fantastic and sometimes self-referential, the narrator at one point saying, "You will want cause and effect. All right" (page 663 in the Viking edition) before explaining how certain events in Part 3 tie in. Despite the efforts of some to save him, Slothrop is repeatedly sidetracked until his persona fragments totally, more than one hundred pages before the novel's end. A flashback reveals how Roger Mexico, now in Germany, has come to join the Counterforce despite its inherent contradictions as a group organizing against international organizations. A long digression gives the story of "Byron the Bulb," a sentient, seemingly immortal lightbulb whose existence links with Dr. Jamf and his experiments and to the integration of power companies and their Grid to the network of cartels. The Schwarzkommando become reunited and finish construction of their own version of the 00000 rocket. There are several brief, hallucinatory stories of comic, fallible superheroes; silly Kamikaze pilots; and an "Incident in the Transvesites' Toilet" where Slothrop has been hiding in drag. Such incidents may be products of Slothrop's finally collapsed mind; or of the increasingly chaotic state of affairs outside the realm of a rising technological class and society that comes to be labeled the "Raketen-Stadt" (Rocket-State) of the future. For Slothrop, these scenes more or less culminate with his finding, and failing to understand, a headline announcing the atomic bombing of Hiroshima. Tchitcherine is told by his superior officer that he is to head back to the U.S.S.R. with some German rocket scientists, despite his own misgivings about Marxist dialectics. A conference is held by members of the Counterforce, which now includes some with questionable pasts, personalities, or motives, such as von Göll. Jessica tells Roger that she is going to marry Jeremy/Beaver. Invited to a dinner at the home of a German industrialist, Roger and Pig Bodine manage to escape with the help of some disgusting culinary repartee, but it becomes increasingly clear that the Counterforce does not have the capacity to counter the emerging Rocket State, in part because "the Man has a branch office in each of our brains." Some individuals, however, provide some hope. Earlier, Slothrop had encountered a young boy on what seems to be a futile quest to find his lost pet lemming. Meeting once again, it turns out that the lemming has been found. Geli Tripping's complete love for Tchitcherine and her connection with the natural organic world contrasts with a flashback in which Blicero explains to Gottfried his obsessive desire to transcend nature and "its cycle of infection and death." Geli does cast a spell on Tchitcherine that (perhaps) keeps him from recognizing Enzian when they finally meet, averting a potentially fatal encounter. The final identification of Slothrop of any certainty is his picture on the cover of an album by obscure English band "The Fool" (another allusion to Tarot, which becomes increasingly significant), where he is credited as playing the harmonica and kazoo. The hundred pages or so of the novel include titled vignettes that summarize events in Slothrop's home town of Mingeborough; offer a (self-referential) reading of the Tarot cards for Weismann/Blicero, who also prepares for a final launch of the 00000 rocket with Gottfried in the nosecone; describe failed last-minute non-rescues by popular culture heroes; and allude to the Sacrifice of Isaac and the mythical figures of Apollo and Orpheus. As the novel draws to an ambiguous close, the launch of the rocket with Gottfied is intercut with scenes contemporary to the novel's publication, at the (fictional) Orpheus (movie) Theater in Los Angeles, managed by a character named "Richard M. Zhlubb," a thinly-veiled parody of President Richard Nixon. Zhlubb is running a "Bengt Ekarot / Maria Casares Film Festival." Both actors played personifications of Death, in Ingmar Bergman's The Seventh Seal and Jean Cocteau's Orpheus, respectively, overt examples of several possible references in the novel to European modernist cinema. The novel concludes as a rocket (perhaps Weissman's) is frozen in its last moment of descent above the theater, where the film being projected has broken, and a hymn composed by Slothrop's heretical colonial ancestor, William Slothrop, is offered. Style Poet L. E. Sissman, in his Gravity's Rainbow review for The New Yorker, said of Pynchon: "He is almost a mathematician of prose, who calculates the least and the greatest stress each word and line, each pun and ambiguity, can bear, and applies his knowledge accordingly and virtually without lapses, though he takes many scary, bracing linguistic risks. Thus his remarkably supple diction can first treat of a painful and delicate love scene and then roar, without pause, into the sounds and echoes of a drudged and drunken orgy." The plot of the novel is complex, containing over 400 characters and involving many different threads of narrative which intersect and weave around one another. The recurring themes throughout the plot are the V-2 rocket, interplay between free will and Calvinistic predestination, breaking the cycle of nature, behavioral psychology, sexuality, paranoia and conspiracy theories such as the Phoebus cartel and the Illuminati. Gravity's Rainbow also draws heavily on themes that Pynchon had probably encountered at his work as a technical writer for Boeing, where he edited a support newsletter for the Bomarc Missile Program support unit. The Boeing archives are known to house a vast library of historical V-2 rocket documents, which were probably accessible to Pynchon. The novel is narrated by many distinct voices, a technique further developed in Pynchon's much later novel Against the Day. The style and tone of the voices vary widely: Some narrate the plot in a highly informal tone, some are more self-referential, and some might even break the fourth wall. Some voices narrate in drastically different formats, ranging from movie-script format to stream of consciousness prose. The narrative contains numerous descriptions of illicit sexual encounters and drug use by the main characters and supporting cast, sandwiched between dense dialogues or reveries on historic, artistic, scientific, or philosophical subjects, interspersed with whimsical nonsense-poems and allusions to obscure facets of 1940s pop culture. Many of the recurring themes will be familiar to experienced Pynchon readers, including the singing of silly songs, recurring appearances of kazoos, and extensive discussion of paranoia. According to Richard Locke, megalomaniac paranoia is the "operative emotion" behind the novel, and an increasingly central motivator for the many main characters. In many cases, this paranoia proves to be vindicated, as the many plots of the novel become increasingly interconnected, revolving around the identity and purpose of the elusive 00000 Rocket and Schwarzgerät. The novel becomes increasingly preoccupied with themes of Tarot, Paranoia, and Sacrifice. All three themes culminate in the novel's ending, and the epilogue of the many characters. The novel also features the character Pig Bodine, of Pynchon's novel V. Bodine would later become a recurring avatar of Pynchon's complex and interconnected fictional universe, making an appearance in nearly all of Pynchon's novels thereafter. Several characters and situations from Pynchon's earlier works make at least brief appearances in the novel. Slothrop's (fictional) home town of Mingeborough, Massachusetts was the setting for his short story "The Secret Integration," which featured a young character named Hogan Slothrop, who in retrospect would seem to be Tyrone's nephew. Weismann (aka Blicero) and the story of the Herero genocide appeared in the chapter "Mondaugen's Story" in V. The eponymous character Kurt Mondaugen also reappears in Gravity's Rainbow. Some early reviewers even suggested that Gravity's Rainbow was a sequel to Pynchon's first novel, playing on the term "V-2". In Gravity's Rainbow, Clayton "Bloody" Chiclitz is a toy manufacturer accompanying Major Marvy, but he appeared later as a defense contract magnate in The Crying of Lot 49, and his company. Yoyodyne, was introduced in V. Pig Bodine also appeared in V. but had his origin in Pynchon's early short story "Low-Lands." Bodine or variants on his name and character also appear in later Pynchon novels. A very minor character in Gravity's Rainbow, Ronald Cherrycoke, would seem to be a descendant of the Reverend Wicks Cherrycoke, who narrates Pynchon's later novel Mason & Dixon. Cultural influence The novel is regarded by many scholars as the greatest American novel published after the end of the Second World War, and is "often considered as the postmodern novel, redefining both postmodernism and the novel in general". Literary scholar Tony Tanner has hailed it as "both one of the great historical novels of our time and arguably the most important literary text since Ulysses." Though the book won the National Book Award for 1974, Pynchon chose neither to accept nor acknowledge this award. Thomas Guinzberg of the Viking Press suggested that the comedian "Professor" Irwin Corey accept the award on his behalf. Pynchon agreed, which led to one of the most unusual acceptance speeches of all time, complete with a streaker crossing the stage in the middle of Corey's musings. Gravity's Rainbow has been translated to many languages, including French (as Rainbow, 1975), Spanish (as El arco iris de la gravedad, 1978) and German (as Die Enden der Parabel, 1981). Episodes of the novel have been translated to Japanese. Gravity's Rainbow was translated into German by Nobel laureate Elfriede Jelinek, and some critics think that it has had a large influence on Jelinek's own writing. Adaptations According to Robert Bramkamp's docudrama about the V2 and Gravity's Rainbow, entitled Prüfstand VII, the BBC initiated a project to produce a film adaptation of Gravity's Rainbow between 1994 and 1997. Some unfinished footage is included in Bramkamp's film. The Bramkamp movie includes other dramatized sequences from the novel as well, while the main focus is on Peenemünde and the V2. The 2011 film Impolex by Alex Ross Perry is loosely inspired by Gravity's Rainbow, the title referring to the fictional polymer Imipolex G used to condition Slothrop in the novel. To commemorate 75 years since the end of World War II, in 2019, German public radio broadcasters SWR 2 and Deutschlandfunk produced a 14-hour radio play in German language which was aired in April 2020. Music The lyrics of Devo's song "Whip It" were inspired by Gravity's Rainbow parodies of limericks and poems; Gerald Casale specified: The lyrics were written by me as an imitation of Thomas Pynchon's parodies in his book Gravity's Rainbow. He had parodied limericks and poems of kind of all-American, obsessive, cult of personality ideas like Horatio Alger and "You're #1, there's nobody else like you" kind of poems that were very funny and very clever. I thought, "I'd like to do one like Thomas Pynchon," so I wrote down "Whip It" one night. The novel inspired the 1984 song "Gravity's Angel" by Laurie Anderson. In her 2004 autobiographical performance The End of the Moon, Anderson said she once contacted Pynchon asking permission to adapt Gravity's Rainbow as an opera. Pynchon replied that he would allow her to do so only if the opera was written for a single instrument: the banjo. Anderson said she took that as a polite "no." German avant-rock group Cassiber incorporated texts from the novel in their 1990 album A Face We All Know. The use of the texts was cleared with Pynchon's agent. "Gravity's Rainbow" is a song by the British band Klaxons, from the album Myths of the Near Future (2007). Pat Benatar also released an album called Gravity's Rainbow after reading Thomas Pynchon's novel. American progressive rock group Coheed and Cambria's song "Gravity's Union", from their science fiction concept album The Afterman: Descension (2013), is named in honor of the novel. Canadian experimental rock group Rei dos Leitoes's song "Silent on the Island" (2010) incorporates themes from Gravity's Rainbow in its second and fourth Verse passages. David Lowery of the American alternative rock group Camper Van Beethoven cites Gravity's Rainbow as an inspiration for the song "All Her Favorite Fruit" (1989). The group TV Girl's song "Taking What's Not Yours" references having left Gravity's Rainbow at an ex-girlfriend's apartment. British punk/new wave band The Paranoids released 'Theme From Gravity's Rainbow' as the 'B' side to 'The Love Job' (Hurricane Records (2) – FIRE 14 1980) with a lyric inspired by the novel. Produced by Roy Wood. American Rock Band The Used released a song sharing the same title as part of their 2020 Album Heartwork. Bert McCracken, the band's lead singer, said that Gravity's Rainbow is one of his favorite books of all time. Art New York artist Zak Smith created a series of 760 drawings entitled, One Picture for Every Page of Thomas Pynchon's Novel "Gravity's Rainbow", also known by the title Pictures of What Happens on Each Page of Thomas Pynchon's Novel "Gravity's Rainbow". Occupying eleven rows and over eleven meters of wall space, the drawings attempt to illustrate, as literally as possible, every page of the book. The piece includes palm trees, shoes, stuffed toys, a lemon meringue pie, Richard Nixon, Sigmund Freud, an iron toad wired to an electric battery, a dominatrix, and other images from the novel. The series had a successful reception at New York's 2004 Whitney Biennial event, and was described "as a tour de force of sketching and concept" (Abbe 2004). In November 2006, Tin House Books published, Pictures Showing What Happens on Each Page of Thomas Pynchon's Novel "Gravity's Rainbow", the book of Smith's Gravity's Rainbow drawings . In 1999 a painting by the American artist Fred Tomaselli, inspired by the novel and titled Gravity's Rainbow (Large), was added to the permanent collection at the Whitney Museum of Art in New York City. Film Benoit Blanc, a character in the 2019 American film Knives Out, references Gravity's Rainbow before admitting that he had not read it and only name-dropped it to give himself gravitas. In an early scene in the 1988 American film Miracle Mile, written and directed by Steve De Jarnatt, a character played by Denise Crosby takes what appears to be a copy of a (fictional) study guide, Cliff's Notes: Gravity's Rainbow, out of a briefcase and studies it for a short time. The film deals with the reaction of characters to an impending nuclear missile attack. Video games Speaking about his video game The Witness, director Jonathan Blow said "I want to make games for people who like to read Gravity's Rainbow". He later elaborated: Gravity's Rainbow is a very free book in a certain way. It doesn't care if you're following along exactly. It has a certain freedom and joy to it while also being pretty dark a lot of the time. I can't think of a game that has managed this emotional pan-spectrality of being very joyful and playful while simultaneously being bleak. See also Cosmic bomb (phrase) Little Albert experiment Hysterical realism Metafiction Postmodern literature Further reading Reprinted in References Notes Sources Almansi, Guido, L'estetica dell'osceno, Madrid: Akal, 1977, (in Spanish) Booker, M. Keith, Techniques of Subversion in Modern Literature: Transgression, Abjection, and the Carnivalesque, University Press of Florida, 1991, Konzett, Matthias and Margarete Lamb-Faffelberger, Elfriede Jelinek: writing woman, nation, and identity: a critical anthology, Madison NJ, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2007, Levine, George Lewis, Mindful pleasures: essays on Thomas Pynchon, Boston: Little, Brown, 1976, Moore, Thomas, The style of connectedness: Gravity's rainbow and Thomas Pynchon, Columbia: University of Missouri Press, 1987, Pöhlmann, Sascha, "Gravity's Rainbow". The Literary Encyclopedia. First published 24 October 2006.accessed 17 March 2013. Schwab, Gabriele, Subjects Without Selves: Transitional Texts in Modern Fiction, Harvard University Press,1994, Tanner, Tony, Thomas Pynchon, London and New York: Methuen, 1982, Weisenburger, Steven, A Gravity's Rainbow Companion, University of Georgia Press, 1988, External links A Gravity's Rainbow Companion by Steven Weisenburger Gravity's Rainbow episodes at the Pynchon in Public Podcast Gravity's Rainbow Cover Art Over Time @ ThomasPynchon.com Gravity's Rainbow Wiki @ PynchonWiki.com Gravity's Rainbow review by Ted Gioia (Conceptual Fiction) "How to Identify a Gravity’s Rainbow First Edition: Hardcover and Paperback" A PDF map of how characters connect to each other in Gravity's Rainbow. 1973 American novels American satirical novels American science fiction novels BDSM literature National Book Award for Fiction winning works Novels about Nazis Novels about drugs Novels about ephebophilia Novels by Thomas Pynchon Novels with gay themes Pedophilia in literature Postmodern novels 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255509	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jacques%20Brault	Jacques Brault	Jacques Brault (born 29 March 1933) is a French Canadian poet and translator who lives in Cowansville, Quebec, Canada. He was born to a poor family, but received an excellent education at the Université de Montréal and at the Sorbonne in Paris. He became a professor at the Université de Montréal, in the Département d'études françaises and the Institut des sciences médiévales, and made frequent appearances as a cultural commentator on Radio-Canada. Jacques Brault's extensive body of writings includes work of outstanding merit in most literary genres. He is the author of plays, novels and works of short fiction, translations and several seminal works of Canadian literary criticism. However, it is primarily for his work as a poet that Jacques Brault is admired by readers and known outside of Canada. Works Mémoire – 1965 Allain Grandbois: poètes d'aujourd'hui — 1968 La poésie ce matin — 1971 Trois partitions — 1972 L'en dessous l'admirable — 1975 (translated into English as Within the Mystery) Poèmes des quatre côtes — 1975 Agonie — 1984 Moments fragiles — 1984 (translated into English as Fragile Moments) Poèmes — 1986 La poussière du chemin — 1989 Il n'y a plus de chemin — 1990 (translated into English as On the Road No More) Lac noire Ô saisons, ô châteaux — 1991 Au petit matin — 1993 Chemin faisan — 1995 Au fonds du jardin — accompagnements — 1996 Au bras des ombres — 1997 Accolades Québec-Paris award, for Mé', in 1968 Governor General's Award for Quand nous serons heureux, in 1970 for Agonie, in 1985 for his translation of the collection of poems Transfiguration by E.D Blodgett, in 1999 Prix Alain-Grandbois, for Il n'y a plus de chemin'', in 1991 Ludger-Duvernay Prize (1978) Prix Athanase-David (1986) Prix Gilles-Corbeil (1996) See also List of French Canadian writers List of Quebec authors References "Jacques Brault" in Canadian Writers, an examination of archival manuscripts, typescripts, correspondence, journals and notebooks at Library and Archives Canada Footnotes External links Critical bibliography on Jacques Brault's works (Auteurs.contemporain.info) Jacques Brault's entry in The Canadian Encyclopedia Fonds Jacques Bault (R11714) at Library and Archives Canada 1933 births Living people University of Paris alumni People from Cowansville Canadian poets in French Governor General's Award-winning fiction writers Governor General's Award-winning translators Prix Alain-Grandbois Prix Athanase-David winners 20th-century Canadian poets 20th-century Canadian male writers Canadian male poets 20th-century Canadian translators Writers from Quebec Canadian expatriates in France	[ -0.20595823228359222, 0.8753403425216675, -0.5947642922401428, -0.598845362663269, -0.49081501364707947, 0.8221603035926819, 0.7873910665512085, 0.3037984073162079, 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255511	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mount%20Dana	Mount Dana	Mount Dana is a mountain in the U.S. state of California. Its summit marks the eastern boundary of Yosemite National Park and the western boundary of the Ansel Adams Wilderness. At an elevation of , it is the second highest mountain in Yosemite (after Mount Lyell), and the northernmost summit in the Sierra Nevada which is over in elevation. Mount Dana is the highest peak in Yosemite that is a simple hike to the summit. The mountain is named in honor of James Dwight Dana, who was a professor of natural history and geology at Yale. Mount Dana is composed of prebatholithic rock that is mostly reddish metamorphic rock, which was composed by metavolcanics of surfacing magma from the Mesozoic Era. Mount Dana's northern face includes a small, receding glacier known as the Dana Glacier. The Dana Meadows lie at the foot of the mountain. From the top, lakes throughout Dana Meadows, Mono Lake, Tioga Peak and many other mountains are in view. Hike From the Tioga Pass Road there are many easy routes. (), available that lead to the summit along the mountain's western or southern slopes. These routes rise in elevation in , (a 20.3% average grade). The trail is not frequently maintained. There is a clearly marked path leading just above tree line. After topping a ridge, a set of use-paths and ducked routes are present, with the main path running along the easterly ridgeline. Additionally, numerous alternate trail segments begin and end at various points on the southwestern face, making parts of this hike a difficult class 2. The path segments turn into scree toward the summit, where a shallow stone-walled shelter and register are found. Significant snow fields on the mountain slopes can exist late into the summer season. Total round trip hiking time can be anywhere between 3 and 12 hours depending many factors, such as acclimatization to elevation. After reaching a plateau above the tree line, almost all vegetation disappears with the exception of lichen and a few high alpine Sky Pilot (Polemonium eximium). Fauna are largely limited to spiders and insects, such as black/brown grasshoppers. The only mammals other than humans are marmots and American Pikas which are lagomorphs related to rabbits. Thunderstorms are known to arise suddenly, making the rocks slippery, and the hiking dangerous year round. Even experienced hikers can face altitude sickness, due to the high elevation. References External links Mountains of Yosemite National Park Mountains of the Ansel Adams Wilderness Mountains of Mono County, California Mountains of Tuolumne County, California Mountains of Northern California	[ -0.08876907825469971, 0.7314760088920593, -0.2994881570339203, -0.3647007346153259, -0.39672088623046875, 0.5778800249099731, 0.4620862305164337, 0.08468367904424667, -0.09346750378608704, -0.17696131765842438, 0.17330294847488403, 0.02530471608042717, -0.44987115263938904, 0.6794655323028564, -0.6188871264457703, 0.20401990413665771, -0.260463684797287, 0.22048355638980865, -0.11657305806875229, -0.17022670805454254, 0.2293064445257187, -0.7105695605278015, 0.09719479829072952, -0.4983825385570526, -0.28422415256500244, 0.2872612178325653, 0.42093774676322937, 0.7455829977989197, 0.3613361120223999, 0.3014727532863617, -0.47145336866378784, 0.29341334104537964, 0.19750317931175232, -0.4490501582622528, 0.21933841705322266, 0.07670188695192337, 0.26227885484695435, 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255514	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Religious%20art	Religious art	Religious art is artistic imagery using religious inspiration and motifs and is often intended to uplift the mind to the spiritual. Sacred art involves the ritual and cultic practices and practical and operative aspects of the path of the spiritual realization within the artist's religious tradition. Buddhist art Buddhist art originated on the Indian subcontinent following the historical life of Siddhartha Gautama, 6th to 5th century BC, and thereafter evolved by contact with other cultures as it spread throughout Asia and the world. Buddhist art followed believers as the dharma spread, adapted, and evolved in each new host country. It developed to the north through Central Asia and into Eastern Asia to form the Northern branch of Buddhist art. Buddhist art followed to the east as far as Southeast Asia to form the Southern branch of Buddhist art. In India, the Buddhist art flourished and even influenced the development of Hindu art, until Buddhism nearly disappeared in India around the 10th century due in part to the vigorous expansion of Islam alongside Hinduism. Tibetan Buddhist art Most Tibetan Buddhist artforms are related to the practice of Vajrayana or Buddhist tantra. Tibetan art includes thangkas and mandalas, often including depictions of Buddhas and bodhisattvas. Creation of Buddhist art is usually done as a meditation as well as creating an object as aid to meditation. An example of this is the creation of a sand mandala by monks; before and after the construction prayers are recited, and the form of the mandala represents the pure surroundings (palace) of a Buddha on which is meditated to train the mind. The work is rarely, if ever, signed by the artist. Other Tibetan Buddhist art includes metal ritual objects, such as the vajra and the phurba. Indian Buddhist art Two places suggest more vividly than any others the vitality of Buddhist cave painting from about the 5th century AD. One is Ajanta, a site in India long forgotten until discovered in 1817. The other is Dunhuang, one of the great oasis staging posts on the Silk Road...The paintings range from calm devotional images of the Buddha to lively and crowded scenes, often featuring the seductively full-breasted and narrow-waisted women more familiar in Indian sculpture than in painting. Christian art Christian sacred art is produced in an attempt to illustrate, supplement and portray in tangible form the principles of Christianity, though other definitions are possible. It is to make imagery of the different beliefs in the world and what it looks like. Most Christian groups use or have used art to some extent, although some have had strong objections to some forms of religious image, and there have been major periods of iconoclasm within Christianity. Most Christian art is allusive, or built around themes familiar to the intended observer. Images of Jesus and narrative scenes from the Life of Christ are the most common subjects, especially the images of Christ on the Cross. Scenes from the Old Testament play a part in the art of most Christian denominations. Images of the Virgin Mary, holding the infant Jesus, and images of saints are much rarer in Protestant art than that of Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy. For the benefit of the illiterate, an elaborate iconographic system developed to conclusively identify scenes. For example, Saint Agnes depicted with a lamb, Saint Peter with keys, Saint Patrick with a shamrock. Each saint holds or is associated with attributes and symbols in sacred art. History Early Christian art survives from dates near the origins of Christianity. The oldest surviving Christian paintings are from the site at Megiddo, dated to around the year 70, and the oldest Christian sculptures are from sarcophagi, dating to the beginning of the 2nd century. Until the adoption of Christianity by Constantine Christian art derived its style and much of its iconography from popular Roman art, but from this point grand Christian buildings built under imperial patronage brought a need for Christian versions of Roman elite and official art, of which mosaics in churches in Rome are the most prominent surviving examples. During the development of early Christian art in the Byzantine empire (see Byzantine art), a more abstract aesthetic replaced the naturalism previously established in Hellenistic art. This new style was hieratic, meaning its primary purpose was to convey religious meaning rather than accurately render objects and people. Realistic perspective, proportions, light and colour were ignored in favour of geometric simplification of forms, reverse perspective and standardized conventions to portray individuals and events. The controversy over the use of graven images, the interpretation of the Second Commandment, and the crisis of Byzantine Iconoclasm led to a standardization of religious imagery within the Eastern Orthodoxy. The Renaissance saw an increase in monumental secular works, but until the Protestant Reformation Christian art continued to be produced in great quantities, both for churches and clergy and for the laity. During this time, Michelangelo Buonarroti painted the Sistine Chapel and carved the famous Pietà, Gianlorenzo Bernini created the massive columns in St. Peter's Basilica, and Leonardo da Vinci painted the Last Supper. The Reformation had a huge effect on Christian art, rapidly bringing the production of public Christian art to a virtual halt in Protestant countries, and causing the destruction of most of the art that already existed. As a secular, non-sectarian, universal notion of art arose in 19th-century Western Europe, secular artists occasionally treated Christian themes (Bouguereau, Manet). Only rarely was a Christian artist included in the historical canon (such as Rouault or Stanley Spencer). However many modern artists such as Eric Gill, Marc Chagall, Henri Matisse, Jacob Epstein, Elisabeth Frink and Graham Sutherland have produced well-known works of art for churches. Through a social interpretation of Christianity, Fritz von Uhde also revived the interest in sacred art, through the depiction of Jesus in ordinary places in life. Since the advent of printing, the sale of reproductions of pious works has been a major element of popular Christian culture. In the 19th century, this included genre painters such as Mihály Munkácsy. The invention of color lithography led to broad circulation of holy cards. In the modern era, companies specializing in modern commercial Christian artists such as Thomas Blackshear and Thomas Kinkade, although widely regarded in the fine art world as kitsch, have been very successful. The last part of the 20th and the first part of the 21st century have seen a focused effort by artists who claim faith in Christ to re-establish art with themes that revolve around faith, Christ, God, the Church, the Bible and other classic Christian themes as worthy of respect by the secular art world. Artists such as Makoto Fujimura have had significant influence both in sacred and secular arts. Other notable artists include Larry D. Alexander, Gary P. Bergel, Carlos Cazares, Bruce Herman, Deborah Sokolove, and John August Swanson. Confucian art Confucian art is art inspired by the writings of Confucius, and Confucian teachings. Confucian art originated in China, then spread westwards on the Silk road, southward down to southern China and then onto Southeast Asia, and eastwards through northern China on to Japan and Korea. While it still maintains a strong influence within Indonesia, Confucian influence on western art has been limited. While Confucian themes enjoyed representation in Chinese art centers, they are fewer in comparison to the number of artworks that are about or influenced by Daoism and Buddhism. Hindu art Hinduism, with its 1 billion followers, it makes up about 15% of the world's population and as such the culture that ensues it is full of different aspects of life that are effected by art. There are 64 traditional arts that are followed that start with the classics of music and range all the way to the application and adornment of jewellery. Since religion and culture are inseparable with Hinduism recurring symbols such as the gods and their reincarnations, the lotus flower, extra limbs, and even the traditional arts make their appearances in many sculptures, paintings, music, and dance. Islamic art A prohibition against depicting representational images in religious art, as well as the naturally decorative nature of Arabic script, led to the use of calligraphic nuni minimi minimumdecorations, which usually involved repeating geometrical patterns and vegetal forms (arabesques) that expressed ideals of order and nature. These were used on religious architecture, carpets, and handwritten documents. Islamic art has reflected this balanced, harmonious world-view. It focuses on spiritual essence rather than physical form. While there has been an aversion to potential idol worship through Islamic history, this is a distinctly modern Sunni view. Persian miniatures, along with medieval depictions of Muhammad and angels in Islam, stand as prominent examples contrary to the modern Sunni tradition. Also, Shi'a Muslims are much less averse to the depiction of figures, including the Prophet's as long as the depiction is respectful. Figure representation The Islamic resistance to the representation of living beings ultimately stems from the belief that the creation of living forms is unique to God. It is for this reason that the role of images and image makers has been controversial. The strongest statements on the subject of figural depiction are made in the Hadith (Traditions of the Prophet), where painters are challenged to "breathe life" into their creations and threatened with punishment on the Day of Judgment. The Qur'an is less specific but condemns idolatry and uses the Arabic term musawwir ("maker of forms", or artist) as an epithet for God. Partially as a result of this religious sentiment, figures in painting were often stylized and, in some cases, the destruction of figurative artworks occurred. Iconoclasm was previously known in the Byzantine period and aniconicism was a feature of the Judaic world, thus placing the Islamic objection to figurative representations within a larger context. As ornament, however, figures were largely devoid of any larger significance and perhaps therefore posed less challenge. As with other forms of Islamic ornamentation, artists freely adapted and stylized basic human and animal forms, giving rise to a great variety of figural-based designs. Arabesque Calligraphy Calligraphy is a highly regarded element of Islamic art. The Qur'an was transmitted in Arabic, and inherent within the Arabic script is the potential for ornamental forms. The employment of calligraphy as ornament had a definite aesthetic appeal but often also included an underlying talismanic component. While most works of art had legible inscriptions, not all Muslims would have been able to read them. One should always keep in mind, however, that calligraphy is principally a means to transmit a text, albeit in a decorative form. From its simple and primitive early examples of the 5th and 6th century AD, the Arabic alphabet developed rapidly after the rise of Islam in the 7th century into a beautiful form of art. The main two families of calligraphic styles were the dry styles, called generally the Kufic, and the soft cursive styles, which include Naskhi, Thuluth, Nastaliq and many others. Geometry Geometric patterns make up one of the three nonfigural types of decoration in Islamic art. Whether isolated or used in combination with nonfigural ornamentation or figural representation, geometric patterns are popularly associated with Islamic art, largely due to their aniconic quality. These abstract designs not only adorn the surfaces of monumental Islamic architecture but also function as the major decorative element on a vast array of objects of all types. Jain art Jain art refers to religious works of art associated with Jainism. Even though Jainism spread only in some parts of India, it has made a significant contribution to Indian art and architecture. Sikhism art The art, culture, identity and societies of the Sikhs has been merged with different locality and ethnicity of different Sikhs into categories such as 'Agrahari Sikhs', 'Dakhni Sikhs' and 'Assamese Sikhs'; however there has emerged a niche cultural phenomenon that can be described as 'Political Sikh'. The art of diaspora Sikhs such as Amarjeet Kaur Nandhra, and Amrit and Rabindra Kaur Singh (The Singh Twins), is partly informed by their Sikh spirituality and influence. Taoist art Taoist Art (also spelled as Daoist art) relates to the Taoist philosophy and narratives of Lao-tzu (also spelled as Laozi) that promote "living simply and honestly and in harmony with nature." See also Religious image Spiritualist art References Further reading Hein, David. “Christianity and the Arts.” The Living Church, May 4, 2014, 8–11. Morgan, David (1998). Visual Piety: A History and Theory of Popular Religious Images. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. Sauchelli, Andrea (2016). The Will to Make‐Believe: Religious Fictionalism, Religious Beliefs, and the Value of Art. Philosophy and Phenomenological Research, 93, 3. Charlene Spretnak, The Spiritual Dynamic in Modern Art : Art History Reconsidered, 1800 to the Present. Veith, Gene Edward, junior. The Gift of Art: the Place of the Arts in Scripture. Downers Grove, Ill.: Inter-Varsity Press, 1983. 130 p. 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255515	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Warren%20Defever	Warren Defever	Warren Defever (first name often spelled Warn; born April 30, 1969) is a musician and producer, originally from Livonia, Michigan, and now based in Detroit. He is most known for his chameleonic project His Name Is Alive, though he is active in numerous other circles. He produced, engineered, and/or remixed recordings by Iggy and the Stooges, Easy Action, Low, Ida, Michael Hurley, Califone, Yoko Ono, Thurston Moore, the Gories, the Go, Nomo, Saturday Looks Good to Me, Ethan Daniel Davidson, Faruq Z. Bey, the Von Bondies, Reba Fritz, Destroy All Monsters, Jenny Toomey, Slumber Party, John Sinclair, Elizabeth Mitchell, and Lisa Loeb, as well as HNIA offshoot Velour 100. Defever was raised in a strict religious household, along with his brothers, Johnny and Matt. He grew up a music fan. His grandfather was a musician from Saskatchewan and had taught Warren and his brothers how to play various musical instruments. Defever began recording while still in high school, and toured as the bassist of psychobilly rock band Elvis Hitler. For many years, Defever recorded in the basement of his parents' house, which he later bought from them. Around the same time His Name Is Alive was departing from 4AD Records, Defever opened his own recording studio, Brown Rice, in the Detroit area. Along with Davin Brainard, Defever runs a home record label, timeSTEREO. In 2007, Defever opened The UFO Factory, a new studio in Detroit. Everything inside was painted silver, including the piano. References External links timeSTEREO His Name Is Alive UFO FACTORY 1969 births Living people Eastern Michigan University alumni Musicians from Detroit People from Livonia, Michigan Record producers from Michigan	[ 0.5752828121185303, 0.6250108480453491, -0.38915780186653137, -0.1399228274822235, 0.13275456428527832, 0.5000579953193665, 0.49608081579208374, -0.2954866886138916, -0.027722997590899467, -0.23009073734283447, 0.09035158902406693, 0.5635663270950317, -0.0730275809764862, 0.12804897129535675, -0.1615970879793167, 0.19985368847846985, 0.01641814410686493, -0.020347006618976593, -0.06378244608640671, 0.03191083297133446, -0.18900063633918762, -0.27174627780914307, 0.26199668645858765, 0.378295361995697, -0.2520379424095154, 0.9596864581108093, -0.5023618936538696, -0.09312419593334198, -0.10695254057645798, -0.13112907111644745, 0.27586403489112854, 0.5567243695259094, 0.7021481990814209, -1.2603713274002075, 0.04360666126012802, 0.6603026390075684, -0.44865772128105164, 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255517	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/LDraw	LDraw	LDraw is a system of freeware tools for modeling Lego creations in 3D on a computer. The LDraw file format and original program were written by James Jessiman, although the file format has since evolved and extended. He also modeled many of the original parts in the parts library, which is under continuous maintenance and extension by the LDraw community. Following Jessiman's death in 1997, a variety of programs have been written that use the LDraw parts library, and file format. LDraw models are frequently rendered in POV-Ray or Blender, free 3D ray tracers. File format The LDraw format can divide a model into steps so that the building instructions can be incorporated into the design, and also allows for steps that rotate the camera and even move parts around in an elementary fashion. It also allows for models to be incorporated in the construction of larger models to make design easier. This also makes the file format space efficient: instead of specifying the polygons of every single stud of a specific brick for example, a shared stud file is included multiple times with transformation applied. Parts, models, sub-models and polygons are all treated the same and are not specific to Lego models (only the parts library is). The format could be used to store any type of 3D model. Some have created bricks of other building systems for use with LDraw. The following main three filename extensions are used by LDraw: files implementing a part, subpart or primitive use .dat a Lego model consisting of 1 or more bricks use .ldr multiple .ldr files can be aggregated into files of type .mpd The file format uses plain text data, and uses the charset UTF-8 without BOM. Example File: 3003.dat, the Implementation of a 2 x 2 Brick 0 Brick 2 x 2 0 Name: 3003.dat 0 Author: James Jessiman 0 !LDRAW_ORG Part UPDATE 2002-03 0 !LICENSE Redistributable under CCAL version 2.0 : see CAreadme.txt 0 BFC CERTIFY CCW 0 !HISTORY 2001-10-26 [PTadmin] Official Update 2001-01 0 !HISTORY 2002-05-07 [unknown] BFC Certification 0 !HISTORY 2002-06-11 [PTadmin] Official Update 2002-03 0 !HISTORY 2007-05-07 [PTadmin] Header formatted for Contributor Agreement 0 !HISTORY 2008-07-01 [PTadmin] Official Update 2008-01 1 16 0 4 0 1 0 0 0 -5 0 0 0 1 stud4.dat 0 BFC INVERTNEXT 1 16 0 24 0 16 0 0 0 -20 0 0 0 16 box5.dat 4 16 20 24 20 16 24 16 -16 24 16 -20 24 20 4 16 -20 24 20 -16 24 16 -16 24 -16 -20 24 -20 4 16 -20 24 -20 -16 24 -16 16 24 -16 20 24 -20 4 16 20 24 -20 16 24 -16 16 24 16 20 24 20 1 16 0 24 0 20 0 0 0 -24 0 0 0 20 box5.dat 1 16 10 0 10 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 stud.dat 1 16 -10 0 10 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 stud.dat 1 16 10 0 -10 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 stud.dat 1 16 -10 0 -10 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 stud.dat The above code defines the basic 2×2 brick. It consists of a five-sided box (box5.dat, outside) and an inverted five-sided box (inside), the connection between those two, consisting of four quads (the four lines starting with 4), the four studs on top of it (stud.dat) and the long hollow stud in the inside (stud4.dat). All lines in an LDraw file are either empty or start with a command number, where 0 means no command (though over time, some lines starting with 0 followed by specific text in capitals also got a meaning as meta commands). The command 1 for example includes a subfile. It specifies the file's path and a transformation matrix that should be applied to it, as well as its color (where 16 means "use the color that was used when including the current file"). Command 4 specifies a four-sided polygon. There are also commands that define 2D lines. Such lines give the parts a clear contour even in non-shaded orthographic renderings. Example File: pyramid.ldr, a Lego Model of a Pyramid The following code specifies a simple pyramid model with three layers made of 2 x 4 bricks (brick # 3001) with changing color and a 2 x 2 brick on top. 0 Example Pyramid for Demonstration of LDRAW Library 0 Name: pyramid.ldr 0 Author: James Jessiman 1 1 -40 -24 60 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 3001.dat 1 1 40 -24 60 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 3001.dat 1 1 60 -24 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 -1 0 0 3001.dat 1 1 40 -24 -60 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 3001.dat 1 1 -40 -24 -60 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 3001.dat 1 1 -60 -24 0 0 0 1 0 1 0 -1 0 0 3001.dat 0 STEP 1 4 -20 -48 40 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 3001.dat 1 4 40 -48 20 0 0 1 0 1 0 -1 0 0 3001.dat 1 4 20 -48 -40 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 3001.dat 1 4 -40 -48 -20 0 0 1 0 1 0 -1 0 0 3001.dat 0 STEP 1 14 0 -72 20 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 3001.dat 1 14 0 -72 -20 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 3001.dat 0 STEP 1 0 0 -96 0 1 0 0 0 1 0 0 0 1 3003.dat 0 STEP Other examples Peeron parts The Lego set and parts database hosted at the website peeron.com lists parts available as 3D CAD models in the LDraw parts library, with correctly colored images rendered from these models. The Peeron and LDraw teams work together to clarify unclear part numbers, colors and names, sometimes using information provided by The Lego Group. See also Lego Digital Designer MLCAD References Further reading External links Lego 3D graphics software	[ -0.04500899091362953, 0.015423825941979885, 0.030024688690900803, 0.28287559747695923, -0.1390528827905655, -0.3283770680427551, -0.3112722635269165, -0.05430188030004501, -0.24409818649291992, -0.16087958216667175, -0.21206210553646088, 0.55888831615448, -0.30340954661369324, 0.017762811854481697, -0.20318147540092468, 0.06844499707221985, -0.22636550664901733, 0.32927432656288147, -0.25955063104629517, -0.31867480278015137, 0.19994154572486877, -0.9549565315246582, 0.01328790932893753, -0.4267326593399048, -0.38427862524986267, 0.02007201686501503, 0.5380054712295532, 0.60791015625, -0.41934993863105774, 0.230192169547081, 0.03811274841427803, 0.6071884036064148, -0.20562045276165009, -0.8473526835441589, -0.30426642298698425, 0.22618377208709717, -0.4441748559474945, 0.11934496462345123, -0.10690083354711533, -0.711821436882019, 0.49541980028152466, 0.023795651271939278, 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255518	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piculet	Piculet	The piculets are a distinctive subfamily, Picumninae, of small woodpeckers which occur mainly in tropical South America, with just three Asian and one African species. Like the true woodpeckers, piculets have large heads, long tongues which they use to extract their insect prey and zygodactyl feet, with two toes pointing forward, and two backwards. However, they lack the stiff tail feathers that the true woodpeckers use when climbing trees, so they are more likely than their relatives to perch on a branch rather than an upright trunk. Their bills are shorter and less dagger-like than the true woodpeckers, so they look for insects and grubs mainly in decaying wood. Similarly, they re-use woodpecker holes for nesting, rather than making their own holes. The eggs are white, as with many hole nesters. Typically these birds have grey or dull green upperparts and dark-streaked white underparts. Systematics and evolution Although not well known from fossils, the evolution of piculets is now considered rather straightforward. The disjunct occurrence of the genera, with one African species of the Southeast Asian Sasia and one Southeast Asian species of the American Picumnus is of comparatively recent origin. Molecular dating, calibrated with geographic events in the absence of a good fossil record, points at the Late Miocene, c. 8 MYA, as the point where the two genera divided into their two respective lineages. At that time, there was a notable global cooling period. The molecular distances between piculets and woodpeckers are comparatively small for subfamilies, agreeing with the hypothesis that the split between the three groups of woodpecker-like picids subfamilies occurred only during the Miocene climatic optimum, around 15 MYA. The later radiation of South American piculets is probably due to changes in topology and climate fluctuations during the Pliocene and Pleistocene. The genus Verreauxia may be accepted because of pronounced morphological similarities, but the two Picumnus lineages, despite having diverged long ago, are virtually alike except for head coloration (Fuchs et al., 2006). The Antillean piculet (Nesoctites micromegas) has proven to be a very distinct species evolutionarily between piculets and woodpeckers (Benz et al., 2006) and thus is nowadays placed in a subfamily of its own. The arrangement of species in the genera follows del Hoyo et al. (2002). Genus Picumnus Speckled piculet, Picumnus innominatus (sometimes Vivia) Bar-breasted piculet, Picumnus aurifrons Orinoco piculet, Picumnus pumilus Lafresnaye's piculet, Picumnus lafresnayi Golden-spangled piculet, Picumnus exilis Black-dotted piculet, Picumnus nigropunctatus Ecuadorian piculet, Picumnus sclateri Scaled piculet, Picumnus squamulatus White-bellied piculet, Picumnus spilogaster Arrowhead piculet, Picumnus minutissimus Spotted piculet, Picumnus pygmaeus Speckle-chested piculet, Picumnus steindachneri Varzea piculet, Picumnus varzeae White-barred piculet, Picumnus cirratus Ocellated piculet, Picumnus dorbygnianus Ochre-collared piculet, Picumnus temminckii White-wedged piculet, Picumnus albosquamatus Rusty-necked piculet, Picumnus fuscus Rufous-breasted piculet, Picumnus rufiventris Ochraceous piculet, Picumnus limae Mottled piculet, Picumnus nebulosus Plain-breasted piculet, Picumnus castelnau Fine-barred piculet, Picumnus subtilis Olivaceous piculet, Picumnus olivaceus Greyish piculet, Picumnus granadensis Chestnut piculet, Picumnus cinnamomeus Genus Sasia African piculet, Sasia africana (sometimes put under Verreauxia) Rufous piculet, Sasia abnormis White-browed piculet, Sasia ochracea References Benz, Brett W.; Robbins, Mark B. & Peterson, A. Townsend (2006) Evolutionary history of woodpeckers and allies (Aves: Picidae): Placing key taxa on the phylogenetic tree. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 40: 389–399. (HTML abstract) del Hoyo, J.; Elliott, A. & Sargatal, J. (editors) (2002): Handbook of Birds of the World, Volume 7: Jacamars to Woodpeckers. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona. Fuchs, J.; Ohlson, J. I.; Ericson, Per G. P. & Pasquet, E. (2006): Molecular phylogeny and biogeographic history of the piculets (Piciformes: Picumninae). Journal of Avian Biology 37'(5): 487–496. 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255519	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Doyle%20Brunson	Doyle Brunson	Doyle F. Brunson (born August 10, 1933) is a retired American poker player who played professionally for over 50 years. He is a two-time World Series of Poker (WSOP) Main Event champion, a Poker Hall of Fame inductee, and the author of several books on poker. Brunson was the first player to win $1 million in poker tournaments. He has won ten WSOP bracelets throughout his career, tied with Johnny Chan and Phil Ivey for second all-time, behind Phil Hellmuth's sixteen bracelets. He is also one of only four players to have won the Main Event at the World Series of Poker multiple times, which he did in 1976 and 1977. He is also one of only three players, along with Bill Boyd and Loren Klein, to have won WSOP tournaments in four consecutive years. In addition, he is the first of six players to win both the WSOP Main Event and a World Poker Tour title. In January 2006, Bluff Magazine voted Brunson the most influential force in the world of poker. On June 11, 2018, Brunson announced he was retiring from tournament poker that summer. That day, he entered the $10,000 2–7 Single Draw at the 2018 WSOP. He made the final table and finished in sixth place, earning $43,963. Early life Brunson was born in Longworth, Fisher County, Texas, one of three children. He was part of the All-State Texas basketball team. In the 1950 Texas Interscholastic Track Meet, he won the one-mile event with a time of 4:43. Despite receiving offers from many colleges, he attended Hardin–Simmons University in Abilene, Texas. The Minneapolis Lakers of the NBA showed interest in Brunson but a knee injury ended his hopes of becoming a professional basketball player. He still occasionally requires a crutch because of the injury and has said that breaking his leg ruined his lifetime dream of playing in the NBA. Brunson obtained a bachelor's degree in 1954 and a master's degree in administrative education the following year. He would go on to work as a school principal. Brunson had begun playing poker before his injury, playing five-card draw. He played more often after being injured and his winnings paid for his expenses. After graduating, he took a job as a business machines salesman. On his first day, he was invited to play in a seven-card stud game and won more than a month's salary. He soon left the company and became a professional poker player. Poker career Brunson started off by playing in illegal games on Exchange Street in Fort Worth with friend Dwayne Hamilton. Eventually, they began traveling around Texas, Oklahoma, and Louisiana, playing in bigger games, and meeting fellow professionals Amarillo Slim and Sailor Roberts. The illegal games Brunson played in during this time were usually run by criminals who were often members of organized crime, so rules were not always enforced. Brunson has admitted to having a gun pulled on him several times and that he was robbed and beaten. Hamilton moved back to Fort Worth, while the others teamed up and travelled around together, gambling on poker, golf and, in Doyle's words, "just about everything." They pooled their money for gambling and after six years, they made their first serious trip to Las Vegas and lost all of it, a six-figure amount. They decided to stop playing as partners, but remained friends. Brunson finally settled in Las Vegas. He has been a regular player at the World Series of Poker since its inception in 1970, playing in the Main Event nearly every year since then, in addition to many of the other preceding bracelet-awarding events. He made some WSOP championship event final tables before his back-to-back wins, but since this was when the event was winner-take-all, they are not counted as cashes. Besides his two championship wins in 1976 and 1977, Brunson's other Main Event cashes are: 1972 (3rd), 1980 (runner-up to three-time Main Event winner Stu Ungar), 1982 (4th), 1983 (3rd), 1997 (16th), 2004 (53rd), and 2013 (409th). Brunson authored Super/System, which is widely considered to be one of the most authoritative books on poker. Originally self-published in 1978, Super/System was the book credited with transforming poker by giving ordinary players insight into the way that professionals such as Brunson played and won, so much so that Brunson believes that it cost him a lot of money. An updated revision, Super/System 2, was published in 2004. Besides Brunson, several top poker players contributed chapters to Super/System including Bobby Baldwin, Mike Caro, David Sklansky, Chip Reese, and Joey Hawthorne. The book is subtitled "How I made one million dollars playing poker," by Doyle Brunson. Brunson is also the author of Poker Wisdom of a Champion, originally published as According to Doyle by Lyle Stuart in 1984. Brunson continued to play in the biggest poker games in the world, including a $4,000/$8,000 limit mixed poker game in "Bobby's Room" at the Bellagio. He also plays in many of the biggest poker tournaments around the world. He won his ninth gold bracelet in a mixed games event in 2003, and in 2004, he finished 53rd (in a field of 2,576) in the No Limit Texas hold 'em Championship event. He won the Legends of Poker World Poker Tour (WPT) event in 2004 (garnering him a $1.1 million prize) and finished fourth in the WPT's first championship event. Early in the morning on July 1, 2005, less than a week after Chan had won his 10th gold bracelet (presented to each WSOP tournament winner) – setting a new record – Brunson tied him at the 2005 WSOP by winning the $5,000 No Limit Shorthanded Texas Hold'em event. He is currently six bracelets behind Phil Hellmuth, who earned his 16th bracelet at the 2021 World Series of Poker. He cashed in the 2013 World Series of Poker $10,000 No Limit Hold'em Championship event, marking the fifth decade he has cashed in the event. As of 2018, his total live tournament winnings exceed $6,100,000. He has totaled over $3,000,000 in earnings from his 37 cashes at the WSOP. Brunson has two Texas hold'em hands named after him. The holding of ten-deuce bears his name because he won the No Limit Hold 'Em event at the World Series of Poker two years in a row with a ten and a two (1976 and 1977 respectively), in both cases completing a full house. In both 1976 and 1977, he was an underdog in the final hand. The other hand known as a "Doyle Brunson", especially in Texas, is the ace and queen of any suit because, as he says on page 519 of Super/System, he "never plays this hand." He changed his wording in Super/System 2, however, noting that he "tries to never play this hand." World Series of Poker bracelets Family life Brunson met his future wife, Louise, in 1959 and married her in August 1962. Louise became pregnant, but later that year, a tumor was discovered in Doyle's neck. When it was operated on, the surgeons found that the cancer had spread. They felt that an operation would prolong his life long enough for him to see the birth of the baby, so they went ahead with it. After the operation, no trace of the cancer could be found. Brunson has attributed his cure to the prayers of friends of his wife and their correspondence with Kathryn Kuhlman, a self-proclaimed Christian faith healer. Louise developed a tumor shortly afterwards and, when she went for surgery, her tumor was also found to have disappeared. In 1975, their daughter Doyla was diagnosed with scoliosis, yet her spine straightened completely within three months. Doyla died at 18 of a heart-valve condition. His son, Todd, also plays poker professionally. Todd has won a bracelet in the $2,500 Omaha Hi-Lo at the 2005 World Series of Poker, making Doyle and Todd the first father–son combination to win World Series bracelets. His daughter Pamela played in the 2007 World Series of Poker and 2009 World Series of Poker Main Events, outlasting both Doyle and Todd both times. SEC investigation On December 14, 2005, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) filed an action to enforce subpoenas issued to the attorneys of Doyle Brunson regarding his unsolicited offer in July 2005 to buy WPT Enterprises, Inc., the publicly traded owner of the World Poker Tour, at a high premium over its then-market value. Shortly thereafter, the Commission contended, a public relations firm Brunson hired, and a website he endorsed, publicly announced the offer. The Commission asserted that publication of this offer, widely covered in the media, triggered a steep rise in WPT's stock price on record trading volume. When pressed for details, Brunson and his lawyers immediately stopped responding to the WPT and the media. Instead, after delivering the offer, Brunson withdrew from the engagement. When the WPT publicly disclosed Brunson and his law firm's unresponsiveness, its stock price sharply declined, costing investors tens of millions of dollars in lost market value. The offer eventually expired by its terms. The SEC formally investigated whether Brunson's offer and its publication violated federal securities laws, including the anti-fraud provisions of the Securities Exchange Act of 1934. As part of its investigation, the SEC subpoenaed documents and testimony from Brunson's lawyers. However, Brunson, who invoked his Fifth Amendment right against self-incrimination and declined to testify in the investigation, directed his lawyers to withhold certain documents and not to testify on critical aspects of the offer, under the attorney-client privilege and work product doctrine. The subpoena enforcement action sought to set aside these privileges on various legal grounds, including the crime-fraud exception, and to compel Brunson's firm to provide the requested documents and testimony. The case was dropped by the SEC in 2007. Doyles Room Doyles Room was an online poker room established in 2004. Originally on the Tribeca Poker Network (now part of the Playtech iPoker network), Doyles Room moved to the Microgaming (Prima) Poker Network in 2007, then to the Cake Poker Network in January 2009, and most recently to the Yatahay Network in January 2011. On May 26, 2011, Doyles Room was seized in accordance with an investigation into the violation of online gambling laws. Following the events of April 15, Brunson cut ties with Doyles Room. In October 2011, Doyles Room was acquired by Americas Cardroom. Bibliography Doyle Brunson's Super System: A Course in Power Poker (1979); According to Doyle (1984); Poker Wisdom of a Champion (2003; formerly titled According to Doyle when published in 1984); Doyle Brunson's Super System 2: A Course in Power Poker (2005); Online Poker: Your Guide to Playing Online Poker Safely & Winning Money (2005); My 50 Most Memorable Hands (2007); The Godfather of Poker: The Doyle Brunson Story (2009); References External links Official site 1933 births American gambling writers American male non-fiction writers American gin players American poker players Basketball players from Texas World Poker Tour winners World Series of Poker bracelet winners World Series of Poker Main Event winners Super Bowl of Poker event winners Poker After Dark tournament winners People from Fisher County, Texas Living people Abilene High School (Abilene, Texas) alumni Hardin–Simmons Cowboys basketball players American men's basketball players Poker Hall of Fame inductees	[ 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255521	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Folger%20Shakespeare%20Library	Folger Shakespeare Library	The Folger Shakespeare Library is an independent research library on Capitol Hill in Washington, D.C., United States. It has the world's largest collection of the printed works of William Shakespeare, and is a primary repository for rare materials from the early modern period (1500–1750) in Britain and Europe. The library was established by Henry Clay Folger in association with his wife, Emily Jordan Folger. It opened in 1932, two years after his death. The library offers advanced scholarly programs and national outreach to K–12 classroom teachers on Shakespeare education. Other performances and events at the Folger include the award-winning Folger Theatre, which produces Shakespeare-inspired theater; Folger Consort, the early-music ensemble-in-residence; the O.B. Hardison Poetry Series; the PEN/Faulkner Reading Series; and numerous other exhibits, seminars, talks and lectures, and family programs. It also has several publications, including the Folger Library editions of Shakespeare's plays, the journal Shakespeare Quarterly, the teacher resource books Shakespeare Set Free, and catalogs of exhibitions. The Folger is also a leader in methods of preserving rare materials. The library is privately endowed and administered by the Trustees of Amherst College. The library building is listed on the National Register of Historic Places. History Standard Oil of New York executive Henry Clay Folger, a graduate of Amherst College and Columbia University, was an avid collector of Shakespeareana, beginning in 1889 with the purchase of a 1685 Fourth Folio. Toward the end of World War I, he and his wife Emily Jordan Folger began searching for a location for a Shakespeare library based on their collection. They chose a location adjacent to the Library of Congress in Washington, D.C. The land was then occupied by townhouses, and Folger spent several years buying the separate lots. The site was designated for expansion by the Library of Congress, but in 1928, Congress passed a resolution allowing its use for Folger's project. The cornerstone of the library was laid in May 1930, but Folger died soon afterward. The bulk of Folger's fortune was left in trust, with Amherst College as administrator, for the library. Early members of the board included Amherst graduate and former president Calvin Coolidge, second chairman of the Board of Trustees. Because of the stock mark`et crash of 1929, Folger's estate was smaller than he had planned, although still substantial. Emily Folger, who had worked with her husband on his collection, supplied the funds to complete the project. The library opened on April 23, 1932, the anniversary of what is believed to be Shakespeare's date of birth. Emily Folger remained involved in its administration until shortly before her death in 1936. In 2005, the Folger Board of Governors undertook administration of the Folger under the auspices of the Amherst Board of Trustees, though the Amherst board continues to manage the Folger's budget. The Folger's first official reader was B. Roland Lewis, who later published The Shakespeare Documents: Facsimiles, Transliterations, Translations, and Commentary based on his research. The first fellowships were distributed in 1936. Early Folger exhibitions featured enticing items in the collection, including Ralph Waldo Emerson's copy of Shakespeare's works, an Elizabethan lute, and Edwin Booth's Richard III costume. Current practices for Folger exhibitions did not begin until 1964, when the first exhibition curated on site opened. During the Second World War, 30,000 items from the Folger collection were transported under guard to Amherst College's Converse Library, where they were stored for the duration of the war in case of an enemy attack on Washington, D.C. Many of the Folger's current public events and programs began in the 1970s under the leadership of director O.B. Hardison. Under his direction, the Folger's theater was brought up to Washington, D.C. fire code, permitting performances by the Folger Theatre Group, the library's first professional company. The Folger Poetry Series also began in 1970. Hardison formed the Folger Institute, which coordinates academic programs and research at the Library. Folger Consort, the Library's early music ensemble, began performances in 1977. The first Director of the Library, from 1940 to 1946, was Joseph Quincy Adams, Jr. Buildings and grounds The main Folger building was designed by architect Paul Philippe Cret. The white marble exterior includes nine street-level bas-reliefs of scenes from Shakespeare's plays created by the sculptor John Gregory, an aluminum replica of a statue of Puck by Brenda Putnam, as well as many inscriptions personally selected by Henry Folger. The large Art Deco window and door grilles are aluminum. Inside, the building is designed in a Tudor style with oak paneling and plaster ceilings. The Elizabethan Theatre lobby contains the original marble Puck statue (restored and moved indoors in 2001), and architectural painting by muralist Austin M. Purves, Jr. The two reading rooms (one added in the early 1980s) are reserved for use by scholars who have obtained advance permission. Public spaces include the large exhibition gallery, a gift shop, and an Elizabethan theatre. Architecture Henry Folger's search for an architect began with an acquaintance, Alexander B. Trowbridge, who had redesigned a home in Glen Cove, Long Island, in the old English style the Folgers were eager to feature in their Library. Folger contracted Trowbridge in 1928, but Trowbridge preferred to consult, rather than be the primary architect, and so recommended French émigré Paul Phillippe Cret. Trowbridge and Cret shared a similar vision for the design of the Library—a neoclassical building that stripped the facade of any decorative elements. Though the Folgers had initially desired an entirely Elizabethan building, they ultimately agreed that a neoclassical building would blend with other existing buildings on Capitol Hill. To retain an Elizabethan quality on the exterior of the building, Cret and Trowbridge proposed to decorate the facade with scenes from Shakespeare's works. Currently, the relief sculptures includes scenes from Henry IV, Hamlet, Macbeth, King Lear, Julius Caesar, The Merchant of Venice, A Midsummer Night's Dream, Richard III, and Romeo and Juliet. In 1959, the Folger contracted Harbeson, Hough, Livingston, and Larson, a Philadelphia firm that succeeded Cret's, to design a new wing by building over a rear parking lot. The additions also yielded a roof garden on top of the new wing. A second Folger building, the Haskell Center, opened in 2000 across Third Street from the original building. The nineteenth-century office building was adapted by architect Andrew K. Stevenson to house the library's education and public programs staffs. The Folger currently maintains a row of townhouses on Third Street to provide housing for scholars, readers, fellows, participants in Folger Institute programs, and other visitors. Reading Room The Reading Room officially opened in January 1933 and today contains reference works for easy accessibility to readers. From 1977 to 1983, the Folger Shakespeare Library was renovated. Design was provided by Hartman-Cox Architects. During this renovation, it included the addition of new book stacks, renovation of office spaces, and an expansion to the Reading Room. A second, more modern reading room dedicated as the Theodora Sedgwick Bond-William Ross Bond Memorial Reading Room was completed in 1982. Upon Gail Kern Paster's retirement as director of the Folger in 2011, the original reading room was renamed the Gail Kern Paster Reading Room. Henry Folger wanted the Library's reading room to feel at once like a private home and the Great Hall of an English college. It features stained-glass windows and a large stone fireplace which has never been used. The large stained-glass window overlooking what is now the Gail Kern Paster Reading Room was designed and created by Nicola D'Ascenzo, who depicted the familiar "Seven Ages of Man" soliloquy from As You Like It. Elizabethan Theatre Initially, the Elizabethan Theatre was not intended for theatrical performance. The original model was the Fortune Playhouse, and then the Globe Theatre; these models proved difficult to replicate exactly, and the Folgers ultimately decided to incorporate features from multiple theaters to give visitors a general picture of a theater during the Elizabethan era. Before Folger Theatre productions began, the Elizabethan Theatre was used for concert performances and academic lectures. The theater, which seats around 260, has no pit. Painted on the ceiling is a well-known quote from As You Like It: "All the world's a stage, and all the men and women merely players." The first theatrical performance in the Elizabethan Theatre was a 1949 production of Julius Caesar by the Amherst Masquers. The Folger Theatre Group formed in 1970 when the Elizabethan Theatre became compliant with Washington, D.C. fire safety laws. Early productions included Dionysus Wants You!, which adapted The Bacchae into a rock musical, and Twelfth Night. Elizabethan Garden At the east end of the building is an Elizabethan Garden featuring plants from Shakespeare's plays, opened in 1989 amid the four magnolias planted by Emily Jordan Folger in 1932. In 2003, several sculptures by Greg Wyatt based on Shakespeare's plays joined the Elizabethan plants in the garden. West garden Sculptor Brenda Putnam was hired in May 1930 to design a sculpture of Puck for a garden on the west side of the building. Decades of exposure weakened the statue, and after Puck's right hand was found across the street at the Library of Congress in 2000, the original piece was moved. It now sits above the entrance to the Elizabethan Theatre, and an aluminum statue replaced the original in the garden. The west garden's lawn shrank during the 1959 additions to the library, when part of its space was paved for a new staff parking area. Library Collection The Folger houses the world's largest collection of Shakespeare-related material, from the 16th century to the present. The library is best known for its 82 copies of the 1623 First Folio (of which only 235 known copies survive ) and over 200 quartos of Shakespeare's individual plays. Not restricted to Shakespeare, the Folger owns the world's third largest collection of English books printed before 1641, as well as substantial holdings of continental and later English imprints. The collection includes a wealth of items related to performance history: 250,000 playbills, 2,000 promptbooks, costumes, recordings and props. It also holds upwards of 90,000 paintings, prints, drawings, photographs, sculptures and other works of art. The Folger's first catalog of its collection began in 1935, when Edwin Willoughby, a scholar of library science and the First Folio, began to catalog the book collection based on Alfred W. Pollard and Gilbert Richard Redgrave's Short-Title Catalogue. Though Willoughby developed a unique classification system based on the Folger's needs, in the late 1940s the Folger adopted that of the Library of Congress. In 1996, Folger staff and readers were given access to Hamnet, the collection's online catalog; the site became available to the public in 2000. Today, the Folger uses several classification systems. Printed books In all, the library collection includes more than 250,000 books, from the mid 15th century—when the printing press was invented—to the present day. In addition to its 82 First Folios, 229 early modern quartos of Shakespeare's plays and poems and 119 copies of the Second, Third, and Fourth Folios, the Folger holds some 7,000 later editions of Shakespeare from the 18th century to present, in more than 70 different languages. Beyond its Shakespearean texts, the library's collection includes over 18,000 early English books printed before 1640 and another 29,000 printed between 1641 and 1700. The library holds 35,000 early modern books printed on the European continent, about 450 of which are incunabula. The topics of these texts vary widely, ranging across literature, politics, religion, technology, military history and tactics, medicine, and over 2,000 volumes on the Protestant Reformation. Manuscripts The Folger holds some 60,000 manuscripts (from Elizabeth I and John Donne to Mark Twain and Walt Whitman). These handwritten documents date from the 15th to the 21st century and cover a variety of subjects: documents related to performance history and literature, personal correspondences, wills, love letters, and other materials of daily life. Notable manuscripts include the earliest known staging diagram in England, a list of quotations George Eliot compiled while writing Middlemarch, the 18th-century Shakespeare forgeries of William Henry Ireland, and the papers of legendary 18th-century actor David Garrick. The Folger hosts Early Modern Manuscripts Online (EMMO), an IMLS-grant funded project to digitize and transcribe English manuscripts from the 16th and 17th centuries in a freely available digital collection. EMMO holds conferences, paleography classes, "transcrib-athons", and other events at the Folger and elsewhere. Highlights of the collection Significant items in the Folger's collection include: The only extant complete copy of Shakespeare's Titus Andronicus first quarto, published in 1594 The False Folio The Macro Manuscript, a unique source for the three early morality plays: The Castle of Perseverance, Mankind and Wisdom. The manuscript also contains the earliest known staging diagram for any play in England. The Dering Manuscript, a single-play redaction of Henry IV, Part 1 and Henry IV, Part 2 that is the earliest known manuscript for any of Shakespeare's works. The Ashbourne portrait, the basis of several Oxfordian arguments Henry VIII's childhood copy of Cicero's De officiis, bearing an inscription in his hand, "Thys boke is myne Prynce Henry" The Trevelyon Miscellany of 1608, an oversized illustrated manuscript of 594 pages, depicting everything from the mundanities of daily life to biblical stories to contemporary political history The earliest Sieve Portrait of Queen Elizabeth I Thirteen of John Donne's letters detailing the personal crisis he faced upon marrying Anne More without her father's permission Thousands of pages of letters to and from prolific 18th-century actor David Garrick Research and education Programs for advanced scholars, faculty, graduate students, and undergraduates are provided by the Folger Institute. Programs for K–12 teachers and students are provided by the Education department. Folger Institute The Folger Institute has served as the focus of scholarly research at the Folger since 1970. The Folger offers long- and short-term fellowships for advanced researchers across all disciplines, and hosts the two-week Amherst-Folger Undergraduate Fellowship program every January. The Institute holds a variety of colloquia, courses, workshops, and conferences for faculty, graduate students, and secondary educators. Scholarly programs run by the Folger Institute include the Folger Institute Consortium, a group that shares research and other resources among over 40 universities, the Center for Shakespeare Studies, which seeks depth and diversity in Shakespeare scholarship, and the Center for the History of British Political Thought, which promotes continued scholarship of three hundred years of British politics. Education Educational outreach at the Folger began in the early 1970s; today, the Folger Education department continues those early efforts with a variety of programs for K–12 students and teachers that emphasize an active learning approach to Shakespeare. Teachers gather at the Folger for day-long and month-long programs to work to incorporate Shakespeare and performance in the classroom. The department also publishes a variety of materials for classroom use. Student programs include workshops, local residency initiatives, and a high school fellowship program during which students study Shakespeare at the Folger. The Emily Jordan Folger Children's Shakespeare Festival, founded in 1980, allows elementary students to perform every spring. The Secondary School Shakespeare Festival, founded the following year, brings students from grades 7–12 to perform half-hour collections of Shakespeare scenes in the Folger theater. Teaching Shakespeare Institute The Teaching Shakespeare Institute (TSI) is an intensive four-week summer study program for middle- and high-school teachers hosted annually by the Folger Shakespeare Library's Education Department, with funding from the National Endowment for the Humanities. TSI participants work with experts to study a small number of Shakespearean plays in terms of scholarship, performance, and the classroom. 50 teachers participated in the inaugural program in 1984, but the annual number is now capped at 25. By 2015, over 775 teachers had gone through the program. Performances and events The Folger Shakespeare Library's cultural and arts programs include Folger Theatre, Folger Consort, the O.B. Hardison Poetry Series and the PEN/Faulkner Foundation, as well as additional talks, screenings, lectures and exhibitions. Folger Theatre Folger Theatre performs a season of Shakespeare-inspired theater, featuring the works of Shakespeare as well as contemporary plays inspired by his works. Since its inception in 1992, Folger Theatre has staged over half of the plays in Shakespeare's First Folio. Productions have received 135 nominations for a Helen Hayes Award and won 23, including Outstanding Resident Play for its renditions of Measure for Measure (2007), Hamlet (2011) and The Taming of the Shrew (2013). Folger Theatre's Artistic Producer is Janet Alexander Griffin, who has held the position since 1982. Performances occur in the theater at the east end of the building. Folger Consort Folger Consort is the library's resident early music ensemble, founded in 1977 by its artistic directors Robert Eisenstein and Christopher Kendall. The Consort performs medieval music, Renaissance music, and baroque music in its concert series. The Consort performs regularly at the Elizabethan Theatre, at the Washington National Cathedral and at the Music Center at Strathmore. The Consort also holds seminars, discussions, and radio broadcasts. Since 2006, Folger Consort has won Best Classical Chamber Ensemble five times at the Washington Area Music Awards. O.B. Hardison Poetry Series Since 1970, the Folger has hosted contemporary poets for readings, moderated conversation, and Q&As in what is now called the O.B. Hardison Poetry series, after former director of the Folger, O.B. Hardison, Jr. Past poets involved in the series include Octavio Paz, Gwendolyn Brooks, Allen Ginsberg, W. S. Merwin, Adrienne Rich, Yusef Komunyakaa, James Merrill, Frank Bidart, Robert Pinsky, Derek Walcott, Hayden Carruth, Rita Dove, Seamus Heaney, Sterling Brown, Denise Levertov, June Jordan, Lawrence Ferlinghetti, Sonia Sanchez, and James Dickey. Between 1991 and 2009, the series also awarded the O.B. Hardison, Jr. Poetry Prize, which was awarded by the library to a U.S. poet who has published at least one book within the last five years, has made important contributions as a teacher, and is committed to furthering the understanding of poetry. PEN/Faulkner In conjunction with the PEN/Faulkner Foundation, the Folger hosts the PEN/Faulkner Reading Series, which brings contemporary authors to the Folger for public readings of fiction. The Folger also hosts the annual PEN/Faulkner Award for Fiction readings, which celebrate the year's finalists and winners. Digital resources The Folger offers several online tools to assist in research and scholarship, including the following: Hamnet, an online catalogue of the Folger's holdings The Digital Image Collection (also known as "LUNA"), which provides over 80,000 images of the collection, including manuscripts, books and art. The images in the collection are available under a Creative Commons license. Folgerpedia, the Folger's in-house wiki; a collaboratively-edited encyclopedia providing information about the institution, the collection, and other relevant information. Folger Digital Texts, online editions of Shakespeare's plays and poems Leadership To date, seven directors and three acting directors have overseen Library affairs. Michael Witmore, a scholar with particular interest in the digital analysis of Shakespeare's texts, became the Folger's seventh director on July 1, 2011. William A. Slade (1931–1934) Joseph Quincy Adams (1934–1936, acting; 1936–1946, director) James McManaway (1946–1948, acting) Louis Booker Wright (1948–1968) Philip A. Knachel (1968–1969, acting) O.B. Hardison, Jr. (1969–1983) Philip A. Knachel (1983–1984, acting) Werner Gundersheimer (1984–2002) Gail Kern Paster (2002–2011) Michael Witmore (2011–present) See also Book collecting References Cited sources External links Folger Shakespeare Library Folger Library YouTube channel Hamnet: Folger Shakespeare Library Catalog Shakespeare Quarterly Folger Institute Folgerpedia, The Folger Library's own wiki space LUNA, The Digital Image Collection Paul Philippe Cret buildings Library buildings completed in 1932 Art Deco architecture in Washington, D.C. Streamline Moderne architecture in Washington, D.C. Libraries on the National Register of Historic Places in Washington, D.C. Shakespearean scholarship Amherst College Art museums and galleries in Washington, D.C. Biographical museums in Washington, D.C. Libraries in Washington, D.C. Research libraries Members of the Cultural Alliance of Greater Washington Shakespeare Libraries established in 1932 1932 establishments in Washington, D.C. 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255527	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Feldberg%20%28Black%20Forest%29	Feldberg (Black Forest)	At the Feldberg in the Black Forest is the highest mountain in Baden-Württemberg, and the highest in Germany outside of the Alps. The local municipality of Feldberg was named after the mountain. Environment The Feldberg is situated southeast of Freiburg im Breisgau and is surrounded by the municipalities of Hinterzarten (northeast), Titisee (east), Menzenschwand (south), Bernau (also south) and Todtnau (southwest). About two kilometres southeast of the summit lies the village of Feldberg (). Between the main peak (, also known as the Höchste or "Highest", and its subpeak, the Seebuck (), just under away, is a saddle, the Grüble, from which a wide spur, the Baldenweger Buck () branches off. The saddle initially descends gently and then ever more steeply into the valleys on either side. From the Seebuck the Feldberg drops steeply away to the northeast into the Feldsee, a lake of glacial origin at about altitude. Deeply incised valleys run northwest towards Freiburg (the Zastler and St Wilhelmer valleys) and southwest towards Basle (Wiesental valley). The main car park below the Seebuck can be reached from the B317 (federal highway) running from Titisee to Lörrach (near Basle) over the Feldberg Pass. A train service of the Three Lakes Railway serves the station of Feldberg-Bärental, at , the highest DB station on standard gauge track. A bus service connects with the station. The Seebuck, which is topped by an old transmission tower, the Feldberg Tower, once a radio tower, since 2013 a ham museum can be reached from the valley station in Feldberg-Ort on a short chairlift. From this point the summit of the Feldberg is about away. It is only accessible to the public on foot or by bicycle. The numerous point-to-point radio systems of the Bundeswehr and the American and French armies dating from the Cold War period have been since taken down. Today Feldberg is marked by the old and new television towers and the Bismarck monument on the Seebuck. Altogether there are more than 28 ski lifts and slopes around the Feldberg. The actual summit itself is situated outside the skiing areas. Several cross-country skiing trails around the peak and around Herzogenhorn opposite are popular with cross-country skiers. The whole area, with ski-runs of Alpine character, is popular for ski touring. Nature reserves Most of the Feldberg area has the status of a nature reserve due to its subalpine vegetation. The Feldberg Nature Reserve is the oldest and largest in Baden-Württemberg and has been under the charge of a full-time ranger since 1989. Since 2001 it has been the responsibility of the Southern Black Forest Nature Conservation Centre, based in the Haus der Natur ("Nature House"), to look after the reserve. They have a permanent, interactive exhibition and a comprehensive programme with events in the reserve. In 2005, a new nature trail was established immediately behind the house. Views The Feldberg offers one of the most extensive panoramic views in Germany – especially in winter when there is a temperature inversion. In the west, on the far side of the Upper Rhine Graben, can be seen the entire Vosges range, from the Ballon d'Alsace to Mont Donon and Mont Sainte-Odile. Beyond that the southern Palatinate Forest can sometimes be seen. To the north is the Hornisgrinde; to the northeast the entire chain of the Swabian Jura, including the Lemberg, and, to its right, the Hegau volcanoes. To the south, the Alps can be seen from the Alpspitze and Zugspitze in the east to the Allgäu Alps, Verwall Alps, Silvretta, Säntis, Glarus Alps, Urner Alps, Bernese Alps and Mont Blanc in the west. In front of the Western Alps and, particularly right of Mont Blanc, can be seen the Swiss Jura, with their highest point, the Chasseral. Thus the view sweeps from the Italian Mont Blanc to southwest Germany and from Austria to France. Geology The mountain's bedrock of gneiss is around one billion years old. The Feldberg region was uplifted three times and then eroded again. What exists today can be called the "third Feldberg". The "first Feldberg" was formed in the Precambrian as part of an orogen and was then completely eroded away. The "second Feldberg" arose during the Devonian and Carboniferous, as part of the Variscan orogeny. It, too, was eroded away, and, during the Mesozoic and Early Triassic, beds of Bunter sandstone, Muschelkalk, Keuper, Lias, Dogger and Malm were deposited in the resulting sedimentation space. Some of these sediments are maritime deposits from intercontinental oceans; the others are of continental origin. The "third" and current Feldberg was formed during the Alpine orogeny in the Tertiary. Since then these sediments have been steadily removed through water processes and aeolian erosion, and today little but the bedrock remains. Glacial morphology During the height of the Würm glaciation a glacier, 1,000 km2 in area, covered the Black Forest. As a result, a lot of glacial influence can be seen in the region. There are several features that relate to the glacial morphology of the Feldberg. Firstly, there is the Feldsee. This tarn formed in the hollow that was scoured out by the ice pushing down the headwall of the cirque. Gradually the ice created a bowl that now holds the 33-metre-deep Feldsee. A moraine on the shores of the Feldsee testifies to this process. The Feldseemoor, a few metres away, is also a remnant of the ice age. Here the terminal moraine of the "mini glacier" can be seen from the Feldsee. It has impounded water and formed a bog. The glacial history of the Würm stage, 10,000–11,000 years ago, at the Feldberg evolved as follows: The emergence of the Feldsee happened as the "Feldberg glacier" spread out. The adjacent Feldseemoor was the next stage. The glaciers then formed a moraine at Waldhof. This was exceeded once more at the Falkau, which marks its maximum extent. After that, the glacier retreated again. Climate and vegetation Climate Feldberg features a subalpine climate (Köppen: Dfc), for that its summers are mild enough to have less than three months with an average mean temperature below 10º degrees Celsius. The annual mean temperature is around (30-year mean from 1981–2010), up 0.6 °C compared with the period from 1961–1990; their temperature gradients are lower than those in adjacent valleys. During winter, there are long periods of sunshine, due to the low condensation point. This also means that the Feldberg has relatively mild winters; the surrounding valleys having noticeably colder temperatures. The lowest temperature ever recorded was on 10 February 1956. The average rain/snowfall amount is per year which is very high compared with Germany as a whole. On 97% of the survey marks of the German Weather Service lower figures are reported. Over the years snowfall has been reported in every calendar month. On average the Feldberg is covered in snow for 157 days per year. Because of its exposed location, wind speeds of hurricane force – up to – are possible throughout the year. Vegetation As its name suggests, the Feldberg's summit is not wooded. However, the sharp transition to forest illustrates it is no natural border. Even the top of the mountain does not reach the tree line which, in this region, would lie at around 1,650–1,700 metres. Many of the open areas are habitats for specialised species of flora; these include bogs, moors, rock faces and snow fields. Below the summit the mountain is covered by mixed forest consisting of naturally growing European beech, European rowan, European spruce, European silver fir and cultivated North American species Douglas fir. Human activity has resulted in forest clearings, such as the large open areas around every hamlet. That is attributable to the intensive cattle farming in this region, which limits forest growth. Today one comes across both pioneer species like European Rowans and different sorts of shrubs there. On many places there are primeval forests being left to its own resources. A characteristic of the vegetation represent the moors. Tourism Summer Today tourism is the main source of income in the Feldberg region. The mountain has several managed huts and inns – the Baldenweger Hut, Rinken Hut, Zastler Hut, St. Wilhelmer Hut and Todtnauer Hut – for the benefit of walkers that are linked by footpaths. These include the Felsenweg ("Rock Way") and the Alpiner Pfad ("Alpine Path") which run through some of the last landscapes in the Black Forest that still have an Alpine character. The 12-kilometre-long Feldberg Steig ("Feldberg Path") runs around the summit and the Feldsee. In addition there are metalled roads to the inns and other facilities around the peak. Winter Feldberg is the biggest winter skiing resort in Germany outside of the Alps. The first ski lift was originally built in 1907 in the Feldberg area. Today, there are around 14 ski lifts (including five at the Seebuck, among them a six-seater chairlift) and over of downhill runs up to a "black" level of difficulty. When there is sufficient snow, even a terrain park may be created. At the valley station are several garages for piste bashers and other equipment. There is a mountain rescue post below the old TV tower. There are also many Nordic ski trails around the peak; two of which are the highest ones of Baden-Württemberg. Part of the cross-country skiing trail from Schonach to Belchen runs between Feldberg and Seebuck. Alpine dangers The Feldberg, like many low mountain ranges, is often underestimated in terms of its alpine dangers. Its easy accessibility by public transport, car and cable car suggests that it is not dangerous and, consequently, visitors may be inappropriately equipped or dressed. The main dangers in the Feldberg region are sudden falls in temperature, storms or slipping on smooth, icy ground. Near tall structures such as the transmission masts there is the danger falling ice. In fog or mist, orientation is clearly much more difficult. Often visibility is reduced to just a few metres. Marked paths outside the wooded areas are lined with poles to assist navigation. Every winter there are several large avalanches in the Feldberg region. The mountainsides of the Zastler valley are particularly prone, but they also occur on leeward slopes like the Feldseekessel at Seebuck, the Herzogenhorn and the Baldenweger Buck. Snowfall driven by western winds forms cornices on the downwind sides of ridges (e. g. the Zastler Wechte), which can break off. Several fatal avalanche burials have happened, the last in January 2015 which left two dead. There are no special avalanche reports issued for the Black Forest. Television towers During the Cold War there were many antennas on a military tower at the summit, but these were removed some years ago. Today, there is a large TV / radio transmission mast, used by the regional broadcasting station, SWR (Southwest Broadcasting). In addition, the mountain is recognisable from its Bismarck Monument, in honour of the famous 19th-century chancellor of Germany, Otto von Bismarck. Meteorological station At the top of the mountain (where weather has been surveyed since 1915) is a weather station that has been in operation since 1937, run by the German Meteorological Service (WMO code number: 10908). Next to the observatory is a weather radar. References External links Feldberg:History and images Feldberg:Image Gallery Webcams: regiowebcam.de Breisgau-Hochschwarzwald Baden Ski areas and resorts in Germany Mountains and hills of Baden-Württemberg Mountains and hills of the Black Forest One-thousanders of Germany	[ -0.012229358777403831, 0.4683966338634491, 0.42675039172172546, -0.8018454313278198, 0.08713141083717346, 0.7664342522621155, 1.0545088052749634, 0.1866597682237625, -0.7460492849349976, -0.444376677274704, -0.1821586936712265, 0.1132911667227745, -0.06965964287519455, 0.5550217628479004, -0.4825010895729065, 0.5949855446815491, 1.245880126953125, 0.168340265750885, -0.5517356395721436, -1.2335584163665771, 0.5830984115600586, -0.24744747579097748, 0.4037024676799774, 0.09342806041240692, 0.13464902341365814, -0.5123786926269531, 0.19859206676483154, 0.6605277061462402, 0.4182153642177582, 0.35096150636672974, -0.47959625720977783, 0.34624332189559937, -0.34734606742858887, -0.1431594341993332, 0.05119431018829346, 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255529	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wryneck	Wryneck	The wrynecks (genus Jynx) are a small but distinctive group of small Old World woodpeckers. Jynx is from the Ancient Greek iunx, the Eurasian wryneck. These birds get their English name from their ability to turn their heads almost 180°. When disturbed at the nest, they use this snake-like head twisting and hissing as a threat display. It has occasionally been called "snake-bird" for that reason. Like the true woodpeckers, wrynecks have large heads, long tongues, which they use to extract their insect prey, and zygodactyl feet, with two toes pointing forward and two backwards,but they lack the stiff tail feathers that the true woodpeckers use when climbing trees, so they are more likely than their relatives to perch on a branch rather than an upright trunk. Their bills are shorter and less dagger-like than in the true woodpeckers, but their chief prey is ants and other insects, which they find in decaying wood or almost bare soil. They reuse woodpecker holes for nesting, rather than making their own holes. The eggs are white, as with many hole nesters. The two species have cryptic plumage, with intricate patterning of greys and browns. The adult moults rapidly between July and September, although some moult continues in its winter quarters. The voice is a nasal woodpecker-like call. Its sound is described as a repetition of the sounds que, que, que, many times in succession, rapid at first, but gradually slowing and in a continually falling key. This is only heard during a few weeks of its stay in Europe. Taxonomy The genus Jynx was introduced in 1758 by Swedish naturalist Carl Linnaeus in the 10th edition of his Systema Naturae. Linnaeus placed a single species in the genus, the Eurasian wryneck (Jynx torquilla), which is therefore the type species. The genus name is from the Ancient Greek word ιυγξ/iunx for the Eurasian wryneck. Species The genus contains two species: References External links Ageing and sexing (PDF; 4.6 MB) by Javier Blasco-Zumeta & Gerd-Michael Heinze Picidae	[ -0.318313866853714, 0.3218778967857361, -0.6949502229690552, -0.4009532034397125, 0.1379396915435791, 0.6787416934967041, 0.46528202295303345, 0.1844068020582199, -0.3027989864349365, -0.3137764036655426, -0.10200270265340805, 0.6390513777732849, 0.13784146308898926, 0.6219927072525024, -0.33040329813957214, 0.9623554944992065, -0.12254142761230469, 0.0914078801870346, 0.277201771736145, -0.6869202852249146, -0.11149951070547104, -0.6845526695251465, 0.2436095029115677, -0.08668094128370285, 0.31705471873283386, 0.20601817965507507, 0.35856619477272034, -0.19690591096878052, 0.11149013787508011, 0.0668860524892807, -0.08429370820522308, 1.2088316679000854, -0.09872938692569733, -0.3184908330440521, -0.07709124684333801, -0.12288045138120651, -0.22380708158016205, -0.6189979314804077, -0.038489487022161484, -0.6294551491737366, 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255530	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nicole%20Brossard	Nicole Brossard	Nicole Brossard (born November 27, 1943) is a leading French-Canadian formalist poet and novelist. Her work is known for exploration of feminist themes and for challenging masculine-oriented language and points of view in French literature. She lives in Outremont, a suburb of Montreal, Canada. Early life Brossard was born in Montreal, Quebec. She attended Collège Marguerite Bourgeoys and the Université de Montréal. Career Brossard wrote her first collection in 1965, Aube à la saison. The collection L'Echo bouge beau marked a break in the evolution of her poetry that included an open and active participation in many literary and cultural events, including poetry recitals. In 1975, she participated in a meeting of writers on women, after which she began to take an activist role in the feminist movement, and to write poetry with a more personal and subjective tone. Her writing includes sensual, aesthetic and feminist political content. Brossard co-founded a feminist newspaper, Les têtes de pioches, with France Théoret. She wrote a play Le nef des sorcières (first performed in 1976). In 1982, she founded a publishing house: L'Intégrale éditrice. Brossard's poetry collection, Double Impression, won the 1984 Governor General's Award. In 1987 her romance novel, Le désert mauve, was published. The Nicole Brossard archives are located in downtown Montreal at the Bibliothèque et Archives nationales du Québec. and at Library and Archives Canada. In April 2019, Brossard was announced as the 2019 Griffin Lifetime Recognition Award recipient. Awards 1974: Governor General's Award for Poetry 1984: Governor General's Award for Poetry 1991: Prix Athanase-David 1991: Harbour Festival Prize 2019: America Award in Literature for a lifetime contribution to international writing Selected bibliography Aube à la saison - 1965 Mordre en sa chair - 1966 L'écho bouge beau - 1968 Suite logique - 1970 Un livre - 1970 (translated in English as A Book) Le centre blanc - 1970 Mécanique jongleuse - 1974 (translated in English as Day-Dream Mechanics; winner of the 1974 Governor General's Award for Poetry) La partie pour le tout - 1975 Sold-Out, étreinte / illustration - (1973) 1977 L'amèr ou le Chapitre effrité - 1977(translated in English as These Our Mothers) French kiss, étreinte / exploration - (1974) 1979 Les sens apparent - 1980 (translated in English as Surfaces of Sense) Amantes - 1980 (translated in English as Lovhers; nominated for a Governor General's Award) Journal intime - 1984 Double impression - 1984 (winner of the 1984 Governor General's Award for Poetry) Domaine d'écriture - 1985 La lettre aérienne - 1985 (translated in English as The Aerial Letter) Le désert mauve - 1987 (translated in English as Mauve Desert) L'amer - 1988 Installations: avec sans pronoms - 1989 A tout regard - 1989 La nuit verte du parc labyrinthe - 1992 Langues obscures - 1992 Baroque d'aube - 1995 (translated in English as Baroque at Dawn) Vertige de l'avant-scène - 1997 (nominated for a Governor General's Award) Au présent des veins - 1999 Musée de l'os et de l'eau - 1999 (translated into English as Museum of Bone and Water; nominated for a Governor General's Award;) Hier - 2001 (translated in English as Yesterday, at the Hotel Clarendon) Cahier de roses & de civilisation - 2003 (nominated for a Governor General's Award) English translations These Our Mothers- 1983; translated by Barbara Godard Baroque at Dawn - 1997 Museum of Bone and Water - 2005 Fluid Arguments - 2005 Yesterday, at the Hotel Clarendon - 2006 Picture Theory - 2006 Mauve Desert - 2006 Notebook of Roses and Civilization - 2007; translation by Robert Majzels and Erín Moure, shortlisted for the 2008 Canadian Griffin Poetry Prize Fences in Breathing - 2009 Nicole Brossard: Selections - 2010; edited by Jennifer Moxley for the series: Poets for the Millennium from University of California Press White Piano - 2013; translation by Robert Majzels and Erín Moure, shortlisted for the 2014 Best Translated Book Award See also Canadian literature Canadian poetry List of Canadian poets List of Canadian writers List of Quebec writers References Further reading External links Griffin Poetry Prize biography, including audio and video clips EPC and PennSound link The Literary Encyclopedia Nicole Brossard Bio Fine Feminist Workings Susan Rudy's review of Nicole Brossard: Essays on Her Works, by Louise H. Forsyth; published by Guernica Editions in 2005 Fonds Nicole Brossard (R11718) at Library and Archives Canada 1943 births 20th-century Canadian poets 21st-century Canadian poets Writers from Montreal Canadian women poets Canadian poets in French Governor General's Award-winning poets Living people Prix Athanase-David winners Officers of the Order of Canada Harbourfront Festival Prize winners People from Outremont, Quebec Canadian LGBT poets 20th-century Canadian women writers 21st-century Canadian women writers Knights of the National Order of Quebec Canadian lesbian writers	[ -0.4994920492172241, 0.5485547184944153, -1.0150381326675415, -0.5111212730407715, -0.36074674129486084, 1.032957911491394, 0.48415279388427734, 0.0308148842304945, -0.2514563798904419, -0.508257269859314, -0.37122276425361633, 0.29441890120506287, 0.10256481170654297, 0.11122272163629532, 0.44938772916793823, 0.2516624331474304, -0.024936415255069733, -0.3218080699443817, 0.022928567603230476, 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255531	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ynglinga%20saga	Ynglinga saga	Ynglinga saga ( ) is a Kings' saga, originally written in Old Norse by the Icelandic poet and historian Snorri Sturluson about 1225. It is the first section of his Heimskringla. It was first translated into English and published in 1844 by Samuel Laing. Snorri Sturluson based his work on an earlier Ynglingatal which is attributed to the Norwegian 9th-century skald Þjóðólfr of Hvinir, and which also appears in Historia Norwegiae. It tells the most ancient part of the story of the House of Ynglings (Scylfings in Beowulf). Snorri described the descent of the kings of Norway from this royal house of Sweden. Ynglinga saga is the first part of Snorri's history of the ancient Norse kings, the Heimskringla. Snorri's work covers the history of the Norwegian kings from the mythical prehistoric age until 1177, with the death of the pretender Eystein Meyla. Interwoven in this narrative are references to important historical events. The saga deals with the arrival of the Norse gods to Scandinavia and how Freyr founded the Swedish Yngling dynasty at Uppsala. Then the saga follows the line of Swedish kings until Ingjald (Ingjald illråde), after which the descendants settled in Norway and became the ancestors of the Norwegian King Harald Fairhair. Synopsis Swithiod the Great The saga begins with a description of the "earth's circle" inhabited by human race and divided by great seas running into the land from the "out-ocean". The Black Sea divides the earth into three parts: Asia in the east, Europe in the west and "Swithiod the Great, or the Cold" in the north (Chaper 1). The saga distinguishes between Swithiod the Great (literally "Sweden the Great"), where the opening scenes are laid, and Sweden proper, in Scandinavia, where the Yingling's reign starts. These lands differ in a metaphorical sense as well, since the former is also called Godheim or the home of gods, while the latter is called Mannheim or the place where people live. Swithiod the Great is a vast territory populated by many "races of men", and divided from other lands by a large mountain ridge going from northeast to southwest (Chaper 5). This mountain ridge lies "outside of all inhabited lands" but its southern part is not far to "Turkland". On the southern side of the mountains runs the river Tanais, formerly known as Tanaquisl or Vanaquisl (the modern day Don), which falls into the Black Sea and marks the border between Europe and Asia. Vanaland and Asaland People on the Tanais live in a country called Vanaland or Vanaheim. East of the river, in Asia, stretches a country called Asaland or Asaheim. The main city of Asaland is Asgaard, where Odin is a chief. Twelve temple priests, called Diar, direct sacrifices in Asgaard and also judge the people, who serve and obey them. Odin is a great warrior, who conquers many kingdoms in all parts of the world, never losing a battle. His men are used to receive his blessing before going into battle, and to call upon his name when fighting, in order to inspire themselves (Chaper 2). Odin wages war against Vanaland people, but cannot win over them. After doing great damage to each other, both sides agree to a truce and exchange hostages. Thus the best people of Vanaland are sent to Asaland as hostages: Njord the Rich, with his son Frey and daughter Freya as well as the wisest man in Vanaland called Kvase. The people of Asaland, in their turn, send a wise man called Mime along with a stout handsome man called Hone, who is allegedly very suitable to become a chief, to Vanaland. Hone is immediately made a chief in Vanaland, but people there realize how bad he actually is at taking decisions when not advised by Mime. They decapitate Mime and send his head to Asaland, where Odin smears it with herbs and sings incantations over it giving it the power to speak and reveal many secrets to Odin (Chaper 4). Arrival of Odin in Scandinavia Odin has a foresight about the new dwelling place in the north and goes there "with all the gods and a great many other people", leaving his two brothers, Vilje and Ve, to rule in Asgaard. First, Odin and his companions wander westwards to Gardarike and from there - south to Saxland, where Odin's sons start to rule. Then Odin goes towards the sea in the north, to the lands of the king Gylve in Scandinavia. There Odin settles at the Maelare lake, in the Old Sigtun, and sets his men to rule in the neighboring places around (Chaper 5). Odin is described as a great sorcerer in the saga. He can shape-shift, speaks only in verse, and lies so well that everything he says seems true. He strikes enemies blind and deaf and when his own men fight they go berserk and cannot be harmed (Chaper 6). Odin has a ship Skidbladnir that can be folded together like a cloth. He relies on two talking ravens to gather intelligence, and he keeps Mime's head by him which tells him the news from other worlds. Odin teaches magic, runes and incantations. He can even awaken the dead from the earth and cause death or disease to anyone. People worship Odin and the other twelve chiefs from Asaland as their gods (Chaper 7). Death of Odin Odin establishes the laws that have been previously observed in Asaland: dead men should be burned with their belongings, a mound should be raised to memorize distinguished men, sacrifices should be held on special days in winter and in summer. Short before his death, Odin says he is going to Godheim (the other name of "Swithiod the Great" in the saga). He dies in his bed in Swithiod and is burned with honor. Snorri says: "The Swedes believed that he was gone to the ancient Asgaard, and would live there eternally" (Chaper 10). Njord starts to rule over the Swedes after Odin. During this time, marked by peace and prosperity, all the gods die. When Njord dies himself, Frey takes the power and makes Upsal his capital. Frey has also another name, Yngvi, which is started to be used as an honorific title by his descendants. Thus they are called Ynglinger. When Frey dies of illness, his men keep it in secret and place his body into a great mound with three windows. People think Frey is still alive and continue to pay tribute to him, putting gold through the one window, silver through the other one and copper coins through the third one (Chapter 11). The Swedes eventually discover the truth but do not burn the Frey's body, since they believe the peaceful time goes on thanks to his presence in Sweden. They treat him as a god and sacrifice to him (Chapter 13). Yngling dynasty Frey's son Fjolne inherits the power and peacefully rules over the Swedes until he visits a great celebration in the house of Fredfrode, a ruler of Leidre. There Fjolne accidentally falls into a big vessel with mead and drowns himself (Chapter 14). Swegde, Fjolne's son, takes the kingdom, but decides to seek Godheim and Odin, so he sets out on a 5-year travel for that. Swegde comes to Turkland and then to the Great Svithiod. He does not find Odin, but gets a wife in Vanaland called Vana, who gives birth to their son Vanlande. When Swegde returns to Sweden with his family he is still determined to seek Godheim. During his second journey Swegde meets a dwarf, who tricks him into entering a big hollow stone, where Swegde is trapped forever (Chapter 15). Vanlande becomes a king in Upsal. As a great warrior, he ventures out to many lands and gets a wife in Finland called Driva. They have a son Visbur, but then Vanlande leaves his family for a long time. Driva sends Visbur to Sweden and asks the witch Huld to either force Vanlande to return to Finland or kill him with her witchcraft. Vanlande does not return, and thus is killed in his sleep by the Mara (Chapter 16). Visbur succedes his father and marries the daughter of Aude the Rich, who gives birth to their two sons Gisle and Ond. However, Visbur leaves his family and takes another wife, with whom he has a son Domald. Gisle and Ond grow up and demand their mother's dower of Visbur, but he refuses to pay. They revenge by burning Visbur in his own house, assisted by the Huld's sorcery (Chapter 17). After his fathers's death, Domald becomes a king. His rule is marked by great famine and distress, and Swedes make many offerings of sacrifice in a hope to end the times of scarcity. When they see that nothing helps they sacrifice Domald himself to the gods (Chapter 18). Then the Domald's son, called Domar, reigns peacefully over the Swedes for a long time. When he dies in Upsal his body is moved to Fyrisvold and burned on the river bank. The power is taken by his son Dygve of whom "nothing is said", according to the saga, except for that he dies then "in his bed" (Chapter 20). King Dygve is succeeded by his son Dag, who is so wise that he can understand the language of birds. To get news he uses a sparrow, which is killed with a stone one day, in a farm called Varva, in Reidgotaland. Infuriated Dag plunders Varva out of revenge and kills many people there. On his way back Dag crosses a river at a place called Skjotan's Ford, where a slave worker throws a hayfork at the Dag's troop, killing the king instantly (Chapter 21). The remaining chapters of the saga describe the rule of Yngling dynasty down to the Rongvald the Mountain-High. Sources Krag, Claus Ynglingatal og Ynglingesaga- en studie i historiske kilder (1991) Nerman, Birger Det svenska rikets uppkomst (Stockholm, 1925) Åkerlund, W. Studier över Ynglingatal (Lund, 1939) References External links Ynglinga saga and Heimskringla from «Kulturformidlingen norrøne tekster og kvad» (in Old Icelandic) Heimskringla: The Ynglinga Saga from The Medieval and Classical Literature Library (in English) The Ynglinga Saga, or the Story of the Yngling Family from Odin to Halfdan the Black from The Internet Sacred Text Archive (in English) Kings' sagas Sources of Norse mythology 1220s books Works by Snorri Sturluson	[ -0.2548927068710327, 0.3989045321941376, 0.4950607419013977, 0.18464839458465576, -0.26222744584083557, -0.1236468106508255, 0.47888240218162537, 0.3229774534702301, -0.6959531903266907, -0.13207650184631348, -0.18018652498722076, 0.3191664218902588, -0.2193402796983719, 0.08268624544143677, -0.2077402025461197, 0.04168117418885231, 0.3798760175704956, 0.5076611042022705, 0.08956807106733322, -0.4580382704734802, -0.26401445269584656, 0.1098499596118927, 0.9071658849716187, 0.1020226925611496, 1.1935737133026123, 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255532	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Miranda%20IM	Miranda IM	Miranda IM is an open-source multiprotocol instant messaging application, designed for Microsoft Windows. Miranda is free software distributed under the GNU GPL-2.0-or-later. Architecture Miranda IM provides a basic client framework, GUI, and an advanced plugin architecture. Support for various IM protocols and additional features is implemented through optional plugins, some of which come bundled with Miranda IM by default; the rest (over 500) were in the past available on the official addons site. Unused protocols can be removed. Features Customized look and function according to each individual's needs. Management and organization of hundreds of IM buddies on many IM networks Contact renaming Full message archive database Simple recall or deletion with the DB Tool or History Sweeper plugin. Contact details or photos visible with mouseover. (Needs additional plugin) No advertising Compact and portable: with few plugins Security/Privacy: Saves history on hard disk Low memory footprint Connectivity The protocol plugins included with Miranda IM are AIM, Gadu-Gadu, ICQ, IRC, Microsoft Messenger service (a.k.a. MSN, .NET, Live, etc.), XMPP (& Google Talk), and Yahoo! Messenger. Other protocols available via plugins include Bonjour Fetion, Facebook Messenger, Inter-Asterisk eXchange, Lotus Sametime, NetSend, MySpace, Tencent QQ, SIP, Skype (requires Skype), Tlen.pl, Xfire. History Early days Miranda IM was first started by Roland Rabien (figbug) on 2 February 2000. At that time, it was a minimalist ICQ clone and officially called Miranda ICQ. The first public release, version 0.0.1, was released on 6 February 2000. This release used LibICQ, had no support for message history, database, and plugins, and had a distribution size of less than 100 KB. A major new feature of version 0.0.4 was the MegaHAL chat bot, which enabled automatic chatting between Miranda and other ICQ users. Plugin support was added with version 0.0.6. Logger Plugin was the first plugin bundled with the official release. Version 0.1.x After the release of version 0.0.6.1 on 26 December 2000, the original developers left, and Richard "cyreve" Hughes took over the project. His first release, version 0.1.0.0 on 8 April 2001 was improved through a major rewrite. The split message dialog bundled with this release became the first messaging module to be put into a plugin. The .Net Messenger Service protocol plugin appeared around the time of version 0.1.1.0 release becoming the second messaging protocol to be supported by Miranda. This was also the first official release to support language pack translations. Miranda hence had multi-protocol, multi-language instant messenger features. After v0.1.0.0, Miranda plugin development grew rapidly. With version 0.1.2.1 (28 February 2002), there were approximately 50 plugins available. At the time the new Lizard plugin enabled skinning support; the only time Miranda supported skins. Lizard development stopped soon after, due to the instability it caused. Version 0.2.x After the mysterious disappearance of cyreve in June 2002, the developers Martin Öberg (Strickz), Robert Rainwater (rainwater), Sam K (egoDust), and Lyon Lim (lynlimz) took over the project. The MSN protocol was taken over by Rako Shizuka who also developed the first version of Yahoo! Messenger protocol, which was the third protocol supported by Miranda. The Yahoo! plugin was closed source, and lost reliability as the official Yahoo! Messenger protocol changed over time – it was later re-written by new developer Gennady Feldman. The first of the non-IM plugins, including RSS News and Weather, were released within this period. These added a contact to contact list for the purpose of displaying information to the user rather than chatting. Discussion about renaming of the program and removal of ICQ from the core began about this time. Due to the increase of protocol support, the project was officially renamed to Miranda IM on 17 December 2002. The first release under the new name occurred on 1 February 2003, about three years after the beginning of the project, and a bug fix version came two weeks later. Version 0.3.x The major change in version 0.3, released on 23 June 2003, was the removal of ICQ from the core into a plugin. From now on, Miranda could run without the ICQ application being installed. The project moved to a new site at www.miranda-im.org, featuring a new discussion board and file listing. Protocol plugins bundled in version 0.3 included ICQ, MSN, AIM, and XMPP. The Yahoo! protocol was not included in the package. IRC support was added later by Jörgen Persson (m8rix) to the official release of version 0.3.1, on August 8, 2003. Another major change was the removal of the Send-Receive Messaging Module from the core into a plugin, SRMM. This reduced the size of the executable file and encouraged rapid development of messaging modules. During this period many variations (including SRAMM, SRMM_mod, etc.) offered different new features and improvements over the standard implementation. ZDNet.be reviewed release 0.3, complimenting its "effortless" contact importing, low memory usage, and extensive variety of plugins, and stating, "Miranda is a strong recommendation for people who have a system tray populated by several IM applications." Version 0.4.x Version 0.4 of Miranda IM was released on 7 April 2005. This was the first version to have Yahoo! protocol bundled with the official release. Other major changes included the removal of contact list and database module from the core into plugins. As a result, there were 4 variations of contact list modules: the original clist_classic, multi-window contact list clist_mw, modern contact list clist_modern, and nicer contact list with extensive UI customization clist_nicer. Other popular plugins released within this period included tabbed message window (tabsrmm and scriver), HTML based message log support IE view, scripting plugin mbot, and the meta contact plugin. Version 0.5.x Version 0.5 of Miranda IM was released on 28 July 2006. This is the first version to have Unicode support available as a download option for Windows NT, 2000 and XP users. Another new feature is the introduction of AIM Oscar, first released in early 2006, allowing users to transfer files and receive away messages. This version also provided more support for avatars among the various protocols. Version 0.6.x Version 0.6 of Miranda IM was released on December 29, 2006. This version introduced UPnP support to improve file transfer and direct connect reliability through routers. Other changes included improved support for UTF-8 strings, improved tabbed options support, and numerous bug fixes. Version 0.7.x Version 0.7 of Miranda IM was released on 1 October 2007. Key changes included integrated font and icon services, a rewritten menu engine, and a release notifier. One large change is a new way to uniquely identify plugins and the interfaces they implement which may break backward compatibility in the future. A 2008 CNET review gave the program 4 out of 5 stars, noting that though the interface is "plain", the program supports most IM protocols in one package. Features favored in the review included its centralized personal information management, "numerous" window behavior controls, and configurable hotkeys. Techzine.nl reviewed this version, listing its positive attributes as "support for many protocols; small and fast; a lot of plug-ins and skins; many settings" and writing it "will not look bad on your computer. Especially if you are looking for a simple client on a USB stick then Miranda IM is a good choice." On the other hand, "if you are using WLM (Windows Live Messenger) and you find the settings of the program hard, [we] can not recommend Miranda IM. The typical things like WLM's smilies, sounds, winks and games are not standard. You do get that functionality by the wide choice of skins and plug-ins, but for that you do some research and setting work." Authors Lui and Chan in Software Development Rhythms describe using Miranda IM's plugin architecture to copy, modify, and test existing plugins in order to develop "NAMMIK", a scriptable ICQ chatting bot used to interview people; they refer to Miranda IM's architecture as "simple and flexible". Version 0.8.x Version 0.8 of Miranda IM was released on 17 June 2009. It included a new Account Manager which supports multiple accounts per protocol (doing away with DLL renaming), built-in SSL support, various enhancements and bugfixes for the core and plugins. A PCWorld Magazine review of version 0.8.16 noted its addon capability, but stated, "Miranda's user interface leaves something to be desired" while referring to its login status icons, wishing for easier management and grouping of contacts, easy blocking/reporting of spammers, and ultimately recommending it "for those who use only surface capabilities of instant messengers." Version 0.9.x Version 0.9 of Miranda IM was released on 24 August 2010. It consists of many new features focused on improving Unicode support and overall protocol improvements. It is also the first Miranda IM version to feature an official 64-bit build. Version 0.10.x Version 0.10 of Miranda IM was released on 18 July 2012. It consists of enhancements to Miranda IM 0.9.x including improved language support and improved networking support. After years of being self-hosted, version 0.10.80 was transferred to SourceForge on 25 April 2018. the project has seen no activity since. Sometime in August 2019 the official Miranda IM website disappeared and was replaced by irrelevant boilerplate content. Miranda NG (independent fork) In May 2012 Miranda IM was forked to Miranda NG (New Generation). The reasons were a shift in the development team and the slow-paced development of the original Miranda. The main differences between the original client and the fork are: a switch to Visual Studio 2010's compiler, dropping support for Windows 95/98/ME and non-Unicode plugins, and the fact that the core and plugins development was combined and that they share a unified repository. the latest version of Miranda NG is 0.95.13.1, released on 4 May 2021. See also Comparison of instant messaging clients Comparison of instant messaging protocols Comparison of Internet Relay Chat clients Comparison of LAN messengers LAN messenger Windows Messenger service References External links Miranda NG (New Generation) official website Miranda IM Wiki (Internet Archive copy) Old Miranda IM development site (inactive since 2015) 2000 software Free instant messaging clients AIM (software) clients Free XMPP clients Internet Relay Chat clients Free Internet Relay Chat clients Windows Internet Relay Chat clients Windows-only instant messaging clients Portable software Yahoo! instant messaging clients	[ -0.2676883637905121, -0.06240202113986015, 0.30052265524864197, 0.3110769987106323, -0.3979140520095825, 0.12253164499998093, 0.14529573917388916, 0.003318221541121602, -0.2150648981332779, 0.18770061433315277, -0.24412178993225098, 0.5109333395957947, -0.46544161438941956, -0.22392772138118744, 0.313038170337677, 0.047962579876184464, 0.18364106118679047, 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255534	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Li%27l%20Abner	Li'l Abner	Li'l Abner is a satirical American comic strip that appeared in many newspapers in the United States, Canada and Europe, featuring a fictional clan of hillbillies in the impoverished mountain village of Dogpatch, USA. Written and drawn by Jewish Yankee Al Capp (1909–1979), the strip ran for 43 years, from August 13, 1934, through November 13, 1977. The Sunday page debuted six months after the daily, on February 24, 1935. It was originally distributed by United Feature Syndicate, and later by the Chicago Tribune New York News Syndicate. Comic strips typically dealt with northern urban experiences before Capp introduced Li'l Abner, the first strip based in the South. The comic strip had 60 million readers in over 900 American newspapers and 100 foreign papers in 28 countries. Capp "had a profound influence on the way the world viewed the American South." Cast Main characters Li'l Abner Yokum: Abner was 6′3″ and perpetually 19 "y'ars" old. A naïve, simpleminded, gullible and sweet-natured hillbilly, he lived in a ramshackle log cabin with his pint-sized parents. Capp derived the family name "Yokum" as a combination of yokel and hokum. In Capp's satirical and often complex plots, Abner was a country bumpkin Candide—a paragon of innocence in a sardonically dark and cynical world. Abner typically had no visible means of support, but sometimes earned his livelihood as a "crescent cutter" for the Little Wonder Privy Company, later changed to "mattress tester" for the Stunned Ox Mattress Company. During World War II, Abner was "drafted" into becoming the mascot emblem of the Patrol Boat Squadron 29. In one post-World War II storyline Abner became a US Air Force bodyguard of Steve Cantor (a parody of Steve Canyon) against the evil bald female spy Jewell Brynner (a parody of actor Yul Brynner). Early in the strip's history, Abner's primary goal in life was evading the marital designs of Daisy Mae Scragg, the virtuous, voluptuous, barefoot Dogpatch damsel and scion of the Yokums' blood feud enemies — the Scraggs, her bloodthirsty, semi-evolved kinfolk. For 18 years, Abner slipped out of Daisy Mae's marital crosshairs time and time again. When Capp finally gave in to reader pressure and allowed the couple to tie the knot, it was a major media event. It even made the cover of Life magazine on March 31, 1952 — illustrating an article by Capp titled "It's Hideously True!! The Creator of Li'l Abner Tells Why His Hero Is (SOB!) Wed!!" Daisy Mae Yokum (née Scragg): Beautiful Daisy Mae was hopelessly in love with Dogpatch's most prominent resident throughout the entire 43-year run of Al Capp's comic strip. During most of the epic, the impossibly dense Abner exhibited little romantic interest in her voluptuous charms (much of it visible daily thanks to her famous polka-dot peasant blouse and cropped skirt). In 1952, Abner reluctantly proposed to Daisy to emulate the engagement of his comic strip "ideel", Fearless Fosdick. Fosdick's own wedding to longtime fiancée Prudence Pimpleton turned out to be a dream — but Abner and Daisy's ceremony, performed by Marryin' Sam, was permanent. Abner and Daisy Mae's nuptials were a major source of media attention, landing them on the aforementioned cover of Life magazine's March 31, 1952, issue. Once married, Abner became relatively domesticated. Like Mammy Yokum and the other "wimmenfolk" in Dogpatch, Daisy Mae did all the work, domestic and otherwise — while the menfolk generally did nothing whatsoever. Mammy Yokum: Born Pansy Hunks, Mammy was the scrawny, highly principled "sassiety" leader and bare knuckle "champeen" of the town of Dogpatch. She had married the inconsequential Pappy Yokum in 1902; they produced two strapping sons twice their own size. Mammy dominated the Yokum clan through the force of her personality, and dominated everyone else with her fearsome right uppercut (sometimes known as her "Goodnight, Irene" punch), which helped her uphold law, order and decency. She is consistently the toughest character throughout Li'l Abner. A superhuman dynamo, Mammy did all the household chores — and provided her charges with no fewer than eight meals a day of "po'k chops" and "tarnips" (as well as local Dogpatch delicacies like "candied catfish eyeballs" and "trashbean soup"). Her authority was unquestioned, and her characteristic phrase, "Ah has spoken!", signaled the end of all further discussion. Her most familiar phrase, however, is "Good is better than evil becuz it's nicer!" (Upon his retirement in 1977, Capp declared Mammy to be his personal favorite of all his characters.) Pappy Yokum: Born Lucifer Ornamental Yokum, pint-sized Pappy had the misfortune of being the patriarch in a family that didn't have one. Pappy was so lazy and ineffectual, he didn't even bathe himself. Mammy was regularly seen scrubbing Pappy in an outdoor oak tub ("Once a month, rain or shine"). Ironing Pappy's trousers fell under her wifely duties as well, although she didn't bother with preliminaries — like waiting for Pappy to remove them first. Pappy is dull-witted and gullible (in one storyline after he is conned by Marry'n Sam into buying Vanishing cream because he thinks it makes him invisible when he picks a fight with his nemesis Earthquake McGoon), but not completely without guile. He had an unfortunate predilection for snitching "presarved tarnips" and smoking corn silk behind the woodshed — much to his chagrin when Mammy caught him. Pappy Yokum wasn't always feckless, however. After his lower wisdom teeth grew so long that they squeezed his cerebral Goodness Gland and emerged as forehead horns, he proved himself capable of evil. Of course Mammy solved the problem with a tooth extraction, and ended the episode with her most famous dictum. Honest Abe Yokum: Li'l Abner and Daisy Mae's little boy was born in 1953 "after a pregnancy that ambled on so long that readers began sending me medical books," wrote Capp. Initially known as "Mysterious Yokum" (there was even an Ideal doll marketed under this name) due to a debate regarding his gender (he was stuck in a pants-shaped stovepipe for the first six weeks), he was renamed "Honest Abe" (after President Abraham Lincoln) to thwart his early tendency to steal. His first words were "po'k chop," and that remained his favorite food. Though his uncle Tiny was perpetually frozen at 15½ "y'ars" old, Honest Abe gradually grew from infant to grade school age, and became a dead ringer for Washable Jones — the star of Capp's early "topper" strip. He would eventually acquire a couple of supporting character friends for his own semi-regularly featured adventures in the strip. In one storyline he lives up to his nickname when during a nationwide search for a pair of socks sewn by Betsy Ross; after finding that his father was the current owner and preparing to trade them for the reward (a handshake from the President of the United States), he confesses at the last second that they were not his to give. Tiny Yokum: "Tiny" was a misnomer; Li'l Abner's kid brother remained perpetually innocent and 15½ "y'ars" old — despite the fact that he was an imposing, tall behemoth. Tiny was unknown to the strip until September 1954, when a relative who had been raising him reminded Mammy that she'd given birth to a second "chile" while visiting her 15 years earlier. (The relative explained that she would have dropped him off sooner, but waited until she happened to be in the neighborhood.) Capp introduced Tiny to fill the bachelor role played reliably for nearly two decades by Li'l Abner himself, until his fateful 1952 marriage threw the carefully orchestrated dynamic of the strip out of whack for a period. Pursued by local lovelies Hopeful Mudd and Boyless Bailey, Tiny was even dumber and more awkward than Abner, if that can be imagined. Tiny initially sported a bulbous nose like both of his parents, but eventually, (through a plot contrivance) he was given a nose job, and his shaggy blond hair was buzz cut to make him more appealing. Salomey: The Yokums' beloved pet pig. Cute, lovable and intelligent (arguably smarter than Abner, Tiny or Pappy), she was accepted as part of the family ("the youngest," as Mammy invariably introduces her). She is 100% "Hammus Alabammus" — an adorable species of pig, and the last female known in existence. A plump, juicy Hammus Alabammus is the rarest and most vital ingredient of "ecstasy sauce," an indescribably delicious gourmet delicacy. Consequently, Salomey is frequently targeted by unscrupulous sportsmen, hog breeders and gourmands (like J.R. Fangsley and Bounder J. Roundheels), as well as unsavory boars with improper intentions (such as Boar Scarloff and Porknoy). Her moniker was a pun on both salami and Salome. Supporting characters and villains Marryin' Sam: A traveling (by mule) preacher who specializes in $2 weddings. He also offered the $8 "ultra-deluxe speshul," a spectacular ceremony in which Sam officiates while being drawn and quartered by four rampaging jackasses. He cleans up once a year — during Sadie Hawkins Day season, when slow-footed bachelors are dragged kicking and screaming to the altar by their prospective brides-to-be. Sam, whose face and figure were reportedly modeled after New York City mayor Fiorello LaGuardia, started out as a stock villain but gradually softened into a genial, opportunistic comic foil. He wasn't above chicanery to achieve his ends, and was warily viewed by Dogpatch menfolk as a traitor to his gender. Sam was prominently featured on the cover of Life in 1952 when he presided over the celebrated wedding of Li'l Abner and Daisy Mae. In the 1956 Broadway musical and 1959 film adaptation, Sam was played by rotund actor Stubby Kaye. Moonbeam McSwine: The unwashed but shapely form of languid, delectable Moonbeam was one of the iconic hallmarks of Li'l Abner — an unkempt, impossibly lazy, corncob pipe-smoking, flagrant (and fragrant), raven-haired, earthly (and earthy) woman. Beautiful Moonbeam preferred the company of pigs to suitors — much to the frustration of her equally lazy pappy, Moonshine McSwine. She was usually showcased luxuriating among the hogs, somewhat removed from the main action of the story, in a deliberate parody of glamour magazines and pinup calendars of the day. Capp designed her in caricature of his wife Catherine (minus the dirt), who had also suggested Daisy Mae's name. In one comic, it is revealed that she bears a striking resemblance to a wealthy, well-dressed and well-washed woman named Gloria Van Welbuilt, a famous socialite. Despite her lazy nature and dirty appearance she was generally good-natured and kind as shown when she ran off to Dogpatch, carrying two shmoos under her arms to save them from going extinct, wondering if humanity would ever be good enough for them. She also consoled Abner to stop worrying about being a father. Moonbeam also seemed to have interests in romance as in some strips she was seen flirting with and even kissing various male characters, including Abner. She once expressed the desire of having a family of her own and she actually discussed the matter of trapping a husband (if she got cleaned up) with Abner. In one strip, it was revealed that Moonbeam was in fact in love with Abner when they were children. In the same strip, it was shown that Moonbeam's disposition for filth was born out of a failure to understand the turn-ons of Abner when he was a child. Strangely she actually disliked hogs as a child but after seeing Abner ignoring the openly romantic advances of a clean Daisy Mae, she dived right into a mud-hole headfirst where some hogs were wallowing to earn his love, believing that if Abner didn't like clean girls he must have liked them dirty. Much to her disappointment, however, this, too, failed to capture his attention. Moonbeam was also unknowingly the star of a horror movie directed by Rock Pincus, head film director of a race known as the Pincushions, from planet Pincus 7. Unfortunately, this venture ended in tragedy for Rock when he was unknowingly grilled, put into a hot dog bun and devoured while he was still alive. Hairless Joe and Lonesome Polecat: The proud purveyors of "Kickapoo Joy Juice" — a moonshine elixir of such stupefying potency that the fumes alone have been known to melt the rivets off battleships. Concocted in a large wooden vat by the inseparable cave-dwelling buddies Lonesome Polecat (of the "Fried Dog" Indian tribe, later known as the Polecats, "the one tribe who have never been conquered,") and Hairless Joe (a hirsute, club-wielding, modern Cro-Magnon — who frequently made good on his oft-repeated threat, "Ah'll bash yore haid in!") The ingredients of the brew are both mysterious and all-encompassing (much like the contents of their cave, which has been known to harbor prehistoric monsters). When a batch "needs more body", the formidable pair simply goes out and clubs one (often a moose), and tosses it in. Over the years, the "recipe" has called for live grizzly bears, panthers, kerosene, horseshoes and anvils, among other ingredients. An officially licensed soft drink called Kickapoo Joy Juice is still produced by the Monarch Beverage Company of Atlanta, Georgia. Lonesome Polecat was also the official team mascot of the Sioux City Soos (1940–1960), a former Minor League baseball franchise of Sioux City, Iowa. Joe Btfsplk: The world's worst jinx, Joe Btfsplk had a perpetually dark rain cloud over his head. Instantaneous bad luck befell anyone unfortunate enough to be in his vicinity. Though well-meaning and friendly, his reputation inevitably precedes him so Joe is a very lonely little man and thus associates himself with the Scraggs, except in World War II when Joe decided to do his patriotic duty and associate himself with Hirohito. He has an apparently unpronounceable name, but creator Al Capp "pronounced" Btfsplk by simply blowing a "raspberry", or Bronx cheer. Joe's personal storm cloud became one of the most iconic images in the strip. Senator Jack S. Phogbound: His name was a thinly disguised variant on "jackass", as made plain in his deathless campaign slogan (see Dialogue and catchphrases). The senator was satirist Al Capp's parody of a blustering self-serving Southern politician. Before 1947, Phogbound had been known as Fogbound, but in that year Phogbound "blackmails his fellow Washington senators to appropriate two million dollars to establish Phogbound University," and its attendant brass statue of Phogbound, both reminiscent of self-aggrandizements by Huey Long; the name change allowed Capp to sharpen the joke by calling the university P.U. Phogbound is a corrupt, conspiratorial blowhard; he often wears a coonskin cap and carries an old fashioned flintlock rifle to impress his gullible constituents. In one sequence, Phogbound is unable to campaign in Dogpatch, so he sends his aides with an old, hot-air-filled gas bag that resembles him, and nobody noticed the difference. Available Jones: Avaricious Dogpatch entrepreneur Available Jones was always available for a price. He had many sidelines, including minding babies ("Dry" for 5¢, "Other kinds" for 10¢). He provided anything from a safety pins to battleships, but his most famous "provision" was his cousin, Stupefyin' Jones. Stupefyin' Jones: A walking aphrodisiac, Stupefyin' was so drop-dead gorgeous that any male who glimpsed her froze petrified in his tracks and rooted to the spot. While she was generally favored by the males of Dogpatch, she could be deadly for a confirmed bachelor to encounter on Sadie Hawkins Day. Statuesque actress Julie Newmar became famous overnight for playing the small role in the 1956 Li'l Abner Broadway musical (and the 1959 film adaptation) without uttering a single line. General Bullmoose: Created by Al Capp in June 1953, Bashington T. Bullmoose was the epitome of a mercenary, cold-blooded capitalist tyrant tycoon. Bullmoose's bombastic motto (see Dialogue and catchphrases) was adapted by Capp from a statement made by Charles E. Wilson, the former head of General Motors when it was America's largest corporation. In 1952, Wilson told a Senate subcommittee, "What is good for the country is good for General Motors, and vice-versa." Wilson later served as United States Secretary of Defense under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. Bullmoose had a simple boyhood dream: to possess all the money in the world - which he very nearly did, as Bullmoose Industries seemed to own or control all businesses in Dogpatch. He had a milquetoast son named Weakfish, and was sometimes accompanied by his delectable "secretary", Bim Bovak (whose name was a pun on both "bimbo" and bombshell actress Kim Novak). Li'l Abner became embroiled in many globetrotting adventures with the ruthless, reactionary billionaire over the years. Despite his adamantine exterior, General Bullmoose was still capable of a kind of capitalist gallantry. "Those Slobbovians [q.v.] have done me out of a hundred thousand dollars!" he once exclaimed, after falling victim to a fraud. "Nearly an hour's income, bless 'em!" Wolf Gal: An irredeemably feral Amazonian beauty who was raised by wolves and preferred to live among them; she lured unwary Dogpatchers to their doom to feed her ravenous pack. Wolf Gal was possibly, and even probably a cannibal, but the point was never stressed since she considered herself an animal, as did the rest of Dogpatch. One of Capp's more popular villains, Wolf Gal was briefly merchandised in the fifties with her own comic book, doll, handpuppet, and even a latex Halloween mask. Earthquake McGoon: Billing himself as "the world's dirtiest wrassler", the bearded, bloated McGoon first appeared in Li'l Abner as a traveling exhibition wrestler in the late 1930s, and was reportedly partially based on real-life grappler Man Mountain Dean. He also has a look-alike cousin named Typhoon McGoon. McGoon became increasingly prominent in the Li'l Abner Cream of Wheat print ads of the 1940s, and later, with the early television exposure of gimmicky wrestlers such as Gorgeous George. Earthquake is the nastiest resident of neighboring Skonk Hollow — a nightmarish, notoriously lawless community where no sane Dogpatcher dares set foot. The randy McGoon often attempted to walk Daisy Mae home "Skonk Hollow style", the lascivious implications of which are never made specific. The (shudder!) Scraggs: Hulking, leering, gap-toothed twin miscreants Lem and Luke and their needlessly proud pappy, Romeo. Apelike and gleefully homicidal, the impossibly evil Scraggs were officially declared inhuman by an act of Congress, and passed the time by burning down orphanages just to have light to read by (although they quickly remembered that they were illiterate). Distant kinfolk of Daisy Mae, they carried on a blood feud with the Yokums throughout the run of the strip; in their first introduction after being run out of a Kentucky county at gunpoint, they tried to kill Li'l Abner but were beaten up by both Abner and Mammy Yokum. Mammy then banished the Scraggs to Skonk Hollow with a dividing line between Skonk Hollow and Dogpatch, with the understanding that although the Scraggs couldn't cross the line, any member of Dogpatch who did cross became their prey. A long-lost kid sister, named "@!!!"-Belle Scragg, briefly joined the clan in 1947. Fetchingly-attired in a prison-striped reform school miniskirt, "@!!!"-Belle was outwardly attractive but just as rotten as her siblings on the inside. Her censored first name was an expletive, compelling everyone who addressed her to apologize profusely afterwards. Nightmare Alice: Dogpatch's own "conjurin' woman", a hideous, cackling crone who practiced Louisiana Voodoo and black magic. Capp named her after the carnival-themed horror film, Nightmare Alley (1947). She employs witchcraft to "whomp up" ghosts and monsters to do her bidding. She was occasionally assisted by Doctor Babaloo, a witch doctor of the Belgian Congo, as well as her demon-child niece Scary Lou, who specializes in vexing voodoo dolls that resemble Li'l Abner. Ole Man Mose: The mysterious Mose was reportedly hundreds of "y'ars" old, and lived like a hermit in a cave atop a mountain, obstinately refusing to "kick the bucket", which was conveniently positioned just outside his cave door. His wisdom is absolute ("Ole Man Mose — he knows!"), and his sought-after annual Sadie Hawkins Day predictions — though frustratingly cryptic and infuriatingly misleading — are nonetheless 100% accurate. Evil Eye Fleagle: Fleagle has a unique and terrifying skill: the evil eye. An ordinary "whammy", as he called it, could stop a charging bull in its tracks. A "double whammy" could fell a skyscraper, leaving Fleagle exhausted. His dreaded "triple whammy" could melt a battleship, but would practically kill Fleagle in the process. The zoot suit-clad Fleagle was a native of Brooklyn, and his burlesque New York accent was unmistakable — especially when addressing his "goil", the zaftig Shoiley. Fleagle was so popular, licensed plastic replicas of Fleagle's face were produced in the 1950s, to be worn like lapel pins. Battery-operated, the wearer could pull a string and produce a flashing light bulb "whammy". Fleagle was reportedly based on a real-life character, a Runyonesque local boxing trainer and hanger-on named Benjamin "Evil Eye" Finkle. Finkle and his famous "hex" were a ringside fixture in New York boxing circles during the 1930s/40s. Fleagle was vividly portrayed by character actor Al Nesor in the aforementioned stage play and film. J. Roaringham Fatback: The bloated, self-styled "Pork King" was a greedy, gluttonous, unscrupulous business tycoon. Incensed to find that Dogpatch cast a shadow on his breakfast egg, he had the whole community moved to his convenience. Gat Garson: Li'l Abner's doppelgänger, a murderous racketeer with a predilection for Daisy Mae. Aunt Bessie: Mammy's socialite kid sister, the Duchess of Bopshire, was the "white sheep" of the family. Bessie's string of marriages into Boston and Park Avenue aristocracy left her a class-conscious, condescending snob. Her status-seeking crusades to make Abner over and marry him off into high society were always doomed to failure. Aunt Bessie virtually disappeared from the strip after Abner and Daisy Mae's marriage in 1952, apparently having conceded defeat in her attempt to remake Abner in her own image as a social climber. Big Barnsmell: The lonely "inside man" at the "Skonk Works" — a dilapidated factory located on the remote outskirts of Dogpatch. Scores of locals are done in yearly by the toxic fumes of concentrated "skonk oil", which is brewed and barreled daily by Barnsmell and his cousin ("outside man" Barney Barnsmell) by grinding dead skunks and worn shoes into a smoldering still, for some unspecified purpose. His job played havoc with his social life ("He has an air about him," as Dogpatchers tactfully put it), and the name of his famous facility entered the modern lexicon via the Lockheed Skunk Works project. Soft-Hearted John: Dogpatch's impossibly mercenary, thoroughly blackhearted grocer, the ironically named Soft-Hearted John gleefully swindled and starved his clientele, and looked disturbingly satanic to boot. He had an idiot nephew who sometimes ran the store in his stead, aptly named Soft-Headed John. Smilin' Zack: Cadaverous, outwardly peaceable mountaineer with a menacing grin and an even more menacing shotgun, and preferred things "quiet" to the point of silence. Zack's moniker was a take-off on another comic strip, The Adventures of Smilin' Jack by Zack Mosley. Dr. Killmare: The local Dogpatch physician, who just happened to be a horse doctor. His name was a pun on the sunny Dr. Kildare of film, radio, and television fame. Cap'n Eddie Ricketyback: Decrepit World War I aviator and proprietor/sole operator of the even more decrepit Dogpatch Airlines. Cap'n Eddie's name was a spoof of decorated World War I flying ace, Eddie Rickenbacker. In 1970, Cap'n Eddie and his firm Trans-Dogpatch Airlines were awarded the West Berlin Route by his old rival Count Felix Von Holenhedt. Count Felix Von Holenhedt: German flying ace who in 1970 (age 89) was appointed as West German Civil Aviation Chief. He was never photographed without his World War I spiked helmet on his head. He wore it to cover the hole in his head that had been caused by being shot "clean through th' haid, in a dogfight over Flanders Field in 1918" by Cap'n Eddie Ricketyback. Nonetheless, the two old enemies eventually patched things up; Cap'n Ricketyback even persuaded the Count to settle in the States. "Jah!" cried the Count. "I got a cousin in Milvaukee!" Von Holenhedt was also the only person able to properly play the "pfschlngg". This was a complexly shaped brass instrument, part of whose tubing needed to pass through the player's head. Weakeyes Yokum: Before Mister Magoo there was Dogpatch's own Cousin Weakeyes, who would tragically mistake grizzly bears for romantically inclined "rich gals" in fur coats, and end a sequence by characteristically walking off a cliff. Young Eddie McSkonk and U.S. Mule: Ancient, creaky, white-bearded Dogpatch postmaster and his hoary jackass mount. They were usually too feeble to handle the sacks of timeworn, cobweb-covered letters marked "Rush" at the Dogpatch Express Post Office. J. Colossal McGenius: The brilliant marketing consultant and "idea man" who charged $10,000 per word for his sought-after business advice. McGenius was given to telling long-winded jokes with forgotten punch lines, as well as spells of hiccups and belches (borne of a regrettable fondness for gassy soft drinks like "Burpsi-Booma" and "Eleven Urp") which, at the aforementioned fee, usually bankrupted his unfortunate clients. He was aided by his lovely and meticulously efficient secretary, Miss Pennypacker. Silent Yokum: Prudent Cousin Silent never utters a word unless it's absolutely, vitally important. Consequently, he hadn't spoken in 40 years. The arrival of Silent's grim visage in Dogpatch signaled earthshaking news on the horizon. Capp would milk reader suspense by having Silent "warm up" his rusty, creaking jaw muscles for a few days, before the momentous pronouncement. Happy Vermin: The "world's smartest cartoonist" — a caricature of Ham Fisher — who hired Li'l Abner to draw his comic strip for him in a dimly-lit closet. Instead of using Vermin's tired characters, Abner had inventively peopled the strip with hillbillies. A bighearted Vermin told his slaving assistant: "I'm proud of having created these characters!! They'll make millions for me!! And if they do — I'll get you a new light bulb!!" Big Stanislouse; aka Big Julius: Stanislouse was a brutal gangster with a childish fondness for kiddie TV superheroes (like "Chickensouperman" and "Milton the Masked Martian"). Part of a virtual goon squad of comic mobsters that inhabited Li'l Abner and Fearless Fosdick, the oafish Stanislouse alternated with other all-purpose underworld thugs, including "the Boys from the Syndicate" — Capp's euphemism for The Mob. The Square-Eyes Family: Mammy's revelatory encounter with these unpopular Dogpatch outcasts first appeared in 1956 as a thinly-veiled appeal for racial tolerance. It was later issued as an educational comic book — called Mammy Yokum and the Great Dogpatch Mystery! — by the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith. Appassionata Von Climax: One of a series of predatory, sexually aggressive sirens who pursued Li'l Abner prior to his marriage, and even afterwards, much to the consternation of Daisy Mae. Joining a long list of dishy femmes fatales and spoiled debutantes that included Gloria Van Welbilt, Moonlight Sonata, Mimi Van Pett and "The Tigress"; Appassionata was memorably portrayed by both Tina Louise (onstage) and Stella Stevens (on film). Capp always wondered how he ever got her suggestive name past the censors. Tenderleif Ericson: Discovered frozen in the mud where her Viking ship sank in 1047, Tenderleif was Leif Ericson's beautiful, teenaged kid sister (complete with breastplate armor, Viking helmet and burlesque Norwegian accent). As soon as she saw Li'l Abner, however, she started warming up and breathing hard. "She's seventeen y'ars old," explains Mammy, "and she hain't had a date fo' nine hunnerd y'ars!" Princess Minihahaskirt: Decades before Disney's Pocahontas, the sexiest cartoon Indian princesses could be found in Li'l Abner. The most notable in a series of native maidens who enticed the normally stoic Lonesome Polecat, the list also included Minnie Mustache, Raving Dove, Little Turkey Wing and Princess Two Feathers. Liddle Noodnik: A typically miserable resident of perpetually frozen Lower Slobbovia, naked local waif Liddle Noodnik was usually employed to recite a farcical poem of greeting to visiting dignitaries, or sing the absurd Slobbovian national anthem (see "setting and fictitious locales"). Like many terms in Li'l Abner, Noodnik's name was derived from Yiddish. Nudnik is a slang term for a bothersome person or pest. Pantless Perkins: A very late addition to the strip, Capp introduced Honest Abe's brainy, ragamuffin pal Pantless Perkins in a series of kid-themed stories in the seventies, probably to compete with Peanuts. Pantless didn't own a single pair of trousers. He wore an over-length turtleneck sweater to hide the fact — much to his embarrassment. In one storyline, the nearest he ever got a pair of pants was when he helps Honest Abe find a long lost love of a millionaire in return for a pair of pants. Unfortunately the prospective groom drops dead after tasting the terrible cooking of his bride to be, and Pantless remains so. Rotten Ralphie: The kiddie version of Earthquake McGoon, Ralphie lived up to his name as the Dogpatch neighborhood bully. Exceedingly large for his age, Ralphie always wore a cowboy outfit that was several sizes too small. In one storyline after Ralphie beats up every boy in Dogpatch at the same time, he himself is beaten up when Pantless Perkins and Honest Abe trick Ralphie into getting into a fight with the Scragg boys of Skonk Hollow. Marcia Perkins: Innocent, outwardly normal teenager whose lips give off 451 °F of electromagnetic heat, frying the brain of any boy who kisses her. Declared a walking health hazard, Marcia wears a public warning sign ("Do Not Kiss This Girl, by Order of the Dept. of Health, Education and Welfare"). Her notoriety precedes her everywhere except Dogpatch, where she meets and falls for Tiny Yokum. Bet-a-Million Bashby: Bashby amassed his colossal fortune by following one simple rule: Always bet on a sure thing, and always bet with a fool. He hadn't reckoned on fool's luck, however. All through the years Bashby bet on sure things, and all through the years Abner won. The Widder Fruitful: Another iconic Dogpatch "regular", often glimpsed in passing or featured in crowd scenes. The ample, fertile widow invariably held three or four naked newborns under each arm, always carried backside forward, with a healthy brood of earlier offspring following in her wake. Loverboynik: In 1954, Capp sent a letter to Liberace addressing his intention to spoof him in Li'l Abner as "Liverachy". Liberace had his lawyers threaten to sue. Capp went ahead anyway, with a significant name change. Billed as the "Sweetheart of the Piano", Loverboynik is a blonde "dimpled darling" pianist and TV heartthrob. According to Capp, Liberace was "cut to the quick" when the parody appeared. Capp insisted that Loverboynik was not Liberace because Loverboynik "could play the piano rather decently and rarely wore black lace underwear." Rock Hustler: Unscrupulous publicity agent-turned-marketing mogul. He masterminds an ad campaign promoting the miracle diet food "Mockaroni", carefully neglecting to disclose that it's both addictive and lethal. "The more you crave, the more you eat. The more you eat, the thinner you get — until you (shudder!) float away..." Dumpington Van Lump: The bloated, almost catatonic heir to the Van Lump fortune, Dumpington can only utter one syllable ("Urp!") until he sets sight on Daisy Mae. A somewhat subhuman fiend, his favorite book is the disturbingly-titled How to Make Lampshades Out of Your Friends. Capp chose the Dumpington sequence to illustrate his lesson on continuity storytelling in the Famous Artists Cartoon Course. Sam the Centaur: A "mythical critter" with a classic, chiseled profile and Apollo-like blonde mane, Sam is a Greek centaur who occasionally roams the mountains of Dogpatch instead of the mountains of Thessaly. Available Jones, "th' most book-educated varmint in Dogpatch," pronounces: "He hain't real!" Jubilation T. Cornpone: Dogpatch's founder and most famous son, memorialized by a town statue, is Confederate General Jubilation T. Cornpone — renowned for "Cornpone's Retreat", "Cornpone's Disaster", "Cornpone's Stupidity", "Cornpone's Misjudgment", "Cornpone's Hoomiliation" and "Cornpone's Final Mistake". Cornpone was such a disastrously incompetent military leader that he came to be considered an important asset of the opposing side. According to the stage play, the statue was commissioned by a grateful Abraham Lincoln. Cornpone's only victories were posthumous — in one storyline, the General's statue is filled with Kickapoo Joy juice, which brings it to "life." It then goes on a rampage, beheading all the statues of Union Army generals. As the U.S. Army can't destroy it, since it's a National Monument, Kickapoo Joy Juice is poured into a Union statue which results in both statues charging one another. When the smoke clears, the animated statues have annihilated each other. At Mammy Yokum's urging the statue pieces are put back together with glue. The hapless general is really best known for being the namesake of the rousing musical number (a "showstopper") in the popular Li'l Abner musical, as sung by Marryin' Sam and chorus. Jubilation T. Cornpone Jr: son of General Cornpone. A former "commander" army mules, he became Commander of all U.N. Forces against Invaders from Outer Space, despite being described as the most incompetent general of all time. It later emerged he was given the job because no other General would take it. Cornpone fell in love with big-eyed "Princess Pocahauntingeyes" and lived with her in the land above the Dogpatch via the "Trashbean stalk", although he is later henpecked into submission. Romeo McHaystack: A would-be Don Juan of Pineapple Junction, whose attempts at romancing women are frustrated because the Civic Improvement League tattooed a warning about him on his forehead. Discouraged, he suddenly decides to romance Dogpatch women when he discovers that because atomic waste is suspended above the town, casting it permanently in darkness. Sadie Hawkins: In the early days of Dogpatch, Sadie Hawkins was "the homeliest gal in them hills" who grew frantic waiting for suitors to come for her. Her father Hekzebiah Hawkins, a prominent Dogpatch resident, grew even more frantic about Sadie living at home for the rest of his life, and decreed the first annual Sadie Hawkins Day, a foot race in which all the unmarried women pursued the town's bachelors with matrimony as the consequence. A pseudo-holiday entirely created in the strip, it's still frequently observed today in the form of Sadie Hawkins dances, to which it is customary for women to ask men and at which women approach (or chase after) men. Lena the Hyena: A hideous Lower Slobbovian gal, referred to but initially unseen or only glimpsed from the neck down in Li'l Abner. Lena was so ugly that anyone who saw her was immediately driven insane. After weeks of teasing his readers by hiding Lena's face behind "censored" stickers and strategically placed dialogue balloons, Capp invited fans to draw Lena in a famous nationwide contest in 1946. Lena was ultimately revealed in the harrowing winning entry (as judged by Frank Sinatra, Boris Karloff and Salvador Dalí) drawn by noted cartoonist Basil Wolverton. Joanie Phoanie: An unabashed Communist radical and agitator, who sang revolutionary songs of class warfare (with burlesque titles like "Molotov Cocktails for Two") while hypocritically traveling via limousine and charging outrageous concert appearance fees to impoverished orphans. Joanie was Capp's parody of protest singer/songwriter Joan Baez. The character caused a storm of controversy in 1966, and many newspapers would only run censored versions of the strips. Baez took Capp's implicit satire to heart, however, as she would admit years later in her autobiography: "Mr Capp confused me considerably. I'm sorry he's not alive to read this, it would make him chuckle" (from And a Voice to Sing With: A Memoir, 1987). S.W.I.N.E.: Capp used Li'l Abner to satirize current events, fads, and ephemeral popular culture (such as zoot suits in "Zoot Suit Yokum", 1943). Beginning in the mid-1960s, the strip became a forum for Capp's increasingly conservative political views. Capp, who lived in Cambridge, Massachusetts, just a stone's throw from Harvard, satirized campus radicals, militant student political groups and hippies during the Vietnam War protest era. The Youth International Party (YIP) and Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) emerged in Li'l Abner as S.W.I.N.E. (Students Wildly Indignant about Nearly Everything). Al Capp claimed that he always strove to give incidental characters in Li'l Abner names that would render all further description unnecessary. In that spirit, the following list of recurring semi-regulars (and a few one-shots) are unreferenced: Tobacco Rhoda, Joan L. Sullivan, Hamfat Gooch, Global McBlimp, Concertino Constipato, Jinx Rasputinburg, J. Sweetbody Goodpants, Reactionary J. Repugnant, B. Fowler McNest, Fleabrain, Stubborn P. Tolliver, Idiot J. Tolliver, Battling McNoodnik, Mayor Dan'l Dawgmeat, Slobberlips McJab, One-Fault Jones, Swami Riva, Olman Riva, Sir Orble Gasse-Payne, Black Rufe, Mickey Looney, "Ironpants" Bailey, Henry Cabbage Cod, Flash Boredom, Priceless and Liceless, Hopeless and Soapless, Disgustin' Jones, Skelton McCloset, Hawg McCall, "Good old" Bedly Damp, and a host of others. Fearless Fosdick Li'l Abner also featured a comic strip-within-the-strip: Fearless Fosdick was a parody of Chester Gould's plainclothes detective, Dick Tracy. It first appeared in 1942, and proved so popular that it ran intermittently in Li'l Abner over the next 35 years. Gould was also personally parodied in the series as cartoonist Lester Gooch — the diminutive, much-harassed and occasionally deranged "creator" of Fearless Fosdick. The style of the Fosdick sequences closely mimicked Tracy, including the urban setting, the outrageous villains, the galloping mortality rate, the crosshatched shadows, the lettering style — even Gould's familiar signature was parodied in Fearless Fosdick. Fosdick battled a succession of archenemies with absurdly unlikely names like Rattop, Anyface, Bombface, Boldfinger, the Atom Bum, the Chippendale Chair, and Sidney the Crooked Parrot, as well as his own criminal mastermind father, "Fearful" Fosdick (aka "The Original"). The razor-jawed title character (Li'l Abner's "ideel") was perpetually ventilated by flying bullets until he resembled a slice of Swiss cheese. The impervious Fosdick considered the gaping, smoking holes "mere scratches", however, and always reported back in one piece to his corrupt superior "The Chief" for duty the next day. Besides being fearless, Fosdick was "pure, underpaid and purposeful", according to his creator. He also had notoriously bad aim — often leaving a trail of collateral damage (in the form of bullet-riddled pedestrians) in his wake. "When Fosdick is after a lawbreaker, there is no escape for the miscreant," Capp wrote in 1956. "There is, however, a fighting chance to escape for hundreds of innocent bystanders who happen to be in the neighborhood — but only a fighting chance. Fosdick's duty, as he sees it, is not so much to maintain safety as to destroy crime, and it's too much to ask any law-enforcement officer to do both, I suppose." Fosdick lived in squalor at the dilapidated boarding house run by his mercenary landlady, Mrs. Flintnose. He never married his own long-suffering fiancée Prudence Pimpleton (despite an engagement of 17 years), but Fosdick was directly responsible for the unwitting marriage of his biggest fan, Li'l Abner, to Daisy Mae in 1952. The bumbling detective became the star of his own NBC-TV puppet show that same year. Fosdick also achieved considerable exposure as the long-running advertising spokesman for Wildroot Cream-Oil, a popular men's hair product of the postwar period. Setting and fictitious locales Although ostensibly set in the Kentucky mountains, situations often took the characters to different destinations — including New York City, Washington, D.C., Hollywood, the South American Amazon, tropical islands, the Moon, Mars, etc. — as well as some purely fanciful worlds of Capp's imagination: Dogpatch Exceeding every burlesque stereotype of Appalachia, the impoverished backwater of Dogpatch consisted mostly of hopelessly ramshackle log cabins, "tarnip" fields, pine trees and "hawg" wallows. Most Dogpatchers were shiftless and ignorant; the remainder were scoundrels and thieves. The menfolk were too lazy to work, yet Dogpatch gals were desperate enough to chase them (see Sadie Hawkins Day). Those who farmed their turnip fields watched "turnip termites" swarm by the billions every year, locust-like, to devour Dogpatch's only crop (along with their homes, their livestock and all their clothing). The local geography was fluid and vividly complex; Capp continually changed it to suit either his whims or the current storyline. Natural landmarks included (at various times) Teeterin' Rock, Onneccessary Mountain, Bottomless Canyon, and Kissin' Rock (handy to Suicide Cliff). Local attractions that reappeared in the strip included the West Po'k Chop Railroad; the "Skonk Works", a dilapidated factory located on the remote outskirts of Dogpatch; and the General Jubilation T. Cornpone memorial statue. In one storyline Dogpatch's "Cannonball Express" train, after 1,563 tries, finally delivers its "cargo" to Dogpatch citizens on October 12, 1946, Receiving a 13-year stack of newspapers, Li'l Abner's family realizes that the Great Depression is on and that banks should close; they race to take their money out of the bank before realizing they have no money to begin with. Other news is the inauguration of Franklin Delano Roosevelt as president on March 4, 1933 (although Mammy Yokum thinks the President is Teddy Roosevelt), and a picture of Germany's "new leader" Adolf Hitler who claims to love peace while reviewing 20,000 new planes (April 21, 1933). In the midst of the Great Depression, the hardscrabble residents of lowly Dogpatch allowed suffering Americans to laugh at yokels even worse off than themselves. In Al Capp's own words, Dogpatch was "an average stone-age community nestled in a bleak valley, between two cheap and uninteresting hills somewhere." Early in the continuity Capp a few times referred to Dogpatch being in Kentucky, but he was careful afterwards to keep its location generic, probably to avoid cancellations from offended Kentucky newspapers. From then on, he referred to it as Dogpatch, USA, and did not give any specific location as to exactly where it was supposed to be located. Humorously enough, many states tried to claim ownership to the little town (Georgia, Tennessee, Alabama, etc.), yet Capp would not budge. He left it at Dogpatch USA so there would be no headaches and problems. Like the Coconino County depicted in George Herriman's Krazy Kat and the Okefenokee Swamp of Walt Kelly's Pogo, and, most recently and famously, The Simpsons "Springfield", Dogpatch's distinctive cartoon landscape became as identified with the strip as any of its characters. Later, Capp licensed and was part-owner of an $35 million theme park called Dogpatch USA near Harrison, Arkansas. Lower Slobbovia As utterly wretched as existence was in Dogpatch, there was one place even worse. Frigid, faraway Lower Slobbovia was fashioned as a pointedly political satire of backward nations and foreign diplomacy, and remains a contemporary reference. Its hapless residents were perpetually waist-deep in several feet of snow, and icicles hung from almost every frostbitten nose. The favorite dish of the starving natives was raw polar bear (and vice versa). Lower Slobbovians spoke with burlesque pidgin-Russian accents; the miserable frozen wasteland of Capp's invention abounded in incongruous Yiddish humor. Slobbovia is an iceberg, which (as real icebergs do) continually capsizes as its lower portions melt. This dunks Upper Slobbovia into Lower Slobbovia, and raises the latter into the former—a classic example of a literal revolution. Lower Slobbovia and Dogpatch are both comic examples of modern dystopian satire. Conceptually based on Siberia, or perhaps specifically on Birobidzhan, Capp's icy hellhole made its first appearance in Li'l Abner in April 1946. Ruled by Good King Nogoodnik (sometimes known as King Stubbornovsky the Last), the Slobbovian politicians were even more corrupt than their Dogpatch counterparts. Their monetary unit was the "rasbucknik", of which one was worth nothing and a large quantity was worth a lot less, due to the trouble of carrying them around. The local children were read harrowing tales from "Ice-sop's Fables", which were parodies of classic Aesop Fables, but with a darkly sardonic bent (and titles like "Coldilocks and the Three Bares"). Other fictional locales Other fictional locales included Skonk Hollow, El Passionato, Kigmyland, the Republic of Crumbumbo, Lo Kunning, Faminostan, Planets Pincus Number 2 and 7, Pineapple Junction and, most notably, the Valley of the Shmoon. Mythic creatures Li'l Abner featured a whole menagerie of allegorical animals over the years — each one was designed to satirically showcase another disturbing aspect of human nature. They included: Shmoos, introduced in 1948, were fabulous creatures that bred exponentially, consumed nothing, and eagerly provided everything that humankind could wish for. Besides producing both milk (bottled, grade A) and eggs (neatly packaged), they tasted like pork when roasted, chicken when fried, and steak when broiled. Ironically, the shmoo's generous nature and incredible usefulness made it a threat to capitalism, to western society and perhaps to civilization itself. Kigmies — Masochistic, aboriginal creatures who loved to be kicked, thereby satisfying all human aggression, up to a point, after which they went on a rampage of retaliation. (The Kigmy story was originally fashioned as a metaphor for racial and religious oppression. Capp's surviving preliminary sketches of the kigmies make this apparent, as detailed in the introductory notes to Li'l Abner Dailies 1949: Volume 15, Kitchen Sink Press, 1992). The Bald Iggle — A cute little wide-eyed, guileless creature whose soulful gaze compelled everyone to involuntarily tell the truth — including lawyers, politicians, fishermen, advertisers, husbands, wives and used car salesmen. The Iggle was officially declared a public menace by the FBI ("The life it ruins may be your own!"), and ultimately hunted down, confiscated and exterminated. Nogoodniks — or bad shmoos. Nogoodniks were a "sickly shade of green", had "li'l red eyes, sharp yaller teeth, an' a dirty look," and were the sworn enemies of "hoomanity". Frequently sporting 5 o'clock shadows, eye patches, scars, fangs and other ruffian attributes — they devoured "good" shmoos, and wreaked havoc on Dogpatch. They are finally defeated when they get subjected to George Jessel's recording of Paul Whiteman's "Wagon Wheels", a sound so excruciating that it kills them instantly. (Similar plot devices were used in the 1978 Attack of the Killer Tomatoes and 1996 Mars Attacks!.) Shminfants — Modified baby shmoos, which looked like human babies but were eternally young, came in a variety of different "colors", and never needed changing. Shtoonks — Imported from the Slobbovian embassy, Shtoonks were mean-spirited, sharp-toothed, hairy, flying creatures which were "not only sneaky, smelly and surly, but — yak! yak! — just try to eat one!!" Shtoonks had only one useful trait: they loved human misery so much they actually enjoyed bringing bad news. They temporarily replaced postage stamps by delivering bills and other bad news for free. Mimikniks — Obsessive Slobbovian songbirds who sing like anyone they have ever heard. (Those who have heard Maria Callas are valued. Those who have heard George Jessel are shot.) The only song they know the words to is Short'nin' Bread, however, due to the fact that there was only one record in Lower Slobbovia. The Money Ha-Ha — An alien creature from "Planet Pincus No. 2", with ears shaped like taxi horns. It laid U.S. currency in place of eggs. Turnip Termites — Looking like a cross between a locust and a piranha, billions of these insatiable pests swarm once a year to their ancient feeding ground, Dogpatch. Shminks — Valued for making "shmink coats". They can only be captured by braining them with a kitchen door. Pincushions — Alien beings from "Planet Pincus No. 7". Like the earlier Moon Critters, they looked like flying sausages with pinwheels on their posteriors. Abominable Snow-Hams — Delectable but intelligent and sensitive beings, presenting Tiny Yokum with an ethical dilemma: if eating one constitutes cannibalism. The Slobbovian Amp-Eater — This luminous beast consumed electric currents; a walking energy crisis. Bashful Bulganiks — Timid birds that are so skittish they can not be seen by human eyes, and are thus theoretical. Stunflowers — Murderous, thoroughly malevolent anthropomorphic houseplants; anyone trying to pick their seeds ends up falling into Bottomless Canyon forever. Fatoceroses — The only defense against a stampede of these bloated pachyderms is a steaming plate of lethally addictive "Mockaroni". Bitingales — Small, fiendish devil birds whose hellish bite causes unbearable heat — for 24 years. The Slobbovian King Crab — A huge crustacean that only eats Slobbovian kings. Later supplemented by a marsupial called the Kingaroo, "which only eats [Slobbovian] kings" The Flapaloo — A scrawny, prehistoric bird that lays 1,000 eggs per minute. The eggs, when dissolved, turn water into gasoline. The Oil industry captures the last one in existence, and mercilessly wrings its neck. Gobbleglops — Looking like a cross between a hog and a teddy bear, these insatiable creatures eat rubbish (or as Mammy calls it, "glop"). They cannot be touched, as they are red-hot, living incinerators; waste goes in and nothing comes out. Mammy leads them to America's major polluted cities, where they obligingly devour all the garbage. But when the glop runs out — they begin to consume everything (and everyone) else in sight. Shmeagles — The world's most amorous creatures, they pursue their females at the speed of light — sometimes even faster. Hammus Alabammus — Faux Latin designation for an adorable (and delectable) species of swine, with a "zoot snoot" and a "drape shape". The only known femalein existence resides with the Yokums — their beloved pet, Salomey. Dialogue and catchphrases Al Capp, a native northeasterner, wrote all the final dialogue in Li'l Abner using his approximation of a mock-southern dialect (including phonetic sounds, eye dialect (nonstandard spelling for speech to draw attention to pronunciation), nonstop "creative" spelling and deliberate malapropisms). He constantly interspersed boldface type, and included prompt words in parentheses (chuckle!, sob!, gasp!, shudder!, smack!, drool!, cackle!, snort!, gulp!, blush!, ugh!, etc.) as asides, to bolster the effect of the printed speech balloons. Almost every line was followed by two exclamation marks for added emphasis. Outside Dogpatch, characters used a variety of stock Vaudevillian dialects. Mobsters and criminal-types invariably spoke slangy Brooklynese, and residents of Lower Slobbovia spoke pidgin-Russian, with a smattering of Yinglish. Comic dialects were also devised for offbeat British characters — like H'Inspector Blugstone of Scotland Yard (who had a Cockney accent) and Sir Cecil Cesspool (whose speech was a clipped, uppercrust King's English). Various Asian, Latin, Native American and European characters spoke in a wide range of specific, broadly caricatured dialects as well. Capp has credited his inspiration for vividly stylized language to early literary influences like Charles Dickens, Mark Twain and Damon Runyon, as well as Old-time radio and the Burlesque stage. Comics historian Don Markstein commented that Capp's "use of language was both unique and universally appealing; and his clean, bold cartooning style provided a perfect vehicle for his creations." The following is a partial list of characteristic expressions that reappeared often in Li'l Abner: "Natcherly!" "Amoozin' but confoozin'!" "Yo' big, sloppy beast!!" (also, "Yo' mizzable skonk!!") "Ef Ah had mah druthers, Ah'd druther..." "As any fool kin plainly see!" (Response: "Ah sees!") "What's good for General Bullmoose is good for everybody!" (Variant from the movie: "...good for the USA!") "Thar's no Jack S. like our Jack S!" "Oh, happy day!" "Th' ideel o' ev'ry one hunnerd percent, red-blooded American boy!" "Ah'll bash yore haid in!!" "Wal, fry mah hide!" (also, "Wal, cuss mah bones!") Pappy Yokum utters this tagline when, thinking he is dreaming, actually commands a bottle genie to do his bidding. Awakening, he exclaims the phrase. "A wish is a wish," says the genie. The next comic frame says: HIDE FRIED "Ah has spoken!" "Good is better than evil becuz it's nicer!" "It hain't hoomin, thass whut it hain't!" Toppers and alternate strips Li'l Abner had several toppers on the Sunday page, including Washable Jones (Feb 24 - June 9, 1935) Advice fo' Chillun, aka Advice fo' Gals, Advice fo' Parents, Advice fo' Yo' All and other titles (June 23, 1935 – Aug 15, 1943) Small Change, aka Small Fry (May 31, 1942 - 1944) The Sunday page debuted six months into the run of the strip. The first topper was Washable Jones, a weekly continuity about a four-year-old hillbilly boy who goes fishing and accidentally hooks a ghost, which he pulls from the water. After four months of fantasy adventure, Capp ended the strip with Washable's mother waking him up; the story was a dream. After this, Capp simply expanded Li'l Abner by another row, and filled the rest of the space with a page-wide title panel and a small panel called Advice fo' Chillun. Washable Jones later appeared in the strip in a Shmoo-related storyline in 1949, and he appeared with the Shmoos in two one-shot comics -- Al Capp's Shmoo in Washable Jones' Travels (1950, a premium for Oxydol laundry detergent) and Washable Jones and the Shmoo #1 (1953, published by the Capp-owned publisher Toby Press). Al Capp also wrote two other daily comic strips: Abbie an' Slats, drawn by Raeburn van Buren (Capp wrote the strip from July 12, 1937, through 1945: writing of the strip was continued by Capp's brother Elliot Caplin until the strip's demise on January 30, 1971) Long Sam, drawn by Bob Lubbers (Capp wrote the strip from May 31, 1954, through sometime in 1955; writing of the strip was continued by Elliot Caplin for a time, and then by Lubbers until the strip ended on December 29, 1962) Licensing, advertising and promotion Al Capp was a master of the arts of marketing and promotion. Publicity campaigns were devised to boost circulation and increase public visibility of Li'l Abner, often coordinating with national magazines, radio and television. In 1946 Capp persuaded six of the most popular radio personalities (Frank Sinatra, Kate Smith, Danny Kaye, Bob Hope, Fred Waring and Smilin' Jack Smith) to broadcast a song he'd written for Daisy Mae: (Li'l Abner) Don't Marry That Girl!! Other promotional tie-ins included the Lena the Hyena Contest (1946), the Name the Shmoo Contest (1949), the Nancy O. Contest (1951), the Roger the Lodger Contest (1964) and many others. Capp also excelled at product endorsement, and Li'l Abner characters were often featured in mid-century American advertising campaigns. Dogpatch characters pitched consumer products as varied as Grape-Nuts cereal, Kraft caramels, Ivory soap, Oxydol, Duz and Dreft detergents, Fruit of the Loom, Orange Crush, Nestlé's cocoa, Cheney neckties, Pedigree pencils, Strunk chainsaws, U.S. Royal tires, Head & Shoulders shampoo and General Electric light bulbs. There were even Dogpatch-themed family restaurants called "Li'l Abner's" in Louisville, Kentucky, Morton Grove, Illinois, and Seattle, Washington. Capp himself appeared in numerous print ads. A lifelong chain-smoker, he happily plugged Chesterfield cigarettes; he appeared in Schaeffer fountain pen ads with his friends Milton Caniff and Walt Kelly; pitched the Famous Artists School (in which he had a financial interest) along with Caniff, Rube Goldberg, Virgil Partch, Willard Mullin and Whitney Darrow, Jr; and, though a professed teetotaler, he personally endorsed Rheingold Beer, among other products. Cream of Wheat: Throughout the 1940s and 1950s, Li'l Abner was the spokesman for Cream of Wheat cereal in a long-running series of comic strip-format ads that appeared in national magazines including Life, Good Housekeeping, and Ladies' Home Journal. The ads usually featured Daisy Mae calling for "halp" against a threatening menace — in the person of Earthquake McGoon or, just as often, a gorilla, grizzly bear, rampaging moose, "Injun" attack, or some natural disaster like an avalanche, fire or flood. Abner is dispatched to rescue her, but not before enjoying a "dee-lishus" enriched bowl of hot Cream of Wheat which, the reader is assured, is "ready in just 5 minutes!" Wildroot Cream-Oil: Fearless Fosdick was licensed for use in an advertising campaign for Wildroot Cream-Oil, a popular men's hair tonic. Fosdick's iconic profile on tin signs and advertising displays became a prominent fixture in barbershops across America — advising readers to "Get Wildroot Cream-Oil, Charlie!" A series of ads appeared in newspapers, magazines and comic books featuring Fosdick's farcical battles with "Anyface" — a murderous master of disguise. (Anyface was always given away by his telltale dandruff and messy hair, however.) Toys and licensed merchandise: Dogpatch characters were heavily licensed throughout the 1940s and 1950s: the main cast was produced as a set of six handpuppets and dolls by Baby Barry Toys in 1957. A 10-figure set of carnival chalkware statues of Dogpatch characters was manufactured by Artrix Products in 1951, and Topstone introduced a line of 16 rubber Halloween masks prior to 1960. Licensing would reach an apex, however, with the unexpected postwar merchandising phenomenon that followed Capp's introduction of the Shmoo. As in the strip, shmoos suddenly appeared to be everywhere in 1948 and 1949. A garment factory in Baltimore turned out a whole line of shmoo apparel — including "Shmooveralls". Shmoo dolls, clocks, watches, jewelry, earmuffs, wallpaper, fishing lures, air fresheners, soap, ice cream, balloons, ashtrays, comic books, records, sheet music, toys, games, Halloween masks, salt and pepper shakers, decals, pinbacks, tumblers, coin banks, greeting cards, planters, neckties, suspenders, belts, curtains, fountain pens, and other shmoo paraphernalia were produced. In a single year, shmoo merchandise generated over $25 million in sales. Close to a hundred licensed shmoo products from 75 different manufacturers were produced, some of which sold five million units each. More recently, Dark Horse Comics issued four figures of Abner, Daisy Mae, Fosdick and the Shmoo in 2000 as part of their line of Classic Comic Characters — statues #8, 9, 17 and 31, respectively. Kickapoo Joy Juice: The lethal brew known as Kickapoo Joy Juice, featured in the strip and characterized as moonshine or bootleg liquor (it could also remove hair, paint and tattoos) has been a licensed brand in real-life since 1965. The National NuGrape Company first produced the beverage, which was acquired in 1968 by the Moxie Company, and eventually the Monarch Beverage Company of Atlanta, Georgia. As with Mountain Dew, another euphemism for moonshine, the actual product is a soft-drink. To this day the label features Capp's characters Hairless Joe and Lonesome Polecat. Distribution currently includes the United States, Canada, Singapore, Bangladesh, China, Pakistan, Malaysia, Mongolia, Brunei, Indonesia and Thailand. Dogpatch USA: In 1968, an $35 million theme park called Dogpatch USA opened at Marble Falls, Arkansas, based on Capp's work and with his support. The gift shops sold "hillbilly" souvenirs like corncob pipes and moonshine jugs. In addition to the newly constructed rides and attractions, many of the buildings in the park were authentic 19th century log structures purchased by general manager James H. Schermerhorn. The logs in each building were numbered, catalogued, disassembled and reassembled at the park. Dogpatch USA was a popular attraction during the 1970s, but was closed in 1993 due to mismanagement and financial difficulties. Several attempts have been made to reopen the park but at present it lies abandoned. As of late 2005, the area once devoted to a live-action facsimile of Dogpatch (including a lifesize statue in the town square of Dogpatch "founder" Jubilation T. Cornpone) has been heavily stripped by vandals and souvenir hunters, and is today slowly being reclaimed by the surrounding Arkansas wilderness. It was announced that Dogpatch will reopen as Heritage USA in October 2018. Awards and recognition Fans of the strip ranged from novelist John Steinbeck, who called Capp "very possibly the best writer in the world today" in 1953, and even earnestly recommended him for the Nobel Prize in literature — to media critic and theorist Marshall McLuhan, who considered Capp "the only robust satirical force in American life." John Updike, calling Li'l Abner a "hillbilly Candide", added that the strip's "richness of social and philosophical commentary approached the Voltairean." Capp has been compared, at various times, to Fyodor Dostoevsky, Jonathan Swift, Lawrence Sterne, and Rabelais. Journalism Quarterly and Time have both called him "the Mark Twain of cartoonists". Charlie Chaplin, William F. Buckley, Al Hirschfeld, Harpo Marx, Russ Meyer, John Kenneth Galbraith, Ralph Bakshi, Shel Silverstein, Hugh Downs, Gene Shalit, Frank Cho, Daniel Clowes and (reportedly) even Queen Elizabeth have confessed to being fans of Li'l Abner. In his seminal book Understanding Media, Marshall McLuhan considered Li'l Abner's Dogpatch "a paradigm of the human situation". Comparing Capp to other contemporary humorists, McLuhan once wrote: "Arno, Nash, and Thurber are brittle, wistful little précieux beside Capp!" In his essay "The Decline of the Comics", (Canadian Forum, January 1954) literary critic Hugh MacLean classified American comic strips into four types: daily gag, adventure, soap opera, and "an almost lost comic ideal: the disinterested comment on life's pattern and meaning." In the fourth type, according to MacLean, there were only two: Pogo and Li'l Abner. In 2002 the Chicago Tribune, in a review of The Short Life and Happy Times of the Shmoo, noted: "The wry, ornery, brilliantly perceptive satirist will go down as one of the Great American Humorists." In America's Great Comic Strip Artists (1997), comics historian Richard Marschall analyzed the overtly misanthropic subtext of Li'l Abner: Li'l Abner was also the subject of the first book-length, scholarly assessment of a comic strip ever published. Li'l Abner: A Study in American Satire by Arthur Asa Berger (Twayne, 1969) contained serious analyses of Capp's narrative technique, his use of dialogue, self-caricature and grotesquerie, the strip's overall place in American satire, and the significance of social criticism and the graphic image. "One of the few strips ever taken seriously by students of American culture," wrote Professor Berger, "Li'l Abner is worth studying...because of Capp's imagination and artistry, and because of the strip's very obvious social relevance." It was reprinted by the University Press of Mississippi in 1994. Al Capp's life and career are the subjects of a new life-sized mural commemorating his 100th birthday, displayed in downtown Amesbury, Massachusetts.Amesbury Gives Li'l Abner His Due Boston Globe May 15, 2010 According to the Boston Globe (as reported on May 18, 2010), the town has renamed its amphitheater in the artist's honor, and is looking to develop an Al Capp Museum. Capp is also the subject of an upcoming PBS American Masters documentary produced by his granddaughter, independent filmmaker Caitlin Manning. National Cartoonists Society Reuben Award (1947) for "Cartoonist of the Year". Inkpot Award (1978) bestowed by Comic-Con International. National Cartoonists Society Elzie Segar Award (1979) for a "unique and outstanding contribution to the profession of cartooning." Al Capp, an inductee into the National Cartoon Museum (formerly the International Museum of Cartoon Art), is one of only 31 artists honored by inclusion into their Hall of Fame. Al Capp was inducted into the Will Eisner Award Hall of Fame in 2004. "Neither the strip's shifting political leanings nor the slide of its final few years had any bearing on its status as a classic; and in 1995, it was recognized as such by the U.S. Postal Service. Li'l Abner was one of 20 American comic strips included in the Comic Strip Classics series of USPS commemorative stamps. Influence and legacy Sadie Hawkins Day An American folk event, Sadie Hawkins Day is a pseudo-holiday entirely created within the strip. It made its debut in Li'l Abner on November 15, 1937. Capp originally created it as a comic plot device, but in 1939, only two years after its inauguration, a double-page spread in Life proclaimed, "On Sadie Hawkins Day Girls Chase Boys in 201 Colleges". By the early 1940s the comic strip event had swept the nation's imagination and acquired a life of its own. By 1952, the event was reportedly celebrated at 40,000 known venues. It became a woman-empowering rite at high schools and college campuses, long before the modern feminist movement gained prominence. Outside the comic strip, the practical basis of a Sadie Hawkins dance is simply one of gender role-reversal. Women and girls take the initiative in inviting the man or boy of their choice out on a date — almost unheard of before 1937 — typically to a dance attended by other bachelors and their assertive dates. When Capp created the event, it wasn't his intention to have it occur annually on a specific date, because it inhibited his freewheeling plotting. However, due to its enormous popularity and the numerous fan letters he received, Capp made it a tradition in the strip every November, lasting four decades. In many localities the tradition continues. Additions to the language Sadie Hawkins Day and Sadie Hawkins dance are two of several terms attributed to Al Capp that have entered the English language. Others include double whammy, skunk works and Lower Slobbovia. The term shmoo has also entered the lexicon — used in defining highly technical concepts in no fewer than four separate fields of science. In socioeconomics, a "shmoo" refers to any generic kind of good that reproduces itself (as opposed to "widgets" which require resources and active production). In microbiology, "shmooing" is the biological term used for the "budding" process in yeast reproduction. The cellular bulge produced by a haploid yeast cell towards a cell of the opposite mating type during the mating of yeast is referred to as a "shmoo", due to its structural resemblance to the cartoon character. In the field of particle physics, "shmoo" refers to a high energy survey instrument – as utilized at the Los Alamos National Laboratory for the Cygnus X-3 Sky Survey performed at the LAMPF (Los Alamos Meson Physics Facility) grounds. Over one hundred white "shmoo" detectors were at one time sprinkled around the accelerator beamstop area and adjacent mesa to capture subatomic cosmic ray particles emitted from the constellation Cygnus. The detectors housed scintillators and photomultipliers in an array that gave the detector its distinctive shmoo shape. In electrical engineering, a shmoo plot is the technical term used for the graphic pattern of test circuits. (The term is also used as a verb: to "shmoo" means to run the test.) Capp has also been credited with popularizing many terms, such as "natcherly", schmooze, druthers, and nogoodnik, neatnik, etc. (In his book The American Language, H.L. Mencken credits the postwar mania for adding "-nik" to the ends of adjectives to create nouns as beginning — not with beatnik or Sputnik, but earlier — in the pages of Li'l Abner.) Franchise ownership and creators' rights In the late 1940s, newspaper syndicates typically owned the copyrights, trademarks and licensing rights to comic strips. "Capp was an aggressive and fearless businessman," according to publisher Denis Kitchen. "Nearly all comic strips, even today, are owned and controlled by syndicates, not the strips' creators. And virtually all cartoonists remain content with their diluted share of any merchandising revenue their syndicates arrange. When the starving and broke Capp first sold Li'l Abner in 1934, he gladly accepted the syndicate's standard onerous contract. But in 1947 Capp sued United Feature Syndicate for $14 million, publicly embarrassed UFS in Li'l Abner, and wrested ownership and control of his creation the following year." In October 1947, Li'l Abner met Rockwell P. Squeezeblood, head of the abusive and corrupt Squeezeblood Syndicate, a thinly veiled dig at UFS. The resulting sequence, "Jack Jawbreaker Fights Crime!!", was a devastating satire of Jerry Siegel and Joe Shuster's notorious exploitation by DC Comics over Superman (see above excerpt). It was later reprinted in The World of Li'l Abner (1953). In 1964, Capp left United Features and took Li'l Abner to the Chicago Tribune New York News Syndicate. Integration of women in the NCS Al Capp was an outspoken pioneer in favor of diversifying the National Cartoonists Society by admitting women cartoonists. The NCS had originally disallowed female members into its ranks. In 1949, when the all-male club refused membership to Hilda Terry, creator of the comic strip Teena, Capp temporarily resigned in protest. "Capp had always advocated a more activist agenda for the Society, and he had begun in December 1949 to make his case in the Newsletter as well as at the meetings," wrote comics historian R. C. Harvey. According to Tom Roberts, author of Alex Raymond: His Life and Art (2007), Capp authored a stirring monologue that was instrumental in changing the restrictive rules the following year. Hilda Terry was the first woman cartoonist to break the gender barrier when the NCS finally permitted female members in 1950. Social commentary in comic strips Through Li'l Abner, the American comic strip achieved unprecedented relevance in the postwar years, attracting new readers who were more intellectual, more informed on current events, and less likely to read the comics (according to Coulton Waugh, author of The Comics, 1947). "When Li'l Abner made its debut in 1934, the vast majority of comic strips were designed chiefly to amuse or thrill their readers. Capp turned that world upside-down by routinely injecting politics and social commentary into Li'l Abner," wrote comics historian Rick Marschall in America's Great Comic Strip Artists (1989). With adult readers far outnumbering juveniles, Li'l Abner forever cleared away the concept that humor strips were solely the domain of adolescents and children. Li'l Abner provided a whole new template for contemporary satire and personal expression in comics, paving the way for Pogo, Feiffer, Doonesbury and MAD. Mad Fearless Fosdick and other Li'l Abner comic strip parodies, such as "Jack Jawbreaker!" (1947) and "Little Fanny Gooney" (1952), were almost certainly an inspiration to Harvey Kurtzman when he created his irreverent Mad, which began in 1952 as a comic book that specifically parodied other comics in the same subversive manner. By the time EC Comics published Mad #1, Capp had been doing Fearless Fosdick for nearly a decade. Similarities between Li'l Abner and the early Mad include the incongruous use of mock-Yiddish slang terms, the nose-thumbing disdain for pop culture icons, the rampant black humor, the dearth of sentiment and the broad visual styling. Even the trademark comic "signs" that clutter the backgrounds of Will Elder's panels had a precedent in Li'l Abner, in the residence of Dogpatch entrepreneur Available Jones, though they're also reminiscent of Bill Holman's Smokey Stover. Tellingly, Kurtzman resisted doing feature parodies of either Li'l Abner or Dick Tracy in the comic book Mad, despite their prominence. Parodies and imitations Al Capp once told one of his assistants that he knew Li'l Abner had finally "arrived" when it was first pirated as a pornographic Tijuana bible parody in the mid-1930s. Li'l Abner was also parodied in 1954 (as "Li'l Melvin" by "Ol' Hatt") in the pages of EC Comics' humor comic, Panic, edited by Al Feldstein. Kurtzman eventually did spoof Li'l Abner (as "Li'l Ab'r") in 1957, in his short-lived humor magazine, Trump. Both the Trump and Panic parodies were drawn by EC legend, Will Elder. In 1947, Will Eisner's The Spirit satirized the comic strip business in general, as a denizen of Central City tries to murder cartoonist "Al Slapp", creator of "Li'l Adam". Capp was also caricatured as an ill-mannered, boozy cartoonist (Capp was a teetotaler in real life) named "Hal Rapp" in the comic strip Mary Worth by Allen Saunders and Ken Ernst. Supposedly done in retaliation for Capp's "Mary Worm" parody in Li'l Abner (1956), a media-fed "feud" commenced briefly between the rival strips. It all turned out to be a collaborative hoax, however — cooked up by Capp and his longtime pal Saunders as an elaborate publicity stunt. Li'l Abners success also sparked a handful of comic strip imitators. Jasper Jooks by Jess "Baldy" Benton (1948–'49), Ozark Ike (1945–'53) and Cotton Woods (1955–'58), both by Ray Gotto, were clearly inspired by Capp's strip. Boody Rogers' Babe was a peculiar series of comic books about a beautiful hillbilly girl who lived with her kin in the Ozarks — with many similarities to Li'l Abner. A derivative hillbilly feature called Looie Lazybones, an out-and-out imitation (drawn by a young Frank Frazetta) ran in several issues of Standard's Thrilling Comics in the late 1940s. Charlton published the short-lived Hillbilly Comics by Art Gates in 1955, featuring "Gumbo Galahad", who was a dead ringer for Li'l Abner, as was Pokey Oakey by Don Dean, which ran in MLJ's Top-Notch Laugh and Pep Comics. Later, many fans and critics saw Paul Henning's popular TV sitcom, The Beverly Hillbillies (1962–'71) as owing much of its inspiration to Li'l Abner, prompting Alvin Toffler to ask Capp about the similarities in a 1965 Playboy interview. Popularity and production Li'l Abner made its debut on August 13, 1934, in eight North American newspapers, including the New York Mirror. Initially owned and syndicated through United Feature Syndicate, a division of the E.W. Scripps Company, it was an immediate success. According to publisher Denis Kitchen, Capp's "hapless Dogpatchers hit a nerve in Depression-era America. Within three years Abner's circulation climbed to 253 newspapers, reaching over 15,000,000 readers. Before long he was in hundreds more, with a total readership exceeding 60,000,000." At its peak, the strip was read daily by 70 million Americans (when the U.S. population was only 180 million), with a circulation of more than 900 newspapers in North America and Europe. During the extended peak of the strip, the workload grew to include advertising, merchandising, promotional work, comic book adaptations, public service material and other specialty work — in addition to the regular six dailies and one Sunday strip per week. Capp had a platoon of assistants in later years, who worked under his direct supervision. They included Andy Amato, Harvey Curtis, Walter Johnson and, notably, a young Frank Frazetta, who penciled the Sunday continuity from studio roughs from 1954 to the end of 1961 — before his fame as a fantasy artist. Sensitive to his own experience working on Joe Palooka, Capp frequently drew attention to his assistants in interviews and publicity pieces. A 1950 cover story in Time even included photos of two of his employees, whose roles in the production were detailed by Capp. Ironically, this highly irregular policy has led to the misconception that his strip was "ghosted" by other hands. The production of Li'l Abner has been well documented, however. In point of fact, Capp maintained creative control over every stage of production for virtually the entire run of the strip. Capp himself originated the stories, wrote the dialogue, designed the major characters, rough penciled the preliminary staging and action of each panel, oversaw the finished pencils, and drew and inked the faces and hands of the characters. "He had the touch," Frazetta said of Capp in 2008. "He knew how to take an otherwise ordinary drawing and really make it pop. I'll never knock his talent." Li'l Abner lasted until November 13, 1977, when Capp retired with an apology to his fans for the recently declining quality of the strip, which he said had been the best he could manage due to advancing illness. "If you have any sense of humor about your strip — and I had a sense of humor about mine — you knew that for three or four years Abner was wrong. Oh hell, it's like a fighter retiring. I stayed on longer than I should have," he admitted. "When he retired Li'l Abner, newspapers ran expansive articles and television commentators talked about the passing of an era. People magazine ran a substantial feature, and even the comics-free New York Times devoted nearly a full page to the event," according to publisher Denis Kitchen. Capp, a lifelong chain smoker, died from emphysema two years later at age 70, at his home in South Hampton, New Hampshire, on November 5, 1979. In 1988 and 1989 many newspapers ran reruns of Li'l Abner episodes, mostly from the 1940s run, distributed by Newspaper Enterprise Association and Capp Enterprises. Following the 1989 revival of the Pogo comic strip, a revival of Li'l Abner was also planned in 1990. Drawn by cartoonist Steve Stiles, the new Abner was approved by Capp's widow, and brother Elliott Caplin, but Al Capp's daughter, Julie Capp, objected at the last minute and permission was withdrawn. Li'l Abner in other media Radio and recordings With John Hodiak in the title role, the Li'l Abner radio serial ran weekdays on NBC from Chicago, from November 20, 1939, to December 6, 1940. Rounding out the cast were soap opera star Laurette Fillbrandt as Daisy Mae, Hazel Dopheide as Mammy Yokum, and Clarence Hartzell (who was also a prominent actor on Vic and Sade) as Pappy. Durward Kirby was the announcer. The radio show was not written by Al Capp — but by Charles Gussman. However, Gussman consulted closely with Capp on the storylines. (A familiar radio personality, Capp was frequently heard on the NBC broadcast series, Monitor. He also briefly filled-in for radio journalist Drew Pearson, participated in a March 2, 1948 America's Town Meeting of the Air debate on ABC, and hosted his own syndicated, 500-station radio show.) The Shmoo Sings with Earl Rogers — 78 rpm (1948) Allegro The Shmoo Club b/w The Shmoo Is Clean, the Shmoo Is Neat — 45 rpm (1949) Music You Enjoy, Inc. The Snuggable, Huggable Shmoo b/w The Shmoo Doesn't Cost a Cent — 45 rpm (1949) Music You Enjoy, Inc. Shmoo Lesson b/w A Shmoo Can Do Most Anything — 45 rpm (1949) Music You Enjoy, Inc. Li'l Abner Goes to Town — 78 rpm (1950) Capp-Tone Comic Record Li'l Abner (Original Cast Recording) — LP (1956) Columbia Li'l Abner (Motion Picture Soundtrack) — LP (1959) Columbia An Interview with Al Capp — EP (1959) Smithsonian Folkways Li'l Abner fo' Chillun — LP (c. 1960) 20th FOX Al Capp on Campus — LP (1969) Jubilee Selections from the Li'l Abner musical score have been recorded by everyone from Percy Faith and Mario Lanza to André Previn and Shelly Manne. Over the years, Li'l Abner characters have inspired diverse compositions in pop, jazz, country and even rock 'n' roll: The Kickapoo Joy Juice Jolt (1946) from The Li'l Abner Suite, was composed for The Alvino Rey Orchestra by Bud Estes. Kickapoo Joy Juice, composed by Duke Ellington, was recorded live at Carnegie Hall in December, 1947. Lonesome Polecat, written by Johnny Mercer & Gene de Paul for the musical Seven Brides for Seven Brothers (1954), was later recorded by Bobby Darin and the McGuire Sisters. Fearless Fosdick, composed by Bill Holman, was recorded live in 1954 by Vic Lewis and his Orchestra, featuring Tubby Hayes. Daisy Mae, written and recorded by Ernest Tubb, appeared on the Decca album The Daddy of 'Em All (1957). Kickapoo Joy Juice (1962) written by Jack Greenback, Mel Larson & Jerry Marcellino, was recorded by The Rivingtons. Sadie Hawkins Dance (2001) written by Matt Thiessen, was recorded by Relient K. Fearless Fosdick's Tune, composed and recorded by Umberto Fiorentino, appeared on the Brave Art/Columbia-Sony CD Things to Come (2002). Sheet music Li'l Abner — by Ben Oakland, Milton Berle & Milton Drake (1940) Leo Feist Publishers Sadie Hawkins Day — by Don Raye & Hughie Prince (1940) Leeds Music Corp. The USA by Day and the RAF by Night — by Hal Block & Bob Musel (1944) Paramount Music Corp. (Li'l Abner) Don't Marry That Girl!! — by Al Capp & Sam H. Stept (1946) Barton Music Corp. The Shmoo Song — by John Jacob Loeb & Jule Styne (1948) Harvey Music Corp. Shmoo Songs — by Gerald Marks (1949) Bristol Music Corp. The Kigmy Song — by Joe Rosenfield & Fay Tishman (1949) Town and Country Music Co. I'm Lonesome and Disgusted!!! — by "Irving Vermyn" [Al Capp, Bob Lubbers & Dave Lambert] (1956) General Music Publishing Co. Namely You — by Johnny Mercer & Gene de Paul (1956) Commander Publications Love in a Home — by Johnny Mercer & Gene de Paul (1956) Commander Publications If I Had My Druthers — by Johnny Mercer & Gene de Paul (1956) Commander Publications Jubilation T. Cornpone — by Johnny Mercer & Gene de Paul (1956) Commander Publications Comic books and reprints Tip Top Comics (1936–1948) anthology (United Feature Syndicate) Comics on Parade (1945–1946) anthology (UFS) Sparkler Comics (1946–1948) anthology (UFS) Li'l Abner (1947) 9 issues (Harvey Comics) Li'l Abner (1948) 3 issues (Super Publishing) Tip Topper Comics (1949–1954) anthology (UFS) Al Capp's Li'l Abner (1949–1955) 28 issues (Toby) Al Capp's Shmoo Comics (1949–1950) 5 issues (Toby) Al Capp's Dogpatch (1949) 4 issues (Toby) Al Capp's Li'l Abner in The Mystery o' the Cave (1950) (Oxydol premium) Al Capp's Daisy Mae in Ham Sangwidges (1950) (Oxydol premium) Al Capp's Shmoo in Washable Jones' Travels (1950) (Oxydol premium) Al Capp's Wolf Gal (1951–1952) 2 issues (Toby) Washable Jones and the Shmoo (1953) (Toby) Party Time with Coke (1958) monthly digest featuring Al Capp's Boys 'n' Gals (Coca-Cola premium) No comprehensive reprint of the series had been attempted until Kitchen Sink Press began publishing the Li'l Abner Dailies in hardcover and paperback, one year per volume, in 1988. The demise of KSP in 1999 stopped the reprint series at Volume 27 (1961). More recently, Dark Horse Comics reprinted the limited series Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Frazetta Years, in four full-color volumes covering the Sunday pages from 1954 to 1961. They also released an archive hardcover reprint of the complete Shmoo Comics in 2009, followed by a second Shmoo volume of compete newspaper strips in 2011. At the San Diego Comic Con in July 2009, IDW and The Library of American Comics announced the upcoming publication of Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays: Vol. 1 (1934–1936). The comprehensive series titled Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies & Color Sundays, is planned to be a reprinting of the complete 43-year history of Li'l Abner spanning a projected 20 volumes, began on April 7, 2010. Public service works Capp provided specialty artwork for civic groups, government agencies and charitable or non-profit organizations, spanning several decades. The following titles are all single-issue, educational comic books and pamphlets produced for various public services: Al Capp by Li'l Abner — public service giveaway issued by the Red Cross (1946) Yo' Bets Yo' Life! — public service giveaway issued by the U.S. Army (circa 1950) Li'l Abner Joins the Navy — public service giveaway issued by the Dept. of the Navy (1950) Fearless Fosdick and the Case of the Red Feather — public service giveaway issued by Red Feather Services, a forerunner of United Way (1951) The Youth You Supervise — public service giveaway issued by the U.S. Department of Labor (1956) Mammy Yokum and the Great Dogpatch Mystery! — public service giveaway issued by the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith (1956) Operation: Survival! — public service giveaway issued by the Dept. of Civil Defense (1957) Natural Disasters! — public service giveaway issued by the Dept. of Civil Defense (1957) Martin Luther King and the Montgomery Story — public service giveaway issued by The Fellowship of Reconciliation (1958) Li'l Abner and the Creatures from Drop-Outer Space — public service giveaway issued by the Job Corps (1965) In addition, Dogpatch characters were used in national campaigns for the U.S. Treasury, the Cancer Foundation, the March of Dimes, the National Heart Fund, the Sister Kenny Foundation, the Boy Scouts of America, Community Chest, the National Reading Council, Minnesota Tuberculosis and Health Association, Christmas Seals, the National Amputation Foundation and Disabled American Veterans, among others. Animation and puppetry Beginning in 1944, Li'l Abner was adapted into a series of color theatrical cartoons by Screen Gems for Columbia Pictures, directed by Sid Marcus, Bob Wickersham and Howard Swift. The five titles were: Amoozin But Confoozin, Sadie Hawkins Day, A Peekoolyar Sitcheeyshun, Porkulia Piggy and Kickapoo Juice. Al Capp was reportedly not pleased with the results, and the series was discontinued after five shorts. Evil-Eye Fleegle and his "whammy" make an animated cameo appearance in the U.S. Armed Forces Special Weapons Project training film, Self Preservation in an Atomic Attack (1950). Lena the Hyena makes a brief animated appearance in Who Framed Roger Rabbit (1988). In 1952, Fearless Fosdick proved popular enough to be incorporated into a short-lived TV series. The ambitious puppet show was created and directed by puppeteer Mary Chase, written by Everett Crosby and voiced by John Griggs, Gilbert Mack and Jean Carson. Fearless Fosdick premiered on Sunday afternoons on NBC; 13 episodes featuring the Mary Chase marionettes were produced. The storylines and villains were mostly separate from the comic strip and unique to the show. Among the original TV characters were "Mr. Ditto", "Harris Tweed" (a disembodied suit of clothes), "Swenn Golly" (a Svengali-like mesmerist), counterfeiters "Max Millions" and "Minton Mooney", "Frank N. Stein", "Batula", "Match Head" (a pyromaniac), "Sen-Sen O'Toole", "Shmoozer" and "Herman the Ape Man". Shmoos were originally meant to be included in the 1956 Broadway Li'l Abner musical, employing stage puppetry. The idea was reportedly abandoned in the development stage by the producers, however, for reasons of practicality. After Capp's death, the Shmoo was used in two Hanna-Barbera produced Saturday morning cartoon series for TV. First in the 1979 The New Shmoo (later incorporated into Fred and Barney Meet the Shmoo), and again from 1980 to 1981 in the Flintstone Comedy Show, in the Bedrock Cops segments. Stage, film and television The first Li'l Abner movie was made at RKO Radio Pictures in 1940, starring Jeff York (credited as Granville Owen), Martha O'Driscoll, Mona Ray and Johnnie Morris. Although it lacks the political satire and Broadway polish of the 1959 version, this film gives a fairly accurate portrayal of the various Dogpatch characters up until that time. Of particular note is the appearance of Buster Keaton as Lonesome Polecat, and a title song with lyrics by Milton Berle. Other familiar silent comedy veterans in the cast include Bud Jamison, Lucien Littlefield, Johnny Arthur, Mickey Daniels, and ex-Keystone Cops Chester Conklin, Edgar Kennedy and Al St. John. The story concerns Daisy Mae's efforts to catch Li'l Abner on Sadie Hawkins Day. Since this movie predates their comic strip marriage, Abner makes a last-minute escape (natcherly!) A much more successful musical comedy adaptation of the strip, also entitled Li'l Abner, opened on Broadway at the St. James Theater on November 15, 1956, and had a long run of 693 performances, followed by a nationwide tour. Among the actors originally considered for the title role were Dick Shawn and Andy Griffith. The stage musical, with music and lyrics by Gene de Paul and Johnny Mercer, was adapted into a Technicolor motion picture at Paramount in 1959 by producer Norman Panama and director Melvin Frank, with an original score by Nelson Riddle.DVD Verdict review 4/25/2005: Li'l Abner Starring Peter Palmer, Leslie Parrish, Julie Newmar, Stella Stevens, Stubby Kaye, Billie Hayes, Howard St. John, Joe E. Marks, Carmen Alvarez, William Lanteau and Bern Hoffman, with cameos by Jerry Lewis, Robert Strauss, Ted Thurston, Alan Carney, Valerie Harper and Donna Douglas. Three members of the original Broadway cast did not appear in the film version: Charlotte Rae (who was replaced by Billie Hayes early in the stage production), Edie Adams (who was pregnant during the filming) and Tina Louise. The musical has since become a perennial favorite of high school and amateur productions, due to its popular appeal and modest production requirements. Li'l Abner never sold as a TV series despite several attempts (including an unsold pilot that aired once on NBC on September 5, 1967), but Al Capp was a familiar face on television for twenty years. No other cartoonist to date has come close to Capp's televised exposure. Capp appeared as a regular on The Author Meets the Critics. He was also a periodic panelist on ABC and NBC's Who Said That? Capp has appeared as himself on The Ed Sullivan Show, Sid Caesar's Your Show of Shows, The Today Show, The Red Skelton Show, The Merv Griffin Show, The Mike Douglas Show, and on This Is Your Life on February 12, 1961, with host Ralph Edwards and honoree Peter Palmer. He hosted at least five television programs between 1952 and 1972 — three different talk shows called The Al Capp Show (twice), Al Capp, Al Capp's America (a live "chalk talk", with Capp providing a barbed commentary while sketching cartoons), and a game show called Anyone Can Win. In addition, Capp was a frequent celebrity guest. His appearances on NBC's The Tonight Show spanned three emcees; Steve Allen, Jack Paar and Johnny Carson. Filmography Comic strip adaptationsAnimation''' Kickapoo Juice (1944) Columbia Amoozin' but Confoozin (1944) Columbia A Pee-kool-yar Sit-chee-ay-shun (1944) Columbia Porkuliar Piggy (1944) Columbia Sadie Hawkins Day (1944) Columbia TV AnimationThe New Shmoo 1980 (Hanna-Barbera) Live-action Li'l Abner (1940) RKO Radio Pictures Fearless Fosdick (1952) NBC (series) 13 episodes Li'l Abner (1959) Paramount Li'l Abner (5 September 1967) NBC (unsold television pilot with Sammy Jackson and Judy Canova) Li'l Abner (26 April 1971) ABC (TV special) Li'l Abner in Dogpatch Today (9 November 1978) NBC (TV special) Beyond the comic strip "ABNER" was the name given to the first codebreaking computer used by the National Security Agency. According to longtime NSA computer expert Samuel Simon Snyder, "We chose the name from Li'l Abner Yokum, the comic strip character who was a big brute, but not very smart, because we believed that computers, which can be big and do brute-force operations, aren't very bright either. They can only follow simple instructions but can't think for themselves." ABNER was originally given only 15 simple programs, later doubled to 30. Nevertheless, when it was secretly completed in April 1952 it was the "most sophisticated computer of its time." The 1989 film I Want to Go Home (Je Veux Rentrer a la Maison, screenplay by Jules Feiffer) has a scene where the main character, a retired cartoonist played by Adolph Green, makes an unexpectedly emotional appeal for Al Capp and his legacy. The original Dogpatch is a historical part of San Francisco dating back to the 1860s that escaped the earthquake and fire of 1906. Later in the 20th century, U.S. Army and Marine Corps units in Vietnam during the Vietnam War called their housing compounds "Dogpatches", due to the primitive living conditions. Li'l Abner, Daisy Mae, Wolf Gal, Earthquake McGoon, Lonesome Polecat, Hairless Joe, Sadie Hawkins, Silent Yokum and Fearless Fosdick all found their way onto the painted noses of bomber aircraft during World War II and the Korean War, as did Kickapoo Joy Juice, Lena the Hyena and the Shmoo. Moonbeam McSwine was immortalized as the P-51D Mustang USAAF bomber escort fighter flown by ace pilot Capt. William T. Whisner, still operable and appearing in aviator air shows as of 2008. Al Capp always claimed to have effectively created the miniskirt, when he first put one on Daisy Mae in 1934. Li'l Abner was censored for the first, but not the last time in September 1947, and was pulled from papers by Scripps-Howard. The controversy, as reported in Time, centered on Capp's portrayal of the US Senate. Said Edward Leech of Scripps, "We don't think it is good editing or sound citizenship to picture the Senate as an assemblage of freaks and crooks... boobs and undesirables." Li'l Abner has one odd design quirk that has puzzled readers for decades: the part in his hair always faces the viewer, no matter which direction Abner is facing. In response to the question "Which side does Abner part his hair on?", Capp would answer, "Both." Capp claimed that he found the right "look" for Li'l Abner with Henry Fonda's character Dave Tolliver in The Trail of the Lonesome Pine (1936). Fonda later commented, "He's never told me, but I was told he has said that." Joan Baez took Al Capp to court in 1967 over Joanie Phoanie. She did not ask for damages; it was instead a bid to force a public retraction. The judge decided in Capp's favor, however. Declaring that satire was also protected free speech, he refused to order Capp to cease and desist. In recent years, Baez has admitted to being more amused by the parody — even including an excerpt in her memoirs (And a Voice to Sing With: A Memoir, published in 1987). "I wish I could have laughed at this at the time," she wrote in a caption under one of the strips. "I didn't start this Mammy Yokum did." was the reply Ralph Kramden told his wife Alice (concerning a comment made by Ralph's mother in-law) in Episode #2 Funny Money of The Honeymooners. In 1960, Dixieland trombonist Turk Murphy christened his San Francisco jazz club "Earthquake McGoon's", in honor of the perennial Dogpatch villain. In 1968, the first year of operation, Dogpatch USA had 300,000 visitors. Admission was $1.50 for adults, and half price for children. Al Capp's son Colin Capp worked at the park that year, and met and married Vicki Cox, the actress portraying Moonbeam McSwine. Capp had previously spoofed the idea of a theme park based on his characters in Li'l Abner, in a 1955 Disneyland parody called "Hal Yappland". Al Capp designed the statue of Josiah Flintabattey Flonatin ("Flinty") that graces the city of Flin Flon, Manitoba. The town's name is taken from the lead character in a 1905 dime novel, The Sunless City by J. E. Preston Muddock. Capp donated his time and talent to create the image. The character is of such importance to the identity of the city that the local Chamber of Commerce commissioned the minting of a $3.00 coin, which was considered legal tender within the city during the year following its issue. The Chamber had the fiberglass sculpture moved to its present location at the Flin Flon Tourist Park in 1962. "Natcherly", Capp's bastardization of "naturally", turns up occasionally in popular culture — even without a specifically rural theme. It can be found in West Side Story, for instance, in Stephen Sondheim's original lyrics to "Gee, Officer Krupke" (1957). Mell Lazarus, creator of Miss Peach and Momma, wrote a comic novel in 1963 titled The Boss Is Crazy, Too. It was partly inspired by his apprenticeship days working for Al Capp and his brother Elliot Caplin at Toby Press, which published Shmoo Comics in the late 1940s. In a seminar at the Charles Schulz Museum on November 8, 2008, Lazarus called his experience at Toby "the five funniest years of my life." Lazarus went on to cite Capp as one of the "four essentials" in the field of newspaper cartoonists — along with Walt Kelly, Charles Schulz and Milton Caniff. Utah governor Gary Herbert controversially referred to himself as "Available Jones", the Dogpatch entrepreneur who does anything for a price, at a private meeting with lobbyists April 27, 2016 to raise funds for his re-election campaign. References Further reading Since his death in 1979, Al Capp and his work have been the subject of more than 40 books, including three biographies. Underground cartoonist and Li'l Abner expert Denis Kitchen has published, co-published, edited, or otherwise served as consultant on nearly all of them. Kitchen is currently compiling a monograph on the life and career of Al Capp. Capp, Al, Li'l Abner in New York (1936) Whitman Publishing Capp, Al, Li'l Abner Among the Millionaires (1939) Whitman Publishing Capp, Al, Li'l Abner and Sadie Hawkins Day (1940) Saalfield Publishing Capp, Al, Li'l Abner and the Ratfields (1940) Saalfield Publishing Sheridan, Martin, Comics and Their Creators (1942) R.T. Hale & Co. (1977) Hyperion Press Waugh, Coulton, The Comics (1947) Macmillan Publishers Capp, Al, Newsweek Magazine (November 24, 1947) "Li'l Abner's Mad Capp" Capp, Al, Saturday Review of Literature (March 20, 1948) "The Case for the Comics" Capp, Al, The Life and Times of the Shmoo (1948) Simon & Schuster Capp, Al, The Nation (March 21, 1949) "There Is a Real Shmoo" Capp, Al, Cosmopolitan Magazine (June 1949) "I Don't Like Shmoos" Capp, Al, Atlantic Monthly (April 1950) "I Remember Monster" Capp, Al, Time Magazine (November 6, 1950) "Die Monstersinger" Capp, Al, Life Magazine (March 31, 1952) "It's Hideously True!!..." Capp, Al, Real Magazine (December 1952) "The REAL Powers in America" Capp, Al, The World of Li'l Abner (1953) Farrar, Straus & Young Leifer, Fred, The Li'l Abner Official Square Dance Handbook (1953) A.S. Barnes Mikes, George, Eight Humorists (1954) Allen Wingate (1977) Arden Library Lehrer, Tom, The Tom Lehrer Song Book, introduction by Al Capp (1954) Crown Publishers Capp, Al, Al Capp's Fearless Fosdick: His Life and Deaths (1956) Simon & Schuster Capp, Al, Al Capp's Bald Iggle: The Life it Ruins May Be Your Own (1956) Simon & Schuster Capp, Al, et al. Famous Artists Cartoon Course — 3 volumes (1956) Famous Artists School Capp, Al, Life Magazine (January 14, 1957) "The Dogpatch Saga: Al Capp's Own Story" Brodbeck, Arthur J, et al. "How to Read Li'l Abner Intelligently" from Mass Culture: Popular Arts in America, pp. 218–224 (1957) Free Press Capp, Al, The Return of the Shmoo (1959) Simon & Schuster Hart, Johnny, Back to B.C., introduction by Al Capp (1961) Fawcett Publications Lazarus, Mell, Miss Peach, introduction by Al Capp (1962) Pyramid Books Gross, Milt, He Done Her Wrong, introduction by Al Capp (1963 Ed.) Dell Books White, David Manning, and Robert H. Abel, eds. The Funnies: An American Idiom (1963) Free Press White, David Manning, ed. From Dogpatch to Slobbovia: The (Gasp!) World of Li'l Abner (1964) Beacon Press Capp, Al, Life International Magazine (June 14, 1965) "My Life as an Immortal Myth" Toffler, Alvin, Playboy Magazine (December 1965) interview with Al Capp, pp. 89–100 Moger, Art, et al. Chutzpah Is, introduction by Al Capp (1966) Colony Publishers Berger, Arthur Asa, Li'l Abner: A Study in American Satire (1969) Twayne Publishers (1994) Univ. Press of Mississippi Sugar, Andy, Saga Magazine (December 1969) "On the Campus Firing Line with Al Capp" Gray, Harold, Arf! The Life and Hard Times of Little Orphan Annie, introduction by Al Capp (1970) Arlington House Moger, Art, Some of My Best Friends are People, introduction by Al Capp (1970) Directors Press Capp, Al, The Hardhat's Bedtime Story Book (1971) Harper & Row Robinson, Jerry, The Comics: An Illustrated History of Comic Strip Art (1974) G.P. Putnam's Sons Horn, Maurice, The World Encyclopedia of Comics (1976) Chelsea House (1982) Avon Blackbeard, Bill, ed. The Smithsonian Collection of Newspaper Comics (1977) Smithsonian Inst. Press/Harry Abrams Marschall, Rick, Cartoonist PROfiles #37 (March 1978) interview with Al Capp Capp, Al, The Best of Li'l Abner (1978) Holt, Rinehart & Winston Lardner, Ring, You Know Me Al: The Comic Strip Adventures of Jack Keefe, introduction by Al Capp (1979) Harcourt Brace Jovanovich Van Buren, Raeburn, Abbie an' Slats — 2 volumes (1983) Ken Pierce Books Capp, Al, Li'l Abner: Reuben Award Winner Series Book 1 (1985) Blackthorne Marschall, Rick, Nemo, the Classic Comics Library #18, pp. 3–32 (April 1986) Capp, Al, Li'l Abner Dailies — 27 volumes (1988–1999) Kitchen Sink Press Marschall, Rick, America's Great Comic Strip Artists (1989) Abbeville Press Capp, Al, Fearless Fosdick (1990) Kitchen Sink Capp, Al, My Well-Balanced Life on a Wooden Leg (1991) John Daniel & Co. Capp, Al, Fearless Fosdick: The Hole Story (1992) Kitchen Sink Goldstein, Kalman, "Al Capp and Walt Kelly: Pioneers of Political and Social Satire in the Comics" from Journal of Popular Culture; Vol. 25, Issue 4 (Spring 1992) Caplin, Elliot, Al Capp Remembered (1994) Bowling Green State University Theroux, Alexander, The Enigma of Al Capp (1999) Fantagraphics Books Lubbers, Bob, Glamour International #26: The Good Girl Art of Bob Lubbers (May 2001) Capp, Al, The Short Life and Happy Times of the Shmoo (2002) Overlook Press Capp, Al, Al Capp's Li'l Abner: The Frazetta Years — 4 volumes (2003–2004) Dark Horse Comics Al Capp Studios, Al Capp's Complete Shmoo: The Comic Books (2008) Dark Horse Capp, Al, Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays Vol. 1: 1934–1936 (2010) IDW Publishing Capp, Al, Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays Vol. 2: 1937–1938 (2010) IDW Capp, Al, Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays Vol. 3: 1939–1940 (2011) IDW Capp, Al, Al Capp's Complete Shmoo Vol. 2: The Newspaper Strips (2011) Dark Horse Capp, Al, Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays Vol. 4: 1941–1942 (2012) IDW Inge, M. Thomas, "Li'l Abner, Snuffy and Friends" from Comics and the U.S. South, pp. 3–27 (2012) Univ. Press of Mississippi Capp, Al, Li'l Abner: The Complete Dailies and Color Sundays Vol. 5: 1943–1944 (2012) IDW Kitchen, Denis, and Michael Schumacher, Al Capp: A Life to the Contrary'' (2013) Bloomsbury Publishing External links Official Li'l Abner website "Dogpatch Confidential" by Dennis Drabelle (Salon, 30 Sept. 2002) Animation Resources: Li'l Abner part I Animation Resources: Li'l Abner part II Animation Resources: Li'l Abner part III Animation Resources: Li'l Abner part IV Animation Resources: Li'l Abner part V "Al Capp Deserves a Tribute" (Newburyport News, 28 Sept. 2009) NCS Spotlight on: Al Capp Comic strips set in the United States Kentucky in fiction American comic strips 1934 comics debuts 1977 comics endings Works about Appalachia Fictional hillbillies Humor comics Satirical comics Fantasy comics Li'l Abner characters Characters created by Al Capp Comics adapted into animated series American comics adapted into films Comics adapted into radio series 1939 radio programme debuts 1940 radio programme endings American comedy radio programs NBC radio programs Radio programs based on comic strips Comics adapted into plays Columbia cartoons series and characters American satire American political satire Screen Gems film series	[ -0.19245855510234833, 0.4750567674636841, -0.5340570211410522, -0.2883274257183075, 0.1440712809562683, 0.37735438346862793, 0.8528398871421814, 0.37420454621315, -0.15510804951190948, -0.035543378442525864, -0.6030916571617126, 0.35162368416786194, -0.5281887650489807, 0.6462740302085876, -0.36675480008125305, 0.6500707268714905, 0.14296409487724304, 0.709881603717804, -0.40088555216789246, -0.38518938422203064, 0.13963507115840912, -0.7153812646865845, 0.09193392097949982, -0.07023391872644424, 0.267135888338089, -0.030687058344483376, 0.4132522940635681, -0.07780372351408005, -0.15865755081176758, 0.6360569000244141, -0.30945026874542236, 0.83632493019104, 0.15887103974819183, -0.011956262402236462, -0.10533726215362549, 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255537	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Climber	Climber	Climber may refer to: Climber, a participant in the activity of climbing Climber, general name for a vine Climber, or climbing specialist, a road bicycle racer who can ride especially well on highly inclined roads Climber (BEAM), a robot that goes upward or downward on a track Climber (video game), by Nintendo Climber (magazine), a British magazine dedicated to sport climbing Climber Motor Company, a motor vehicle manufacturer in Arkansas Climbers (novel), a 1989 novel by M. John Harrison The Climber (1917 film), a silent drama film The Climber (1966 film), a Yugoslav drama film The Climber (1975 film), an Italian crime film The Climber (album), an album by Judge Smith Dynamic Sport Climber, a Polish paramotor design The Climber, or Kokou no Hito, a Japanese climbing manga See also Climbing (disambiguation) The Climbers (disambiguation) Crazy Climber, a 1980 coin-operated arcade game Ice Climber, a 1984 video game by Nintendo List of climbers	[ -0.08055304735898972, 0.2986532151699066, -0.11874986439943314, 0.32059192657470703, 0.2816152274608612, 0.04692395403981209, 0.24384844303131104, 0.0832030400633812, -0.5374584197998047, 0.19370505213737488, -0.3510769009590149, 0.6272854804992676, -0.19830195605754852, -0.1890432983636856, -0.28249087929725647, 0.13241954147815704, 0.3357009291648865, 0.07191890478134155, -0.5925971269607544, -0.2647913992404938, -0.5140905976295471, -0.24785803258419037, 0.4723677337169647, -0.47875288128852844, 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255539	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Olof%20Sk%C3%B6tkonung	Olof Skötkonung	Olof Skötkonung, (Old Norse: Óláfr skautkonungr) sometimes stylized as Olaf the Swede (c. 980–1022), was King of Sweden, son of Eric the Victorious and, according to Icelandic sources, Sigrid the Haughty. He succeeded his father in c. 995. He stands at the threshold of recorded history, since he is the first Swedish ruler about whom there is substantial knowledge. He is regarded as the first king known to have ruled both the Swedes and the Geats. In Sweden, the reign of king Olov Skötkonung () is considered to be the transition from the Viking age to the Middle Ages, because he was the first Christian king of the Swedes, who were the last to adopt Christianity in Scandinavia. He is associated with a growing influence of the church in what is today southwestern and central Sweden. Norse beliefs persisted in parts of Sweden until the 12th century. Olof was victorious alongside Sweyn Forkbeard when the kings created an alliance to defeat the Norwegian king Olaf Tryggvason in the Battle of Svolder. After the battle, the victorious leaders split Norway into areas of control. Heimskringla gives the most detailed account of the division. Olof received four districts in Trondheim as well as Møre, Romsdal and Rånrike. Etymology One of many explanations for the name Skötkonung is that it is derived from the Swedish word "skatt", which can mean either "taxes" or "treasure". The latter meaning has been interpreted as "tributary king" and one English scholar speculates about a tributary relationship to the Danish king Sweyn Forkbeard, who was his stepfather. That explanation, however, is not supported by evidence or historical sources. Another possible explanation of the name refers to the fact that he was the first Swedish king to mint coins. An ancient land ownership ceremony which placed a parcel of earth in someone's lap (Swedish: sköte) was called scotting and may have been involved in this epithet. The Old Norse "Óláfr sœnski" means "Olaf the Swedish", an epithet used to distinguish him from the Norwegian kings Olaf Tryggvasson and Olaf Haraldsson. Life Our knowledge of Olof is mostly based on Snorri Sturluson's and Adam of Bremen's accounts, which have been subject to criticism from some scholars. The eldest account by the German ecclesiastic chronicler Adam of Bremen (c. 1075), relates that Sweyn Forkbeard was expelled from his Danish realm by the Swedish King Eric the Victorious in the late 10th century. When Eric died (c. 995), Sweyn returned and regained his kingdom, marrying Eric's widow. Meanwhile, however, Olof had succeeded his father Eric, gathered an army, and launched a surprise attack against Sweyn. The Danish king was once again expelled while Olof occupied his lands. After this, however, the conflict was resolved. Since Sweyn had married Olof's mother, he was reinstated on the Danish throne and the two kings were thereafter allies. Snorri Sturluson (c. 1230) and the other Icelandic saga writers likewise say that Sweyn married Olof's mother after the death of Eric the Victorious, but without mentioning any conflict. Also, Snorri describes Sweyn and Olof as equal allies when they defeated the Norwegian king Olav Tryggvason in the battle of Svolder in 1000, and thereafter divided Norway between themselves (see below). It is commonly believed that Adam's account about Sweyn's defeats at the hands of Eric and Olof is partial and might have been misinterpreted; the marriage to Olof's mother may in fact have sealed Sweyn's senior position. Viking expedition to Wendland According to Snorri, Olof Skötkonung led a Viking expedition to Wendland early in his reign. He captured Edla, the daughter of a Wendish chieftain, and kept her as mistress. She gave him the son Emund (who was to become king of Sweden), and the daughters Astrid (later wife of Olaf II of Norway) and Holmfrid (married to Sven Jarl of Norway). He later married Estrid of the Obotrites, and she bore him the son Anund Jacob and the daughter Ingegerd Olofsdotter. Alliance with Sweyn Forkbeard While Adam of Bremen praises Olof as a good Christian, Icelandic authors paint an unfavourable picture of the king as haughty and prickly. Olof is said to have preferred royal sports to war, which may explain the ease with which Sweyn Forkbeard retook the Danish lands Olof's father Eric had conquered. Olof may also have lost the right to tribute which his predecessors had preserved in what is now Estonia and Latvia. In 1000, he joined forces with Sweyn Forkbeard and with the Norwegian Jarls Eric and Sven, against the Norwegian King Olaf Tryggvason. The circumstances have been much debated in modern historical research, but a contemporary poem confirms that Eric Jarl gathered auxiliaries in Sweden: "The belligerent jarl / gathered much manpower / in Svithiod, the chief went / southward to the battle." Olaf Tryggvason was attacked by the allied fleets in the Battle of Svolder, the location of which is uncertain. It may have been either in Öresund or Pomerania. Olaf Tryggvason disappeared during the battle and Norway was appropriated by the allied lords. The bulk of the conquests went to Sweyn Forkbeard while Olof gained a part of Trøndelag as well as modern Bohuslän. These lands were placed under Sven Jarl, son-in-law of the king. Norwegian-Swedish War When the Norwegian kingdom was reestablished by Olaf II of Norway (Olaf the Saint) in 1015, a new war erupted between Norway and Sweden. There is a circumstantial account of this in Snorri Sturluson's work. As he writes, many men in both Sweden and Norway tried to reconcile the kings. In 1018, Olof's cousin, the earl of Västergötland, Ragnvald Ulfsson and the Norwegian king's emissaries Björn Stallare and Hjalti Skeggiason had arrived at the thing of Uppsala in an attempt to sway the Swedish king to accept peace and as a warrant marry his daughter Ingegerd Olofsdotter to the king of Norway. The Swedish king was greatly angered and threatened to banish Ragnvald from his kingdom, but Ragnvald was supported by his foster-father Thorgny the Lawspeaker Thorgny delivered a powerful speech in which he reminded the king of the great Viking expeditions in the East that predecessors such as Erik Anundsson and Björn had undertaken, without having the hubris not to listen to their men's advice. Thorgny himself had taken part in many successful pillaging expeditions with Olof's father Eric the Victorious and even Eric had listened to his men. The present king wanted nothing but Norway, which no Swedish king before him had desired. This displeased the Swedish people, who were eager to follow the king on new ventures in the East to win back the kingdoms that paid tribute to his ancestors, but it was the wish of the people that the king make peace with the king of Norway and give him his daughter Ingegerd as queen. Thorgny finished his speech by saying: "if you do not desire to do so, we shall assault you and kill you and not brook any more of your warmongering and obstinacy. Our ancestors have done so, who at Mula thing threw five kings in a well, kings who were too arrogant as you are against us." Upon hearing this, King Olof complied with the demands of the peasantry for the time being. However, far from keeping his promise Olof married his daughter Ingegerd-Irene to Yaroslav I the Wise instead. When Olaf of Norway heard about the arrangement he was furious and intent on attacking Olof Skötkonung. However, the Geatish jarl Ragnvald Ulfsson, colluding with Olaf II's skald Sigvat Thordarson, managed to avert the impending war. Olof's other daughter Astrid stayed with Ragnvald at the time, and it was agreed that she would take Ingegerd's place. Unbeknownst to Olof, she traveled to Norway and married Olaf II. That happened c. 1019. Olof Skötkonung was highly upset, but soon ran into trouble at home. Both the Swedes and Geats were displeased with the self-willed rule of the king. The lawspeaker of Västergötland, Emund, traveled to Gamla Uppsala and spoke to Olof's councilors, and a settlement was made. Olof agreed to share his power with his son Anund Jacob who was 10 or 12 years at the time. Olof was also forced to accept a settlement with Olaf II of Norway at Kungahälla. The veracity of Snorri Sturluson's account of Olof Skötkonung, written more than two centuries later, is difficult to assess; however, he quotes several probably genuine scaldic verses which allude to some of the related events. One result of the hostilities between Olof Skötkonung and Olaf of Norway was, according to Snorri Sturluson, that the people of Jämtland and Hälsingland came under the Swedish rather than Norwegian king. Previously the Jämtlanders and part of the Hälsinglanders had adhered to Norway since the days of Hakon the Good. The veracity of this is not known, but the medieval provincial laws of Jämtland show Swedish influences, and there are indications that Christianity arrived from Central Sweden in the 11th century. Jämtland reverted to the Norwegian king in 1111, while Hälsingland was henceforth under Sweden. Diplomacy Olof's ally Sweyn Forkbeard occupied England in 1013, but died shortly afterwards, and the Anglo-Saxon ruler Æthelred the Unready was able to return. According to Adam of Bremen, "the son of the king, Cnut, returned home with the army and prepared a new war against the English. Olav [II], whom the Norwegians had chosen as their commander, now separated from the Danish kingdom. Cnut, who felt threatened from two directions, then entered an alliance with his brother Olof Eriksson who ruled in Sweden, and planned to take power in England, and then in Norway, with his assistance. Equipped with a thousand large ships, Cnut thus traversed the British Sea". From Swedish rune stones it also appears that many people joined the Danish Viking expeditions of the early 11th century. After Cnut the Great became King of England in 1016, he sent the two sons of the deceased King Edmund Ironside to Olof (who was either Canute's half-brother or stepbrother), supposedly with instructions to have the children murdered. Instead of having them killed, the two boys were secretly sent either to Kiev, where Olof's daughter Ingigerd was the Queen, or to Poland, where Canute's uncle Bolesław I Chrobry was duke. Christian King Included in the Westrogothic law from c. 1240 is the first brief Swedish chronicle, which begins with Olof Skötkonung. It relates that Olof was baptized in Husaby in Västergötland by the missionary Sigfrid, and made generous donations on spot. At Husaby parish church, there is a sign commemorating his baptism; nearby is a well thought to be the same sacred spring where Olof was baptized. He was the first Swedish king to remain a Christian until his death. However, the circumstances about his baptism are not clear. A document from 1008 says that a certain bishop, dispatched by Archbishop Bruno of Querfurt, visited the Suigi tribe and managed to baptize the king, whose queen was already Christian. 1,000 people and seven communities followed his example. The Suigi have sometimes been identified as the Swedes, though this has been rejected by several other scholars. On the other hand, Olof's coinage (see below) indicates that he was a Christian already at the time of his accession in c. 995. According to Adam of Bremen, Olof planned to tear down the Uppsala temple, which was allegedly an important cult centre. The fact that a large part of the Swedes were still pagan forced him to abandon this aim. The pagans, weary of his plans, made an agreement with Olof to the effect that he, if he wished to be a Christian, must exercise his royal authority in a province of his choice. If he founded a church, he was not supposed to force anyone to convert. Olof was content with this and installed a bishopric in the province of Västergötland, closer to Denmark and Norway. On the wishes of Olof, the Archbishop of Hamburg-Bremen anointed Thurgot as the first Bishop in Skara. This Thurgot was successful in disseminating Christianity among the West Geats and east Geats. The legend of St. Sigfrid, known since the 13th century, relates that the still pagan Olof called in the English Archbishop of York, Sigfrid, to teach the new faith in his realm. On his way, Sigfrid and his three nephews came to Värend in southern Småland where the twelve local tribes endorsed Christianity at a Thing. Sigfrid left his nephews to tend matters in Värend and proceeded to Olof's court where the king and his family were baptised. Meanwhile, a heathen reaction in Värend cost the lives of the nephews, whose heads were sunk in the Växjö Lake. Hearing about this, Sigfrid returned to Värend where the heads were discovered through a miracle. King Olof then appeared in Värend with a force, punished the murderers, and forced the locals to yield properties to the Church. Whether the legend reflects the expansion of Olof's realm to the south is unsure. The account seems to incorporate various elements in order to legitimise the establishment of the Bishopric of Växjö in c. 1170. It is nevertheless known from Adam of Bremen that an English missionary called Sigfrid preached among the Swedes and Geats in the first half of the 11th century. Coinage and extent of the realm When he stamped coins in Sigtuna in the province of Uppland Olof used the word rex for king--OLUF REX as in the coin displayed above or OLAF REX. The use of Latin seems to suggest that he was already baptised at this time but on the other hand the coins were imitating English pennies in type and style. Sigtuna is written SITUN, ZINT (in the coin above), ZTNETEI, or SIDEI. The two last have been deciphered as Si(gtuna) Dei meaning God's Sigtuna. The earliest of Olof's coins merely depict him as "King in Sigtuna", while the later ones have "King of the Swedes". It has been suggested that this change in nomenclature relates to a widening of Olof's base of power around 1000. Sigtuna may be understood as the area in Uppland ruled from the town of this name, while rulership over the Swedes may indicate a more extensive realm. Contemporary scaldic poetry indicates Olof as the ruler of the Swedes as well as the Geats (Götar), and the same goes for the account of Adam of Bremen. The exact nature of the relation between the Swedes and Geats, and the process by which a unified kingdom was created, has been intensively debated. While the unification has traditionally been thought to depart from the provinces around lake Mälaren some scholars hold that the Geatic provinces were leading the process, and that the construction of a Swedish kingdom was a long process that was only concluded in the 13th century. Óláfsdrápa sænska The Icelandic skald Óttarr svarti spent some time at Olof's court and composed the poem Óláfsdrápa sænska describing Olof's war expeditions in the east. The poem is interesting, since it gives a view of the reign of Olof: "The warrior guards his land, few kings are as mighty as him; Olof pleases the eagle, the Swedish king is outstanding". Other skalds who served Olof were Gunnlaugr ormstunga, Hrafn Önundarson and Gizurr svarti. Death Judging from Snorri Sturluson's chronology of events, Olof died a natural death in the winter of 1021–1022. Adam of Bremen asserts that he died at approximately the same time as Cnut the Great (1035), which is certainly too late. Claims that he was martyred after refusing to sacrifice to pagan gods are likely due to a mix-up with the king Olof from Vita Ansgari and Olof Trätälja from Norse sources. Since the 1740s, it has been claimed that he was buried in Husaby in the Christian part of his kingdom, but such identifications are controversial. Family Olof was the son of Eric the Victorious (Erik Segersäll) and a woman whose identity is debated. According to Adam of Bremen she was the sister or daughter of Boleslaw I Chrobry of Poland, but, according to Icelandic sources, she was Sigrid the Haughty (Sigrid Storråda), a daughter of the Viking chief Skoglar Toste. Certain sources say that Olof had a brother called Emunde. With his mistress Edla, daughter of a Slavic chief, he first had three children: Emund the Old, King of Sweden in c. 1050–1060 Astrid, d. after 1035, married to Olaf II of Norway (Olaf the Saint) Holmfrid (possibly sister of Olof), married to Sven Jarl of Norway With his spouse Queen Estrid he had two children: Anund Jacob, King of Sweden in 1022–c. 1050 Ingegerd, d. 1050, married to Yaroslav I of Kiev References External links 10th-century births 1022 deaths 10th-century Swedish monarchs 11th-century Swedish monarchs Converts to Christianity from pagan religions Sons of kings 11th-century Swedish people Swedish Christian religious leaders Leaders ousted by a coup Dethroned monarchs House of Munsö Christian monarchs	[ -0.5454210638999939, 0.44057562947273254, 0.21198999881744385, -0.3288288414478302, -0.9663810729980469, 0.06888797879219055, 0.17674505710601807, 0.23163257539272308, -0.7917648553848267, -0.10361132025718689, -0.13737033307552338, 0.11097793281078339, 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255544	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Eurasian%20wryneck	Eurasian wryneck	The Eurasian wryneck or northern wryneck (Jynx torquilla) is a species of wryneck in the woodpecker family. This species mainly breeds in temperate regions of Europe and Asia. Most populations are migratory, wintering in tropical Africa and in southern Asia from Iran to the Indian subcontinent, but some are resident in northwestern Africa. It is a bird of open countryside, woodland and orchards. Eurasian wrynecks measure about in length and have bills shorter and less dagger-like than those of other woodpeckers. Their upperparts are barred and mottled in shades of pale brown with rufous and blackish bars and wider black streaks. Their underparts are cream speckled and spotted with brown. Their chief prey is ants and other insects, which they find in decaying wood or on the ground. The eggs are white as is the case with many birds that nest in holes and a clutch of seven to ten eggs is laid during May and June. These birds get their English name from their ability to turn their heads through almost 180 degrees. When disturbed at the nest, they use this snake-like head twisting and hissing as a threat display. This odd behaviour led to their use in witchcraft, hence to put a "jinx" on someone. Taxonomy and etymology The Eurasian wryneck was first described by Carl Linnaeus in the tenth edition of his Systema Naturae in 1758. The type species came from Sweden. The genus name Jynx is from the Ancient Greek name for this bird, iunx. The specific torquilla is Medieval Latin derived from torquere, to twist, referring to the strange snake-head movements. The bird was used as a charm to bring back an errant lover, the bird being tied to a piece of string and whirled around. The English "wryneck" refers to the same twisting movement and was first recorded in 1585. The family Picidae has four subfamilies, the Picinae (woodpeckers), the Picumninae (piculets), the Jynginae (wrynecks) and the monotypic Nesoctitinae (Antillean piculet). Based on morphology and behaviour, the Picumninae was considered to be the sister clade of the Picinae. This has now been confirmed by phylogenetic analysis and the Jynginae are placed basal to the Picinae, Nesoctitinae and Picumninae. Jynginae includes one genus (Jynx) and two species, the Eurasian wryneck and the red-throated wryneck (Jynx ruficollis), resident in sub-Saharan Africa. There are six subspecies of Jynx torquilla: Jynx torquilla chinensis Hesse, 1911 Jynx torquilla himalayana Vaurie, 1959 Jynx torquilla mauretanica Rothschild, 1909 Jynx torquilla sarudnyi Loudon, 1912 Jynx torquilla torquilla Linnaeus, 1758 Jynx torquilla tschusii O. Kleinschmidt, 1907 Description The Eurasian wryneck grows to about in length. The subspecies Jynx torquilla tschusii weighs . It is a slim, elongated-looking bird with a body shape more like a thrush than a woodpecker. The upperparts are barred and mottled in shades of pale brown with rufous and blackish bars and wider black streaks. The rump and upper tail coverts are grey with speckles and irregular bands of brown. The rounded tail is grey, speckled with brown, with faint bands of greyish-brown and a few more clearly defined bands of brownish-black. The cheeks and throat are buff barred with brown. The underparts are creamy white with brown markings shaped like arrow-heads which are reduced to spots on the lower breast and belly. The flanks are buff with similar markings and the under-tail coverts are buff with narrow brown bars. The primaries and secondaries are brown with rufous-buff markings. The beak is brown, long and slender with a broad base and sharp tip. The irises are hazel and the slender legs and feet are pale brown. The first and second toes are shorter than the others. The first and fourth toes point backwards and the second and third point forwards, a good arrangement for clinging to vertical surfaces. The call of the Eurasian wryneck is a series of repeated harsh, shrill notes quee-quee-quee-quee lasting for several seconds and is reminiscent of the voice of the lesser spotted woodpecker. Its alarm call is a short series of staccato "tuck"s and when disturbed on the nest it hisses. Distribution and habitat The Eurasian wryneck has a palearctic distribution. The breeding range of the nominate subspecies includes all of Europe from Britain to the Urals. In the north it reaches the Arctic Circle and the range includes Spain in the southwest. In the south and east it intergrades with J. t. tschusii (smaller and more reddish brown) which is found in Corsica, Italy, Dalmatia and parts of the Balkans. J. t. mauretanica (also smaller than the nominate form, light, with whitish throat and breast) is resident in Algeria and Morocco and possibly also the Balearic Islands, Sardinia and parts of Sicily. J. t. sarudnyi (considerably paler than the nominate with fainter markings) occurs in the Urals and then in a wide strip of Asia through southern Siberia, Central Asia, including the north-western Himalayas to the Pacific coast. J. t. chinensis breeds in eastern Siberia and northeastern and central China while J. t. himalayana breeds in Pakistan and the northwestern Himalayas. Eurasian wrynecks also inhabit the island of Sakhalin, Japan and the coastal areas of southern China. The Eurasian wryneck is the only European woodpecker to undertake long-distance migrations. The wintering area of European species is located south of the Sahara, in a wide strip across Africa extending from Senegal, Gambia and Sierra Leone in the west to Ethiopia in the east. Its southern limit extends to the Democratic Republic of Congo and Cameroon. The populations from West Asia use the same wintering areas. The Central and East Asian breeding birds winter in the Indian subcontinent or southern East Asia including southern Japan. During the summer the bird is found in open countryside, parkland, gardens, orchards, heaths and hedgerows, especially where there are some old trees. It may also inhabit deciduous woodland and in Scandinavia it also occurs in coniferous forests. Behaviour The Eurasian wryneck sometimes forms small groups during migration and in its winter quarters but in the summer is usually found in pairs. It characteristically holds its head high with its beak pointing slightly upwards. A mutual display that occurs at any time of year involves two birds perched facing each other with their heads far back and beaks wide open, bobbing their heads up and down. Sometimes the head is allowed to slump sideways and hang limply. On other occasions, when excited, the head is shaken and twisted about violently. When disturbed on the nest or held in the hand, the neck contorts and twists in all directions. The bird sometimes feigns death and hangs limply with eyes closed. On returning to the breeding area after migration, the birds set up territories. On farmland in Switzerland it has been found that old pear orchards with large numbers of ant nests are preferentially selected over other habitats. Areas used for vegetable cultivation provided useful habitat when they include areas of bare ground on which the birds can forage. Territories are not chosen at random as arriving birds favoured certain areas over others with the same territories being colonised first year after year. The presence of other Eurasian wrynecks in the vicinity is also a positive influence. Orchards in general, and older ones in particular, provide favoured territories, probably because the dense foliage is more likely to support high numbers of aphids and the ground beneath has scant vegetation cover, both of which factors increase the availability of ants, the birds' main prey. Despite some territories being consistently chosen over others, reproductive success in these territories was no higher than in others. Limiting factors for such crevice-nesting species as Eurasian wrynecks are both the availability of nesting sites and the number of ants and their ease of discovery. Modern farming practices such as the removal of hedges, forest patches and isolated trees and the increasing use of fertilisers and pesticides are disadvantageous to such birds. The diet of the Eurasian wryneck consists chiefly of ants but beetles and their larvae, moths, spiders and woodlice are also eaten. Although much time is spent in the upper branches of trees, the bird sometimes perches in low bushes and mostly forages on the ground, moving around with short hops with its tail held in a raised position. It can cling to tree trunks, often moving obliquely, and sometimes pressing its tail against the surface as a prop. It does not make holes in bark with its beak but picks up prey with a rapid extension and retraction of its tongue and it sometimes catches insects while on the wing. Its flight is rather slow and undulating. Breeding The nesting site is variable and may be in a pre-existing hole in a tree trunk, a crevice in a wall, a hole in a bank, a sand martin's burrow or a nesting box. In its search for a safe, protected site out of reach of predators, it sometimes evicts a previous occupant, its eggs and nestlings. It uses no nesting material and a clutch of normally seven to ten eggs is laid (occasionally five, six, eleven or twelve). The eggs average and weigh about . They are a dull white colour and partially opaque. Both sexes are involved in incubation which takes twelve days, but the female plays the greater part. Both parents feed the chicks for about twenty days before they fledge. There is usually a single brood. Status The International Union for Conservation of Nature lists the Eurasian wryneck as being of "least concern" in its Red List of Threatened Species. This is because it has a world population estimated at up to fifteen million individual birds and a very wide geographical range. The population may be decreasing to a certain extent but not at such a rate as to make the bird reach the threshold for a more threatened category. In continental Europe, the largest populations are in Spain, Italy, Germany, Poland, Romania, Hungary, Belarus and Ukraine, and only in Romania is the population trend believed to be upward. In Russia, where there are believed to be 300,000 to 800,000 individuals, the population trend is unknown. In the United Kingdom the numbers of bird are on the decrease and it is protected under Schedule 1 of the Wildlife and Countryside Act 1981 and is listed on Appendix II of the Bern Convention. It is protected as a migratory species under the Birds Directive in the European Union. In Switzerland, the population has also been decreasing, but the species has reacted positively to conservation measures such as the addition of nestboxes in suitable habitats. References External links Eurasian wryneck Birds of Eurasia Birds described in 1758 Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus Articles containing video clips	[ -0.4309631586074829, 0.07148493826389313, -0.5301890969276428, -0.33890557289123535, 0.5657998919487, 1.0388400554656982, 0.1591280996799469, 0.4828953146934509, -0.2780027687549591, -0.4073546230792999, -0.16325023770332336, 0.5864983797073364, -0.2184274047613144, 0.27794507145881653, -0.038471151143312454, 0.7698691487312317, 0.24151840806007385, -0.11463818699121475, 0.09993456304073334, -0.6207557320594788, -0.02825285866856575, -0.6546907424926758, 0.32351142168045044, 0.08452686667442322, 0.21102970838546753, 0.1282215267419815, 0.5219725966453552, -0.06684831529855728, 0.08108419924974442, 0.1852557510137558, -0.20908676087856293, 0.9088473320007324, -0.25635600090026855, -0.2488371729850769, 0.22800227999687195, 0.18496347963809967, -0.4274497628211975, -0.4056072235107422, -0.594467043876648, -0.8593897819519043, 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255549	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red-throated%20wryneck	Red-throated wryneck	The red-throated wryneck (Jynx ruficollis) is a species of wryneck in the woodpecker family. It is also known as the rufous-necked wryneck, red-breasted wryneck, African wryneck, or rufous-throated wryneck. This species is resident in sub-Saharan Africa, and is the nonmigratory counterpart of the Eurasian wryneck. This is a savannah bird, which requires trees with old woodpecker or barbet holes for nesting. It has cryptic plumage, with intricate patterning of greys and browns. The voice is a nasal, woodpecker-like call. References External links Red-throated wryneck - Species text in The Atlas of Southern African Birds. 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255551	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paignton	Paignton	Paignton ( ) is a seaside town on the coast of Tor Bay in Devon, England. Together with Torquay and Brixham it forms the borough of Torbay which was created in 1998. The Torbay area is a holiday destination known as the English Riviera. Paignton's population in the United Kingdom Census of 2011 was 49,021. It has origins as a Celtic settlement and was first mentioned in 1086. It grew as a small fishing village and a new harbour was built in 1847. A railway line was opened to passengers in 1859 creating links to Torquay and London. As its population increased, it merged with the villages of Goodrington and Preston. Paignton is around north east of Plymouth and south of Exeter, and has the fourth largest population in Devon. History A Roman burial was discovered in 1993 on the Hookhills estate by a householder digging a patio. At first thought to be Neolithic it was later radiocarbon dated to be between 230-390CE. The burial is of a young woman aged between 15 and 25 years. The burial included Oysters and her teeth and bone reveal a diet rich in carbohydrates and proteins. Despite living near the sea marine food only accounted for 10% of her diet. The skeleton is the most complete yet found in Devon and is on display in the Torquay Museum. Paignton is mentioned in the Domesday Book of AD 1086 as Peintone in the ancient hundred of Kerswell. Formerly written Peynton, Payngton and Paington, the name is derived from "Paega" an Anglo-Saxon personal name, "ing" meaning "the people of" and "ton" an enclosure, estate or homestead, the original Anglo-Saxon settlement. Originally, the beach was backed by low sand dunes with marshes behind on the flat land between the sea and the hills behind. The settlement grew up on the dry ground at the foot of the hills, and also as a separate hamlet in the shelter of Roundham Head, which was a fishing settlement. The first church was probably built using wood in the eighth century In late Saxon times, the manor was owned by Leofric, the Bishop of Exeter, and later bishops built a palace, some remains of which, including the "Coverdale" Tower can be seen to the south of the parish church. Winner Street owes its name to a corruption of the word "Wynerde", referring to vineyards or, at least to traders in wine in the medieval period. Paignton was given the status of a borough having a market and fair in 1294. Paignton was a small fishing and farming village (noted for grapes, cabbages and cider) until the 19th century, when in 1837 the Paington Harbour Act led to the construction of a new harbour. Around the same time, the modern spelling, Paignton, first appeared. The historic part of Paignton is centred on Church Street, Winner Street and Palace Avenue which contain fine examples of Victorian architecture. Kirkham House is a late medieval stone house which is open to the public at certain times of the year. The Coverdale Tower adjacent to Paignton Parish Church is named after Bishop Miles Coverdale, who published an English translation of the Bible in 1536. Coverdale was Bishop of Exeter between 1551 and 1553 and is reputed to have lived in the tower although this is doubted by modern historians. The railway line to Paignton was built by the Dartmouth and Torbay Railway, and opened to passengers on 2 August 1859, providing Torquay and Paignton with a link to London. The Paignton Pudding, first made in the 13th century, is the origin of the nickname pudden eaters for the people of Paignton. The puddings were made infrequently and were of great size. When thousands turned up hoping to obtain a piece of a huge pudding that had been baked to celebrate the arrival of the railway chaos occurred and the event became notorious. A Paignton Pudding was baked in 1968 to celebrate the town's charter, and another baked in 2006 to mark the 200th anniversary of the birth of the engineer, Isambard Kingdom Brunel. Oldway Mansion is a large house and gardens constructed in the 1870s for Isaac Merritt Singer, who had amassed a considerable fortune with his improvements to the sewing machine. The building was occupied by Torbay Council until an agreement was signed in September 2012 to develop the site into a hotel and retirement apartments. Other Singer legacies in Paignton include the Palace Hotel and the Inn on the Green, which were built as homes for Singer's sons Washington and Mortimer. Torquay Tramways were extended into Paignton in 1911 but the network was closed in 1934. Governance As Paignton's population grew, it merged with the coastal villages of Goodrington and Preston. The town was governed by an urban district council until April 1968, when the creation of Torbay County Borough Council led to a single body covering Torquay, Paignton and Brixham. The unitary authority formed in 1998 now handles all local government for Torbay, which has a directly elected mayor and 36 councillors. They are elected every four years. The Mayor chooses nine councillors to form the Cabinet. The Chairman of Torbay Council wears the chain of office. The first elected mayor was Nick Bye, elected in 2005. In 2011, Gordon Oliver became the second. In May 2016, voters in Torbay chose to replace the system of a Mayor and cabinet with a council leader and cabinet in 2019. Most of Paignton is in the Torbay constituency. At the 2015 general election, Kevin Foster became the Conservative MP with a majority of 3,286. He retained it with a majority of 14,283 in 2017. Some areas in the southern and western parts of the town are in the Totnes constituency. In 2015, Sarah Wollaston retained the seat for the Conservative Party with a majority of 18,385, reduced to 13,477 in 2017. Wollaston later resigned, February 2019, from the Conservative Party and after moving between various political parties and finally as an independent M.P. before standing for the Liberal Democrats at the December 2019 general election. She was defeated by Anthony Mangnall for the Conservative party with a 12,724 majority. Economy Paignton's economy relies extensively on tourism and the town is marketed as a location for family holidays. The main seafront area is dominated by Paignton Pier, a long structure opened in 1879. It was designed by George Soudon Bridgman, the local architect who also designed the original Oldway Mansion. The Festival Theatre, opened in 1967, was once a seafront theatre capable of staging large summer shows. In 1999 it was converted into a multiscreen cinema. The Torbay Air Show, launched in 2016, is held over the Bay in front of Paignton Sands in early June annually. The Paignton Festival (formerly known as the "Torbay Carnival") is over 100 years old and is held annually in late July. It features a Carnival Procession together with various entertainments and charity stalls on The Green. Regatta Week during early August is the peak holiday season. During this period there is a funfair on Paignton Green, along with a large fireworks display. Later in August is Children's Week, which includes a wide range of events and competitions. Paignton has a variety of holiday accommodation, complemented by numerous pubs, nightclubs and restaurants. Tourist attractions include Paignton Zoo and the Dartmouth Steam Railway, which operates steam trains from Paignton to Kingswear, from where a ferry can be taken across the River Dart to Dartmouth. The line was sold in 1972 without cessation of services by British Rail in the aftermath of the cutbacks of the Beeching era in the 1960s, and is operated today as a heritage railway line. The 630 mile South West Coast Path National Trail runs along the coast. Suttons Seeds, a supplier of seeds, bulbs and horticultural products, is based in Paignton. There are small industrial estates and superstores on the outskirts on Brixham Road. Places of interest The Paignton Picture House (now closed) is believed to have been Europe's oldest purpose-built cinema and was built in 1907. Seat 2 Row 2 of the circle was the favourite seat of Torquay-born crime novelist Agatha Christie, who lived in neighbouring Galmpton. The cinemas and theatres in her books are all said to be based on the Paignton Picture House. It was also used as a location for the 1984 Donald Sutherland film Ordeal by Innocence and the 1981 film The French Lieutenant's Woman (which was filmed mainly at Lyme Regis in Dorset). The Royal Bijou Theatre is now demolished, but a blue plaque marking its former location can be found next to the Thomas Cook travel agency in Hyde Road. The theatre was the venue for the premiere of The Pirates of Penzance by Gilbert and Sullivan on 30 December 1879. The performance was given at short notice to secure the British copyright on the work after problems had arisen with unauthorised performances of HMS Pinafore in the USA. The Palace Theatre in Palace Avenue has been the main theatre in the town since the conversion of the Festival Theatre to a cinema in 1998. The department store Rossiters was a centrepiece of the town until its closure in January 2009. The store is said to have been the inspiration for the sitcom Are You Being Served?. In 2010, it reopened as a discount store. From 1889 to 1897 the mathematician Oliver Heaviside lived in Palace Avenue, in the building now occupied by Barclays Bank. A commemorative blue plaque can be seen on the wall. Heaviside is buried in Paignton Cemetery. Beaches Paignton beach and the nearby Preston Sands, which are continuous at low tide, are used for water sports including kite surfing and dinghy sailing. Both are sandy and gently shelving and have no strong currents, making them popular with swimmers and families. Both have green spaces immediately inland. Paignton Green has a pirate-themed Adventure Golf course and the Paignton Geoplay Park, a children's play area, which has the area's geology as its theme, inspired by the UNESCO Global Geopark of which Paignton is a part. Immediately to the east of Paignton Harbour is Fairy Cove, which has no facilities, but features good exposures of the Torbay Breccia, a red sandstone with pieces of rock which washed into it when the area was a desert. Also within the former Urban District of Paignton lies Goodrington which has another popular beach backed by Young's Park, with its boating lake, and a large outdoor waterpark, Splashdown Quaywest. Beyond Goodrington are Waterside and Saltern Coves, which have no facilities and are accessed through fields, followed by Broadsands, on the Brixham border. The reed beds found behind Broadsands beach are a haunt of the rare cirl bunting. Hollicombe beach, situated at Paignton's northern boundary with Torquay, features a geological stratotype at its northern end, known as the "Corbyn's Head Member" Elberry Cove is used by jetski enthusiasts, while Saltern Cove is a Site of Special Scientific Interest due to its distinctive geology and its marine biology. Transport Paignton railway station is situated close to the shops and a short walk from the beach along Torbay Road. Train services are mainly provided by Great Western Railway and mainly consist of approximately half hourly services to Torquay, Newton Abbot, Exeter and Exmouth, with some longer distance services to Taunton, Bristol, Cardiff and London Paddington. CrossCountry normally provide services to Manchester but these have been curtailed to operate from Paignton to Bristol (one train) and Birmingham New Street (one train) from the winter December 2020 timetable due to COVID-19 travel restrictions. Queen's Park Station for the Dartmouth Steam Railway is adjacent to the main railway station on the beachside of the level crossing. A service of steam trains is provided from February to December, although it is daily only between April and October. The bus and coach station face the main entrance to the railway station. Bus services are provided by Stagecoach South West, Torbay Minibuses, Country Bus (Newton Abbot) and Dartmouth Steam Railway and Riverboat Company. Principal services are to Totnes and Plymouth; Torquay and Newton Abbot; Torquay, Teignmouth and Dawlish Warren; Brixham; and Kingswear for the ferry to Dartmouth. A range of long-distance coach services is operated by National Express. The other railway station in Paignton is Goodrington Sands (opened 1928), now part of the Dartmouth Steam Railway. Ferry services are provided seasonally by Paignton Pleasure Cruises and We Ferry to Torquay and Brixham from Paignton Harbour. Notable people Sue Barker, the television presenter and former professional tennis player, was born in the town. See also List of towns and cities in Devon by population List of schools in Torbay Kirkham House Paignton Picture House Paignton Academy Redcliffe Hotel References Further reading External links Towns in Devon Seaside resorts in England Unparished areas in Devon Torbay	[ -0.2408234030008316, 0.5740125775337219, 0.1878383904695511, -0.9071062803268433, 0.5195593237876892, 0.6656753420829773, 0.4369514286518097, 0.2630421221256256, -0.32902905344963074, 0.2611592710018158, -0.41946715116500854, 0.612299919128418, 0.10748164355754852, 0.4771343469619751, -0.4872138798236847, 0.10520125925540924, 0.09872090816497803, 0.2926548719406128, 0.20664675533771515, -0.7905310988426208, 0.1852593868970871, -0.4677633047103882, -0.2928110957145691, -0.21526901423931122, 0.1755535900592804, 0.053323764353990555, 0.31688544154167175, 0.2529824376106262, 0.055262427777051926, 0.14216776192188263, -0.075202576816082, 0.4513058662414551, -0.4151718318462372, -0.5676344633102417, 0.004691292066127062, 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255553	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/War%20Pigs	War Pigs	"War Pigs" is a song by English heavy metal band Black Sabbath, released in 1970 album and the opening track from the band's second studio album Paranoid (1970). Overview The original title of "War Pigs" was "Walpurgis", dealing with the witches' sabbath. "Walpurgis is sort of like Christmas for Satanists. And to me, war was the big Satan", said bassist and lyricist Geezer Butler. "It wasn’t about politics or government or anything. It was Evil itself. So I was saying 'generals gathered in the masses / just like witches at black masses' to make an analogy. But when we brought it to the record company, they thought 'Walpurgis' sounded too Satanic. And that's when we turned it into 'War Pigs'. But we didn't change the lyrics, because they were already finished." During this time period, mandatory army service had recently ended in Britain but with the Vietnam War raging, many young men feared they'd be conscripted to fight in it. "That's what started this whole rebellion thing about not going to war for anybody", said Butler. "I was dreading being called up", the lyricist recalled. Prior to its official release, the band often altered the lyrics significantly when performing it live. An example of this can be found on Ozzy Osbourne's compilation The Ozzman Cometh, which features an early version recorded by Black Sabbath for BBC Radio 1 on 26 April 1970. While Butler has said that "War Pigs" is "totally against the Vietnam War, about how these rich politicians and rich people start all the wars for their benefit and get all the poor people to die for them", vocalist Osbourne has stated that the group "knew nothing about Vietnam. It's just an anti-war song." The song's instrumental outro is entitled "Luke's Wall" on US releases of the album, formatted as "War Pigs/Luke's Wall". Drummer Bill Ward's first memory of performing the song was at The Beat Club in Switzerland in 1968. The band was required to play multiple sets every night and had little material in their repertoire at that point, so they would perform lengthy jam sessions to fill in the sets. Co-writer and lead guitarist Tony Iommi has said that "War Pigs" originated from one of those jam sessions. The addition of the air-raid siren and the speeding up of the song's end were done by producer Rodger Bain and engineer Tom Allom. The band had no input in these decisions, though they were pleased with the results. Legacy Music journalist Martin Popoff has called the song an "ugly, antiwar classic now considered one of Sabbath's top two or three most enduring compositions". Guitar World described the song as "the greatest HM song ever." The magazine also included the song on their list of the "100 Greatest Guitar Solos" and ranked it in 56th place. Steve Huey of AllMusic called the song a "standard". Kelefa Sanneh wrote, "What is memorable is the way Osbourne evokes not merely war's cost but its seductive appeal. Part of what made Black Sabbath seem new was a disinclination to uplifting, or hopeful, or self-righteous." "War Pigs" was ranked the best Black Sabbath song by . The song is notable for its publication in the American folk music magazine Broadside, which normally did not feature rock songs. The song's iconic guitar riff largely inspired that of Arctic Monkeys' 2014 single "Arabella", to the extent that the band often perform an interlude of the song, to enable front man Alex Turner to pick up his guitar in time for his solo. War Pigs was one of the 40 songs featured in the Music Monday series of the Newseum, and thus part of the Reporting Vietnam exhibit as a major musical reflection of the time. Personnel Ozzy Osbourne – vocals Tony Iommi – guitar Geezer Butler – bass Bill Ward – drums See also List of anti-war songs References External links Lyrics on Musixmatch 1970 singles 1970 songs Anti-war songs Black Sabbath songs Faith No More songs Songs of the Vietnam War Songs written by Ozzy Osbourne Songs written by Tony Iommi Songs written by Geezer Butler Songs written by Bill Ward (musician) Vertigo Records singles	[ 0.7230840921401978, 0.2656407654285431, -0.2261527180671692, -0.44552022218704224, -0.3853411078453064, 0.43461474776268005, 0.3944283425807953, -0.14869843423366547, -0.13397890329360962, 0.06047099456191063, 0.20409414172172546, 0.9973598718643188, -0.8594302535057068, 0.09851613640785217, -0.050423942506313324, 0.3328951597213745, 0.5449507832527161, -0.2648966908454895, -0.13354408740997314, -0.523310661315918, 0.04693163186311722, -0.6093481779098511, 0.42959097027778625, 0.13424621522426605, -0.1427803486585617, -0.06166183203458786, 0.510660707950592, 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255556	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ben%20Johnston%20%28composer%29	Ben Johnston (composer)	Benjamin Burwell Johnston Jr. (March 15, 1926 – July 21, 2019) was an American contemporary music composer who used just intonation. He was called "one of the foremost composers of microtonal music" by Philip Bush and "one of the best non-famous composers this country has to offer" by John Rockwell. Biography Johnston was born in Macon, Georgia, and taught composition and theory at the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign from 1951 to 1986, before retiring to North Carolina. During his time teaching, he was in contact with avant-garde figures such as John Cage, La Monte Young, and Iannis Xenakis. Johnston's students have included Stuart Saunders Smith, Neely Bruce, Thomas Albert, Michael Pisaro, Manfred Stahnke, and Kyle Gann. He also considered his practice of just intonation to have influenced other composers, including James Tenney and Larry Polansky. In 1946 he married dance band singer Dorothy Haines, but they soon divorced; he married artist Betty Hall in 1950 (she died in 2007). Johnston began as a traditional composer of art music before working with Harry Partch. He helped the senior musician to build instruments and use them in the performance and recording of new compositions. Partch then arranged for Johnston to study with Darius Milhaud at Mills College. In 1952, Johnston met Cage, who invited him to come to New York to study with him in the summer. Though Johnston decided he did not have sufficient time to prepare for such studies, he did go to New York for several weeks and assisted, along with Earle Brown, in the production of Cage's eight-track tape composition, Williams Mix. Later, in 1957 and 1959, he studied with Cage, who encouraged him to follow his desires and use traditional instruments rather than electronics or newly built instruments. Unskilled in carpentry and finding electronics unreliable, Johnston struggled with how to integrate microtonality and conventional instruments for ten years. He also struggled with how to integrate microtones into his compositional language through a slow process of many stages. However, since 1960 Johnston had almost exclusively used a system of microtonal notation based on the rational intervals of just intonation, what Gann describes as a "lifelong allegiance" to "microtonality". Johnston also studied with Burrill Phillips and Robert Palmer. Johnston composed music for multiple productions by the E.T.C. Company of La MaMa, Wilford Leach and John Braswell's company-in-residence at La MaMa Experimental Theatre Club in the East Village of Manhattan. His most significant work was Carmilla, which the company performed as part of their repertory throughout the 1970s. He also composed music for the company's production of Gertrude, a musical about the life of Gertrude Stein. His other works included the orchestral work Quintet for Groups (commissioned by the St. Louis Symphony Orchestra), Sonnets of Desolation (commissioned by the Swingle Singers), the Sonata for Microtonal Piano (1964), and the Suite for Microtonal Piano (1977). Johnston completed ten string quartets. The Kepler Quartet recorded all ten of his string quartets for New World Records, finishing in April 2016 just after the composer's 90th birthday. Johnston said: He has received many honors, including a Guggenheim Fellowship in 1959, a grant from the National Council on the Arts and the Humanities in 1966, two commissions from the Smithsonian Institution, and the Deems Taylor Award. In 2007, the American Academy of Arts and Letters honored Johnston for his lifetime of work. His Quintet for Groups won the SWR Sinfonieorchester prize at the 2008 Donaueschinger Musiktage. Heidi Von Gunden wrote a monograph on the composer, and Bob Gilmore edited the composer's complete writings, which were published as "Maximum Clarity" and Other Writings on Music by the University of Illinois Press. A three-part oral history covering all stages of his career is housed at the Oral History of American Music through Yale University. Johnston died from complications of Parkinson's disease in Deerfield, Wisconsin, on July 21, 2019. Music He is best known for extending Harry Partch's experiments in just intonation tuning to traditional instruments through his system of notation. Johnston's compositional style is eclectic. He uses serial processes, folk song idioms (string quartets 4, 5, and 10), repetitive processes, traditional forms like fugue and variations, and intuitive processes. His main goal "has been to reestablish just intonation as a viable part of our musical tradition". According to Mark Swed, "ultimately, what Johnston has done, more than any other composer with roots in the great American musical experiments of the '50s and '60s, is to translate those radical approaches to the nature of music into a music that is immediately apprehensible". Most of Johnston's later works use a large number of pitches, generated through just-intonation procedures. In these works, he forms melodies based on an "otonal" eight-note just-intonation scale made from the 8th through 15th partials of the harmonic series, or its "utonal" inversion. He then gains new pitches by using common-tone transpositions or inversions. Many of his works also feature an expansive use of just intonation, using high prime limits. His String Quartet No. 9 uses intervals of the harmonic series as high as the 31st partial. He uses "potentially hundreds of pitches per octave," in way that is "radical without being avant-garde," and not for the creation of "as-yet-unheard dissonances," but in order to, "return... to a kind of musical beauty," he perceives as diminished in Western music since the adoption of equal-temperament. "By the beginning of the 1980s he could say of his elaborately microtonal String Quartet no. 5... 'I have no idea as to how many different pitches it used per octave'". Johnston's early efforts in just composition drew heavily on the accomplishments of post-Webern serialism. His 7-limit String Quartet No. 4 "Amazing Grace", was commissioned by the Fine Arts Music Foundation of Chicago, and was first recorded by the Fine Arts Quartet on Nonesuch Records in 1980 (then reissued on Gasparo as GS205). His String Quartet No. 4, perhaps Johnston's best-known composition, has also been recorded by the Kronos Quartet. The Kepler Quartet (Sharan Leventhal, Eric Segnitz, Brek Renzelman, and Karl Lavine) also recorded the piece for New World Records, as part of a complete 10-quartet series documenting Johnston's entire cycle of string quartets. The Third Quartet was premiered as part of this series by the Concord String Quartet at Alice Tully Hall at Lincoln Center for the Performing Arts, on March 15, 1976, the composer's fiftieth birthday. Staff notation Beginning in the 1960s, Johnston had proposed an approach to notating music in just intonation, redefining the understanding of conventional symbols (the seven "white" notes, the sharps and flats) and adding further accidentals, each designed to extend the notation into higher prime limits. Johnston‘s method is based on a diatonic C major scale tuned in JI, in which the interval between D (9/8 above C) and A (5/3 above C) is one Syntonic comma less than a Pythagorean perfect fifth 3:2. To write a perfect fifth, Johnston introduces a pair of symbols representing this comma, + and –. Thus, a series of perfect fifths beginning with F would proceed C G D A+ E+ B+. The three conventional white notes A E B are tuned as Ptolemaic major thirds (5:4, Ptolemy's intense diatonic scale) above F C G respectively. Johnston introduces new symbols for the septimal ( & ), undecimal ( & ), tridecimal ( & ), and further prime extensions to create an accidental-based exact JI notation for what he has named "extended just intonation". Though "this notation is not tied to any particular diapason" and "what remains constant are the ratio relations between pitches", "most of his works utilize A = 440 as the tuning note", making C 264 Hertz. Thus, a string quartet is tuned C-, G-, D-, A, E. Recordings 2016: Ben Johnston: String Quartets Nos. 7, 8 & 6, Quietness – Kepler Quartet (New World Records CD-80730) String Quartet No. 7 String Quartet No. 8 String Quartet No. 6 "Quietness" (string quartet and voice) 2014: Ben Johnston: Ruminations – Eclipse String Quartet, John Schneider (voice, microtonal guitar), Karen Clark (voice), Jim Sullivan (clarinet), Sarah Thornblade (violin) (MicroFest Records CD-5) "The Tavern" "Revised Standards" "Parable" 2011: Ben Johnston: String Quartets Nos. 1, 5 & 10 – Kepler Quartet (New World Records CD-80693) String Quartet No. 5 String Quartet No. 10 String Quartet No. 1, "Nine Variations" 2008: On Track: Commissions Vol. 2. – New Century Saxophone Quartet (Alanna Records ACD-6006, Pittsburgh) Includes Johnston's "O Waly Waly Variations" 2006: Ben Johnston: String Quartets Nos. 2, 3, 4 & 9 – Kepler Quartet (New World Records CD-80637) String Quartet No. 9 Crossings: String Quartet No. 3 Crossings: The Silence Crossings: String Quartet No. 4, "Amazing Grace" String Quartet No. 2 2005: Susan Fancher: Ponder Nothing (Innova Records) Includes Johnston's "Ponder Nothing" 2002: Cleveland Chamber Symphony. Vol. 1, 2 & 3 (Troppe Note Records) Includes Johnston's "Songs of Loss" 1997: Phillip Bush: Microtonal Piano (Koch International Classics 3-7369-2-H1) Includes Johnston's Suite for Microtonal Piano Includes Johnston's Sonata for Microtonal Piano Includes Johnston's "Saint Joan" 1996: Michael Cameron: Progression (Ziva Records) Includes Johnston's "Progression" 1993: Ponder Nothing: Chamber Music of Ben Johnston (New World Records 80432-2) Septet for woodwinds, horn, and strings "Three Chinese Lyrics" "Gambit:" "Five Fragments" Trio "Ponder Nothing" 1995: The Stanford Quartet (Laurel Records) Includes Johnston's String Quartet No. 9 1976: Sound Forms for Piano (LP record, New World Records NW-203) Includes Johnston's Sonata for Microtonal Piano 1995: The Kronos Quartet: Released (compilation, Nonesuch Records) Includes Johnston's String Quartet No. 4, "Amazing Grace" 1993: Urban Diva – Dora Ohrenstein (soprano), Mary Rowell (violin), Phillip Bush (keyboards), Bill Ruyle and Jason Cirker (percussion), John Thompson (electric bass) (Emergency Music, Composers Recordings Incorporated CD-654) Includes Johnston's "Calamity Jane to Her Daughter" 1987: White Man Sleeps – Kronos Quartet (Elektra/Nonesuch 79163-2) Includes Johnston's String Quartet No. 4, "Amazing Grace" 1984: New Swingle Singers and New Vocal Workshop (Composers Recordings, Inc.) Includes Johnston's "Sonnets of Desolation" Includes Johnston's "Visions and Spels" 1983: The New World Quartet (Composers Recordings, Inc.) Includes Johnston's String Quartet No. 6 1980: The Fine Arts Quartet (Nonesuch Records) Includes Johnston's String Quartet No. 4, "Amazing Grace" 1979: Music from the University of Illinois (Composers Recordings, Inc.) Includes Johnston's Duo for flute and contrabass 1970: Carmilla: A Vampire Tale (Vanguard Records) 1969: John Cage & Lejaren Hiller – HPSCHD/ Ben Johnston – String Quartet No. 2. (LP record, Nonesuch Records H-71224) 1969: The Contemporary Contrabass - Bertram Turetzky, contrabass (LP record, Nonesuch Records H-71237) Includes Johnston's "Casta*" 1968: New Music Choral Ensemble – Kenneth Gaburo, conductor (LP record, Ars Nova/Ars Antiqua Records AN1005) Includes Johnston's "Ci-Git Satie" Footnotes References Further reading Elster, Steven. 1991. "A Harmonic and Serial Analysis of Ben Johnston's String Quartet No. 6". Perspectives of New Music 29, no. 2 (Summer): 138–165. Gilmore, Bob. 1995. "Changing the Metaphor: Ratio Models of Musical Pitch in the Work of Harry Partch, Ben Johnston, and James Tenney". Perspectives of New Music 33, nos. 1–2 (Winter-Summer): 458–503. Johnson, Timothy Ernest. 2008. "13-limit Extended Just Intonation in Ben Johnston's String Quartet Number 7 and Toby Twining's Chrysalid Requiem, Gradual/Tract". Doctor of Musical Arts thesis. Urbana: University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Johnston, Ben, and Sylvia Smith. 2006. Who Am I? Why Am I Here?: Ben Johnston Reflects on his Life in Music. Baltimore: Smith Publications. Johnston, Sibyl. 2007. "Very Precise Relationships: Two Interviews with Ben Johnston". American Music 25, no. 2 (Summer): 169–192. Kassel, Richard. 2001. "Johnston, Ben(jamin Burwell)". The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians, second edition, edited by Stanley Sadie and John Tyrrell. London: Macmillan Publishers. Maltz, Richard Steven. 1991. "Microtonal Techniques in Charles Ives' Three Quarter-Tone Pieces for Two Pianos, Harry Patch's And [on] the Seventh Day Petals Fell in Petaluma, and Ben Johnston's Fourth String Quartet". PhD thesis. University of South Carolina. Ratliff, Phillip. 2002. "How Sweet the Sound". Living Music 18, no. 1 (Fall): 8–9. Schneider, John (ed.) 2007. "Ben Johnston at Eighty". 1/1: The Journal of the Just Intonation Network 12, no. 3 (Johnston birthday volume). Shinn, Randall. 1977. "Ben Johnston's Fourth String Quartet". Perspectives of New Music 15, no. 2 (Spring-Summer): 145–173. Stahnke, Manfred. 2015. "Ben Johnston: Microtonal Piano Sonata. Klavierstimmung als Fessel und Freiheit – Anmerkungen zu Ben Johnstons Sonata for Microtonal Piano". MusikTexte 144, (February): 87-. Taylor, Mark R. 2002. "Ben Johnston: Suite; Sonata; Saint Joan. Phillip Bush (piano); Koch International Classics 3-7369-2-H1; Ben Johnston: Chamber Music. Music Amici. New World Records 80432-2". Tempo, new series, no. 220 (April): 54–55. (, accessed 1 April 2009.) Zimmerman, Walter. 2020. Desert Plants – Conversations with 23 American Musicians, Berlin: Beginner Press in cooperation with Mode Records (originally published in 1976 by A.R.C., Vancouver). The 2020 edition includes a cd featuring the original interview recordings with Larry Austin, Robert Ashley, Jim Burton, John Cage, Philip Corner, Morton Feldman, Philip Glass, Joan La Barbara, Garrett List, Alvin Lucier, John McGuire, Charles Morrow, J.B. Floyd (on Conlon Nancarrow), Pauline Oliveros, Charlemagne Palestine, Ben Johnston (on Harry Partch), Steve Reich, David Rosenboom, Frederic Rzewski, Richard Teitelbaum, James Tenney, Christian Wolff, and La Monte Young. External links Ben Johnston at Plainsound Music Edition "Ben Johnston" on the Living Composers Project "A New Dissonance" : video interviews with Johnston, blog entries, documentary footage of rehearsals of String Quartet No. 10 by the Kepler Quartet Ben Johnston at UNC (Greensboro) symposium : autobiographical lecture describing his early music influences and his interest in microtonal music and just intonation Interview with Ben Johnston (April 7, 1987) Johnston's page on La MaMa Archives Digital Collections Listening Casta Bertram, Bertram Turetzky (NonesuchRecords, 1969) FLAC and liner notes MP3 String Quartet No. 2, Composers Quartet (Nonesuch, 1969) FLAC and liner notes MP3 String Quartet no. 6, New World Quartet (Composers Recordings Inc., 1983) liner notes MP3: click on "Johnston 01.mp3" Sonnets of Desolation, New Swingle Singers and New Vocal Workshop (Composers Recordings Inc., 1984) liner notes MP3: click on "Johnston 02.mp3" Visions and Spels, New Swingle Singers and New Vocal Workshop (Composers Recordings Inc., 1984) liner notes MP3: click on "Johnston 03.mp3" for part 1; click on "Johnston 04.mp3" for part 2 1926 births 2019 deaths 20th-century classical composers 21st-century classical composers American male classical composers American classical composers Twelve-tone and serial composers Just intonation composers Writers from Macon, Georgia Musicians from Macon, Georgia Mills College alumni University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign faculty Pupils of Robert Moffat Palmer Pupils of Darius Milhaud Pupils of Harry Partch 21st-century American composers Experimental Music Studios alumni 20th-century American composers Deaths from Parkinson's disease Neurological disease deaths in Wisconsin	[ -0.3863096237182617, 0.863114058971405, -0.5018332600593567, -0.3981534540653229, 0.09831452369689941, 0.24705621600151062, 0.4199846386909485, 0.30738410353660583, -0.25924375653266907, -0.46267637610435486, -0.23574583232402802, -0.18703168630599976, 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255557	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20WildBrain%20programs	List of WildBrain programs	This is a list of programs by WildBrain and its predecessors Decode Entertainment, Halifax Film Company, Studio B Productions, the original incarnation of WildBrain, Cookie Jar Group/CINAR, DIC Entertainment, FilmFair, Ragdoll Productions, Epitome Pictures, Nerd Corps Entertainment, Iconix Brand Group, Echo Bridge Home Entertainment, Leucadia Films, and imX Communications. Note that some shows were co-productions with other companies, and may or may not necessarily be owned by WildBrain. Animated series WildBrain Rastamouse (2011–2015) (co-production with Sony Pictures Television International) SheZow (2012–2013) (co-production with Kickstart Productions and Moody Street Kids) Ella the Elephant (2013–2014) (co-production with TVOKids and FremantleMedia Kids & Family Entertainment) The Doozers (2013–2018) (co-production with The Jim Henson Company) Transformers: Rescue Bots (2014–2016) (Seasons 3-4 for Hasbro Studios) (Season 1 was produced by Atomic Cartoons and Darby Pop Productions and Season 2 was produced by Vision Animation and Moody Street Kids) Messy Goes to Okido (2015) (co-production with Doodle Productions) Kuu Kuu Harajuku (2015–2019) (co-production with Vision Animation and Moody Street Kids) Fangbone! (2016–2017) (co-production with Radical Sheep Productions) Little People (2016–2018) (co-production with HIT Entertainment and Fisher-Price) Rainbow Ruby (2016–2020) (co-production with CJ E&M) Spongo, Fuzz & Jalapeña (2019–present) (co-production with Cheeky Little Productions) Denis and Me (2020–present) (short series distributor; produced by Headspinner Productions) The Brilliant World of Tom Gates (2021–present) (distributor; produced by TG Entertainment Ltd, Black Camel Pictures and Wild Child Animation) Alva's World (2021–present) (distributor; produced by Kavaleer Productions) Summer Memories (2022) (co-production with Aircraft Pictures and Yeti Farm) Decode Entertainment Freaky Stories (1997–2000) (co-production with Sound Venture Productions, Funbag Animation Studios, and Vujade Entertainment) Angela Anaconda (1999–2001) (co-production with C.O.R.E.) Watership Down (1999–2001) (co-production with Alltime Entertainment) Weird-Oh's (1999–2001) (co-production with Mainframe Entertainment and EM.TV) Rainbow Fish (2000) (co-production with EM.TV for Sony Wonder) What About Mimi? (2000-2002) (co-production with Studio B Productions) Undergrads (2001) (co-production with MTV Animation) Girlstuff/Boystuff (2002–2005) (co-production with Agogo Media and AE, Ltd) Olliver's Adventures (2002–2005) (co-production with Collideascope Digital Productions) The Blobheads (2003) King (2003–2005) (co-production with Funbag Animation Studios) The Save-Ums! (2003–2006) (co-production with Discovery Kids, The Dan Clark Company, and C.O.R.E.) Bromwell High (2005) (co-production with Hat Trick Productions) Delilah & Julius (2005–2008) (co-production with Collideascope Digital Productions) Planet Sketch (2005–2008) (co-production with Aardman Animations) Dudson's Modern Tales (2006) The Naughty Naughty Pets (2006) Franny's Feet (2006–2010) (co-production with Family Channel, C.O.R.E., and PBS Kids) Super Why! (2007–2016) (co-production with Out of the Blue Enterprises) (Seasons 1–2) Clang Invasion (2007) (co-production Scrawl Studios and AGOGO Entertainment Ltd.) Urban Vermin (2007–2008) (co-production with YTV) Chop Socky Chooks (2008–2009) (co-production with Aardman Animations) Martha Speaks (2008–2014) (co-production with Studio B Productions, TVO, and WGBH Kids) The Mighty Jungle (2009–2012) (co-production with Halifax Film) Dirtgirlworld (2010–2012) (co-production with Mememe Productions) Poppets Town (2011–2015) (co-production with Neptuno Flims) Waybuloo (2011–2014, Animation/Live Action) Halifax Film/DHX Studios Halifax Poko (2003–2008) Lunar Jim (2006) Bo on the Go! (2007–2011) Animal Mechanicals (2007–2011) The Mighty Jungle (2008) (co-production with Decode Entertainment) Pirates: Adventures in Art (2010) Doozers (2013–2014) (co-production with The Jim Henson Company) Inspector Gadget (2015–2018) Wishenpoof! (2015) Super Why! (2015–2016) (co-production with 9 Story USA) (Season 3) Space Ranger Roger (2017) WildBrain Studios Kate & Mim-Mim (2014–2018) (co-produced with FremantleMedia Kids and Family) Blaze and the Monster Machines (2014–present) (co-produced with WildBrain for Nickelodeon) The Mr. Peabody & Sherman Show (2015–2017) (co-production for DreamWorks Animation Television) Supernoobs (2015–2019), (2022) The Deep (2015–present) (co-produced with WildBrain and Technicolor SA) Looped (2016) (co-production with Neptoon Studios) Chuck's Choice (2017) Massive Monster Mayhem (2017) Polly Pocket (2018–2020) (co-production with Mattel) The Adventures of Rocky and Bullwinkle (2018–2019) (co-production with Jay Ward Productions for DreamWorks Animation Television) Mega Man: Fully Charged (2018–2019) (co-production with Capcom, Man of Action, Dentsu Entertainment USA and WildBrain) Chip and Potato (2018–present) (co-production with Darrall Macqueen) Carmen Sandiego (2019–2021) (co-production with Houghton Mifflin Harcourt) Ninjago (2019–present) (Seasons 11 onwards) (co-production with The Lego Group) Peanuts in Space: Secrets of Apollo 10 (2019) (co-production with Schulz Studio, Imagine Documentaries and Tremolo Productions) Rev & Roll (2019) (co-production with Alpha Group Co., Ltd.) Snoopy in Space (2019–present) (co-production with Schulz Studio, Imagine Documentaries and Tremolo Productions) Dorg Van Dango (2020–present) (co-production with Cartoon Saloon) Go, Dog. Go! (2021–present) (co-production with DreamWorks Animation Television) The Snoopy Show (2021–present) (co-production with Schulz Studio) Johnny Test (2021–present) The Proud Family: Louder and Prouder (2022) (co-production for Disney Television Animation) Sonic Prime (2022) (co-production with Man of Action Entertainment and Sega) Studio B Productions/DHX Studios Vancouver Yvon of the Yukon (1999–2005) (co-production with Corus Entertainment) D'Myna Leagues (2000–2002) (co-production with CTV) Yakkity Yak (2002–2003) (co-production with Kapow Pictures and Nickelodeon Productions) Something Else (2003) (co-production with TV-Loonland AG and Family Channel Canada) Being Ian (2005–2008) (co-production with Nelvana) Class of the Titans (2005–2008) (co-production with Nelvana) The Amazing Adrenalini Brothers (2006–2007) (co-production with Bejuba Entertainment and Pesky) Pucca (2006–2008) George of the Jungle (2007–2008) (co-production with DreamWorks Classics) Ricky Sprocket: Showbiz Boy (2007–2009) (co-production with Bejuba Entertainment and SnowdenFine Animation) Edgar & Ellen (2007-2008) (co-production with Bardel Entertainment) Martha Speaks (2008–2014) (co-production with WGBH) Kid vs. Kat (2008–2011) My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic (2010–2019) (co-production with Hasbro Studios and Top Draw Animation) Pound Puppies (2010–2013) (co-production with Hasbro Studios) Littlest Pet Shop (2012–2016) (co-production with Hasbro Studios) Packages from Planet X (2013–2014) (co-production with American Greetings) Dr. Dimensionpants (2014–2015) (co-production with The Factory Backwards Entertainment) Nerd Corps Entertainment Dragon Booster (2004–2006) Storm Hawks (2007–2009) League of Super Evil (2009–2012) Hot Wheels Battle Force 5 (2009–2011) Rated A for Awesome (2011–2012) Slugterra (2012–present) (co-produced with Disney XD Canada (now Family Chrgd)) Monster High (2012–2016) (co-produced with Mattel) Max Steel (2013–2016) Endangered Species (2015) WildBrain (original)/DHX Los Angeles Space is Dum (1999–2001) Poochini (2000–2002) (distributed by Studio 100) Higglytown Heroes (2004–2008) (co-production with Happy Nest for Playhouse Disney) Yo Gabba Gabba! (2007–2015) Team Smithereen (2009–2011) The Ricky Gervais Show (2010–2012) Monster High (2010) (co-produced with Mattel) SheZow (2012–2013) (co-production with Kickstart Productions and Moody Street Kids) UMIGO (2012–2014) Sheriff Callie's Wild West (2014–2017) (co-production with Wild Canary Animation for Disney Junior) CINAR/Cookie Jar Entertainment The World of David the Gnome (1985–86) (co-produced by BRB Internacional, and Miramax Films, United States & Canada distribution only) The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1986–1987) Adventures of the Little Koala (1987–1993) (co-produced by Viacom) The Smoggies (1988) Ronin Warriors (1988–1989) (co-produced by Graz Entertainment, distribution only) C.L.Y.D.E. (1990–1991) (co-produced by France Animation) Maya the Honey Bee (1990) (Saban dub, YTV airing only) Dr. Xargle (1991) (co-produced by King Rollo Films) Young Robin Hood (1991–1992) (co-produced by Hanna-Barbera) A Bunch of Munsch (1991–1992) Chip and Charlie (1992) The Legend of White Fang (1992–1994) (co-produced by France Animation) Papa Beaver's Storytime (1993–1994) The Busy World of Richard Scarry (1993–1997) (co-produced by France Animation, BBC, and Paramount Television) Albert the Fifth Musketeer (1994) (co-produced by BBC and France Animation) Cat Tales (1994–1996) (co-produced by France Animation) Robinson Sucroe (1995) (co-produced by France Animation) The Babaloos (1995–1999) (co-produced by France Animation) The Little Lulu Show (1995–1999) Wimzie's House (1995–1996) Night Hood (1996) Arthur (1996–2022) (co-produced by WGBH, and Marc Brown Studios. credited as CINAR for Seasons 1-8 and credited as Cookie Jar Entertainment for Seasons 9-15.) Ivanhoe The King's Knight (1997) Caillou (1997–2013) (Seasons 1-3 only; credited as CINAR for Seasons 1-3. Season 4 was produced by 9 Story Entertainment, Season 5 was produced by Atomic Cartoons, and Season 5 was co-produced by Clockwork Zoo (and later Sea Monster Entertainment).) Jungle Show (1997) (co-produced by EVA Entertainment) Patrol 03 (1997) (co-produced by France Animation) Animal Crackers (1997–1999) (co-produced by Alphanim) The Country Mouse and the City Mouse Adventures (1997–1999) (co-production with WIC Entertainment and France Animation) The Adventures of Paddington Bear (1997–2000) (co-produced with Protecrea) Mumble Bumble (1998–2000) Flight Squad (1999) Ripley's Believe It or Not! (1999) (co-produced by Alphanim) Zoboomafoo (1999–2001) (co-production with Earth Creatures and Maryland Public Television) Mona the Vampire (1999–2006) (co-produced by Alphanim) A Miss Mallard Mystery (2000) The Baskervilles (2000) (co-produced by Alphanim) Journey to the West – Legends of the Monkey King (2000) (co-production with China Central Television) The Twins (2000) Treasure (2001) (co-produced by BBC) Upstairs, Downstairs Bears (2001) (co-produced by Egmont Imagination) Simon in the Land of Chalk Drawings (2002) Potatoes and Dragons (2004–2010) (co-produced by Alphanim) Creepschool (2004) (co-produced by Alphanim) Postcards from Buster (Arthur Spin-Off) (2004–2008) (co-production with Marc Brown Studios and WGBH Educational Foundation) Gerald McBoing-Boing (2005–2007) (co-produced by Teletoon, Classic Media and Dr. Seuss Enterprises, L.P.) Johnny Test (2005–2014) (Seasons 1–2 were produced by Warner Bros. Animation, and Coliseum Entertainment. Seasons 2–6 were produced by Cookie Jar Entertainment, and Season 6 was produced by DHX Media) Spider Riders (2006–2007) (co-produced by Bee Train) Nanoboy (2006–2009) (co-production with Scrawl Studios and AGOGO Media) Magi-Nation (2007–2008) Busytown Mysteries (2007–2010) (also known as Hurray for Huckle!) Will and Dewitt (2007–2008) World of Quest (2008–2009) Kung Fu Dino Posse (2009–2012) (co-produced with Sunwoo Korea Entertainment Inc., Sunwoo Asia-Pacific Pte Ltd., and Optix Entertainment GmbH) Noonbory and the Super Seven (2009) Doodlebops Rockin' Road Show (2010) Scan2Go (2010–2011) (distribution only in North America and South America) The Small Giant (2010) (distribution only in Canada) MetaJets (2010) (co-produced by Sunwoo) Mudpit (2011) Debra! (2011–2012) FilmFair The Herbs (1968) Hattytown Tales (1969–73) The Adventures of Parsley (1970) The Wombles (1973–75) Paddington (1975–1980) Simon in the Land of Chalk Drawings (1976) The Perishers (1978–79) The Adventures of Portland Bill (1983) Moschops (1983) The Blunders (1986) The Shoe People (1987) Edward and Friends (1987) Bangers and Mash (1988) Windfalls (1988) Huxley Pig (1989–90) The Dreamstone (1990–95) (co-owned by WildBrain and Monster Entertainment) Rod 'n' Emu (1991) The Gingerbread Man (1992) The Legend of White Fang (1992–94) Astro Farm (1992–96) Juniper Jungle (1993) The Legends of Treasure Island (1993–95) DIC Entertainment Ragdoll Productions Tronji (2009–2010) The Adventures of Abney & Teal (2011–2012) Dipdap (2011–2013) Twirlywoos (2015–2017) Echo Bridge Entertainment Beast Wars: Transformers (1996–1999) Captain Star (1997–1998) Hoze Houndz (1999–2002) Pumper Pups (1999) Old Tom (2001–2002) Henry's World (2002–2005) Connie the Cow (2003–2005) Mattel Creations Fireman Sam (1987–present) Bob the Builder (1998–present) Little People (1999–2002, 2004–2005) (co-produced by Egmont Imagination, Cuppa Coffee Studios, and Wreckless Abandon Studios) Polly Pocket (2010–2018, 2018–present) Monster High (2010–2017) Ever After High (2013–2016) Enchantimals: Tales from Everwilde (2018–present) Iconix Brand Group The Charlie Brown and Snoopy Show (1983–1985) (produced by Lee Mendelson/Bill Melendez Productions; co-distributed by Warner Bros. Television) This Is America, Charlie Brown (1988–1989) (produced by Lee Mendelson/Bill Melendez Productions; co-distributed by Warner Bros. Television) Strawberry Shortcake (2003–2008) (produced by DIC Entertainment and American Greetings) Strawberry Shortcake's Berry Bitty Adventures (2010–2015) (co-production with MoonScoop Group and American Greetings) Peanuts (2016) (co-production with Dall'Angelo Pictures and Normaal Animation; co-distributed by Warner Bros. Television) Jay Ward Productions Rocky and His Friends/The Bullwinkle Show (1959–1964) Rocky and Bullwinkle Fractured Fairy Tales Aesop and Son Bullwinkle's Corner Mr. Know-It-All The Rocky and Bullwinkle Fan Club Peabody's Improbable History Dudley Do-Right of the Mounties Hoppity Hooper (1964–1967) George of the Jungle (1967) Super Chicken Tom Slick Live-action series WildBrain Deadtime Stories (2012–2014) (co-production with Nickelodeon) Satisfaction (2013) (co-production with Bell Media and Lionsgate) Topsy and Tim (2013–2015) Hank Zipzer (2014–2016) (co-production with Walker Productions and Kindle Entertainment) Teletubbies (2015–2018) Playdate (2015–present) (co-production with Sinking Ship Entertainment) Backstage (2016–2017) (co-production with Fresh TV) Airmageddon (2016) (UK production for CBBC) We Are Savvy (2016–2018) Letterkenny (2016–present) The Zoo (2017–present) (UK production for CBBC) Creeped Out (2017–2019) (UK production for CBBC) Waffle the Wonder Dog (2017–present) Massive Monster Mayhem (2017) Are You Afraid of the Dark? miniseries (2019, 2021) (co-production with Nickelodeon and YTV) Bajillionaires (2019) Ruby & the Well (2022) (co-production with Shaftesbury Films) Decode Entertainment/WildBrain Studios Toronto Brats of the Lost Nebula (1998-1999) (co-production with Jim Henson Productions) Our Hero (2000–2002) (co-production with Heroic Film Company) The Zack Files (2000–2002) The Hoobs (2001–2002) (co-production with The Jim Henson Company) Be the Creature (2003–2004) Radio Free Roscoe (2003) Naturally, Sadie (2005–2007) The Adrenaline Project (2007–2008) (co-production with YTV) The Latest Buzz (2007–2010) Grandpa in My Pocket (2009, Season 1 distribution only) How to Be Indie (2009–2011) (co-production with Heroic Film Company and YTV) Make It Pop (2015–2016) (co-production with Tom Lynch Company, N'Credible Entertainment, and Nickelodeon) The Other Kingdom (2016) (co-production with Tom Lynch Company and Nickelodeon) Halifax Film/DHXStudios Halifax This Hour Has 22 Minutes (2005–present) North/South (2006) The Guard (2008–2009) That's So Weird! (2009–2012) WildBrain (original)/DHX Los Angeles Yo Gabba Gabba! (2007–2015) CINAR/Cookie Jar Entertainment Ultra Seven (1985) (English dubbed production with Turner Broadcasting System) Happy Castle (1988–1989) Are You Afraid of the Dark? (1992–2000) (co-production with Nickelodeon and YTV) The Intrepids (1993–1996) Wimzie's House (1995–1996) Space Cases (1996–1998) The Mystery Files of Shelby Woo (1996–1998) (co-production with Nickelodeon) Lassie (1997–1999) (co-produced by Classic Media and PolyGram Filmed Entertainment) Un Hiver de Tourmente (1998) Emily of New Moon (1998–2000) (co-production with WIC Entertainment and Salter Street Films) Sci-Squad (1999–2000) Zoboomafoo (1999–2001) (co-production with Maryland Public Television) Dark Oracle (2004–2006) The Doodlebops (2005–2007) Debra! (2011–2012) DIC Entertainment Ragdoll Productions Rosie and Jim (1990–2000) Brum (1991–2002) (co-production with HIT Entertainment) Open a Door (1992) Tots TV (1993–1998) Tots Video (1997) Teletubbies (1997–2001) Teletubbies Everywhere (2002) Boohbah (2003–2006) Blips (2005–2006) In the Night Garden... (2007–2009) Epitome Pictures The Kids of Degrassi Street (1979–1986) Degrassi Junior High (1987–1989) Degrassi High (1989–1991) Degrassi Talks (1992) Liberty Street (1994–1995) Degrassi: The Next Generation (2001–2015) (co-production with Bell Media) Instant Star (2004–2008) The L.A. Complex (2012) Open Heart (2015) Degrassi: Next Class (2016–2017) Echo Bridge Entertainment Maniac Mansion (1990–1993) Star Runner (1990) The Odyssey (1992–1995) The Mighty Jungle (1994) Mysterious Island (1995) Straight Up (1996–1998) My Life as a Dog (1997) El Mundo del Lundo (1997-1998) Mirror, Mirror II (1997–1998) Mowgli: The New Adventures of the Jungle Book (1998) Legacy (1998–1999) Daily Tips for Modern Living (1998) The Mrs. Greenthumbs Show (1998–2000) The Famous Jett Jackson (1998–2001) Hollywood Safari (1998–2001) The Awful Truth (1999–2000) I Was a Sixth Grade Alien (1999–2001) Pirates (1999–2001) The Itch (2000) In a Heartbeat (2000–2001) Blackfly (2001–2002) Ace Lightning (2002–2004) Mental Block (2003–2005) Jay Ward Productions Fractured Flickers (1962–1964) Specials Studio B Productions/WildBrain Studios Vancouver Little Witch (1999) (co-production with Sony Wonder) Santa Mouse and the Ratdeer (2000) (co-production with Sony Wonder) The Legend of Frosty the Snowman (2004) (co-production with DreamWorks Animation) Side Show Christmas (2008) (co-production with Teletoon) CINAR/Cookie Jar Entertainment The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (compilation films based on 1986 anime) The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1987) The Marvelous Land of Oz (1987) Ozma of Oz (1987) The Emerald City of Oz (1987) Madeline (television specials) (1988–1991) (co-produced by DIC Entertainment for the original special, and France Animation for the remaining five specials) Madeline (April 9, 1988) Madeline's Christmas (December 25, 1990) Madeline and the Bad Hat (August 11, 1991) Madeline and the Gypsies (September 25, 1991) Madeline's Rescue (October 18, 1991) Madeline in London (November 28, 1991) The Real Story of... (co-produced by France Animation) The Real Story of Humpty Dumpty (July 18, 1990) The Real Story of the Three Little Kittens (December 15, 1990) The Real Story of Itsy Bitsy Spider (October 16, 1991) The Real Story of O Christmas Tree (December 21, 1991) The Real Story of Happy Birthday to You (January 4, 1992) The Real Story of Twinkle Twinkle Little Star (1992) The Real Story of Au Clair de La Lune (1992) A Gift of Munsch (1992) The Sleep Room (two part miniseries; 1998) (co-produced by Alpha Media) Sparky N'Arfman (1999; pilot for Nick Jr.) Arthur (1996–2022; seasons 1–15 only) Arthur's Perfect Christmas (2000, co-produced by WGBH Educational Foundation) Arthur, It's Only Rock and Roll (2002, co-produced by WGBH Educational Foundation) Caillou's Holiday Movie (2003) FilmFair Paddington Goes to the Movies (1980) Paddington Goes to School (1984) Paddington’s Birthday Bonanza (1986) The Wombles (1990–1991) World Womble Day (1990) The Wandering Wombles (1991) Brown Bear's Wedding (1991) White Bear's Secret (1992) DIC Entertainment Ragdoll Productions Badjelly the Witch (2000) Echo Bridge Entertainment Cutaway (1992) Celtic Electric (1998) Roxanne’s Best Christmas Ever (1999) Talking to Americans (2001) Iconix Brand Group Strawberry Shortcake Peanuts WildBrain Sara Solves It (2015) (co-production with WGBH Educational Foundation and Out of the Blue Enterprises) Bob's Broken Sleigh (2015) (co-produced by Eh-Okay Entertainment) Ghost Patrol (2016) Caillou Specials (2022) Films WildBrain My Little Pony: Equestria Girls (2013) (co-production with Hasbro Studios) Hamlet & Hutch (2013) My Little Pony: Equestria Girls – Rainbow Rocks (2014) (co-production with Hasbro Studios) Across the Line (2015) My Little Pony: Equestria Girls – Friendship Games (2015) (co-production with Hasbro Studios) Full Out (2016) My Little Pony: Equestria Girls – Legend of Everfree (2016) (co-production with Hasbro Studios) My Little Pony: Equestria Girls TV specials (2017) (co-production with Hasbro Studios) My Little Pony: The Movie (2017) (co-production with Allspark Pictures, Distributed by Lionsgate) WildBrain (original)/DHX Los Angeles Out In Space (1997) Humanstein (1998) A Dog Cartoon (1998) Hubert's Brain (2001) CINAR/Cookie Jar Entertainment Hockey Night (1984) Letters from a Dead Man (1986) (English version) John the Fearless (1987) Cat City (1987) The Treasure of Swamp Castle (1988) Train Mice (1989) The Great Cheese Conspiracy (1989) Million Dollar Babies (1994) Bonjour Timothy (1995) Wish Upon a Star (1996) The Best Bad Thing (1997) The Whole of the Moon (1997) Ghost of Dickens' Past (1998) Sally Marshall Is Not an Alien (1999) Both Sides of the Law (1999) Revenge of the Land (1999) Who Gets the House? (1999) Kayla (1999) Ivor the Invisible (2001) Heart: The Marilyn Bell Story (2001) DIC Entertainment Epitome Pictures School's Out (1992) Degrassi Goes Hollywood (2009) Degrassi Takes Manhattan (2010) Echo Bridge Entertainment Wild Horse Hank (1979) The War Boy (1985) Magic Kid (1993) Bigfoot: The Unforgettable Encounter (1994) Magic Kid 2 (1994) The Power Within (1995) Two Bits & Pepper (1995) Earth Minus Zero (1996) My Uncle the Alien (1996) Saltwater Moose (1996) Tiger Heart (1996) Northern Lights (1997) The Girl with Brains in Her Feet (1997) Hollywood Safari (1997) Little Bigfoot (1997) Emma's Wish (1998) Little Bigfoot 2: The Journey Home (1998) Secret of the Andes (1998) Undercover Angel (1999) New Waterford Girl (1999) Jett Jackson: The Movie (2001) Bowling for Columbine (2002) The Man Who Saved Christmas (2002) When Zachary Beaver Came to Town (2003) Nerd Corps Entertainment/WildBrain Studios Vancouver Slugterra: Ghoul from Beyond (2014) (Co-produced with Disney XD Canada) Slugterra: Return of the Elementals (2014) (Co-produced with Disney XD Canada, Shout Factory, Screenvision and Cineplex) Slugterra: Slug Fu Showdown (2015) (Co-produced with Disney XD Canada) Slugterra: Eastern Caverns (2015) (Co-produced with Disney XD Canada) Slugterra: Into The Shadows (2016) (Co-produced with Family Chrgd) Mattel Creations Polly Pocket: Lunar Eclipse (2003) Polly Pocket 2: Cool at the Pocket Plaza (2005) PollyWorld (2006) Rainbow Magic: Return to Rainspell Island (2010) Iconix Brand Group Strawberry Shortcake: The Sweet Dreams Movie (2006) The Strawberry Shortcake Movie: Sky's the Limit (2009) References External links Distribution - WildBrain Lists of animated films WildBrain Television series by DHX Media Canadian television-related lists	[ 0.5366510152816772, -0.09114882349967957, -0.07777540385723114, -0.054056525230407715, 0.11843729019165039, -0.223729208111763, 0.11963818967342377, 0.15776504576206207, -0.37996160984039307, 0.5254359245300293, 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255558	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Century%20Dictionary	Century Dictionary	The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia is one of the largest encyclopedic dictionaries of the English language. In its day it was compared favorably with the Oxford English Dictionary, and frequently consulted for more factual information than would normally be the case for a dictionary. History The Century Dictionary is based on The Imperial Dictionary of the English Language, edited by Rev. John Ogilvie (1797–1867) and published by W. G. Blackie and Co. of Scotland, 1847–1850, which in turn is an expansion of the 1841 second edition of Noah Webster's American Dictionary. In 1882 The Century Company of New York bought the American rights to The Imperial Dictionary from Blackie and Son. The first edition of the Century Dictionary was published from 1889 to 1891 by The Century Company, and was described as "six volumes in twenty four". The first edition runs to 7,046 pages and features some 10,000 wood-engraved illustrations. It was edited by Sanskrit scholar and linguist William Dwight Whitney, with Benjamin Eli Smith's assistance. In 1895 a 10-volume edition was published, with the first eight volumes containing the dictionary proper, and the last two containing a biographical dictionary and a world atlas. Editions in either the 10 or 8 volume format were published in 1899, 1901, 1902, 1903 and 1904. In 1901 the title and subtitle changed slightly from The Century Dictionary; an encyclopedic lexicon of the English language to The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia; a work of universal reference in all departments of knowledge, with a new atlas of the world. Further editions were published in 1906, 1909 and 1911, this time in 12 volumes each. After Whitney's death in 1894, supplementary volumes were published under Smith's supervision, including The Century Cyclopedia of Names (1894) and The Century Atlas (1897). A two-volume Supplement of new vocabulary, published in 1909, completed the dictionary. A reformatted edition, The Century Dictionary and Cyclopedia, was published in 1911 in twelve quarto volumes: ten of vocabulary, plus the volume of names and the atlas. This set went through several printings, the last in 1914. The same year, the ten vocabulary volumes were published as one giant volume, about 8500 pages in a very thin paper. The now much coveted India paper edition also appeared around this time, usually in five double volumes (rarely, in 10 single volumes) plus one additional for the Cyclopedia. The completed dictionary contained over 500,000 entries, more than Webster's New International or Funk and Wagnalls New Standard, the largest other dictionaries of the period. Each form of a word was treated separately, and liberal numbers of quotations and additional information were included to support the definitions. In its etymologies, Greek words were not transliterated. Although no revised edition of the dictionary was ever again published, an abridged edition with new words and other features, The New Century Dictionary (edited by H.G. Emery and K.G. Brewster; revision editor, Catherine B. Avery,) was published by Appleton-Century-Crofts of New York in 1927, and reprinted in various forms for over thirty-five years. The New Century became the basis for the American College Dictionary, the first Random House Dictionary, in 1947. The three-volume New Century Cyclopedia of Names, an expansion of the 1894 volume, was published in 1954, edited by Clarence Barnhart. The Century Dictionary was admired for the quality of its entries, the craftsmanship in its design, typography, and binding, and its excellent illustrations. It has been used as an information source for the makers of many later dictionaries, including editors of the Oxford English Dictionary, who cited it over 2,000 times in the first edition. In 1913, a Ph.D. dissertation on "American Dictionaries" concluded its 14-page chapter on the Century Dictionary with the assessment that the work "far surpasses anything in American lexicography". Typography and typesetting The Century Dictionary was typeset and printed by Theodore Low De Vinne, who gave it a typographic aesthetic that foreshadowed a norm of 20th century book printing. Prefigured in De Vinne's work on the Century Magazine from its origins as Scribner's Monthly in 1870, the printer eschewed the thin hairlines and reduced legibility of the 'modern' serif typefaces that were predominantly used in the mid-eighteen-hundreds, favouring Caslon as a sturdier and more legible 'old style' face instead. Due to the complexity of typesetting a large dictionary, De Vinne also devised an elaborate composition stand that gave compositors access to more than seven hundred boxes of type and special sorts within easy reach. Digitization efforts The works are out of copyright, and efforts have been made to digitize the volumes. 24-part set 1889–91 Ten-volume set Twelve-volume set 1911, University of Michigan and Cornell University Citations General sources Adams, James Truslow. Dictionary of American History. New York: Scribner, 1940. External links The complete Century Dictionary is in image form, where it can be searched by the word or viewed by the page in its original form, with zoom-in option. 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255560	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Caudal	Caudal	Caudal may refer to: Anatomy Caudal (anatomical term) (from Latin caudum; tail), used to describe how close something is to the trailing end of an organism Caudal artery, the portion of the dorsal aorta of a vertebrate that passes into the tail Caudal cell mass, the aggregate of undifferentiated cells at the caudal end on the spine Caudal fin, the tail fin of a fish Caudal vertebrae, that make up the tail of tailed animals Places Caudal (comarca), an administrative division of Asturias, Spain Caudal (river), in northern Spain Caudal Hills, Antarctica Other uses Caudal (protein), a family of homeobox transcription factors Anne-Lise Caudal (born 1984), a French golfer See also Cauda (disambiguation)	[ 0.16770008206367493, -0.23490071296691895, 0.19119201600551605, 0.25938746333122253, -0.0013931592693552375, 0.13392408192157745, 0.23908953368663788, 0.3642275631427765, -0.20040027797222137, -0.7358799576759338, -0.3936103284358978, 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255562	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tropic%C3%A1lia	Tropicália	Tropicália (), also known as Tropicalismo (), was a Brazilian artistic movement that arose in the late 1960s and formally ended in 1968. It was characterized by the amalgamation of Brazilian genres—notably the union of the popular and the avant-garde, as well as the melding of Brazilian tradition and foreign traditions and styles. Today, Tropicália is chiefly associated with the musical faction of the movement, which merged Brazilian and African rhythms with British and American psychedelia and pop rock. The movement also included works of film, theatre, and poetry. The term Tropicália (Tropicalismo) has multiple connotations in that it played on images of Brazil being that of a "tropical paradise." Tropicalia was presented as a "field for reflection on social history." The movement was begun by a group of musicians from Bahia notably Caetano Veloso, Gilberto Gil, Gal Costa, Tom Zé, and the poet-lyricist Torquato Neto. Later the group moved from Salvador (the capital of Bahia) to São Paulo where they met with collaborators Os Mutantes and Rogério Duprat among others. They went on to produce the 1968 album Tropicália: ou Panis et Circencis, which served as the movement's manifesto. Tropicália was not only an expression in analyzing and manipulating culture but also a mode of political expression. The Tropicália movement came to fruition at a time when Brazil's military dictatorship and left-wing ideas held distinct but prominent amounts of power simultaneously. The Tropicalists' rejection of both sides' version of nationalism (the military's conservative patriotism and the ineffectual bourgeois anti-imperialism) was met with criticism and harassment. The movement officially ended in 1968. However the dissolution of the collective birthed a new wave of soloists and groups identifying as “post-tropicalist”. The movement has inspired many artists nationally and internationally. Additionally Tropicalia continues to be a main feature in the original Bahian group and their fellows’ work. Background A dominant principle of Tropicália was antropofagia, a type of cultural "cannibalism" that encouraged the conflation of disparate influences, out of which could be created something unique. The idea was originally put forth by poet Oswald de Andrade in his Manifesto Antropófago, published in 1928, and was developed further by the tropicalistas in the 1960s. While concrete poets were not an initial influence upon the group's works, the two groups, particularly Veloso, Gil, and Augusto de Campos, would go on to share an intellectual partnership in São Paulo. This partnership would help the Tropicalistas to form connections with other artists around the city, most notably Rogério Duprat. Helio Oiticica’s 1967 work “Tropicalia” shares its name and aesthetic with the movement. The movement also utilized Carmen Miranda, a Brazilian/Portuguese international star, who in Brazil had come to be viewed as inauthentic. The use of Carmen Miranda's image and motifs became synonymous with the movement. Veloso in particular would imitate the icons gestures and mannerisms during performances. This usage was intentionally done as a means to address the concept of "authenticity". Miranda was seen as presenting a caricature of what true Brazilian-ness was by Brazilians while international audiences saw her as a representative of Brazil and its culture. This dichotomy provided the means by which the Tropicalistas could address the concept of authenticity in such a fashion that it was striking to their audiences. Musical movement The 1968 album Tropicália: ou Panis et Circencis is regarded as the musical manifesto of the Tropicália movement. Although it was a collaborative project, the main creative forces behind the album were Caetano Veloso and Gilberto Gil. The album experimented with unusual time signatures and unorthodox song structures, and also mixed tradition with innovation. Politically, the album expressed criticism of the coup d'état of 1964. Key artists of the movement include Os Mutantes, Gilberto Gil, Gal Costa and Caetano Veloso. According to Maya Jaggi, "Gil was partly inspired by Jorge Ben Jor, a Rio musician on the fringes of the movement, who mixed urban samba and bossa nova with rhythm and blues, soul and funk." The anarchistic, anti-authoritarian musical and lyrical expressions of the Tropicalistas soon made them a target of censorship and repression by the military junta that ruled Brazil in this period, as did the fact some of the collective, including Veloso and Gil, also actively participated in anti-government demonstrations. The Tropicalistas' passionate interest in the new wave of American and British psychedelic music of the period - most notably the work of The Beatles - also put them at odds with Marxist-influenced students on Brazil's left, whose aesthetic agenda was strongly nationalistic, and oriented towards 'traditional' Brazilian musical forms. This leftist faction vigorously rejected anything - especially Tropicalismo - which they perceived as being tainted by the corrupting influences of Western capitalist popular culture. The politico-artistic tensions between leftist students and the Tropicalistas reached a climax in September 1968, with Caetano Veloso's watershed performances at the third International Song Festival, held in the auditorium of Rio's Catholic University, where the audience not surprisingly included a large contingent of left-wing students. Veloso had won a major song prize at the previous year's Festival, when he was backed by an Argentinian rock band, and although his unconventional performance caused some initial consternation, he managed to win over the crowd and was feted as a new star of Brazilian popular music. By late 1968, however, Veloso was fully immersed in the Tropicalia experiment, and his performances, which were expressly intended as provocative art "happenings", caused a near-riot. In the first round of the competition on 12 September, Veloso was initially greeted by enthusiastic applause, but the mood quickly changed when the music started. Veloso came on dressed in a bright green plastic tunic, festooned with electrical wires and necklaces strung with animal teeth, and his backing band Os Mutantes were also dressed in similarly outlandish attire. The ensemble launched into a barrage of psychedelic music, played at high volume, and Veloso further outraged the students with his overtly sexual stage movements. The crowd reacted angrily, shouting abuse at the performers and booing loudly, and their fury was only exacerbated by the surprise appearance of an American pop singer, John Dandurand, who joined Veloso on stage and grunted incoherently into the microphone. After such a powerful negative reaction, Veloso was unsure whether to appear in the second round on 15 September, but his manager convinced him to go on, and this chaotic performance was recorded live and later released as a single. The students in the audience began hissing as soon as Veloso's name was announced, even before he had even taken the stage. Wearing the same green costume (minus the wires and necklaces), Veloso came on with Os Mutantes amid a storm of catcalls, and the group launched into a provocative new song Veloso had written for the occasion, "É Proibido Proibir" ("It is Forbidden to Forbid"), the title of which he had taken from a photo of a Parisian protest poster, which he had seen reproduced in a local magazine. The booing and jeering was soon so loud that Veloso struggled to be heard over the din, and he again deliberately taunted the leftists with his sexualised stage actions. Within a short time the performers were being pelted with fruit, vegetables, eggs and a rain of paper balls, and a section of the audience expressed their disapproval by standing up and turning their backs to the performers, prompting Os Mutantes to respond in kind by turning their backs on the audience. Infuriated by the students' reaction, Veloso stopped singing and launched into a furious improvised monologue, haranguing the students for their behaviour and denouncing what he saw as their cultural conservatism. He was then joined by Gilberto Gil, who came on stage to show his support for Veloso, and as the tumult reached a crescendo, Veloso announced he was withdrawing from the competition, and after deliberately finishing the song out of tune, the Tropicalistas defiantly walked offstage, arm-in-arm. On December 27, 1968, Veloso and Gil were arrested and imprisoned by the military government over the political content of their work. After two months, the two were released and subsequently forced to seek exile in London, where they lived and resumed their musical careers until they were able to return to Brazil in 1972. In 1993, Veloso and Gil released the album Tropicália 2, celebrating 25 years of the movement and commemorating their earlier musical experiments. Critiques Tropicália's controversy can be traced to the uncertain and unfriendly relationship the members of the movement had with the mass media. The movement's emphasis on art clashed with the media's need for mass appeal and marketability. Tropicália additionally had an image of sensuality and flamboyance. This was a protest to the reinstated oppression of Brazil's military rule in the 1960s, and an additional cause for media pushback. In 1968, Tropicália events at clubs, music festivals, and television shows attracted media attention and aroused tension between Caetano Veloso and Gilberto Gil and their critics. This widespread attention attracted military attention and suspicion, who feared Tropicália's influence of protest in the cultural realm. Near the end of 1968, Tropicália experienced a shift to a more overt association with international countercultures and movements, most notably that of African American Black Power in the United States. The movement was becoming increasingly leftist, and pushed for artistic output. At a later Tropicália concert in the same year, during a performance by Caetano Veloso, a riot erupted in the auditorium between tropicalists and supporters of nationalist-participant music. The nationalists were primarily college students, and the uproar culminated with screams and hurling garbage at Veloso. The nationalist-participant group's resistance of the movement was nothing new, but this incident was the tipping point of their opposition. At the nightclub Sucata, Tropicália shows became increasingly resistant to Brazil's military-run society. Due to Veloso's refusal to censor the shows to government wishes, the military began to monitor Tropicália events. On December 27, 1968, at the peak of government repression, Caetano Veloso and Gilberto Gil were arrested, detained, and exiled to London for two and a half years. Modern critic Roberto Schwarz addresses Tropicália's hand in solidifying the idea of the absurd as a permanent evil of Brazil, and its issues with an ideological mentality. However, the approaches of the movement were ever-shifting and did not stick to one central idea. Influence Throughout the 1940s until her death in 1955, the singer and actress Carmen Miranda made Hollywood musicals and performed live. Before first appearing on Broadway in 1939, she had a successful career in Brazil throughout the 1930s and was known as the "Queen of Samba." Yet after she gained international success in the United States, many Brazilians regarded her elaborate costume and performance as a caricature of Brazilian culture. In Caetano Veloso's 1968 song "Tropicália," the musician references Carmen Miranda whose vulgar iconography were an inspiration. Caetano Veloso has said Carmen Miranda was a "culturally repulsive object" for his generation. Scholar Christopher Dunn says that by embracing Carmen, Veloso treats her as "an allegory of Brazilian culture and its reception abroad." Many Tropicalistas have maintained a presence in Brazilian popular culture, specifically through MPB (Brazilian pop music). Gilberto Gil and Caetano Veloso are both respectively popular nationally and around the globe. Tom Zé, a Tropicalista who had largely faded into obscurity at the end of the movement, saw a resurgence of critical and commercial interest in the 1990s. Tropicalismo has been cited as an influence by rock musicians such as David Byrne, Beck, The Bird and the Bee, Arto Lindsay, Devendra Banhart, El Guincho, Of Montreal, and Nelly Furtado. In 1998, Beck released Mutations, the title of which is a tribute to Os Mutantes. Its hit single, "Tropicalia", reached number 21 on the Billboard Modern Rock singles chart. Tropicália has morphed not only the Brazilian music scene itself but, the way Brazilian music is viewed. Tropicália expanded what Brazilians view as properly “authentic” and since the 90's broadened the way international audiences experienced and understood Brazilian music. Tropicália created a new precedent for artistic hybridization allowing for a diversity of sounds and styles in those who were inspired by the movement. Post Tropicália Tropicalia introduced two very unusual movements to modern Brazil – antropofagia and . In addition to this was pop music from abroad that helped inaugurate postmodernism in Brazil. In spite of the falling-outs and violence, there is a permanence of tradition in Oswald's antropofagia, who at one point of time conflicted with the idea of Romantic Indianism of the nineteenth century. These ideas were and still are seen in theaters and people's notions that involved a relationship that tied back to a longer history of poetic creations. Moreover, members of Tropicalia who were not arrested or tortured, voluntarily escaped into exile in order to get away from the strict and repressing authorities. Many continuously went back and forth between different countries and cities. Some were never able to settle down. People like Caetano, Gil, and Torquato Neto, spent time in places like London, New York, or Paris. Some, but not all, were allowed to return to Brazil after years had passed. Others, still could only stay for short periods of time. At the same time, underground magazines were expanding and this gave those who were overseas a chance to speak up about their experiences. Oiticica, for example, was one who moved to New York and published a magazine article titled, “Mario Montez, Tropicamp.” The names for the titles that were used related to the risky and systematic aims during the times of Tropicalia. These magazines also told the stories of others who were in the United States and home in Brazil. By Tropicalia going underground, there was a unity of the members within the group because people like Oiticica sent these writing to Brazil so that the articles could circulate locally. In 2002 Caetano Veloso published an account of the Tropicália movement, Tropical Truth: A Story of Music and Revolution in Brazil. The 1999 compilation Tropicália Essentials, featuring songs by Gilberto Gil, Caetano Veloso, Gal Costa, Tom Zé, and Os Mutantes, is an introduction to the style. Other compilations include The Tropicalia Style (1996), Tropicália 30 Anos (1997), Tropicalia: Millennium (1999), Tropicalia: Gold (2002), and Novo Millennium: Tropicalia (2005). Yet another compilation, Tropicalia: A Brazilian Revolution In Sound, was released to acclaim in 2006. A 2012 documentary film, Tropicália, was made on the subject and artists in general; directed by Brazilian filmmaker Marcelo Machado, where Fernando Meirelles served as one of its executive producers. Seminal albums See also Lusotropicalism Exoticism Further reading Paula, José Agrippino. "PanAmérica". 2001. Papagaio. McGowan, Chris and Pessanha, Ricardo. "The Brazilian Sound: Samba, Bossa Nova and the Popular Music of Brazil." Philadelphia: Temple University Press, 1998 Dunn, Christopher. Brutality Garden: Tropicália and the Emergence of a Brazilian Counterculture. Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2001. Mei, Giancarlo. Canto Latino: Origine, Evoluzione e Protagonisti della Musica Popolare del Brasile. 2004. Stampa Alternativa-Nuovi Equilibri. Preface by Sergio Bardotti and postface by Milton Nascimento. References Gildo De Stefano, Il popolo del samba. 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255571	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Maya%20%28American%20TV%20series%29	Maya (American TV series)	Maya is an American hour-long adventure television series that aired on NBC, Saturdays from 7:30 p.m. to 8:30 p.m., from September 16, 1967 until February 10, 1968. The series is a follow-up to the 1966 film of the same name, with Jay North and Sajid Khan reprising their roles. Set in the Indian jungle, the series centered on an American boy searching for his missing father, a big game hunter. Synopsis The series starred teenage Jay North (famous for starring as Dennis the Menace as a child) as Terry Bowen, and Indian actor Sajid Khan (also prominent in his homeland from his child-acting background) as Raji, a native boy who joined up with the lead. Raji's elephant, Maya, gave the series its name. Maya was Terry and Raji's source of transportation, as well as providing help when flight or rescue was needed. In the first episode teenage Terry Bowen arrives in India to reunite with his father, who he soon learns is missing, presumed killed by a tiger. Facing deportation back to the United States, Terry escapes the authorities, and meets up by chance with orphaned runaway Raji and his pet elephant, Maya; and the two boys decide to team up to go in search of Terry's father, as Terry is hopeful his father is actually still alive. Over the course of the series the duo and the elephant continue their search while facing many side-plots, but never succeed in their quest in the episodes made during the series' short run. Episodes Production Filmed entirely on location, the series was produced by Frank King, who had also produced the 1966 feature film, Maya, which inspired the series and starred Jay North, Sajid Khan, and Clint Walker as Terry's estranged father, who is never seen in the TV series. The series ended after 18 episodes. It featured guest appearances by several noted Indian character actors, such as Iftekhar, Prem Nath and I. S. Johar. Japanese singer Rajie got her stage name from the character Raji. DVD release On August 19, 2014, Warner Bros. released the complete series on DVD in Region 1 for the very first time via their Warner Archive Collection. This is a manufacture-on-demand (MOD) release. References External links NBC original programming 1967 American television series debuts 1968 American television series endings Live action television shows based on films Television series by MGM Television	[ -0.15892937779426575, 0.09186077862977982, 0.12769679725170135, 0.32701897621154785, -0.030349886044859886, 0.20948022603988647, 0.5702802538871765, 0.3754752278327942, -0.4891812801361084, 0.2248810976743698, 0.06925521790981293, 0.2689998745918274, 0.17539362609386444, 0.8495233058929443, -0.4743276536464691, 0.23111340403556824, 0.40907472372055054, 0.4640505909919739, -0.5147181153297424, -0.4460584223270416, -0.054024893790483475, -0.6093326210975647, 0.678246259689331, 0.07368107885122299, -0.4379841089248657, 0.30028414726257324, 0.04780932515859604, 0.04863903298974037, -0.10801328718662262, 0.2935936450958252, -0.17160700261592865, -0.07414668798446655, 0.3259490132331848, -0.3172464370727539, -0.3994993269443512, 0.3675369918346405, -0.7049600481987, 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255573	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/V%C3%A4in%C3%A4m%C3%B6inen	Väinämöinen	Väinämöinen () is a demigod, hero and the central character in Finnish folklore and the main character in the national epic Kalevala by Elias Lönnrot. Väinämöinen was described as an old and wise man, and he possessed a potent, magical singing voice. In Finnish mythology The first extant mention of Väinämöinen in literature is in a list of Tavastian gods by Mikael Agricola in 1551. He and other writers described Väinämöinen as the god of chants, songs and poetry; in many stories Väinämöinen was the central figure at the birth of the world. The Karelian and Finnish national epic, the Kalevala, tells of his birth in the course of a creation story in its opening sections. This myth has elements of creation from chaos and from a cosmic egg, as well as of earth diver creation. At first there were only primal waters and Sky. But Sky also had a daughter named Ilmatar. One day, Ilmatar descended to the waters and became pregnant. She gestated for a very long time in the waters not being able to give birth. One day a goldeneye was seeking a resting place and flew to the knee of Ilmatar, where it laid its eggs. As the bird incubated her eggs Ilmatar's knee grew warmer and warmer. Eventually she was burned by the heat and responded by moving her leg, dislodging the eggs that then fell and shattered in the waters. Land was formed from the lower part of one of the eggshells, while sky formed from the top. The egg whites turned into the moon and stars, and the yolk became the sun. Ilmatar continued to float in the waters. Her footprints became pools for fish, and by pointing she created contours in the land. In this way she made all that is. Then one day she gave birth to Väinämöinen, the first man. Väinämöinen swam until he found land, but the land was barren. With Sampsa Pellervoinen he spread life over the land. In the eighteenth century folk tale collected by Cristfried Ganander, Väinämöinen is said to be son of Kaleva and thus brother of Ilmarinen. His name is believed to come from the Finnish word väinä, meaning stream pool. In the Kalevala In the nineteenth century, some folklorists, most notably Elias Lönnrot, the writer of Kalevala, disputed Väinämöinen's mythological background, claiming that he was an ancient hero, or an influential shaman who lived perhaps in the ninth century. Stripping Väinämöinen from his direct godlike characteristics, Lönnrot turned Väinämöinen into the son of the primal goddess Ilmatar, whom Lönnrot had invented himself. In this story, it was she who was floating in the sea when a duck laid eggs on her knee. He possessed the wisdom of the ages from birth, for he was in his mother's womb for seven hundred and thirty years, while she was floating in the sea and while the earth was formed. It is after praying to the sun, the moon, and the great bear (the stars, referring to Ursa Major) that he is able to leave his mother's womb and dive into the sea. Väinämöinen is presented as the 'eternal bard', who exerts order over chaos and established the land of Kaleva, and around whom revolve so many of the events in Kalevala. His search for a wife brings the land of Kaleva into, at first friendly, but later hostile contact with its dark and threatening neighbour in the north, Pohjola. This conflict culminates in the creation and theft of the Sampo, a magical artifact made by Ilmarinen, the subsequent mission to recapture it, and a battle which ends up splintering the Sampo and dispersing its parts around the world to parts unknown. Väinämöinen also demonstrated his magical voice by sinking the impetuous Joukahainen into a bog by singing. Väinämöinen also slays a great pike and makes a magical kantele from its jawbones. Väinämöinen's end is a hubristic one. The 50th and final poem of the Kalevala tells the story of the maiden Marjatta, who becomes pregnant after eating a berry, giving birth to a baby boy. This child is brought to Väinämöinen to examine and judge. His verdict is that such a strangely born infant needs to be put to death. In reply, the newborn child, mere two weeks old, chides the old sage for his sins and transgressions, such as allowing the maiden Aino, sister of Joukahainen to drown herself. Following this, the baby is baptized and named king of Kalevala. Defeated, Väinämöinen goes to the shores of the sea, where he sings for himself a boat of copper, with which he sails away from the mortal realms. In his final words, he promises that there shall be a time when he shall return, when his crafts and might shall once again be needed. Thematically, the 50th poem thus echoes the arrival of Christianity to Finland and the subsequent fading into history of the old pagan beliefs. This is a common theme among epics, for in the tale of King Arthur, Arthur declares a similar promise before departing for Avalon. In the original 1888 translation of Kalevala into English by John Martin Crawford, Väinämöinen's name was anglicised as Wainamoinen. In other cultures In the Estonian national epic Kalevipoeg, a similar hero is called Vanemuine. In neighbouring Scandinavia, Odin shares many attributes with Väinämöinen, such as connections to magic and poetry. Popular culture The Kalevala has been translated into English and many other languages, in both verse and prose, in complete and abridged forms. For more details see list of Kalevala translations. J. R. R. Tolkien Väinämöinen has been identified as a source for Gandalf, the wizard in J. R. R. Tolkien's novel The Lord of the Rings. Another Tolkienian character with great similarities to Väinämöinen is Tom Bombadil. Like Väinämöinen, he is one of the most powerful beings in his world, and both are ancient and natural beings in their setting. Both Tom Bombadil and Väinämöinen rely on the power of song and lore. Likewise, Treebeard and the Ents in general have been compared to Väinämöinen. Akseli Gallen-Kallela In art (such as the accompanying picture by Akseli Gallen-Kallela), Väinämöinen is described as an old man with a long white beard, which is also a popular appearance for wizards in fantasy literature. Music In music, Finnish folk metal band Ensiferum wrote three songs based on/about Väinämöinen, called "Old Man", "Little Dreamer" and "Cold Northland". There is also a direct reference to him in their song "One More Magic Potion", where they have written "Who can shape a kantele from a pike's jaw, like the great One once did?". The band's mascot, who appears on all their albums, also bears a similarity to traditional depictions of Väinämöinen. Another Finnish metal band named Amorphis released their tenth album The Beginning of Times in 2011. It is a concept album based on the myths and stories of Väinämöinen. Yet another well-known Finnish metal band, Korpiklaani has released a song about the death of Väinämöinen, Tuonelan Tuvilla, as well as an English version named "At The Huts of the Underworld". A song on the album Archipelago by Scottish electronic jazz collective Hidden Orchestra is also named "Vainamoinen". Philadelphia based Black metal band Nihilistinen Barbaarisuus released a song about Väinämöinen simply called "Väinämöinen" on their second studio album The Child Must Die in 2015. Väinämöinen is also the theme of a composition for choir and harp by Zoltán Kodály, "Wainamoinen makes music", premiered by David Watkins. Science fiction and fantasy Joan D. Vinge's The Summer Queen contains characters named Vanamoinen, Ilmarinen and Kullervo. They are not the characters from the legend though but may have been inspired by them. That book is the sequel to her Hugo Award-winning novel The Snow Queen. Väinämöinen is also a major character in The Iron Druid Chronicles novel, Hammered by Kevin Hearne. The series follows the Tempe, Arizona-based 2,100-year-old Irish Druid, Atticus O'Sullivan. This particular book in the series' main plot point is the ingress of several characters - the Slavic thunder god Perun, O'Sullivan, a werewolf, a vampire, Finnish folk legend Väinämöinen, and Taoist fangshi Zhang Guolao - into Asgard to kill Norse thunder god Thor, all for their own varied reasons. Comic books There is a Finnish comic strip called "Väinämöisen paluu" (The Return of Väinämöinen) by Petri Hiltunen, where Väinämöinen returns from thousand-year exile to modern Finland to comment on the modern lifestyle with humor. In the storyline "Love her to Death" of the web-comic Nukees, Gav, having died, arrives to an afterlife populated by gods. Among them is Väinämöinen, who, among other things, complains that one only gets women by playing the electric kantele. In the Uncle Scrooge comic "The Quest for Kalevala", drawn by Don Rosa, Väinämöinen helps Scrooge and company to reassemble the Sampo (mythical mill that could produce gold from thin air) and then leaves with it back to Kalevala, but not before giving Scrooge its handle as a souvenir. In the webcomic "Axis Powers Hetalia", the character of Finland was given the human name Tino Väinämöinen. 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255575	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tapio	Tapio	Tapio may refer to: Tapio (given name), a Finnish male given name Tapio (surname), a Finnish surname Tapio (spirit), a god or spirit in Eastern Finnish mythology Tapiola, one of the major urban centres within the city of Espoo, outside of Helsinki Tapiola, Michigan, an unincorporated community in Houghton County, Michigan, United States Tapiola, a symphonic poem by Jean Sibelius that was one of his last compositions Tápió, the name of a stream in Hungary. See Hydrography of Hungary	[ 0.22775888442993164, 0.029114430770277977, -0.24563151597976685, 0.37559354305267334, -0.2554384171962738, 0.8560954928398132, 0.8872683048248291, 0.13011538982391357, -0.4457075595855713, -0.2777700126171112, -0.6926500797271729, -0.4069197177886963, -0.24437187612056732, 0.19441308081150055, -0.34160178899765015, -0.1879682093858719, 0.34499233961105347, 0.5104770660400391, -0.006620202679187059, -0.15479892492294312, -0.399192750453949, 0.12068448215723038, 0.7667426466941833, 0.18520444631576538, 0.19601860642433167, -0.07339022308588028, 0.052509624511003494, 0.2402551919221878, -0.19004476070404053, 0.6580519676208496, -0.5297408103942871, 0.9793848991394043, 0.026096349582076073, -0.3921203911304474, -0.014137513935565948, 0.279048889875412, -0.42896929383277893, -0.7435290217399597, -0.15984618663787842, -0.2689691185951233, 0.021781902760267258, -0.22627469897270203, 0.13017772138118744, 0.05370580032467842, -0.24089454114437103, 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255578	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dobruja	Dobruja	Dobruja or Dobrudja (; or Dobrudža; , or ; ) is a historical region in the Balkans that has been divided since the 19th century between the territories of Bulgaria and Romania. It is situated between the lower Danube River and the Black Sea, and includes the Danube Delta, Romanian coast, and the northernmost part of the Bulgarian coast. The territory of Dobruja is made up of Northern Dobruja, which is part of Romania, and Southern Dobruja, which is part of Bulgaria. The territory of the Romanian region Dobrogea is organised as the counties of Constanța and Tulcea, with a combined area of and a population of slightly less than 900,000. Its main cities are Constanța, Tulcea, Medgidia and Mangalia. Dobrogea is represented by dolphins in the coat of arms of Romania. The Bulgarian region Dobrudzha is divided among the administrative regions of Dobrich and Silistra; the following villages of Razgrad Province: Konevo, Rainino, Terter and Madrevo; and the village General Kantardzhievo (Varna). This section has a total area of , with a combined population of some 310,000 people, the main towns being Dobrich and Silistra (regional seats). Geography With the exception of the Danube Delta, a marshy region located in its northeastern corner, Dobruja is hilly, with an average altitude of about 200–300 metres. The highest point is the Țuțuiatu (Greci) Peak in the Măcin Mountains, having a height of 467 m. The Dobruja Plateau covers most of the Romanian part of Dobruja. The Ludogorie Plateau is found in Bulgaria. Lake Razelm is one of the most important lakes in Northern Dobruja. Dobruja lies in the temperate continental climatic area; the local climate is determined by the influx of oceanic air from the northwest and northeast and continental air from the East European Plain. Dobruja's relatively level terrain and its bare location facilitate the influx of humid, warm air in the spring, summer and autumn from the northwest, as well as that of northern and northeastern polar air in the winter. The Black Sea also exerts an influence over the region's climate, particularly within 40–60 kilometres from the coast. The average annual temperatures range from 11 °C inland and along the Danube, to 11.8 °C on the coast and less than 10 °C in the higher parts of the plateau. The coastal region of Southern Dobruja is the most arid part of Bulgaria, with an annual precipitation of 450 millimetres. Dobruja is a windy region once known for its windmills. There is wind during about 85–90% of all days; it usually comes from the north or northeast. The average wind speed is about twice higher than the average in Bulgaria. Due to the limited precipitation and the proximity to the sea, rivers in Dobruja are usually short and with low discharge. The region has a number of shallow seaside lakes with brackish water. Etymology The most widespread opinion among scholars is that the origin of the term Dobruja is to be found in the Turkish rendition of the name of a 14th‑century Bulgarian ruler, despot Dobrotitsa. It was common for the Turks to name countries after one of their early rulers (for example, nearby Moldavia was known as Bogdan Iflak by the Turks, named after Bogdan I). Other etymologies have been considered, but never gained widespread acceptance. Abdolonyme Ubicini believed the name meant "good lands", derived from Slavic dobro ("good"), an opinion that was adopted by several 19th‑century scholars. This derivation appears to contrast with the usual 19th‑century description of Dobruja as a dry barren land; it has been explained as expressing the point of view of Ruthenes, who considered the Danube delta in the northern Dobruja as a significant improvement over the steppes to the North. I. A. Nazarettean combines the Slavic word with the Tatar budjak ("corner"), thus proposing the etymology "good corner". A version matching contemporaneous descriptions was suggested by Kanitz, who associated the name with the Bulgarian dobrice ("rocky and unproductive terrain"). According to Gheorghe I. Brătianu, the name is a Slavic derivation from the Turkic word Bordjan or Brudjars, which referred to the Turkic Proto-Bulgarians; this term was also used by Arabic writers. One of the earliest documented uses of the name can be found in the Turkish Oghuz-name narrative, dated to the 15th century, where it appears as Dobruja-éli. The possessive suffix el-i indicated that the land was considered as belonging to Dobrotitsa ("" in the original Ottoman Turkish). The loss of the final particle is not unusual in the Turkish world, a similar evolution being observed in the name of Aydın, originally Aydın-éli. Another early use is in the 16th‑century Latin translation of Laonicus Chalcondyles' Histories, where the term Dobroditia is used for the original Greek "Dobrotitsa's country" (). In the 17th century, the region was referred to in more accounts, with renditions such as Dobrucia, Dobrutcha, Dobrus, Dobruccia, Dobroudja, Dobrudscha, and others being used by foreign authors. Initially, the name meant just the steppe of the southern region, between the forests around Babadag in the north and the Silistra–Dobrich–Balchik line in the south. Eventually, the term was extended to include the northern part and the Danube Delta. In the 19th century, some authors used the name to refer just to the territory between the southernmost branch of the Danube (St. George) in the north and the Karasu Valley (nowadays the Danube-Black Sea Canal) in the south. History Prehistory The territory of Dobruja has been inhabited by humans since Middle and Upper Palaeolithic, as the remains at Babadag, Slava Rusă and Enisala demonstrate. Paleolithic people made tools of silex and ate fruits, fish and other hunted animals. In this period fire was discovered, and at its end the bow with arrows and the boat sculpted of a trunk tree were invented. There were found tools in caves, inclusive Gura Dobrogei. In the Neolithic, the territory was occupied by members of the Hamangia culture (named after a village on the Dobrujan coast), Boian culture and Karanovo V culture. At the end of the fifth millennium BC, under the influence of some Aegeo-Mediterranean tribes and cultures, the Gumelniţa culture appeared in the region. In the Eneolithic, populations migrating from the north of the Black Sea, of the Kurgan culture, mixed with the previous population, creating the Cernavodă I culture. Under Kurgan II influence, the Cernavodă II culture emerged. Through the combination of the Cernavodă I and Ezero culture, the Cernavodă III culture developed. The region had commercial contacts with the Mediterranean world since the 14th century BC, as proven by a Mycenaean sword discovered at Medgidia, but under the reserve demanded by lack of hard evidence in what concerns the provenience / manufacturer of such armours. Mikra Skythia Ancient history During the early Iron Age (8th–6th centuries BC), there was increased differentiation of the local Getic tribes from the Thracian mass. In the second part of the 8th century BC, the first signs of commercial relations between the indigenous population and the Greeks appeared on the shore of the Halmyris Gulf (now the Sinoe Lake). In 657/656 BC ancient Greek colonists from Miletus founded a colony in the region: Histria. In the 7th and 6th centuries BC, more Greek colonies were founded on the Dobrujan coast (Callatis, Tomis, Mesembria, Dionysopolis, Parthenopolis, Aphrodisias, Eumenia etc.). In the 5th century BC these colonies were under the influence of the Delian League, passing in this period from oligarchy to democracy. In the 6th century BC, the first Scythian groups began to enter the region. Two Getic tribes, the Crobyzi and Terizi, and the town of Orgame (Argamum) were mentioned on the territory of present Dobruja by Hekataios of Miletus (540–470 BC). In 514/512 BC King Darius I of Persia subdued the Getae living in the region during his expedition against Scythians living north of the Danube. At about 430 BC, the Odrysian kingdom under Sitalkes extended its rule to the mouths of the Danube. In 429 BC, Getae from the region participated in an Odrysian campaign in Macedonia. In the 4th century BC, the Scythians brought Dobruja under their sway. In 341–339 BC, one of their kings, Atheas, fought against Histria, which was supported by a Histrianorum rex (probably a local Getic ruler). In 339 BC, King Atheas was defeated by the Macedonians under King Philip II, who afterwards extended his rule over Dobruja. In 313 BC and again in 310–309 BC, the Greek colonies led by Callatis, supported by Antigonus I Monophthalmus, revolted against Macedonian rule. The revolts were suppressed by Lysimachus, the diadochus of Thrace, who also began a military expedition against Dromichaetes, the ruler of the Getae north of the Danube, in 300 BC. In the 3rd century BC, colonies on the Dobrujan coast paid tribute to the basilei Zalmodegikos and Moskon, who probably also ruled northern Dobruja. In the same century, Celts settled in the north of the region. In 260 BC, Byzantion lost the war with Callatis and Histria for the control of Tomis. At the end of the 3rd century BC and the beginning of the 2nd century BC, the Bastarnae settled in the area of the Danube Delta. Around 200 BC, the Thracian king Zoltes invaded the province several times, but was defeated by Rhemaxos, who became the protector of the Greek colonies. Early Greek scholars such as Herodotus appear to have regarded the region as the a south-western extension of Scythia – a practice also followed in a 2nd-century BC inscription, recording a decree made in Histria, which refers to the region surrounding the Greek city as Scythia. However, the toponym Μικρά Σκυθία (Mikra Skythia), usually translated as Scythia Minor or Lesser Scythia, appears to have become the name for the specific region later known as Dobruja. The earliest known usage of the name "Scythia Minor" (Mikra Skythia) is found in Strabo's early Geography (1st century AD). The Greeks thus apparently distinguished it from Scythia Major, which lay north of the Danube delta. Around 100 BC King Mithridates VI of Pontus extended his authority over the Greek cities in Dobruja. However, in 72–71 BC, during the Third Mithridatic War, these cities were occupied by the forces of Marcus Terentius Varro Lucullus, the Roman proconsul of Macedonia. A foedus was signed between the Greek colonies and the Roman Republic, but in 62–61 BC the colonies revolted. Gaius Antonius Hybrida intervened, but was defeated by Getae and Bastarnae near Histria. After 55 BC the Dacian Kingdom under King Burebista conquered Dobruja and all the Greek colonies on the coast. Their rule ended in 44 BC. Roman rule In 28/29 BC Rholes, a Getic ruler from Southern Dobruja, supported the proconsul of Macedonia, Marcus Licinius Crassus, in his action against the Bastarnae. Declared friend and ally of the Roman people by Octavian, Rholes helped Crassus in conquering the states of Dapyx (in central Dobruja) and Zyraxes (in the north of the region). Dobruja became part of the client kingdom of the Odrysians, while the Greek cities on the coast came under direct rule of the governor of Macedonia. In 12 AD and 15 AD, Getic armies succeeded in conquering the cities of Aegyssus and Troesmis for a short time, but Odrysian king Rhoemetalces I defeated them with the help of the Roman army. In 15 AD the Roman province of Moesia was created, but Dobruja, under the name Ripa Thraciae remained part of the Odrysian kingdom. The Greek cities on the coast formed a praefectura orae maritimae. In 46 AD Thracia became a Roman province and the territories of present Dobruja were absorbed into the province of Moesia. The Geto–Dacians invaded the region several times in the 1st century AD, especially between 62 and 70. In the same period, the base of the Roman Danube fleet (classis Flavia Moesica) was moved to Noviodunum. The praefectura was annexed to Moesia in 86 AD. In the same year Domitian divided Moesia, Dobruja being included in the eastern part, Moesia Inferior. In the winter of 101–102 the Dacian king Decebalus led a coalition of Dacians, Carpians, Sarmatians and Burs in an attack against Moesia Inferior. The invading army was defeated by the Roman legions under Emperor Trajan on the Yantra river. (Later Nicopolis ad Istrum was founded there to commemorate the victory.) The invaders were also defeated near the modern village of Adamclisi, in the southern part of Dobruja. The latter victory was commemorated by the a monument, built in 109 at the site, and the founding of the city of Tropaeum. After 105, Legio XI Claudia and Legio V Macedonica were moved to Dobruja, at Durostorum and Troesmis, respectively. In 118 Hadrian intervened in the region to calm a Sarmatian rebellion. In 170 Costoboci invaded Dobruja, attacking Libida, Ulmetum and Tropaeum. The province was generally stable and prosperous until the crisis of the Third Century, which led to the weakening of defences and numerous barbarian invasions. In 248 a coalition of Goths, Carpians, Taifali, Bastarnae and Hasdingi, led by Argaithus and Guntheric, devastated Dobruja. During the reign of Trajan Decius the province suffered greatly from the attack of Goths under King Cniva. Barbarian attacks followed in 258, 263 and 267. In 269 a fleet of allied Goths, Heruli, Bastarnae and Sarmatians attacked the cities on the coast, including Tomis. In 272 Aurelian defeated the Carpians north of the Danube and settled a part of them near Carsium. The same emperor put an end to the crisis in the Roman Empire, thus helping the reconstruction of the province. During the reign of Diocletian, Dobruja was organized administratively as a separate province, called Scythia, part of the Diocese of Thracia. Its capital city was Tomis. Diocletian transferred Legio II Herculia to Troesmis and Legio I Iovia to Noviodunum. In 331–332 Constantine the Great defeated the Goths who attacked the province. But Dobruja was devastated again by Ostrogoths in 384–386. Under the Roman emperors Licinius, Julian the Apostate, and Valens, the cities of the region were repaired or rebuilt. Byzantine rule After the division of the Roman Empire, Dobruja was absorbed into the Eastern Roman Empire. Between 513 and 520, the region participated in a revolt against Anastasius I. Its leader, Vitalian, native of Zaldapa in Southern Dobruja, defeated the Byzantine general Hypatius near Kaliakra. During Justin I's rule, Antes and Slavs invaded the region, but Germanus Justinus defeated them. In 529, the Gepid commander Mundus repelled a new invasion by Bulgars and Antes. Kutrigurs and Avars invaded the region several times, until 561–562, when the Avars under Bayan I were settled south of the Danube as foederati. During the rule of Mauricius Tiberius, the Slavs devastated Dobruja, destroying the cities of Dorostolon, Zaldapa and Tropaeum. In 591/593, Byzantine general Priscus tried to stop invasions, attacking and defeating the Slavs under Ardagast in the north of the province. In 602 during the mutiny of the Byzantine army in the Balkans under Phocas, a large mass of Slavs crossed the Danube, settling south of the Danube. Dobruja remained under loose Byzantine control, and was reorganised during the reign of Constantine IV as Thema Scythia. First Bulgarian Empire rule The results of archaeological researches indicate that the Byzantine presence in Dobruja's mainland and on the banks of Danube was reduced in the end of the 6th century, under the pressure of the Migration Period. In the coastal fortifications on the southern bank of Danube, the latest Byzantine coin found dates from the time of the emperors Tiberius II Constantine (574–582) and Heraclius (610–641). After that period, all inland Byzantine cities were demolished by the invaders and abandoned. Some of the earliest Slavic settlements to the south of Danube have been discovered in Dobruja, near the villages of Popina, Garvăn and Nova Cherna. They have been dated to the end of the 6th and the beginning of the 7th centuries. These lands became the main zone of compact Bulgar settlement in the end of the 7th century. According to the peace treaty of 681, signed after the Bulgarian victory over Byzantines in the Battle of Ongala, Dobruja became part of the First Bulgarian Empire. Shortly after, the Bulgar founded the city of Pliska, which became the first Bulgarian capital, near the southern border of Dobruja. They rebuilt Madara as a major Bulgar pagan religious centre. According to the Bulgarian Apocryphal Chronicle, from the 11th century, Bulgarian Tsar Ispor "accepted the Bulgarian tsardom", created "great cities, Drastar on the Danube", a "great wall from Danube to the sea", "the city of Pliska" and "populated the lands of Karvuna". According to Bulgarian historians, during the 7th–10th centuries, the region was fortified by construction of a large network of earthen and wooden strongholds and ramparts. Around the end of the 8th century, widespread building of new stone fortresses and defensive walls began. Romanian historians dispute attributing these walls to the Bulgarians, based on their interpretation of the construction system and archaeological evidence. The Bulgarians also reconstructed some of the ruined Byzantine fortresses (Kaliakra and Silistra in the 8th century, Madara and Varna in the 9th). According to Barnea, among other historians, during the following three centuries of Bulgarian domination, Byzantines still controlled the Black Sea coast and the mouths of Danube, and for short periods, even some cities. But Bulgarian archaeologists note that the last Byzantine coins found, which are considered a proof of Byzantine presence, date in Kaliakra from the time of Emperor Justin II (565–578), in Varna from the time of Emperor Heraclius (610–641), and in Tomis from Constantine IV's rule (668–685). At the beginning of the 8th century, Justinian II visited Dobruja to ask Bulgarian Khan Tervel for military help. Khan Omurtag (815–831) built a "glorious home on Danube" and erected a mound in the middle of the distance between Pliska and his new building, according to his inscription kept in SS. Forty Martyrs Church in Veliko Tarnovo. The location of this edifice is unclear; the main theories place it at Silistra or at Păcuiul lui Soare. Many early medieval Bulgar stone inscriptions were found in Dobruja, including historical narratives, inventories of armament or buildings, and commemorative texts. During this period Silistra became an important Bulgarian ecclesiastical centre—an episcopate after 865 and seat of the Bulgarian Patriarch at the end of the 10th century. In 895, Magyar tribes from Budjak invaded Dobruja and northeastern Bulgaria. An old Slavic inscription, found at Mircea Vodă, mentions Zhupan Dimitri (Дѣимитрѣ жѹпанѣ), a local feudal landlord prominent in the south of the region in 943. Return of Byzantine rule and late migrations, Second Bulgarian Empire and Mongol domination With financial encouragement from the Byzantine emperor, Nikephoros II Phocas, Sviatoslav I of Kiev agreed to assist the Byzantines in their war with the Bulgarians. Sviatoslav defeated the Bulgarians (led by Boris II) and proceeded to occupy the whole of northern Bulgaria. He occupied Dobruja in 968 and moved the capital of Kievan Rus' to Pereyaslavets, in the north of the region. Sviatoslav refused to turn his Balkan conquests over to the Byzantines, and the parties fell out as a result. So the Byzantines under John I Tzimisces reconquered Dobruja in 971 and included it in the theme 'Mesopotamia of the West' (Μεσοποταμια της Δυσεον). According to some historians, soon after 976 or in 986, the southern part of Dobruja was included in the Bulgarian state then ruled by Samuel. The northern part remained under Byzantine rule, being reorganised in an autonomous klimata. Other historians are of the view that Northern Dobruja was reconquered by Bulgarians as well. In 1000, a Byzantine army commanded by Theodorokanos reconquered the whole of Dobruja, organizing the region as the Strategia of Dorostolon and, after 1020, as Paristrion (Paradounavon). To prevent mounted attacks from the north, the Byzantines constructed three ramparts from the Black Sea down to the Danube, in the 10th–11th centuries. According to Bulgarian archaeologists and historians, these fortifications may have been built much earlier and were erected by the First Bulgarian Empire in response to the threat of Khazars' raids. From the 10th century, Byzantines accepted small groups of Pechenegs settling in Dobruja. In the spring of 1036, an invasion of the Pecheneg devastated large parts of the region, destroying the forts at Capidava and Dervent, and burning the settlement of Dinogeţia. In 1046 the Byzantines accepted the Pecheneg under Kegen settling in Paristrion as foederati. The Pecheneg dominated the region until 1059, when Isaac I Komnenos reconquered Dobruja. In 1064, an invasion by the Oghuz Turks affected the region. During 1072 to 1074, when Nestor (the new strategos of Paristrion) was in Dristra, he found that the Pecheneg ruler, Tatrys, was leading a rebellion. In 1091, three autonomous, probably Pecheneg, rulers were mentioned in the Alexiad: Tatos (Τατοῦ) or Chalis (χαλῆ), in the area of Dristra (probably the same person as Tatrys), and Sesthlav (Σεσθλάβου) and Satza (Σατζά) in the area of Vicina. The Cumans moved into Dobruja in 1094 and were influential in the region until the advent of the Ottoman Empire. In 1187 the Byzantines lost control of Dobruja to the restored Bulgarian Empire. In 1241, the first Tatar groups, under Kadan, invaded Dobruja starting a century long history of turmoil in the region. Around 1263–64, Byzantine Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus gave permission to Sultan Kaykaus II to settle in the area with a group of Seljuk Turks from Anatolia. A missionary Turkish mystic, Sarı Saltuk, was the spiritual leader of this group. His tomb in Babadag (which was named after him) is still a place of pilgrimage for Muslims. Arab chronicles of the 13th century mentioned Dobrogea under the name "Şakji" and the Vlachs inhabitants under the names "al-Awalak" and "ulaqut". In 1265, the Bulgarian Emperor Constantine Tikh Asen hired 20,000 Tatars to cross the Danube and attack Byzantine Thrace. On their way back, the Tatars forced most of the Seljuk Turks, including their chief Sarı Saltuk, to resettle in Kipchak (Cumania).<ref>Васил Н. Златарски, История на българската държава през срeднитe вeкове. Том III. Второ българско царство. България при Асeневци (1187–1280), стр. 517</ref> In the second part of the 13th century, the Turco–Mongolian Golden Horde Empire continuously raided and plundered Dobruja. The inability of the Bulgarian authorities to cope with the numerous raids became the main reason for the uprising, led by Ivailo (1277–1280), that broke out in eastern Bulgaria. Ivailo's army defeated the Tatars, who were forced to leave the Bulgarian territory; he next outed Constantine Tikh's army, and Ivailo was crowned Emperor of Bulgaria. The war with the Tatars continued. In 1278, after a new Tatar invasion in Dobruja, Ivailo was forced to retreat to the strong fortress of Silistra, where he withstood a three-month siege. In 1280 the Bulgarian nobility, which feared the growing influence of the peasant emperor, organised a coup. Ivailo had to flee to his enemy the Tatar Nogai Khan, who later killed him. In 1300 Toqta, the new Khan of the Golden Horde, ceded Bessarabia to Emperor Theodore Svetoslav. Autonomous Dobruja In 1325, the Ecumenical Patriarch nominated Methodius as Metropolitan of Varna and Carvona. After this date, Balik/Balica is mentioned as a local ruler in Southern Dobruja. In 1346, he supported John V Palaeologus in his dispute for the Byzantine throne with John VI Cantacuzenus. He sent an army corps under his son Dobrotitsa/Dobrotici and his brother, Theodore, to help the mother of John Palaeologus, Anna of Savoy. For his bravery, Dobrotitsa received the title of strategos and married the daughter of megadux Apokaukos. After the reconciliation of the two pretenders, a territorial dispute broke out between the Dobrujan polity and the Byzantine Empire for the port of Midia. In 1347, at John V Palaeologus' request, Emir Bahud-din Umur, Bey of Aydin, led a naval expedition against Balik, destroying Dobruja's seaports. Balik and Theodore died during the confrontation, and Dobrotitsa became the new ruler. Between 1352 and 1359, with the collapse of Golden Horde rule in Northern Dobruja, a new state appeared. It was controlled by Tatar prince Demetrius, who claimed to be the protector of the river mouths of the Danube. In 1357 Dobrotitsa was mentioned as a despot ruling over a large territory, including the fortresses of Varna, Kozeakos (near Obzor), and Emona. In 1366, John V Palaeologus visited Rome and Buda, trying to gather military support for his campaigns. On his return, he was captured at Vidin by Ivan Alexander, Tsar of Tarnovo, who believed that the new alliances were directed against his realm. An anti-Ottoman crusade under Amadeus VI of Savoy, supported by the republics of Venice and Genoa, was diverted to free the Byzantine emperor. Dobrotitsa collaborated with the crusaders, and after the allies conquered several Bulgarian forts on the Black Sea, Ivan Alexander freed John and negotiated a peace agreement. Dobrotitsa's role in this conflict brought him numerous political advantages: his daughter married one of John V's sons, Michael, and his principality extended its control over some of the forts lost by the Bulgarians (Anchialos and Mesembria). In 1368, after the death of prince Demetrius, Dobrotitsa was recognised as ruler by Pangalia and other cities on the right bank of the Danube. In 1369, together with Vladislav I of Wallachia, Dobrotitsa helped Prince Stratsimir to win back the throne of Vidin. Between 1370 and 1375, allied with Venice, Dobritsia challenged Genoese power in the Black Sea. In 1376, he tried to impose his son-in law, Michael, as Emperor of Trebizond, but was unsuccessful. Dobrotitsa supported John V Palaeologus against his son Andronicus IV Palaeologus. In 1379, the Dobrujan fleet participated in the blockade of Constantinople, fighting with the Genoese fleet. In 1386, Dobrotitsa died and was succeeded by Ivanko/Ioankos. That same year he accepted a peace agreement with Murad I and in 1387 signed a commercial treaty with Genoa. Ivanko was killed in 1388 during the expedition of Ottoman Grand Vizier Çandarli Ali Pasha against Tarnovo and Dristra. The expedition brought most of the Dobrujan forts under Turkish rule. Wallachian rule In 1388/1389 Dobruja (Terrae Dobrodicii—as mentioned in a document from 1390) and Dristra (Dârstor) came under the control of Mircea the Elder, ruler of Wallachia, who defeated the Ottoman Grand Vizier. Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I conquered the southern part of the territory in 1393, attacking Mircea one year later, but without success. In the spring of 1395 Mircea regained the lost Dobrujan territories, with the help of his Hungarian allies. The Ottomans recaptured Dobruja in 1397 and ruled it to 1404, although in 1401 Mircea strongly defeated an Ottoman army. The defeat of Sultan Beyezid I by Tamerlane at Ankara in 1402 opened a period of anarchy in the Ottoman Empire. Mircea took advantage of it to organise a new anti-Ottoman campaign: in 1403, he occupied the Genoese fort of Kilia at the mouths of the Danube. Thus in 1404, he could impose his authority on Dobruja. In 1416, Mircea supported the revolt against Sultan Mehmed I, led by Sheikh Bedreddin in the area of Deliorman, in Southern Dobruja. After Mircea's death in 1418, his son Mihail I fought against the amplified Ottoman attacks, eventually being killed in a battle in 1420. That year, the Sultan Mehmed I personally conducted the definitive conquest of Dobruja by the Turks. Wallachia kept only the mouths of the Danube, but not for a long duration. In the late 14th century, German traveller Johann Schiltberger described these lands as follows: Ottoman rule Occupied by the Turks in 1420, the region remained under Ottoman control until the late 19th century. Initially, it was organised as an udj (border province), included in the sanjak of Silistra, part of the Eyalet of Rumelia. Later, under Murad II or Suleiman I, the sanjak of Silistra and surrounding territories were organised as a separate eyalet. In 1555, a revolt led by the "false" (düzme) Mustafa, a pretender to the Turkish throne, broke out against Ottoman administration in Rumelia and rapidly spread to Dobruja, but was repressed by the beylerbey of Nigbolu. In 1603 and 1612, the region suffered from the forays of Cossacks, who burnt down Isaķči and plundered Küstendje. The Russian Empire occupied Dobruja several times during the Russo-Turkish wars — in 1771–1774, 1790–1791, 1809–1810, 1829 and 1853. The most violent invasion was that of 1829, which resulted in the depopulation of numerous villages and towns. The Treaty of Adrianople of 1829 ceded the Danube Delta to the Russian Empire. However, Russia was forced to return it to the Ottomans in 1856, after the Crimean War. In 1864 Dobruja was included in the Vilayet of Danube. During Ottoman rule, groups of Turk, Arab and Tatar peoples settled in the region, the latter especially between 1512 and 1514. During the reign of Peter I of Russia and Catherine the Great, Lipovans immigrated to the region of the Danube Delta. After the destruction of Zaporozhian Sich in 1775, Cossacks were settled in the area north of Lake Razim by the Turkish authorities (where they founded the Danubian Sich). They were forced to leave Dobruja in 1828. In the second part of the nineteenth‑century, Ruthenians from the Austrian Empire also settled in the Danube Delta. After the Crimean War, a large number of Tatars were forcibly driven away from Crimea, immigrating to then-Ottoman Dobruja and settling mainly in the Karasu Valley in the centre of the region and around Bābā Dāgh. In 1864, Circassians fleeing from the Russian invasion and genocide of the Caucasus were settled in the wooded region near Babadag, forming a community there. Germans from Bessarabia also founded colonies in Dobruja between 1840 and 1892. According to Bulgarian historian Lyubomir Miletich, most Bulgarians living in Dobruja in 1900 were nineteenth-century settlers or their descendants. In 1850, the scholar Ion Ionescu de la Brad, wrote in a study on Dobruja, ordered by the Ottoman government, that Bulgarians came to the region "in the last twenty years or so". According to his study, there were 2,285 Bulgarian families (out of 8,194 Christian families) in the region, 1,194 of them in Northern Dobruja. Lyubomir Miletich puts the number of Bulgarian families in Northern Dobruja in the same year at 2,097. According to the statistics of the Bulgarian Exarchate, before 1877 there were 9,324 Bulgarian families out of a total 12,364 Christian families in the Northern Dobruja. According to Russian knyaz Vladimir Cherkassky, chief of the Provisional Russian government in Bulgaria in 1877–1878, the Bulgarian population in Dobruja was larger than the Romanian one. However, count Shuvalov, the Russian representative to the Congress of Berlin, stated that Romania deserved Dobruja "more than anybody else, because of its population". In 1878, the statistics of the Russian governor of Dobruja, Bieloserkovitsch, showed a number of 4,750 Bulgarian "family chiefs" (out of 14,612 Christian family chiefs) in the northern half of the region. The Christian religious organisation of the region was put under the authority of the Bulgarian Orthodox Church by a firman of the Sultan, promulgated on February 28, 1870. However, the ethnic Greeks and most Romanians in Northern Dobruja remained under the authority of the Greek Archdiocese of Tulça (founded in 1829).A. Rădulescu, I. Bitoleanu, Istoria Dobrogei, pp. 322–323 After 1878 After the 1878 war, the Treaty of San Stefano awarded Dobruja to Russia and the newly established Principality of Bulgaria. The northern portion, held by Russia, was ceded to Romania in exchange for Russia obtaining territories in Southern Bessarabia, thereby securing a direct access to the mouths of the Danube. In Northern Dobruja, Romanians were the plurality. The population included a Bulgarian ethnic enclave in the northeast (around Babadag), as well as an important Muslim community (mostly Turks and Tatars) scattered around the region. The southern portion, held by Bulgaria, was reduced the same year by the Treaty of Berlin. At the advice of the French envoy, a strip of land extended inland from the port of Mangalia (shown orange on the map) was ceded to Romania, since its southwestern corner contained a compact area of ethnic Romanians. The town of Silistra, located at the areas' most southwestern point, remained Bulgarian due to its large Bulgarian population. Romania subsequently tried to occupy the town as well, but in 1879 a new international commission allowed Romania to occupy only the fort Arab Tabia, which overlooked Silistra, but not the town itself. At the beginning of the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878, most of Dobruja's population was composed of ethnic Tatars, Turks, Romanians and Bulgarians. During the war, a large part of the Muslim population was evacuated to Bulgaria and Turkey. After 1878, the Romanian government encouraged Romanians from other regions to settle in Northern Dobruja and accepted the return of some Muslim population displaced by the war. According to Bulgarian historians, after 1878 the Romanian church authorities took control over all local churches, with the exception of two in the towns of Tulcea and Constanţa, which managed to retain use of their Bulgarian Slavonic liturgy. Between 1879 and 1900, Bulgarians built 15 new churches in Northern Dobruja. After 1880, Italians from Friuli and Veneto settled in Greci, Cataloi and Măcin in Northern Dobruja. Most of them worked in the granite quarries in the Măcin Mountains, while some became farmers. The Bulgarian authorities encouraged the settling of ethnic Bulgarians in the territory of Southern Dobruja. In May 1913, the Great Powers awarded Silistra and the area in a 3 km radius around it to Romania, at the Saint Petersburg Conference. In August 1913, after the Second Balkan War, Bulgaria lost Southern Dobruja (Cadrilater) to Romania (See Treaty of Bucharest, 1913). With Romania's entry in World War I on the side of France and Russia, the Central Powers occupied all of Dobruja and gave the Cadrilater, as well as the southern portion of Northern Dobruja, to Bulgaria in the Treaty of Bucharest of 1918. This situation lasted for a short period. As the Allied Powers emerged victorious at the end of the war, Romania regained the lost territories in the Treaty of Neuilly of 1919. Between 1926 and 1938, about 30,000 Aromanians from Bulgaria, Macedonia, and Greece, were resettled in Southern Dobruja. Some Megleno-Romanians also emigrated to the region. In 1923 the Internal Dobrujan Revolutionary Organisation (IDRO), a Bulgarian nationalist organisation, was established. Active in Southern Dobruja under different forms until 1940, the IDRO detachments fought against the widespread brigandage in the region, as well as the Romanian administration. Thus, while considered "a terrorist organisation" by the Romanian authorities, the IDRO was regarded by ethnic Bulgarians as a liberation movement. In 1925, part of the Bulgarian revolutionary committees formed the Dobrujan Revolutionary Organisation (DRO), which later became subordinated to the Communist Party of Romania. In contrast with the IDRO, which fought for the inclusion of the region in the Bulgarian state, the DRO requested the independence of Dobruja and its inclusion in a projected Federative Republic of the Balkans. The means used by DRO to attain its goals were also more peaceful. During World War II, Bulgaria regained Southern Dobruja in the September 1940 Axis-sponsored Treaty of Craiova, despite Romanian negotiators' insistence that Balchik and other towns should remain in Romania. As part of the treaty, the Romanian inhabitants (Aromanian and Megleno-Romanian refugee-settlers, settlers from other regions of Romania and the Romanians indigenous to the region) were forced to leave the regained territory, while the Bulgarian minority in the north was expelled to go to Bulgaria in a population exchange. The post-war Paris Peace Treaties of 1947 reaffirmed the 1940 border. In 1948 and again in 1961–1962, Bulgaria proposed a border rectification in the area of Silistra, consisting mainly in the transfer of a Romanian territory containing the water source of that city. Romania made an alternative proposal that did not involve a territorial change and, ultimately, no rectification took place. In Romania, 14 November is a holiday observed as the Dobruja Day. Demographic history In 1913, Dobruja was all made part of Romania in the aftermath of the 1913 Treaty of Bucharest which ended the Second Balkan War. Romania acquired Southern Dobruja from Bulgaria, a territory with a population of 300,000 from which only 6,000 (2%) were Romanians. In 1913, Romanian-held Northern Dobruja had a population of 380,430, from which 216,425 (56.8%) were Romanians. Thus, when Dobruja was unified within Romania in 1913, there were over 222,000 Romanians in the region out of a total population of 680,000, or nearly 33% of the population. By 1930, the Romanian population within Dobruja had increased to 44.2%. Northern Dobruja 1According to the 1926–1938 Romanian administrative division (counties of Constanța and Tulcea), which excluded a part of today's Romania (chiefly the communes of Ostrov and Lipnița, now part of Constanța County) and included a part of today's Bulgaria (parts of General Toshevo and Krushari municipalities) 2Only Russians. (Russians and Lipovans counted separately) Southern Dobruja 1According to the 1926–1938 Romanian administrative division (counties of Durostor and Caliacra), which included a part of today's Romania (chiefly the communes of Ostrov and Lipnița, now part of Constanța County) and excluded a part of today's Bulgaria (parts of General Toshevo and Krushari municipalities) 2Including persons counted as Vlachs in Bulgarian Census 3Only includes persons who answered the optional question on ethnic identity. The total population was 309,151. Area, population and cities The entire region of Dobruja has an area of around and a population of around 1.2 million, of which just over two-thirds of the former and nearly three-quarters of the latter lie in the Romanian part. Major cities are Constanța, Tulcea, Medgidia and Mangalia in Romania, and Dobrich and Silistra in Bulgaria. See also Bulgaria during World War I Romania during World War I Notes References . Subscription needed for online access. Further reading Iordachi, Constantin (2001), [http://carlbeckpapers.pitt.edu/ojs/index.php/cbp/article/view/93 "The California of the Romanians": The Integration of Northern Dobrogea into Romania, 1878-1913], in Nation-Building and Contested Identities Romanian & Hungarian Case Studies Divided regions Historical regions in Bulgaria Historical regions in Romania	[ -0.0531371645629406, 0.13840100169181824, -0.23344743251800537, -0.4149940609931946, -0.21453092992305756, 0.5140632390975952, 0.29453378915786743, 0.4157054126262665, 0.22131849825382233, 0.09960349649190903, -0.05162850022315979, -0.2032156139612198, -0.6481219530105591, 0.5584705471992493, -0.7244780659675598, 0.9884944558143616, 0.4806269109249115, 0.1718083620071411, 0.335161954164505, -0.3102303445339203, 0.2798243463039398, 0.3699325621128082, 0.02587072178721428, 0.45361068844795227, 0.34656986594200134, -0.24812008440494537, 0.3489191234111786, 0.44376611709594727, -0.41423752903938293, -0.1867518126964569, 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255587	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nabopolassar	Nabopolassar	Nabopolassar (Babylonian cuneiform: Nabû-apla-uṣur, meaning "Nabu, protect the son") was the founder and first king of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, ruling from his coronation as king of Babylon in 626 BC to his death in 605 BC. Though initially only aimed at restoring and securing the independence of Babylonia, Nabopolassar's uprising against the Neo-Assyrian Empire, which had ruled Babylonia for more than a century, eventually led to the complete destruction of the Assyrian Empire and the rise of the Neo-Babylonian Empire in its place. Of unclear, possibly Chaldean, origin and potentially connected to a powerful political family in the southern city of Uruk, Nabopolassar revolted against the Neo-Assyrian king Sinsharishkun at an opportune moment when Babylonia was already plagued by political instability. Though the advantage shifted back and forth dramatically several times, Nabopolassar managed to decisively push the Assyrians out of Babylonia after nearly ten years of fighting. Subsequent campaigns were intended to hinder the possibility of an Assyrian campaign directed at Babylonia through securing the border, but the intervention of the eastern Median Empire under Cyaxares in Nabopolassar's favor shifted the goals and the possibilities of the war. In 614 BC, the Medes brutally sacked the city of Assur, the religious and ceremonial heart of Assyria, and in 612 BC the Medes and Babylonians assaulted Nineveh, Assyria's capital. As with Assur before it, Nineveh was brutally sacked, with its inhabitants, including children, slaughtered en masse and the entire city being burned to the ground. Sinsharishkun probably died in its defense. Other Assyrian cities, such as Nimrud, were also assaulted and sacked much in the same way. The brutality of the Medes, including their habit of sacking even the religious temples, was so excessive that it shocked the Babylonians; contemporary Babylonian chronicles, otherwise hostile to the Assyrians, lament the sackings with sorrow and remorse. Nabopolassar's own attitude towards Assyria is unclear; in some inscriptions he is careful to ascribe his victory and its aftermath to divine intervention to rid himself of the blame and in others he openly boasts of the destruction. The Neo-Babylonian Empire's claim to succeed the Neo-Assyrian Empire was immediately challenged by Egypt under Pharaoh Necho II, who fought for several years to restore the Assyrians, whom he was allied to, until he was defeated at the Battle of Carchemish in 605 BC. Upon his death that same year, Nabopolassar was succeeded by his son Nebuchadnezzar II. As the founder of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Nabopolassar was long remembered by the Babylonians after his death, even beyond the fall of his empire less than a century later. In the Hellenistic period, several centuries later, Nabopolassar's legend was still remembered, with Babylonian authors casting him as a champion ordered by Marduk, Babylon's chief deity, to avenge their homeland, and as a symbol against the domination of foreign empires over Babylon. Background Origin and ancestry Nabopolassar's origins are unclear. In his own inscriptions, he refers to himself as a mâr lā mammâna ("son of a nobody"), a striking descriptor that is not known from any other Mesopotamian king. The two other Neo-Babylonian kings who had no blood connection to previous royalty; Neriglissar (560–556 BC) and Nabonidus (556–539 BC), nevertheless mentioned the names of their fathers and wrote about them with pride in their inscriptions. That Nabopolassar was the son of a nobody is almost certainly a lie; a person of truly obscure origins would have been unable to gather enough influence to become Babylon's king. On account of a lack of sources in regards to his true origins, subsequent historians have variously identified Nabopolassar as a Chaldean, an Assyrian or a Babylonian. Although no evidence conclusively confirms him as being of Chaldean origin, the term "Chaldean dynasty" is frequently used by modern historians for the royal family he founded, and the term "Chaldean Empire" remains in use as an alternate historiographical name for the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Several near-contemporary texts, such as the Uruk prophecy, describe Nabopolassar as a "king of the sea", i.e. of southernmost Babylonia, suggesting that his origin was south of Babylon itself. The Assyrians also ascribed him a southern origin; a letter from the Neo-Assyrian king Sinsharishkun (627–612 BC) describes Nabopolassar as "of the lower sea", i.e. southernmost Mesopotamia. Connection to Uruk Regardless of his ethnic origin, Nabopolassar appears to have been strongly connected to the city of Uruk, located south of Babylon, possibly having been a member of its ruling elite prior to becoming Babylon's king. In a 1998 paper, the Assyriologist Paul-Alain Beaulieu mentioned that there was a growing body of evidence that Nabopolassar's family originated in Uruk, and also presented evidence that several of Nebuchadnezzar II's (Nabopolassar's son and successor) daughters lived in the city. In 2007, the Assyriologist Michael Jursa advanced the theory that Nabopolassar was a member of a prominent political family in Uruk, whose members are attested since the reign of Esarhaddon (681–669 BC). To support his theory, Jursa points to a letter from the time of Sinsharishkun, ABL 469, which discusses how the grave and body of Kudurru, a deceased governor of Uruk, was desecrated due to the anti-Assyrian activities of Kudurru's two sons, Nabu-shumu-ukin and a son whose name is mostly missing. The desecration went so far as to drag Kudurru's body through the streets of Uruk. Kudurru can be identified with Nebuchadnezzar (Nabû-kudurri-uṣur, "Kudurru" simply being a common and shortened nickname), a prominent official in Uruk who served as its governor under Ashurbanipal (669–631 BC) in the 640s BC. In Assyrian tradition, the desecration of a dead body showed that the deceased individual and their surviving family were traitors and enemies of the state, and that they had to be completely eradicated. The desecration of the body itself functioned as a means to punish an enemy even after their death. The name of the son whose name is unpreserved in the letter ended with either ahi, nâsir or uṣur, and the remaining traces can fit with the name Nabû-apla-uṣur, meaning that Nabopolassar could be the other son mentioned in the letter and thus a son of Kudurru. Strengthening the case that Kudurru was Nabopolassar's father is the name of Nabopolassar's son, also Nebuchadnezzar. At this time, Nebuchadnezzar was a very rare name in Babylonia. Since the Babylonians employed patronymics, it is possible that Nabopolassar would have named his son after his father. Before becoming king after Nabopolassar's death, Nebuchadnezzar II served as the high priest of the Eanna temple in Uruk, often attested there under the nickname Kudurru, further linking Nabopolassar's dynasty both to Uruk and to Kudurru. Additionally, the name of Kudurru's second son, Nabu-shumu-ukin, is also the name of a prominent general under Nabopolassar (a role not unlikely to be filled by a family member) and the name of one of Nebuchadnezzar II's sons (possibly another example of a name honoring a relative). The ancient author Berossus, a native Babylonian historian active in Hellenistic times, centuries after Nabopolassar, described Nabopolassar as a general of Sinsharishkun, who betrayed the Assyrian king. Berossus is not typically considered reliable, but there was ample Assyrian influence within the Neo-Babylonian Empire, with there being considerable continuity within military and court administration. Jursa does not consider this surprising; Nabopolassar's ancestors, such as Kudurru, had been pro-Assyrian in their policies (Kudurru even having been appointed by Ashurbanipal himself); Kudurru even fought in Ashurbanipal's civil war against his brother Shamash-shum-ukin (designated by their father Esarhaddon as king of Babylon), aiding in the defeat of the latter. Kudurru's support for Assyria could explain Nabopolassar's unwillingness to mention his father in his inscriptions, and the desecration of his father's body additionally meant that Nabopolassar in a literal sense no longer had a father. The Babylonian problem In the middle of the seventh century BC, the Neo-Assyrian Empire ruled the entire Near East. Due to their powerful standing army and their sophisticated administration, the Assyrians had managed to create the best organized and largest empire that the world had yet seen. Though Babylonia in the south had also once been a large kingdom, it had typically been weaker than its northern neighbor due to internal divisions and the lack of a well-organized army. The population of Babylonia was divided into various ethnic groups with different priorities and ideals. Though old native Babylonians ruled most of the cities, such as Kish, Ur, Uruk, Borsippa, Nippur, and Babylon itself, the Chaldean tribes, led by chieftains who often squabbled with each other, dominated most of the southernmost land. The Arameans lived on the fringes of settled land and were notorious for plundering surrounding territories. Because of the infighting of these three major groups, Babylonia often represented an appealing target for Assyrian campaigns. The two kingdoms had competed since the rise of the Middle Assyrian Empire in the 14th century BC, and in the 8th century BC, the Assyrians consistently gained the upper hand. Babylon's internal and external weakness led to its conquest by the Assyrian king Tiglath-Pileser III in 729 BC. During the expansion of Assyria into a major empire, the Assyrians had conquered various neighboring kingdoms, either annexing them as Assyrian provinces or turning them into vassal states. Because the Assyrians venerated the long history and culture of Babylon, it was preserved as a full kingdom, either ruled by an appointed client king, or by the Assyrian king in a personal union. The relationship between Assyria and Babylonia was similar to the relationship between Greece and Rome in later centuries; much of Assyria's culture, texts and traditions had been imported from the south. Assyria and Babylonia also shared the same language (Akkadian). The relationship between Assyria and Babylon was emotional in a sense; Neo-Assyrian inscriptions implicitly gender the two countries, calling Assyria the metaphorical "husband" and Babylon its "wife". In the words of the Assyriologist Eckart Frahm, "the Assyrians were in love with Babylon, but also wished to dominate her". Though Babylon was respected as the well-spring of civilization, it was expected to remain passive in political matters, something that Assyria's "Babylonian bride" repeatedly refused to be. The Assyrians attempted various strategies to appease their Babylonian subjects throughout the eighth and seventh centuries BC; ranging from violent subjugation through war to direct rule either by the Assyrian king or by a representative (sometimes a relative such as a son or brother). Though there was some success in pacifying the urban population of Babylonians, the Arameans and Chaldeans remained unconvinced and repeatedly rebelled whenever they saw an opportunity. Despite the enormous effort spent in keeping the region, Babylonia was seen as too important economically and strategically to allow to secede, but no matter what the Assyrians attempted, rebellion and civil war was the inevitable result each time. Prolonged Assyrian control of Babylonia proved so impossible that modern researchers have dubbed it the "Babylonian problem". In 631 BC, the long-ruling Assyrian king Ashurbanipal died and in 627 BC, he was followed in death by his appointed vassal ruler of Babylonia, Kandalanu. Their deaths ended an about 20-year long period of relative peace and stability. Ashurbanipal was first succeeded by his son Ashur-etil-ilani, but he died in 627 BC at around the same time as Kandalanu, leading to Ashurbanipal's other son, Sinsharishkun, assuming the kingship of Assyria. Although it has been suggested by several historians, there is no evidence to prove the idea that Ashur-etil-ilani was deposed in a coup by his brother. Sinsharishkun's inscriptions state that he was selected for the kingship from among several of "his equals" (i.e., his brothers) by the gods. Almost immediately after Sinsharishkun's rise to the throne, the general Sin-shumu-lishir rebelled. Sin-shumu-lishir took some cities in northern Babylonia, including Nippur and Babylon and ruled there for three months before Sinsharishkun defeated him. Though both of them exercised control there, it is unclear if Sinsharishkun and Sin-shumu-lishir actually claimed the title "king of Babylon" (or only used "king of Assyria"), meaning that Babylonia could have experienced an interregnum of sorts. Modern historians typically include both Sin-shumu-lishir and Sinsharishkun in lists of Babylonian kings, as did some ancient Babylonian king lists. Sources As a consequence of the turbulent times in which he reigned, and the violent downfall of Assyria, comparatively few sources survive from Nabopolassar's reign. The near-contemporary sources that do survive include two Babylonian chronicles (written from the point of view of the victorious Babylonians); the Nabopolassar Chronicle and the Fall of Nineveh Chronicle, as well as royal inscriptions and economic and administrative texts. In terms of reconstructing the succession of events in the period of Assyria's downfall, the Babylonian chronicles are the most important source, though they do not cover all of Nabopolassar's reign, only reveal select facts and are written in a terse and objective style. Around 1,500 administrative and economical texts are known from Nabopolassar's reign, most recovered from excavated temple archives in Uruk and Sippar, but they do not record much of events on a geopolitical scale. Inscriptions that record Nabopolassar's building projects or his piety, recovered at several sites throughout Babylonia, do not mention much about geopolitical events either. Later works, such as the works of Berossus, the Bible, and the works of ancient Greek historians such as Ctesias, Herodotus and Xenophon, corroborate details mentioned in the earlier Babylonian sources, but do not offer any meaningful additional commentary or insight. In terms of dating, several sources can be used to confidently determine the timespan in which Nabopolassar ruled as king of Babylon, chiefly the Uruk King List (also known as King List 5) and the Ptolemaic Canon of Kings. In the Uruk list, the length of the reigns of each Babylonian king, from the 7th to the 3rd century BC, are recorded. The Ptolemaic Canon lists rulers of Babylonia, followed by the Achaemenid Persian kings and the Ptolemaic dynasty of Egypt. As the Canon lists and documents astronomical phenomena, it is an important document for dating events in the entire chronology of the ancient Near East. Contemporary Babylonian astronomical texts can also be used to a certain extent as they record astronomical phenomena and sometimes also political events. Reign War for Babylonia It is probable that Nabopolassar held some high office in Uruk before his rebellion against Assyria, possibly following the family tradition and serving as the city's governor. In early 626 BC, he rose in rebellion against Sinsharishkun. Fighting for the control of Babylonia would drag on for about ten years, and which side had the advantage shifted dramatically back and forth several times. The timing of the revolt was opportune. Nabopolassar might have used the political instability caused by the revolt of Sin-shumu-lishir a few months prior, as well as the unrest caused by the potentially ongoing interregnum in the south, to his advantage. He began by assaulting both Babylon and Nippur, taking the cities from the garrisons left there by Sinsharishkun. The Assyrian response was swift and in October 626 BC, the Assyrian army recaptured Nippur and laid siege to both Nabopolassar at Uruk and to Babylon itself. Both sieges were repulsed by Nabopolassar's forces; the siege of Babylon would be the last time an Assyrian army attempted to take the city. In the aftermath of the failed Assyrian counterattack, Nabopolassar was formally crowned king of Babylon on 22/23 November 626 BC, restoring Babylonia as an independent kingdom. In 625–623 BC, Sinsharishkun's forces again attempted to defeat Nabopolassar, campaigning in northern Babylonia. Initially, these campaigns were successful; in 625 BC the Assyrians took the city of Sippar and Nabopolassar's attempted reconquest of Nippur failed. Another of Assyria's vassals, Elam, also stopped paying tribute to Assyria during this time and several Babylonian cities, such as Der, revolted and joined Nabopolassar. Realizing the threat this posed, Sinsharishkun led a massive counterattack himself which saw the successful recapture of Uruk in 623 BC. Sinsharishkun might have ultimately been victorious had it not been for another revolt, led by an Assyrian general in the empire's western provinces in 622 BC. This general, whose name remains unknown, took advantage of the absence of Sinsharishkun and the Assyrian army to march on Nineveh, the Assyrian capital, where he met a hastily organized army which surrendered without fighting. The usurper then successfully seized the Assyrian throne. The surrender of the army indicates that the usurper was an Assyrian and possibly even a member of the royal family, or at least a person that would be acceptable as king. Understandably alarmed by this development, Sinsharishkun abandoned his Babylonian campaign and though he successfully defeated the usurper after a hundred days of civil war, the absence of the Assyrian army saw the Babylonians conquer the last remaining Assyrian outposts in Babylonia in 622–620 BC. The Babylonian siege of Uruk had begun by October 622 BC and though control of the ancient city would shift between Assyria and Babylon, it was firmly in Nabopolassar's hands by 620 BC. Nippur was also conquered in 620 BC and Nabopolassar pushed the Assyrians out of Babylonia. Though he had successfully driven out the Assyrian army, pro-Assyrian factions still existed in some Babylonian cities, for instance Ur and Nippur, by 617 BC, making Nabopolassar's full consolidation of control in the south slow. The fighting in Babylonia in the last stages of the localized conflict turned conditions so desperate in some places that parents sold their children into slavery to avoid them starving to death. Early campaigns into Assyria While unlikely to have been received positively, the end of Assyrian rule in Babylonia would probably not have been regarded as significant to the Assyrians at the time. All fighting had happened in Babylonia and the outcome was not yet decisive, characteristic of previous Assyro-Babylonian conflicts in the Neo-Assyrian period. In previous uprisings, the Babylonians had sometimes temporarily gained the upper hand as well and there was no reason to believe that Nabopolassar's success would be anything but a temporary inconvenience. In 616 BC, Nabopolassar entered Assyrian territory for the first time, leading his armies along the Euphrates river into lands in present-day Syria. As he marched on, he took the Assyrian city Hindanu and reached the Balikh River, where he defeated an Assyrian force near the city Gablinu. Nabpolassar then pushed north, reaching as far as the Khabur River. The Assyrians swiftly regrouped in order to deal with the threat. Realizing that the situation was dire, Assyria's ally, Pharaoh Psamtik I of Egypt, marched his troops to aid Sinsharishkun. Psamtik had over the last few years campaigned to establish dominance over the small city-states of the Levant and it was in his interests that Assyria survived as a buffer state between his own empire and those of the Babylonians and Medes in the east. A joint Egyptian-Assyrian campaign to capture the city of Gablinu was undertaken in October of 616 BC, but ended in failure after which the Egyptian allies kept to the west of the Euphrates, only offering limited support. Both the Assyrians and the Babylonians then withdrew, though the Babylonians retained Hindanu and now controlled the middle Euphrates, a major strategical victory and probably the first step in Nabopolassar's plan to counteract the possibility of an Assyrian invasion of Babylonia. That Nabopolassar withdrew at the same time as the Assyrians did suggests that the Babylonians were not yet ready to conduct a full invasion of Assyria and that their plans were at this time just to secure Babylonian independence, not to conquer and destroy Assyria. In March 615 BC, Nabopolassar inflicted a crushing defeat on the Assyrian army at the banks of the Tigris, pushing them back to the Little Zab. This victory weakened Assyrian control of the buffer zone that had been established around the middle of the Tigris river between the two kingdoms, meaning that the Babylonians now controlled lands directly bordering the Assyrian heartland itself. Fall of Assyria In May 615 BC, Nabopolassar and the Babylonians assaulted Assur, the ceremonial and religious center of Assyria and the Assyrian Empire's southernmost remaining city. Sinsharishkun swiftly rallied his army and counterattacked, lifting the siege of Assur and forcing Nabopolassar to retreat to the city of Takrit. There, Sinsharishkun besieged Nabopolassar, but he was eventually forced to abandon the siege. Though the conflict had shifted to Assyria becoming the defender, the war was at this point still being fought according to standard Mesopotamian practice, with attacks, counterattacks and retreats and neither side having the confidence or means to force a decisive confrontation. Despite constant defeats and setbacks, the Assyrian army remained powerful and capable of being deployed rapidly. In late 615 BC or in 614 BC, the Medes under their king Cyaxares entered Assyria and conquered the region around the city of Arrapha in preparation for a campaign against Sinsharishkun. Although there are plenty of earlier sources discussing Assyro-Median relations, none are preserved from the period leading up to Cyaxares's invasion and as such, the political context and reasons for the sudden attack are not known. Perhaps, the war between Babylonia and Assyria had disrupted the economy of the Medes and inspired a direct intervention. In July or August of 614 BC, the Medes mounted attacks on the cities of Nimrud and Nineveh and successfully conquered the city of Tarbisu. They then besieged Assur. This siege was successful and the Medes captured the ancient heart of Assyria, plundering it and killing many of its inhabitants. The brutal sack of Assur came as a shock to people throughout the Near East. Even the Babylonian chronicles, hostile to Assyria, speak of the Medes as unnecessarily brutal, stating that they "inflicted a terrible defeat on a great people, pillaged and looted them and robbed them". Nabopolassar only arrived at Assur after the plunder had already begun and met with Cyaxares, allying with him and signing an anti-Assyrian pact. The treaty between the Babylonians and Medes was sealed through the marriage of Nabopolassar's son and heir, Nebuchadnezzar, and Cyaxares's daughter, Amytis. The onset of winter after the fall of Assur meant that both the Medes and Babylonians then returned to their homelands, preparing for further campaigns in the next year. The Assyrians appear to have not recognized the severity of their situation as they did not use the pause in the fighting to fall back into, and prepare, defensive positions. Instead of repairing the damage in Nimrud, the populace there dismantled the walls further to prepare for future renovation work (which would never happen). In an attempt to keep the enemies out of Assyria, Sinsharishkun went on the offensive in 613 BC, attacking Nabopolassar's forces in the middle Euphrates, occupied at the time with suppressing an Assyrian-supported rebellion of a local tribe. Sinshariskun successfully rescued the tribe's besieged city of Rahilu, but Nabopolassar's army retreated before a battle could take place. Around this time, Sinsharishkun, apparently finally recognizing the disaster that was about to befall his kingdom, sent a letter to Nabopolassar, attempting to broker peace. Sinsharishkun pleaded with Nabopolassar to avoid any more bloodshed and wrote that he should "quiet his fiery heart". Nabopolassar was not interested; Sinsharishkun had waited too long and there was no longer anything he could offer that the Babylonians and Medes would not be able to take for themselves in battle. A harsh response was sent, in which Nabopolassar declared that "[Nineveh's] roots I shall pluck out and the foundations of the land I shall obliterate". The original tablets containing these letters have not been preserved, with the known text instead having been derived from tablets made during Seleucid times, centuries later. Whether the letters are copies of authentic, more ancient, originals, or fabrications entirely is a matter of debate. In April or May 612 BC, at the start of Nabopolassar's fourteenth year as king of Babylon, the combined Medo-Babylonian army marched on Nineveh. Sinsharishkun rallied his forces to make a final stand at the capital but stood little chance at defending it on account of the city's massive size. From June to August 612 BC, the Medo-Babylonian army besieged the Assyrian capital and in August the walls were breached, leading to a lengthy and brutal sack. The city was looted, depictions of the Assyrian kings were mutilated and inhabitants as young as the age of ten were slaughtered en masse before the entire city was razed and burned to the ground. Sinsharishkun's fate is not entirely certain but it is commonly accepted that he died in the defense of Nineveh. The brutal sack of Nineveh was only the beginning; in the aftermath of their victory, the Medes swept through the Assyrian heartland. Cities such as Nimrud, Dur-Sharrukin, Tarbisu, Imgur-Enlil and Khirbet Khatuniyeh were completely destroyed, with only a handful of sites, such as Assur and Arbela, continuing to be populated under later Babylonian and Median rule. The level of the destruction, including the destruction and desecration of Assyria's temples, shocked the Babylonians and Nabopolassar. In some inscriptions, Nabopolassar was careful to attribute his victory and its aftermath to divine intervention in attempt to absolve himself of the blame, though other inscriptions were less remorseful, with one reading "I slaughtered the land of Assyria, I turned the hostile land into heaps and ruins". Later Neo-Babylonian rulers, such as Nabonidus (556–539 BC), blamed the destruction solely on the Medes and Cyaxares, maintaining that Nabopolassar had not destroyed any temples and described him as remorseful of the fate that befell Assyria. Though ultimately victorious, the Babylonians and Medes had violated the normal practices of warfare in the Near East. The destruction of the Assyrian heartland had been so extensive that the region did not even begin to recover until a century later, when it came under the rule of the Achaemenid Empire. Although Nabopolassar did not take the title "king of Assyria", he first extracted tribute while encamped at the ruins of Nineveh. In 2003, Assyriologist Stephanie Dalley wrote that two of the modern interpretations in regards to the reason for briefly "ruling" from Nineveh are that Nabopolassar either might have wanted to cement himself as the successor of the Assyrian kings, or that taking residence there was an attempt to save what remained of the city from further sacking by the Medes. Ashur-uballit II and the Egyptians The survivors of Nineveh's fall followed a new Assyrian ruler, Ashur-uballit II, possibly Sinsharishkun's son, to the city of Harran, where they continued to hold out. Although Babylonian sources refer to him as Assyria's new king, Ashur-uballit ruled with the title of crown prince (mar šarri, literally meaning "son of the king"). In Assyrian tradition, the king was appointed to his position by the Assyrian national deity, Ashur, during the New Year festivals in Assur. The last king to be crowned at the temple of Ashur at Assur had been Sinsharishkun and with the city's destruction in 614 BC, the traditional Assyrian coronation ritual was now impossible. Ashur-uballit did have a coronation ceremony in late 612 BC, but instead of conducting it in Assur, it was conducted in the temple of the moon god Sin, another important deity in the empire, at Harran. That he was not formally king does not mean that his claim was challenged by his subjects; like the coronation of a king, the appointment of a crown prince required the formal recognition of all subjects and of the gods. Should the king be unable to exercise his duties, the crown prince was a competent substitute, exercising similar legal and political power. Ashur-uballit was the recognized legitimate ruler, and his title was only a provisional arrangement until he could undergo the proper coronation. In 611 BC, Nabopolassar's army consolidated his rule throughout northern Mesopotamia, going as far as to the border of Harran itself. After Nabopolassar himself had travelled the recently conquered Assyrian heartland in 610 BC in order to ensure stability, the Medo-Babylonian army embarked on a campaign against Harran in November of 610 BC. Intimidated by the approach of the Medo-Babylonian army, Ashur-uballit and a contingent of Egyptian reinforcements fled the city into the deserts of Syria. The siege of Harran lasted from the winter of 610 BC to the beginning of 609 BC and the city eventually capitulated. Ashur-uballit's failure at Harran marks the end for the ancient Assyrian monarchy, which would never be restored. After the Babylonians had ruled Harran for three months, Ashur-uballit and a large force of Egyptian soldiers attempted to retake the city, but this campaign failed disastrously. Beginning in July or June 609 BC, Ashur-uballit's siege lasted for two months, until August or September, but he and the Egyptians retreated when Nabopolassar again led his army against them. It is possible that they had retreated even earlier. The failed retaking of Harran is the last time Ashur-uballit is mentioned in Babylonian records; his ultimate fate is unknown. After his victory at Harran, Nabopolassar resumed his campaign against the remainder of the Assyrian army in the beginning of the year 608 or 607 BC. In 608 BC the Egyptian Pharaoh Necho II, Psamtik I's successor, personally led a large Egyptian army into former Assyrian territory to rescue what remained of the Assyrians and turn the tide of the war. Though Necho would spend the better part of three years attempting to defeat the Babylonians, the Assyrian Empire had already collapsed and he was fighting for a lost cause. At Megiddo, Necho easily defeated the king of Judah, Josiah, who had attempted to block his advance into Syria and Mesopotamia. The reason for Josiah deciding to attempt to halt the Egyptian campaign is not known, but he might have been inspired by the Egyptian failure to aid the Assyrians in holding and then recapturing Harran for the Assyrians. According to the Biblical Books of Chronicles, Necho had not intended to do battle with the Judeans and was confused by Josiah's decision to attack him, supposedly sending a letter to him which included the passage "what have we done to each other, king of Judah? I am not coming against you this day." For much of the period between 609 and 607 BC, Nabopolassar was occupied by a war against the northern Kingdom of Urartu, and in the meantime, the Egyptians took the city of Carchemish in Syria, which Necho established as his base of operations for the course of the campaign. In 606 BC, the Egyptians won several victories at various sites in Syria, such as at the city of Kimuhu, located near Carchemish. The Egyptian war continued until Necho suffered a crushing defeat at the Battle of Carchemish in 605 BC. According to the Babylonian records of the battle and its aftermath, "not a single man escaped to his country"; Necho's forces were completely annihilated. The Babylonian forces at the battle were led by Nabopolassar's son and crown prince, Nebuchadnezzar, as Nabopolassar had chosen to stay in Babylon, possibly on account of illness. Nabopolassar victorious With the war against Egypt over, and twenty years of near-constant warfare concluded, Nabopolassar stood victorious, having achieved all of his objectives. Nineveh no longer existed and Assyria would never rise again. The Egyptians no longer represented a threat and the only other major power in the Near East, the Medes, were Nabopolassar's allies. Through the defeat of all of Nabopolassar's rivals, his Neo-Babylonian Empire had become the uncontested successor of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. For the first time since the Assyrian conquest more than a century prior, tribute flowed into Babylonia rather than being drained from it. Because Nabopolassar had spent virtually his entire reign at war, pressing affairs in his capital, Babylon, had been more or less neglected. The city had been destroyed by the Neo-Assyrian king Sennacherib in 689 BC, and though it was rebuilt by Sennacherib's successor Esarhaddon, it was not rebuilt as the capital of an empire, lacking the necessary headquarters for efficient imperial administration and with religious institutions not as elaborate of those that existed in Assyria. Though early work had been begun by Nabopolassar, much work still lay ahead; a new wall had to be built around the city and the great temples of Babylon, most importantly the Esagila, had to be restored. It was with this work still ahead of him, on the eve of his final victory, that Nabopolassar died. As he had managed to secure universal recognition for his rule, Nabopolassar was succeeded without any issues by his son and crown prince Nebuchadnezzar, who would finish the building projects left at the time of Nabopolassar's death and, in time, surpass his father. At the time of Nabopolassar's death, Nebuchadnezzar was still away on campaign and upon hearing the news, he quickly arranged affairs with the Egyptians and rushed back to Babylon. The speed in which Nebuchadnezzar returned to Babylon might be because of the threat of one of his brothers (two are known by name: Nabu-shum-lishir and Nabu-zer-ushabshi) potentially attempting to claim the throne. Though Nebuchadnezzar had been recognized as the eldest son and heir by Nabopolassar, Nabu-shum-lishir had been recognized as "his equal brother", a dangerously vague title. No attempts at usurpation were made. One of Nebuchadnezzar's first acts as king was to bury his father. Nabopolassar was laid in a huge coffin, adorned with ornamented gold plates and fine dresses with golden beads, which was then placed within a small palace he had constructed in Babylon. Legacy With the rise of Nabopolassar and the foundation of the Neo-Babylonian Empire, Babylonia entered into a new age of political stability and economic prosperity. In terms of his legacy, archaeologist and historian Rocío Da Riva wrote in 2017 that Nabopolassar's exploits and figure are "inextricably linked to the overthrow of the Neo-Assyrian Empire and to the formation and configuration of the Chaldean kingdom". Nabopolassar's legend survived for centuries and he was long remembered by the Babylonians as the "avenger of Akkad" (i. e. Babylonia) and as a symbol of resistance to domination of foreign empires. Several later texts hold that Nabopolassar was even divinely ordered by Marduk, Babylon's chief deity, to avenge Babylonia. During the Hellenistic period, centuries after Nabopolassar's death and the eventual collapse of his empire, Babylonian authors used historical royal figures as the subjects of epics and stories to avoid expliciy commentary on their contemporary politics. Typically, these historical figures were ancient, and more recent, Assyrian and Babylonian kings, including those of the Neo-Babylonian Empire. Nabopolassar, called Belesys or Bupolasaros by the Hellenistic-era authors, is used in some and is generally cast in a very positive light, described as a pious and just king who, partly through reverence of Marduk, managed to liberate his homeland from the rule of the Assyrian Empire. The antagonist of the Nabopolassar epics is typically Sinsharishkun or Sin-shumu-lishir (who was actually defeated by Sinsharishkun, not Nabopolassar). Texts and chronicles describing Nabopolassar's military career were being spread throughout Babylonia in the 5th, and probably also 4th, century BC. A rare negative portayal of Nabopolassar has been recovered in a Seleucid-era colophon, which erroneously identifies Nabopolassar as a "king of the Sealand" (the Sealand being the southernmost part of Babylonia, often politically independent or autonomous) and accuses the king of having stolen wooden tablets from temples in Uruk. The contemporary priest of Uruk, Kidin-Ani, alleged that he had seen these tablets on a visit to Elam in the reign of either Seleucus I (305–281 BC) or Antiochus I (281–261 BC). Though the entire story has to be seen as unreliable, it is possible that this particular tale can be related to a passage in the Babylonian chronicles that mention Nabopolassar returning statues of gods to that the Assyrians had stolen from Elam and put in Uruk. Titles Some aspects of Nabopolassar's royal titulature suggest that he wished to distance himself from the Neo-Assyrian kings, while others suggest the opposite and a wish to establish clear continuity with them. Some prominent Assyrian titles, such as "king of the Four Corners of the World", were dropped, whereas Nabopolassar assumed others, such as šarru dannu ("mighty king") and the much older Sumerian "king of Sumer and Akkad". The title of "mighty king" in particular was strongly associated with Assyria, previously only ever having been used by Assyrian rulers. Though the title was not used in any royal inscriptions, i. e. not "officially", both Nabopolassar and his heir Nebuchadnezzar used the ancient title "king of the Universe" in economical documents. Nabopolassar not fully being disconnected from his Assyrian predecessors in his titulature is also reflected in his empire's administrative structure, which essentially was the same as that of the Neo-Assyrian Empire. That titulature and administration did not change much from Sinsharishkun to Nabopolassar is hardly surprising as virtually the entirety of Nabopolassar's reign was spent fighting wars, with little time to devote to other matters. With Nabopolassar's use of titles in mind, and the fact that little changed administratively from the Neo-Assyrians to the Neo-Babylonians, it is possible that Nabopolassar represented himself as the legitimate heir to the throne of the Assyrians. Later Babylonian king lists do not clearly separate the Neo-Assyrian and Neo-Babylonian dynasties in the same way that modern scholars do. In one of his clay cylinders, Nabopolassar used the titulature presented below. The use of "governor of Babylon" (šakkanakki Bābili) rather than "king of Babylon" (šar Bābili) was an ancient practice of the Babylonian monarchs and an act of reverence to Marduk, who was formally considered the true king of Babylon. In Nabopolassar's inscriptions the usage varied and there are examples where he used "king of Babylon" instead. 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255589	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Harlem%20Globetrotters	Harlem Globetrotters	The Harlem Globetrotters is an American exhibition basketball team. They combine athleticism, theater, and comedy in their style of play. Created by Abe Saperstein in 1927 in Chicago, Illinois, the team adopted the name Harlem because of its connotations as a major African-American community. Over the years they have played more than 26,000 exhibition games in 124 countries and territories, mostly against deliberately ineffective opponents, such as the Washington Generals (1953–1995) and the New York Nationals (1995–present). The team's signature song is Brother Bones' whistled version of "Sweet Georgia Brown", and their mascot is an anthropomorphized globe named "Globie". The team is currently owned by Herschend Family Entertainment. History The Globetrotters originated on the South Side of Chicago in 1926, where all the original players were raised. The Globetrotters began as the Savoy Big Five, one of the premier attractions of the Savoy Ballroom, opened in January 1928, a basketball team of Black American players that played exhibitions before dances due to declining dance attendance. In 1928, several players left the team in a dispute. That autumn, those players, led by Tommy Brookins, formed a team called the "Globe Trotters" and toured southern Illinois that spring. Abe Saperstein became involved with the team as its manager and promoter. By 1929, Saperstein was touring Illinois and Iowa with his basketball team called the "New York Harlem Globe Trotters". Saperstein selected the name Harlem because it was then considered the center of Black American culture and the name Globetrotter to mythologize the team's international venues. The Globetrotters were perennial participants in the World Professional Basketball Tournament, winning it in 1940. In a heavily attended matchup a few years later, the 1948 Globetrotters–Lakers game, the Globetrotters made headlines when they beat one of the best white basketball teams in the country, the Minneapolis Lakers (now the Los Angeles Lakers). The Globetrotters continued to easily win games due to Harlem monopolizing the entire talent pool of the best black basketball players in the country. Once one of the most famous teams in the country, the Globetrotters were eventually eclipsed by the rise of the National Basketball Association, particularly when NBA teams began fielding black players in the 1950s. In 1950, Harlem Globetrotter Chuck Cooper became the first black player to be drafted in the NBA by Boston and teammate Nat "Sweetwater" Clifton became the first black player to sign an NBA contract when the New York Knicks purchased his contract from the Globetrotters for $12,500 (), with Harlem getting $10,000 and Clifton getting $2,500. The Globetrotters gradually worked comic routines into their act—a direction the team has credited to Reece "Goose" Tatum, who joined in 1941—and eventually became known more for entertainment than sports. The Globetrotters' acts often feature incredible coordination and skillful handling of one or more basketballs, such as passing or juggling balls between players, balancing or spinning balls on their fingertips, and making unusually difficult shots. In 1952, the Globetrotters invited Louis "Red" Klotz to create a team to accompany them on their tours. This team, the Washington Generals (who also played under various other names), became the Globetrotters' primary opponents. The Generals are effectively stooges for the Globetrotters, with the Globetrotters handily defeating them in thousands of games. In 1959, the Globetrotters played nine games in Moscow after Saperstein received an invitation from Vasily Grigoryevich, the director of Lenin Central Stadium. The team, which included Wilt Chamberlain, was welcomed enthusiastically by spectators and authorities, they met Premier Nikita Khrushchev and collectively received the Athletic Order of Lenin medal. However, according to one report, spectators were initially confused: "A Soviet audience of 14,000 sat almost silently, as if in awe, through the first half of the game. It warmed up slightly in the second half when it realized the Trotters are more show than competition." The Globetrotters brought their own opponent—not the Washington Generals, but the San Francisco Chinese Basketeers. A review in Pravda stated, "This is not basketball; it is too full of tricks" but praised the Globetrotters' skills and suggested that "they have some techniques to show us". The American press—particularly Drew Pearson—made note of the fact that the Globetrotters were paid (per game) the equivalent of $4,000 (), which could be spent only in Moscow. The games were used as evidence that U.S.–Soviet relations were improving, that Moscow was backing off its criticism of race relations inside America, and that the USSR was becoming more capitalist (Pearson suggested that the games were held because Lenin Stadium needed money). In May 1967, New York City-based Metromedia announced that it would acquire the Globetrotters for $1 million, but the deal was never completed and later sold to George N. Gillett Jr. and formed a new company called Globetrotters Communications in 1968. Nine years after the company's attempted acquisition in 1976, Metromedia announced that it would re-acquire the Globetrotters for $11 million from Globetrotter Communications. Many famous basketball players have played for the Globetrotters. Greats such as "Wee" Willie Gardner, Connie "The Hawk" Hawkins, Wilt "The Stilt" Chamberlain, and Nat "Sweetwater" Clifton later joined the NBA. The Globetrotters signed their first female player, Olympic gold medalist Lynette Woodard, in 1985. Because nearly all of the team's players have been black, and as a result of the buffoonery involved in many of the Globetrotters' skits, they drew some criticism during the Civil Rights era. The players were accused by some civil-rights advocates of "Tomming for Abe," a reference to Uncle Tom and owner Abe Saperstein. However, prominent civil rights activist Jesse Jackson (who would later be named an Honorary Globetrotter) came to their defense by stating, "I think they've been a positive influence... They did not show blacks as stupid. On the contrary, they were shown as superior." In 1986, as part of the spin-off of Metromedia's television stations to News Corporation and the 20th Century Fox film studio, the company sold the Globetrotters and the Ice Capades to the Minneapolis-based International Broadcasting Corporation (owners of KTAB-TV in Abilene, Texas and controlled by Thomas Scallen) for $30 million. In 1993, former Globetrotters player Mannie Jackson purchased the team from the International Broadcasting Corporation, which was on the verge of bankruptcy. In 1995, Orlando Antigua became the first Hispanic player on the team. He was the first non-black player on the Globetrotters' roster since Bob Karstens played with the squad in 1942–43. While parts of a modern exhibition game are pre-planned, the games themselves are not fixed. While their opponents do not interfere with the Globetrotters' hijinks while on defense, they play a serious game when in possession of the ball and about 20 to 30 percent of a game is "real." This once led to an infamous defeat at the hands of the Washington Generals in 1971, to the distress of the watching crowd, after the Globetrotters lost track of a big lead with their tricks and the Generals hit a game-winning buzzer-beater. In September 2005, Shamrock Holdings purchased 80% stake in the Globetrotters. In October 2013, Herschend Family Entertainment announced that it would acquire the Globetrotters from Shamrock Holdings. In June 2021, the Globetrotters filed a petition to join the National Basketball Association (NBA) as an expansion franchise. Current roster Draft Starting in 2007, the Globetrotters have conducted an annual "draft" a few days before the NBA draft, in which they select players they feel fit the mold of a Globetrotter. Being drafted by the Globetrotters does not guarantee a spot on the team, although several drafted players have gone on to become Globetrotters: Anthony "Ant" Atkinson (2007), Brent Petway (2007), William "Bull" Bullard (2008), Tay "Firefly" Fisher (2008), Charlie Coley III (2009), Paul "Tiny" Sturgess (2011), Jacob "Hops" Tucker (2011), Darnell "Spider" Wilks (2011), Bryan "B-Nice" Narcisse (2012), Tyrone Davis (2013), Corey "Thunder" Law (2013), Tyler "Iceman" Inman (2014) Devan "Beast" Douglas (2016), and AJ "Money" Merriweather. Other notable draft picks by the Globetrotters include: Sun Mingming (2007), Patrick Ewing, Jr. (2008), Sonny Weems (2008), Taylor Griffin (2009), Tim Howard (2009), Mark Titus (2010), Lionel Messi (2011), Andrew Goudelock (2011), Usain Bolt (2012), Mariano Rivera (2013), Brittney Griner (2013), Johnny Manziel (2014), Landon Donovan (2014), Mo'ne Davis (2015), Dude Perfect (2015), Neymar (2016), Missy Franklin (2016), Jordan Spieth (2016), Craig Sager (2016), Gal Gadot (2017), Aaron Judge (2017), Tim Tebow (2017), Paul Pogba (2018), and Joseph Kilgore (2018). Retired numbers The Globetrotters have honored eight players by retiring their numbers: In mass media/popular culture Theatrical: The Harlem Globetrotters, a 1951 feature film starring Marques Haynes and other Globetrotters, also featuring Thomas Gomez, Dorothy Dandridge, Bill Walker, and Angela Clarke. Young Bill Townsend drops out of college to join the famous independent Trotter team. He also finds romance along the way. "Goose" Tatum and fancy dribbler Haynes were the star players of the Globetrotters at the time and Saperstein was the owner. Tatum, Haynes, Babe Pressley, Ermer Robinson, Duke Cumberland, Clarence Wilson, Pop Gates, Frank Washington, Ted Strong, and other current team members appear in the film as themselves. Also featured is a lot of actual game footage (three times against the Celtics with Tony Lavelli and Big Bob Hahn), including the "Sweet Georgia Brown" warm-up routine. (Along with making the film, the team toured Major League Baseball stadiums that year and went on their first tour of South America.) Go, Man, Go! a 1954 sequel starring Dane Clark as Abe Saperstein and Sidney Poitier as Inman Jackson. Television: On December 19, 1956, twelve members of the Globetrotters appeared as guest challengers on the TV panel show What's My Line? Clarence Wilson acted as the spokesman and was accompanied by members George "Meadowlark" Lemon, Charlie Hoxie, Roman Turmon, Andy Johnson, Woodrow "Woody" Sauldsberry, Carl Green, Leon Hillard, Willie Gardner, and others. Harlem Globetrotters, a Hanna-Barbera Saturday morning cartoon, broadcast from September 12, 1970 to May 1973. Originally broadcast on CBS and later rerun on NBC as The Go-Go Globetrotters. The cartoon Globetrotters also guest-starred three times on The New Scooby-Doo Movies. Scatman Crothers provided the voice for Meadowlark Lemon's character on the show. The Harlem Globetrotters Popcorn Machine, a 1974 live-action Saturday morning variety show starring the Globetrotters that featured comedy skits, blackout gags, and educational segments. The show was produced by Funhouse Productions and Yongestreet Productions for CBS. The show also starred Rodney Allen Rippy and Avery Schreiber. The Super Globetrotters, a second animated series created by Hanna-Barbera for NBC in 1979. It featured the Globetrotters (now including new squad members James "Twiggy" Sanders, Nate Branch, and Louis "Sweet Lou" Dunbar) as undercover superheroes who would transform themselves by entering magic portable lockers carried in "Sweet Lou" Dunbar's afro or in a basketball-shaped medallion. Although the Super Globetrotters would first attempt to take on the villain with standard comical heroics, things would almost always be settled with a basketball game. In a 1979 episode of The White Shadow, the Globetrotters appear wherein Coach Reeves convinces the team to help him send his basketball team a reality check about overconfidence and underestimating their opponents as a result of a winning streak that got to his players' heads. The Globetrotters returned in season three (1980) when star player Warren Coolidge convinced that his basketball ability would preclude his need to finish high school, considers dropping out of school and trying out for the Globetrotters. After failing miserably in his tryout, Coolidge is persuaded to finish his education before giving any thought to a basketball career. The Harlem Globetrotters on Gilligan's Island, a 1981 made-for-TV film featured the Globetrotters alongside Bob Denver and the rest of the cast of Gilligan's Island. The film's plot follows the first animated series' formula to a degree with a conflict that ends with an unusual basketball game against an opposing team made up of robots. The Globetrotters decide to play with standard moves in the first half, which the robots are able to counter until Gilligan unwittingly comments that they have not done any fancy tricks. This makes the Professor advise the team to use their comedic style of play to win, which hopelessly confuses the machines. However, a couple of Globetrotters suffer injuries, and the team needs the help of Gilligan and Skipper to substitute. In "Hoopla" (1984), an episode of the television series The Love Boat, the Globetrotters are on a cruise and challenged the crew to a game in the dining room. In "Homie the Clown," an episode of the animated series The Simpsons, Krusty the Clown bets all the money he earned franchising his name against the Globetrotters in a game, saying that he "thought the Generals were due!" He then shouts "That game was fixed! They used a freakin' ladder for God's sake!" The animated series Futurama features several episodes in which the Harlem Globetrotters appear as brilliant scientists as well as basketball players living on another planet, the Globetrotter Homeworld. Ironically, the Harlem Globetrotters react harshly to anyone who "laughs at their antics" as evidenced in the episode "Time Keeps On Slippin'" (2001). The Globetrotters appeared in the 2000 comedy Little Nicky with Adam Sandler, wherein they are shown losing to the Washington Generals, which is caused by one of Nicky's demonic brothers. Harlem Globetrotters: The Team that Changed the World, a 2005 documentary featuring interviews with the Globetrotters, NBA coaches, and fans such as Samuel L. Jackson, Barack Obama, Phil Jackson, and Henry Kissinger—himself an honorary Globetrotter—and including photos of the Globetrotters with Pope John Paul II. In the 6th episode of Hell’s Kitchen season 5, the Globetrotters made a special guest appearance teaching a young boy a few basketball tricks during his bar mitzvah. In The Amazing Race: season 15 (2009), Herbert "Flight Time" Lang and Nathaniel "Big Easy" Lofton participated, finishing fourth place. They returned for season 18 (2011), which is subtitled "Unfinished Business," featuring fan-favorite teams who lost the competition because of various circumstances. The pair finished second overall. They also returned for season 24 (2014), dubbed an "All Star" season, featuring some of the shows fan favorites, this time finishing sixth. As part of the cross-promotion of The Amazing Race, Lang and Lofton also appeared on CBS Daytime's game show The Price Is Right to model prizes (a Sport Court basketball court) and present a showcase. In 2009 and 2010,<ref>{{IMDb title\| id=1931370\| title= 77th McDonald's Thanksgiving Parade (2010) (TV)}}</ref> members of the Harlem Globetrotters appeared on the nationally televised McDonald's Thanksgiving Day Parade in Chicago. In 2010, five members of the Globetrotters appeared on Are You Smarter Than a 5th Grader?, raising money for charity. On December 5, 2010, in a game televised on ESPN2 against the Washington Generals from HP Field House at the Walt Disney World Resort in Orlando, the game saw several landmark events occur. A four-point shot may be scored from the four-point circle away from the basket, with three minutes or less to go in any quarter. A penalty box was introduced as the price to be paid for any 'funny business' by a player. The Globetrotters made the first, and most, of the four-point shots in the game. All of the penalties in this game were assessed to the Globetrotters. The visiting Globetrotters went on to beat the Generals 104–98 in this historical game of firsts. Three members of the Globetrotters appear in the "Harlem NY" episode (2011) of Man v. Food Nation, in which they have to defeat a spicy two-pound barbecue sandwich in 15 minutes. Special K Daley, Ant Atkinson, and Blenda Rodriguez of the Globetrotters made a guest appearance in the October 18, 2011 episode of Sesame Street, in which they talk with the Muppet Elmo about the number 3. In 2012, the Globetrotters made a special guest appearance on Disney XD 's Kickin' It, in the episode "Eddie Cries Uncle." Three members of the Globetrotters appeared in a February 28, 2012 episode of the Blendtec online video series Will It Blend?, wherein they help Blendtec CEO Tom Dickson and his Uncle Floyd blend miniature basketballs, glitter dust, a whistle, and a bottle of Gatorade. The team then pour the mixture into a bucket, magically turning it into confetti, which they throw on Dickson. Globetrotter Bull Bullard competed on seasons four, five and six on American Ninja Warrior. In season four, he advanced to the finals but timed out on the first stage of the finals. Bullard competed on two additional seasons. Three members of the Harlem Globetrotters visited North Korea alongside Dennis Rodman in 2013, as seen in the HBO series Vice, becoming some of the first Americans to meet North Korean leader Kim Jong Un. On May 26, 2015, the Globetrotters appeared in the series premiere of I Can Do That. Three members of the Harlem Globetrotters appeared in the Dog with a Blog episode "Cat with a Blog." Five of the Globetrotters appeared as guest stars in the Mutt & Stuff episode "Basketball Dogs vs. The Harlem Globetrotters" on August 19, 2016. On December 7, 2016, the Globetrotters appeared on The Goldbergs. On March 19, 2018, Seth MacFarlane featured the Harlem Globetrotters in an American Dad! episode called "Klaustastrophe.tv." Video games In 1979, the Bally Manufacturing Corporation produced a coin operated, commercial pinball machine titled the Harlem Globetrotters on Tour. The pinball machine used solid state electronics and 14,550 units were produced. Harlem Globetrotters: World Tour'', a video game for the Game Boy Advance and the Nintendo DS Honorary members Ten people have been officially named as honorary members of the team: Henry Kissinger (1976) Bob Hope (1977) Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (1989) Whoopi Goldberg (1990) Nelson Mandela (1996) Jackie Joyner-Kersee (1999) Pope John Paul II (2000) – Press agent Lee Solters arranged a ceremony orchestrated in front of a crowd of 50,000 in Saint Peter's Square in which the Pope was recognized as an honorary Globetrotter. Jesse Jackson (2001) Pope Francis (2015) Robin Roberts (2015) In addition, Bill Cosby (1972) and Magic Johnson (2003) were each signed to honorary $1-a-year lifetime contracts with the Globetrotters. When Cosby's nominal association with the team was the subject of criticism following sexual assault allegations, the Globetrotters stated that they had had no association with him for decades. Bibliography Retitled version of the above book, to coincide with the Go Man Go (film). Updated version of two previous books. "Ready-To-Read", Educational Book series featuring the Harlem Globetrotters References External links Harlem Globetrotters Official website Interview with Billy Ray Hobley Basketball Hall of Fame profile Harlem Globetrotters PR in Ireland Voices of Oklahoma interview with Marques Haynes. First person interview conducted on December 28, 2011, with Marques Haynes, former member of the Harlem Globetrotters. "In Black America; The Harlem Globetrotters 1985," 1985-03-06, KUT Radio, American Archive of Public Broadcasting (WGBH and the Library of Congress), Boston, MA and Washington, DC 1926 establishments in Illinois articles containing video clips basketball teams established in 1926 basketball teams in Chicago basketball teams in New York City Harlem Herschend Family Entertainment Metromedia Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees sports entertainment sports in Manhattan	[ -0.22687259316444397, -0.3287692070007324, -0.5001159310340881, 0.2638944387435913, -0.3147679269313812, -0.30900126695632935, 0.1091267317533493, 0.44643712043762207, -0.6745637059211731, -0.2050766497850418, 0.19639141857624054, 0.20234860479831696, -0.35752198100090027, 0.30649206042289734, -0.34874022006988525, -0.4217662513256073, 0.2852809429168701, 0.62712162733078, 0.2799845039844513, -0.5031101703643799, -0.07359981536865234, -0.03527219966053963, 0.43776777386665344, -0.2020026296377182, 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255590	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Herb%20Curtis	Herb Curtis	Herb Curtis (born 1949) is a Canadian novelist and humorist who writes about and has long lived in New Brunswick. He is best known for writing the Brennen Siding Trilogy, three connected novels set in the fictional community of Brennen Siding, New Brunswick (loosely based on Kennan Siding, New Brunswick). The trilogy consists of the novels The Americans are Coming, The Last Tasmanian and The Lone Angler. The most critically acclaimed of the series is The Last Tasmanian which won the 1992 Thomas Head Raddall Award and was nominated for the Commonwealth Prize. In 1999, Curtis was nominated for the Stephen Leacock Memorial Medal for Humour for his collection of humorous stories, Luther Corhern's Salmon Camp Chronicles and in January 2018 he was presented with the pritedgious Sesquicentennial Medal in recognition of his valuable service to the nation. Curtis grew up near Blackville, New Brunswick, and currently resides in Fredericton. His novels The Americans are Coming and The Last Tasmanian have both been adapted for the stage, and the former has also become and a standard text in schools throughout Atlantic Canada and Quebec. The Canadian Encyclopedia</ref> In 2006, Curtis was a contributing author to The Penguin Anthology of Canadian Humour. WorksThe Americans are Coming - 1989The Last Tasmanian - 1991Look What the Cat Drug In - 1991Slow Men Working In Trees - 1991Hoofprints on the Sheets - 1993The Lone Angler - 1993The Silent Partner - 1996The Scholten Story - 1996Gifts to Last: Christmas Stories from the Maritimes and Newfoundland (Contributing Author) 1996Luther Corhern's Salmon Camp Chronicles (1999) Atlantica: Stories from the Maritimes and Newfoundland (Contributing Author) 2001 The Penguin Anthology of Canadian Humour (Contributing Author) 2006 Bruno Bobak (Contributing Author) 2006 References Canadian humorists Canadian male novelists Writers from Fredericton People from Northumberland County, New Brunswick 1949 births Living people 20th-century Canadian novelists 20th-century Canadian male writers	[ 0.2095424234867096, 0.8494537472724915, -0.8203408718109131, -0.5572836399078369, 0.4537906050682068, 0.4719127118587494, 0.5489234328269958, 0.3865988850593567, -0.28792765736579895, -0.578002393245697, 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255591	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Autodidacticism	Autodidacticism	Autodidacticism (also autodidactism) or self-education (also self-learning and self-teaching) is education without the guidance of masters (such as teachers and professors) or institutions (such as schools). Generally, autodidacts are individuals who choose the subject they will study, their studying material, and the studying rhythm and time. Autodidacts may or may not have formal education, and their study may be either a complement or an alternative to formal education. Many notable contributions have been made by autodidacts. Etymology The term has its roots in the Ancient Greek words (, ) and (, ). The related term didacticism defines an artistic philosophy of education. Terminology Various terms are used to describe self-education. One such is heutagogy, coined in 2000 by Stewart Hase and Chris Kenyon of Southern Cross University in Australia; others are self-directed learning and self-determined learning. In the heutagogy paradigm, a learner should be at the centre of their own learning. Modern education Autodidacticism is sometimes a complement of modern education. As a complement to education, students would be encouraged to do more independent work. The Industrial Revolution created a new situation for self-directed learners. Before the twentieth century, only a small minority of people received an advanced academic education. As stated by Joseph Whitworth in his influential report on industry dated from 1853, literacy rates were higher in the United States. However, even in the U.S., most children were not completing high school. High school education was necessary to become a teacher. In modern times, a larger percentage of those completing high school also attended college, usually to pursue a professional degree, such as law or medicine, or a divinity degree. Collegiate teaching was based on the classics (Latin, philosophy, ancient history, theology) until the early nineteenth century. There were few if any institutions of higher learning offering studies in engineering or science before 1800. Institutions such as the Royal Society did much to promote scientific learning, including public lectures. In England, there were also itinerant lecturers offering their service, typically for a fee. Prior to the nineteenth century, there were many important inventors working as millwrights or mechanics who, typically, had received an elementary education and served an apprenticeship. Mechanics, instrument makers and surveyors had various mathematics training. James Watt was a surveyor and instrument maker and is described as being "largely self-educated". Watt, like some other autodidacts of the time, became a Fellow of the Royal Society and a member of the Lunar Society. In the eighteenth century these societies often gave public lectures and were instrumental in teaching chemistry and other sciences with industrial applications which were neglected by traditional universities. Academies also arose to provide scientific and technical training. Years of schooling in the United States began to increase sharply in the early twentieth century. This phenomenon was seemingly related to increasing mechanization displacing child labor. The automated glass bottle-making machine is said to have done more for education than child labor laws because boys were no longer needed to assist. However, the number of boys employed in this particular industry was not that large; it was mechanization in several sectors of industry that displaced child labor toward education. For males in the U.S. born 1886–90, years of school averaged 7.86, while for those born in 1926–30, years of school averaged 11.46. One of the most recent trends in education is that the classroom environment should cater towards students' individual needs, goals, and interests. This model adopts the idea of inquiry-based learning where students are presented with scenarios to identify their own research, questions and knowledge regarding the area. As a form of discovery learning, students in today's classrooms are being provided with more opportunity to "experience and interact" with knowledge, which has its roots in autodidacticism. Successful self-teaching can require self-discipline and reflective capability. Some research suggests that the ability to regulate one's own learning may need to be modeled to some students so that they become active learners, while others learn dynamically via a process outside of conscious control. To interact with the environment, a framework has been identified to determine the components of any learning system: a reward function, incremental action value functions and action selection methods. Rewards work best in motivating learning when they are specifically chosen on an individual student basis. New knowledge must be incorporated into previously existing information as its value is to be assessed. Ultimately, these scaffolding techniques, as described by Vygotsky (1978) and problem solving methods are a result of dynamic decision making. Secular and modern societies have given foundations for new systems of education and new kinds of autodidacts. As the number of schools has risen over the past century, so have the number of autodidacts. The Industrial Revolution produced new educational tools used in schools, universities, and outside academic circles to create a post-modern era that gave birth to the World Wide Web and encyclopaedic data banks such as Wikipedia. As Internet access has become more widespread, websites such as YouTube, Udemy, Udacity and Khan Academy have developed as learning centers for many people to actively and freely learn together. Organizations like The Alliance for Self-Directed Education (ASDE) have been formed to publicize and provide guidance for self-directed education. In history, philosophy, literature, film and television The first philosophical claim supporting an autodidactic program to the study of nature and God was in the philosophical novel Hayy ibn Yaqdhan (Alive Son of the Vigilant), whose titular hero is considered the archetypal autodidact. The story is a medieval autodidactic utopia, a philosophical treatise in a literary form, which was written by the Andalusian philosopher Ibn Tufail in the 1160s in Marrakesh. It is a story about a feral boy, an autodidact prodigy who masters nature through instruments and reason, discovers laws of nature by practical exploration and experiments, and gains summum bonum through a mystical mediation and communion with God. The hero rises from his initial state of tabula rasa to a mystical or direct experience of God after passing through the necessary natural experiences. The focal point of the story is that human reason, unaided by society and its conventions or by religion, can achieve scientific knowledge, preparing the way to the mystical or highest form of human knowledge. Commonly translated as "The Self-Taught Philosopher" or "The Improvement of Human Reason", Ibn-Tufayl's story Hayy Ibn-Yaqzan inspired debates about autodidacticism in a range of historical fields from classical Islamic philosophy through Renaissance humanism and the European Enlightenment. In his book Reading Hayy Ibn-Yaqzan: a Cross-Cultural History of Autodidacticism, Avner Ben-Zaken showed how the text traveled from late medieval Andalusia to early modern Europe and demonstrated the intricate ways in which autodidacticism was contested in and adapted to diverse cultural settings. Autodidacticism apparently intertwined with struggles over Sufism in twelfth-century Marrakesh; controversies about the role of philosophy in pedagogy in fourteenth-century Barcelona; quarrels concerning astrology in Renaissance Florence in which Pico della Mirandola pleads for autodidacticism against the strong authority of intellectual establishment notions of predestination; and debates pertaining to experimentalism in seventeenth-century Oxford. Pleas for autodidacticism echoed not only within close philosophical discussions; they surfaced in struggles for control between individuals and establishments. In the story of Black American self-education, Heather Andrea Williams presents a historical account to examine Black American's relationship to literacy during slavery, the Civil War and the first decades of freedom. Many of the personal accounts tell of individuals who have had to teach themselves due to racial discrimination in education. The working-class protagonist of Jack London's Martin Eden (1909) embarks on a path of self-learning to win the affections of Ruth, a member of cultured society. By the end of the novel, Eden has surpassed the intellect of the bourgeois class, leading him to a state of indifference and ultimately suicide. Jean-Paul Sartre's Nausea (1938) depicts, as a secondary character, an autodidact. Comic-book superhero Batman is frequently depicted as an autodidactic polymath who has acquired a vast range of skills over the years either by various trainers or having trained himself, and his expertise in various disciplines is virtually unmatched in the DC comics universe. In The Ignorant Schoolmaster (1987), Jacques Rancière describes the emancipatory education of Joseph Jacotot, a post-Revolutionary philosopher of education who discovered that he could teach things he did not know. The book is both a history and a contemporary intervention in the philosophy and politics of education, through the concept of autodidacticism; Rancière chronicles Jacotot's "adventures", but he articulates Jacotot's theory of "emancipation" and "stultification" in the present tense. The 1997 drama film Good Will Hunting follows the story of autodidact Will Hunting, played by Matt Damon. Hunting demonstrates his breadth and depth of knowledge throughout the film but especially to his therapist and in a heated discussion in a Harvard bar. One of the main characters in The Elegance of the Hedgehog (2006), by Muriel Barbery, is an autodidact. The story is told from the viewpoint of Renee, a middle-aged autodidact concierge in a Paris upscale apartment house and Paloma, a 12-year-old daughter of one of the tenants who is unhappy with her life. These two people find they have much in common when they both befriend a new tenant, Mr. Ozu, and their lives change forever. In the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata, Ekalavya is depicted as a tribal boy who was denied education in the science of arms from royal teachers from the house of Kuru. Ekalavya went to the forest, where he taught himself archery in front of an image of the Kuru teacher, Drona, that he had built for himself. Later, when the royal family found that Ekalavya had practiced with the image of Drona as his teacher, Drona asked for Ekalavya's thumb as part of his tuition. Ekalavya complied with Drona's request, thus ending his martial career. In Suits, the protagonist (Mike Ross) possesses a highly competent knowledge of the law despite not receiving any formal education in any law school. His knowledge is attributable to both his affinity for reading (autodidacticism), in addition to his eidetic memory. Dr. Spencer Reid in Criminal Minds, played by Matthew Gray Gubler, is an autodidact with an eidetic memory. In architecture Many successful and influential architects, such as Mies Van Der Rohe, Frank Lloyd Wright, Violet-Le-Duc, Tadao Ando, and Friedrich Silaban were self-taught. There are very few countries allowing autodidacticism in architecture today. The practice of architecture or the use of the title "architect", are now protected in most countries. Self-taught architects have generally studied and qualified in other fields such as engineering or arts and crafts. Jean Prouvé was first a structural engineer. Le Corbusier had an academic qualification in decorative arts. Tadao Ando started his career as a draftsman, and Eileen Gray studied fine arts. When a political state starts to implement restrictions on the profession, there are issues related to the rights of established self-taught architects. In most countries the legislation includes a grandfather clause, authorising established self-taught architects to continue practicing. In the UK, the legislation, allowed self-trained architects with 2 years of experience to register. In France, it allowed self-trained architects with 5 years of experience to register. In Belgium, the law allowed experienced self-trained architects in practice to register. In Italy, it allowed self-trained architects with 10 years of experience to register. In The Netherlands, the "wet op de architectentitel van 7 juli 1987" along with additional procedures, allowed architects with 10 years of experience and architects aged 40 years old or over, with 5 years of experience, to access the register. However, other sovereign states chose to omit such a clause, and many established and competent practitioners were stripped of their professional rights. In the Republic of Ireland, a group named "Architects' Alliance of Ireland" is defending the interests of long-established self-trained architects who were recently deprived of their rights to practice as per Part 3 of the Irish Building Control Act 2007. Theoretical research such as "Architecture of Change, Sustainability and Humanity in the Built Environment" or older studies such as "Vers une Architecture" from Le Corbusier describe the practice of architecture as an environment changing with new technologies, sciences, and legislation. All architects must be autodidacts to keep up to date with new standards, regulations, or methods. Self-taught architects such as Eileen Gray, Luis Barragán, and many others, created a system where working is also learning, where self-education is associated with creativity and productivity within a working environment. While he was primarily interested in naval architecture, William Francis Gibbs learned his profession through his own study of battleships and ocean liners. Through his life he could be seen examining and changing the designs of ships that were already built, that is, until he started his firm Gibbs and Cox. Future role The role of self-directed learning continues to be investigated in learning approaches, along with other important goals of education, such as content knowledge, epistemic practices and collaboration. As colleges and universities offer distance learning degree programs and secondary schools provide cyber school options for K-12 students, technology provides numerous resources that enable individuals to have a self-directed learning experience. Several studies show these programs function most effectively when the "teacher" or facilitator is a full owner of virtual space to encourage a broad range of experiences to come together in an online format. This allows self-directed learning to encompass both a chosen path of information inquiry, self-regulation methods and reflective discussion among experts as well as novices in a given area. Furthermore, massive open online courses (MOOCs) make autodidacticism easier and thus more common. A 2016 Stack Overflow poll reported that due to the rise of autodidacticism, 69.1% of software developers appear to be self-taught. Notable individuals Notable autodidacts can be broadly grouped in the following areas: Artists and authors Actors, musicians, and other artists Architects Engineers and inventors Scientists, historians, and educators See also References Further reading Bach, James Marcus. Secrets of a Buccaneer-Scholar: Self Education and the Pursuit of Passion. Brown, Resa Steindel. The Call to Brilliance: A True Story to Inspire Parents and Educators. Cameron, Brent and Meyer, Barbara. SelfDesign: Nurturing Genius Through Natural Learning. Hailey, Kendall. The Day I Became an Autodidact. Llewellyn, Grace. The Teenage Liberation Handbook: How to Quit School and Get a Real Life and Education. Rancière, Jacques. The Ignorant Schoolmaster: Five Lessons in Intellectual Emancipation. Stanford Univ. Press, 1991. Solomon, Joan. The Passion to Learn: An Inquiry into Autodidactism. Stark, Kio. Don't Go Back to School: A Handbook for Learning Anything. 2013. McAuliffe, M.; Hargreaves, D.; Winter, A.; G Chadwick, G., "Does pedagogy still rule?", Australasian Journal of Engineering Education, Vol 15 No 1, Institution of Engineers Australia, 2009 Hase, Stewart; Kenyon, Chris, "Heutagogy: A Child of Complexity Theory", Complicity: An International Journal of Complexity and Education, Volume 4 (2007), Number 1, pp. 111–118 Learning methods Alternative education Self-care	[ 0.27565476298332214, 0.429100900888443, -0.9939376711845398, 0.2585771083831787, -0.2941344976425171, 0.1664155274629593, 0.5391445755958557, 0.6555736064910889, 0.06985504925251007, -0.6615353226661682, -0.5428050756454468, 0.6543527245521545, -0.4268396198749542, -0.1912674903869629, -0.15422140061855316, 0.4294331967830658, 0.8118882775306702, 0.38193053007125854, -0.3384297490119934, 0.08017395436763763, -0.5637471675872803, 0.11733219027519226, -0.00013449146354105324, -0.21671654284000397, 0.5534217357635498, 0.0059057679027318954, 0.17193226516246796, 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255594	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Reconstruction%20conjecture	Reconstruction conjecture	Informally, the reconstruction conjecture in graph theory says that graphs are determined uniquely by their subgraphs. It is due to Kelly and Ulam. Formal statements Given a graph , a vertex-deleted subgraph of is a subgraph formed by deleting exactly one vertex from . By definition, it is an induced subgraph of . For a graph , the deck of G, denoted , is the multiset of isomorphism classes of all vertex-deleted subgraphs of . Each graph in is called a card. Two graphs that have the same deck are said to be hypomorphic. With these definitions, the conjecture can be stated as: Reconstruction Conjecture: Any two hypomorphic graphs on at least three vertices are isomorphic. (The requirement that the graphs have at least three vertices is necessary because both graphs on two vertices have the same decks.) Harary suggested a stronger version of the conjecture: Set Reconstruction Conjecture: Any two graphs on at least four vertices with the same sets of vertex-deleted subgraphs are isomorphic. Given a graph , an edge-deleted subgraph of is a subgraph formed by deleting exactly one edge from . For a graph , the edge-deck of G, denoted , is the multiset of all isomorphism classes of edge-deleted subgraphs of . Each graph in is called an edge-card. Edge Reconstruction Conjecture: (Harary, 1964) Any two graphs with at least four edges and having the same edge-decks are isomorphic. Recognizable properties In context of the reconstruction conjecture, a graph property is called recognizable if one can determine the property from the deck of a graph. The following properties of graphs are recognizable: Order of the graph – The order of a graph , is recognizable from as the multiset contains each subgraph of created by deleting one vertex of . Hence Number of edges of the graph – The number of edges in a graph with vertices, is recognizable. First note that each edge of occurs in members of . This is true by the definition of which ensures that each edge is included every time that each of the vertices it is incident with is included in a member of , so an edge will occur in every member of except for the two in which its endpoints are deleted. Hence, where is the number of edges in the ith member of . Degree sequence – The degree sequence of a graph is recognizable because the degree of every vertex is recognizable. To find the degree of a vertex —the vertex absent from the ith member of —, we will examine the graph created by deleting it, . This graph contains all of the edges not incident with , so if is the number of edges in , then . If we can tell the degree of every vertex in the graph, we can tell the degree sequence of the graph. (Vertex-)Connectivity – By definition, a graph is -vertex-connected when deleting any vertex creates a -vertex-connected graph; thus, if every card is a -vertex-connected graph, we know the original graph was -vertex-connected. We can also determine if the original graph was connected, as this is equivalent to having any two of the being connected. Tutte polynomial Characteristic polynomial Planarity The types of spanning trees in a graph Chromatic polynomial Being a perfect graph or an interval graph, or certain other subclasses of perfect graphs Verification Both the reconstruction and set reconstruction conjectures have been verified for all graphs with at most 11 vertices by Brendan McKay. In a probabilistic sense, it has been shown by Béla Bollobás that almost all graphs are reconstructible. This means that the probability that a randomly chosen graph on vertices is not reconstructible goes to 0 as goes to infinity. In fact, it was shown that not only are almost all graphs reconstructible, but in fact that the entire deck is not necessary to reconstruct them — almost all graphs have the property that there exist three cards in their deck that uniquely determine the graph. Reconstructible graph families The conjecture has been verified for a number of infinite classes of graphs (and, trivially, their complements). Regular graphs - Regular Graphs are reconstructible by direct application of some of the facts that can be recognized from the deck of a graph. Given an -regular graph and its deck , we can recognize that the deck is of a regular graph by recognizing its degree sequence. Let us now examine one member of the deck , . This graph contains some number of vertices with a degree of and vertices with a degree of . We can add a vertex to this graph and then connect it to the vertices of degree to create an -regular graph which is isomorphic to the graph which we started with. Therefore, all regular graphs are reconstructible from their decks. A particular type of regular graph which is interesting is the complete graph. Trees Disconnected graphs Unit interval graphs Separable graphs without end vertices Maximal planar graphs Maximal outerplanar graphs Outerplanar graphs Critical blocks Reduction The reconstruction conjecture is true if all 2-connected graphs are reconstructible. Duality The vertex reconstruction conjecture obeys the duality that if can be reconstructed from its vertex deck , then its complement can be reconstructed from as follows: Start with , take the complement of every card in it to get , use this to reconstruct , then take the complement again to get . Edge reconstruction does not obey any such duality: Indeed, for some classes of edge-reconstructible graphs it is not known if their complements are edge reconstructible. Other structures It has been shown that the following are not in general reconstructible: Digraphs: Infinite families of non-reconstructible digraphs are known, including tournaments (Stockmeyer) and non-tournaments (Stockmeyer). A tournament is reconstructible if it is not strongly connected. A weaker version of the reconstruction conjecture has been conjectured for digraphs, see new digraph reconstruction conjecture. Hypergraphs (Kocay). Infinite graphs. Let T be a tree on an infinite number of vertices such that every vertex has infinite degree, and let nT be the disjoint union of n copies of T. These graphs are hypomorphic, and thus not reconstructible. Every vertex-deleted subgraph of any of these graphs is isomorphic: they all are the disjoint union of an infinite number of copies of T. Locally finite graphs. The question of reconstructibility for locally finite infinite trees (the Harary-Schwenk-Scott conjecture from 1972) was a longstanding open problem until 2017, when a non-reconstructible tree of maximum degree 3 was found by Bowler et al. See also New digraph reconstruction conjecture Partial symmetry Further reading For further information on this topic, see the survey by Nash-Williams. References Conjectures Unsolved problems in graph theory	[ -0.375190794467926, 0.20197273790836334, -0.4883330464363098, -0.1753479689359665, -0.38545170426368713, 0.3112533986568451, 0.3037337362766266, -0.1972222924232483, -0.362188458442688, -0.6844514012336731, -0.39167678356170654, 0.356099009513855, -0.6093042492866516, 0.6121122241020203, -0.25366026163101196, 0.6647643446922302, 0.4910682141780853, 0.15189506113529205, -0.5250464677810669, -0.6422003507614136, 0.5460129976272583, 0.08773481100797653, -0.25901731848716736, -0.31409981846809387, -0.41625168919563293, -0.15884946286678314, 0.10681867599487305, -0.04047766700387001, 0.09974593669176102, 0.6549954414367676, -0.3153756260871887, 0.5692288875579834, 0.14753510057926178, -0.3582063913345337, 0.13623352348804474, 0.31391647458076477, 0.25405776500701904, -0.05596764758229256, 0.1353064775466919, -0.050394054502248764, 0.6681426763534546, -0.19866995513439178, -0.004443496000021696, 1.037987232208252, -1.061242699623108, 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255597	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alley	Alley	An alley or alleyway is a narrow lane, path, or passageway, often reserved for pedestrians, which usually runs between, behind, or within buildings in the older parts of towns and cities. It is also a rear access or service road (back lane), or a path, walk, or avenue (French allée) in a park or garden. A covered alley or passageway, often with shops, may be called an arcade. The origin of the word alley is late Middle English, from "walking or passage", from "to go", from "to walk". Definition The word alley is used in two main ways: (1) It can refer to a narrow, usually paved, pedestrian path, often between the walls of buildings in towns and cities. This type is usually short and straight, and on steep ground can consist partially or entirely of steps. (2) It is also describes a very narrow, urban street, or lane, usually paved, which is often used by slow-moving vehicles, though more pedestrian-friendly than a regular street. There are two versions of this kind of alley: (a) A rear access or service road (back lane), which can also sometimes act as part a secondary vehicular network. Many Americans and Canadians think of an alley in these terms first. (b) A narrow street between the fronts of houses or businesses. This type of alley is found in the older parts of many cities, including American cities like Philadelphia and Boston (see Elfreth's Alley, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania). Many are open to traffic. In landscaping, an allée or avenue is traditionally a straight route with a line of trees or large shrubs running along each side. In most cases, the trees planted in an avenue will be all of the same species or cultivar, so as to give uniform appearance along the full length of the avenue. The French term allée is used for avenues planted in parks and landscape gardens, as well as boulevards such as the Grand Allée in Quebec City, Canada, and Karl-Marx-Allee in Berlin. In older cities and towns in Europe, alleys are often what is left of a medieval street network, or a right of way or ancient footpath. Similar paths also exist in some older North American towns and cities. In some older urban development in North America lanes at the rear of houses, to allow for deliveries and garbage collection, are called alleys. Alleys and ginnels were also the product of the 1875 Public Health Act in the United Kingdom, where usually alleys run along the back of streets of terraced houses, with ginnels connecting them to the street every fifth house. Alleys may be paved, or unpaved, and a blind alley is a cul-de-sac. Modern urban developments may also provide a service road to allow for waste collection, or rear access for fire engines and parking. Steps and stairs Because of geography, steps (stairs) are the predominant form of alley in hilly cities and towns. This includes Quebec City in Canada and in the United States Pittsburgh (see Steps of Pittsburgh), Cincinnati (see Steps of Cincinnati), Minneapolis, Seattle, and San Francisco as well as Hong Kong, Genoa and Rome. Arcades, etc. Some alleys are roofed because they are within buildings, such as the traboules of Lyon, or when they are a pedestrian passage through railway embankments in Britain. The latter follow the line of rights-of way that existed before the railway was built. Arcades are another kind of covered passageway and the simplest kind are no more than alleys to which a glass roof was added later. Early examples of a shopping arcades include: Palais Royal in Paris (opened in 1784); Passage de Feydeau in Paris (opened in 1791). Most arcades differ from alleys in that they are architectural structures built with a commercial purpose and are a form of shopping mall. All the same alleys have for long been associated with various types of businesses, especially pubs and coffee houses. Bazaars and Souqs are an early form of arcade found in Asia and North Africa. The Burlington Arcade (1819) was one of London's earliest covered shopping arcades. It was the successful prototype for larger glazed shopping arcades, beginning with the Saint-Hubert Gallery (1847) in Brussels and The Passage (1848) in St Petersburg, the first of Europe's grand arcades, to the Galleria Umberto I (1891) in Naples, the Galleria Vittorio Emanuele II in Milan (1867), and the Block Arcade, Melbourne, Australia (1893). North America Alleys in North America are primarily used as service lanes. They provide a space for utility poles, fire escapes, garage access, delivery loading zones, and garbage bin pickup. Some historic alleys are found in older American and Canadian cities, like New York City, Philadelphia, Charleston, South Carolina, Boston, Annapolis, New Castle, Delaware, Quebec City, St John's, Newfoundland, and Victoria, British Columbia. Canada Quebec City Québec City was originally built on the riverside bluff Cap Diamant in the 17th century, and throughout Quebec City there are strategically placed public stairways that link the bluff to the lower parts of the city. The Upper City is the site of Old Québec’s most significant historical sites, including 17th- and 18th-century chapels, the Citadel and the city ramparts. The Breakneck Stairs or Breakneck Steps (French: Escalier casse-cou), Quebec City's oldest stairway, were built in 1635. Originally called escalier Champlain "Champlain Stairs", escalier du Quêteux "Beggars' Stairs", or escalier de la Basse-Ville "Lower Town Stairs", they were given their current name in the mid-19th century, because of their steepness. The stairs have been restored several times, including an 1889 renovation by Charles Baillargé. Victoria Fan Tan Alley is an alley in Victoria, British Columbia's Chinatown. It was originally a gambling district with restaurants, shops, and opium dens. Today it is a tourist destination with many small shops including a barber shop, art gallery, Chinese cafe and apartments. It may well be the narrowest street in Canada. At its narrowest point it is only wide. Waddington Alley is another interesting alley in Victoria and the only street in that city still paved with wood blocks, an early pavement common in the downtown core. Other heritage features are buildings more than a century old lining the alley and a rare metal carriage curb that edges the sidewalk on the southern end. Vancouver Nearly all blocks in Vancouver were designed with an alleyway, as the majority of homes do not have front driveways. Alleyways are, therefor, the way for home owners to access their garage and to also place their garbage for collection. Commercial laneway typically prohibit stopping except for delivery vehicles. United States In the United States alleys exist in both older commercial and residential areas, for both service purposes and automobile access. In residential areas, particularly in those that were built before 1950, alleys provide rear access to property where a garage was located, or where waste could be collected by service vehicles. A benefit of this was the location of these activities to the rear, less public side of a dwelling. Such alleys are generally roughly paved, but some may be dirt. Beginning in the late 20th century, they were seldom included in plans for new housing developments. Annapolis, Maryland When Annapolis, Maryland, was established as a city at the beginning of the 18th century, the streets were established in circles. That encouraged the creation of shortcuts, which over time became paved alleys. Some ten of these survive, and the city has recently worked on making them more attractive. Austin, Texas Several residential neighborhoods in Austin, Texas, have comprehensive alley systems. These include Hyde Park, Rosedale, and areas northwest of the Austin State Hospital. There are also numerous alleys downtown, particularly in the 6th Street district, where bars and restaurants place their garbage for collection. Boston In the Beacon Hill district of Boston, Massachusetts, Acorn Street, a narrow cobbled lane with row houses, is one of Boston's more attractive and historic alleys. Many of the alleys in the Back Bay and South End area are numbered (e.g. "Public Alley 438"). Charleston, South Carolina In the French Quarter of Charleston’s historic district, Philadelphia Alley (c. 1766), originally named "Cow Alley", is one of several picturesque alleys. In 1810 William Johnson gave it the name of "Philadelphia Alley", although locals call the "elegantly landscaped thoroughfare" "Dueler’s Alley". Starting on East Bay Street, Stolls Alley is just seventeen bricks wide at its start, and named for Justinus Stoll, an 18th-century blacksmith. For three hundred years, another of Charleston's narrow lanes, Lodge Alley, served a commercial purpose. Originally, French Huguenot merchants built homes on it, along with warehouses to store supplies for their ships. Just wide, this alley was a useful means of access to Charleston’s waterways. Today it leads to East Bay Street's many restaurants. Chicago, Illinois Chicago has the largest network of alleys in the United States, with more than 1,900 miles of alleyways within city limits, also ranking as one of the largest systems in the world. Alleys have been an integral part of Chicago's urban landscape since the city was first incorporated, and have grown in complexity since the 1830s, with many of the City's elevated "L" transit rail lines still running overhead today. Although initially considered seedy and uncivilized, the utilitarian nature of alleys has afforded Chicago the ability to keep main roads and thoroughfares clear of trash, unlike other large cities in the country, while also providing additional space for residential and commercial car parking, as well as maintaining accessible electrical and plumbing utilities, both above and below ground. In 2006, the Chicago Department of Transportation began implementing the "Green Alley" program, an ongoing effort to replace hardtop alley surfaces with permeable pavers and better grading to more quickly absorb storm water runoff into the groundwater below, reducing stress on the City's infrastructure, as well as introducing lighter colored "high albedo" pavement to reflect sunlight and reduce urban heat island effect. Cincinnati, Ohio Cincinnati is a city of hills. Before the advent of the automobile a system of stairway alleys provided pedestrians important and convenient access to and from their hill top homes. At the height of their use in the 19th century, over of hill side steps once connected the neighborhoods of Cincinnati to each other. The first steps were installed by residents of Mount Auburn in the 1830s in order to gain easier access to Findlay Market in Over-the-Rhine. In recent years many steps have fallen into disrepair but there is a movement now to rehabilitate them. New Castle, Delaware Another early settled American city, New Castle has a number of interesting alleys, some of which are footpaths and others narrow, sometimes cobbled, lanes open to traffic. New York City New York City's Manhattan is unusual in that it has very few alleys, since the Commissioner's Plan of 1811 did not include rear service alleys when it created Manhattan's grid. The exclusion of alleys has been criticized as a flaw in the plan, since services such as garbage pickup cannot be provided out of sight of the public, although other commentators feel that the lack of alleys is a benefit to the quality of life of the city. Since there are so few alleys in New York, film location shooting requiring alleys tend to be concentrated in Cortlandt Alley, located between Canal and Franklin Streets in the blocks between Broadway and Lafayette Street in the TriBeCa neighborhood of lower Manhattan. Two notable alleys in the Greenwich Village neighborhood in Manhattan are MacDougal Alley and Washington Mews. The latter is a blind alley or cul-de-sac. Greenwich Village also has a number of private alleys that lead to back houses, which can only be accessed by residents, including Grove Court, Patchin Place and Milligan Place, all blind alleys. Patchin Place is notable for the writers who lived there. In the Brooklyn Heights neighborhood of Brooklyn, Grace Court Alley is another converted mews, as is Dennett Place in the Carroll Gardens neighborhood. The former is a cul-de-sac. Shubert Alley is a long pedestrian alley at the heart of the Broadway theater district of New York City. The alley was originally created as a fire exit between the Shubert Theatre on West 45th Street and the Booth Theatre on West 44th Street, and the Astor Hotel to their east. Actors once gathered in the alley, hoping to attract the attention of the Shubert Brothers and get employment in their theatrical productions. When the hotel was torn down, and replaced with One Astor Plaza (1515 Broadway), the apparent width of the alley increased, as the new building did not go all the way to the westernmost edge of the building lot. However, officially, Shubert Alley consists only of the space between the two theatres and the lot line. Philadelphia The Old City and Society Hill neighborhoods of Philadelphia, the oldest parts of the city, include a number of alleys, notably Elfreth's Alley, which is called "Our nation's oldest residential street", dating from 1702. , there were 32 houses on the street, which were built between 1728 and 1836. There are numerous cobblestoned residential passages in Philadelphia, many no wider than a truck, and typically flanked with brick houses. A typical house on these alleys or lanes is called a Philadelphia "Trinity", named because it has three rooms, one to each floor, alluding to the Christian Trinity. These alleys include Willings Alley, between S. 3rd and S. 4th Streets and Walnut and Spruce Streets. Other streets in Philadelphia which fit the general description of an alley, but are not named "alley", include Cuthbert Street, Filbert Street, Phillips Street, South American Street, Sansom Walk, St. James Place, and numerous others. Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Steps, Pittsburgh's equivalent for an alley, have defined it for many visitors. Writing in 1937, war correspondent Ernie Pyle wrote of the steps of Pittsburgh: And then the steps. Oh Lord, the steps! I was told they actually had a Department of Steps. That isn’t exactly true, although they do have an Inspector of Steps. But there are nearly of city-owned steps, going up mountainsides. The City of Pittsburgh maintains 712 sets of city-owned steps, some of which are shown as streets on maps. San Francisco, California In hilly San Francisco, California alleys often take the form of steps and it has several hundred public stairways. Among the most famous is the stairway known as the Filbert steps, a continuation of Filbert Street. The Filbert Street Steps descend the east slope of Telegraph Hill along the line where Filbert Street would be if the hill was not so steep. The stairway is bordered by greenery, that consists both backyards, and a border garden tended to and paid for by the residents of the "street", and runs down to an eastern stub of Filbert Street and the walkway through the plaza to The Embarcadero. Many houses in this residential neighborhood are accessible only from the steps. Also in San Francisco, Belden Place is a narrow pedestrian alley, bordered by restaurants, in the Financial District, referred to as San Francisco's French Quarter for its historic ties to early French immigrants, and its popular contemporary French restaurants and institutions. The area was home to San Francisco's first French settlers. Approximately 3,000, sponsored by the French government, arrived near the end of the Gold Rush in 1851. San Luis Obispo Bubblegum Alley is a tourist attraction where people have left their finished bubblegum on the walls of an alley for decades. The walls have been cleaned multiple times only to have the gum rapidly reappear. Seattle There are over 600 publicly accessible stairways within Seattle, a city of hills, bluffs, and canyons. For an example see Howe Street Stairs. Green and revitalized alleys Numerous cities in the United States and Canada, such as Chicago, Seattle, Los Angeles, Phoenix, Washington, D.C., and Montréal, have started reclaiming their alleys from garbage and crime by greening the service lanes, or back ways, that run behind some houses. Chicago, Illinois has about of alleyways. In 2006, the Chicago Department of Transportation started converting conventional alleys which were paved with asphalt into so called Green Alleys. This program, called the Green Alley Program, is supposed to enable easier water runoff, as the alleyways in Chicago are not connected directly to the sewer system. With this program, the water will be able to seep through semi-permeable concrete or asphalt in which a colony of fungi and bacteria will establish itself. The bacteria will help breakup oils before the water is absorbed into the ground. The lighter color of the pavement will also reflect more light, making the area next to the alley cooler. The greening of such alleys or laneways can also involve the planting of native plants to further absorb rain water and moderate temperature. In 2002, a group of Baltimore residents from the Patterson Park neighborhood approached the Patterson Park Community Development Corporation (CDC) looking for a way to improve the dirty, crime-ridden alley that ran behind their homes. Simultaneously, Community Greens also approached the Patterson Park CDC looking for an alley they could use as a pilot project in Baltimore. This led The Luzerne-Glover block being granted a temporary permit from the city to gate their alleyway, despite the fact that it was not yet legal to gate a right-of-way. Eventually the law was changed so that Baltimore residents could legally gate and green the alleys behind their homes. New life has also come to other alleys within downtown commercial districts of various cities throughout the world with the opening of businesses, such as coffee houses, shops, restaurants and bars. Another way that alleys and laneways are being revitalized is through laneway housing. A laneway house is a form of housing that has been proposed on the west coast of Canada, especially in the Metro Vancouver area. These homes are typically built into pre-existing lots, usually in the backyard and opening onto the back lane. This form of housing already exists in Vancouver, and revised regulations now encourage new developments as part of a plan to increase urban density in pre-existing neighbourhoods while retaining a single-family feel to the area. Vancouver's average laneway house is one and a half stories, with one or two bedrooms. Typical regulations require that the laneway home is built on the back half of a traditional lot in the space normally reserved for a garage. Toronto also has a tradition of laneway housing and changed regulations to encourage new development. However this was discontinued in 2006 after staff reviewed the impact on services and safety. United Kingdom England London London has numerous historical alleys, especially, but not exclusively, in its centre; this includes The City, Covent Garden, Holborn, Clerkenwell, Westminster and Bloomsbury amongst others. An alley in London can also be called a passage, court, place, lane, and less commonly path, arcade, walk, steps, yard, terrace, and close. While both a court and close are usually defined as blind alleys, or cul-de-sacs, several in London are throughways, for example Cavendish Court, a narrow passage leading from Houndsditch into Devonshire Square, and Angel Court, which links King Street and Pall Mall. Bartholomew Close is a narrow winding lane which can be called an alley by virtue of its narrowness, and because through-access requires the use of passages and courts between Little Britain, and Long Lane and Aldersgate Street. In an old neighbourhood of the City of London, Exchange Alley or Change Alley is a narrow alleyway connecting shops and coffeehouses. It served as a convenient shortcut from the Royal Exchange on Cornhill to the Post Office on Lombard Street and remains as one of a number of alleys linking the two streets. The coffeehouses of Exchange Alley, especially Jonathan's and Garraway's, became an early venue for the lively trading of shares and commodities. These activities were the progenitor of the modern London Stock Exchange. Lombard Street and Change Alley had been the open-air meeting place of London's mercantile community before Thomas Gresham founded the Royal Exchange in 1565. In 1698, John Castaing began publishing the prices of stocks and commodities in Jonathan's Coffeehouse, providing the first evidence of systematic exchange of securities in London. Change Alley was the site of some noteworthy events in England's financial history, including the South Sea Bubble from 1711 to 1720 and the panic of 1745. In 1761 a club of 150 brokers and jobbers was formed to trade stocks. The club built its own building in nearby Sweeting's Alley in 1773, dubbed the "New Jonathan's", later renamed the Stock Exchange. West of the City there are a number of alleys just north of Trafalgar Square, including Brydges Place which is situated right next to the Coliseum Theatre and just 15 inches wide at its narrowest point, only one person can walk down it at a time. It is the narrowest alley in London and runs for , connecting St Martin's Lane with Bedfordbury in Covent Garden. Close by is another very narrow passage, Lazenby Court, which runs from Rose Street to Floral Street down the side of the Lamb and Flag pub; in order to pass people must turn slightly sideways. The Lamb & Flag in Rose Street has a reputation as the oldest pub in the area, though records are not clear. The first mention of a pub on the site is 1772. The Lazenby Court was the scene of an attack on the famous poet and playwright John Dryden in 1679 by thugs hired by John Wilmot, 2nd Earl of Rochester, with whom he had a long-standing conflict. In the same neighbourhood Cecil Court has an entirely different character than the two previous alleys, and is a spacious pedestrian street with Victorian shop-frontages that links Charing Cross Road with St Martin's Lane, and it is sometimes used as a location by film companies. One of the older thoroughfares in Covent Garden, Cecil Court dates back to the end of the 17th century. A tradesman's route at its inception, it later acquired the nickname Flicker Alley because of the concentration of early film companies in the Court. The first film-related company arrived in Cecil Court in 1897, a year after the first demonstration of moving pictures in the United Kingdom and a decade before London’s first purpose built cinema opened its doors. Since the 1930s it has been known as the new Booksellers' Row as it is home to nearly twenty antiquarian and second-hand independent bookshops. It was the temporary home of an eight-year-old Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart while he was touring Europe in 1764. For almost four months the Mozart family lodged with barber John Couzin. According to some modern authorities, Mozart composed his first symphony while a resident of Cecil Court. North of the centre of London, Camden Passage is a pedestrian passage off Upper Street in the London Borough of Islington, famous because of its many antiques shops, and an antique market on Wednesdays and Saturday mornings. It was built, as an alley, along the backs of houses on Upper Street, then Islington High Street, in 1767. Southern England In East Sussex, West Sussex and Surrey, "twitten" is used, for "a narrow path between two walls or hedges". It is still in official use in some towns including Lewes, Brighton, and Cuckfield. "Loughton also has twittens, the only Essex example of use of the word and an indication of a very old street pattern"; Loughton also has a track known locally as "The Widden", a variant of twitten. In north-west Essex and east Hertfordshire "twichell" is common. In other parts of Essex, alley or path is used. In the city of Brighton and Hove (in East Sussex), The Lanes is a collection of narrow lanes famous for their small shops (including several antique shops) and narrow alleyways. The area was part of the original settlement of Brighthelmstone, but The Lanes were built up during the late 18th century and were fully laid out by 1792. West of England In Plymouth, Devon an alley is an "ope". More generally in Devon any narrow public way which is less commodious than a lane may be called a "drangway" (from "drang", as a dialectal variation of throng); typically it will be used on horseback or on foot with or without animals, but may also be for occasional use with vehicles. The word, according to David Crystal, is also used throughout the West of England, Wiltshire, Hampshire and the Isle of Wight, as well as Wales. Midlands and East Anglia In Derbyshire and Leicestershire the word "jitty" or "gitties" is often found and "gulley" is a term used in the Black Country. In Nottinghamshire, "twichell" is common (See East Midlands English). In Shropshire (especially Shrewsbury) they are called "shuts". Northern England The Snickelways of York, in York, Yorkshire, often misspelt "snickleways", are a collection of small streets, footpaths, or lanes between buildings, not wide enough for a vehicle to pass down, and usually public rights of way. York has many such paths, mostly mediaeval, though there are some modern paths as well. They have names like any other city street, often quirky names such as Mad Alice Lane, Nether Hornpot Lane and even Finkle Street (formerly Mucky Peg Lane). The word "snickelway" was coined by local author Mark W. Jones in 1983 in his book A Walk Around the Snickelways of York, and is a portmanteau, a blend of the words "snicket'", meaning a passageway between walls or fences, "ginnel", a narrow passageway between or through buildings, and "alleyway", a narrow street or lane. Although a neologism, the word quickly became part of the local vocabulary, and has even been used in official council documents. In Whitby, North Yorkshire "ghauts". In Scunthorpe, Lincolnshire, Goole and Hull, East Riding of Yorkshire other terms in use are "cuttings", "8-foots", "10-foots", and "snicket". In North Yorkshire and County Durham, as in Scotland, an alley can be a "wynd". There is a "Bull Wynd" in Darlington, County Durham and Lombards Wynd in Richmond, North Yorkshire. In Durham City narrow passages are also known as "vennels". Several of these still exist and provide steep shortcuts between the major streets. In north-east England, including Bishop Auckland, County Durham; Durham; Hexham, Northumberland; Morpeth, Northumberland; Whitburn, South Tyneside; and Newcastle upon Tyne, Northumberland, alleys can be called "chares". The chares and much of the layout of Newcastle's Quayside date from medieval times. At one point, there were 20 chares in Newcastle. After the great fire of Newcastle and Gateshead in 1854, a number of the chares were permanently removed although many remain in existence today. Chares also are still present in the higher parts of the city centre. According to "Quayside and the Chares" by Jack and John Leslie, chares reflected their name or residents. "Names might change over the years, including Armourer's Chare which become Colvin's Chare". Originally inhabited by wealthy merchants, the chares became slums as they were deserted due to their "dark, cramped conditions". The chares were infamous for their insanitary conditions – typhus was "epidemic" and there were three cholera outbreaks in 1831–2, 1848–9 and finally in 1853 (which killed over 1,500 people). In Manchester and Oldham, Greater Manchester, as well as Sheffield, Leeds, Preston and other parts of Yorkshire, "jennel", which may be spelt "gennel" or "ginnel", is common. In some cases, "ginnel" may be used to describe a covered or roofed passage, as distinct from an open alley. In the Yorkshire Historical Dictionary, the entry for the word "ginnel" begins, "Many dialect words have been lost in recent times but 'ginnel' survives in good health, acceptable in polite conversation and even in newspaper articles." In Liverpool, Merseyside, the terms "entry", "jigger" or "snicket" are more common. "Entry" is also used in some parts of Lancashire and Manchester, though not in South Manchester. This usually refers to a walkway between two adjoining terraced houses, which leads from the street to the rear yard or garden. The term entry is used for an alley in Belfast, Northern Ireland (see The Belfast Entries). Scotland and Northern Ireland In Scotland and Northern Ireland the Scots terms close, wynd, pend and vennel are general in most towns and cities. The term close has an unvoiced "s" as in sad. The Scottish author Ian Rankin's novel Fleshmarket Close was retitled Fleshmarket Alley for the American market. Close is the generic Scots term for alleyways, although they may be individually named closes, entries, courts and wynds. Originally, a close was private property, hence gated and closed to the public. A wynd is typically a narrow lane between houses, an open throughway, usually wide enough for a horse and cart. The word derives from Old Norse venda, implying a turning off a main street, without implying that it is curved. In fact, most wynds are straight. In many places wynds link streets at different heights and thus are mostly thought of as being ways up or down hills. A pend is a passageway that passes through a building, often from a street through to a courtyard, and typically designed for vehicular rather than exclusively pedestrian access. A pend is distinct from a vennel or a close, as it has rooms directly above it, whereas vennels and closes are not covered over. A vennel is a passageway between the gables of two buildings which can in effect be a minor street in Scotland and the north east of England, particularly in the old centre of Durham. In Scotland, the term originated in royal burghs created in the twelfth century, the word deriving from the Old French word venelle meaning "alley" or "lane". Unlike a tenement entry to private property, known as a "close", a vennel was a public way leading from a typical high street to the open ground beyond the burgage plots. The Latin form is venella. Other English-language terms In Australia and Canada the terms lane, laneway, right-of-way and serviceway are also used. In some parts of the United States, alleys are sometimes known as rear lanes or back lanes because they are at the back of buildings. In parts of Canada, Australia and the United States, mews, a term which originated in London, England, is also used for some alleys or small streets (see, for example, Washington Mews in Greenwich Village, New York City). Words used in other countries In India the equivalent term is Gali which were prevalent during Moghul Period (1526 C.E. to 1700 C.E.) The French allée meaning avenue is used in parts of Europe such as Croatia and Serbia as a name for a boulevard (such as Bologna Alley in Zagreb). The Swedish word "allé" and the German word "Allee", are also based on this French allée (such as Karl-Marx-Allee in Berlin). In France, the term allée is not used as the actual word is ruelle, which is described as, "an alley between buildings, often accessible only to pedestrians. These streets are found especially in old city neighbourhoods, particularly in Europe and in the Arab-Muslim world". Passage and sentier (path) are also used. Czech and some other Slavic languages use the term "ulička" (little street) for alley, a diminutive form of "ulice", the word for street. In Montréal, Canada ruelle (diminutive of French rue, a street) is used for a back lane or service alley. There has been an endeavour to green these and some are quite attractive. In the Philippines, a common term is eskinita, and refers to any small passage not considered a street between two buildings, especially in shantytowns. The term is ultimately derived from the diminutive of the Spanish word esquina, meaning "corner". Europe Belgium In Belgium the equivalent term is gang (Dutch) or impasse (French). Brussels had over 100 gangen/impasses, built to provide pedestrian access to cheap housing in the middle of blocks of buildings, and often containing a communal water tap. Several lead off Rue Haute/Hoogstraat. Since 1858, many have been demolished as part of slum clearance programmes, but about 70 still exist. Some have been gentrified, for example the Rue de la Cigogne/Ooievaarstraat. France Lyon's traboules The traboules of Lyon are passageways that cut through a house or, in some cases, a whole city block, linking one street with another. They are distinct from most other alleys in that they are mainly enclosed within buildings and may include staircases. While they are found in other French cities including Villefranche-sur-Saône, Mâcon, Chambéry, Saint-Étienne, Louhans, Chalon sur Saône and Vienne (Isère), Lyon has many more; in all there are about 500. The word traboule comes from the Latin trans ambulare, meaning "to cross", and the first of them were possibly built as early as the 4th century. As the Roman Empire disintegrated, the residents of early Lyon—Lugdunum, the capital of Roman Gaul—were forced to move from the Fourvière hill to the banks of the river Saône when their aqueducts began to fail. The traboules grew up alongside their new homes, linking the streets that run parallel to the river Saône and going down to the river itself. For centuries they were used by people to fetch water from the river and then by craftsmen and traders to transport their goods. By the 18th century they were invaluable to what had become the city’s defining industry, textiles, especially silk. Nowadays, traboules are tourist attractions, and many are free and open to the public. Most traboules are on private property, serving as entrances to local apartments. Germany The old town of Lübeck has over 100 Gänge, particularly leading off the streets Engelswisch, Engelsgrube and Glockengießerstraße, as well as around the cathedral. Some are very low as well as narrow, and others open into more spacious courtyards (Höfe). Spreuerhofstraße is the world's narrowest street, found in the city of Reutlingen, Baden-Württemberg, Germany. It ranges from at its narrowest to at its widest. The lane was built in 1727 during the reconstruction efforts after the area was completely destroyed in the massive citywide fire of 1726 and is officially listed in the Land-Registry Office as City Street Number 77. Lintgasse is an alley () in the Old town of Cologne, Germany between the two squares of Alter Markt and Fischmarkt. It is a pedestrian zone and though only some 130 metres long, is nevertheless famous for its medieval history. The Lintgasse was first mentioned in the 12th century as in Lintgazzin, which may be derived from basketmakers who wove fish baskets out of Linden tree barks. These craftsmen were called Lindslizer, meaning Linden splitter. During the Middle Ages, the area was also known as platēa subri or platēa suberis, meaning street of Quercus suber, the cork oak tree. Lintgasse 8 to 14 used to be homes of medieval knights as still can be seen by signs like Zum Huynen, Zum Ritter or Zum Gir. During the 19th-century the Lintgasse was called Stink-Linkgaß, a because of its poor air quality. Italy The common Italian word for an alley is vicolo. Venice Venice is largely a traffic free city and there is, in addition to the canals, a maze of around 3000 lanes and alleys called calli (which means narrow). Smaller ones are callètte or callesèlle, while larger ones are calli large. Their width varies from just over to . The narrowest is Calletta Varisco, which just ; Calle Stretta is wide and Calle Ca' Zusto . The main ones are also called salizada and wider calli, where trade proliferates, are called riga, while blind calli, used only by residents to reach their homes, are ramo. Netherlands Cities such as Amsterdam and Groningen have numerous gangen or stegen. They often run between the major streets, roughly parallel to each other but not at right angles to the streets, following the old field boundaries and ditches. Sweden Gränd is Swedish for an alley and there are numerous gränder, or alleys in Gamla stan, The Old Town, of Stockholm, Sweden. The town dates back to the 13th century, with medieval alleyways, cobbled streets, and historic buildings. North German architecture has had a strong influence in the Old Town's buildings. Some of Stockholm's alleys are very narrow pedestrian footpaths, while others are very narrow, cobbled streets, or lanes open to slow moving traffic. Mårten Trotzigs gränd ("Alley of Mårten Trotzig") runs from Västerlånggatan and Järntorget up to Prästgatan and Tyska Stallplan, and part of it consists of 36 steps. At its narrowest the alley is a mere 90 cm (35 inches) wide, making it the narrowest street in Stockholm. The alley is named after the merchant and burgher Mårten Trotzig (1559–1617), who, born in Wittenberg, emigrated to Stockholm in 1581, and bought properties in the alley in 1597 and 1599, also opening a shop there. According to sources from the late 16th century, he was dealing in first iron and later copper, by 1595 had sworn his burgher oath, and was later to become one of the richest merchants in Stockholm. Possibly referred to as Trångsund ("Narrow strait") before Mårten Trotzig gave his name to the alley, it is mentioned in 1544 as Tronge trappe grenden ("Narrow Alley Stairs"). In 1608 it is referred to Trappegrenden ("The Stairs Alley"), but a map dated 1733 calls it Trotz gränd. Closed off in the mid 19th century, not to be reopened until 1945, its present name was officially sanctioned by the city in 1949. The "List of streets and squares in Gamla stan" provides links to many pages that describe other alleys in the oldest part of Stockholm; e.g. Kolmätargränd (Coal Meter's Alley); Skeppar Karls Gränd (Skipper Karl's Alley); Skeppar Olofs Gränd (Skipper Olof's Alley); and Helga Lekamens Gränd (Alley of the Holy Body). Asia Alleyways are an urban form historically shared by most cities in Asia, yet understudied. Alleyways in Asia can be understood as ordinary neighbourhood landscape providing the setting for everyday urban life and place-based identities being shaped by varied everyday practices, collective experiences and forces. This turns the traditional approach of "global cities" upside-down and contributes to a renewed conception of metropolization as a highly situated process, where forces at play locally, in each alleyway neighbourhood, are both intertwined and labile. Thus it is important to study the modern transformation of Asian cities and their urban cultures, from the perspective of the alleyways, including new approaches to social life, urban change and urban governance. China Hutongs () are a type of narrow streets or alleys, commonly associated with northern Chinese cities, most prominently Beijing. In Beijing, hutongs are alleys formed by lines of siheyuan, traditional courtyard residences. Many neighbourhoods were formed by joining one siheyuan to another to form a hutong, and then joining one hutong to another. The word hutong is also used to refer to such neighbourhoods. During China’s dynastic period, emperors planned the city of Beijing and arranged the residential areas according to the social classes of the Zhou Dynasty (1027 – 256 BC). The term "hutong" appeared first during the Yuan Dynasty, and is a term of Mongolian origin meaning "town". At the turn of the 20th century, the Qing court was disintegrating as China’s dynastic era came to an end. The traditional arrangement of hutongs was also affected. Many new hutongs, built haphazardly and with no apparent plan, began to appear on the outskirts of the old city, while the old ones lost their former neat appearance. Following the founding of the People’s Republic of China in 1949, many of the old hutongs of Beijing disappeared, replaced by wide boulevards and high rises. Many residents left the lanes where their families lived for generations for apartment buildings with modern amenities. In Xicheng District, for example, nearly 200 hutongs out of the 820 it held in 1949 have disappeared. However, many of Beijing’s ancient hutongs still stand, and a number of them have been designated protected areas. Many hutongs, some several hundred years old, in the vicinity of the Bell Tower and Drum Tower and Shichahai Lake are preserved amongst recreated contemporary two- and three-storey versions. Hutongs represent an important cultural element of the city of Beijing and the hutongs are residential neighborhoods which still form the heart of Old Beijing. While most Beijing hutongs are straight, Jiudaowan (九道弯, literally "Nine Turns") Hutong turns nineteen times. At its narrowest section, Qianshi Hutong near Qianmen (Front Gate) is only 40 centimeters (16 inches) wide. The Shanghai longtang is loosely equivalent to the hutong of Beijing. A longtang (弄堂 lòngtáng, Shanghainese: longdang) is a laneway in Shanghai and, by extension, a community centred on a laneway or several interconnected laneways. On its own long (traditional Chinese 衖 or 弄, simplified Chinese 弄) is a Chinese term for "alley" or "lane", which is often left untranslated in Chinese addresses, but may also be translated as "lane", and "tang" is a parlor or hallway. It is sometimes called lilong (里弄); the latter name incorporates the -li suffix often used in the name of residential developments in the late 19th and early 20th centuries. As with the term hutong, the Shanghai longdang can either refers to the lanes that the houses face onto, or a group of houses connected by the lane. Japan is a small area of Shinjuku, Tokyo, Japan, famous both as an area of architectural interest and for its nightlife. It is composed of a network of six narrow alleys, connected by even narrower passageways which are just about wide enough for a single person to pass through. Over 200 tiny shanty-style bars, clubs and eateries are squeezed into this area. Its architectural importance is that it provides a view into the relatively recent past of Tokyo, when large parts of the city resembled present-day Golden Gai, particularly in terms of the extremely narrow lanes and the tiny two-storey buildings. Nowadays, most of the surrounding area has been redeveloped. Typically, the buildings are just a few feet wide and are built so close to the ones next door that they nearly touch. Most are two-storey, having a small bar at street level and either another bar or a tiny flat upstairs, reached by a steep set of stairs. None of the bars are very large; some are so small that they can only fit five or so customers at one time. The buildings are generally ramshackle, and the alleys are dimly lit, giving the area a very scruffy and run-down appearance. However, Golden Gai is not a cheap place to drink, and the clientele that it attracts is generally well off. Golden Gai is well known yokocho　and meeting place for musicians, artists, directors, writers, academics and actors, including many celebrities. Many of the bars only welcome regular customers, who initially should be introduced by an existing patron, although many others welcome non-regulars, some even making efforts to attract overseas tourists by displaying signs and price lists in English. Golden Gai was known for prostitution before 1958, when prostitution became illegal. Since then it has developed as a drinking area, and at least some of the bars can trace their origins back to the 1960s. Apart from drinking alleys (drinking yokocho), shotengai and yokocho shotengais, we should not forget to mention the ordinary alleyways, the rojis which seem exist in all parts of the Japanese urban landscape. The roji which was once part of people’s personal spatial sphere and everyday life has been transformed by diverse and competing interests. Marginalised through the emergence of new forms of housing and public spaces, re-appropriated by different fields, and re-invented by the contemporary urban design discourse, the social meaning attached to the roji is being re-interpreted by individuals, subcultures and new social movements.Thus, their existence is in danger, therefore it even more important to document, visualize and analyse their spatial, social and cultural function within the city Australasia Australia See the Lanes and arcades of Melbourne and Perth North Africa A medina quarter ( "the old city") is a distinct city section found in many North African cities. The medina is typically walled, contains many narrow and maze-like streets. The word "medina" ( ) itself simply means "city" or "town" in modern Arabic. Because of the very narrow streets, medinas are generally free from car traffic, and in some cases even motorcycle and bicycle traffic. The streets can be less than a metre wide. This makes them unique among highly populated urban centres. The Medina of Fes, Morocco or Fes el Bali, is considered one of the largest car-free urban areas in the world. Other meanings of the word In typography, alley is also used to refer to the gap between two columns of text. A bowling alley is a building where the game of bowling is played. An alley is a technical term in track and field to describe a technique in staging the start of a track race with multiple athletes sharing multiple lanes (for example, three runners sharing two lanes would use four alleys to allow 12 athletes to participate in a lane race like the start of an 800 metres) Gallery See also Avenue (landscape), also known as tree alley or allée Community Greens Great Yarmouth Row Houses, England Bubblegum Alley, San Luis Obispo, California, USA Mews Right of way Stairs Street References Notes Bibliography DuSablon, Mary Anna, Walking the Steps of Cincinnati. Athens, OH.: Ohio University Press, 1998. Hage, Sara A., Alleys: Negotiating Identity in Traditional, Urban, and New Urban Communities. M.A. Thesis, University of Massachusetts, Amherst, 2008. Long, David, Hidden City: The Secret Alleys, Courts & Yards of London's Square Mile. London: The History Press, 2011. Regan, Bob, The Steps of Pittsburgh: Portrait of a City. Pittsburgh, PA.: The Local History Company, 2004. 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255599	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugh%20MacLennan	Hugh MacLennan	John Hugh MacLennan (March 20, 1907 – November 9, 1990) was a Canadian author and professor of English at McGill University. He won five Governor General's Awards and a Royal Bank Award. Family and childhood MacLennan was born in Glace Bay, Nova Scotia, on March 20, 1907. His parents were Samuel MacLennan, a colliery physician, and Katherine MacQuarrie; Hugh also had an older sister named Frances. Samuel was a stern Calvinist, while Katherine was creative, warm and dreamy, and both parents would be large influences on Hugh's character. In 1913, the family spent several months in London while Samuel took on further study to become a medical specialist. On returning to Canada, they briefly lived in Sydney, Nova Scotia, before settling in Halifax. In December 1917, young Hugh experienced the Halifax Explosion, which he would later write about in his first published novel, Barometer Rising. From the ages of twelve to twenty-one, he slept in a tent in the family's backyard, even in the cold winter, possibly as an escape from his strict father. Hugh grew up believing in the importance of religion; he and Frances regularly went to Sunday school, and the family attended Presbyterian church services twice each Sunday. He was also active in sports, and became especially good at tennis, eventually winning the Nova Scotia men's double championship in 1927. Education MacLennan and his sister were pushed extremely hard by their father to spend long hours learning the classics. While this was very difficult for Frances, who had no interest in Greek, Hugh grew to enjoy this field of study. Their father had an ambitious educational path planned for Hugh: studying the classics at Dalhousie University, getting a Rhodes Scholarship, and then continuing his studies in England. While at Dalhousie, he realized that his inner wish was to pursue an artistic career, the influence of his creative mother. At Oxford, he struggled with balancing his passion for Greek and Latin studies with these artistic instincts. In his first year at the university's Oriel College, MacLennan worked incredibly hard at his classics courses, but was only able to achieve second-class honours. By his second year, he had resigned himself to such results, and while still working diligently, decided not to overwork himself as before. In his fourth year, he was finding it increasingly difficult to concentrate on his studies, and spent more and more time at tennis and writing poetry. In letters to his family from around this time are hints that he hoped to be a successful writer. In late 1931, MacLennan sent some of his poetry to three publishers, including the firms of John Lane and Elkin Mathews, but it was turned down. MacLennan's four years in Oxford gave him the opportunity to travel throughout Europe, and he visited countries such as Switzerland, France, Greece, and Italy. He spent some of his holidays lodging with a family in Germany, through which he acquired a very good proficiency in German. His travels and his exposure to different political ideas caused MacLennan to begin to question his father's puritanical, conservative attitudes that he had until then taken for granted. MacLennan won a $400 scholarship to continue his studies at Princeton University, and despite his growing disinclination to keep studying the classics, he decided to go there. This was partly to appease his father, and partly because the Great Depression meant that there were few jobs available. In June 1932, while sailing home from England, he met his future wife, American Dorothy Duncan. Falling in love with her made him change his mind about Princeton. For one thing, his father insisted he should not get married before becoming financially independent, which would mean delaying marriage at least until his graduation. In addition, MacLennan was already unhappy about having to accept money from his father for the part of his Princeton studies that would not be covered by his scholarship. However, his applications were rejected from both of the Canadian universities he applied to that had classics department positions opening; thus, he grudgingly agreed to go to Princeton after all. His three years at Princeton were unhappy. The style of classical study there was very different from what he was used to at Oxford, with Princeton's scholarship "consist[ing] of extremely detailed analyses of classical texts and sources—thorough, but unoriginal." He began to rebel against his father's ideals: he stopped going to church and put increasing energy into his writing at the expense of his studies; furthermore, in addition to resenting his financial dependence on his father, he continued his relationship with Dorothy even though he knew his father would not approve of her American, Lowland Scottish, Christian Science, business-world background. During this time, MacLennan also began to be influenced by Marxism. Unpublished novels At Princeton, MacLennan wrote his first novel, So All Their Praises. He found one publisher who was willing to take the manuscript, as long as he made certain changes; however, this company went out of business before the book could be published. In spring 1935, he finished his PhD thesis, Oxyrhynchus: An Economic and Social Study, about the decline of a Roman colony in Egypt, which was published by Princeton University Press and reprinted in 1968 by A.M. Hakkert. In 1935, there were very few teaching jobs available as a result of the Depression, and MacLennan's field of study, the classics, was in particular becoming less significant in North American education. He took a position at Lower Canada College in Montreal, Quebec, even though he felt it was beneath him, as just his Dalhousie BA would have been a sufficient qualification for the job. He generally did not enjoy working there, and resented the long hours required of him for low pay, but was nonetheless a stimulating teacher, at least for the brighter students. MacLennan would later poke fun at Lower Canada College in his depiction of Waterloo School in The Watch That Ends the Night. On June 22, 1936, he and Dorothy were wed near her home in Wilmette, Illinois, and settled in Montreal. Meanwhile, in 1934–1938, MacLennan was working on his second novel, A Man Should Rejoice. Longman, Green and Company and Duell, Sloan and Pearce both showed strong interest in the novel, but in the end neither published it. In February 1939, MacLennan's father died after suffering from high blood pressure. It was a huge surprise to MacLennan, as in the previous year they had just begun to become closer and to reconcile their opposing views. For several months after his father's death MacLennan continued to write letters to him, in which he discussed his thoughts on the possibility and implications of a war in Europe. Barometer Rising Dorothy convinced MacLennan that the failure of his first two novels was due to his having set one in Europe and the other in the United States; she persuaded him to write about Canada, the country he knew best. She told him that "Nobody's going to understand Canada until she evolves a literature of her own, and you're the fellow to start bringing Canadian novels up to date." Until then there had been a perhaps sporadic tradition of Canadian literature, with such writers as Thomas Chandler Haliburton (1796–1865), L. M. Montgomery, (1874-1942), Stephen Leacock (1869-1944), W.O. Mitchell (1914-1998), and Morley Callaghan (1903 – 1990), and others. MacLennan set out to define Canada for Canadians through a national novel. Barometer Rising, his novel about the social class structure of Nova Scotia and the Halifax Explosion of 1917, was published in 1941. Later novels His most famous novel, Two Solitudes, a literary allegory for the tensions between English and French Canada, followed in 1945. That year, he left Lower Canada College. Two Solitudes won MacLennan his first Governor General's Award for Fiction. In 1948, MacLennan published The Precipice, which again won the Governor General's Award. The following year, he published a collection of essays, Cross Country, which won the Governor General's Award for Non-Fiction. In 1951, MacLennan returned to teaching, accepting a position at McGill University. In 1952, he was made a fellow of the Royal Society of Canada and awarded the society's Lorne Pierce Medal. In 1954, he published another essay collection, Thirty and Three, which again won the Governor General's Award for Non-Fiction. In 1956, he was made a fellow of the Royal Society of Literature. One of MacLennan's students at McGill was Marian Engel, who became a noted Canadian novelist in the 1970s. He served as her master's supervisor in . Another notable student was Leonard Cohen, the popular songwriter, poet and novelist. Dorothy Duncan died in 1957. MacLennan married his second wife, Aline Walker, in 1959. That same year, he published The Watch That Ends the Night, which won his final Governor General's Award. In 1967 he was made a Companion of the Order of Canada. In 1985 he was made a Knight of the National Order of Quebec. MacLennan continued to write and publish work, with his final novel Voices in Time appearing in 1980. He died on November 9, 1990, in Montreal, Quebec. The Canadian band The Tragically Hip, on their album Fully Completely, have a song called "Courage (for Hugh MacLennan)". A passage from The Watch That Ends the Night is adapted for use in the song. Bibliography Novels Man Should Rejoice, a critical edition by Hugh MacLennan; edited and with an introduction by Colin Hill, Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, April 2019, Barometer Rising (1941) Two Solitudes (1945) The Precipice (1948) Each Man's Son (1951) The Watch That Ends the Night (1957) Return of the Sphinx (1967) Voices in Time (1980) Non-fiction Oxyrhyncus : An Economic and Social Study (1935) Canadian Unity and Quebec (1942) Cross Country (1949) The Future of the Novel as an Art Form (1959) Scotchman's Return and Other Essays (1960) Seven Rivers of Canada (1961). US title The Rivers of Canada: The Mackenzie, the St. Lawrence, the Ottawa, the Red, the Saskatchewan, the Fraser, the St. John (1962). The Colour of Canada (1967) The Other Side of Hugh MacLennan (1978) On Being a Maritime Writer (1984) Dear Marian, Dear Hugh:The MacLennan–Engel Correspondence (1995; ed. Christl Verduyn) See also Two Solitudes (film) References Footnotes Works cited Further reading External links MacLennan project at McGill University Map of Halifax as it existed in 1915 available in the archives--useful for reading MacLennan's Barometer Rising An excerpt from Douglas Gibson's book, "Stories About Storytellers," on Hugh MacLennan 1907 births 1990 deaths 20th-century Canadian male writers 20th-century Canadian novelists Alumni of Oriel College, Oxford Anglophone Quebec people Canadian literary critics Canadian male non-fiction writers Canadian male novelists Canadian people of Scottish descent Canadian Presbyterians Companions of the Order of Canada Dalhousie University alumni Fellows of the Royal Society of Canada Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature Governor General's Award-winning fiction writers Governor General's Award-winning non-fiction writers Knights of the National Order of Quebec McGill University faculty People from Glace Bay Princeton University 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255602	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pampanga	Pampanga	Pampanga, officially the Province of Pampanga (; ) is a province in the Central Luzon region of the Philippines. Lying on the northern shore of Manila Bay, Pampanga is bordered by Tarlac to the north, Nueva Ecija to the northeast, Bulacan to the east, the Manila Bay to the central-south, Bataan to the southwest and Zambales to the west. Its capital is the City of San Fernando. Angeles City is the largest LGU but while geographically within Pampanga, it is classified as a first-class, highly urbanized city and has been governed independently of the province since it received its charter in 1964. The name La Pampanga was given by the Spaniards, who encountered natives living along the banks (pampáng) of the Pampanga River. Its creation in 1571 makes it the first Spanish province on Luzon Island (Cebu in Visayas is older as it was founded by the Spaniards in 1565). The town of Villa de Bacolor in the province briefly served as the Spanish colonial capital when Great Britain invaded Manila as part of the Seven Years' War. At the eve of the Philippine Revolution of 1896, Pampanga was one of eight provinces placed under martial law for rebellion against the Spanish Empire; it is thus represented on the Philippine national flag as one of the eight rays of the sun. Pampanga is served by Clark International Airport (formerly Diosdado Macapagal International Airport), which is in Clark Freeport Zone, some north of the provincial capital. The province is home to two Philippine Air Force airbases: Basa Air Base in Floridablanca and the former United States Clark Air Base in Angeles. Due to its growing population and developments, the Clark Global City is now developed and is located in Clark Freeport Zone. In 2015, the province had 2,198,110 inhabitants, while it had 1,079,532 registered voters. History Ancient Pampanga's Territorial area included portions of the modern provinces of Tarlac, Bataan, Zambales, Nueva Ecija and Bulacan. Pampanga was re-organized as a province by the Spaniards on December 11, 1571. For better administration and taxation purposes, the Spanish authorities subdivided Pampanga into pueblos, which were further subdivided into districts (barrios) and in some cases into royal and private estates (encomiendas). Due to excessive abuses committed by some encomenderos, King Philip II of Spain in 1574 prohibited the further awarding of private estates, but this decree was not fully enforced until 1620. In a report of Philippine encomiendas on June 20, 1591, Governor-General Gómez Pérez Dasmariñas reported to the Crown that La Pampanga's encomiendas were Bataan, Betis y Lubao, Macabebe, Candaba, Apalit, Calumpit, Malolos, Binto, Guiguinto, Caluya, Bulacan and Mecabayan. The encomiendas of La Pampanga at that time had eighteen thousand six hundred and eighty whole tributes. Pampanga, which is about in area and inhabited by more than 1.5 million people, had its present borders drawn in 1873. During the Spanish regime it was one of the richest Philippine provinces. Manila and its surrounding region were then primarily dependent on Kapampangan agricultural, fishery and forestry products as well as on the supply of skilled workers. As other Luzon provinces were created due to increases in population, some well-established Pampanga towns were lost to new emerging provinces in Central Luzon. During the 17th century, The Dutch recruited men from Pampanga as mercenaries who served the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army, known as Papangers part of the larger Mardijkers community. Their legacy can be found in North Jakarta, however, there are few traces of their descendants, except for a small community in Kampung Tugu. The historic province of Bataan which was founded in 1754 under the administration of Spanish Governor-General Pedro Manuel Arandia, absorbed from the province of Pampanga the municipalities of Abucay, Balanga (now a city), Dinalupihan, Llana Hermosa, Orani, Orion, Pilar, and Samal. During the British occupation of Manila (1762–1764), Bacolor became the provisional Spanish colonial capital and military base. The old Pampanga towns of Aliaga, Cabiao, Gapan, San Antonio and San Isidro were ceded to the province of Nueva Ecija in 1848 during the term of Spanish Governor-General Narciso Claveria y Zaldua. The municipality of San Miguel de Mayumo of Pampanga was yielded to the province of Bulacan in the same provincial boundary configuration in 1848. In 1860, the northern towns of Bamban, Capas, Concepcion, Victoria, Tarlac, Mabalacat, Magalang, Porac and Floridablanca were separated from Pampanga and were placed under the jurisdiction of a military command called Comandancia Militar de Tarlac. However, in 1873, the four latter towns were returned to Pampanga and the other five became municipalities of the newly created Province of Tarlac. On December 8, 1941, Japanese planes bombed Clark Air Base marking the beginning of the invasion of Pampanga. Between 1941 and 1942, occupying Japanese forces began entering Pampanga. During the counter-insurgencies under the Japanese occupation from 1942 to 1944, Kapampangan guerrilla fighters and the Hukbalahap Communist guerrillas fought side by side in the province of Pampanga, attacking and retreating the Japanese Imperial forces for over three years of fighting and invasion. The establishment of the military general headquarters and military camp bases of the Philippine Commonwealth Army was active from 1935 to 1946. The Philippine Constabulary was active from 1935 to 1942 and 1944 to 1946 in the province of Pampanga. During the military engagements of the anti-Japanese Imperial military operations in central Luzon from 1942 to 1945 in the province of Bataan, Bulacan, Northern Tayabas (now Aurora), Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Tarlac, and Zambales, the local guerrilla resistance fighters and Hukbalahap Communist guerrillas, helped the U.S. military forces fight the Imperial Japanese armed forces. In the 1945 liberation of Pampanga, Kapampangan guerrilla fighters and the Hukbalahap Communist guerrillas supported combat forces from Filipino and American ground troops in attacking Japanese Imperial forces during the Battle of Pampanga until the end of the Second World War. Local military operations soldiers and officers of the Philippine Commonwealth Army 2nd, 26th, 3rd, 32nd, 33rd, 35th, 36th and 37th Infantry Division and the Philippine Constabulary 3rd Constabulary Regiment recaptured and liberated the province of Pampanga and fought against the Japanese Imperial forces during the Battle of Pampanga. After the Second World War, operations in the main province of Pampanga was downfall insurgencies and conflicts between the Philippine Government forces and the Hukbalahap Communist rebels on 1946 to 1954 during the Hukbalahap Rebellion. During the Marcos dictatorship, thousands of Kapampangans were tortured and murdered by the anti marcos through various means such as rape, forced stripping, electric shocks, beatings, and genital mutilations, among many others. Kapampangan religious leaders rose up against Marcos until the People Power Revolution occurred, where a Kapampangan, Corazon Aquino, became president. The June 15, 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo displaced a large number of people with the submersion of whole towns and villages by massive lahar floods. This led to a large-scale advancement in disaster preparation in government. In 2010, a Kapampangan, Benigno Aquino III, son of former president Corazon Aquino, was elected as president. On April 22, 2019, the province suffered severe damage due to 6.1 magnitude earthquake which originated from Zambales and was the most affected area by the earthquake due to province sitting on soft sediment and alluvial soil. Several structures in the province were damaged by the quake, including a 4-story supermarket in Porac, the Bataan-Pampanga boundary arch and the main terminal of Clark International Airport, as well as old churches in Lubao and Porac, where the stone bell tower of the 19th-century Santa Catalina de Alejandria Church collapsed. Geography Pampanga covers a total area of occupying the south-central section of the Central Luzon region. When Angeles is included for geographical purposes, the province's area is . The province is bordered by Tarlac to the north, Nueva Ecija to the northeast, Bulacan to the east, the Manila Bay to the central-south, Bataan to the southwest, and Zambales to the northwest. Its terrain is relatively flat with one distinct mountain, Mount Arayat and the notable Pampanga River. Among its municipalities, Porac has the largest area with ; Candaba comes in second with ; followed by Floridablanca with . Santo Tomas, with an area of only , is the smallest. Climate The province of Pampanga has two distinct climates, rainy and dry. The rainy or wet season normally begins in May and runs through October, while the rest of the year is the dry season. The warmest period of the year occurs between March and April, while the coolest period is from December through February. The wet season will be from June to October and also dry season will be from November to April in the province of Pampanga. Administrative divisions Pampanga comprises 19 municipalities and three cities (one highly urbanized and two component). Demographics Population The population of Pampanga in the was people, with a density of . If Angeles is included for geographical purposes, the population is 2,609,744, with a density of . The native inhabitants of Pampanga are generally referred to as the Kapampangans (alternatively Pampangos or Pampangueños). Languages The whole population of Pampanga speak Kapampangan, which is one of the Central Luzon languages along with the Sambalic languages. English and Tagalog are rather spoken and used as secondary languages. There are a few Sambal speakers in the province, especially near the border of Zambales. Religion The province of Pampanga is composed of many religious groups, but it is predominantly Roman Catholic (88.92%). According to 2010 Census, other prominent Christian groups include the Iglesia ni Cristo (3.84%), Evangelicals (1.34%), Aglipayan Church (0.60%), Jesus is Lord Church (0.48%), Bible Baptist Church (0.39%), Jehovah’s Witnesses (0.27%), Church of Christ (0.23%), United Church of Christ in the Philippines (0.22%), Seventh-day Adventist Church (0.18%) and many others. Islam (0.017%) is also present in the province, mainly due to migrants originating from the south, as well as Buddhism, which is practiced by a few people of Chinese descent. Economy Farming and fishing are the two main industries. Major products include rice, corn, sugarcane, and tilapia. Pampanga is the tilapia capital of the country because of its high production reaching 214,210.12 metric tons in 2015. In addition to farming and fishing, the province supports thriving cottage industries that specialize in wood carving, furniture making, guitars and handicrafts. Every Christmas season, the province of Pampanga, especially in the capital city of San Fernando becomes the center of a thriving industry centered on handcrafted lighted lanterns called parols that display a kaleidoscope of light and color. Other industries include its casket industry and the manufacturing of all-purpose vehicles in the municipality of Santo Tomas. The province is famous for its sophisticated culinary work. Kapampangans are well known for their culinary creations. Famous food products range from the mundane to the exotic. Roel's Meat Products, Pampanga's Best and Mekeni Food are among the better known meat brands of the country producing Kapampangan favorites such as pork and chicken tocinos, beef tapa, hotdogs, longganizas (Philippine-style cured sausages) and chorizos. Specialty foods such as the siopao, pandesal, tutong, lechon (roasted pig) and its sarsa (sauce) are popular specialty foods in the region. The more exotic betute tugak (stuffed frog), kamaru (mole crickets) cooked adobo, bulanglang (pork cooked in guava juice), lechon kawali and bringhe (a green sticky rice dish like paella) are a mainstay in Kapampangan feasts. Native sweets and delicacies like pastillas, turonnes de casuy, buro, are the most sought after by Filipinos including a growing number of tourists who enjoy authentic Kapampangan cuisine. The famous cookie in Mexico, Pampanga, Panecillos de San Nicolas, which is known as the mother of all Philippine cookies, is made here, famously made by Lillian Borromeo. The cookies are made with arrowroot, sugar, coconut milk and butter and are blessed in Catholic parishes every year on the feast of San Nicolas Tolentino. The cookies are believed to have a healing power and bestow good luck and are sometimes crumbled into rice fields before planting. Tourism is a growing industry in the province of Pampanga. Clark Freeport Zone is home to Clark International Airport, designated as the Philippines' future premier gateway. Other developing industries include semiconductor manufacturing for electronics and computers mostly located within the freeport. Within the Clark Special Economic Zone are well-established hotels and resorts. Popular tourist destinations include St. Peter Shrine in Apalit, Mt. Arayat National Park in San Juan Bano, Mount Arayat, the Paskuhan Village in the City of San Fernando, the Casino Filipino in Angeles and, for nature and wildlife, "Paradise Ranch and Zoocobia Fun Zoo" in Clark. Well-known annual events include the Giant Lantern Festival in December, the hot air balloon festival in Clarkfield in February and in Lubao in April, the San Pedro Cutud Lenten Rites celebrated two days before Easter, and the Aguman Sanduk in Minalin celebrated on the afternoon of New Year's Day. Boat culture There have been proposals to revitalize the karakoa shipbuilding tradition of the Kapampangan people in recent years. The karakoa was the warship of the Kapampangan from the classical eras (before 15th century) up to the 16th century. The production of the karakoa and its usage were stopped by the Spanish colonialists to establish the galleon ship-making tradition instead, as a sign of Spanish dominance over the Kapampangan. Infrastructure Telecommunication Telephone services are provided by PLDT, Digitel, Datelcom, the Evangelista Telephone Company, and the Pampanga Telecom Company in the town of Macabebe. The province has 24 public telegraph offices distributed among its towns while the facilities of PT&T and RCPI were set up to serve the business centers in Angeles, San Fernando City and Guagua. Several Internet Service provider are available. These include the Angeles Computer Network Specialist, Information Resources Network System, Inc., [Mosaic communications Inc., Net Asia Angeles, Phil World On Line and Comclark Network and Technology Corp. United Parcel Service (UPS) and Federal Express (FedEx) provide international courier services. Their hubs are in the Clark Freeport Zone. They are complemented by four local couriers operating as the communication and baggage of the province. There are three postal district offices and 35 post office stations distributed in the 20 municipalities and two cities of the province. Water and power Potable water supply in the province reaches the populace through three levels namely: Level I (point source system), Level II (communal faucet system), and Level III (individual connections). A well or spring is the pinpointed water source in areas where houses are few as the system is only designed to serve 15 to 25 households. As of 1997, there were 128,571 Level I water system users in the province. The communal faucet system (Level II) serves the rural areas while the Level III system is managed by the Local Water Utilities Administration (LWUA). The system provides individual house connections to all second and first class private subdivisions. Electric power is distributed to majority of the towns through the distribution centers of the Pampanga Electric Cooperative (PELCO) which include PELCO I, II, III. Small parts of Candaba and Macabebe are also supplied by Manila Electric Company (Meralco). Angeles and small parts of Mabalacat are supplied by Angeles Electric Corporation (AEC) Villa de Bacolor, Guagua, Sta, Rita, Lubao, Sasmuan, Porac and Mabalacat are supplied by Pampanga Electric Cooperative II Inc (PELCO II).. City of San Fernando is supplied by San Fernando Electric Company (SFELAPCO). Power is also transmitted to the province through various transmission lines and substations located within the province, such as the Mexico and Clark substations, and Hermosa–Duhat–Balintawak, Mexico–Hermosa, Hermosa–San Jose transmission lines, etc., all of which are operated and maintained by the National Grid Corporation of the Philippines (NGCP). Transportation The province of Pampanga is strategically located at the crossroads of central Luzon and is highly accessible by air and land. The province is home to two airstrips: Basa Air Base in Floridablanca, which is used by the military, and Clark International Airport in Clark Freeport Zone. Pampanga has five municipal ports that function as fish landing centers. These are in the municipalities of Guagua, Macabebe, Masantol, Minalin, and Sasmuan. Road transport Land travel to Pampanga is provided by highways and by buses. Buses that travel the routes of Manila-Bataan, Manila-Zambales, Manila-Tarlac, Manila-Nueva Ecija, Manila-Bulacan-Pampanga, and Manila-Pampanga-Dagupan serve as connections with the nearby provinces and Metro Manila. The North Luzon Expressway (NLEX) extends from Balintawak in Quezon City, Metro Manila, to Santa Ines in Mabalacat. It passes through the cities and municipalities of Apalit, San Simon, Santo Tomas, San Fernando, Mexico, Angeles City, and ends on Santa Ines in Mabalacat. The four-lane Subic–Clark–Tarlac Expressway (SCTEx) to date, is the longest toll expressway in the Philippines. Its southern terminus is in the Subic Bay Freeport Zone and passes through the Clark Freeport Zone in two interchanges: Clark North and Clark South. The expressway is linked to the North Luzon Expressway through the Mabalacat Interchange. Its northern terminus is located at the Central Techno Park in Tarlac City, Tarlac. Aside from the expressways, national highways also serve the province. Two major national highways serves Pampanga, the MacArthur Highway (N2) and Jose Abad Santos Avenue (N3). Secondary and tertiary national roads, and provincial roads complement the highway backbone. Schools Colleges and universities AIE College AMA Computer College (Angeles) AMA Computer College (City of San Fernando) AMA Computer Learning Center (Angeles) AMA Computer Learning Center (City of San Fernando) AMA Computer Learning Center (Apalit) Angeles University Foundation Arayat Institute (Arayat) Arayat National High School (Arayat) Asian College of Science & Technology Asian Institute of Computer Studies (Mabalacat City and City of San Fernando) Center for Asian Culinary Studies Central Luzon College of Science and Technology (CELTECH College), City College of Angeles Church Education System Seminary & Institute of Religion, in every chapels of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints Colegio de San Lorenzo de Pampanga Colegio de Sebastian Computer System Specialist, Inc. Dau Academy-Saint Muchen (Mabalacat City) Dee Hwa Liong College Foundation (Mabalacat City) Development for Advanced Technology Achievement (DATA) College Don Honorio Ventura State University (Bacolor) Don Honorio Ventura State University (Candaba) Don Honorio Ventura State University (Lubao) Don Honorio Ventura State University (Mexico) Don Honorio Ventura State University (Porac) Don Honorio Ventura State University (Santo Tomas) East Central Colleges Exact College of Asia (Arayat) Gateway Institute of Science and Technology Gonzalo Puyat School of Arts and Trades (San Luis) Guagua National Colleges (Guagua) Harvardian Colleges Holy Angel University Holy Cross College Pampanga (Santa Ana) Infant Jesus Academy (IJA) Information and Communication Technology High School Integrated Computer School Foundation International School for Culinary Arts and Hotel Management Jocson College Jose C. Feliciano College, Inc. (Mabalacat City) La Plata Science and Technology, Inc. La Verdad Christian College (Apalit) Mabalacat College (Mabalacat City) Mary Help of Christians School Inc. (Mabalacat City) Mary the Queen College (Guagua) Mega Computer College Megabyte College of Science and Technology (Floridablanca and Guagua) Mother of Good Counsel Major Seminary Mother Of Good Counsel Minor Seminary Mother of Perpetual Help Institute School of Midwifery and Nursing Aide Mount Carmel Colleges New Era University NorthPoint Academy for Culinary Arts Our Lady of Fatima University Pampanga Colleges (Macabebe) Pampanga Institute (Masantol) Pampanga State Agricultural University (Magalang) Philippine State College of Aeronautics (Floridablanca) Proverbsville School (Angeles City) Proverbsville School (City of San Fernando) Republic Central Colleges Saint Anthony College of Technology (Mabalacat City) Saint Mary's Angels College of Pampanga (Santa Ana) Saint Michael's College (Guagua) St. Nicolas College of Business and Technology (City of San Fernando) San Lorenzo Ruiz Center of Studies and Schools Santa Rita College Integrated School (Santa Rita) Somascan Fathers Seminary (Lubao) Saint Augustine School of Nursing St. Scholastica’s Academy STI College (Angeles City) STI College Systems Plus College Foundation, Inc. Systems Plus College Foundation, Inc. TESDA Training Center The Metropolitan Academy Of Arts & Beauty – Pampanga University of the Assumption University of the Philippines - Diliman Extension Program in Pampanga (Clark Freeport Zone) Government and politics Like other provinces in the Philippines, Pampanga is governed by a governor and vice governor who are elected to three-year terms. The governor is the executive head and leads the province's departments in executing the ordinances and improving public services. The vice governor heads a legislative council (Sangguniang Panlalawigan) consisting of board members from the districts. Provincial government Just as the national government, the provincial government is divided into three branches: executive, legislative, and judiciary. The judicial branch is administered solely by the Supreme Court of the Philippines. The LGUs have control of the executive and legislative branches. The executive branch is composed of the governor for the province, mayors for the cities and municipalities, and the barangay captains for the barangays. The provincial assembly for the provinces, Sangguniang Panlungsod (city assembly) for the cities, Sangguniang Bayan (town assembly) for the municipalities, Sangguniang Barangay (barangay council), and the Sangguniang Kabataan for the youth sector. The seat of government is vested upon the governor and other elected officers who hold office at the Provincial Capitol building. The Sangguniang Panlalawigan is the center of legislation. Court system The Supreme Court of the Philippines recognizes Pampanga regional trial courts and metropolitan or municipal trial courts within the province and towns, that have an overall jurisdiction in the populace of the province and towns, respectively. Batas Pambansa Blg. 129, "The Judiciary Reorganization Act of 1980", as amended, created Regional, Metropolitan, Municipal Trial and Circuit Courts. The Third Judicial Region includes RTCs in Bulacan, Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Palayan and San Jose, inter alia: xxx. There shall be – (c) Seventy-five Regional Trial judges shall be commissioned for the Third Judicial Region: Twenty-two branches (Branches XLI to LXII) for the province of Pampanga and the city of Angeles, Branches XLI to XLVIII with seats at San Fernando, Branches XLIX to LIII at Guagua, Branches LIV and LV at Macabebe, and Branches LVI to LXII at Angeles; The law also created Metropolitan Trial Court in each metropolitan area established by law, a Municipal Trial Court in each of the other cities or municipalities, and a Municipal Circuit Trial Court in each circuit comprising such cities and/or municipalities as are grouped together pursuant to law: three branches for Cabanatuan City; in every city which does not form part of a metropolitan area, there shall be a Municipal Trial Court with one branch, except as hereunder provided: Three branches for Angeles; In each of the municipalities that are not comprised within a metropolitan area and a municipal circuit there shall be a Municipal Trial Court which shall have one branch, except as hereunder provided: Four branches for San Fernando and two branches for Guagua, both of Pampanga. Governors Dennis Pineda Notable people National heroes and historical personalities José Alejandrino - born in Arayat, Philippine Revolutionary General and former senator. Mamerto Natividad - born in Bacolor, Philippine Revolutionary General. Servillano Aquino - Philippine Revolutionary General and member of Malolos Congress for Samar Nicolasa Dayrit Panlilio - Filipina non-combatant in the Philippine–American War known for helping to minister the sick and wounded Filipino combatants. Práxedes Fajardo – Filipina revolutionary and head of the Pampangan section of the Philippine Red Cross during the anticolonial armed struggles against Spain and the United States. José Abad Santos – born in San Fernando, Pampanga, the 5th chief justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines. Pedro Abad Santos – a former assemblyman and founder of the Aguman ding Talapagobra ning Pilipinas. Luis Taruc – leader of the Hukbalahap group (from Hukbong Bayan Laban sa Hapon) between 1942 and 1950. Casto Alejandrino – peasant leader and commander of the Hukbalahap. Vivencio Cuyugan – former mayor of San Fernando, and one of the founders of the guerrilla group Hukbalahap Politics and Government Diosdado Pangan Macapagal – 9th president of the Republic of the Philippines and a native of Lubao, Pampanga. Gloria Macapagal Arroyo – 14th president of the Republic of the Philippines. She is the daughter of the 9th president of the Republic Diosdado Macapagal. Rogelio dela Rosa – former Philippine senator and actor, native of Lubao, Pampanga. Pablo Ángeles y David – former Philippine senator and former Governor of Pampanga Sotero Baluyut – former Philippine senator and former Governor of Pampanga Antonio Villa-Real – 25th Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines Vicente Abad Santos – 96th Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines, 39th Secretary of the Department of Justice Amando Tetangco, Jr. – born in Apalit, Pampanga is a Filipino banker, who served as the third Governor of the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP). He was the first BSP governor to serve two terms. Jose Lingad – former Governor of Pampanga and 15th Secretary of the Department of the Labor and Employment, native of Lubao, Pampanga. Pedro Tongio Liongson – lawyer, judge, and politician; born on January 31, 1865, in Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga. Eddie Panlilio – born in Minalin, Pampanga, was the first Filipino priest to be elected governor in Philippine history. Satur Ocampo - politician, activist, journalist, and writer. Former Member of the Philippine House of Representatives for Bayan Muna Partylist Oscar Albayalde – A police officer, former chief of the Philippine National Police and former director of the National Capital Police Office, born in San Fernando. Mercedes Arrastia-Tuason – Philippine diplomat and former ambassador to the Holy See Culinary Arts Lucia Cunanan – restaurateur best known for having invented or at least re-invented sisig, a popular Kapampangan dish in the Philippines and Filipino diasporas worldwide. Larry Cruz – restaurateur who founded the LJC Restaurant Group, which operates several restaurants in the Philippines. Among the restaurants in the said group include Café Adriatico, Cafe Havana, Bistro Remedios, and Abe, which was named after his father, the writer E. Aguilar Cruz. Journalism and Media Amando G. Dayrit – pre-war columnist and journalist Orly Punzalan – a veteran radio-TV broadcaster and former president of Intercontinental Broadcasting Corporation (IBC-13), born and raised in Apalit. Kristine Johnson – Filipino-American co-anchor at WCBS-TV, born in Clark Air Base. Ivan Mayrina – broadcaster, journalist, reporter and news anchor. Literature and arts Aurelio Tolentino – original member of the Katipunan and nationalist playwright, born in Guagua. Vicente Manansala- National Artist of the Philippines for Visual Arts – Painting, native of Macabebe. Angela Manalang-Gloria - pioneer Filipina poet who wrote in English, born in Guagua. Zoilo Galang - credited as one of the pioneering Filipino writers who worked with the English language. He is the author of the first Philippine novel written in the English language, A Child of Sorrow, published in 1921. Galo Ocampo – modernist painter Francisco Alonso Liongson – playwright. Born on July 1, 1896, in Villa de Bacolor, Pampanga. Norma Belleza – painter Danton Remoto – writer Sciences Alfredo C. Santos – National Scientist of the Philippines for Physical Chemistry, from Santo Tomas, Pampanga Randy David – sociologist, and public intellectual Religious leaders Francisco Baluyot – born in Guagua, Pampanga broke barriers by becoming the 1st known indio priest, who, upon ordination in 1698, was assigned to the archdiocese of Cebu. Rufino Jiao Santos – born in Guagua, Pampanga, Archbishop of Manila from 1953 to 1973. The first Filipino Cardinal. Pedro Paulo Santos – born in Porac, Pampanga, First Parish Priest of Calulut, assigned as Parish Priest of Angeles City, appointed as bishop of Nueva Caceres in 1938 then as its first archbishop on 1951. Eliseo Soriano – televangelist of Ang Dating Daan and the Over-all Servant of Members Church of God International which its main headquarters is located in Apalit, Pampanga. Florentino Lavarias – born in Mabalacat, Pampanga, Archbishop of Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Fernando and formerly the fourth Bishop of the Diocese of Iba, Zambales Honesto Ongtioco – born in San Fernando, Pampanga, bishop of Balanga from 1998 to 2003 and Cubao since 2003. Paciano Aniceto – born in Santa Ana, Pampanga, Archbishop Emeritus Roman Catholic Archdiocese of San Fernando and former second Bishop of the Diocese of Iba, Zambales Roberto Mallari – born in Macabebe, Pampanga, Bishop of Roman Catholic Diocese of San Jose in Nueva Ecija Pablo Virgilio David – born in Betis, Pampanga, Bishop of Roman Catholic Diocese of Kalookan Victor Ocampo – born in Angeles, Pampanga, Bishop of Roman Catholic Diocese of Gumaca Crisostomo Yalung – born in Angeles, Pampanga, Bishop Emeritus of Roman Catholic Diocese of Antipolo, Retired in 2002 Entertainment Jaime dela Rosa – a matinee idol in the 1950s of Lubao, Pampanga. Brillante Mendoza – Filipino film director from San Fernando, Pampanga. Jason Paul Laxamana – Filipino film director and writer Petersen Vargas – Filipino film director and writer Lea Salonga – singer and actress, spent the first six years of her childhood in Angeles before moving to Manila. Pepe Smith – singer and member of Juan de la Cruz Band Sheena Halili – model and actress from San Fernando. Vanessa Minnillo – American television personality born in Clark Air Base, Angeles, and raised in the US. Allan Pineda Lindo, also known as apl.de.ap – founding member of The Black Eyed Peas, born in Sapang Bato, Angeles. Donita Rose – Filipino-American actress, lived in Angeles City for a few years. Kelsey Merritt – Filipino-American model best known for being the first woman of Filipino descent to walk in the Victoria's Secret Fashion Show and to appear in the pages of the Sports Illustrated Swimsuit Issue. Ritz Azul - dramatic actress. Baron Geisler - actor. Pageantry Melanie Marquez – crowned Miss International 1979. Abbygale Arenas - crowned Binibining Pilipinas - Universe 1997. Carla Balingit - crowned Binibining Pilipinas - Universe 2003. Laura Marie Dunlap - crowned Miss Philippines Earth 2003. Angela Fernando - crowned Miss Eco Tourism Philippines 2010 Ann Colis – crowned Miss Globe 2015. Nichole Marie Manalo - crowned Binibining Pilipinas - Globe 2016. Emma Tiglao – crowned Binibining Pilipinas - Intercontinental 2019. Michelle Dee – crowned Miss World Philippines 2019. Cyrille Payumo – crowned Miss Tourism International 2019. Francesca Taruc - crowned Miss Tourism World Intercontinental 2019 Sports Ato Agustin – Filipino professional basketball player and coach, from Lubao, Pampanga. Victonara Galang – Filipino volleyball athlete from Angeles. Efren "Bata" Reyes – billiards player from Angeles. Jayson Castro William – Filipino professional basketball player from Guagua, Pampanga. Japeth Aguilar – Filipino professional basketball player from Sasmuan, Pampanga. Arwind Santos – Filipino professional basketball player from Lubao, Pampanga. Calvin Abueva – Filipino professional basketball player from Angeles. Diana Mae Carlos – Filipino volleyball athlete from Lubao, Pampanga. Mary Remy Joy Palma – Filipino volleyball athlete from Apalit, Pampanga Michael Sudaria – Filipino volleyball athlete. Others References External links Local Governance Performance Management System Provinces of the Philippines States and territories established in 1571 1571 establishments in the Philippines	[ -0.1917436569929123, 0.34151244163513184, 0.23215985298156738, 0.005247831344604492, -0.03588775172829628, 0.267914354801178, -0.08205774426460266, 1.1199129819869995, -0.6730175614356995, -0.06176932901144028, -0.18479454517364502, 0.31460481882095337, -0.08034693449735641, 0.21646489202976227, -0.21023227274417877, 0.35961347818374634, 1.0796113014221191, 0.7838994264602661, 0.16354459524154663, -0.702233612537384, -0.5380762815475464, -0.37152808904647827, 0.46550288796424866, 0.4154694974422455, 0.7631415724754333, -0.021609630435705185, 0.14161823689937592, 0.6379249691963196, 0.44983693957328796, -0.10939979553222656, -0.4363757371902466, -0.026593297719955444, -0.13017553091049194, 0.3351771831512451, 0.3870614767074585, 0.2127799391746521, -0.4142358601093292, -0.5038914084434509, 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255607	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wests%20Tigers	Wests Tigers	The Wests Tigers are an Australian professional rugby league football team, based in the Inner West and Western Sydney. They have competed in the National Rugby League since being formed at the end of the 1999 NRL season as a joint-venture club between the Balmain Tigers and the Western Suburbs Magpies. The Wests Tigers started playing in the 2000 NRL season and they won their maiden premiership in 2005. It is one of only two clubs (the other being the Newcastle Knights) that has never lost a Grand Final in which it has participated. The club also won the World Sevens in 2004. The Wests Tigers play home games at three grounds: Leichhardt Oval (the home ground of Balmain), Campbelltown Stadium (the home ground of Western Suburbs) and Western Sydney Stadium in Parramatta as of 2019, where they have committed to playing four games a year. They are currently coached by Michael Maguire. The club CEO is Justin Pascoe. History Background In Australia, the game of rugby league began in 1908; the New South Wales Rugby League premiership (NSWRL) had nine teams from the Sydney area. Two of those teams were clubs based in Balmain and the Western Suburbs who happened to meet each other in round 1 of 1908. Balmain won, 24 to 0. The Balmain club, who later adopted a Tiger as their emblem, in their tenure in the NSWRL won eleven premierships in twenty grand finals and was one of the forces in the NSWRL competition. However their last premiership success was in 1969 and in the 1990s with many new clubs being established, there was pressure on clubs to perform to survive in the first grade competition in Australia. The name Wests Tigers is derived from the nickname of the Western Suburbs Magpies and the mascot, a tiger, which was also the mascot of Balmain. The Western Suburbs club won four premierships in twelve grand finals over the tenure of the NSWRL competition. The Western Suburbs Magpies, like the Balmain Tigers, had a dismal 1990s winning rate, and again there was pressure on the foundation clubs to perform. The NSWRL competition was replaced by the Australian Rugby League competition (ARL) in 1995 due to the expansion of rugby league within Australia. With a media-driven rival competition being set up, the pressure was for clubs to survive and preserve their short-term future. Both the Magpies and the Tigers signed with the ARL, whereas eight clubs of the 1995 ARL competition signed with the rival Super League competition for 1997. In 1998, the ARL and Super League were unified into a National Rugby League (NRL) competition. As part of the deal with the ARL and Super League, the NRL competition reduced to fourteen teams in 2000 from the twenty two that had competition in both competitions in 1997. With the addition of a team in 1998, this meant that nine teams would be forced out before the 2000 season. Foundation With the NRL offering guaranteed entrance into the 2000 competition and A$6 million funding for clubs that merged, many clubs that were struggling to compete negotiated to merge. Balmain had garnered interest to merge with the Parramatta Eels and Gold Coast Chargers while Western Suburbs had talked with the Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs and Penrith Panthers. Both Balmain and Western Suburbs felt that those offers were seen more as takeovers of their clubs rather than mergers. By June 1999, both clubs' boards had unanimously voted to form a joint-venture partnership with each other to make a competitive entity. One hundred shares were issued to Balmain Tigers Rugby League Football Club and 100 shares were issued to Western Suburbs Rugby League Football Group Pty Limited as a 50/50-owned joint venture. Due to Western Suburbs's record-breaking dismal season in 1999, they supplied just six of the twenty-five players to the new joint venture. A board of directors was appointed with five sourced from Balmain, five sourced from Western Suburbs, with a rotating chairman serving a one-year appointment. The inaugural chairman of the joint venture was John Chalk, who was previously involved with Balmain Tigers, and Steve Noyce was appointed CEO Playing seasons Coach Wayne Pearce 2000 Balmain coach Wayne Pearce was the initial coach of the Wests Tigers and new recruit Jarrod McCracken was named captain. Before the first round, the Tigers were denied a place in the double header at Stadium Australia. The debut match for the team was therefore held at Campbelltown, against eventual premiers the Brisbane Broncos, where after leading 18–6 the team snatched a 24-all draw after falling behind late in the game. John Skandalis scored the Tigers' first ever try. The Tigers surprised many by maintaining a high place on the ladder for most of the year (often in second place). Losses to the Penrith Panthers (after leading 31–8) and in the snow against the Canberra Raiders combined with injuries to key players saw the Tigers slide out of the top eight. The loss of captain Jarrod McCracken from a spear tackle against Melbourne was a crucial blow. A highlight of their first season is that Wests' Joel Caine claimed the 2000 NRL season's top point-scorer spot. Coach Terry Lamb 2001–2002 2001 was a tough season for the joint venture club, including off-field incidents. After Wayne Pearce announced he would no longer coach the team, Terry Lamb was appointed to the position. This was a controversial selection because of animosity from Balmain supporters due to an incident involving Ellery Hanley in the 1988 Grand Final (see Terry Lamb entry for more information). Early in the season, key players Craig Field and Kevin McGuinness tested positive to prohibited drugs and both received a one-year suspension. Field was the team's halfback and playmaker while McGuinness was a leading try scorer for the club. Later in the season another big name player was suspended: John Hopoate earned worldwide notoriety when he was charged with inserting his finger into the anus (pushing the players' shorts) of opposition players. Hopoate quit the club and received a long suspension. Lamb was criticised for seeming to condone the activity. During the season the club announced Terry Lamb would not have his contract renewed. The team struggled near the foot of the ladder and only a large victory over Souths moved them clear of the wooden spoon position. The coaching job for 2003 was offered to (and rejected by) both Craig Bellamy and Ian Millward before Tim Sheens was selected. The selection was by no means seen as a positive move by the media as Sheens' most recent coaching stint had seen him sacked by the North Queensland Cowboys. Coach Tim Sheens 2003–2012 The 2003 season was notable for the emergence of new young players through the team as the club moved away from the era of big names and big money signings and focused on developing junior talent. Most notably Benji Marshall, then a schoolboy prodigy with no senior league experience, made his debut against the Newcastle Knights. The Tigers improved greatly in 2004 with provided help by signings of players such as Brett Hodgson and Pat Richards who began to blend well with the younger players emerging as talents. The Tigers narrowly missed the playoffs after losing their final three games when a single victory would have guaranteed finals football for the first time. Premiership success 2005 was arguably the Wests Tigers' best season as of their foundation, as they not only made it to the finals for the first time, but also reached the top four in the round robin part of the competition, setting crowd attendance records at three different grounds: Campbelltown Stadium (20,527), Telstra Stadium (29,542) and Leichhardt Oval (22,877). After a slow start, bookmakers rated the Tigers a 150–1 chance to win the premiership. However the club emerged from the bottom half of the table to win a club-record eight in a row before finishing fourth. The team developed a reputation as a flamboyant attacking team who played at a rapid pace to compensate a lack of forward size. The Tigers played their first ever final as a joint venture club at Telstra Stadium against North Queensland Cowboys. Backed by a passionate crowd the team won 50–6. They then beat the Brisbane Broncos 34–6 and premiership favourites St George Illawarra Dragons 20–12 to book a spot against the Cowboys. Based on their winning form (they had won 11 of their last 13) and their big win over the Cowboys in the opening finals game, the Wests Tigers were rated favourites to win the 2005 grand final. After a slow start, Bryce Gibbs and Pat Richards scored tries to give the Tigers a 12–6 lead. The Richards try was ranked the second best try of all time in the NRL's Centenary of Rugby League 100 Hot Tries survey. The try was started by five-eighth Benji Marshall, who received the ball from Brett Hodgson (after receiving a down field kick) 98 metres from the opposition tryline. He beat Cowboys five-eighth Johnathan Thurston and Matt Sing. Marshall then ran 60 metres, only to be caught by Cowboys fullback Matt Bowen. He made a flick pass to Pat Richards behind his back, who then fended off Rod Jensen to score. In the second half the Tigers gained control with tries to Anthony Laffranchi and Daniel Fitzhenry. After withstanding a Cowboys fightback, a Todd Payten try on full-time sealed a 30–16 win. Captain Scott Prince was awarded the Clive Churchill Medal for 2005. The premiership victory meant that the club joined an exclusive group that won premierships in their first finals appearance, which had not been achieved in almost 100 years. The group also includes Souths in 1908 and Newtown in 1910. At the end of the 2005 season, Wests also signed Malaysian car manufacturer Proton as its major new sponsor on a contract estimated to be worth more than $1 million. Post grand final failure Following the premiership win several key players left the club. From the grand final team, Mark O'Neill, and Pat Richards signed with English clubs (Leeds Rhinos and Wigan Warriors respectively). New signings included Jamaal Lolesi (Bulldogs), Keith Galloway (Cronulla Sharks) and Ryan O'Hara (Canberra Raiders). As defending premiers, the Wests Tigers began the season by travelling to England to play English Super League champions the Bradford Bulls. Missing many of their star players, the Tigers tried hard but were eventually beaten 10–30. After a come from behind win over competition heavyweights St George-Illawarra, the team struggled with injuries to key players. Most notably Benji Marshall and Brett Hodgson missed large portions of the season. The team suffered a number of narrow losses late in games and also two golden point (extra time) matches in controversial circumstances. The Wests Tigers narrowly missed the finals and the chance to defend their title. One highlight of the season was the debut of several players including Chris Lawrence and the emergence of up and coming players such as Dean Collis. Brett Hodgson played for the New South Wales team in the interstate State of Origin series in all three games. Another highlight was an upset win over eventual premiers the Brisbane Broncos at Suncorp Stadium where a second-string Tigers team missing Hodgson, Marshall, Whatuira and Gibbs beat the more experienced Broncos 20–6. Joining the club for the 2007 season was John Morris (ex Parramatta Eels) to replace Scott Prince who signed with the Gold Coast Titans. Other players to leave at the end of the 2006 season were John Skandalis, Anthony Laffranchi and Shane Elford – all members of the 2005 grand final team. The Wests Tigers had a bad start to the season losing their opening four games by narrow margins. They then had a six-game winning streak to move into the top four. The Tigers' five-eighth Benji Marshall and full-back Brett Hodgson missed the majority of the season with injuries. The Wests Tigers ended their attempt at a finals berth and finished the season on a loss to the Newcastle Knights, 26–24, at the then-Telstra Stadium. The following two seasons ended in the same fashion with the Tigers missing out on the finals narrowly in 2008 and 2009 finishing 10th and 9th. In February 2008, the Wests Tigers announced the extension of Benji Marshall's contract by one year, to the end of 2009. They also announced the signing of Gareth Ellis, the Leeds Rhinos second-rower and international representative, to a three-year deal commencing in 2009. On an administrative level, in April 2008, CEO Steve Noyce announced he was standing down from his role and was eventually replaced by Scott Longmuir at the end of the 2008 season. Continued off field troubles Following the appointment of Scott Longmuir as CEO, there were rumours that Scott and then coach Sheens did not see eye to eye. Longmuir was aligned with then chair of the board Kevin Hammond (from the Wests side of the JV) in wanting Sheens to focus on the football, and for the office of the CEO to run the club as a business. At the time the financial backing from the three leagues clubs was very minimal, and Longmuir attempted to modernise the management of the club. However, with a majority of the board backing Sheens, Longmuir was eventually removed from his role in April 2009. On 14 April 2009, Tim Camiler (CEO Balmain Leagues Club) and Andy Timbs (General Manager Wests Ashfield Leagues Club) were appointed temporary joint CEO's of the football club In June 2009, Stephen Humphreys was announced as the new CEO, beginning his role in July. Humphreys was a lifelong Balmain Tigers fan, with the appointment brokered by ex-Balmain player, Benny Elias. His first major decision was to ensure continuity on the pitch, maintaining Tim Sheens as Head Coach of the football club. Return to finals football In February 2010, the Wests Tigers announced the signing of former Rugby Union star Lote Tuqiri for three years, and the signing of Benji Marshall for a further five. In 2010 the club finished third in the minor premiership competition, narrowly missing out on a grand final spot after losing to eventual premiers St. George Illawarra Dragons in the preliminary final by one point. At the end of 2010, it was announced that Meriton had signed a 2-year agreement to become major shirt and club sponsor for the 2011 and 2012 season. This placed the large M logo on the Wests Tigers redesigned shirts for 2 years 2011 was another successful season with the Tigers finishing 4th and making the semi finals yet again, where they were defeated by a late try to the New Zealand Warriors in a loss. Form slump Despite being backed as premiership favourites at the start of the season, the Tigers failed to qualify for the finals in the 2012 season finishing 10th. On 25 September 2012, in a press conference CEO Stephen Humphreys and Chairman Dave Trodden announced that Tim Sheens would not be the head coach in 2013 in a restructuring of the club. This came a week after the loss of long-term players Beau Ryan and Chris Heighington to the Cronulla Sharks for the 2013 season, and a poor 2012 season on the field. Heighington had one year on his contract left while a handshake deal with Ryan had been made back in February. Coach Mick Potter 2013–2014 At the end of the 2012 season, Mick Potter was given the head coaching job on a two-year deal to help rebuild the club. Success was far from achieved with the Tigers missing out on the finals in the 2013 and 2014 seasons finishing 15th and 13th respectively. In further upheavel at the club, CEO Stephen Humphreys stepped down from his role in May 2013, with continued boardroom issues cited as a major factor. In June 2013 Wests Campbelltown sold their shares in the joint venture to Wests Ashfield Leagues, and pulled out of the joint venture. This sale left Balmain Leagues Club and Wests Ashfield Leagues club with 100 shares each in the joint venture On 26 July, the club announced Grant Meyer had been appointed as CEO During this period Benji Marshall announced his decision to leave the club at the end of 2013, and signed a deal to play rugby union in New Zealand The 2014 season was another poor season for the Wests Tigers and there was growing unrest from the club and fans about the results under Mick Potter. Subsequently, following a mid year and end review by Meyer, Mick Potter did not have his coaching contract renewed, with the club issuing a press release confirming his release in September 2014. Potter finished his tenure at the club with a record of 17 wins and 31 losses. Off field restructure – 2014 In September 2014, with the ongoing financial troubles at Balmain Leagues Club (who by this stage had defaulted on payments to the Wests Tigers) a new shareholder agreement was put into place with the supervision of the NRL. A new seven-person board was nominated with two from Balmain Tigers, two from Wests Leagues and three independents. A new NRL deed was issued along with a new Wests Tigers constitution being drawn up. Mike Bailey continued as chairman of the board of Wests Tigers. The proposed 7-person board was never ratified, and a reduced board of five was approved by the NRL. As at 5 September 2014, Wests Tigers Board of Directors consisted of the following: Marina Go – Chairperson (Independent NRL Appointment),Tony Andreacchio - (Wests Ashfield Leagues Board Member), Simon Cook - (Wests Ashfield Leagues CEO), Lucio Bartololeo - (Independent NRL Appointment), Rosemary Sinclair - (Independent NRL Appointment) Balmain Leagues Club had no appointed directors due to the club moving into funding default, and were termed "unfinancial shareholders". Balmain were in debt to the NRL to a sum of nearly AU$5 million, which was due to be repaid on 16 March 2016. At the time, it was announced that should Balmain Leagues Club fail to repay the loan, the shares would be considered "in default" and would be placed for sale. The agreement was made that Wests Ashfield Leagues Club would be offered first call to buy all the shares, pay off the NRL debts and become sole owner. If Wests Ashfield declined, the shares could be offered for general sale. One of the first tasks for the board was to appoint a new club coach. The club moved to appoint Jason Taylor (who had played for Western Suburbs between 1990 and 1993) on 29 September 2014 for the oncoming 2015 season, following guidance of CEO Meyer, and supported by Chair Go. Phil Moss also joined the club as General Manager of Football Operations at the same time. Coach Jason Taylor 2015–2017 Jason Taylor began the new season with Robbie Farah as captain. The first game of the season started off vs the Gold Coast Titans. A far from convincing performance gave the Tigers a one-point field goal victory coming from the boot of Pat Richards. The season ended with Wests Tigers 15th on the ladder sharing 20 points with the Knights, with Tigers goal difference preventing the wooden spoon. Off the pitch politics continued through the year with ownership issues still dominating headlines for the football club, with the NRL maintaining its financial interest in the club given the poor state of affairs at Balmain Leagues Club. Adding to the troubles at the club, CEO Grant Meyer tendered his resignation on 15 June 2015 The club also made headlines with rumours and stories that the club coach and captain were in difference of opinion about how the team should be playing. In August 2015 the club made a statement on their website announcing that Farah had been given permission to speak with other football clubs for the 2016 season. The new club CEO was announced on 4 September 2015 with Justin Pascoe, previously at Penrith Panthers, appointed to the role. September 2015 also saw the announcement of a three-year sponsorship agreement with Brydens Lawyers. The three-year multimillion-dollar deal was the largest in the club's history and saw Brydens logo on the front and sleeve of the Wests Tigers jerseys. The 2016 season started off with Aaron Woods replacing Robbie Farah as club captain, and the club made a promising start to the season with home wins against New Zealand Warriors and Manly Sea Eagles. A string of losses including a 60 points to 6 loss against the Canberra Raiders left the club struggling at the lower end of the table. Off field, the drama surrounding Robbie Farah continued with speculation that he would leave the club by the end of the season. After a string of mixed results, including two wins against rivals South Sydney, but a poor loss to Newcastle left Wests Tigers 9th on the ladder, a point away from the top 8 at the end of the full season. The end of the season also saw the Robbie Farah saga concluded, with Farah penning a two-year deal with South Sydney Rabbitohs. Robbie left the club having played 247 games and scoring 61 tries. Early in the 2017 season, after a pair of heavy defeats to the Penrith Panthers and Canberra Raiders, Taylor was dismissed from his position as head coach. Assistant Coach Andrew Webster was appointed as caretaker manager whilst the CEO and Board recruited a new full-time replacement. Off field restructure and new ownership – 2016 2016 also had its watershed moment with the ownership of the football club finally resolved. On 5 May 2016 the club released a statement announcing the restructure of the football club In an $8.5 million deal, Wests Ashfield Leagues Club assumed majority ownership of the football franchise. As the press statement read "The ownership structure sees Wests move to 75% ownership with Balmain retaining 25% and the Board expanded to nine directors". Wests Ashfield Leagues Club (and by relationship Wests Magpies) has settled all debts owed to the NRL by the Wests Tigers Football club. Balmain Tigers Leagues Club in a separate financial agreement had an outstanding loan and debt to NRL. Wests Ashfield Leagues Club were guarantors of that loan. Note that the loan was not secured against the Wests Tigers Football Club. The new board had five members appointed from Wests Ashfield, two from Balmain along with two independents. Coach Ivan Cleary 2017–2018 After a week of rumours in the press on 3 April 2017, it was announced that Ivan Cleary had accepted the role of coach through to the end of the 2020 season with immediate effect, at a press conference held at Wests Ashfield Leagues Club. During a press conference with Coach Cleary late on in April, a single near throwaway comment was made by Ivan about how he approached his first meeting with the players. He said to the press "I told the players you are either on the bus, or you are off it". This one line became a marketing slogan used through his tenure as coach and the "On The Bus" slogan became used by fans and media alike. 2017 turned out to be a poor one for Wests Tigers on the field with The NRL team finishing in 14th spot, The Under 20s Holden Cup team finishing 2nd to last and The NSW Cup team finishing with the wooden spoon. In the 2018 NRL season, Wests started off the year with impressive wins over the Sydney Roosters and Melbourne before a mid season slump saw the club only winning 3 out of 10 games between Round 10 and Round 20. Wests would end up finishing in 9th position on the table missing the finals. Their final game of the year was a 51–10 loss against the South Sydney Rabbitohs. Towards the end of the season, rumours and news swirled around the press and media about Ivan Cleary leaving the Wests Tigers to return to Penrith Panthers. On 28 October 2018, Wests released coach Ivan Cleary from the final two years of his contract. Cleary also sent a departing text message to the tigers playing group saying "G'day boys I hope this finds you well and enjoying your time off, I was writing to you in the hope of beating the press.. to let you know that I will no longer be your coach at Wests Tigers. This is an extremely uncomfortable situation for me as I have genuine fondness for the club, and I have loved coaching you all.. I understand that this situation has caused some pain for people that I care about, along with putting the club in an awkward situation... I do not feel good about this. I would have preferred to do this in person but time and circumstances have made that impossible. I hope we meet again soon and I wish you all the very best in the future. You have my number and I am always open for a chat if you wish. Iv". Coach Michael Maguire from 2019 With the signs that Cleary was leaving the club, a search was underway for his replacement. The same day the club announced Cleary's departure Michael Maguire was announced as coach through to the end of 2021. One of Michael Maguires early decisions at the club following the Christmas break was to remove the "co-captain" arrangement and appoint Moses MBye as the club's sole and only captain. Under the guidance of Maguire, Wests Tigers football club has changed the team's slogan. "On the Bus" was replaced with "This is Our Jungle" for the 2019 season. Salary cap breaches On 19 December 2018 the NRL Integrity Unit under the guidance of the NRL CEO Todd Greenburg announced the Wests Tigers had been found to have fraudulently and intentionally breached the NRL Salary Cap. Greenburg announced that when playmaker Robbie Farah was released to the South Sydney Rabbitohs in 2016, CEO Justin Pascoe had offered to employ Farah back at the club on his retirement from football in return for Robbie agreeing to leave without incident. Despite Farah never accepting this position, and despite this story being broadcast in the media at the time, the NRL Integrity Unit decided that this offer was a sufficient incentive for Robbie to leave, it should have been formally lodged with the NRL. This was constituted a serious breach of the salary cap. The football club was fined $750,000, include the alleged salary offered to Robbie of $639,000 to the 2019 salary cap and CEO Pascoe was advised it was the intention of the NRL to de-register the experienced sports administrator from ever managing a club in the NRL. The football club appealed this decision, and on 1 March 2019 the NRL backtracked on the position from December 2018 and halved the fine to $350,000, allowed the club to split the $639,000 of the cap breach over seasons 2019 and 2020 and CEO Justin Pascoe would be stood down for 6 months only (backdated to the original date of 19 December 2018). In the interim, Wests Ashfield CEO, Simon Cook, assumed the role of interim CEO at the football club, and temporarily stood down from his position on the football club board. Head of Football Kelly Egan left the club prior to Pascoe's return as did chairman Marino Go and Chief Operating Officer Ryan Webb. Justin Pascoe was re-instated back to his role as CEO on 26 June 2019 Change of chair of the board On 12 March 2019 the club announced to the media and press that former NSW State Premier Barry O'Farrell had been appointed as chair of the Board of Directors, replacing Marina Go, who had come to the end of her tenure. Season 2019 The 2019 NRL season began with the knowledge that the club would take occupancy in the newly constructed Western Sydney Stadium in Parramatta. Four home games were allocated to this exciting new venue. The opening game of the season was played in wet conditions at Leichhardt Oval in front of 13,000 fans, with the team victors 20–6 against a poor Manly Sea Eagles team. A second round win against the free running New Zealand Warriors a week later in front of nearly 10,000 fans in Campbelltown again in wet conditions was a good start to the season. In round 6 against the Parramatta Eels, Wests played in the first NRL game at the new Western Sydney Stadium which ended in the club losing 51–6. Wests Tigers took another "home" game on the road in 2019, with a match hosted in Scully Park in Tamworth. Nearly 10,000 fans turned out to watch Wests run out 30–14 victors over lower placed Gold Coast Titans. The first home game of the season at the newly named BankWest stadium was held on Friday 7 June against the Canberra Raiders. The 0–28 result in front of 12,000 supporters lent some fans to make the comment "This is not our jungle". Wests Tigers playmaker, Benji Marshall, played his 300th game in the NRL on 14 July at BankWest stadium in front of more than 25,000 fans. Wests lost the game 30–18 against the Parramatta Eels. In round 25 against Cronulla-Sutherland, Wests went into the game knowing that whoever won the match would be guaranteed a finals spot as both teams came into the last game of the year on equal points. Wests would end up losing the match 25–8 at a packed Leichhardt Oval which was also retiring Robbie Farah's final game. The loss also meant that this was the sixth time that Wests had finished ninth since the joint venture started in 2000. Change of chair of the board On 13 November 2019 the club announced Lee Hagipantelis had been appointed chair of the Board of the football club. Whilst Mr O'Farrell had only been with the club for a short while, he resigned his post to take up the position of Ambassador to India for Australia. Lee Hagipantelis is the Principal of Wests Tigers shirt sponsor, Brydens Lawyers. Season 2020 The new season was kicked off with an away game against St. George Illawarra at WIN Stadium in Wollongong. Wests Tigers ran out 24-14 victors against the Red V. The season was interrupted with the global pandemic COVID-19 following the opening round, with all games being placed on hiatus. When the shortened NRL season recommenced, all games were played initially behind closed doors. Wests played six matches with no fans able to visit the stadia to watch the games. Fans were re-admitted in limited numbers in round 8 with Wests Tigers losing to Penrith in front of 5000 fans at Bankwest Stadium. 2020 wasn't a great year for the club on the pitch, eventually fading away to 11th position, with only seven wins and thirteen losses. The club also set a new unwanted record being the first side since the competition began in 1908 to concede 24 points or more in a game for ten consecutive matches. On 18 August Chris Lawrence announced he would be retiring from the Wests Tigers and from Rugby League as a player. Lawrence retired having played 253 games for the club, and having scored 84 tries On 1 September the club announced that Benji Marshall would not be playing on into 2021. This announcement was seen by many fans as deplorable and a petition soon garnered almost 10,000 signatures by fans, with Benji later claiming that he heard about this news via the press, not from the club. Marshall left the club having played 257 games over two stints at the club scoring 84 tries. Player swap 2020 The 2020 NRL season at Wests Tigers was also memorable for the first of its kind "player swap". Melbourne hooker Harry Grant and Wests Tigers centre, Paul Momirovski swapped club's for the 2020 season. The deal, brokered by Melbourne coach Craig Bellamy and Wests coach Michael Maguire, was the first of its kind within the NRL modern era game. The two players swapped playing clubs for the remainder of the 2020 NRL season. Share ownership update On 2 October 2020 the Amalgamation of Wests Ashfield Leagues Club and Balmain Tigers Leagues Club was cemented. As per the Deed of Amalgamation, this changed the ownership structure of the club to effectively be 90% Wests Ashfield, 10% Balmain Tigers. Season 2021 The 2021 NRL season opened with fresh hope for Wests Tigers fans. With a number of new signings at the club including Jimmy "The Jet" Roberts, and Daine Laurie in as fullback, the club moved Adam Doueihi to Number 6 to partner Luke Brooks in the halves, with Jacob Liddle coming in as hooker. The first five rounds however were not a great success, with the club picking up only two points with a win over Newcastle. In round 4 of the 2021 NRL season against Parramattta at Stadium Australia, the match recorded the highest attendance at a Rugby League game so far in 2021 with an official attendance of 29,056. In round 5 of the competition, there was a lot of emotion at Leichhardt Oval, with the club paying tribute following the death of Western Suburbs legend, Tommy Raudonikis. The #7 jersey was retired for the game in memoriam, with Luke Brooks running out in #22. The game itself was more known for the team being booed off by fans at half time, trailing the un-fancied North Queensland Cowboys 28–6. The game ended up 34–30 to North Queensland with Wests Tigers rallying in the second half. April 2021 also saw a minor change to the Board of Directors of the football club, with Mick Liubinskas being replaced by Julie Romero. Like Mick, Julie was a nominee by Wests Ashfield Leagues Club, a director of that leagues club and a Wests Ashfield Debenture holder. In round 9 of the 2021 NRL season, the club played at Campbelltown Sports Ground and they wore specially designed jerseys as part of a celebration into the life of Tommy Raudonikis OAM. The match ball was delivered onto the pitch by Tommy's partner, Trish. Wests Tigers lost the game against the Gold Coast 36–28. In June 2021, it was announced that Premiership winning coach, Tim Sheens, would be returning to the club in the capacity of Head of Football Performance focussing on pathways, development and talent identification. The Wests Tigers finished the 2021 NRL season in 13th place after an awful season which saw them only win three times in the last eleven games. In the final round of the season, Wests were defeated 38-0 by Wooden Spooners Canterbury-Bankstown. After this point, there were talks that head coach Michael Maguire was to be terminated from his position but on 21 September it was announced he would be kept on as head coach for the 2022 season. On the 15th October 2021, the club announced that General Manager of Football, Adam Hartigan, had left the club. Ownership, board and corporate governance Wests Tigers are a joint venture, which was formed between Wests Magpies and Balmain Tigers football clubs. Western Suburbs Leagues Club Ltd With an operating club known as Wests Ashfield Leagues Club, the club building is located on Liverpool Road, Ashfield. The club is the primary financial donor to the Wests Tigers rugby league franchise outside of the revenue provided by the NRL. From 2014 was the only Leagues Club which directly subsidized the Wests Tigers Rugby League franchise. Balmain Tigers Rugby League Football Club Ltd A foundation club of the NSWRFL, Balmain Tigers Rugby League Football Club was established on 23 January 1908 at Balmain Town Hall. The club has competed in the NSWRL competitions for 110 years, winning 11 first grade premierships. Also operating a club known as Balmain Leagues Club, the operating business was built in 1957. The original site was situated on the corner of Victoria Road and Darling Street, Rozelle. The club was the venue for a celebration party after Wests Tigers won the NRL Premiership in 2005. The Leagues Club closed its doors on 28 March 2010, with the former club site now vacant after receiving a notice to vacate the site to make way for the proposed Rozelle Village development to go ahead. Balmain Leagues Club entered voluntary administration on 26 October 2018. In September 2019 members of both Balmain Leagues Club and Wests Ashfield Leagues club voted almost unanimously for an amalgamation to take place. Once ratified by office of Liquor and Gaming, Balmain Leagues Club ceased to exist. Former Clubs Wests Campbelltown Wests Leagues Club is located in Leumeah, next door to Campbelltown Stadium, one of the Wests Tigers home grounds. Wests Campbelltown Leagues was established in 1987 when Wests Ashfield Leagues purchased the former Campbelltown City Kangaroos Club. In 1996, Wests Ashfield Leagues Club and Wests Campbelltown Leagues Club became separate entities. Wests Campbelltown Leagues Club is no longer involved in the Wests Tigers Board of Directors As at 15 April 2021, the Wests Tigers Board of Directors consisted of the following: Independent Board Members: Panteli "Lee" Hagipantelis (Board Chairperson) James Myatt Appointed by Wests Magpies: Simon Cook (Wests Ashfield Leagues Club CEO) Dennis Burgess (Wests Ashfield Leagues Club Board Director) Tony Andreacchio (Wests Ashfield Leagues Club Board Director) Julie Romero (Wests Ashfield Leagues Club Board Director) Frederick "Rick" Wayde (Wests Ashfield Leagues Club Board Director) Appointed by Balmain Tigers: Danny Stapleton (Balmain Tigers Rugby League Football Club Board Deputy Chair) All board members have a single vote each. The club secretary is Mark Sawicki (Wests Tigers Football Club CFO) Ownership structure As at 8 Oct 2020: Wests Magpies Pty Ltd (ACN:089 921 166) own 4,000,080 of the Class A shares and 5,000,100 of the class B shares (90% of all shares) Balmain Tigers Rugby League Football Club Ltd (ACN 002 592 949) own 1,000,020 of the Class A shares (10% of all shares) Wests Magpies Pty Ltd is a jointly owned legal entity: 2 shares are held by Western Suburbs Leagues Club Limited (aka Wests Ashfield Leagues Club) 1 share is held by Western Suburbs District Rugby League Football Club Ltd (aka the Wests Magpies) Note 1: WSDRLFC is a controlled entity of Wests Ashfield Leagues Club Stadium The Wests Tigers do not have a single home stadium but play at a number of grounds each year. The recurrent used homes grounds have been Campbelltown Sports Stadium and Leichhardt Oval. These grounds are around 50 km apart and are in Magpie and Tiger territories respectively. Other home games have previously been played at the Sydney Football Stadium and Stadium Australia. In 2019 Wests Tigers took the first of their home games to the brand new Western Sydney Stadium. From 2004 until 2006, a "home game" was played at AMI Stadium against the Auckland based New Zealand Warriors. This agreement was not renewed for 2007 and in that year a game was played at Central Coast Stadium in Gosford against Melbourne Storm. In 2008, one home game was played at the Sydney Cricket Ground as part of the Centenary of Rugby League celebrations, and also one game at the Sydney Football Stadium. In 2018, one home game was played at Mount Smart Stadium in Auckland as part of a double header at the venue. In 2019 a home game was played at Scully Park in Tamworth. A second home game in Tamworth was planned for May 2020, however was postponed due to the ongoing Covid outbreak. Stadiums used by the Wests Tigers as home grounds: Present: Campbelltown Sports Stadium (2000–): 85 Played; 37 Wins, 47 Losses, 1 Draw Leichhardt Oval (2000–): 87 Played; 49 Wins, 37 Losses, 1 Draw Western Sydney Stadium (2019–): 16 Played; 5 Wins, 11 Losses Other: Sydney Cricket Ground (2008–): 8 Played; 3 Wins, 5 Losses Stadium Australia (2005–2008, 2014–): 87 Played; 36 Wins, 51 Losses Former: Sydney Football Stadium (2009–2013): 42 Played; 16 Wins, 26 Losses Colours The club's name and logo are a combination of the two partners. The uniform colours are a combination of the black and white of the Western Suburbs Magpies uniform and the black and gold from the Balmain Tigers uniform. The logo combines a modern "in your face" Tiger with a traditional Wests 'V' in the background. There is also a Magpie (taken from the Western Suburbs Logo) on both sleeves of the Jersey. In 2009, to commemorate the 10th anniversary of the joint venture, a predominantly white strip with a gold 'V' was unveiled. Since formation, the Wests Tigers have mostly retained the same logo with subtle changes. On October 6, 2021, Wests Tigers unveiled a simplified logo ahead of the 2022 NRL season, retaining the tiger head of previous emblems with fewer details. The rebranding is intended to make the identity more suitable to modern digital formats, and is set to coincide with the Tigers' move to a new training and administration base. Supporters Some notable supporters of the club include Russell Arnold, Jimmy Barnes, Ash Barty Tim Cahill, Paul Murray, Jimmy Little, Michael Clarke, Vic Darchinyan, Anthony Field, Dawn Fraser, Daniel Geale, Julie Goodwin, Barry O'Farrell Jordan Thompson, Harry Triguboff and Dominic Perrottet. Kit sponsors and manufacturers Major Partner Brydens Lawyers Premier Partners Neds, ISC, Allied Express, Victoria Bitter Platinum Partners ISRI Truck Seats, Wests Campbelltown, Ticketek, Sydney Motorway Corporation, WestConnex, MSR Services Australia, Austbrokers Canberra, Lantrak, Utech Gold Partners Wests Ashfield Leagues Club, Chemist Warehouse, Binet Homes, Handy Finance, Liverpool Catholic Club, Income Tax Professionals, Expresso Organica Corporate Partners OAMM, Wakeling Automotive, Ryde Eastwood Leagues Club, MAS Concrete, E Group, DJK Excavations, Bradcorp, Triple M, Elite Travel, iFly Downunder, Mills Civil, Roser Lawyers Player's Club sponsors APN Compounding, Westpoint Formwork, TLH Group, Digital8, Macdonald Education, SISTER2Sister, The Sydney Boulevard Hotel, Sydney West Furniture Repairs, Tumble Town Mobile Play Centre, Ultra Refrigeration, Handy Finance, Club Menangle, Sports Master Athletics International (SMAI), Ken Shafer Auto Body, BSC Body Science, Auto Slide, Blue Tongue Homes, Secom Technology Season statistics * Average home crowd Finals Appearances 3 (2005, 2010, 2011) 2022 squad 2022 Signings and Transfers Gains Oliver Gildart from Wigan Warriors Jackson Hastings from Wigan Warriors Ken Maumalo from New Zealand Warriors Tyrone Peachey from Gold Coast Titans Starford To'a from Newcastle Knights Losses Tom Amone to Leigh Centurions Zac Cini to Cronulla Sharks Michael Chee Kam to South Sydney Rabbitohs Joseph Leilua to Featherstone Rovers Reece Hoffman to Canterbury Bankstown Bulldogs Moses Mbye to St. George Illawarra Dragons Russell Packer Retired Billy Walters to Brisbane Broncos Players Representative players Statistics and records Robbie Farah holds the record for most appearances for The Wests Tigers with 277. Having played in every game of the 2008, 2009, 2010 & 2011 seasons. The highest point-scorers for the club have been players who have undertaken goalkicking duties for a period. Benji Marshall has scored the most points for the club (1181), followed by Brett Hodgson (786), and Joel Caine (526). In 2005, Hodgson scored a record 308 points during the season, the most points ever scored by a fullback in one season. In the semis of 2005, he also scored 30 points in one match against the North Queensland Cowboys. David Nofoaluma has the most tries for the Wests Tigers, accumulating 87. Taniela Tuiaki scored a club-record 21 tries during the 2009 season. Wests Tigers "Team of the Century" The Wests Tigers Team of the Century was announced in 2004, encompassing the best players from both Balmain and Western Suburbs. Nine Balmain players and eight from Western Suburbs made up the 17 members of the team. Captains There have been 23 captains of the Tigers since their first season in 2000. The current captain is James Tamou. Coaches There have been 8 coaches of the Tigers since their first season in 2000. The current coach is Michael Maguire. Honours NRL Premiership: 1 2005 Pre-season/Youth Rugby League World Sevens: 1 2004 Foundation Cup: 1 2011 National Youth Competition Premiership: 1 2012 See also National Rugby League Balmain Tigers Western Suburbs Magpies Huddersfield Giants References Sources Middleton, David (Editor); 2008 Official Rugby League Annual; published 2009 for the National Rugby League by News Magazines, 170–180 Bourke Rd, Alexandria NSW, 2015 External links Official site Balmain Tigers Official site Western Suburbs Magpies Official site Rugby clubs established in 2000 National Rugby League clubs Rugby league teams in Sydney Fan-owned football clubs	[ 0.2343134731054306, -0.3557024300098419, -0.6924336552619934, -0.035557445138692856, -0.25916290283203125, 0.1617501825094223, 0.4096292555332184, -0.11118128895759583, -0.3492409288883209, -0.5984317660331726, -0.23971112072467804, 0.4626072645187378, 0.031688932329416275, 0.3765290379524231, 0.3052833080291748, 0.21888527274131775, 0.5506604909896851, 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255609	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GWR%204000%20Class	GWR 4000 Class	The Great Western Railway 4000 or Star were a class of 4-cylinder 4-6-0 passenger steam locomotives designed by George Jackson Churchward for the Great Western Railway (GWR) in 1906 and introduced from early 1907. The prototype was built as a 4-4-2 Atlantic (but converted to 4-6-0 during 1909). They proved to be a successful design which handled the heaviest long-distance express trains, reaching top speeds of 90 mph (145 km/h), and established the design principles for GWR 4-cylinder classes over the next twenty-five years. Background After finally converting the last broad gauge lines in 1892, the GWR began a period of modernisation as new cut-off lines shortened its routes to west of England, South Wales and Birmingham. During the first decade of the twentieth century, the new Chief Mechanical Engineer, George Jackson Churchward designed or acquired a number of experimental locomotives with different wheel arrangements and boiler designs to help him plan for the future motive power needs of the railway. Following the success of the prototypes of his two-cylinder Saint class 4-6-0 locomotives, introduced in 1902, Churchward became interested in developing a more powerful 4-cylinder type for the longer non-stop express services. He therefore persuaded the GWR to acquire three French 4-cylinder 4-4-2 compound locomotives, 102 La France (1904) and 103 President and 104 Alliance (both 1905) for comparison purposes. Prototype In addition to acquiring the French compound locomotives Churchward built and tested his own prototype 4-cylinder locomotive simple-expansion locomotive, No. 40 North Star in 1906. As with some early members of the Saint class it was built as a 4-4-2 but designed so that it could easily be converted to a 4-6-0. It was completed at the Swindon Works of the GWR (Lot 161) in April 1906. It was numbered 40 and later that year was named 'North Star'. In November 1909 it was converted to 4-6-0. The new design incorporated many ideas from the French locomotives, in particular, the four-cylinder layout, with the inside cylinders placed forward under the smokebox and the outside cylinders placed far back, in line with the rear wheels of the bogie; from this followed the divided drive with the outside cylinders connected to the second set of driving wheels whilst the inside cylinders were connected to the front set of driving wheels. The valve gear was an unusual design, called scissors gear, which eschewed the use of eccentrics, but was basically a variation on Walschaerts gear. The prototype locomotive was rebuilt as a member of the Castle Class in November 1929. Production series During initial trials the prototype proved to be largely successful although Charles Rous-Marten commented that 'there were indications that with heavier loads, and less favourable weather, greater adhesion would be needed.' The production series were therefore all built with a 4-6-0 wheel arrangement. They also had inside Walschaerts valve gear rather than the scissors gear. Seven series of what would later be known as 'Star Class' locomotives built between 1907 and 1923 each of which contained detailed differences from the others Star series The first series of ten locomotives were built at Swindon in 1907 (Lot 168) numbered 4001-4010 and named after well-known Stars, perpetuating the names of the earlier broad gauge GWR Star Class of 1838. All except for No. 4010 Western Star were built without superheaters. No. 4010 received a 'Swindon No. 1' superheater and the remainder received superheated boilers between August 1909 and October 1912. No. 4009 Shooting Star was rebuilt as a member of the Castle Class in April 1925. The surviving members of the series were withdrawn 1932–1951, although No. 4003 Lode Star was preserved. Knight series A second series of ten similar locomotives appeared in 1908 (Swindon Lot 173), with improved bogies, numbered 4011–20 and named after historical knights. Nos. 4011 was built with a Swindon No. 1 superheater, the remainder were fitted with the standard No.3 superheater between 1909 and 1911. They were withdrawn between 1932 and 1951. King series A third series of ten further locomotives appeared during 1909 (Swindon Lot 178), numbered 4021-30 and named after British Kings. The framing for these had curved ends under the cab and over the cylinders. In June 1909, No. 4021 King Edward was built with a Swindon No. 3 superheater but the remainder had saturated steam boilers until 1910–13. King Edward notably hauled the funeral train for the funeral of King Edward VII on 20 May 1910; the mourners included nine kings and emperors, the largest number of crowned monarchs ever to travel in the same train. The class were all renamed during 1927 to allow for their names to be used on the new King Class. Instead, they were given names of a country followed by the word 'Monarch' (e.g. The Norwegian Monarch). However, several of the names relating to enemy countries were removed during the Second World War (1940-1). They were all withdrawn between 1934 and 1952. Queen series A fourth series of ten further locomotives appeared during 1910 and 1911 (Swindon Lot 180). They were numbered 4031-40 and named after British Queens. This series (and subsequent members of the class) were all built with a Swindon No. 3 superheater. This series was fitted with new style tenders. Two examples (No. 4032 Queen Alexandra and No. 4037 Queen Philippa) were rebuilt as Castle class locomotives in 1926. The remainder were withdrawn by British Railways between 1950 and 1952. Prince series Five further locomotives appeared in 1913 (Swindon Lot 195). These were numbered 4041–5 and named after the sons of King George V. No. 4041 was built with enlarged diameter cylinders giving a tractive effort of . Once this was proved to be beneficial, this size gradually became the standard for the class, as they visited the works for their periodic overhaul. The boilers were given top-feed apparatus which also later became standard for the whole class. The locomotives were all withdrawn by British Railways between 1950 and 1953. Princess series The GWR experienced a substantial growth in long-distance passenger traffic immediately before the First World War requiring a further series of fifteen locomotives during the first six months of 1914 (Swindon Lot 199). These were numbered 4046–60 and named after British princesses. They were all built with diameter cylinders and had improved boilers compared to the previous batch. They also introduced an improved four-cone vacuum ejector made necessary to improve braking on the increasingly long passenger trains. The locomotives were all withdrawn by British Railways between 1950 and 1957. Abbey series A final batch of sixteen further locomotives appeared in 1922-1923 (Swindon Lot 217). These were numbered 4061–72 and were named after famous Abbeys in the GWR territory. They were built with improved crank axles. In 1937 Nos. 4063-4072 were all rebuilt as Castle Class locomotives, being renumbered 5083-5092 but retaining their original names. The remaining two locomotives were withdrawn by British Railways in 1956 and 1957. Trials The class was criticised in letters to The Engineer for being expensive to build and maintain and Churchward was asked by his Directors to explain why 'the London and North Western Railway could build three 4-6-0 locomotives for the cost of two of his.' His response was 'Because one of mine could pull two of their bloody things backwards'. As a result, there were exchange trials proposed by Churchward with a LNWR Whale Experiment Class during August 1910 which vindicated the Star Class in terms of performance and coal consumption. Performance Members of the class performed well as passenger locomotives over all the long-distance routes of the GWR on the fastest express trains and those requiring the longest distance between stops. They gradually became displaced to secondary services by members of the Castle and King classes in the late 1920s and 1930s. Survivors continued to perform well until the mid-1950s. The 4000 class became a template for two later famous GWR 4-cylinder 4-6-0 classes - the Castle and King Class. According to le Fleming "their performance was consistently of the highest standard and they were remarkable free-running engines which rarely suffered breakdown in service. ... No engines were more aptly named than the 'Stars.'" Modifications As already noted, between 1925 and 1940 Churchward's successor Charles Collett ordered fifteen examples to be dismantled and their parts used in the construction of new Castle class locomotives. Throughout their careers the remainder of the class was subject to detailed modifications and improvements to their boilers, smokeboxes, and steam pipes so that "the only period when the appearance of the class was approximately uniform was from 1925 to 1927". tenders were also fitted from 1938 onwards. Preservation One example No. 4003 Lode Star has been preserved, after it was finally withdrawn in 1951, having covered 2,005,898 miles. The locomotive was preserved at Swindon railway works until 1962, then in the Museum of the Great Western Railway until transferred to the National Railway Museum in York in 1992, where it was a static non-working exhibit. In 2010 Lode Star was moved to Steam Museum in Swindon, as a static non-working exhibit. In November 2015, 4003 was moved back to the National Railway Museum. List of locomotives Accidents and incidents On 15 April 1923, locomotive No. 4048 Princess Victoria was hauling a freight train that was in a head-on collision with a passenger train at Curry Rivel, Somerset due to a signalman's error. Nine people were injured. References Models Hornby produce an OO scale model of 4003 Lode Star. 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255611	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GWR%204073%20Class	GWR 4073 Class	The 4073 Class or Castle class are 4-6-0 steam locomotives of the Great Western Railway, built between 1923 and 1950. They were designed by the railway's Chief Mechanical Engineer, Charles Collett, for working the company's express passenger trains. They could reach speeds of up to 100 mph (161 km/h). Background The origins of this highly successful design date back to the Star Class of 1907 which introduced the basic 4-cylinder 4-6-0 layout with long-travel valves and Belpaire firebox that was to become characteristic of Great Western Railway (GWR) express passenger locomotives. The Star class was designed to take the top express trains on the GWR, with 61 in service by 1914, but after World War I there was a need for an improved design. To meet this need, Chief Mechanical Engineer George Churchward had in mind an enlarged Star class design with a standard No.7 boiler, as fitted to his GWR 4700 Class express freight 2-8-0. However, this combination would have taken the axle load over the 20-ton limit then set by the civil engineers, and in the end, nothing came of the idea. Design Charles Collett succeeded Churchward as Chief Mechanical Engineer of the GWR in 1922 and immediately set about meeting the need for a new locomotive design that would both supplement the Stars and replace them on the heaviest expresses. Collett's solution was to take the basic layout of the Star with an extended frame, and add a newly designed No.8 boiler which was both larger and lighter. The increased amount of steam that this produced allowing an increase in the cylinder diameter from to . The extended frame allowed for a side window cab and an increased grate area. The result was an increase in tractive effort to 31,625 lb, and a locomotive that looked attractive and well proportioned while remaining within the 20-ton axle limit. Production Unlike the Star class, there was no prototype. Collett was sufficiently confident of the design to place an order with Swindon Works (Lot 224) for ten locomotives in 1923, although there was a four-month delay between the appearance of the first example in August 1923 and the second in December, to allow for the correction of any teething problems. Thereafter the remaining eight locomotives came out at regular intervals until April 1924. They were 4073–4082, the number series continuing unbroken from the Star class. The last 12 Star class locomotives, which were built in 1922–23, had been given names of abbeys in the western area served by the GWR. The new locomotives were named after castles, also in the west, beginning with Caerphilly Castle. Over the twenty-seven years from August 1923 to August 1950, 155 Castles were built new at Swindon Works and a further sixteen were converted from other classes. In February 1952, two engines, 4082 Windsor Castle and 7013 Bristol Castle, swapped names and numbers: 7013 was disguised as 4082 to run George VI's funeral train and the numbers were never swapped back. 4082 was withdrawn from service in 1964 as 7013 and 7013 was withdrawn from service as 4082 in 1965. New builds The new-builds were as follows. Great Western Railway Lot 224: Nos. 4073 - 4082, delivered August 1923 – April 1924. Lot 232: Nos. 4083 - 4092, delivered May to August 1925. Lot 234: Nos. 4093-4099 and 5000 to 5012, delivered May 1926 – July 1927. Lot 280: Nos. 5013–22, delivered June–August 1932. Lot 295: Nos. 5023–32, delivered June–August 1932. Lot 296: Nos. 5033–42, delivered May–July 1933. Lot 303: Nos. 5043–67, delivered March 1936 – July 1937. (Nos. 5043–5063 were originally named after Castles, but were renamed in 1937 after Earls) Lot 310: Nos. 5068-82 delivered June 1938 – June 1939. (Nos. 5069 and 5070 were named after Isambard Kingdom Brunel and Sir Daniel Gooch; In 1941 5071–5082 were renamed after war planes used by the Royal Air Force) Lot 324: Nos. 5093–97, delivered June–July 1939. Lot 357: Nos. 5098–99, 7000-7 delivered May–July 1946. British Railways (Western Region) Lot 367: Nos. 7008–27, delivered May 1948 – August 1949. Lot 375: Nos. 7028–37, delivered May 1950 – August 1950. These locomotives were built with minimal changes to the dimensions. However, from 5013 Abergavenny Castle there was an alteration to the shape of the front-end casing over the inside cylinders, and from 5043 Earl of Mount Edgcumbe a shorter chimney was fitted. Those built before 1926 were fitted with a tender but thereafter became standard for the class. Rebuilds Between January and September 1924, the only Great Western 4-6-2, No.111 The Great Bear, was rebuilt into a member of the Castle Class, although only the "front portion of the original frames and the number plates were used again but probably little else". The new locomotive was renamed Viscount Churchill and survived until withdrawal in July 1953. In April 1925, Star class No. 4009 Shooting Star was likewise rebuilt as a Castle by extending the frames and fitting a new Castle Class boiler and cab. It was renumbered and renamed 100 A1 Lloyds and was withdrawn in 1950. In October 1925 a second Star class, No. 4016 The Somerset Light Infantry (Prince Albert's), was similarly converted to a Castle although in this case, it retained its name and number. Two further conversions of Stars were undertaken in 1926; Nos. 4032 Queen Alexandra and 4037 The South Wales Borderers retaining their names and numbers and surviving until 1951 and 1962 respectively. In November 1929 the prototype for the Star Class, No. 4000 North Star was rebuilt into a Castle, being subsequently withdrawn in 1957. Between 1937 and 1940 a further ten members of the 'Abbey series' of the Star class (Nos. 4063-72) were rebuilt as Castles, They were allocated new numbers 5083 to 5092 but retained their original names and were withdrawn between 1958 and 1964. Publicity and trials When introduced they were heralded as Britain's most powerful express passenger locomotive, being some 10% more powerful than the Stars. The first, No. 4073 Caerphilly Castle, made its debut at Paddington station on 23 August 1923. The choice of 4082 as Windsor Castle proved fortuitous as this locomotive was used to haul the Royal Train when King George V and Queen Mary visited Swindon Works in 1924, and much publicity was gained when the king was invited to drive the engine back from the works to the station before the return journey, with the Queen and several high-ranking GWR officers also on the footplate. During 1924, 4073 Caerphilly Castle was exhibited at the British Empire Exhibition at Wembley, alongside Nigel Gresley's Flying Scotsman. The Great Western declared their engine to be more powerful than its bigger LNER rival, and in terms of tractive effort alone they were entitled to do so. As a result of this, GWR General Manager Sir Felix Pole proposed to LNER Southern Area General Manager Alexander Wilson that a trial of the two types should take place via an exchange arrangement. The resulting trials commenced in April 1925 with 4079 Pendennis Castle representing the GWR on the East Coast Main Line and 4474 Victor Wild representing the LNER on GWR tracks. On the first morning Pendennis Castle was to work a 480-ton train from King's Cross to Doncaster, and LNER officials fully expected the smaller, lighter engine to encounter problems climbing Holloway Bank. However, railway writer Cecil J. Allen records that the GWR locomotive made a faster start from King's Cross to Finsbury Park than any LNER Pacific he had recorded up to that time, and over the trial Pendennis Castle kept well within the scheduled time and used less coal, considerably denting LNER pride. For the LNER, Victor Wild was compared on the Cornish Riviera Express to 4074 Caldicot Castle and although it kept to time the longer wheelbase of the Pacific proved unsuited to the many curves on the route. Again the GWR took the honours with Caldicot Castle burning less fuel and always ahead of time, this being illustrated on the last 2 days of the trial by gaining 15 minutes on the schedule in both directions. In 1926, number 5000 Launceston Castle was loaned to the London, Midland & Scottish Railway (LMS) where it ran trials between London and Carlisle. The locomotive fulfilled the LMS requirements so well that the latter first requested the GWR to build a batch of Castles for use on the West Coast Main Line, and, failing that, a full set of construction drawings. Both proposals were rejected by the GWR Board of Directors. The LMS eventually succeeded in gaining access to the design by recruiting William Stanier, the GWR's Works Manager at its Swindon Works to become the new Chief Mechanical Engineer for the LMS. Performance The Castles handled all but the heaviest loads, these being entrusted to the 30-strong King Class, themselves a development of the Castles with an even larger boiler and smaller wheels (6'6" diameter) for both increased tractive effort and to allow for loading gauge clearance. The Castle class was noted for superb performance overall, and notably on the Cheltenham Flyer during the 1930s: for example, on 6 June 1932 the train, pulled by 5006 Tregenna Castle, covered the 77.25 miles from Swindon to Paddington at an average speed of 81.68 mph start-to-stop (124.3 km at an average speed of 131.4 km/h). This world record for steam traction was widely regarded as an astonishing feat. Subsequent modification In 1946 Frederick Hawksworth, Collett's successor, introduced a higher degree of superheat to the Castle boiler with resulting increased economy in water consumption. From 1956 the fitting of double chimneys to selected engines, combined with larger superheaters, further enhanced their capacity for sustained high-speed performance. The fastest recorded speed of a Castle Class engine was 102 mph achieved by 7018 Drysllwyn Castle at Little Somerford in April 1958 while hauling The Bristolian from Bristol to London. The non-stop run over 117.6 miles took 93 minutes 50 seconds, an average speed of more than 75 mph. Oil firing Between 1946 and 1948 five engines—100A1, 5039, 5079, 5083 and 5091—were converted to oil-firing, but were soon restored to burn coal. (Eleven Halls were also temporarily converted.) Accidents and incidents On 30 November 1948, a passenger train hauled by 5022 Wigmore Castle overran signals and was in collision with locomotive 4150, which was running round its train at . Eight passengers were injured. On 12 November 1958, a freight train overran signals and was derailed at Highworth Junction, Swindon. Locomotive No. 5009 Shrewsbury Castle was hauling a newspaper train which collided with the wreckage. Withdrawal Withdrawal of steam power started in the 1950s, with the first 100 A1 Lloyds withdrawn from Old Oak Common in March 1950. The first "new build" Castle, number 4091 Dudley Castle, was withdrawn from Old Oak Common nearly nine years later in January 1959. The lowest mileage of a Castle was the 580,346 miles run by 7035 Ogmore Castle between August 1950 and June 1964; the highest mileage of any Castle class was by 4080 Powderham Castle which totalled 1,974,461 miles in 40 years and 5 months. The last three Castles to be withdrawn were all allocated to Gloucester shed, with 5042 Winchester Castle and 7022 Hereford Castle withdrawn in June 1965. The last to be withdrawn was 7029 Clun Castle in December 1965, which worked the last steam train out of Paddington on 27 November 1965. List of locomotives See List of GWR 4073 Class locomotives Preservation On 4 March 1967, Nos. 7029 Clun Castle and 4079 Pendennis Castle hauled specials from Banbury and Oxford respectively to Chester, to mark the end of through trains between Paddington and Birkenhead. These two, and six other Castles, survive in preservation. Of the eight Castles to be preserved, six have operated in preservation. Three were purchased from BR for preservation (4073, 4079 and 7029) with the remaining five being rescued from Barry Scrapyard. All of the engines that have operated have also been out on the main line: nos. 4079 Pendennis Castle, 5029 Nunney Castle, 5043 Earl of Mount Edgcumbe, 5051 Earl Bathurst, 5080 Defiant and 7029 Clun Castle. No. 4073 Caerphilly Castle was given directly to the National Collection upon withdrawal and has not run since being preserved; it can currently be found at the Museum of the Great Western Railway in Swindon. No. 7027 Thornbury Castle was in ex-Barry Scrapyard condition and is undergoing restoration. In July 2016 it was sold by Pete Waterman to the Somerset transport firm JJP Holdings SW and was transported to Weston-super-Mare on a low loader, where she was placed on a temporary track in the Crosville Motor Services bus depot. In summer 2018 it was moved briefly to Tyseley Locomotive Works in Birmingham to make an appearance at their open weekend before moving to its planned home at the West Somerset Railway where the engine was to be restored. It is now located at Loughborough on the Great Central Railway where it is to now be restored. 7027 will however not be restored to mainline standards as its current owner intends to run it for its first ticket at the GCR before considering future mainline certification. Two of the eight preserved Castles, nos. 5043 Earl of Mount Edgcumbe and 7029 Clun Castle, are fitted with double chimneys while the remaining six are still fitted with the original single chimney. 4079 was purchased by Sir William McAlpine and hauled a small number of railtours on the main line in its early preservation years before being sold to Hamersley Iron in the Pilbara region of Western Australia and exported in 1977. In 1989 it was moved by road to Perth where it double-headed with 4472 Flying Scotsman operating as far as Esperance. In 2000 it was donated by Rio Tinto to the Great Western Society and restored to operational condition at the Didcot Railway Centre in 2021. , only 7029 is operational and has a valid main line certificate. Four engines are in the process of undergoing overhauls with two planned to operate on the mainline. 5043 and 5080 are both intended to operate as part of Tyseley's pool of mainline certified engines alongside fellow classmember 7029. 4079 was originally planned to operate on the mainline following completion of its ongoing overhaul, but a later announcement by Didcot where they intend to stop operating on the mainline means it will only run on heritage railways. 7027 on completion of restoration will only operate on heritage railways also. 5029 is being put forward for a future mainline standard overhaul, but is yet to commence. Note: Case of renamed engines the names in bold indicate what the engine presently wears. There is now a Haynes Owner's Workshop Manual available. Models Hornby Railways manufacture a model of the 4073 in OO gauge. The Hornby Dublo brand, then owned by Meccano Ltd, also built "Bristol Castle" (released 1957) for their three-rail system and "Cardiff Castle" for the two-rail system two years later; Wrenn continued the Hornby Dublo model when they took over the range. Airfix/GMR (and later Dapol) also produced an OO model; Tri-ang released a TT gauge model; and Graham Farish (later Bachmann) released N gauge models. Many different prototype examples have been depicted by the various manufacturers. References Literature , in two parts: No.I, 17 Aug., pp.122-125 ; No.II, 24 Aug. 1945., pp.144-146 External links 5028 Llantilio Castle Home Page The "life story" of this GWR locomotive. 4073 4-6-0 locomotives Railway locomotives introduced in 1923 Standard gauge steam locomotives of Great Britain Articles containing video clips 2′C h4 locomotives	[ -0.7184068560600281, -0.1071895882487297, -0.21977585554122925, -0.2758086323738098, -0.02330928109586239, 0.5256386399269104, 1.0304062366485596, -0.03366357833147049, -0.1022896021604538, 0.15178005397319794, -0.13279107213020325, 0.18247883021831512, -0.03385387733578682, 0.6336231827735901, -0.08870886266231537, 0.40372544527053833, -0.09629979729652405, 0.18569281697273254, 0.07621761411428452, -0.6795343160629272, 0.5800001621246338, -0.4354676306247711, 0.4822520315647125, -0.2568482458591461, 0.4602878987789154, 0.027589917182922363, 0.5549653172492981, 0.17043578624725342, 0.4777824580669403, -0.22881026566028595, 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255612	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bataan	Bataan	(), officially the (), is a province situated in the Central Luzon region of the Philippines. Its capital is the city of Balanga while Mariveles is the largest local government unit in the province. Occupying the entire Bataan Peninsula on Luzon, Bataan is bordered by the provinces of Zambales and Pampanga to the north. The peninsula faces the South China Sea to the west and Subic Bay to the north-west, and encloses Manila Bay to the east. The Battle of Bataan is known in history as one of the last stands of American and Filipino soldiers before they were overwhelmed by the Japanese forces in World War II. The Bataan Death March was named after the province, where the infamous march started. History Classical Period The first inhabitants of the Bataan peninsula are the Ayta Magbeken people, who are one of the first Negrito ancestors of present-day Filipinos. Later on, Tagalog communities from southern Luzon migrated to parts of Bataan and the Ayta Magbeken migrated towards the mountain areas of Bataan by the end of the 16th century. Colonial Period In 1647, Dutch naval forces landed in country in an attempt to seize the islands from Spain. The Dutch massacred the people of Abucay in Bataan. Historian Cornelio Bascara documents that the province of Bataan was established on January 11, 1757 by Governor-General Pedro Manuel Arandia out of territories belonging to Pampanga and the corregimiento of Mariveles which, at that time, included Maragondon, Cavite across the Manila Bay. World War II Bataan featured prominently during World War II. Prior to the 1941 Japanese invasion, Bataan was a military reservation for the purpose of defending the fortress island of Corregidor. The US Army stored nearly of gasoline there, along with various munitions. At the southern tip of the peninsula the U.S. Navy had established a small base at the port of Mariveles. Shortly after the Japanese Army invaded the country in December 1941, the combined US and Filipino forces were being gradually overrun and General Douglas MacArthur moved his troops to the Bataan Peninsula in an attempt to hold out until a relief force could be sent from the US. Japanese forces started a siege of the peninsula on January 7, 1942, and launched an all-out assault on April 3, a few months after the Battle of the Points, Battle of the Pockets, the attack down Trail Number Two, and a half-dozen other brutal battles. The Bataan campaign was the last time a regular cavalry unit of the U.S. Army, the Philippine Scouts 26th Cavalry, was used as a horse mounted fighting unit. On the morning of January 16, 1942, Lt. Edwin Ramsey led the last cavalry charge into the town of Morong, routing the advancing Japanese infantry. As the troops on Bataan were continually reduced in rations, the horses were eventually slaughtered to feed the starving soldiers. The majority of the American and Filipino forces surrendered on April 9 and were forced to march more than from Bataan to Capas, Tarlac, which became known as the Bataan Death March. Geography Bataan lies in the southwestern part of the Central Luzon region. It is a peninsular province with an area of . The province is bounded in the west by the South China Sea, in the south by the Corregidor Island, and in the east by the Manila Bay - the gateway to the Philippines' political, social and economic center. It is bounded inland by the city of Olongapo in the north and by the provinces of Pampanga and Bulacan in the northeast. Its capital, the City of Balanga, is about 31.3 nautical miles from Manila across the Manila Bay. Geology Bataan, a peninsula, is composed of 11 municipalities and one city. All except the northern most municipality of Dinalupihan, are coastal areas. The province's coastline is approximately 177 kilometers from Hermosa in the northeastern portion of the province, looping up to Morong in the northwest. Bataan is divided by two mountain groups of volcanic origins. The northern side is composed of the Mount Natib (elevation ), Mount Sta. Rosa and Mount Silangan. The southern group is composed of Mount Mariveles, Mount Samat, and Mount Cuyapo. A narrow pass separates these two mountain groups. The topography of the province is classified generally as hilly and mountainous with a narrow plain on the eastern side. The highest elevation is in the Mariveles mountains at 1,388 meters above sea level. Bataan has abundant water resources in the form of rivers, streams, creeks, waterfalls and springs. There are more than 100 rivers in the province radiating from the two aforementioned mountain groups. These are important not only for irrigation but also for navigation and fishing as well. The Talisay and Almacen Rivers are the two major rivers in the province. Talisay has its headwater in the Mariveles mountain group extending down to Pilar and Balanga into the Manila Bay. Almacen River has its headwater in the Natib mountains extending down to Hermosa and exits through the Orani Channel to the Manila Bay. Some of the smaller rivers are Abo-abo River, Bantalan River, Lamao River, Saysayin River, Agloloma River, Mamala River. Coastline Muddy tidal flats along the alluvial sandbars characterize the coastline along the Manila Bay. Mangrove areas can be oberved from Orani to Orion, along with seaweed areas and seagrass patches areas from portions of Balanga and Pilar down to Mariveles. The deeper portions are the coastal areas of Orion to Mariveles where most seaports are operating. Poor coral reef patches, mixed with sandy-rocky bottom can be found in Mariveles area, where the coastline begin to take on a rocky character looping from the mouth of Manila Bay to the western side of the province. The coastline facing the South China Sea is interspersed with pristine beaches with rocky portions and fringes of coral reef in good condition from Bagac to Morong, which is a haven for sea turtles and other marine animals. Climate Bataan has distinct dry and wet seasons categorized as Type I in the Philippines' Modified Coronas' Climate Classification (Climate of the Philippines). The dry season begins in November and ends in April, while the rainy season starts in May and ends in October. The most rains come in June to August. Mean average rainfall in August is the heaviest at 633mm. Bataan is often visited by typhoons. Farming systems in the province follow these climatic cycles. Administrative divisions Bataan is administratively subdivided into 11 municipalities and one component city. Demographics The population of Bataan in the was people, with a density of . The demonym for natives of the province is Bataeño. Ethnicity The three most prominent ethnic groups in Bataan are the Tagalogs, the Kapampangans and the Ayta Magbeken, though the third group has a lower population despite being the province's first inhabitants. The second group is mainly present at the northeast of the province, as well as in the provincial capital to a lesser extent. Religion Various religious groups are subscribed to by the people but Roman Catholicism is the predominant religion, comprising 85.46% of the Bataan population. Several other Christian and non-Christian faiths include Iglesia ni Cristo (4.47%), Evangelivcals (2.06%), Aglipayans (1.60%) and other groups. Human Development Bataan is consistently amongst the provinces in the Philippines with high Human Development Index. The 2015 HDI of the province is 0.793. Economy Economic Significance Bataan is one of the most progressive provinces of Central Luzon and Manila Bay Region, and a key contributor to the region's overall economic productivity. The province is strategically located right in the middle of the country's growth triad corridor of Subic Special Economic and Freeport Zone, Clark Freeport and Special Economic Zone and Metro Manila. It is one of the Philippines' industrial heartland owing to the presence of anchor industries, two freeport zones and several special manufacturing zones. Due to these factors plus the province's competitive incentives offered to new business locators, the Philippine Chamber of Commerce and Industry adjudged Bataan as the most business friendly province in the country during the 47th Philippine Business Conference Expo held last November 2021. This is the second time the province had received such recognition, the first one was in 2018. In 2020, Bataan registered the third highest locally-sourced income among all the provinces in the Philippines as certified by the Department of Finance - Bureau of Local Government Finance (BLGF). Industries and Manufacturing Bataan hosts various industries, ranging from light to heavy. These industries are producing diverse products for domestic distribution and export such as refined petroleum products, petrochemicals, ammunition, industrial grade explosives, marine vessels, luxury yachts, pre-cast concrete, cement, steel building materials, animal feeds, fertilizers, fiberglass products, electronic components, medical personal protective equipment, paper, plastic products, optical lense, textile and leather products, and sporting goods and apparels. Dunlop Slazenger Philippines Inc. in the Freeport Area of Bataan, Mariveles specially takes pride as the exclusive producer of tennis balls used in The Championships, Wimbledon. The largest industrial complexes operating in the province are listed below. Petron Bataan Refinery or PBR (Limay) - is the only integrated oil refinery and petrochemical complex in the Philippines with rated capacity of 180,000 barrels per stream day (bpsd). In 2016, PBR commissioned its $2-Billion Upgrade Project dubbed the Refinery Master Plan Phase 2 (RMP-2). It enhanced the refinery's conversion capability and as a result, further enhanced the country’s supply security. It also made Petron capable of locally producing fuels that meet global Euro IV and Euro VI emission standards. It has a Nelson Complexity Index of 13 making it among the most modern and complex refineries in Asia Philippine National Oil Corporation (PNOC) Industrial Park (Limay and Mariveles) - is previously known as PNOC-Philippine Petrochemical Development Complex, it's one of largest industrial complexes in the province housing various petrochemical manufacturers producing polyvinyl chloride (PVC), polyethylene (PE), and polypropylene (PP); and industrial explosives manufacturer Orica Philippines. The Freeport Area of Bataan (FAB) (Mariveles) - is formerly known as Bataan Export Processing Zone (the first economic zone in the country). It was converted into a freeport zone on June 30, 2010 eight months after the enactment of Republic Act 9728 in October 23, 2009. This was later amended in August 30, 2019, through Republic Act 11453, giving powers to the freeport to expand its territory anywhere within the bounds of the province Bataan. FAB is the third largest freeport zone in the country based in the number of investors and employment created, behind Clark Freeport and Subic Freeport. Currently, there are about 44 manufacturers operating in the freeport employing roughly 40,000 personnels and producing various products such as leather goods, electronics, textile, rubber and plastic products, medical PPE, fabricated metals, animal feeds, marine vessels and lenses. The total export value for these products reached more than US$838 million by end of 2021. FAB is also an emerging hub for fintech and blockchain businesses hosting a number of these companies. Government Arsenal (Limay) - is an agency of the Philippine government under the Department of National Defense, responsible for the production of basic weaponry and ammunition for the Armed Forces of the Philippines (AFP), and the Philippine National Police (PNP), among others, and for the sale and export of products in excess of AFP/PNP requirements. Hermosa Ecozone and Industrial Park (Hermosa) - or shortened as HEIP is a 162-hectares industrial estate component of a 478-hectare mixed-use property development in the province of Bataan by the Hermosa Ecozone Development Corporation an arm of the Science Park of the Philippines, Incorporated. The project is a registered Special Economic Zone (Ecozone) under the Philippine Economic Zone Authority (PEZA). Bataan 2020, Inc. (Samal) - Bataan 2020 is a leading manufacturer of fine quality paper, board and tissue in the Philippines. The company is among the most diversified paper mills in the industry, with a capacity of over 100,000 metric tons of paper annually. Subic Special Economic and Freeport Zone - commonly shorterned as Subic Bay or Subic (but should no be mistaken for the municipality of Subic, Zambales), is a special economic and freeport zone covering portions of Olongapo and Subic in Zambales, and Morong and Hermosa in Bataan. The relatively developed and fenced area is called the Subic Bay Freeport Zone (SBFZ). This was the only freeport zone in Bataan until the conversion of Bataan Export Processing Zone (BEPZ) into Freeport Area of Bataan (FAB) in Mariveles on June 30, 2010. Bataan Technology Park Inc. (Morong) - the 365-hectare property, is once the site of the Philippine Refugee Processing Center, which offered shelter to some 400,000 refugees from Vietnam, Laos and Cambodia. The property is now administered by Bases Conversion and Development Authority and is planned for an industrial and tourism development. Bataan is also a strategic transport route and transshipment point linking the Subic Special Economic and Freeport Zone and the rest of the western part of Central Luzon region to Metro Manila. Several private ports, dry docks/ship yards, and bulk terminals are operating along its long eastern coast facing the Manila Bay. Among these are San Miguel Corporation Shipping and Lighterage, Petron Corporation Limay Terminal, PNOC, Planters Products Inc. Bulk Handling Terminal, Seasia-Nectar Terminal, Oilink, Jetti Petroleum, Orion Dockyard, Herma Shipyard, Seafront Terminal and Shipyard, and Total Philippines. Agriculture and Fisheries Agriculture and fishery productions are major sources of income for the people of Bataan. Productions range from crops, fruits, fish, shellfish and other marine species. About 44,000 hectares of land are utilized for farming. The top five agricultural crops produced by the province are palay (rice), corn, coconut, mango and banana. Bataan is frequently included in the top ten poultry and poultry product producers in the country, it hosts modern chicken dressing and processing plants owned by San Miguel Corporation and Bounty Fresh Chicken. The municipalities of Dinalupihan, Hermosa, Orani, Samal, Abucay, Pilar and Orion are the main contributors for agricultural output of the Province. Being a peninsula, Bataan is one of the major sources of various marine products in Luzon, that include good quality tilapia, bangus (milkfish), tiger prawn, mud crab, and bivalves such as mussel, oyster and capiz. Commerce and Services Bataan is in a process of accelerated growth in commercial sector driven mainly by young entrepreneurs and the advent of online commerce. Based from the Philippine Statistics Authority, more than 10,000 micro, small and medium enterprises (MSME) are operating in the province. With an average of 126 enterprises available per 10,000 people, Bataan is considered as the most enterprising province in Central Luzon. The City of Balanga, the capital of Bataan, is the prime commercial hub in the province and hosting several shopping centers notably SM City Bataan, Vista Mall Bataan, Waltermart Balanga, Capitol Square, Galeria Victoria, Center Plaza Mall, Recar Commercial Complex and Ocampo's Megastore. In addition, a new shopping mall, Robinsons Place Balanga City is expected to start construction in this year of 2022. The municipalities of Dinalupihan, Hermosa, Orani, Mariveles and Orion are considered as secondary commercial hubs. The rest of the municipalities have established smaller business district enough to support the local demand. Information Technology and Business Process Outsourcing The City of Balanga is one of the twenty-five (25) emerging digital hubs identified by The Digital Cities 2025 program by the Department of Information and Communications Technology (DICT), Information Technology and Business Process Association of the Philippines (IBPAP), and Leechiu Property Consultants, Inc. (LPC). It hosts several outsourcing companies such as Genpact, Boston-based start-up Botkeeper, and Australia-based Yoonet. While in the town of Mariveles, the Freeport Area of Bataan is now hosting several blockchain and fintech firms. The town of Abucay is also being groomed as the province's next BPO hub thru its First Abucay Freeport Inc. which is a declared expansion area of the Authority of the Freeport Area of Bataan and with Cognizant as its first locator. Banking and Finance Based from the Bangko Sentral ng Pilipinas (BSP) statistics, as of September 2021, there are 41 universal and commercial bank branches, 36 thrift bank branches, and 31 rural and cooperative bank branches scattered around the province. Tourist attractions Historical places Bataan Death March Marker Bataan First Line of Defense Filipino-Japanese Friendship Tower Limbagang Pinpin Mount Samat – Mount Samat National Shrine World War II Museum Zero Kilometer Death March Marker The Flaming Sword Cayetano Arellano Monument and Hometown Marker Churches Nuestra Señora del Pilar Church – Morong Nuestra Señora del Pilar Church – Pilar Nuestra Señora, Virgen Milagrosa del Rosario Church – in Orani, it was conferred with the title Minor Basilica by Pope Francis on September 10, 2019. It is home to the miraculous image of the Our Lady of Orani which was canonically crowned 18 April 1959. San Francisco de Asis Church – Limay Diocesan Shrine and Cathedral-Parish of Saint Joseph – Balanga City, was declared as a diocesan-shrine and is the seat of the Diocese of Balanga San Juan Bautista Church – Dinalupihan San Miguel Arcangel Church – Orion San Nicolas de Tolentino Church – Mariveles San Pedro Martir de Verona Church – Hermosa Santa Catalina de Alexandria Church – Bagac Santa Catalina de Siena Church – Samal Santo Domingo de Guzman Church – Abucay, the oldest church in Bataan, established in 1587 Other places of interest Bataan Tourism Center – Balanga Bataan Tourism Park - Roman Highway, Bagong Silang, Balanga Las Casas Filipinas de Acuzar – Bagac Philippine Refugee Processing Center – Morong Ocean Adventure – Mabayo, Morong (SBFZ) Zoobic Safari – Mabayo, Morong (SBFZ) Major General Edward P. King (Grave) – Lamao Sinagtala Farm Resort & Adventure Park – Orani Vista Tala Resort & Recreational Park – Orani Camaya Coast (Camaya Sands Resorts and Leisure) – Mariveles Montemar Beach Club – Bagac Duhat Bike Trail – Orion GICC Technopark - Freeport Area of Bataan Pawikan Conservation Center - Morong Natural places of interest Ambon-ambon (Lumutan) Falls Anvaya Cove Balong Anito Bataan National Park Camaya Coast Dunsulan Falls Duhat Trail Laki (Laque) Beach Marilag Cove Mariveles Five Fingers Mount Malasimbu Mount Mariveles Mount Natib Nagbintana Arc Panoypoy Cove Pasukulan Falls Playa La Caleta Roosevelt Protected Landscape San Miguel Mountain Peak Sibul Spring Sinagtala & Vista Tala Talain Cove Tarak Ridge Tortugas Bay Park How to get there Bataan is served by a number of bus companies with the following routes: Victory Liner - Olongapo to Balanga, and vice-versa; Tuguegarao City to Balanga, and vice-versa Bataan Transit - Cubao, Pasay and Avenida to Balanga and Mariveles, and vice versa; San Fernando, La Union to Mariveles, and vice-versa Genesis Transport - Cubao, Pasay and Avenida to Balanga and Mariveles, and vice versa; Baguio City to Mariveles, and vice-versa; San Jose City, Nueva Ecija to Mariveles, and vice-versa. Oster Liner - San Fernando, Pampanga to Balanga, and vice-versa. A ferry service crossing the Manila Bay is also available through 1Bataan Integrated Transport Service Inc. with a route from Esplanade Seaside Terminal, Mall of Asia complex in Pasay to Port Capinpin in Orion and vice versa. Infrastructure Power Generation Bataan is a location of bulk power generation, where most of the power generated is sent to the Luzon Grid. Most power plants in Bataan rely on fossil fuels, like oil and coal, but renewable energy sources, primarily solar power, form part of the total generation. The total output of existing power plants equals to 2,210.4 MW, and new power plants to start operation will increase the output to 4,202 MW. Fossil fuel-fired plants account for 2078 MW, and are mostly concentrated in Limay and Mariveles. These include the GN Power Mariveles Coal Power Plant, with 690 (2x345) MW, SMC Limay Greenfield Power Plant (4x150 MW), Petron Cogeneration Power Plant (4x35 MW), and Panasia Bataan Combined Cycle Power Plant (648 MW). Three plants are under construction, the Dinginin Power Station (1,336 MW), Petron's Refinery Solid Fuel-Fired Boiler Project - Phase 3 (44 MW), and SMC Mariveles Coal Power Plant (4x150). These will increase the capacity by 1980 MW. Three natural gas-fired power plants with combined capacity of 3,275 MW are proposed, one planned in Limay and two in Mariveles. These are currently endorsed by the Department of Energy (Philippines) for grid-impact study. Renewable energy, accounts for 92.4 MW. Existing renewable energy power plants include the Bataan 2020 Cogen Power Plant (12.5 MW), Cleangreen Energy Corp. Napier Grass Fired Power Plant (12 MW), YH Green Energy Solar Power Plant (12.6 MW), Citicore Solar Power Plant (18 MW), Morong Solar Power Plant (5 MW), and Jobin-Sqm Inc.'s Sta. Rita Solar (32.3 MW) in Tipo, Hermosa side of Subic Bay Freeport Zone. While additional 11.64 MW are expected from two projects that are on the advanced stage of construction, these are Citicore's 6.64 MW solar rooftop project in the Freeport Area of Bataan, and Ayala Corp.'s Bataan Solar Energy Inc. with 5 MW in Batangas Dos, Mariveles. Two more solar power projects are in the pipeline - Solana Solar Power Project (28 MW) and Jobin-Sqm Inc. Bataan Solar Power Project Phases 1, 2, 3a-3b (100 MW). Also, two wind power projects are planned, the 500 MW Bagac Bay Offshore Wind Project and 300 MW Bagac Bay Onshore Wind Project, both by Earth Sol Power Corporation. These are also endorsed by the Department of Energy for grid impact study. In 2021, San Miguel Corporation's Universal Power Solutions Inc. together with its partner Wärtsilä commissioned the first Battery Energy Storage System (BESS) in Limay with 40 MW/40MWh capacity. Three more BESS projects are committed to be built - Hermosa Battery Energy Storage System (40 MW/40MWh), Lamao Battery Energy Storage System Phases 1 and 2 (30 MW/30MWh, 20 MW/20MWh), and BCCP Limay Battery Energy Storage System Project Phase 2 (20 MW/40MWh). All by Universal Power Solutions Incorporated. The Bataan Nuclear Power Plant in Morong, with a design 600 MW capacity, was supposed to be the first nuclear power plant in the Philippines. It was supposed to commence operation in 1986, but was mothballed amidst critical opposition to the Marcos regime and concerns on nuclear power. There is some discussion of either rehabilitating the plant, which would likely be uneconomical, or constructing a new nuclear power station. Transmission Power is transmitted to the province through various transmission lines and substations located within the province. There are four transmission substations located within the province which are the Hermosa, Hermosa EHV, Limay, and Mariveles EHV substations of National Grid Corporation of the Philippines (NGCP). Since 2018, the province has a network of 500 kV transmission lines which are the Mariveles-Hermosa, GNPower Dinginin-NGCP Mariveles, Hermosa-Castillejos, Hermosa-San Jose, and MPGC – Mariveles Power Plant-NGCP Mariveles lines. All transmission lines and facilities within the province, including the 500 kV lines mentioned before, are operated and maintained by NGCP. Distribution Power distribution in the province are served by the Peninsula Electric Cooperative (PENELCO), but some large customers have their power supply sourced from the transmission grid, whose network of 69,000 volt lines supply substations owned by PENELCO. On Freeport Area of Bataan (FAB) and barangays Malaya and Maligaya, they are served by the Utility Management Department (UMD) of National Transmission Corporation (TransCo). Sea ports / terminals Port Management Port Management Office (PMO) - Bataan/Aurora of the Philippine Ports Authority is responsible for financing, management and operations of public ports operating in Bataan. Currently there are three government-owned ports, and these are: Port of Lamao/Limay – Baseport (PMO) Port of Mariveles – Subport (TMO) Port of Capinpin/Orion– Subport (TMO) Limay and Mariveles ports are primarily used by tramper vessels/tankers catering to the requirement of industries and companies operating in the province. While the Port of Capinpin is equipped for Roll-on/roll-off (Ro-Ro) vessels to carry passengers which is served by 1Bataan Integrated Transport System from Esplanade Seaside Terminal at the Mall of Asia, Pasay to Orion and vice-versa. There are also 15 private ports/terminals that are operating in the province, namely: Jetti Petroleum Inc. (Mariveles) OilLink International Corporation (Mariveles) Petron Bataan Refinery (PBR) (Limay) PNOC (Mariveles) Planters Products Inc. (PPI)/GPII (Limay) Seafront Shipyard (Mariveles) SL Harbor Bulk Terminal Corporation (SLHBTC) (Limay) SMC Consolidated Power Corporation (Limay) GN Power (Mariveles) ATI Mariveles Grains Corporation (MGC) (Mariveles) Herma/Mariveles Shipyard Corportation (MSC) (Mariveles) SMC-Shipping and Lighterage (Mariveles) Total Philippines (Mariveles) Seasia-Nectar Mariveles Dry Bulk Terminal (Mariveles) Bataan Nuclear Power Plant Pier (Morong) The Subic Bay International Terminal Corporation in Cubi Point, Subic Bay Freeport Zone, while geographically within Bataan thru the municipality of Morong, is administered by Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority. Customs Administration Thru the Customs Administrative Order (CAO)-05-2008, the new Collection District No. XVI to be known as Bureau of Customs (BOC)-Port Limay was established. It has jurisdiction and is responsible for assessment and collection of customs revenues from imported goods and other dues, fees, charges, fines and penalties accruing under the Customs Modernization and Tariff Act (RA 10863) from all ports within the province of Bataan excluding the portions of the province that is within the Subic Special Economic and Freeport Zone as defined by R.A. No. 7227. The BOC-Port of Limay is considered as the fourth largest port in the Philippines in terms of revenue collection, behind Manila International Container Port (MICP), Port of Batangas, and Port of Manila. Airport Subic Bay International Airport – located in Cubi Point, Mabayo, Morong area of Subic Bay Freeport Zone. It serves as a secondary and diversion airport for Ninoy Aquino International Airport and Clark International Airport. The airport was formerly the Naval Air Station Cubi Point, part of the U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay, before the base closed in 1992. Highways, expressways and national roads Bataan is served by a network of national highways and two expressways. Roman Superhighway, part of highway N301, and Jose Abad Santos Avenue, or highway N3 and Olongapo-Gapan Road, forms the backbone of the national highway network. Subic–Clark–Tarlac Expressway and Subic Freeport Expressway, are toll expressways, linking the province with Pampanga, Tarlac and Subic Special Economic and Freeport Zone. The Layac-Balanga-Mariveles Port Road (a.k.a. Old National Road), Bagac-Mariveles Road, SBMA-Morong Road and Governor J.J. Linao National Road forms the secondary network, which connects the smaller municipalities with the main highway network An Asian Development Bank-supported 32-kilometer bridge called Bataan–Cavite Interlink Bridge is proposed to connect Bataan with Cavite crossing the Manila Bay. The contract for detailed engineering and design was awarded on October 2020. Railway The Subic–Clark Railway Project is a proposed freight rail expansion of the Philippine National Railways (PNR) Luzon System Development Framework. Initially a freight railway, the line will connect Subic Special Economic and Freeport Zone and the Clark Freeport and Special Economic Zone, linking Subic Port with Clark International Airport and other major economic hubs in Central Luzon, especially New Clark City, and forming an integrated logistics hub for the development of Central Luzon as a new growth center to decongest Metro Manila. Education As of 2018, literacy rate in Bataan is 99.4% (Literacy of the Household Population 10 Years Old and Over). Access to education opportunities is provided by 259 elementary schools, 84 secondary schools and 19 tertiary schools, owned and operated by either the government or private persons/groups. There are also 6 TESDA-accredited institutions offering technical/vocational courses. Educational Institutions Bataan Peninsula State University or BPSU is a state-owned university and the leading tertiary education provider in the province. It was established by virtue of Republic Act 9403, signed into law on 22 March 2007. It is a conglomeration of five state-owned higher education institutions in Bataan. The university currently has six campuses scattered across the province - the Main Campus (formerly Bataan National School of Arts and Trade), Balanga Campus (formerly Bataan Community Colleges), Abucay Campus (formerly Bataan National Agricultural School), Dinalupihan Campus (formerly Bataan State College), Orani Campus (formerly Bataan National Polytechnic School), and Bagac Campus. Another state-owned higher education institution in the province is Polytechnic University of the Philippines Bataan, which is a satellite campus of the Polytechnic University of the Philippines in Sta. Mesa, Manila, established in 1976. It is located inside the Freeport Area of Bataan (FAB) in Mariveles. Other notable tertiary education institutions in Bataan are listed below: AMA Computer Learning Center – Balanga APG International Aviation Academy – Cubi Point, Subic Bay Freeport Zone, Morong Asia Pacific College of Advanced Studies (APCAS) – Balanga Bataan Heroes Memorial College – Balanga Bataan Maritime Institute – Balanga Colegio de San Juan de Letran Bataan – Abucay College of Subic Montessori – Dinalupihan Eastwoods College of Science and Technology – Dinalupihan EastWoods Professional College of Science and Technology (formerly SOFTNET College of Science and Technology) – Balanga Fist Aviation Academy, Inc. – Cubi Point, Subic Bay Freeport Zone, Morong Limay Polytechnic College – Limay Maritime Academy of Asia and the Pacific – Mariveles Microcity College of Business and Technology (Formerly: Microcity Computer College Foundation, Inc.) – Balanga Omni Aviation School – Cubi Point, Subic Bay Freeport Zone, Morong Philippine Women's University CDCEC Bataan - Balanga St. Joseph Colleges of Balanga – Balanga Softnet Information Technology Center – Mariveles Tomas del Rosario College – Balanga University of Nueva Caceres – Dinalupihan Iskolar ng Bataan Iskolar ng Bataan is a provincial government-funded tertiary education scholarship program with a primary goal of producing at least one professional in every household in the province and be gainfully employed in the trade and industries operating inside or outside the province. Bataan Highschool for the Arts Through Republic Act No. 11190, the Bataan High School for the Arts is established as the second specialized public high school in the Philippines offering arts-focused education after the Makiling-based Philippine High School for the Arts (PHSA). The School aims to develop artistically gifted and talented students by implementing a special secondary education curriculum and support programs committed to the conservation and promotion of the Filipino artistic and cultural traditions. This is also a Center for Arts and Design of the Senior High School Program among the twenty school divisions of Central Luzon. Through the establishment of the BHSA, DepEd will be able to help select, stimulate, and prepare students for a career in the arts and cultural work who will serve the region and the country. Notable people National Heroes and Patriots Cayetano Arellano (Orion) – first Supreme Court Chief Justice of the Republic of the Philippines Francisco Baltazar (Orion) – one of the greatest Filipino literary laureates, born in Bigaa (Balagtas), Bulacan but spent his adult life in Orion, Bataan Tomas Pinpin (Abucay) – printer, writer and publisher; first Filipino printer Tomas del Rosario (Orani) – judge, statesman and first governor of the province of Bataan from 1903 to 1905. He was one of the delegates to the Malolos Congress in 1898 and to the Philippine Assembly from 1909 to 1912. Politics, Military and Government Pedro Tuazon (Balanga) – Solicitor General of the Philippines, 1921 Luz Banzon (Balanga) – wife of Philippine President Ramon Magsaysay; seventh First Lady of the Philippines Merceditas Gutierrez (Samal) – ombudsman, first female to head the post Manuel C. Herrera (Pilar) – Ombudsman, justice of the Court of Appeals and chair of the National Unification Commission Felicito Payumo (Dinalupihan) – Chairman of the Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority from 1998 to 2004 Geraldine Roman (Orani) – journalist and politician; first transgender woman elected to Congress of the Philippines Alfredo Juinio (Limay) – Secretary Department of Public Works and Highways Harry Roque (Limay) – a lawyer and the current Presidential Spokesperson Business and Economy David Consunji (Samal) – chairman of publicly listed holding firm, DMCI Holdings, Incorporated Manuel Bamba Villar Jr. (Orani) – the richest Filipino, and founder of Vista Land; a former Senator, Republic of the Philippines Education, Arts and Sciences Julian Banzon (Balanga) - is a National Scientist of the Philippines for Chemistry Lázaro Francisco (Orani) - was a Filipino novelist, essayist and playwright. Francisco was posthumously named a National Artist of the Philippines for Literature in 2009. Heny Sison (Orani) - a renowned pastry chef and teacher. Through the years, she’s had a whole range of students—from housewives to celebrities to small-time entrepreneurs who would become success stories, among them the Lorenzanas behind Wildflour, the owner of Costa Brava, even Baby Yulo of Forbes Park’s famous strawberry shortcake. Religion Manuel C. Sobreviñas (Dinalupihan) - Bishop Emeritus of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Imus Oscar V. Cruz (Balanga) – Archbishop Emeritus of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Lingayen-Dagupan Sports and Entertainment Erika Casupanan (Hermosa) - winner of Survivor 41 Romi Garduce (Balanga) – was among the first Filipinos to reach the peak of Mount Everest Gary David (Dinalupihan) – a professional basketball star and television actor/comedian Rodel Naval (Orion) – Filipino singer, songwriter and actor. Evangeline Pascual (Orani) – actress and First Runner-up Miss World 1973 Kerby Raymundo (Orion) – a professional basketball star Mel Tiangco (Pilar) – popular television newscaster and television host; head of GMA Kapuso foundation Janine Tugonon (Orion) – model, TV host and beauty pageant titleholder- Miss Universe 2012 first runner-up Jessica Sanchez (Samal) – a singer-songwriter. She rose to prominence following her finish as the runner-up on the eleventh season of American Idol. See also Bataan Provincial Expressway Petron Corporation (formerly known as Bataan Refining Corporation) Roman Catholic Diocese of Balanga Freeport Area of Bataan References External links Bataan official website 1754 establishments in the Philippines Provinces of the Philippines States and territories established in 1754	[ -0.4551766514778137, 0.0674058273434639, 0.39271411299705505, -0.003908840473741293, -0.23671911656856537, -0.0166632067412138, -0.09944526106119156, 1.089645504951477, -0.32696807384490967, -0.05557657405734062, -0.16267725825309753, 0.3315852880477905, -0.09738558530807495, -0.377113401889801, -0.14548274874687195, 0.38621094822883606, 0.8521133661270142, 0.5786728262901306, 0.13847771286964417, -0.7468926310539246, -0.4682353734970093, -0.4982006847858429, 0.24050688743591309, 0.5771633982658386, 0.7238143086433411, -0.028581488877534866, 0.006190901156514883, 0.39309877157211304, 0.281268835067749, 0.03595820814371109, -0.5604652762413025, -0.7062548995018005, 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255613	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kinnekulle	Kinnekulle	Kinnekulle is a flat-topped mountain in the county of Västergötland, Sweden, on the eastern shore of lake Vänern. Its highest point is above sea level. The mountain is long and wide at the top. Geology Despite its enormous size, Kinnekulle is actually the smaller remnant of a much larger plateau, long ago worn down to a flat plain. Some 550 million years ago, in the Neoproterozoic Era, the bottom-most rock of the plateau was under the sea. Layers of sedimentary rock formed over that layer from sand, mud, and sea animal remains. About 200 million years ago, during the Mesozoic era, the area was uplifted above the sea. Tectonic activity forced molten lava through the sedimentary rock, creating sheetlike layers of diabase. These layers, when present, protected the softer sedimentary rock beneath them from erosion, resulting in mesa-like mountains such as Kinnekulle and its neighbours. History The historic town and church of Husaby are located on the south side of the Kinnekulle. Tradition says that Olof Skötkonung, the first Christian King of Sweden, was baptized here in 1008 at a well located just north of the church. The mountain of Kinnefjellet at Spitsbergen, Svalbard, is named after Kinnekulle. References External links Kinnekulle - Turistportal Sweden travel guide Hills of Sweden Landforms of Västra Götaland County	[ -0.4024364650249481, 0.34841206669807434, 0.20445144176483154, -0.5025653839111328, 0.04983242601156235, 0.40185362100601196, 1.3407933712005615, 0.006639658939093351, -0.39359351992607117, -0.2564573585987091, 0.5888609886169434, 0.4952654540538788, 0.14100629091262817, 0.4619315266609192, -0.313163161277771, -0.10787457227706909, 0.5729483962059021, 0.5651775598526001, -0.02343703620135784, -0.055057115852832794, 0.5172342658042908, -0.5675104856491089, 0.8645340800285339, 0.20983894169330597, 0.23081259429454803, 0.22798898816108704, 0.565123438835144, 0.8118849396705627, 0.9974849820137024, 0.4011540114879608, -0.5599883198738098, 0.6947640180587769, -0.13637572526931763, -0.673336923122406, -0.24490538239479065, -0.05511065945029259, 0.38067594170570374, 0.07724802941083908, 0.17515891790390015, 0.36165353655815125, -0.3124721348285675, -0.3230326175689697, 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255615	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest%20Farrar	Ernest Farrar	Ernest Bristow Farrar (7 July 1885 – 18 September 1918) was an English composer, pianist and organist. Life Ernest Farrar was born in Lewisham, London, but moved in 1887 to Micklefield in Yorkshire, where his father was a clergyman. The rest of his life was very much centred in the North of England. He was educated at Leeds Grammar School, where he began organ studies and in May 1905 won a scholarship to the Royal College of Music. His studies at Durham University did not progress beyond his matriculation. There he studied with Sir Charles Villiers Stanford and Sir Walter Parratt and began a friendship with Frank Bridge. He also took up several posts as organist in All Saints' Dresden, St Hilda's, South Shields and Christ Church, High Harrogate. At Harrogate, he worked closely with local conductor Julian Clifford and took on the 14-year-old Gerald Finzi as a composition pupil. In 1913, he married Olive Mason in South Shields. His best man at the wedding was Ernest Bullock. His career was cut short by the outbreak of World War I, as he enlisted in the Grenadier Guards in 1915 and joined the regiment in August 1916. He was commissioned as Second Lieutenant, 3rd Battalion Devonshire Regiment on 27 February 1918. Farrar was killed on the Western Front at the Battle of Epehy Ronssoy, near Le Cateau in the Somme Valley south, west of Cambrai, on 18 September 1918. He had been at the front for two days. His grave lies just outside the churchyard wall in Ronssoy Communal Cemetery Extension, in a corner under a few trees. A Requiem Mass was said at Micklefield, on 29 September, the Feast of St. Michael and All Angels. A concert was dedicated to his memory at Harrogate by Julian Clifford on 17 September 1919, including a tone-poem Lights Out written expressly for Farrar, and Farrar's work Variations in G for pianoforte and orchestra on an old British sea-song. Works and legacy Despite his short life, Farrar wrote a large body of music for orchestra, voices and organ. His works include The Blessed Damozel, the Celtic Suite and his song cycle Vagabond Songs. Two orchestral pieces, the suite English Pastoral Impressions and the Three Spiritual Studies (for string orchestra) were published posthumously under the Carnegie Collection of British Music imprint. However, apart from a few songs his works are now rarely performed. Stephen Banfield has identified several characteristic traits in Farrar's music, representative of the English pre-war era: the use of folksong (English Pastoral Impressions); "muscular" settings of Walt Whitman (in the choral suite Out of Doors, op. 14); and intimate lyricism (in Margaritae sorori, a choral setting of words by W E Henley from 1916). Some of his orchestral music has been recorded by the Philharmonia Orchestra on the Chandos label, and some of his songs and organ works have been recorded too. Today, Farrar is perhaps best known as the teacher of Gerald Finzi, who was deeply affected by Farrar's death. Frank Bridge was also deeply affected, and dedicated his Piano Sonata to the memory of Farrar. References External links Farrar biography 1885 births 1918 deaths People from Lewisham People educated at Leeds Grammar School English classical composers English classical organists British male organists Alumni of the Royal College of Music Academics of the Royal College of Music Devonshire Regiment officers British Army personnel of World War I British military personnel killed in World War I Musicians from Kent 20th-century classical composers English male classical composers 20th-century English composers 19th-century English musicians 20th-century organists 20th-century British male musicians 19th-century British male musicians	[ -0.44477564096450806, 0.4779970347881317, -0.31381887197494507, -0.6335320472717285, -0.04141787439584732, 0.7396366000175476, -0.05495131015777588, -0.16055336594581604, 0.027320878580212593, -0.42811712622642517, -0.12483221292495728, 0.18012867867946625, -0.27445536851882935, 0.3779963254928589, -0.1104193925857544, 0.26651492714881897, 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255617	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Husaby	Husaby	Husaby is a village, near Kinnekulle, belonging to Götene Municipality in the province of Västergötland, Sweden. Husaby Church Husaby is most known for Husaby Church (Husaby kyrka) a medieval stone church. During the early 11th century, it was a wooden church. A little later, the original church was replaced by the current stone church. The tower was built in the late 11th century and in the early 12th century the stone church. Olof Skötkonung (c. 980–1022), the first Christian king of Sweden, is rumoured to have allowed himself to be baptised at a well by the church in 1008 possibly by English missionary Saint Sigfrid of Sweden. Architecturally, Husaby Church is remarkable for its steep walls and high towers, arguably the only Romanesque architecture in Sweden of that kind. The church belonged to a network of royal estates called Uppsala öd. The altarpiece was performed by Flemish sculptor George Baselaque and donated to the church in 1679 by Magnus Gabriel De la Gardie (1622-1686). One of the oldest objects in the church is the baptismal font in sandstone from the early 13th century. In 1901, when the church was restored, the lime layer was knocked away from the arches and walls. C W Pettersson, who worked with architect Axel Herman Hägg (1835-1921), made a proposal for the reconstruction of the original decor in the choir from the 15th century, which was approved by the National Heritage Board. See also Husby (estate) References External links article Husaby From Nordisk familjebok (1909) Husaby — from Contemporary terms for central places in prehistoric and medieval Scandinavia Romanesque architecture in Sweden Buildings and structures in Västra Götaland County	[ -0.09655029326677322, 0.7708908319473267, 0.42103713750839233, -0.17249087989330292, -0.16330327093601227, -0.004794937092810869, 0.859819233417511, -0.1132993996143341, -0.5280671119689941, -0.24634525179862976, 0.17373153567314148, -0.18715395033359528, -0.2832077741622925, 0.11558634042739868, -0.5926685929298401, -0.23200279474258423, 0.22129377722740173, 1.1114729642868042, 0.08201541751623154, -0.936296820640564, 0.1111157238483429, -0.2897302806377411, 0.18915341794490814, 0.11538562178611755, -0.1119401752948761, -0.08512282371520996, 0.27487948536872864, 0.5841466784477234, 0.7888790369033813, -0.1555999368429184, -0.1969604194164276, 0.7489371299743652, 0.7495859861373901, -0.07183502614498138, 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255618	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Frank%20Davey	Frank Davey	Frankland Wilmot Davey, FRSC (born April 19, 1940) is a Canadian poet and scholar. Born in Vancouver, British Columbia, he grew up in the Fraser Valley village of Abbotsford. In 1957 he enrolled at the University of British Columbia where, in 1961, shortly after beginning MA studies, he became one of the founding editors of the influential and contentious poetry newsletter TISH. In the spring of 1962 he won the university's Macmillan Prize for poetry, and published the poetry collection D-Day and After, the first of the Tish group's numerous publications. In 1963 he began teaching at Canadian Services College Royal Roads Military College in Victoria. He began doctoral studies at the University of Southern California in the summer of 1965, completing in 1968. After serving as writer-in-residence at Montreal's Sir George Williams University, he joined the English Department of York University in Toronto in 1970, becoming department chair in 1986. He was appointed in 1990 to the Carl F. Klinck Chair of Canadian Literature at the University of Western Ontario in London. From 1975 to 1992 he was one of the most active editors of the Coach House Press. He currently lives in Strathroy, Ontario. Biography Early life and education Frank Davey was born in Vancouver, British Columbia, but raised in the nearby Fraser Valley village of Abbotsford (1941 population 562), close to the Canada-US border. He was the son Wilmot Elmer Davey, a hydro company laborer and truck driver, and Doris Brown, who had emigrated with her family from Britain at age 4. Much of his childhood in Abbotsford is pseudonymously recounted in his 2005 poetry volume Back to the War and in the first person in his 2011 memoir When TISH Happens. Together the two books also provide the only mid-century literary portrait of the surprisingly diverse Abbotsford community and the surrounding Fraser Valley farmland. Davey enrolled at the University of British Columbia in 1957 where he met the influential poetry theorist Warren Tallman and student writers George Bowering, Daphne Marlatt, Carol Bolt, Jamie Reid, and Fred Wah, and in 1960 the charismatic San Francisco poet Robert Duncan. With Bowering, Reid, and Wah, and the advice of Tallman and Duncan, he founded the poetry newsletter TISH in 1961. Academic and Writing Career The success of TISH, which the editors mailed free of charge for nineteen successive months to poets, editors, and critics across Canada and much of the US, brought Davey to the attention of the senior Canadian writers George Woodcock and Louis Dudek. Woodcock, editor of the journal Canadian Literature, commissioned in 1962 the first of several essays from him, and Dudek invited him to guest-edit a Vancouver issue of his important poetry magazine Delta. Woodcock's intervention may have been the more significant, encouraging the young poet to take up literary criticism as well, and from the 1970s to the 90s write a body of work that would be called 'the most individual and influential ever written in Canada.' Davey published his first poetry collection, D-Day and After, in 1962, with an introduction by Tallman that emphasized how this was poetry as the act of the moment rather than poetry as the commonplace attempt 'to express ... feelings.' It was the first of more than a hundred volumes to be published by the TISH editors. Receiving an MA from UBC in 1963, Davey taught for the Canadian armed forces at Royal Roads Military College in Victoria, BC until 1969, while also working on a doctorate in poetics at the University of Southern California in the summers of 1965 and 1966, and a 1966–67 leave of absence. He witnessed the 1965 Watts riots from an apartment within the curfew zone, feeling more endangered, he indicates in 'Writing a Life' (99–100) and When TISH Happens (224), by the US National Guard than by the mostly black protesters. It seems very possible that this experience contributed to his later insistence in his political and cultural writings that the Canadian nation-state should be a collaboration open to the meaningful participation of all its citizens. In the fall of 1965 his third and fourth volumes of poetry were published. He also launched his poetry and criticism journal Open Letter that fall of 1965, designing it initially as an open editorial dialogue with former Tish editors Bowering and David Dawson. In the spring of 1968 he received his PhD, having presented a thesis on the poetics of the Black Mountain poets. In the spring of 1969 he was appointed Writer-in-Residence for 1969–70 at Sir George Williams (now Concordia) University in Montreal. The following year he joined the faculty of York University in Toronto to teach Canadian Literature and, amid teaching and research collaborations with Clara Thomas and Barbara Godard, quickly assumed a nationally influential role. He published two poetry collections in each of 1970, 1971, and 1972, and a selected poems in 1972. He published a monograph on Earle Birney in 1971, and the widely praised From There to Here: A Guide to English-Canadian Literature Since 1960, the first book to theorize Canadian postmodernism, in 1974. But his most important contribution in these years was his withering critique, 'Surviving the Paraphrase,' of the thematic criticism of Northrop Frye, D. G. Jones and Margaret Atwood which he delivered at the founding conference of the Association for Canadian and Quebec Literatures in the spring of 1974. That paper, in Stephen Scobie's words 'a vastly influential essay', almost immediately discredited thematic criticism in Canada and, forty years later, reverberates as well within Canadian postcolonial studies. In 1976 he was appointed Coordinator of the York University creative writing program, and also joined, along with bpNichol and Michael Ondaatje, the new editorial board of The Coach House Press. With the assistance of Nichol and Barbara Godard, he was also expanding the pages and range of Open Letter to give attention to Québécois poets, women writers, and poststructuralist poetics, developing it into what Gregory Betts in The Canadian Encyclopedia would call 'Canada's most important forum for discussion and examination of innovative and experimental ideas and texts.' In 1982 he helped conduct a month-long workshop in Dharwar, India, for young academics many of whom became major contributors to Canadian Studies in that country. Here he wrote one of his most important long poems, the "brilliant poetic commentary on postcolonialism" The Abbotsford Guide to India, published in 1986—one of six poetry books he published in the 1980s. That year he was also elected chair of the York University Department of English. Two years earlier he had published the first study of Margaret Atwood's feminism: Margaret Atwood: A Feminist Poetics. In 1990 he was named the first Carl F. Klinck Professor of Canadian Literature at the University of Western Ontario (now Western University), in London, Ontario, and began a new writing phase in which he adapted discourse analysis to Canadian cultural studies, and examined various Canadian cultural scenes—from those of literary criticism to those of politics, celebrity, and popular crime writing. His new books included Post-National Arguments: The Politics of the Anglo-Canadian Novel since 1967 (1993), Reading 'KIM' Right (1993), an analysis of the public persona of Kim Campbell, Canada's first woman prime minister, Canadian Literary Power (1994), a study of how Canadian literary reputations are constructed and defended, Karla's Web: A Cultural Examination of the Mahaffy-French Murders (1994), an examination of how newspaper crime writing distorts both victims and criminal justice issues, Cultural Mischief: A Practical Guide to Multiculturalism (1996), a poetry collection that mocked both the sentimentalities of multiculturalism's proponents and the narcissism of its critics, and Mr & Mrs G-G (2002) an examination of Canadian Governor-General Adrienne Clarkson and her husband, writer John Ralston Saul, that accused both of a pretentiousness that misrepresented and stifled actual Canadian realities. As Betts observes with some understatement, this was 'a critical stance that has occasionally put him into conflict with the Canadian literary establishment.' Its consequences are likely reflected in Davey's description in When TISH Happens of Canadian literary and academic prizes as institutional rewards for 'banality and careerism' (304). Meanwhile, in May 1994 he had been elected president of the Association of Canadian College and University Teachers of English (ACCUTE). That November he had led the Association in issuing a controversial and widely publicized 'caution' against the postsecondary education policies of the British Columbia government and the resulting working conditions and quality of education at its recently established University Colleges. Davey continued his creativity at the expense of currently established critical pieties in the poetry collections Dog (2002) and Risky Propositions (2005), both partly directed at identity politics, the 'flarf' books Lack On! (2009), a mock-Lacanian tribute to Fred Wah, and Bardy Google (2010), part of which was a Dunciad-like send-up of recent Canadian criticism, and the limited edition visual poetry book, Canonical Canadian Literature (2011). Meanwhile, the final years of provincial mandatory retirement legislation ended his Western Ontario teaching years in 2005. He was elected to the Royal Society of Canada in 2014. Family life Davey married education student Helen Simmons, also from Abbotsford, in 1962, during the final year of his MA studies. She later taught school in Victoria and accompanied him to the University of Southern California where she earned a master's degree in special education. They divorced in 1969. Shortly after, he married Linda Jane McCartney, with whom he had two children, Michael Gareth, b. 1970, and Sara Geneve, b. 1971. Linda Davey graduated from Osgoode Hall Law School in 1978 and practiced law in Toronto until 1994. She also served with Davey on the editorial board of the Coach House Press from 1976 to 1988. She died of a brain tumor in 2000. His memoir, How Linda Died, which contains many details of their life together and their relations with their children, is, according to BC Bookworld editor Alan Twigg, 'Davey's most accessible and memorable book ... his most atypically direct and personal.' Contributions to Poetry and Literary Criticism Influence Davey has usually been viewed as a major influence on both Canadian poetry and Canadian literary criticism. Twigg has quoted George Fetherling as having called TISH Canada’s 'most influential literary magazine.' Ken Norris, in his study of Canadian little magazines, calls Davey's Open Letter 'the most important avant-garde periodical in Canada.' Betts writes that ' his books of poetry, his literary and cultural criticism and his rich range of essays on diverse topics, Davey has been a major figure involved in introducing the idea and practice of postmodernism to writers in Canada.' Scobie adds that he has 'often been seen as a 'poet's poet' ' (276). TISH Betts writes that 'the TISH community has been described as the first post-colonial literary movement in English Canada because they wrote after and neither about nor because of colonialism.' Alexander Varty, reviewing When TISH Happens for The Georgia Straight, writes that it is possible 'that TISH's emphasis 'on the self as a consciousness in process rather than a stable persona' has become the norm in Canadian poetry and indeed in much Canadian fiction – a significant contribution, and one that's worth celebrating.' 'Surviving the Paraphrase' Diana Brydon begins her introduction to the Frank Davey 'festschrift issue' of Studies in Canadian Literature: 'In 1974, Frank Davey's conference paper 'Surviving the Paraphrase' took the small world of Canadian literary criticism by storm. The tenor of discussion changed as writers and critics became more self-conscious about their place in the world and how they engaged it in their work.' In her essay in this issue, Smaro Kamboureli writes ' 'Surviving the Paraphrase,' originally presented in 1974 at the founding meeting of the association of Canadian and Quebec Literatures, and subsequently published in Canadian Literature in 1976, inaugurates a pivotal moment ... in the development of Canadian criticism, for it presents one of the earliest, albeit brief, critiques of thematic criticism in Canada.' She adds 'If I were to identify a single major contribution Davey has made to Canadian critical discourse, this would be the instrumental role he has played in showing the importance of methodology, that methodology is inextricably related to how we understand the canon, textuality, the critical act, and nation-formation. The fact that he drew attention to method at a time when Canadian literary discourse was by and large oblivious to it makes his contribution all the more important. Method – directly thematized or appearing in different guises – figures in his work with remarkable consistency and with interesting results.' Poetry The poems of Davey’s first poetry collection, D-Day and After, described in Tallman’s introduction as 'a weathervane pointing which way the verse winds may be blowing,' for the most part adapted the early projectivist poetics and typewriter spacing of Charles Olson to the lyric poem. It was mockingly reviewed by Ontario poet and playwright James Reaney – 'I’m not too sure that instead of projecting himself through his typewriter, his typewriter isn't projecting itself through him.' Two of the poems, however, 'To the Lions Gate Bridge' and 'The Guitar Girls,' are among the most successful processual poems produced by the Tish poets, with the former declared by Robert Duncan to be 'a poem without lapse' In Davey's next three books, Bridge Force (1965), City of the Gulls and Sea (1964), and The Scarred Hull (1966), Olson's influence is evident mostly in the research-based focus on place, especially in the latter. All three rather undistinguished books only slightly declined the prevailing lyric conventions of Canadian poetry. But they also differed significantly from each other. Davey's emerging tendency to modify or enlarge his poetics with each new book or cluster of books became more apparent in his first four poetry books of the 1970s and their differing approaches to a phenomenological prosody. Weeds (1970) is a sequence of one-paragraph prose poems with frequent disjunctions between the sentences. The Clallam (1973) is a narrative of a 1907 British Columbia shipwreck constructed in brief exclamatory sections that recall the abrasive mock narratives of Jack Spicer. King of Swords (1972) retells much of the Arthurian story in contemporary diction to suggest the continuing persistence of that story's self-destructive masculinism. Arcana (1973) uses longer lines, postmodern indeterminacy and the imagery of the Rider-Waite Tarot deck in purportedly unfinished 'manuscript poems,' each dated and printed within quotation marks. All these books were outside, or alongside, usual Canadian poetry practices. The most visible Black Mountain influence in the latter two books was the medievalism of Robert Duncan, but much differently framed. Davey published two strikingly unusual books in the 1980s. The first was Capitalistic Affection! (1982), in which a young boy absorbs sexual stereotypes in the weekly comic strips of the North American 1940s. The book uses comic strip idioms, mixed with occasional metafictional commentary, to analyze further the Arthurian inheritance and its imbrication with commodity culture, while also creating numerous disturbingly poignant moments. He followed this in 1986 with another anomalous work, The Abbotsford Guide to India, a book of poetry constructed as a tourist guide. Critic Katie Trumpener comments that 'Davey's Guide is a manifesto from Abbotsford about the connected perspectives and cultural cross-pollination of different peripheries,' one that 'bypasses ... the empire's nominal centre' and adds that the poems 'point to the obvious vestiges of colonial consciousness in a still emphatically British Columbia (especially in the survival of colonial attitudes toward its own 'Indians'), but they also identify more mysterious residues of colonial self-doubt and self-hatred.' Again these books had little relationship to the ongoing lyric norms of Canadian poetry or, in their sharp movements away from each of Davey’s preceding books, to the more consistent modes of poetic dissent being created by other Canadian poets such as bill bissett, Daphne Marlatt, and bpNichol. He also published in the 1980s the bitterly humorous Edward & Patricia (1984) and the collection of poetic reorientations of Canadian history The Louis Riel Organ and Piano Company (1985). The latter contains Davey's most frequently taught longer poem, 'Riel,' a Spicerian deconstruction of the various narratives that have claimed to represent the Canadian Métis martyr. In all these books there had been evident a strong interest in cultural criticism and semiotics, an interest which became central to his literary criticism in the early 1990s with the publication of his Post-National Arguments and Canadian Literary Power. Davey's first poetry collection of the 1990s was the ironically titled Popular Narratives (1994), with its cover image of the Ljubljana statue of the Slovenian national poet France Prešeren being blessed by a beautiful muse but both covered in bird droppings. Among the book's 'popular' narratives were Davey's story of the murder of Agnes Bernauer in fifteenth-century Bavaria and his prose-poem elegy for bpNichol into which he incorporates the stories of both Eloise and Abelard and Camille Claudel and Auguste Rodin as ones of teacher-student exploitation. As he had written in 1972 in King of Swords, 'the myth of Arthur continues.' In 1996 he published the collection Cultural Mischief, with one of its poems a very different elegy to the painter Greg Curnoe, constructed of 32 short staccato stanzas that echo the disjunctive structure of Curnoe's best-known paintings. It's a poem that Lynette Hunter writes 'not only erases the heroic elegiac voice but also textures the body of the dead.' During the next few years and the illness and death of his wife, and his writing of How Linda Died (2002), Davey appears to have worked on the completing of a manuscript first published as the on-demand digital chapbook War Poems in 1979 and published as a much longer book, Back to the War, in 2005. The 75 poems narrate a childhood story of being on the 'backside' of World War II but in a family that replicates much of that war’s tensions and gender metaphors, into which the child becomes an unknowing but inevitable conscript. On the cover is a photo of the battlecruisers HMS Hood and HMS Repulse in Vancouver harbour on which has been superimposed an amateur snapshot of a young boy in a British sailor suit. Like most of Davey's books, including The Scarred Hull, Weeds, The Clallam, King of Swords, Capitalistic Affection!, Edward & Patricia, and The Abbotsford Guide to India, the collection functions as both a long poem and a unified sequence of separable parts. Davey takes up flarf techniques in his 2010 Bardy Google, manipulating internet algorithms to produce a variety of texts that portray the limitations and variety of internet culture. For many readers the most surprising of these has been 'Sydney's Wreck,' in which Davey's algorithms produce a collage-narrative of the World War II disappearance and later location of the Australian light cruiser – a narrative in which the ideological investments of a wide range of Australians becomes evident. As usual, flarf throws a luminous spotlight on language usage. Here Davey uses it to extend the semiotics underpinnings of his Popular Narratives and Cultural Mischief. Davey's 2014 collection Poems Suitable to Current Material Conditions is almost entirely (and mischievously) about language, from poems that riff on cliché phrases such as 'I’m good,' 'just sayin',' and 'going forward,' to a flarf poem that puns on Jacques Lacan’s name and theories to illuminate the feelings of lack and entitlement that societies both wealthy and poor repeatedly declare. In a note written on Tish in 1991 Tallman writes that Davey's magazine Open Letter can be viewed as standing for all the ventures of the Tish poets 'as evidence of some active secret of the imagination original Tish let loose upon the world,' and that Davey can be viewed 'as a type of all the other Tish poets who were in on the secret' – 'that he exemplifies in himself how much imagination when possessed can manage.' Davey's own imagination appears to have been strongly influenced by the events of the Second World War, from the title of his first collection through the comic strip images of the war in Capitalistic Affection!, his 'multiple choice' Hiroshima poem of Cultural Mischief, the coloring book warfare and plastic war machines of Back to the War, to the colliding ideologies of HMAS 'Sydney's Wreck' in Bardy Google. Selected bibliography Poetry D-day and After – 1962 City of the Gulls and Sea – 1964 The Scarred Hull – 1965 Bridge Force – 1965 Weeds – 1970 Four Myths for Sam Perry – 1970 Griffon – 1972 King of Swords – 1972 L'An Trentiesme: Selected Poems, 1961–70 – 1972 Arcana – 1973 The Clallam, or, Old Glory in Juan de Fuca – 1973 Selected Poems: The Arches – 1980 (edited by bpNichol) Capitalistic Affection! – 1982 Edward and Patricia – 1984 The Louis Riel Organ and Piano Company – 1985 The Abbotsford Guide to India – 1986 Popular Narratives – 1994 Cultural Mischief – 1996 Dog – 2002 – Back to the War – 2005 Risky Propositions – 2005 Lack On! – 2009 How We Won the War in Iraq – 2009 Bardy Google – 2010 Afghanistan War: True, False – or Not – 2010 Canonical Canadian Literature – 2011 Spectres of London Ont – 2013 Poems Suitable to Current Material Conditions – 2014 Motel Homage for Greg Curnoe – 2014 Non-Fiction Five Readings of Olson's Maximus – 1970 Earle Birney – 1971 From There to Here: A Guide to English-Canadian Literature Since 1960 – 1974 Louis Dudek and Raymond Souster – 1980 Surviving the Paraphrase – 1983 Margaret Atwood: A Feminist Poetics – 1984 Reading Canadian Reading – 1985 Post-National Arguments: The Politics of the Anglophone-Canadian Novel since 1967 – 1993 Reading 'Kim' Right – 1993 Canadian Literary Power – 1994 Karla's Web: A Cultural Investigation of the Mahaffy-French Murders – 1994 How Linda Died – 2002 Mr & Mrs G.G – 2003 When TISH Happens – 2011 aka bpNichol: A Preliminary Biography – 2012 Anthologies Edited TISH Nos. 1–19 – 1975 The SwiftCurrent Anthology – 1986 (edited with Fred Wah) See also Canadian literature Canadian poetry List of Canadian poets List of Canadian writers References External links Records of Frank Davey are held by Simon Fraser University's Special Collections and Rare Books 1940 births Living people 20th-century Canadian poets 20th-century Canadian male writers Canadian male poets 21st-century Canadian poets Fellows of the 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255620	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stake	Stake	A stake is a strong wooden or metal post with a point at one end, driven into the ground to support a tree, form part of a fence, act as a boundary mark, etc. Stake may also refer to: Entertainment Stake: Fortune Fighters, a 2003 video game The Stake, a 1915 silent short film "The Stake", a 1977 song by The Steve Miller Band from Book of Dreams Stakes (miniseries), an Cartoon Network miniseries, aired as part of the seventh season of Adventure Time Stake (band) People Dagnija Staķe (born 1951), Latvian politician Robert E. Stake (born 1927), Professor Emeritus of Education at the University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign Other uses Equity (finance) stake, the part of a company or business owned by a shareholder Stake (Latter Day Saints), a regional organization in some Latter Day Saint churches Hill of Stake, a hill on the boundary between North Ayrshire and Renfrewshire, Scotland @stake, a computer services company Sudis (stake) (Latin for "stake"), a fortification carried by Roman legionaries See also Archer's stake, a defensive stake carried by medieval longbowmen Survey stakes, markers used by surveyors Torture stake, a method of execution similar to crucifixion, tying or nailing the victim to an upright pole in lieu of a cross Stakes race, a type of horse race Staking (manufacturing), a process for connecting two components Poker staking, financial backing a player Staker Stanchion, a kind of stake Staking (disambiguation) Steak (disambiguation) Steel fence post, a kind of stake	[ 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255621	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yolanda%2C%20Latin%20Empress	Yolanda, Latin Empress	Yolanda (; 1175 – August 1219), often called Yolanda of Flanders, was Empress of the Latin Empire in Constantinople, first as the wife of Emperor Peter from 1216 to 1217 and thereafter in her own right until her death in 1219. Peter was captured and imprisoned before he could reach Constantinople, so Yolanda assumed the duties of governing the Empire. She was ruling Marchioness of Namur from 1212 until 1217. Biography Yolanda was the daughter of Baldwin V, Count of Hainault, and Countess Margaret I of Flanders. Two of her brothers, Baldwin I and then Henry, were emperors in Constantinople. In 1212, Yolanda became Marchioness of Namur after her brother, Marquis Philip I. After the death of her brother emperor Henry in 1216 there was a brief period without an emperor, before Peter was elected to succeed her brother. On their way there, Peter sent Yolanda ahead to Constantinople, while he fought the Despotate of Epirus, during which he was captured. Because his fate was unknown (although he was probably killed), Yolanda governed Constantinople as a sole ruler for two years. She allied with the Bulgarians against the various Byzantine successor states, and was able to make peace with Theodore I Lascaris of the Empire of Nicaea, who married her daughter, Marie. She died soon after in 1219. Legacy Following Yolanda's death, her second son, Robert of Courtenay, became emperor because her oldest son, Philip, did not want the throne. Robert was still in France at the time. Yolanda was, in her own right, Marchioness of Namur, which she inherited from her brother, Marquis Philip I, in 1212 and left to her eldest son, Marquis Philip II, when she went to Constantinople in 1216. Issue By Peter of Courtenay she had 10 children: Philip (d. 1226), Marquis of Namur, who declined the offer of the crown of the Latin Empire Robert of Courtenay (d. 1228), Latin Emperor Henry (d. 1229), Marquis of Namur Baldwin II of Constantinople (d. 1273) Margaret, Marchioness of Namur, who married first Raoul d'Issoudun and then Henry count of Vianden Elizabeth, who married Walter (Gaucher) count of Bar and then Eudes sire of Montagu Yolanda de Courtenay, who married Andrew II of Hungary Eleanor, who married Philip of Montfort, Lord of Tyre Marie de Courtenay, who married Theodore I Lascaris of the Empire of Nicaea Agnes, who married Geoffrey II Villehardouin, Prince of Achaea References Sources 1175 births 1219 deaths 13th-century Latin Emperors of Constantinople House of Hainaut Capetian House of Courtenay Regents of the Latin Empire Latin Empresses of Constantinople Margraves of Namur Women of the Crusader states Flanders 13th-century Byzantine women 13th-century women rulers 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255625	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Outline%20of%20industrial%20organization	Outline of industrial organization	The following outline is provided as an overview of and topical guide to industrial organization: Industrial organization – describes the behavior of firms in the marketplace with regard to production, pricing, employment and other decisions. Issues underlying these decisions range from classical issues such as opportunity cost to neoclassical concepts such as factors of production. Overview a field of economics that studies: the strategic behavior of firms the structure of markets Perfect competition Monopolistic competition Oligopoly Oligopsony Monopoly Monopsony and the interactions between them Concepts Production side of Industry: Production theory productive efficiency factors of production total, average, and marginal product curves marginal productivity isoquants & isocosts the marginal rate of technical substitution Production function inputs diminishing returns to inputs the stages of production shifts in a production function Economic rent classical factor rents Paretian factor rents Production possibility frontier what production levels are possible given a set of resources the trade-off between various input combinations the marginal rate of transformation Cost side of Industry: Cost theory Different types of costs opportunity cost accounting cost or historical costs transaction cost sunk cost marginal cost The isocost line Cost-of-production theory of value Long-run cost and production functions long-run average cost long-run production function and efficiency returns to scale and isoclines minimum efficient scale plant capacity Economies of density Economies of scale the efficiency consequences of increasing or decreasing the level of production. Economies of scope the efficiency consequences of increasing or decreasing the number of different types of products produced, promoted, and distributed. Network effect the effect that one user of a good or service has on the value of that product to other people. Optimum factor allocation output elasticity of factor costs marginal revenue product marginal resource cost Pricing and various aspects of the pricing decision Transfer pricing selling within a multi-divisional company Joint product pricing price setting when two products are linked Price discrimination different prices to different buyers types of price discrimination Yield management Price skimming price discrimination over time Two-part tariffs charging a price composed of two parts, usually an initial fee and an ongoing fee Price points the effects of a non-linear demand curve on pricing Cost-plus pricing a markup is applied to a cost term in order to calculate price cost-plus pricing with elasticity considerations cost plus pricing is often used along with break even analysis Rate of return pricing calculate price based on the required rate of return on investment, or rate of return on sales Profit maximization determining the optimum price and quantity the totals approach marginal approach of production People Antoine Augustin Cournot Heinrich Freiherr von Stackelberg Jean Tirole Joseph Bertrand William Baumol See also External links Industrial Organization Society Industrial organization Industrial organization Pricing Production economics	[ 0.5267620086669922, 0.7021917104721069, -0.4179379642009735, -0.21678875386714935, 0.03758717328310013, 0.3071250319480896, 0.059472180902957916, 0.3565995991230011, -0.3840705156326294, -0.8754206299781799, -0.06058567762374878, 0.48945483565330505, -0.12544260919094086, 0.24035999178886414, -0.4594525098800659, 0.6337711215019226, 0.024820324033498764, 0.519043505191803, 0.07359249889850616, -0.313206285238266, -0.26488909125328064, 0.05154126137495041, 0.06862583011388779, -0.2342269867658615, 0.5057361125946045, -0.18127897381782532, 0.3525099754333496, 0.003054075175896287, -0.2885376513004303, -0.28084585070610046, -0.10456491261720657, 0.15912017226219177, -0.2003023773431778, -0.21926863491535187, 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255626	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zambales	Zambales	Zambales (; ; ; ; ) is a province in the Philippines located in the Central Luzon region. Its capital is Iba, which is located in the middle of the province. Zambales borders Pangasinan to the north and northeast, Tarlac to the east, Pampanga to the southeast, Bataan to the south and the South China Sea to the west. With a total land area of (including the independent city of Olongapo), Zambales is the second largest among the seven provinces of Central Luzon after Nueva Ecija. The province is noted for its mangoes, which are abundant from January to April. Zambales does not have a functional airport - the closest functional airport is the Clark International Airport in Angeles City in the neighbouring province of Pampanga. Subic Bay International Airport, which is located in Cubi Point (geographically located inside Morong, Bataan) in the Subic Bay Freeport Zone is no longer functional for domestic and international flights. The Freeport Zone (SBFZ) is host to many tourist attractions which include casinos, parks, malls, beach-side huts, cottages and resorts, as well as historical sites. Etymology The province's name came from the word zambal, which is a Hispanized term for Sambali. Sambal refers to the native language spoken by the early Austronesian inhabitants of the area. A contending version states that the name was derived from the word samba, meaning worship, because the Spanish supposedly found the native inhabitants to be highly superstitious; worshipping the spirits of their ancestors. It could also originate from the word "Zambo", a term used by the Iberian (Spanish and Portuguese) empires to distinguish people of African ethnicity/descent. The province is home to the Aetas, the aboriginal people of the Philippines who share Afro-ethnic similarities. History Prior to colonization, the Aeta people became the first human population who inhabited what is now Zambales. Due to Malay migration waves, the Tagalog people displaced the Sambal people in southern Luzon, which led to the arrival of the Sambal people into present-day Zambales. The Spanish first explored the area in 1572, led by Juan de Salcedo. Off Cape Bolinao (now part of Pangasinan), he and his men liberated a Zambal chieftain and his followers from a Chinese pirate ship. This act gained the natives' goodwill. Shortly thereafter, the province was organized. Among the earliest towns founded were Subic (1572), Botolan (1572), Masinloc (1607), Iba (1611), and Santa Cruz (1612). During the Spanish period, a 1774 map was made, which clearly named Scarborough Shoals as Panacot Shoal, a feature under complete sovereignty of Spanish Philippines, specifically of Zambales. The shoal's current name was chosen by Captain Philip D'Auvergne, whose East India Company East Indiaman Scarborough briefly grounded on one of the rocks on 12 September 1784, before sailing on to China. When the Philippines was granted independence in the 19th century and 20th century, Scarborough Shoal was passed by the colonial governments to the sovereign Republic of the Philippines. Masinloc became the province's first capital. However, the capital was moved among the last three towns above during its history before finally settling in Iba, due to its strategic location. Seven of the province's original northern towns, which included Bolinao, Infanta, San Isidro, now Burgos, Anda, Bani, Agno and Alaminos were later transferred under the jurisdiction of Pangasinan because of their distance from the capital. The first civil governor of Zambales during the colonial American era was Potenciano Lesaca from 1901 to 1903. During the dictatorship of Ferdinand Marcos, Zambales was one of the most militarized areas in the Philippines as majority of the people were against martial rule. Many opposition Sambals were detained, tortured, killed, electrocuted at the genitalia, or were listed as 'missing'. The province was one of the main supporters of the People Power Revolution in Manila, which topped the 21-year dictatorship and installed Corazon Aquino as president, bringing back democracy to the country. The province was heavily affected by the 1991 eruption of Mount Pinatubo. Due to this, the economy of the province weakened for some time, but regained vitality a few years after the government ordered the revitalization of the province and established growth in its southern towns, which later became a significant economic zone in the country by 1995. The 2012 Scarborough Shoal standoff led to a situation where access to the shoal was restricted by the People's Republic of China. However, in 2016, following meetings between the Philippine president Duterte and his PRC counterparts, the PRC allowed Filipino fishermen to access the shoals for fishing. In 2018, it was revealed that for every 3,000 peso worth of fish catch by Sambal fisherfolks, China siphoned them in exchange for 'two bottles of mineral water' worth 20 pesos. The revelations led to public unrest against China and the Duterte-administered Philippine government. Filipino president Rodrigo Duterte fired back against his fellow Filipinos, including those from Zambales, saying that China's acts were 'fine' as they were 'only barter'. On June 14, 2018, China's destruction of Scarborough Shoal's reefs surged to an extent which they became visible via Google Earth and Philippine satellites, as confirmed by the University of the Philippines Diliman. Geography Zambales lies on the western shores of Luzon island along the South China Sea. Its shoreline is rugged and features many coves and inlets. The Zambales Mountains in the eastern length of the province occupies about 60% of the total land area of Zambales. Subic Bay, at the southern end of the province, provides a natural harbor, and was the location of the U.S. Naval Base Subic Bay until its closure in 1992. The summit and crater lake of Mount Pinatubo lies within Botolan municipality in Zambales, near the tripoint of Zambales, Pampanga and Tarlac provinces. This volcano, once considered dormant, erupted violently in June 1991. The former summit of the volcano was obliterated by the massive eruption and replaced by a wide caldera, within which Lake Pinatubo is situated. With an average depth of , Lake Pinatubo is the deepest lake in the Philippines. The highest point of the caldera rim is above sea level, some lower than the pre-eruption summit. A vast portion of the Zambales province acquired desert-like features in 1991, after being buried by more than of lahar. Climate Zambales has two pronounced seasons: dry from October to June, and wet from July to September. Administrative divisions Zambales comprises 13 municipalities and 1 highly urbanized city, which are divided into two legislative districts. Olongapo City is a highly urbanized city and administers itself autonomously from the province. Panatag Shoal (Scarborough Shoal) a Philippine-claimed territory, is a designated part of the province. Barangays The 13 municipalities and 1 city of the province comprise a total of 247 barangays, with Santa Rita in Olongapo City as the most populous in 2010, and Owaog-Nibloc in Botolan as the least. If cities are excluded, Calapacuan in Subic has the highest population as of 2010. Demographics The population of Zambales in the was people, with a density of . When Olongapo City is included for geographical purposes, the province's population is 909,932 people, with a density of . Inhabitants The Aetas of Mount Pinatubo were the earliest inhabitants of what is now the province of Zambales. They were later displaced by the Sambal, an Austronesian people after whom the province is named. Many Sambal still believe in superstitions and mysteries that have been handed down through the generations. The Tagalogs, the Ilocanos, the Sambal, the Kapampangans, and the Pangasinans today constitute the five largest ethnic groups in Zambales; these identities may and do, however, overlap with one another due to intermarriage and other factors. Most of the people of southern Zambales are migrants from different parts of the country owing the influx of job opportunities brought on by the U.S Subic Naval Base (San Antonio and Subic) during the American regime of the country. Many people found jobs and permanently settled there. The presence of the Americans greatly influenced the culture and way of life of the inhabitants. Religion The people of Zambales are predominantly Roman Catholic (78.22%). A sizeable portion of the population also belongs to the Aglipay (6.12%) and Iglesia ni Cristo (4.89%). The remaining are divided with other Christian groups such as Born-again Christians, United Methodist Church, The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses, Seventh-day Adventist, United Church of Christ in the Philippines as well as Non Christians which is usually represented by Muslims. Town fiestas honoring patron saints are practiced in each parish. Languages Sambal, Tagalog, and Ilocano are the three main languages of Zambales. Ilocano has 115,337 native speakers, Sambal has 114,637, and Tagalog has 250,637 (plus 24,995 non-native speakers). More than 119,126 spoke other languages as their parent tongue, such as Kapampangan and Pangasinan, including non-Philippine languages such as English and Hokkien Chinese. About 75 percent of the population speaks and understands English to varying degrees of fluency, and road signs are mostly written in that language. Economy Tourism plays a large role in the economy of Zambales. Local and foreign tourist flock its many beaches creating many job opportunities and contributing to the economy. Most of the province is still agricultural but there are considerable industrial zones that provide jobs not just for residents of Zambales but also for neighboring provinces. Mining has recently been booming in Zambales where there is an abundant deposit of Nickel and other minerals. Zambales is basically an agricultural province. The chief products are rice, mangoes, corn, vegetables, and root crops. Major industries include farming, fishing, and mining. Festivals and events Feast Day of Ina Poon Bato — January24. The Ina Poón Bató is a purportedly miraculous, syncretised image of the Blessed Virgin Mary. Legend has it that before the arrival of the Spanish in the area sometime in the 17th century, local Aeta peoples had discovered a carved wooden statue on a large rock that they called Apo Apang ("Little Queen") and began worshipping the image. On the arrival of Recollect missionaries in 1607, the natives associated the statue with the Roman Catholic depictions of the Virgin Mary, and the image was subsequently Christianised as Ina Poón Bato ("Mother of the Lord Rock"). Singkamas Festival and Town Fiesta — 3rd Week of February Town Fiesta — Pundakit Festival of the Arts — FebruaryJuly Zambales Multi Sports Festival Senakulo — 3rd Week of March Panagkakadua-an Festival - 1st Week of April Good Friday — April Foundation Day Celebration — April10 Grand Fiesta — The Dinamulag Festival "Zambales Mango Festival" — 3rd Tuesday of April The Dinamulag Festival also known as the Zambales Mango Festival is an annual festival held in the province of Zambales in the Philippines to celebrate or encourage bountiful harvest of the province's mangoes. The festival was first held in 1999. Paynawen Festival — 3rd Week of April Paynauen ‘Duyan’ Festival is held every April 25 – May 1 in Iba, Zambales. It commemorates the provincial capital's founding anniversary (founded in 1611) traces its origin from a Zambal word which means rest or pahingahan – the ancient name of Iba before the Spanish conquistadores founded the village on the shore of the Bancal River in 1611. The festival features photo competition and exhibit, sand sculpture competition, skate boarding, 2-cock derby, carabao race, beauty pageant, kite flying, banca race, boxing tournament, street dancing / Duyan Parade, among other activities. Marunggay Festival and Town Fiesta — Last Week of April Domorokdok Festival — May4 Laruk Laruk Festival — Last Week of October Binabayani Festival and Town Fiesta — November30 The Binabayani Festival occurs every November in the city of Masinloc in Zambales. . A dance/play depicting the clash between the Spanish and the Natives of Masinloc or the triumph of Christianity over Paganism. The war dance starts with a procession in the afternoon of November 29 and opens in a mass on November 30. This annual religious festival is celebrated with day long activities in honor of San Andres, the patron saint of Masinloc. Binabayani is a war dance that portrays the battle between the Christian and the Aetas in the town of Masinloc. It is a word that means “bravery”. It is usually featured at the town plaza on the 30th day of November for the public to witness. Kaligawan Ha Mayanan — Olongapo Mardigras — Last Week of October Education There are a number of higher educational institutions in the province. The President Ramon Magsaysay State University (PRMSU), the first state university in the province can be found in Iba. It has also satellite campuses in the municipalities of Santa Cruz, Candelaria, Masinloc, Botolan, San Marcelino, and Castillejos. St. Joseph College-Olongapo, a college run by the Roman Catholic Church can be found in Olongapo City. The Columban College, run by the Catholic Church can be found also in Olongapo. The Magsaysay Memorial College is also run by the Roman Catholic Church and can be found in San Narciso. Colleges and universities AIE College International (Olongapo City) AMA Computer College (Olongapo City) AMA Computer Learning Center (Olongapo City) Asian Institute of Computer Studies (Olongapo City) Best Freeport Colleges Inc. (Subic Bay Freeport Zone) Polytechnic College of Botolan (Botolan) Capstone Institute of Business and Arts (Olongapo City) Central Luzon College of Science and Technology (Olongapo City) College of Subic Montessori Subic Bay (Subic Bay Freeport Zone) Collegio de Castillejos (Castillejos) Columban College - Barreto Campus (Olongapo City) Columban College - Santa Cruz Campus (Santa Cruz) Columban College - Main Campus (Olongapo City) Comteq Computer and Business College (Subic Bay Freeport Zone) Don Bosco College of Zambales (Castillejos) Don Luis Orin Junior College of Criminology, Inc. (Iba) First EDT Learning Center, Inc. (Subic Bay Freeport Zone) Freeport SBLC Inc. (Subic Bay Freeport Zone) GIS Institute of Technology Phils Inc. (San Marcelino) Global City Innovative College Subic (Olongapo City) Gordon College (Olongapo City) Holy Infant Jesus College(Olongapo City) Hopeful Beginnings Institute (Iba) Keystone Subic International Language Center (Subic Bay Freeport Zone) Kolehiyo ng Subic (Subic) Lorraine Technical School (Olongapo City) Lyceum of Subic Bay (Subic Bay Freeport Zone) Magsaysay Memorial College (San Narciso) Metro Subic Colleges (Olongapo City) Micro Asia College of Science and Technology (Santa Cruz) Micro Asia College of Science and Technology (Iba) Mondrian Aura College (Subic Bay Freeport Zone) Network Computer and Business Colleges (Olongapo City) Northern Zambales College (Masinloc) Philippine Merchants Marine Academy (San Narciso) President Ramon Magsaysay State University - Candelaria (Candelaria) President Ramon Magsaysay State University - Castillejos (Castillejos) President Ramon Magsaysay State University - Main Campus (Iba) President Ramon Magsaysay State University - Masinloc (Masinloc) President Ramon Magsaysay State University - Western Luzon Agricultural College (San Marcelino) San Antonio Institute of Commerce and Technology (San Antonio) Sand Valley Institute of Arts and Trades (Iba) St. Benilde Center for Global Competence (Olongapo City) St. Joseph College (Olongapo City) St. Nicolas Systeq College (Palauig) St. Theresa's College - (San Marcelino) STI College (Olongapo City) Subic Bay Foreign Language Center (Subic Bay Freeport Zone) Subic Bay Metropolitan Authority Law Enforcement Academy (Subic Bay Freeport Zone) Subic Bay Colleges Inc. - (Iba) Subic Institute of International Studies (Subic Bay Freeport Zone) Technological College of San Felipe (San Felipe) The Thomasites Center for International Studies (Subic Bay Freeport Zone) University of the Philippines - Extension Program in Olongapo (Subic Bay Freeport Zone) Virgen de los Remedios College (Olongapo City) Virgin de los Remedios College of Criminology (Iba) Zambales Academy (San Narciso) Zambales Lifesaving Inc. PCG Accredited Lifeguard training organization (Botolan) President Ramon Magsaysay State University (PRMSU) The President Ramon Magsaysay State University, commonly referred to as PRMSU, is a state university/government-funded higher education institution in Iba, established in 1910. The university is named after former President Ramon Magsaysay, a native of the province. Its main campus is situated in the capital town of Iba, while satellite campuses are located in Santa Cruz, Candelaria, Masinloc, Botolan, San Marcelino, and Castillejos. The university also offers nursing courses at the Mondriaan Aura College in Subic Bay Freeport Zone, Business Administration at the Wesleyan College of Manila under a consortium program. Columban College, Olongapo The Columban College, is a private-catholic educational institution in Zambales that was established in 1961. the college was founded by the missionaries from Ireland under the Missionary Society of St. Columban until they turn over the institution to the Diocese of Iba. the institution's main campus is situated at the heart of Olongapo City, other campuses situated at Bo. Barretto, Olongapo which focuses on the southern part of Zambales, and Santa Cruz, Zambales which focuses on the northern part of Zambales. they value Christian Character like any other Catholic Schools as a Christ-centered but competing institution. they offer academic programs within their reach. Notable people Manuel C. Espolong Jr. Gerald Anderson Manuel D. Barretto {Governor] Norman Balbuena a.k.a. Boobay Megan Young Elmer Borlongan Coke Bolipata Rafael Corpus Hermogenes Ebdane Loi Ejercito Richard J. Gordon Luz Magsaysay Mitos Magsaysay Ramon Magsaysay Ramon Magsaysay Jr. Lou Diamond Phillips Isabel Rivas Dennis Roldan Ruben Torres Teodoro R. Yangco Freddie Aguilar K Brosas Gladys Guevarra Wowie de Guzman Kristofer Martin Blakdyak Willie Miller Topex Robinson Arnel Pineda Angelee delos Reyes Lauren Young Tom Rodriguez Angelu de Leon Raikko Mateo Ruby Rodriguez Jay Washington Daisy D. Edañol References External links Baluate Ng Sambal Olongapo city news archive] Provinces of the Philippines States and territories established in 1578 1578 establishments in the Philippines	[ -0.5946645140647888, -0.08512146770954132, -0.09045297652482986, 0.13735884428024292, -0.04721562936902046, 0.18410232663154602, -0.24463684856891632, 1.3284472227096558, -0.8915363550186157, -0.3385506272315979, 0.07411070168018341, 0.4591299295425415, -0.028362944722175598, 0.3821473717689514, -0.14433947205543518, 0.6229471564292908, 0.8098005652427673, 0.5178882479667664, 0.26987844705581665, -0.3838770091533661, -0.03342213109135628, -0.2206355333328247, 0.18856389820575714, 0.4414816200733185, 0.7539600133895874, -0.2205098271369934, -0.2949589788913727, 0.6617107391357422, 0.6556751132011414, -0.01728217303752899, -0.2702551484107971, 0.24492955207824707, -0.14360007643699646, 0.18121612071990967, 0.024759769439697266, 0.12783561646938324, -0.5087754726409912, -0.2027142345905304, 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255627	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20capitals%20in%20the%20United%20States	List of capitals in the United States	This is a list of capital cities of the United States, including places that serve or have served as federal, state, insular area, territorial, colonial and Native American capitals. Washington has been the federal capital of the United States since 1800. Each U.S. state has its own capital city, as do many of its insular areas. Most states have not changed their capital city since becoming a state, but the capital cities of their respective preceding colonies, territories, kingdoms, and republics typically changed multiple times. There have also been other governments within the current borders of the United States with their own capitals, such as the Republic of Texas, Native American nations and other unrecognized governments. National capitals The cities below served either as official capitals of the United States under the United States Constitution, or, prior to its ratification, sites where the Second Continental Congress or Congress of the Confederation met. (The United States did not have a permanent capital under the Articles of Confederation.) The current Constitution was ratified in 1787 and gave the Congress the power to exercise "exclusive legislation" over a district that "may, by Cession of particular States, and the acceptance of Congress, become the Seat of the Government of the United States." The 1st Congress met at Federal Hall in New York. In 1790, it passed the Residence Act, which established the national capital at a site along the Potomac River that would become Washington, D.C. For the next ten years, Philadelphia served as the temporary capital. There, Congress met at Congress Hall. On November 17, 1800, the 6th United States Congress formally convened in Washington, D.C. Congress has met outside of Washington only twice since: on July 16, 1987, at Independence Hall in Philadelphia, to commemorate the 200th anniversary of ratification of the Constitution; and at Federal Hall National Memorial in New York on September 6, 2002, to mark the first anniversary of the September 11 attacks. Both meetings were ceremonial. On July 2, 1923, President Warren G. Harding declared Meacham, Oregon, as the nation's capital for the day. State capitals Each state has a capital that serves as the seat of its government. Ten of the thirteen original states and 15 other states have changed their capital city at least once; the last state to move its capital city was Oklahoma in 1910. In the following table, the "Since" column shows the year that the city began serving as the state's capital. The MSA/µSA and CSA columns display the population of the metro area the city is a part of, and should not be construed to mean the population of the city's sphere of influence or that the city is an anchor for the metro area. Fields colored light yellow denote that the population is a micropolitan statistical area. Insular area capitals An insular area is a United States territory that is neither a part of one of the fifty states nor a part of the District of Columbia, the nation's federal district. Those insular areas with territorial capitals are listed below. Former national capitals Two of the 50 U.S. states, Hawaii and Texas, were once de jure sovereign states with diplomatic recognition from the international community. Hawaii During its history as a sovereign nation (Kingdom of Hawaii, 1795–1893; Republic of Hawaii, 1894–1898), five sites served as the capital of Hawaii: Waikīkī, 1795–1796 Hilo, 1796–1803 Honolulu, 1803–1812 Kailua-Kona, 1812–1820 Lahaina, 1820–1845 Honolulu, 1845–1898 Annexed by the United States in 1898, Honolulu remained the capital, first of the Territory of Hawaii (1900–1959), and then of the state (since 1959). Texas During its history as a sovereign nation (Republic of Texas, 1836–1845), seven sites served as the capital of Texas: Washington (now Washington-on-the-Brazos), 1836 Harrisburg (now part of Houston), 1836 Galveston, 1836 Velasco, 1836 West Columbia, 1836 Houston, 1837–1839 Austin, 1839–1845 Annexed by the United States in 1845, Austin remains the capital of the state of Texas. Native American capitals Some Native American tribes, in particular the Five Civilized Tribes, organized their states with constitutions and capitals in Western style. Others, like the Iroquois, had long-standing, pre-Columbian traditions of a 'capitol' longhouse where wampum and council fires were maintained with special status. Since they did business with the U.S. Federal Government, these capitals can be seen as officially recognized in some sense. Cherokee Nation New Echota 1825–1832 New Echota, now near Calhoun, Georgia, was founded in 1825, realizing the dream and plans of Cherokee Chief Major Ridge. Major Ridge chose the site because of its centrality in the historic Cherokee Nation which spanned parts of Georgia, North Carolina, Tennessee and Alabama, and because it was near the confluence of the Conasauga and Coosawattee rivers. The town's layout was partly inspired by Ridge's many visits to Washington D.C. and to Baltimore, but also invoked traditional themes of the Southeastern ceremonial complex. Complete with the Council House, Supreme Court, Cherokee syllabary printing press, and the houses of several of the Nation's constitutional officers, New Echota served as the capital until 1832 when the state of Georgia outlawed Native American assembly in an attempt to undermine the Nation. Thousands of Cherokee would gather in New Echota for the annual National Councils, camping along the nearby rivers and holding long stomp dances in the park-like woods that were typical of many Southeastern Native American settlements. Red Clay 1832–1838 The Cherokee National council grounds were moved to Red Clay, Tennessee, on the Georgia state line, in order to evade the Georgia state militia. The log cabins, limestone springs, and park-like woods of Red Clay served as the capital until the Cherokee Nation was removed to Indian Territory (Oklahoma) on the Trail of Tears. Tahlequah 1839–1907, 1938–present Tahlequah, in present-day Oklahoma, served as the capital of the original Cherokee Nation after Removal. After the Civil War, a turbulent period for the Nation which was involved in its own civil war resulting from pervasive anger and disagreements over removal from Georgia, the Cherokee Nation built a new National Capitol in Tahlequah out of brick. The building served as the capitol until 1907, when the Dawes Act finally dissolved the Cherokee Nation and Tahlequah became the county seat of Cherokee County, Oklahoma. The Cherokee National government was re-established in 1938 and Tahlequah remains the capital of the modern Cherokee Nation; it is also the capital of the United Keetoowah Band of Cherokee Indians. Cherokee 20th century–present (Eastern Band of Cherokee) Approximately four to eight hundred Cherokees escaped removal because they lived on a separated tract, purchased later with the help of Confederate Colonel William Holland Thomas, along the Oconaluftee River deep in the Smoky Mountains of North Carolina. Some Cherokees fleeing the Federal Army, sent for the "round up," fled to the remote settlements separated from the rest of the Cherokee Territory in Georgia and North Carolina, in order to remain in their homeland. In the 20th century, their descendants organized as the Eastern Band of Cherokee Indians; its capital is at Cherokee, North Carolina, in the tribally-controlled Qualla Boundary. Muscogee Creek Nation Hot Springs, Arkansas c. 1837–1866 After Removal from their Alabama-Georgia homeland, the Creek national government met near Hot Springs which was then part of their new territory as prescribed in the Treaty of Cusseta. However, the Union forced the Creeks to cede over acres (half of their land) of what is now Arkansas, after some Creeks fought with the Confederacy in the American Civil War. Okmulgee 1867–1906 Served as the National capital after the American Civil War. It was probably named after Ocmulgee, on the Ocmulgee river in Macon, a principle Coosa and later Creek town built with mounds and functioning as part of the Southeastern ceremonial complex. However, there were other traditional Creek "mother-towns" before removal. The Ocmulgee mounds were ceded illegally in 1821 with the Treaty of Indian Springs. Iroquois Confederacy Onondaga (Onondaga privilege c. 1450–present) The Iroquois Confederacy or Haudenosaunee, which means "People of the Longhouse," was an alliance between the Five and later Six-Nations of Iroquoian language and culture of upstate New York. These include the Seneca, Cayuga, Onondaga, Oneida, Mohawk, and, after 1722, the Tuscarora Nations. Since the Confederacy's formation around 1450, the Onondaga Nation has held privilege of hosting the Iroquois Grand Council and the status of Keepers of the Fire and the Wampum —which they still do at the official Longhouse on the Onondaga Reservation. Now spread over reservations in New York and Ontario, the Six Nations of the Haudenosaunee preserve this arrangement to this day in what they claim to be the "world's oldest representative democracy." Seneca Nation of Indians Jimerson Town (Allegany Reservation) Irving (Cattaraugus Reservation) The Seneca Nation republic was founded in 1848 and has two capitals that rotate responsibilities every two years. Jimerson Town was founded in the 1960s following the formation of the Allegheny Reservoir. The Senecas also have an administrative longhouse in Steamburg but do not consider that location to be a capital. Navajo Nation Window Rock Window Rock (Navajo: Tségháhoodzání), Arizona, is a small city that serves as the seat of government and capital of the Navajo Nation (1936–present), the largest territory of a sovereign Native American nation in North America. It lies within the boundaries of the St. Michaels Chapter, adjacent to the Arizona and New Mexico state line. Window Rock hosts the Navajo Nation governmental campus which contains the Navajo Nation Council, Navajo Nation Supreme Court, the offices of the Navajo Nation President and Vice President, and many Navajo government buildings. Unrecognized national capitals There have been a handful of self-declared or undeclared nations within the current borders of the United States which were never officially recognized as legally independent sovereign entities; however, these nations did have de facto control over their respective regions during their existence. Colonies of British America Prior to the independence of the United States from Great Britain, declared July 4, 1776, several congresses were convened on behalf of some of the colonies of British America. However, these bodies did not address the question of independence from England, and therefore did not designate a national capital. (The Second Continental Congress encompassed the period during which the United States declared independence, but did not itself establish a national capital.) Vermont Republic Before joining the United States as the fourteenth state, Vermont was an independent republic known as the Vermont Republic (1777-1791). Three cities served as the capital of the Republic: Westminster, 1777 Windsor, 1777–? Castleton, ?–1791 The current capital of the State of Vermont is Montpelier. State of Franklin The State of Franklin was an autonomous, secessionist United States territory created not long after the end of the American Revolution from territory that later was ceded by North Carolina to the federal government. Franklin's territory later became part of the state of Tennessee. Franklin was never officially admitted into the Union of the United States and existed for only four years. Jonesborough, Tennessee, 1784–? Greeneville, Tennessee, 1785?–? State of Muskogee The State of Muskogee was a Native American state in Spanish Florida created by the Englishman William Augustus Bowles, who was its "Director General," author of its Constitution, and designer of its flag. It consisted of several tribes of Creeks and Seminoles. It existed from 1799 to 1803. It had one capital: Miccosukee, 1799–1803 Republic of West Florida The Republic of West Florida was a short-lived nation that broke away from the territory of Spanish West Florida in 1810. It comprised the Florida Parishes of the modern state of Louisiana and the Mobile District of the modern states of Mississippi and Alabama. (The Republic of West Florida did not include any part of the modern state of Florida.) Ownership of the area had been in dispute between Spain and the United States, which claimed that it had been included in the Louisiana Purchase of 1803. Within two months of the settlers' rebellion and the declaration of an independent nation, President James Madison sent American forces to peaceably occupy the new republic. It was formally annexed by the United States in 1812 over the objections of Spain and the land was divided between the Territory of Orleans and Territory of Mississippi. During its brief existence, the capital of the Republic of West Florida was: St. Francisville, Louisiana, 1810 Republic of Indian Stream The Republic of Indian Stream was an unrecognized independent nation within the present state of New Hampshire. The area that would become Pittsburg, New Hampshire, 1832–1835 California Republic Before being annexed by the United States in 1848 (following the Mexican–American War), a small portion of north-central California declared itself the California Republic, in an act of independence from Mexico, in 1846 (see Bear Flag Revolt). The republic only existed a month before it disbanded itself, to join the advancing American army and therefore became part of the United States. The very short-lived California Republic was never recognized by the United States, Mexico or any other nation. The flag, featuring a silhouette of a California grizzly bear, a star, and the words "California Republic", became known as the Bear Flag and was later the basis for the official state flag of California. There was one de facto capital of the California Republic: Sonoma, 1846 Confederate States The Confederate States of America (C.S.A.) had two capitals during its existence. The first capital was established February 4, 1861, in Montgomery, Alabama, and remained there until it was moved to Richmond, Virginia, on May 29, 1861, after Virginia seceded on May 23. The individual state capitals remained the same in the Confederacy as they had been in the Union (U.S.A.), although as the advancing Union Army used those cities for military districts, some of the Confederate governments were relocated or moved out of state, traveling along with secessionist armies. Montgomery, February 4, 1861 – May 29, 1861 Richmond, May 29, 1861 – April 3, 1865 Historical state, colonial, and territorial capitals Most of the original Thirteen Colonies had their capitals occupied or attacked by the British during the American Revolutionary War. State governments operated where and as they could. The City of New York was occupied by British troops from 1776 to 1783. A similar situation occurred during the War of 1812, during the American Civil War in many Confederate states, and during the Pueblo Revolt of 1680–1692 in New Mexico. Twenty-two state capitals have been a capital longer than their state has been a state, since they served as the capital of a predecessor territory, colony, or republic. Boston, Massachusetts, has been a capital city since 1630; it is the oldest continuously-running capital in the United States. Santa Fe, New Mexico, is the oldest capital city, having become capital in 1610 and interrupted only by the aforementioned Pueblo Revolt. An even older Spanish city, St. Augustine, Florida, served as a colonial capital from 1565 until about 1820, more than 250 years. The table below includes the following information: The state, the year in which statehood was granted, and the state's capital are shown in bold type. NOTE: For the first thirteen states, formerly the Thirteen Colonies of Great Britain on the Atlantic seaboard, the year of statehood is shown as 1776 (United States Declaration of Independence) rather than the subsequent year each state ratified the 1787 United States Constitution. (See List of U.S. states by date of admission to the Union.) The year listed for each capital is the starting date; the ending date is the starting date for the successor unless otherwise indicated. In many cases, capital cities of historical jurisdictions were outside of a state's present borders. (Those cities are generally indicated with the two-letter abbreviation for the U.S. state in which the former administrative capital is now located.) {\|class=wikitable \|+Historical capitals in the United States of America !State!!Capital!!Date!!Notes \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=19\|AlabamaStatehood in 1819 \|San Agustín\|\|1565\|\|Capital of the Spanish colony of La Florida. \|- \|rowspan=3\|Savannah\|\|1733\|\|Capital of the British proprietary Colony of Georgia. \|- \|1755\|\|Capital of the British Province of Georgia. \|- \|1776\|\|rowspan=9\|Capitals of the State of Georgia. \|- \|Augusta (GA)\|\|1778 \|- \|Heard's Fort (GA)\|\|1780 \|- \|Augusta (GA)\|\|1781 \|- \|Savannah (GA)\|\|1782 \|- \|Ebenezer (GA)\|\|1782 \|- \|Savannah (GA)\|\|1784 \|- \|Augusta (GA)\|\|1786 \|- \|Louisville (GA)\|\|1796 \|- \|Natchez (MS)\|\|1798\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Mississippi Territory. \|- \|Washington (MS)\|\|1802 \|- \|St. Stephens\|\|1817\|\|Capital of the Alabama Territory. \|- \|Huntsville\|\|1819\|\|rowspan=3\|Capitals of the State of Alabama. \|- \|Cahawba\|\|1820 \|- \|Tuscaloosa\|\|1826 \|- \|Montgomery\|\|1846\|\|Capital of the State of Alabama.(Capital of the Confederate States of America in 1861.) \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=6\|AlaskaStatehood in 1959 \|rowspan=3\|Novo-ArkhangelskSitka\|\|1808\|\|Capital of the Russian colony of Alaska. \|- \|1867\|\|Capital of the Department of Alaska. \|- \|1900\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the District of Alaska. \|- \|rowspan=3\|Juneau\|\|1906 \|- \|1912\|\|Capital of the Territory of Alaska. \|- \|1959\|\|Capital of the State of Alaska. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=10\|ArizonaStatehood in 1912 \|rowspan=2\|Santa Fe (NM)\|\|1848\|\|Capital of the U.S. provisional government of New Mexico 1848–1850. \|- \|1850\|\|Capital of the U.S. Territory of New Mexico 1850–1912. \|- \|Mesilla (NM)\|\|1862\|\|Capital of the Confederate Territory of Arizona (southern New Mexico and Arizona 1862). \|- \|San Antonio (TX)\|\|1862\|\|Capital of the government-in-exile of the Confederate Territory of Arizona 1862–1865. \|- \|Fort Whipple\|\|1864\|\|rowspan=5\|Capitals of the U.S. Territory of Arizona. \|- \|Prescott\|\|1864 \|- \|Tucson\|\|1867 \|- \|Prescott\|\|1877 \|- \|rowspan=2\|Phoenix\|\|1889 \|- \|1912\|\|Capital of the State of Arizona. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=8\|ArkansasStatehood in 1836 \|rowspan = 5\|Saint-LouisSan LuisSt. Louis\|\|1765\|\|Capital of the Spanish (though predominantly Francophone) district of Alta Louisiana. \|- \|1800\|\|Capital of the French district of La Haute-Louisiane. \|- \|1804\|\|Capital of the District of Louisiana (under the authority of the Indiana Territory.) \|- \|1805\|\|Capital of the Louisiana Territory. \|- \|1812\|\|Capital of the Missouri Territory. \|- \|Arkansas Post\|\|1819\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Arkansaw Territory. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Little Rock\|\|1821 \|- \|1836\|\|Capital of the State of Arkansas.(Washington was the Confederate state capital 1863–1865.) \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=10\|CaliforniaStatehood in 1850 \|Loreto (BCS)\|\|1770\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Spanish Virreinato de la Nueva España colonies of las Californias. \|- \|rowspan=5\|Presidio Reál de San Carlos de MontereyMonterey\|\|1777 \|- \|1804\|\|Capital of the Spanish Virreinato de la Nueva España province of Alta California. \|- \|1821\|\|Capital of the Mexican province of Alta California. \|- \|1846\|\|Capital of the U.S. military government of California. \|- \|1849\|\|Capital of the Provisional Government of California. \|- \|Pueblo de San José de Guadalupe\|\|1850\|\|rowspan=4\|Capitals of the State of California \|- \|Vallejo\|\|1852 \|- \|Benicia\|\|1853 \|- \|Sacramento\|\|1854 \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=7\|ColoradoStatehood in 1876 \|Denver City\|\|1859\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the extralegal Territory of Jefferson. \|- \|Golden City\|\|1860 \|- \|Denver City\|\|1861\|\|rowspan=4\|Capitals of the Territory of Colorado. \|- \|Colorado City\|\|1862 \|- \|Golden City\|\|1862 \|- \|rowspan=2\|Denver\|\|1867 \|- \|1876\|\|Capital of the State of Colorado. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=9\|ConnecticutStatehood in 1776 \|Fort Amsterdam (NY)\|\|1625\|\|Capital of the Netherlands colony of New Netherland. \|- \|Hartford\|\|1639\|\|Capital of the English Colony of Connecticut 1639–1686. \|- \|New-Haven\|\|1640\|\|Capital of the English Colony of New-Haven until its merger into the Connecticut Colony in 1662. \|- \|Boston (MA)\|\|1686\|\|Capital of the English Dominion of New-England in America. \|- \|Hartford\|\|1689\|\|Capital of the English Colony of Connecticut. \|- \|rowspan=3\|joint capitals\|\|1701\|\|Hartford and New-Haven served as the "co-capitals" of the English Colony of Connecticut, with the Assembly holding its May session in Hartford and its October session in New-Haven. \|- \|1707\|\|Hartford and New-Haven joint capitals of the British Colony of Connecticut. \|- \|1776\|\|Hartford and New Haven joint capitals of the State of Connecticut. \|- \|Hartford\|\|1875\|\|Capital of the State of Connecticut. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=10\|DelawareStatehood in 1776 \|Fort Kristina\|\|1638\|\|Capital of the Swedish colony of Nya Sverige. \|- \|rowspan=4\|Fort AmsterdamNieuw-AmsterdamNew-YorkNieuw-OranjeNew-York (NY)\|\|1655\|\|Capital of the Dutch province of New Netherland. \|- \|1664\|\|Capital of the English Colony of New-York. \|- \|1673\|\|Capital of the Dutch military government of New Netherland. \|- \|1674\|\|Capital of the English Colony of New-York. \|- \|Philadelphia (PA)\|\|1682\|\|Capital of the English Colony of Pennsylvania. \|- \|rowspan=3\|New Castle\|\|1704\|\|Capital of the English Lower Counties on the Delaware. \|- \|1707\|\|Capital of the British Lower Counties on the Delaware. \|- \|1776\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the State of Delaware. \|- \|Dover\|\|1777 \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=8\|FloridaStatehood in 1845 \|Fort de la Caroline\|\|1564\|\|Capital of the French colony of La Caroline 1564–1565. \|- \|rowspan=3\|San AgustínSt. Augustine\|\|1565\|\|Capital of the Spanish province of La Florida 1565–1763. \|- \|1763\|\|Capital of the British province of East Florida 1763–1783. \|- \|1783\|\|Capital of the Spanish province of Florida Oriental 1783–1821. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Santa María de OchusePensacola\|\|1763\|\|Capital of the British province of British West Florida 1763–1783. \|- \|1783\|\|Capital of the Spanish province of Florida Occidental 1783–1821. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Tallahassee\|\|1824\|\|Capital of the Florida Territory. \|- \|1845\|\|Capital of the State of Florida. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=16\|GeorgiaStatehood in 1776 \|San Agustín\|\|1565\|\|Capital of the Spanish province of La Florida. \|- \|rowspan=3\|Savannah\|\|1733\|\|Capital of the British proprietary Colony of Georgia. \|- \|1755\|\|Capital of the British Province of Georgia. \|- \|1776\|\|rowspan=13\|Capitals of the State of Georgia. \|- \|Augusta\|\|1778 \|- \|Heard's Fort\|\|1780 \|- \|Augusta\|\|1781 \|- \|Savannah\|\|1782 \|- \|Ebenezer\|\|1782 \|- \|Savannah\|\|1784 \|- \|Augusta\|\|1786 \|- \|Louisville\|\|1796 \|- \|Milledgeville\|\|1807 \|- \|Macon\|\|1864 \|- \|Milledgeville\|\|1865 \|- \|Atlanta\|\|1868 \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=5\|HawaiiStatehood in 1959 \|Lahaina\|\|1820\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Kingdom of Hawaii. \|- \|rowspan=4\|Honolulu\|\|1845 \|- \|1894\|\|Capital of the Republic of Hawaii. \|- \|1898\|\|Capital of the Territory of Hawaii. \|- \|1959\|\|Capital of the State of Hawaii. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=7\|IdahoStatehood in 1890 \|rowspan=2\|Oregon City (OR)\|\|1843\|\|Capital of the Provisional Government of Oregon in the Oregon Country. \|- \|1848\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Oregon (all of Idaho 1848–1853, southern Idaho 1853–1859.) \|- \|Salem (OR)\|\|1851 \|- \|Olympia (WA)\|\|1853\|\|Capital of the Territory of Washington (northern Idaho 1853–1859, all of Idaho 1859–1863.) \|- \|Lewiston\|\|1863\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Idaho. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Boise\|\|1865 \|- \|1890\|\|Capital of the State of Idaho. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=6\|IllinoisStatehood in 1818 \|Marietta (OH)\|\|1788\|\|Capital of the Territory Northwest of the River Ohio. \|- \|Vincennes (IN)\|\|1800\|\|Capital of the Territory of Indiana. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Kaskaskia\|\|1809\|\|Capital of the Territory of Illinois. \|- \|1818\|\|rowspan=3\|Capitals of the State of Illinois. \|- \|Vandalia\|\|1820 \|- \|Springfield\|\|1839 \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=5\|IndianaStatehood in 1816 \|Marietta (OH)\|\|1788\|\|Capital of the Territory Northwest of the River Ohio. \|- \|Vincennes\|\|1800\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Indiana. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Corydon\|\|1813 \|- \|1816\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the State of Indiana. \|- \|Indianapolis\|\|1825 \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=12\|IowaStatehood in 1846 \|rowspan = 5\|Saint-LouisSan LuisSt. Louis (MO)\|\|1765\|\|Capital of the Spanish (though predominantly Francophone) district of Alta Louisiana. \|- \|1800\|\|Capital of the French district of La Haute-Louisiane. \|- \|1804\|\|Capital of the District of Louisiana (under the authority of the Indiana Territory.) \|- \|1805\|\|Capital of the Louisiana Territory. \|- \|1812\|\|Capital of the Missouri Territory (1812–1821). \|- \|Detroit (MI)\|\|1834\|\|Capital of the Territory of Michigan. \|- \|Belmont (WI)\|\|1836\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Wisconsin. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Burlington\|\|1837 \|- \|1838\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Iowa. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Iowa City\|\|1841 \|- \|1846\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the State of Iowa. \|- \|Des Moines\|\|1857 \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=11\|KansasStatehood in 1861 \|rowspan = 5\|Saint-LouisSan LuisSt. Louis\|\|1765\|\|Capital of the Spanish (though predominantly Francophone) district of Alta Louisiana. \|- \|1800\|\|Capital of the French district of La Haute-Louisiane. \|- \|1804\|\|Capital of the District of Louisiana (under the authority of the Indiana Territory.) \|- \|1805\|\|Capital of the Louisiana Territory. \|- \|1812\|\|Capital of the Missouri Territory (1812–1821). \|- \|Pawnee\|\|1855\|\|Capital of the Kansas Territory (July 2 – 6). \|- \|Shawnee Mission\|\|1855\|\|Capital of the Kansas Territory. \|- \|Lecompton\|\|rowspan=2\|1856\|\|Capital de jure (pro-slavery) of the Territory of Kansas. \|- \|Topeka\|\|Capital de facto (anti-slavery) of the Territory of Kansas. \|- \|Minneola\|\|1858\|\|Declared capital by territorial legislature, although this action was later declared void. \|- \|Topeka\|\|1861\|\|Capital of the State of Kansas. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=5\|KentuckyStatehood in 1792 \|rowspan=3\|Williamsburg (VA)\|\|1699\|\|Capital of the English Colony of Virginia. \|- \|1707\|\|Capital of the British Colony of Virginia. \|- \|1776\|\|rowspan=2\|Capital of the Commonwealth of Virginia. \|- \|Richmond (VA)\|\|1780 \|- \|Frankfort\|\|1792\|\|Capital of the Commonwealth of Kentucky.(The government initially met at Lexington but Frankfort was quickly named the capital. Bowling Green was the rival Confederate state capital 1861–62.) \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=15\|LouisianaStatehood in 1812 \|San Agustín\|\|1565\|\|Capital of the Spanish province of La Florida. \|- \|La Mobile\|\|1702\|\|rowspan=3\|Capitals of the French colony of La Louisiane. \|- \|Bilocci\|\|1720 \|- \|rowspan=5\|La Nouvelle-OrléansNueva OrleansNew Orleans\|\|1722 \|- \|1763\|\|Capital of the Spanish district of Baja Louisiana. \|- \|1800\|\|Capital of the French district of La Basse-Louisiane. \|- \|1804\|\|Capital of the Territory of Orleans. \|- \|1812\|\|rowspan=8\|Capitals of the State of Louisiana. \|- \|Donaldsonville\|\|1830 \|- \|New Orleans\|\|1831 \|- \|Baton Rouge\|\|1849 \|- \|Opelousas\|\|1862 \|- \|Shreveport\|\|1863 \|- \|New Orleans\|\|1865 \|- \|Baton Rouge\|\|1882 \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=14\|MaineStatehood in 1820 \|Île Sainte-Croix\|\|1604\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the French colony of l'Acadie. \|- \|Port-Royal (NS)\|\|1605 \|- \|rowspan=8\|Boston (MA)\|\|1630\|\|Capital of the English Colony of Massachusetts Bay. \|- \|1686\|\|Capital of the English Dominion of New-England in America. \|- \|1689\|\|Capital of the dissident Colony of Massachusetts Bay. \|- \|1691\|\|Capital of the English Province of Massachusetts Bay. \|- \|1707\|\|Capital of the British Province of Massachusetts Bay. \|- \|1774\|\|Capital of the dissident Province of Massachusetts Bay. \|- \|1776\|\|Capital of the State of Massachusetts Bay. \|- \|1780\|\|Capital of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Portland\|\|1820\|\|Capital of the State of Maine. \|- \|rowspan=2\|1827\|\|Capital de facto of the State of Maine. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Augusta\|\|Capital de jure of the State of Maine. \|- \|1832\|\|Capital of the State of Maine. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=4\|MarylandStatehood in 1776 \|St. Mary's City\|\|1634\|\|Capital of the English proprietary Colony of Maryland. \|- \|rowspan=3\|Anne Arundel's TowneAnnapolis\|\|1694\|\|Capital of the English Province of Maryland. \|- \|1707\|\|Capital of the British Province of Maryland. \|- \|1776\|\|Capital of the State of Maryland.(Capital of the United States of America 1783–1784.) \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=10\|MassachusettsStatehood in 1776 \|Plimouth\|\|1620\|\|Capital of the English Colony of New-Plimouth 1620–1686. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Boston\|\|1630\|\|Capital of the English Colony of Massachusetts Bay 1630–1686. \|- \|1686\|\|Capital of the English Dominion of New-England in America 1686–1689. \|- \|Plimouth\|\|1688\|\|Capital of the dissident Colony of New-Plimouth 1688–1692. \|- \|rowspan=6\|Boston\|\|1689\|\|Capital of the dissident Colony of Massachusetts Bay 1689–1692. \|- \|1692\|\|Capital of the English Province of Massachusetts Bay. \|- \|1707\|\|Capital of the British Province of Massachusetts Bay. \|- \|1774\|\|Capital of the dissident Province of Massachusetts Bay. \|- \|1776\|\|Capital of the State of Massachusetts Bay. \|- \|1780\|\|Capital of the Commonwealth of Massachusetts. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=7\|MichiganStatehood in 1837 \|Marietta (OH)\|\|1788\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory Northwest of the River Ohio (all of Michigan 1788–1800, eastern Michigan 1800–1803.) \|- \|Chillicothe (OH)\|\|rowspan=2\|1800 \|- \|Vincennes (IN)\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Indiana (western Michigan 1800–1803; all of Michigan 1803–1805, a portion of the Upper Peninsula 1805–1816.) \|- \|Corydon (IN)\|\|1813 \|- \|rowspan=2\|Detroit\|\|1805\|\|Capital of the Territory of Michigan (Lower Peninsula 1805–1818, all of Michigan 1818–1837.)(Detroit was occupied by British Armed Forces 1812–1813.) \|- \|1837\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the State of Michigan. \|- \|Lansing\|\|1847 \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=16\|MinnesotaStatehood in 1858 \|rowspan=5\|Saint-LouisSan LuisSt. Louis (MO)\|\|1765\|\|Capital of the Spanish (though predominantly Francophone) district of Alta Louisiana 1765–1800. \|- \|1800\|\|Capital of the French district of la Haute-Louisiane (west of Mississippi River 1800–1804.) \|- \|1804\|\|Capital of the District of Louisiana (west of Mississippi River under the authority of the Indiana Territory 1804–1805.) \|- \|1805\|\|Capital of the Territory of Louisiana (west of Mississippi River 1805–1812.) \|- \|1812\|\|Capital of the Territory of Missouri (west of Mississippi River 1812–1821.) \|- \|Marietta (OH)\|\|1788\|\|Capital of the Territory Northwest of the River Ohio (east of Mississippi River 1788–1800.) \|- \|Vincennes (IN)\|\|1800\|\|Capital of the Territory of Indiana (east of Mississippi River 1800–1809.) \|- \|Kaskaskia (IL)\|\|1809\|\|Capital of the Territory of Illinois (east of Mississippi River 1809–1818.) \|- \|Detroit (MI)\|\|1818\|\|Capital of the Territory of Michigan (east of Mississippi River 1818–1834, all of Minnesota 1834–1836.) \|- \|Belmont (WI)\|\|1836\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Wisconsin. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Burlington (IA)\|\|1837 \|- \|rowspan=2\|1838\|\|Capital of the Territory of Iowa (west of Mississippi River 1838–1841.) \|- \|Madison (WI)\|\|Capital of the Territory of Wisconsin (east of Mississippi River 1838–1848.) \|- \|Iowa City (IA)\|\|1841\|\|Capital of the Territory of Iowa (west of Mississippi River 1841–1846.) \|- \|rowspan=2\|Saint Paul\|\|1849\|\|Capital of the Territory of Minnesota. \|- \|1858\|\|Capital of the State of Minnesota. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=16\|MississippiStatehood in 1817 \|San Agustín\|\|1565\|\|Capital of the Spanish province of La Florida. \|- \|rowspan=3\|Savannah\|\|1733\|\|Capital of the British proprietary Colony of Georgia. \|- \|1755\|\|Capital of the British Province of Georgia. \|- \|1776\|\|rowspan=9\|Capitals of the State of Georgia. \|- \|Augusta (GA)\|\|1778 \|- \|Heard's Fort (GA)\|\|1780 \|- \|Augusta (GA)\|\|1781 \|- \|Savannah (GA)\|\|1782 \|- \|Ebenezer (GA)\|\|1782 \|- \|Savannah (GA)\|\|1784 \|- \|Augusta (GA)\|\|1786 \|- \|Louisville (GA)\|\|1796 \|- \|Natchez\|\|1798\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Mississippi. \|- \|Washington\|\|1802 \|- \|Natchez\|\|1817\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the State of Mississippi. \|- \|Jackson\|\|1821 \|- \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=7\|MissouriStatehood in 1821 \|rowspan = 5\|Saint-LouisSan LuisSt. Louis\|\|1765\|\|Capital of the Spanish (though predominantly Francophone) district of Alta Louisiana. \|- \|1800\|\|Capital of the French district of La Haute-Louisiane. \|- \|1804\|\|Capital of the District of Louisiana (under the authority of the Indiana Territory.) \|- \|1805\|\|Capital of the Louisiana Territory. \|- \|1812\|\|Capital of the Missouri Territory. \|- \|Saint Charles\|\|1821\|\|rowspan =2\|Capitals of the State of Missouri.(A Confederate state government in exile operated from Neosho 1861–1863, and from Marshall, Texas, 1863–1865.) \|- \|Jefferson City\|\|1826 \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=17\|MontanaStatehood in 1889 \|rowspan = 5\|Saint-LouisSan LuisSt. Louis (MO)\|\|1765\|\|Capital of the Spanish (though predominantly Francophone) district of Alta Louisiana (east of Continental Divide 1763–1800.) \|- \|1800\|\|Capital of the French district of la Haute-Louisiane (east of Continental Divide 1800–1804.) \|- \|1804\|\|Capital of the District of Louisiana (east of Continental Divide under the authority of the Indiana Territory 1804–1805.) \|- \|1805\|\|Capital of the Territory of Louisiana (east of Continental Divide 1805–1812.) \|- \|1812\|\|Capital of the Territory of Missouri (east of Continental Divide 1812–1821.) \|- \|Fort Vancouver (WA)\|\|1825\|\|Capital de facto of the Oregon Country (west of Continental Divide 1818–1843.) \|- \|rowspan=2\|Oregon City (OR)\|\|1843\|\|Capital of the Provisional Government of Oregon (west of Continental Divide 1843–1848.) \|- \|1848\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Oregon (west of Continental Divide 1848–1853.) \|- \|Salem (OR)\|\|1851 \|- \|Olympia (WA)\|\|1853\|\|Capital of the Territory of Washington (west of Continental Divide 1853–1863.) \|- \|Omaha (NE)\|\|1854\|\|Capital of the Territory of Nebraska (east of Continental Divide 1854–1861.) \|- \|Yankton (SD)\|\|1861\|\|Capital of the Territory of Dakota (east of Continental Divide 1861–1863.) \|- \|Lewiston (ID)\|\|1863\|\|Capital of the Territory of Idaho. \|- \|Bannack\|\|1864\|\|rowspan=3\|Capitals of the Territory of Montana. \|- \|Virginia City\|\|1865 \|- \|rowspan=2\|Helena\|\|1875 \|- \|1889\|\|Capital of the State of Montana. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=8\|NebraskaStatehood in 1867 \|rowspan = 5\|Saint-LouisSan LuisSt. Louis (MO)\|\|1765\|\|Capital of the Spanish (though predominantly Francophone) district of Alta Louisiana. \|- \|1800\|\|Capital of the French district of la Haute-Louisiane. \|- \|1804\|\|Capital of the District of Louisiana (under the authority of the Indiana Territory.) \|- \|1805\|\|Capital of the Territory of Louisiana. \|- \|1812\|\|Capital of the Territory of Missouri (1812–1821). \|- \|Omaha\|\|1854\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Nebraska. \|- \|rowspan=2\|LancasterLincoln\|\|1867 \|- \|1867\|\|Capital of the State of Nebraska. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=5\|NevadaStatehood in 1864 \|Fillmore (UT)\|\|1850\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Utah. \|- \|Salt Lake City (UT)\|\|1858 \|- \|Genoa\|\|1861\|\|Capital of the Territory of Nevada. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Carson City\|\|1861\|\|Capital of the Territory of Nevada. \|- \|1864\|\|Capital of the State of Nevada. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=11\|New HampshireStatehood in 1776 \|Boston (MA)\|\|1630\|\|Capital of the English Colony of Massachusetts Bay. \|- \|Portsmouth\|\|1680\|\|Capital of the English Province of New Hampshire. \|- \|Boston (MA)\|\|1686\|\|Capital of the English Dominion of New-England in America. \|- \|rowspan=5\|Portsmouth\|\|1689\|\|Capital of the dissident Province of New Hampshire. \|- \|1691\|\|Capital of the English Province of New Hampshire. \|- \|1698\|\|Capital of the English Province of New Hampshire under jurisdiction of the Royal Governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay. \|- \|1707\|\|Capital of the British Province of New Hampshire under jurisdiction of the Royal Governor of the Province of Massachusetts Bay. \|- \|1741\|\|Capital of the British Province of New Hampshire. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Exeter\|\|1775\|\|Capital of the Revolutionary War government of New Hampshire. \|- \|1776\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the State of New Hampshire. \|- \|Concord\|\|1808 \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=12\|New JerseyStatehood in 1776 \|rowspan=2\|Fort Amsterdam (NY)\|\|1625\|\|Capital of the Dutch colony of New Netherland. \|- \|1652\|\|Capital of the Dutch province of New Netherland. \|- \|Elizabethtown (now Elizabeth)\|\|1665\|\|Capital of the English Province of New Jersey. \|- \|Perth Amboy\|\|rowspan=2\|1673\|\|Capital of the English Province of East Jersey 1673–1688. \|- \|Burlington\|\|Capital of the English Province of West Jersey 1673–1688. \|- \|Boston (MA)\|\|1688\|\|Capital of the English Dominion of New-England in America 1688–1689. \|- \|Perth Amboy\|\|rowspan=2\|1689\|\|Capital of the English Province of East Jersey 1689–1702. \|- \|Burlington\|\|Capital of the English Province of West Jersey 1689–1702. \|- \|rowspan=3\|joint capitals\|\|1702\|\|East Jersey and West Jersey were re-united as the English Province of New Jersey in 1702. Perth Amboy and Burlington served jointly as the capital until 1784. \|- \|1707\|\|Joint capitals of the British Province of New Jersey. \|- \|1776\|\|Joint capitals of the State of New Jersey. \|- \|Trenton\|\|1784\|\|Capital of the State of New Jersey.(Capital of the United States of America in 1784.) \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=10\|New MexicoStatehood in 1912 \|San Juan de los Caballeros\|\|1598\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Spanish Virreinato de la Nueva España province of Santa Fe de Nuevo México. \|- \|La Villa Real de la Santa Fe de San Francisco de Asís\|\|1610 \|- \|El Paso del Norte (now Ciudad Juárez CHH)\|\|1680\|\|Capital of the Spanish Virreinato de la Nueva España province-in-exile of Santa Fe de Nuevo México (Pueblo Revolt 1680–1692). \|- \|rowspan=6\|La Villa Real de la Santa Fé de San Francisco de AsísSanta Fe\|\|1692\|\|Capital of the Spanish Virreinato de la Nueva España province of Santa Fe de Nuevo México. \|- \|1821\|\|Capital of the Mexican province of Santa Fe de Nuevo México. \|- \|1824\|\|Capital of the Mexican territory of Santa Fe de Nuevo México. \|- \|1846\|\|Capital of the U.S. military government of New Mexico 1846. \|- \|1846\|\|Capital of the U.S. provisional government of New Mexico 1846–1850. \|- \|1850\|\|Capital of the U.S. Territory of New Mexico 1850–1912. \|- \|Santa Fe\|\|1912\|\|Capital of the State of New Mexico. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=15\|New YorkStatehood in 1776 \|rowspan=5\|Fort AmsterdamNieuw-AmsterdamNew-YorkNieuw-OranjeNew-York\|\|1625\|\|Capital of the Dutch colony of New Netherland (Novum Belgium). \|- \|1652\|\|Capital of the Dutch province of New Netherland. \|- \|1664\|\|Capital of the English Province of New York. \|- \|1673\|\|Capital of the Dutch military government of New Netherland. \|- \|1674\|\|Capital of the English Province of New York. \|- \|Boston (MA)\|\|1688\|\|Capital of the English Dominion of New-England in America. \|- \|rowspan=4\|New-York\|\|1689\|\|Capital of the dissident government of New-York. \|- \|1691\|\|Capital of the English Province of New York. \|- \|1707\|\|Capital of the British Province of New York. \|- \|1776\|\|rowspan=4\|Capitals of the State of New York. \|- \|Kingston\|\|1777 \|- \|Hurley\|\|1777 \|- \|Poughkeepsie\|\|1777 \|- \|New York\|\|1788\|\|Capital of the State of New York.(Capital of the United States of America 1785–1788 and 1789–1790.) \|- \|Albany\|\|1797\|\|Capital of the State of New York. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=7\|North CarolinaStatehood in 1776 \|San Agustín (FL)\|\|1565\|\|Capital of the Spanish province of la Florida. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Charlestown (SC)\|\|1670\|\|Capital of the English Province of Carolina. \|- \|1707\|\|Capital of the British Province of Carolina. \|- \|rowspan=2\|New Bern\|\|1712\|\|Capital of the British Province of North Carolina. \|- \|1776\|\|rowspan=3\|Capitals of the State of North Carolina. \|- \|Fayetteville\|\|1789 \|- \|Raleigh\|\|1794 \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=15\|North DakotaStatehood in 1889 \|rowspan = 5\|Saint-LouisSan LuisSt. Louis (MO)\|\|1765\|\|Capital of the Spanish (though predominantly Francophone) district of Alta Louisiana. \|- \|1800\|\|Capital of the French district of la Haute-Louisiane. \|- \|1804\|\|Capital of the District of Louisiana (under the authority of the Indiana Territory.) \|- \|1805\|\|Capital of the Territory of Louisiana. \|- \|1812\|\|Capital of the Territory of Missouri (1812–1821). \|- \|Detroit (MI)\|\|1834\|\|Capital of the Territory of Michigan (east of Missouri River and White Earth River 1834–1836.) \|- \|Belmont (WI)\|\|1836\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Wisconsin (east of Missouri River and White Earth River 1836–1838.) \|- \|rowspan=2\|Burlington (IA)\|\|1837 \|- \|1838\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Iowa (east of Missouri River and White Earth River 1838–1846.) \|- \|Iowa City (IA)\|\|1841 \|- \|Saint Paul (MN)\|\|1849\|\|Capital of the Territory of Minnesota (east of Missouri River and White Earth River 1849–1858.) \|- \|Omaha (NE)\|\|1854\|\|Capital of the Territory of Nebraska (west of Missouri River or White Earth River 1854–1861.) \|- \|Yankton (SD)\|\|1861\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Dakota. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Bismarck\|\|1883 \|- \|1889\|\|Capital of the State of North Dakota. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=6\|OhioStatehood in 1803 \|Marietta\|\|1788\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory Northwest of the River Ohio. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Chillicothe\|\|1800 \|- \|1803\|\|rowspan=4\|Capitals of the State of Ohio. \|- \|Zanesville\|\|1810 \|- \|Chillicothe\|\|1812 \|- \|Columbus\|\|1816 \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=16\|OklahomaStatehood in 1907 \|rowspan = 5\|Saint-LouisSan LuisSt. Louis (MO)\|\|1765\|\|Capital of the Spanish (though predominantly Francophone) district of Alta Louisiana. \|- \|1800\|\|Capital of the French district of la Haute-Louisiane. \|- \|1804\|\|Capital of the District of Louisiana (under the authority of the Indiana Territory.) \|- \|1805\|\|Capital of the Territory of Louisiana. \|- \|1812\|\|Capital of the Territory of Missouri. \|- \|Arkansas Post (AR)\|\|1819\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Arkansaw (south of the parallel 36°30' north 1819–1824, southeastern Oklahoma 1824–1828.) \|- \|Little Rock (AR)\|\|1821 \|- \|Tahlequah\|\|1838\|\|Capital of the Cherokee Nation. \|- \|Tuskahoma\|\|1838\|\|Capital of the Choctaw Nation. \|- \|Tishomingo\|\|1855\|\|Capital of the Chickasaw Nation. \|- \|Wewoka\|\|1866\|\|Capital of the Seminole Nation. \|- \|Okmulgee\|\|1867\|\|Capital of the Creek Nation. \|- \|Pawhuska\|\|?\|\|Capital of the Osage Nation. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Guthrie\|\|1889\|\|Capital of the Territory of Oklahoma. \|- \|1907\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the State of Oklahoma. \|- \|Oklahoma City\|\|1910 \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=7\|OregonStatehood in 1859 \|Champoeg\|\|1843\|\|Temporary capital of the disputed Oregon Country. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Oregon City\|\|1843\|\|Capital of the Provisional Government of Oregon in the Oregon Country. \|- \|1848\|\|rowspan=4\|Capitals of the Territory of Oregon. \|- \|Salem\|\|1851 \|- \|Corvallis\|\|1855 \|- \|rowspan=2\|Salem\|\|1855 \|- \|1859\|\|Capital of the State of Oregon. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=5\|PennsylvaniaStatehood in 1776 \|rowspan=3\|Philadelphia\|\|1682\|\|Capital of the English proprietary Colony of Pennsylvania. \|- \|1707\|\|Capital of the British proprietary Colony of Pennsylvania. \|- \|1776\|\|Capital of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.(Capital of the United States of America 1776, 1777, 1778–1783, and 1790–1800.) \|- \|Lancaster\|\|1799\|\|Capital of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania.(Capital of the United States of America 1777.) \|- \|Harrisburg\|\|1812\|\|Capital of the Commonwealth of Pennsylvania. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=10\|Rhode IslandStatehood in 1776 \|Providence\|\|1636\|\|Capital of the English Colony of Providence 1636–1644. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Portsmouth\|\|1639\|\|Capital of the English Colony of Aquidneck Island 1639–1644. \|- \|1644\|\|Capital of the English Colony of Rhode Island. \|- \|Providence\|\|1644\|\|Capital of the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. \|- \|Boston (MA)\|\|1686\|\|Capital of the English Dominion of New-England in America. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Providence\|\|1689\|\|Capital of the English Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. \|- \|1707\|\|Capital of the British Colony of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations. \|- \|five capitals\|\|1776\|\|From 1776 to 1853, the legislature of the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations rotated among the county seats of the state's five counties: Providence, Newport, East Greenwich, South Kingstown, and Bristol. \|- \|joint capitals\|\|1854\|\|From 1854 to 1899, the legislature of the State of Rhode Island and Providence Plantations alternated sessions between Providence and Newport. \|- \|Providence\|\|1900\|\|Capital of the State of Rhode Island. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=6\|South CarolinaStatehood in 1776 \|San Agustín (FL)\|\|1565\|\|Capital of the Spanish province of la Florida. \|- \|rowspan=4\|Charlestown\|\|1670\|\|Capital of the English Province of Carolina. \|- \|1707\|\|Capital of the British Province of Carolina. \|- \|1712\|\|Capital of the British Province of South Carolina. \|- \|1776\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the State of South Carolina. \|- \|Columbia\|\|1786 \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=15\|South DakotaStatehood in 1889 \|rowspan = 5\|Saint-LouisSan LuisSt. Louis (MO)\|\|1765\|\|Capital of the Spanish (though predominantly Francophone) district of Alta Louisiana. \|- \|1800\|\|Capital of the French district of la Haute-Louisiane. \|- \|1804\|\|Capital of the District of Louisiana (under the authority of the Indiana Territory.) \|- \|1805\|\|Capital of the Territory of Louisiana. \|- \|1812\|\|Capital of the Territory of Missouri (1812–1821). \|- \|Detroit (MI)\|\|1834\|\|Capital of the Territory of Michigan (east of Missouri River 1834–1836.) \|- \|Belmont (WI)\|\|1836\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Wisconsin (east of Missouri River 1836–1838.) \|- \|rowspan=2\|Burlington (IA)\|\|1837 \|- \|1838\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Iowa (east of Missouri River 1838–1846.) \|- \|Iowa City (IA)\|\|1841 \|- \|Saint Paul (MN)\|\|1849\|\|Capital of the Territory of Minnesota (east of Missouri River 1849–1858.) \|- \|Omaha (NE)\|\|1854\|\|Capital of the Territory of Nebraska (west of Missouri River 1854–1861.) \|- \|Yankton\|\|1861\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Dakota. \|- \|Bismarck (ND)\|\|1883 \|- \|Pierre\|\|1889\|\|Capital of the State of South Dakota. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=11\|TennesseeStatehood in 1796 \|rowspan=2\|New Bern (NC)\|\|1712\|\|Capital of the British Province of North Carolina. \|- \|1776\|\|Capital of the State of North Carolina. \|- \|Rocky Mount\|\|1790\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory South of the River Ohio. \|- \|rowspan=2\|White's FortKnoxville\|\|1791 \|- \|1796\|\|Capital of the State of Tennessee. \|- \|Kingston\|\|1807\|\|Capital of the State of Tennessee for one day in 1807 to fulfill treaty obligations with the Cherokee Nation. \|- \|Knoxville\|\|1807\|\|rowspan=5\|Capitals of the State of Tennessee. \|- \|Nashville\|\|1812 \|- \|Knoxville\|\|1817 \|- \|Murfreesboro\|\|1818 \|- \|Nashville\|\|1826 \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=13\|TexasStatehood in 1845 \|Los Adaes (LA)\|\|1729\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Spanish province of Tejas. \|- \|San Antonio de Béxar (now San Antonio)\|\|1772 \|- \|Saltillo (COA)\|\|1824\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Mexican province of Coahuila y Tejas. \|- \|Monclova (COA)\|\|1833 \|- \|San Felipe de Austin\|\|1835\|\|rowspan=1\|Capital of the Provisional Government of Texas. \|- \|Washington (now Washington-on-the-Brazos)\|\|1836\|\|rowspan=7\|Capitals of the Republic of Texas. \|- \|Galveston\|\|1836 \|- \|Harrisburg\|\|1836 \|- \|Velasco\|\|1836 \|- \|Columbia\|\|1836 \|- \|Houston\|\|1837 \|- \|rowspan=2\|Austin\|\|1839 \|- \|1845\|\|Capital of the State of Texas. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=4\|UtahStatehood in 1896 \|Salt Lake City\|\|1849\|\|Capital of the extralegal State of Deseret. \|- \|Fillmore\|\|1850\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Utah. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Salt Lake City\|\|1858 \|- \|1896\|\|Capital of the State of Utah. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=5\|VermontStatehood in 1791 \|Westminster\|\|1777\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Republic of New Connecticut. \|- \|rowspan=3\|Windsor\|\|1777 \|- \|1777\|\|Capital of the Vermont Republic. \|- \|1791\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the State of Vermont. \|- \|Montpelier\|\|1805 \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=5\|VirginiaStatehood in 1776 \|Jamestown\|\|1619\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the English Colony of Virginia. \|- \|rowspan=3\|Middle PlantationWilliamsburg\|\|1698 \|- \|1707\|\|Capital of the British Colony of Virginia. \|- \|1776\|\|Capital of the Commonwealth of Virginia. \|- \|Richmond\|\|1780\|\|Capital of the Commonwealth of Virginia.(Capital of the Confederate States of America 1861–1865.)(A rival pro-Union state government operated from Wheeling 1861–1863 and from Alexandria 1863–1865.) \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=6\|WashingtonStatehood in 1889 \|Champoeg (OR)\|\|1843\|\|Temporary capital of the disputed Oregon Country. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Oregon City (OR)\|\|1843\|\|Capital of the Provisional Government of Oregon in the Oregon Country. \|- \|1848\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Territory of Oregon. \|- \|Salem (OR)\|\|1851 \|- \|rowspan=2\|Olympia\|\|1853\|\|Capital of the Territory of Washington. \|- \|1889\|\|Capital of the State of Washington. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=10\|West VirginiaStatehood in 1863 \|Jamestown (VA)\|\|1619\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the English Colony of Virginia. \|- \|rowspan=3\|Middle Plantation (VA)Williamsburg (VA)\|\|1698 \|- \|1707\|\|Capital of the British Colony of Virginia. \|- \|1776\|\|rowspan=2\|Capitals of the Commonwealth of Virginia. \|- \|Richmond (VA)\|\|1780 \|- \|rowspan=2\|Wheeling\|\|1861\|\|Capital of the rival pro-Union government of the Commonwealth of Virginia. \|- \|1863\|\|rowspan=4\|Capitals of the State of West Virginia. \|- \|Charleston\|\|1870 \|- \|Wheeling\|\|1875 \|- \|Charleston\|\|1885 \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=8\|WisconsinStatehood in 1848 \|Marietta (OH)\|\|1788\|\|Capital of the Territory Northwest of the River Ohio. \|- \|Vincennes (IN)\|\|1800\|\|Capital of the Territory of Indiana. \|- \|Kaskaskia (IL)\|\|1809\|\|Capital of the Territory of Illinois. \|- \|Detroit (MI)\|\|1818\|\|Capital of the Territory of Michigan. \|- \|Belmont\|\|1836\|\|rowspan=3\|Capitals of the Territory of Wisconsin. \|- \|Burlington (IA)\|\|1837 \|- \|rowspan=2\|Madison\|\|1838 \|- \|1848\|\|Capital of the State of Wisconsin. \|- style="border-top: solid 2px #000" \|rowspan=4\|WyomingStatehood in 1890 \|Lewiston (ID)\|\|1863\|\|Capital of the Territory of Idaho. \|- \|Yankton (SD)\|\|1864\|\|Capital of the Territory of Dakota. \|- \|rowspan=2\|Cheyenne\|\|1869\|\|Capital of the Territory of Wyoming. \|- \|1890\|\|Capital of the State of Wyoming'. \|- \|} See also History of the United States List of largest cities of U.S. states and territories by population List of state and territorial capitols in the United States List of states and territories of the United States Lists of capitals Outline of United States history Relocation of the United States Government to Trenton (1799) Territorial evolution of the United States Territories of the United States Timeline of geopolitical changes (before 1900) Timeline of geopolitical changes (1900−present) Notes References Further reading Christian Montes. American Capitals: A Historical Geography'' (University of Chicago Press; 2014) 394 pages; scholarly study of geographic and other factors that have shaped the designation of capitals in all 50 states External links Florida Facts - The Capitol The Capitalization of Georgia The State Houses of Louisiana Las Vegas: Nevada's Next State Capital? New Hampshire Senate for Kids - Capitals Handbook of Texas Online – Capitals Colonial Capitals of the Dominion of Virginia Utah History To Go - Utah's Capitols Lists of cities in the United States States of the United States-related lists United States United States State capitals in the United States	[ 0.08495673537254333, 0.31191855669021606, 0.06236589699983597, -0.09496323764324188, -0.14899316430091858, 0.40187886357307434, 0.9748535752296448, 1.275214433670044, -0.9477856755256653, -0.415104478597641, -0.6181289553642273, -0.263630747795105, -0.7060979604721069, 0.9436163306236267, -0.23353350162506104, 0.39262932538986206, 0.1387803852558136, 0.9252949357032776, -0.14019805192947388, -0.08457664400339127, -0.10615324229001999, 0.2487858384847641, 0.831659734249115, -0.336725652217865, 0.638132631778717, -0.09623471647500992, -0.04169647395610809, -0.7869293093681335, -0.9151396155357361, 0.36152002215385437, -0.48706504702568054, 0.3582104742527008, -0.2223140150308609, 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255631	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tarlac	Tarlac	Tarlac, officially the Province of Tarlac (; ; ; ) is a landlocked province in the Philippines located in the Central Luzon region. Its capital is the city of Tarlac. It is bounded on the north by the province of Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija on the east, Zambales on the west and Pampanga in the south. The province comprises three congressional districts and is subdivided into 17 municipalities and one city, Tarlac City, which is the provincial capital. The province is situated in the heartland of Luzon, in what is known as the Central Plain also spanning the neighbouring provinces of Pampanga, Pangasinan, Nueva Ecija and Bulacan. Tarlac covers a total land area of . Early in history, what came to be known as Valenzuela Ranch today was once a thickly-forested area, peopled by roving tribes of nomadic Aetas who are said to be the aboriginal settlers of the Philippines, and for a lengthy period, it was the remaining hinterland of Luzon's Central Plains. Today, Tarlac is the most multi-cultural of the provinces in the region for having a mixture of four distinct ethnic groups: the Kapampangans, the Pangasinans, the Ilocanos and the Tagalogs. It is also known for its fine food and vast sugar and rice plantations in Central Luzon. History Tarlac's name is a Hispanized derivation from a talahib weed called Malatarlak. Tarlac was originally divided into two parts: the southern division belonging to Pampanga and the northern division belonging to Pangasinan. It was the last province in Central Luzon to be organized under the Spanish colonial administration in 1874. Its nucleus were the towns of Concepcion, Capas, Bamban, Mabalacat, Magalang, Porac, Floridablanca, Victoria, and Tarlac which constituted a military comandancia. Some of these municipalities were returned to Pampanga but the rest were incorporated into the new province of Tarlac. Unlike other provinces in Central Luzon, Tarlac was relatively free from revolts during the Spanish regime before the late 1800s rose. Only the rebellion started by Juan de la Cruz Palaris in Pangasinan spread to the northern portion of Tarlac. During the Philippine Revolution of 1896, Tarlac was among the first eight provinces to rise against Spain, alongside neighbouring Pampanga. It became the new seat of the first Philippine Republic in March 1899 when General Emilio Aguinaldo abandoned the former capital, Malolos, Bulacan. This lasted only for a month before the seat was moved to Nueva Ecija in Aguinaldo's attempt to elude the pursuing Americans. On October 23, 1899, Gregorio Aglipay, military vicar general of the revolutionary forces, called the Filipino clergy to a conference in Paniqui. There, they drafted the constitution of the Philippine Independent Church. They called for the Filipinization of the clergy, which eventually led to a separation from the Roman Catholic Church in the Philippines. Tarlac was captured by American forces in November 1899. A civil government was established in the province in 1901. During World War II, Camp O'Donnell in Capas became the terminal point of the infamous Bataan Death March of Filipino and American soldiers who surrendered at Bataan on April 9, 1942. Many prisoners died of hunger, disease and/or execution. The general headquarters of the Philippine Commonwealth Army was established from January 3, 1942, to June 30, 1946, and the 3rd Constabulary Regiment of the Philippine Constabulary was founding again from October 28, 1944, to June 30, 1946, and military stationed in the province of Tarlac and some parts in Central Luzon due to Japanese Occupation. Local troops of the Philippine Commonwealth Army units has sending the clearing military operations in the province of Tarlac and Central Luzon from 1942 to 1945 and aided them by the recognized guerrilla groups including Hukbalahap Communist fighters and attacking Japanese Imperial forces. But in the aftermath, some local guerrilla resistance fighters and Hukbahalap groups are became retreating Imperial Japanese troops around the province and before the liberation from the Allied forces. In early 1945, combined American and Filipino military forces with the recognized Aringay Command guerillas liberated Camp O'Donnell. The raid in Capas resulted in the rescue of American, Filipino and other allied Prisoners of War. From January 20, 1945, to August 15, 1945, Tarlac was recaptured by combined Filipino and American troops together with the recognized guerrilla fighters against the Japanese Imperial forces during the liberation and beginning for the Battle of Tarlac under the Luzon Campaign. Military testing ground Recently, the Philippine Army has used Crow Valley in the borders of Barangay Patling and Santa Lucia in Capas, Tarlac as a testing ground for both Philippine forces and allies. Many of the Philippine military testings were done on March 17, 2006 most likely as a part of Operation Enduring Freedom - Philippines. Geography The landlocked province is situated at the center of the central plains of Luzon, landlocked by four provinces: Pampanga on the south, Nueva Ecija on the east, Pangasinan on the north, and Zambales on the west. The province covers a total area of . Approximately 75% of the province is plains while the rest is hilly to slightly mountainous. Eastern Tarlac is a plain, while Western Tarlac is hilly to slightly mountainous. Because of this, the province includes a large portion of mountains like Mt. Telakawa (Straw Hat Mountain), located at Capas, Tarlac. Mt. Bueno, Mt. Mor-Asia and Mt. Canouman are located also in Capas as well as Mt. Dalin. The other mountains are Mt. Dueg and Mt. Maasin, found in the municipality of San Clemente. Also noted are Mt. Damas of Camiling. A portion of Mount Pinatubo (whose summit crater rests in neighbouring Zambales) also rests in Bamban and Capas. The whole of Mayantoc and San Jose are mountainous so it is suitable for the highest natural resources and forest products in the province such as coal, iron, copper, temperate-climate fruits and vegetables, fire logs, sand, rocks and forest animals such as wild boar and deer. The main water sources for agriculture include the Tarlac River at Tarlac City, the Lucong and Parua rivers in Concepcion, Sacobia-Bamban River in Bamban and the Rio Chico in La Paz. Administrative divisions Tarlac is subdivided into 17 municipalities and 1 component city, all encompassed by three congressional districts. There are a total of 511 barangays comprising the province. Barangays The 17 municipalities and 1 city of the province comprise a total of 511 barangays, with Cristo Rey in Capas as the most populous in 2010, and Malonzo in Bamban as the least. Climate Like the rest of Central Luzon, the province has three distinct seasons: summer from March to June, monsoon rain from July to early October, and monsoon winter from late October to February. Summer months, especially during May bring frequent, sometimes severe, thunderstorms with high winds, thunder, and hail. It is the coldest province in the region, with a yearly average of . Cold snap is not common, which gradually receives unusual average temperature of , while maximum daytime peaks . It is also the windiest province in the region during February and March due to its widely lowland altitude and extreme climate transition. The lowest temperature ever recorded is and the highest temperature at . Demographics The population of Tarlac in the was people, with a density of . There are two predominant ethnic groups in the province: the Kapampangans that mainly predominate the province's southern portion and the Pangasinans that mainly predominate the province's northern portion. Both ethno-linguistic groups intermingle together in the provincial capital. The Tagalogs and Ilocanos constitute the rest of the provincial populace. Language Kapampangan and Pangasinan are mainly used throughout the entire province, as well as Ilocano and Tagalog. Ilocanos and Tagalogs however, speak their respective languages with a Kapampangan/Pangasinan accent, as descendants of Ilocanos and Tagalogs from the first generations who lived in the province learned Kapampangan and/or Pangasinan. English is widely understood as well, especially in professional and educational establishments. Religion Spanish influence is very visible in the province as shown by religious adherence. Roman Catholicism is professed by 80%-83% of the population. Protestant groups are also present such as evangelicals forming 8% of the province population. The St. Michael Archangel Parish Church in Camiling was the oldest religious structure in the entire province until it was burned in 1997. Muslims, Anitists, animists, and atheists are also present in the province. Economy The economy of Tarlac is predominantly agricultural. It is among the biggest producers of rice and sugarcane (the principal crops) in Central Luzon. Other major crops are corn and coconuts, fruits (bananas, calamansi and mangoes) and vegetables (eggplants, garlic and onions). Because the province is landlocked, its fish production is limited to fishpens, but it has vast river systems and irrigation. On the Zambales boundary to its west, forest land provides timber for the logging industry. Mineral reserves such as manganese and iron can also be found along the western section. Tarlac has its own rice and corn mills, sawmills and logging outfits. It has three sugar-refining centrals and hosts many sugar products in Central Luzon, especially the Muscovado sugar of the municipality of Victoria. Other firms service agricultural needs such as fertilizers. Among its cottage industries, ceramics has become available because of the abundant supply of clay. Some of the major industries here involve making are chicharon (pork skin chips) and iniruban in the municipality of Camiling and Ilang-Ilang products of Anao. Tilapia production is also improving in Tarlac, with an aim to make the province the second "Tilapia Capital of Central Luzon" after its mother province, Pampanga. Infrastructure Electricity Religion The province of Tarlac is composed of many religious groups, but it is predominantly Roman Catholic (79.55%). According to 2010 Census, other prominent Christian groups include the Iglesia ni Cristo (7.43%), Aglipayan Church (2.24%), Evangelicals (1.97%), Jehovah’s Witness (0.64%) and many others. Culture Belenismo sa Tarlac Belenismo sa Tarlac was launched by Isabel Cojuangco-Suntay, sister of former Ambassador Eduardo Cojuangco Jr., to transform the province into the Belén Capital of the Philippines. The Belen Festival began in September 2007, with the first Belen-making workshop conducted on December 16, 2007. Organizers have intended the festival to become an annual event in the province. Senator Loren Legarda led the awarding of the first Belen-making competition where Tarlac PNP Office Belen, built by at least 24 policemen, won the first prize. Belenismo in Spanish means the art of making Belén, a representation of the Nativity scene in which the Holy Family (Joseph, Mary and the infant Jesus) is visited by the three wise men who came to the manger through the guidance of a star. Chicharon Iniruban Festival It is a festivity that is yearly celebrated in the town of Camiling during the last week of October. It is intended as a preparation for All Saints' Day and a Thanksgiving Celebration for the good harvest and for the good quality of meat products especially the chicharon or Bagnet. It also features the exotic and delicious rice cake Iniruban, as called by Ilocanos. The festival's highlights are the street dancing competition, Miss Iniruban beauty pageant, and the municipality's agri-trade. It is the oldest cultural celebration in the province introduced in 2000. Provincial capitol The highest seat of political power of the province is located on a hill in Barangay San Vicente, Tarlac City. The present structure was finished in 1909. During the Japanese occupation, the provincial capitol was vacated and used as the provincial headquarters of the Imperial Army. The capitol suffered great damages during the Second World War, but afterwards, in 1946, the United States of America helped rebuild and improve its structure. Because of its historical background, the picture of the capitol façade appeared in the previous version of the 500 peso bill. Notable person • Ion Perez See also Roman Catholic Diocese of Tarlac Super regions of the Philippines Pampanga Pangasinan References External links Official Portal of the Province of Tarlac Provinces of the Philippines States and territories established in 1872 1872 establishments in the Philippines	[ -0.1415015161037445, 0.12622833251953125, -0.09061221778392792, -0.009756678715348244, 0.02186289057135582, 0.2538468837738037, -0.12510904669761658, 1.4105679988861084, -0.2836584150791168, 0.3198239803314209, -0.10856202244758606, 0.6227156519889832, -0.19913813471794128, 0.11000445485115051, -0.3634546101093292, 0.7540314197540283, 0.8430954813957214, 0.4935120642185211, 0.578262448310852, -0.5967825651168823, -0.23721790313720703, -0.42119330167770386, 0.3233402669429779, 0.3774465322494507, 0.5629351735115051, -0.22423435747623444, 0.04977075755596161, 0.5047618746757507, 0.105623759329319, 0.15411195158958435, -0.06022921949625015, 0.27900782227516174, -0.20231427252292633, 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255632	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ladytron	Ladytron	Ladytron are a largely British electronic band formed in Liverpool in 1999. The group consists of Helen Marnie (lead vocals, synthesizers), Mira Aroyo (vocals, synthesizers), Daniel Hunt (synthesizers, guitar, vocals), and Reuben Wu (synthesizers). They have released six studio albums: 604 (2001), Light & Magic (2002), Witching Hour (2005), Velocifero (2008), Gravity the Seducer (2011) and Ladytron (2019). They also issued the live album Live at London Astoria 16.07.08 in 2009 and the compilation album Best of 00–10 in 2011. They have produced remixes for artists such as David Gahan, Erasure, Goldfrapp, Apoptygma Berzerk, Placebo, Blondie, Gang of Four, Christina Aguilera, Nine Inch Nails, Bloc Party, Kings of Convenience, Soulwax and Róisín Murphy. The band's name was taken from the song "Ladytron" by Roxy Music. Former Roxy Music member Brian Eno said in 2009, "Ladytron are, for me, the best of English pop music. They're the kind of band that really only appears in England, with this funny mixture of eccentric art-school dicking around and dressing up, with a full awareness of what's happening everywhere musically, which is kind of knitted together and woven into something quite new." Ladytron described their sound as "electronic pop", while music journalists have also described their sound as synth-pop, electronic rock, post-punk, and new wave, among other genres. Some of the group's songs contain lyrics written by Aroyo in her native Bulgarian. History Band formation and their debut single Liverpudlian producers and DJs Daniel Hunt and Reuben Wu met in the 1990s. Hunt was a member of the bands Venini and Jules Verne and also founded the indie record label Invicta Hi-Fi and a nightclub. Wu trained in Industrial Design at Sheffield Hallam University and graduated in 1997. He became an industrial designer at Team Consulting Limited, until finally going full-time with the band around 2002. Using a moniker inspired by the song "Ladytron" by Roxy Music, Hunt and Wu recorded the debut single "He Took Her to a Movie" for £50 with the guest vocalist Lisa Eriksson (who later formed the band Techno Squirrels) and released it in July 1999. In the summer of 1999, Hunt and Wu met the Scottish student Helen Marnie through various DJ gigs, and the Bulgarian student Mira Aroyo through a mutual friend. Marnie and Aroyo joined the band as vocalists and keyboardists. Helen Marnie studied music at the University of Liverpool where she received a Bachelor of Arts in pop music in 1999. Mira Aroyo was a postgraduate research geneticist in the Department of Biochemistry, University of Oxford. The first EPs and 604 (1999–2001) During 1999 and 2001 Ladytron released the EPs Miss Black and Her Friends in December 1999 exclusively in Japan, Commodore Rock in June 2000, Mu-Tron EP in October 2000 and the singles "Play Girl / Commodore Rock" in 2000, "Playgirl" in 2000 and again in 2001, "The Way That I Found You" in 2001. All the songs (except "Miss Black", "Olivetti Jerk" and the remixes) from these releases were later included on their debut studio album. "He Took Her to a Movie", Mu-Tron EP, "The Way That I Found You", were all selected as NME "Single of the Week". Ladytron released the debut album 604 on 6 February 2001 on Emperor Norton (US), on 26 March 2001 on Labels (Germany) and on 2 April 2001 on Invicta Hi-Fi (UK). It was re-released on 20 July 2004 on Emperor Norton (US) and on 14 January 2011 (Germany), 18 January 2011 (US), 24 January 2011 (UK) on Nettwerk. 604 has been written mostly by Daniel Hunt and co-produced by him and Lance Thomas (who also engineered and mixed the album). The band wore uniforms inspired by the science fiction movie The Andromeda Strain until the end of 2003. Daniel Hunt said in an interview for Jound from 2001: "I'm really into The Andromeda Strain, so that's kind of an influence on the title of the album and the uniforms we've got and stuff. But the design – me and Reuben just love that film". Also in an interview for Chaos Control magazine from 2002 Hunt explained the 604 album title: "It's the area code for British Columbia... we're glad we've attached this strange importance to that number, it crops up everywhere now. We noticed when we stayed in Hamburg in Germany (in a hotel called "Commodore" – pure coincidence), that the number to phone reception from your room was '604'. Moments afterwards the building had caught fire and we were lucky to escape with our lives. I'm not joking". Ladytron performed on 4 August 2001 at Festival Internacional de Benicàssim in Spain, on 10 August 2001 at La Route du Rock in France, and on 26 August 2001 at Reading Festival in the UK. On 5 December 2001, they performed four songs for Radio 1's John Peel Show. On 1 October 2001, the compilation album Reproductions: Songs of The Human League was released on Carrot Top Records and it included The Human League' song "Open Your Heart" covered by Ladytron. Light and Magic (2002–2003) Their second album Light & Magic was released on 17 September 2002 at Emperor Norton Records (US) and Telstar (UK). The album was also released on 7 April 2003 at Warner Music (Germany) and on 21 June 2003 at Victor Entertainment (Japan). It was re-released on 20 July 2004 on Emperor Norton (US) and on 14 January 2011 (Germany)/18 January 2011 (US)/24 January 2011 (UK) on Nettwerk. Light & Magic featured a darker sound than their previous album. It was written and produced in Los Angeles by the band and co-produced by Mickey Petralia. The album included the underground hits "Seventeen", "Blue Jeans" and "Evil". They also issued in 2003 a limited 7" single, "Cracked LCD / USA vs. White Noise". They toured over a year to support the album. On 4 December 2002, Ladytron returned to John Peel Show and performed live 11 songs from their first 2 albums. In 2002, Ladytron rescored the 1982 Tron film for a live event in London. On 7 October 2003, they issued the mix compilation Softcore Jukebox on Emperor Norton. Besides the songs of other artists, the compilation also includes two of their own songs, the single remix of "Blue Jeans" renamed "Blue Jeans 2.0" and a cover of Tweet's "Oops (Oh My)". Witching Hour (2004–2007) Ladytron began working on demos for their next album immediately after concluding Light & Magic tour with a homecoming gig in Liverpool in September 2003, where they were supported by Franz Ferdinand. Within a few months, they had mapped out the entire record and by the time they were ready to start recording in April 2004, their UK label Telstar Records had gone into administration. Their US label, Emperor Norton, also had problems: the company was purchased by Rykodisc in 2004 and was then shut down later that year, with Rykodisc inheriting its back-catalogue. The band announced on 7 December 2004 that they signed to Island Records. In 2004, Ladytron were booked to play a series of shows in China as part of an exhibition tour set up by the British Council. They played on 24 and 25 September 2004 in Shenzhen, 28 September 2004 in Chongqing, 6 October 2004 and 7 October 2004 (DJ set) in Shanghai. Ladytron released their critically acclaimed third studio album Witching Hour on 3 October 2005 on Island (UK) and later in other territories. Island Records also released a limited edition of this album in the form of a 2 disc set: a CD with the album and a DVD of video from the tour of China ("Once Upon a Time in the East: Ladytron in China") plus 3 music videos ("Destroy Everything You Touch", "Sugar", "Seventeen"). Witching Hour was re-released on 5 April 2007 on Major (Germany), on 5 November 2007 on So Sweet (UK), and on 18 January 2011 (US)/24 January 2011 (UK) on Nettwerk. The album was recorded in 2004 at Elevator Studios in Liverpool and it was produced by Ladytron and Jim Abbiss. It featured Pop Levi on bass, live drums by Keith York and electric guitars mixed with their trademark sound. Pitchfork described it as a "quantum leap record". The songs "Sugar", "Destroy Everything You Touch", "International Dateline", "Weekend", and "Soft Power" were issued as singles. "Destroy Everything You Touch" () became the band's best known song. In 2006 saw the light Extended Play, a two-disc EP CD/DVD compilation that featured exclusive unreleased remixes and B-sides, as well as a DVD with the same content as the one from Witching Hour limited edition. Also in 2006 Ladytron recorded and released the live EP The Harmonium Sessions with 4 songs from their third album. Without any real label support, Ladytron toured exhaustively over the next two years, on the strength of their cult following. They played in North America, Europe, and South America. In early 2007, they also opened for the European shows of Nine Inch Nails, at the invitation of Trent Reznor. Velocifero (2007–2009) Ladytron were dropped by Island Records and signed to Nettwerk in late 2007. Between 2007 and 2008, the band recorded the follow-up to Witching Hour at Studio de la Grande Armée in Paris with help from Alessandro Cortini (Modwheelmood, Nine Inch Nails, SONOIO) and Vicarious Bliss (Justice, DJ Mehdi). On 2 June 2008, Ladytron released their fourth album Velocifero on Nettwerk. The band stated that "velocifero" literally means "bringer of speed" and is also the name of a classic retro styled scooter. The album spawned three singles: "Ghosts", "Runaway" and "Tomorrow". In mid 2008, the group composed three exclusive tracks performed in Simlish for The Sims 3 game soundtrack: "Rockfalls & Estuaries", "She Stepped Out of the Car" and "Young Etruscians". Ladytron sang a song titled "Use Your Mind" on Nickelodeon's Yo Gabba Gabba!. On 6 April 2009, Nettwerk issued the remix compilation Velocifero (Remixed & Rare). In 2009, Ladytron toured North America with The Faint, and performed two special shows with Brian Eno at the Sydney Opera House. In the same year they announced that they will be the opening act for Depeche Mode on few concerts in Eastern Europe, but these concerts were cancelled due to Dave Gahan's illness. Also in 2009 Ladytron self-released their first live album Live at London Astoria 16.07.08 and co-wrote and produced a few songs for Christina Aguilera. The songs "Bird of Prey" and "Little Dreamer" were released a bonus tracks on the deluxe edition of her 2010 album Bionic. Best of 00–10 and Gravity the Seducer (2010–2011) The soundtrack of the video game FIFA 11 included a new Ladytron song, "Ace of Hz", which was also released as digital single on 30 November 2010. On 11 January 2011, the band issued the music download Ace of Hz EP, which contained the album mix as well as five remixes. On 28 March 2011, it was released the compilation Best of 00–10 featuring 17 tracks on standard edition and 33 tracks on deluxe edition plus an 80-page booklet. Both editions included two extra tracks, "Ace of Hz" and a cover version of Death in June's "Little Black Angel". Also in 2011, Nettwerk reissued all their previous albums, the remix compilation Best of Remixes and the iTunes video compilation Best of 00–10 Videos which included music videos for the singles "Playgirl", "Blue Jeans", "Seventeen", "Sugar", "Destroy Everything You Touch", "Ghosts", "Runaway", "Tomorrow" and "Ace of Hz". On 20 December 2011, Nettwerk issued the remix compilations 604 (Remixed & Rare), Light & Magic (Remixed & Rare) and Witching Hour (Remixed & Rare). During April 2011 and July 2011, Ladytron performed live in Austria, China, Russia, Finland, Sweden, Poland, UK, Ireland, Hungary and Spain. Their fifth studio album, Gravity the Seducer, was released in the United Kingdom on 12 September 2011 and in the United States on 13 September 2011. The album was recorded in Kent's countryside and it was produced by Ladytron and Barny Barnicott (Arctic Monkeys, Kasabian, Editors). Daniel Hunt said that "Gravity the Seducer is more of a jump than the last album was, more ethereal and melodic, a touch more abstract in places than we've gone before, baroque 'n' roll". "Ace of Hz", which appears on the album, was previously released as a single from the band's greatest hits compilation Best of 00–10. The first single from Gravity the Seducer, "White Elephant", was issued on 17 May 2011 and its accompanying video was posted on YouTube on 26 July 2011. The band released two more singles, "Ambulances" on 16 June 2011 and "Mirage" on 8 August 2011. The music video for "Mirage" was posted on YouTube on 11 November 2011. During September 2011 and December 2011, the band toured in United States, Mexico, Canada, Brazil, Chile, Thailand, Indonesia, and Singapore. For the concerts in North America, Ladytron were supported by SONOIO, VHS or Beta and Geographer. Hiatus and side projects (2012–2015) The soundtrack of the video game The Sims 3: Supernatural included a new Ladytron instrumental track, "Tesla". Using her surname as a stage name, Helen Marnie started in 2012 a solo career. She self-released through PledgeMusic her debut solo album Crystal World on 11 June 2013. The album was produced in 2012 in Reykjavík, Iceland by her bandmate Daniel Hunt in collaboration with the Icelandic musician Barði Jóhannsson. Marnie released a second solo album titled Strange Words and Weird Wars on 2 June 2017 on Disco Pinata. This album was recorded at Chem19 Studio, Glasgow and produced by Jonny Scott. On 22 February 2013, Ladytron premiered the "International Dateline" music video. It was shot in 2006 during Witching Hour era, left unfinished, rediscovered and finished by Daniel Hunt in 2012. On 29 November 2013, Ladytron released the remix album Gravity the Seducer Remixed, a collection of remixes of Gravity the Seducer songs. Ladytron featured shortly on the section "Resurgence" of the 2014 music documentary Beautiful Noise. This documentary also features several short interviews with Daniel Hunt. Ladytron (2016–present) On 18 July 2016, the band posted on their official website: "After a five year hiatus following the release of their fifth album Gravity the Seducer, another chapter in Ladytron's story is about to begin." On 26 November 2016, Ladytron posted on Instagram an image with a SSL recording console, implying that the recording of their sixth album started. On 28 February 2018, Ladytron started a PledgeMusic campaign to finish recording and releasing their new album. On the same day they released the first single "The Animals". On 16 August the band premiered the single "The Island". The track was accompanied by a disturbing short film directed by Bryan M. Ferguson. On 10 October the band announced that the new album would be titled Ladytron and released on 15 February 2019 through their own Ladytron Music imprint via !K7. PledgeMusic suspended operations in February 2019, after repeated cases of failing to pay artists. The band subsequently issued updates stating that while much of the merchandise had never been made, they had been able to buy the vinyl and CDs from PledgeMusic's administrators and were in the process of sending them out to subscribers who were willing to pay for the postage. On 16 September 2019 Ladytron premiered the music video for "Deadzone". The video was directed by frequent collaborator Bryan M. Ferguson. On 4 February 2020 Ladytron premiered the music video of "Tower of Glass". Side projects All band members are also involved in various side projects. Besides touring, each member plays DJ sets (solo and with other band members) in clubs and events around the world. Ladytron have produced remixes for many artists, including David Gahan, Erasure, Goldfrapp, Apoptygma Berzerk, Placebo, Blondie, Gang of Four, Christina Aguilera, Nine Inch Nails, Bloc Party, Kings of Convenience, Soulwax and Róisín Murphy. Using her surname as stage name, Helen Marnie released 2 solo albums: Crystal World on 11 June 2013 and Strange Words and Weird Wars on 2 June 2017. Daniel Hunt worked on several movie scores, including that of Would You Rather starring Sasha Grey, in collaboration with Icelandic musician Barði Jóhannsson. Hunt also produced Marnie's album, Crystal World. He started the band Tamoios with singer Luisa Maita, and Fernando Rischbieter, in 2014, in São Paulo, Brazil. Reuben Wu is an accomplished photographer. He posted a selection of photos on his own website and he also released in 2011 a book with a collection of photographs from an expedition with a friend on Svalbard in the same year. Hunt, Wu and DJ Revo opened the Liverpool club night Evol in September 2003. In September 2005, Hunt and Wu helped by some collaborators, opened the Liverpool bar/restaurant/music venue Korova. Mira Aroyo collaborated with John Foxx and the Maths and The Projects. She also worked for some documentaries. Ladytron are credited as co-writers and producers of the bonus songs "Birds of Prey" and "Little Dreamer" from the 2010 album Bionic by Christina Aguilera. Music style Ladytron have described their sound as "electronic pop", with music journalists similarly describing their sound as electropop. They focused on a balance between pop structures and experimental sounds. Their sound has also been described as synth-pop, electronic rock, post-punk revival, new wave, shoegaze, witch house, and art pop. While some writers have labeled Ladytron as an electroclash act, others have claimed that they are not entirely electroclash and Ladytron members have also rejected the term, with Daniel Hunt and Helen Marnie commenting: Reuben Wu said about the process of making a new Ladytron album: "We start writing individually. We've never really lived in the same city before. We've always been geographically apart. [...] It's always been first as individuals, and then reviewing everything together, and then working on each other's songs. That's how we've always worked. And it goes well with how we make music. We do get together down the line and in the studio when we start fleshing out the tracks". Touring Ladytron toured during each one of their major albums: 604 (2001), Light & Magic (2002–2004), Witching Hour (2005–2007), Velocifero (2008–2009), Best of 00–10 (2011), Gravity the Seducer (2011), Ladytron (2019–2020). During the years, they toured in Europe, North America, South America, Asia, and Australia. The band played at various music festivals like La Route du Rock 2001, Reading Festival 2001, Festival Internacional de Benicàssim 2001 and 2005, Coachella Festival 2003 and 2006, Hultsfred Festival 2003, Arvikafestivalen 2003 and 2006, Lowlands Festival 2003, Dot-to-Dot Festival 2005, Pukkelpop 2005, Exit Festival 2005, Creamfields 2007, Electric Picnic 2007, Bonnaroo Festival 2008, Ruisrock Festival 2009, Traffic Festival 2009, Standon Calling Festival 2009, Electrosonic Festival 2009, Ping Gu Valley Festival 2011, Donaufestival 2011, Selector Festival 2011, Hegyalja Festival 2011, Decibel Festival 2011, DeLuna Fest 2011, Zouk Festival 2011. Since Light & Magic, Ladytron started to tour extensively and to add touring members to play live bass and drums. Previous touring members include Pop Levi (bass during Light & Magic tour), Andrea Goldsworthy (bass during Witching Hour tour), and Keith York (drums during Light & Magic and Witching Hour tours). Bands to open for Ladytron on their tours include Simian, The Presets, Client, Phaser, CSS, Asobi Seksu, Mount Sims, Crocodiles, Franz Ferdinand, SONOIO, VHS or Beta and Geographer. Ladytron have opened for other artists like Soulwax on their UK tour in 2001, Björk in 2003, and Goldfrapp in 2006. In early 2007, they opened for Nine Inch Nails on their European tour, at the invitation of Trent Reznor. In 2009, Ladytron and The Faint co-headlined a North American tour. During the early part of the Witching Hour tour, the band used to name their four Korg MS-2000B synths to easily differentiate them: Cleopatra (Marnie), Babylon (Aroyo), Ulysses (Hunt), and Gloria (Wu). A staple of all Ladytron shows is Korg MS-20 played by Mira Aroyo. Discography 604 (2001) Light & Magic (2002) Witching Hour (2005) Velocifero (2008) Gravity the Seducer (2011) Ladytron (2019) Awards and nominations Classic Pop Reader Awards \|- \| 2019 \| "The Island" \| Video of the Year \| MVPA Awards \|- \| 2006 \| "Destroy Everything You Touch" \| Best Directional Debut \| PLUG Awards \|- \| 2006 \| "Destroy Everything You Touch" \| Song of the Year \| Popjustice Twenty Quid Music Prize \|- \| 2003 \| "Seventeen" \| rowspan=2\|Best British Pop Single \| \|- \| 2006 \| "Destroy Everything You Touch" \| Media usage See also List of dream pop artists List of synthpop artists References External links English synth-pop groups English electronic rock musical groups Electropop groups Post-punk revival music groups Musical groups established in 1999 Musical groups from Liverpool Musical quartets Remixers Nettwerk Music Group artists Rykodisc artists Island Records artists Telstar Records artists 1999 establishments in England	[ 0.08867491781711578, 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255640	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Melisende	Melisende	Melisende was a popular French name in the Middle Ages, and may refer to: Melisende, Queen of Jerusalem (1105–1161), Queen regnant of the Kingdom of Jerusalem Melisende, Viscountess of Châteaudun (died before 1040) Melisende of Arsuf (born before 1177), French noblewoman Melisende of Lusignan (1200–after 1249), Princess of Antioch Melisende of Montlhéry, grandmother of Melisende of Jerusalem Melisende of Piquigny, possible mother of Godfrey de Saint-Omer (11th–12th century) Melisende of Tripoli (fl. c. 1160), Cousin of the King of Jerusalem See also Melisande (disambiguation) Millicent (disambiguation)	[ -0.3814922571182251, -0.035773515701293945, 0.16230937838554382, 0.12701572477817535, -0.3612407147884369, 0.9201030731201172, 0.28429120779037476, -0.028013762086629868, -0.8951104879379272, -0.20252154767513275, 0.10273700952529907, 0.5485822558403015, 0.4151066243648529, 0.7251302599906921, -0.7737512588500977, 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255643	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Beleth	Beleth	In demonology, Beleth, also spelled Bilet, Bileth, Byleth, or Bilith, is a king of Hell who has eighty-five legions of demons under his command. He rides a pale horse, and a variety of music is heard before him, according to most authors on demonology and the most known grimoires. According to Pseudomonarchia Daemonum, Noah's son Ham was the first in invoking him after the flood, and wrote a book on mathematics with his help. When appearing, he looks fierce in order to frighten the conjurer or to see if he is courageous. The conjurer must be brave, and holding a hazel wand in his hand must draw a triangle by striking towards the south, east, and upwards, then commanding Beleth into it by means of some conjurations. The Dictionnaire Infernal states that to summon Beleth, the person should hold a silver ring on the middle finger of the left hand against his face, to pay respect to Beleth's rank as king. See also The Lesser Key of Solomon References Goetic demons	[ 0.19678999483585358, 0.5732646584510803, -0.3129984438419342, -0.18909628689289093, -0.7412389516830444, 0.7295308709144592, 0.8647908568382263, 0.11954139918088913, -0.46856990456581116, 0.09394948184490204, -0.6340915560722351, 0.2845335602760315, -0.23735247552394867, 0.42569810152053833, 0.04384515434503555, 0.2977246642112732, 0.49176761507987976, 0.34227627515792847, -0.22861126065254211, -0.3806125521659851, 0.32192397117614746, -0.20128659904003143, -0.1265067756175995, -0.29317522048950195, 0.38529932498931885, 0.1677352339029312, -0.07478491961956024, 0.06312859803438187, 0.006561581511050463, 0.17049570381641388, 0.1385660022497177, 0.16968576610088348, -0.16613535583019257, -0.8581916093826294, -0.3324083685874939, -0.09672947973012924, -0.12426695972681046, -0.7641488313674927, -0.31049928069114685, -0.03318781405687332, -0.10302954167127609, 0.12104284018278122, 0.22279062867164612, 0.07048311829566956, 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255644	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trouble%20at%20the%20Henhouse	Trouble at the Henhouse	Trouble at the Henhouse is the fifth studio album by Canadian rock band The Tragically Hip, released in 1996. The song "Butts Wigglin'" appeared in the 1996 film Kids in the Hall: Brain Candy. Commercial and critical performance The album debuted at #1 on the Canadian Albums Chart, and stayed at #1 for four straight weeks. The album has been certified 5x platinum in Canada. By March 1997, the album had sold 650,000 units in Canada. It peaked at No. 134 on the Billboard 200. Trouble at the Henhouse peaked at #80 in the Netherlands. The Encyclopedia of Popular Music deemed the album "reliably melodic." The Washington Post wrote that "a surprisingly large number of these songs are more atmospheric than aggressive." Trouser Press wrote that "too much of Henhouse finds the Hip wallowing in meandering psychedelica, and too many of the slower songs ('Sherpa,' 'Flamenco,' 'Put It Off') sound too much alike." The Orlando Sentinel praised Gord Downie's ability to pen lyrics that "found beauty in the tiny wonders of life while exploring big questions of existence." The album won Album of the Year and North Star Rock Album of the Year at the 1997 Juno Awards. Track listing All songs written by The Tragically Hip. 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255645	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wilt%20Chamberlain	Wilt Chamberlain	Wilton Norman Chamberlain (; August 21, 1936 – October 12, 1999) was an American professional basketball player who played as a center, and is widely regarded as one of the greatest players in the sport's history. He played for the Philadelphia/San Francisco Warriors, the Philadelphia 76ers, and the Los Angeles Lakers of the National Basketball Association (NBA). He played for the University of Kansas and for the Harlem Globetrotters before playing in the NBA. Chamberlain stood tall. Chamberlain holds numerous NBA regular season records in scoring, rebounding, and durability categories. He is the only player to score 100 points in a single NBA game or average more than 40 and 50 points in a season. He won seven scoring, eleven rebounding, nine durability, and nine field goal percentage titles, and led the league in assists once. Chamberlain is the only player in NBA history to average at least 30 points and 20 rebounds per game in a season, which he accomplished seven times. He is also the only player to average at least 30 points and 20 rebounds per game over the entire course of his NBA career. Although Chamberlain suffered a long string of NBA Finals losses during his career, he had a successful career, winning two NBA championships, earning four regular-season NBA Most Valuable Player (MVP) awards, the NBA Rookie of the Year award, one NBA Finals MVP award, and was selected to 13 NBA All-Star Game and ten All-NBA First and Second teams. Chamberlain was subsequently enshrined in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1978, elected into the NBA's 35th Anniversary Team of 1980, and was chosen as one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996. In October 2021, Chamberlain was named to the NBA’s 75th Anniversary Team. Chamberlain was known by several nicknames during his basketball playing career. He disliked the ones that called attention to his height, such as "Goliath" and "Wilt the Stilt". A Philadelphia sportswriter coined the nicknames during Chamberlain's high school days. He preferred "The Big Dipper", which was inspired by his friends who saw him dip his head as he walked through doorways. After his professional basketball career ended, Chamberlain played volleyball in the short-lived International Volleyball Association, was president of that organization, and is enshrined in the IVA Hall of Fame for his contributions. He was a successful businessman, authored several books, and appeared in the movie Conan the Destroyer. Chamberlain was also a lifelong bachelor and became notorious for his statement of having had sexual relations with as many as 20,000 women. Early years Chamberlain was born on August 21, 1936 in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, into a family of nine children, the son of Olivia Ruth Johnson, a domestic worker and homemaker, and William Chamberlain, a welder, custodian, and handyman. He was a frail child, nearly dying of pneumonia in his early years and missing a whole year of school as a result. In his early years, Chamberlain was not interested in basketball because he thought it was "a game for sissies." As an avid track and field athlete, Chamberlain high jumped 6 feet, 6 inches; ran the 440 yards in 49.0 seconds and the 880 yards in 1:58.3; put the shot 53 feet, 4 inches; and long jumped 22 feet. According to Chamberlain, "basketball was king in Philadelphia", so he eventually turned to the sport. Because Chamberlain was a very tall child, already measuring at age 10 and when he entered Philadelphia's Overbrook High School, he had a natural advantage against his peers; he soon was renowned for his scoring talent, his physical strength and his shot blocking abilities. According to ESPN journalist Hal Bock, Chamberlain was "scary, flat-out frightening ... before he came along, very few players at the center position possessed his level of athleticism, stature, and stamina. Chamberlain changed the game in fundamental ways no other player did." It was also in this period of his life when his three lifelong nicknames "Wilt the Stilt", "Goliath", and his favorite, "The Big Dipper", were allegedly born. High school career As the star player for the Overbrook Panthers, Chamberlain averaged 31 points a game during the 1953 high school season and led his team to a 71–62 win over Northeast High School, who had Guy Rodgers, Chamberlain's future NBA teammate. He scored 34 points as Overbrook won the Public League title and gained a berth in the Philadelphia city championship game against the winner of the rival Catholic league, West Catholic. In that game, West Catholic quadruple-teamed Chamberlain the entire game, and despite his 29 points, the Panthers lost 54–42. In his second Overbrook season, he continued his prolific scoring when he tallied a high school record 71 points against Roxborough. The Panthers comfortably won the Public League title after again beating Northeast in which Chamberlain scored 40 points, and later won the city title by defeating South Catholic 74–50. He scored 32 points and led Overbrook to a 19–0 season. During summer vacations, he worked as a bellhop in Kutsher's Hotel. Subsequently, owners Milton and Helen Kutsher kept up a lifelong friendship with Chamberlain; according to their son Mark, "[t]hey were his second set of parents." Red Auerbach, the coach of the Boston Celtics, spotted the talented teenager at Kutscher's and had him play one-on-one against University of Kansas standout and national champion, B. H. Born, elected the Most Outstanding Player of the 1953 NCAA Finals. As Chamberlain won 25–10, Born was so dejected that he gave up a promising NBA career and became a tractor engineer, recalling: "If there were high school kids that good, I figured I wasn't going to make it to the pros." Auerbach wanted him to go to a New England university, so he could draft him as a territorial pick for the Celtics, but Chamberlain did not respond. In Chamberlain's third and final Overbrook season, he continued his high scoring, logging 74, 78, and 90 points in three consecutive games. The Panthers won the Public League a third time, beating West Philadelphia 78–60, and in the city championship game, they met West Catholic once again. Scoring 35 points, Chamberlain led Overbrook to an easy 83–42 victory. After three years, Chamberlain had led Overbrook to two city championships, logged a 56–3 record and broken Tom Gola's high school scoring record by scoring 2,252 points, averaging 37.4 points per game. After his last Overbrook season, more than two hundred universities tried to recruit the basketball prodigy. Among others, UCLA offered Chamberlain the opportunity to become a movie star, the University of Pennsylvania wanted to buy him diamonds, and Chamberlain's Panthers coach Mosenson was even offered a coaching position if he could persuade him. In his 2004 biography of Chamberlain, Robert Cherry describes that Chamberlain wanted a change and therefore did not want to go to or near Philadelphia (also eliminating New York), was not interested in New England, and snubbed the South because of racial segregation; this left the Midwest as Chamberlain's probable choice. In the end, after visiting the University of Kansas and conferring with the school's renowned college coach Phog Allen, Chamberlain proclaimed that he was going to play college basketball at Kansas. At the ages of 16 and 17, Chamberlain played several professional games under the pseudonym George Marcus. There were contemporary reports of the games in Philadelphia publications, but he tried to keep them secret from the Amateur Athletic Union. College career In 1955, Chamberlain entered the University of Kansas (KU). In his first year, he played for the Kansas Jayhawks freshman team under coach Phog Allen, whom he admired. Chamberlain was also a member of Kappa Alpha Psi fraternity, where he was the president of his pledge class. Chamberlain's freshman debut was highly anticipated, and he delivered; the freshman squad was pitted against the varsity, who were favored to win their conference that year. Chamberlain dominated his older college teammates by scoring 42 points (16–35 from the field, 10–12 on free throws), grabbing 29 rebounds, and registering four blocks. Chamberlain's prospects of playing under Allen ended when the coach turned 70 shortly after and retired in accordance with KU regulations. Chamberlain had a bad relationship with Allen's successor, Dick Harp, fueled by resentment and disappointment. Chamberlain biographer Robert Cherry doubts whether Chamberlain would have chosen KU if he had known that Allen was going to retire. On December 3, 1956, Chamberlain made his varsity debut as a center. In his first game, he scored 52 points and grabbed 31 rebounds, breaking both all-time Kansas records in an 87–69 win against Northwestern, who had Chamberlain's future NBA teammate Joe Ruklick. Teammate Monte Johnson testified to his athleticism that Chamberlain had "unbelievable endurance and speed ... and was never tired. When he dunked, he was so fast that a lot of players got their fingers jammed [between Chamberlain's hand and the rim]." Reportedly, Chamberlain also broke Johnny Kerr's toe with a slam dunk. By this time, he had developed several offensive weapons that became his trademarks, such as his finger roll, his fade-away jump shot, which he could also hit as a bank shot, his passing, and his shot-blocking. Leading a talented squad of starters, including Maurice King, Gene Elstun, John Parker, Ron Lonesky, and Lew Johnson, the Jayhawks went 13–1 until they lost a game 56–54 versus Oklahoma State, who held the ball the last three and a half minutes without any intention of scoring a basket, which was still possible in the days before the shot clock (introduced 1984 in the NCAA). As he did at Overbrook, Chamberlain again showcased his diverse athletic talent. He ran the 100-yard dash in 10.9 seconds, shot-putted 56 feet, triple jumped more than 50 feet, and won the high jump in the Big Eight Conference track and field championships three straight years. In 1957, 23 teams were selected to play in the NCAA Tournament. The Midwest Regional was held in Dallas, Texas, which at the time was segregated. In the first game, the Jayhawks played the all-white SMU team, and KU player John Parker later said: "The crowd was brutal. We were spat on, pelted with debris, and subjected to the vilest racial epithets possible." KU won 73–65 in overtime, after which police had to escort the Jayhawks out. The next game against Oklahoma City was equally unpleasant, with KU winning 81–61 under intense racist abuse. In the semi-finals, Chamberlain's Jayhawks handily defeated the two-time defending national champion San Francisco 80–56, with Chamberlain scoring 32 points, grabbing 11 rebounds, and having at least seven blocked shots, as the game film is unclear whether an 8th block occurred, or the ball just fell short due to Chamberlain's withering defensive intimidation. Chamberlain demonstrated his growing arsenal of offensive moves, including jump shots, put-backs, tip-ins, and his turnaround jump shot. He was far more comfortable and effective at the foul line than he would later be during his professional career. He had outstanding foot speed throughout the game, and several times led the fast break, including blocking a shot near the basket and then outracing the field for a layup. His stellar performance led Kansas to an insurmountable lead, and he rested on the bench for the final 3:45 remaining in the game. Chamberlain was named on the first-team All-America squad and led the Jayhawks into the NCAA finals against the North Carolina Tar Heels. In that game, Tar Heels coach Frank McGuire used several unorthodox tactics to thwart Chamberlain. For the tip-off, he sent his shortest player, Tommy Kearns, in order to rattle Chamberlain, and the Tar Heels spent the rest of the night triple-teaming him, one defender in front, one behind, and a third arriving as soon as he got the ball. With their fixation on Chamberlain, the Jayhawks shot only 27% from the field, as opposed to 64% of the Tar Heels, and trailed 22–29 at halftime. Later, North Carolina led 40–37 with 10 minutes to go and stalled the game, as they passed the ball around without any intention of scoring a basket. After several Tar Heel turnovers, the game was tied at 46 at the end of regulation. In the first overtime each team scored two points, and in the second overtime, Kansas froze the ball in return, keeping the game tied at 48. In the third overtime, the Tar Heels scored two consecutive baskets, but Chamberlain executed a three-point play, leaving KU trailing 52–51. After King scored a basket, Kansas was ahead by one point, but then Tar Heel Joe Quigg was fouled on a drive with 10 seconds remaining and made his two foul shots. For the final play, Dick Harp called for Ron Loneski to pass the ball into Chamberlain in the low post, but the pass was intercepted and the Tar Heels won the game. In spite of his loss, Chamberlain, who scored 23 points and 14 rebounds, was elected the Most Outstanding Player of the Final Four. Cherry speculates that this loss was a watershed in Chamberlain's life because it was the first time that his team lost despite him putting up impressive individual stats. He later admitted that this loss was the most painful of his life. In Chamberlain's junior year of 1957–58, the Jayhawks' matches were even more frustrating for him. Knowing how dominant he was, the opponents resorted to freeze-ball tactics and routinely used three or more players to guard him. Teammate Bob Billings commented: "It was not fun basketball ... we were just out chasing people throwing the basketball back and forth." Nevertheless, Chamberlain averaged 30.1 points for the season and led the Jayhawks to an 18–5 record, losing three games while he was out with a urinary infection. Because KU came second in the league and at the time only conference winners were invited to the NCAA tourney, the Jayhawks' season ended. It was a small consolation that he was again named an All-American, along with future NBA Hall-of-Famers Elgin Baylor and Oscar Robertson, plus old rival Guy Rodgers. Having lost the enjoyment from NCAA basketball and wanting to earn money, he left college and sold the story named "Why I Am Leaving College" to Look magazine for $10,000, a large sum when NBA players earned $9,000 in a whole season. In two seasons at KU, he averaged 29.9 points and 18.3 rebounds per game, while totaling 1,433 points and 877 rebounds, and led Kansas to one Big Seven championship. By the time Chamberlain was 21, even before he turned professional, he had already been featured in Time, Life, Look, and Newsweek magazines. For many years following Chamberlain's departure from KU, critics claimed that he either wanted to leave the very white Midwest or was embarrassed by not being able to bring home the NCAA basketball tournament victory. In 1998, Chamberlain returned to Allen Fieldhouse in Lawrence, Kansas, to participate in a jersey-retiring ceremony for his No. 13. Around this time, he has been quoted as saying: "There's been a lot of conversation, since people have been trying to get my jersey number retired, that I have some dislike for the University of Kansas. That is totally ridiculous." Professional career Harlem Globetrotters (1958–1959) After his frustrating junior year, Chamberlain wanted to become a professional player before finishing his senior year. At that time, the NBA did not accept players until after their college graduating class had been completed, therefore Chamberlain was prohibited from joining the NBA for a year, and decided to play for the Harlem Globetrotters in 1958 for a sum of $50,000 (equal to about $ in 2019). Chamberlain became a member of the Globetrotters team that made history by playing in Moscow in 1959; the team enjoyed a sold-out tour of the Soviet Union. Prior to the start of a game at Moscow's Lenin Central Stadium, they were greeted by General Secretary Nikita Khrushchev. One particular Globetrotter skit involved Globetrotter captain Meadowlark Lemon collapsing to the ground, and instead of helping him up, Chamberlain threw him several feet high up in the air and caught him like a doll. The 210-pound Lemon later recounted how Chamberlain was "the strongest athlete who ever lived." In later years, Chamberlain frequently joined the Globetrotters in the off-season and fondly recalled his time there, because he was no longer jeered at or asked to break records, but just one of several artists who loved to entertain the crowd. On March 9, 2000, his No. 13 was retired by the Globetrotters. Philadelphia/San Francisco Warriors (1959–1965) On October 24, 1959, Chamberlain finally made his NBA debut, starting for the Philadelphia Warriors. Chamberlain immediately became the NBA's highest paid player, when he signed for $30,000 (equal to about $ today) in his rookie contract. In comparison, the previous top earner was Bob Cousy of the Boston Celtics with $25,000; in fact, Eddie Gottlieb bought the whole Warriors franchise for $25,000 seven years earlier. 1959–60 NBA season In the 1959–60 NBA season, Chamberlain joined a Warriors squad that was coached by Neil Johnston and included Hall-of-Fame guards Tom Gola and Paul Arizin, plus Ernie Beck and his old rival, Guy Rodgers; remarkably, all five starters were Philadelphians. In his first NBA game, against the New York Knicks, the rookie center scored 43 points and grabbed 28 rebounds. In his third game, Chamberlain recorded 41 points and a then-career-high 40 rebounds in a 124–113 win over the visiting Syracuse Nationals. In his fourth game, Philadelphia met the reigning champions, the Boston Celtics of Hall-of-Fame coach Red Auerbach, whose offer he had snubbed several years before, and Bill Russell, who was now lauded as one of the best defensive pivots in the game. In what was the first of many Chamberlain–Russell match-ups, Chamberlain outscored Russell with 30 points versus 28 points, but Boston won the game. Chamberlain and his perennial nemesis would grow to become one of the NBA's greatest on-court rivalries of all time. Nevertheless, the two also became friends off the court, similar to later rivals Magic Johnson and Larry Bird. On November 10, 1959, Chamberlain recorded 39 points and a new career-high 43 rebounds in a 126–125 win over the visiting New York Knicks. On January 25, 1960, Chamberlain recorded a rare feat in the NBA, recording 50 points, and 40 rebounds in an NBA game. During a game against the Detroit Pistons, Chamberlain recorded 58 points, 42 rebounds, and 4 assists in a winning effort. His 58 points were a then-career-high for him. He later tied that on February 21, as he recorded 58 points to go along with 24 rebounds in a 131–121 over the visiting Knicks. In his first NBA season, Chamberlain averaged 37.6 points and 27 rebounds, convincingly breaking the previous regular-season records as a rookie. He needed only 56 games to score 2,102 points, which broke the all-time regular-season scoring record of Bob Pettit, who needed 72 games to score 2,101 points. Chamberlain broke eight NBA records, and was named NBA MVP and Rookie of the Year that season, a feat matched only by fellow Hall-of-Famer Wes Unseld in the 1968–69 NBA season. Chamberlain capped off his rookie season by winning the 1960 NBA All-Star Game and the NBA All-Star Game MVP award with a 23-point, 25-rebound performance for the East; it also became evident that he was an atrocious free-throw shooter, making hardly half of his foul shots. As time progressed, Chamberlain grew even worse, and acknowledged he was simply "a psycho case" on that matter. The Warriors entered the 1960 NBA playoffs and beat the Syracuse Nationals, setting up a meeting versus the Eastern Division champions, the Boston Celtics. Cherry described how Celtics coach Red Auerbach ordered his forward Tom Heinsohn to commit personal fouls on Chamberlain; whenever the Warriors shot foul shots, Heinsohn grabbed and shoved Chamberlain to prevent him from running back quickly. His intention was that the Celtics would throw the ball in so fast that the prolific shotblocker Chamberlain was not yet back under his own basket, and Boston could score an easy fastbreak basket. The teams split the first two games, but Chamberlain got fed up with Heinsohn and punched him during Game 3. In the scuffle, Chamberlain injured his hand, and Philadelphia lost the next two games. In Game 5, with his hand healthy, Chamberlain recorded 50 points and 35 rebounds in a 128–107 win over the Celtics, extending the series to a Game 6. As of the end of the 2019 playoffs, he is the first and the only player in NBA history to record 50 points and 35 rebounds in a playoff game. In Game 6, Heinsohn got the last laugh, scoring the decisive basket with a last-second tip-in. The Warriors lost the series 4–2. The rookie Chamberlain then shocked Warriors' fans by saying he was thinking of retiring. He was tired of being double- and triple-teamed, and of teams coming down on him with hard fouls. Chamberlain feared he might lose his cool one day. Celtics forward Heinsohn said: "Half the fouls against him were hard fouls ... he took the most brutal pounding of any player ever." In addition, Chamberlain was seen as a freak of nature, jeered at by the fans and scorned by the media. As Chamberlain often said, quoting coach Alex Hannum's explanation of his situation: "Nobody loves Goliath." Gottlieb coaxed Chamberlain back into the NBA, sweetening his return with a salary raise to $65,000 (equal to about $ today). 1960–61 NBA season Chamberlain's 1960–61 NBA season started with a 42-point and 31-rebound performance in a 133–123 road win against the Syracuse Nationals. On November 24, 1960, Chamberlain grabbed an NBA-record 55 rebounds to go along with 34 points and 4 assists in a game against the Bill Russell led-Boston Celtics. Five days later, Chamberlain recorded 44 points, 38 rebounds, and a career-high 7 assists in a 122–121 win over the Los Angeles Lakers. Chamberlain surpassed his rookie season statistics, as he averaged 38.4 points and 27.2 rebounds per game. He became the first player to break the 3,000-point barrier, and the first and still only player to break the 2,000-rebound barrier for a single season, grabbing 2,149 boards. Chamberlain also won his first field goal percentage title, and set the all-time record for rebounds in a single game with 55. Chamberlain was so dominant on the team that he scored almost 32% of his team's points and collected 30.4% of their rebounds. Chamberlain failed to convert his play into team success, this time bowing out against the Syracuse Nationals in a three-game sweep. Cherry noted that Chamberlain was "difficult" and did not respect coach Neil Johnston, who was unable to handle the star center. In retrospect, Gottlieb remarked: "My mistake was not getting a strong-handed coach. ... [Johnston] wasn't ready for big time." 1961–62 NBA season In Chamberlain's third season, the Warriors were coached by Frank McGuire, the coach who had masterminded Chamberlain's painful NCAA loss against the Tar Heels. In that year, Chamberlain set several all-time records which have never been threatened. In the 1961–62 NBA season, he averaged 50.4 points and grabbed 25.7 rebounds per game. On March 2, 1962, in Hershey, Pennsylvania, he scored 100 points, shot 36 of 63 from the field, and made 28 of 32 free throws against the New York Knicks. Chamberlain's 4,029 regular-season points made him the only player to break the 4,000-point barrier; the only other player to break the 3,000-point barrier is Michael Jordan, with 3,041 points in the 1986–87 NBA season. Chamberlain once again broke the 2,000-rebound barrier with 2,052. Additionally, he was on the hardwood for an average of 48.53 minutes, playing 3,882 of his team's 3,890 minutes. Because Chamberlain played in overtime games, he averaged more minutes per game than the regulation 48; in fact, Chamberlain would have reached the 3,890-minute mark if he had not been ejected in one game after picking up a second technical foul with eight minutes left to play. His extraordinary feats in the 1962 season were later subject of the 2005 book Wilt, 1962 by Gary M. Pomerantz, who used Chamberlain as a metaphor for the uprising of Black America. In addition to Chamberlain's regular-season accomplishments, he scored 42 points in the 1962 NBA All-Star Game, a record that stood until broken by Anthony Davis in 2017. In the 1962 NBA playoffs, the Warriors met the Boston Celtics again in the Eastern Division Finals, a team which Bob Cousy and Bill Russell called the greatest Celtics team of all time. Each team won their home games, so the series was split at three after six games. In a closely contested Game 7, Chamberlain tied the game at 107 with 16 seconds to go, but Celtics shooting guard Sam Jones hit a clutch shot with two seconds left to win the series for Boston. In later years, Chamberlain was criticized for averaging 50 points but not winning a title. In his defense, Warriors coach Frank McGuire said that "Wilt has been simply super-human", and pointed out the Warriors lacked a consistent second scorer, a playmaker, and a second big man to take pressure off Chamberlain. 1962–63 NBA season In the 1962–63 NBA season, Gottlieb sold the Warriors franchise for $850,000 (equal to about $ today) to a group of businessmen led by Marty Simmons from San Francisco, and the team relocated to become the San Francisco Warriors under a new coach, Bob Feerick. This also meant that the team broke apart, as Paul Arizin chose to retire rather than move away from his family and his job at IBM in Philadelphia, and Tom Gola was homesick, requesting a trade to the lowly New York Knicks halfway through the season. With both secondary scorers gone, Chamberlain continued his array of statistical feats, averaging 44.8 points and 24.3 rebounds per game that year. Despite his individual success, the Warriors lost 49 of their 80 games and missed the playoffs. 1963–64 NBA season In the 1963–64 NBA season, Chamberlain got yet another new coach, Alex Hannum, and was joined by a promising rookie center, Nate Thurmond, who eventually entered the Hall of Fame. Ex-soldier Hannum, who later entered the Basketball Hall of Fame as a coach, was a crafty psychologist who emphasized defense and passing. Most importantly, he was not afraid to stand up to the dominant Chamberlain, who was known to not communicate with coaches he did not like. Backed up by valuable rookie Thurmond, Chamberlain had another good season with 36.9 points per game and 22.3 rebounds per game, and the Warriors went all the way to the 1964 NBA Finals. In that series, they succumbed to Russell's Boston Celtics yet again, this time losing 4–1. As Cherry remarked, not only Chamberlain but Hannum in particular deserved much credit because he had basically had taken the bad 31–49 squad of last year, plus Thurmond, and made it into an NBA Finalist. 1964–65 NBA season In the summer of 1964, Chamberlain, one of the prominent participants at the famed Rucker Park basketball court in New York City, made the acquaintance of a tall, talented 17-year-old who played there. Soon, the young Lew Alcindor was allowed into his inner circle, and quickly idolized the ten-year older NBA player. Chamberlain and Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, as Alcindor would name himself later, would develop an intensely personal antipathy. In the following 1964–65 NBA season, the Warriors got off to a terrible start and ran into financial trouble. At the 1965 NBA All-Star Weekend, Chamberlain was traded to the Philadelphia 76ers, the new name of the relocated Syracuse Nationals. In return, the Warriors received Paul Neumann, Connie Dierking, Lee Shaffer (who opted to retire rather than report to the Warriors), and $150,000 (equal to about $ today). When Chamberlain left the Warriors, owner Franklin Mieuli said: "Chamberlain is not an easy man to love ... the fans in San Francisco never learned to love him. Wilt is easy to hate ... people came to see him lose." Philadelphia 76ers (1965–1968) 1964–65 NBA season with the 76ers After the trade, Chamberlain found himself on a promising Sixers team that included guards Hal Greer, a future Hall-of-Famer, and talented role players Larry Costello, Chet Walker, and Lucious Jackson. Cherry remarks that there was a certain tension within the team, as Greer was the formerly undisputed leader and was not willing to give up his authority, and Jackson, a talented center, was now forced to play power forward because Chamberlain blocked the center spot; however, as the season progressed, the three began to mesh better. He did not care for the Sixers' coach Dolph Schayes because in his view Schayes had made several disrespectful remarks when they were rival players in the NBA. Statistically, Chamberlain was again outstanding, posting 34.7 points per game and 22.9 rebounds per game overall for the season. After defeating the Cincinnati Royals led by Oscar Robertson in the 1965 NBA playoffs, the Sixers met Chamberlain's familiar rival, the Boston Celtics. The press called it an even matchup in all positions, even at center, where Bill Russell was expected to give Chamberlain a tough battle. The two teams split the first six games, and because of the better season record, the last game was held in the Celtics' Boston Garden. In that Game 7, both centers were marvelous, as Chamberlain scored 30 points and 32 rebounds, and Russell logged 16 points, 27 rebounds and eight assists. In the final minute, Chamberlain hit two clutch free throws and slam dunked on Russell, bringing Boston's lead down to 110–109 with five seconds left. Russell botched the inbounds pass, hitting a guy-wire over the backboard, and giving the ball back to the Sixers. Coach Schayes called timeout, and decided to run the last play over Hal Greer rather than Chamberlain because he feared the Celtics would intentionally foul him as he was a poor foul shooter. When Greer attempted to inbound the ball, John Havlicek stole it to preserve the Celtics' lead. For the fifth time in seven years, Russell's team deprived Chamberlain of the title. According to Chamberlain, that was the time that people started calling him a loser. In an April 1965 issue of Sports Illustrated, Chamberlain conducted an interview titled "My Life in a Bush League" where he criticized his fellow players, coaches, and NBA administrators. Chamberlain later commented that he could see in hindsight how the interview was instrumental in damaging his public image. 1965–66 NBA season In the 1965–66 NBA season, the Sixers experienced tragedy when Ike Richman, the Sixers' co-owner as well as Chamberlain's confidant and lawyer, died of a coronary. The Sixers would post a 55–25 regular-season record, and for his strong play, Chamberlain won his second MVP award. In that season, Chamberlain again dominated his opposition by recording 33.5 points and 24.6 rebounds a game, leading the league in both categories. In one particular game, Chamberlain blocked a dunk attempt by Gus Johnson so hard that he dislocated Johnson's shoulder. Off the court, Chamberlain's commitment to the cause was doubted, as Chamberlain was a late sleeper, lived in New York, preferring to commute to Philadelphia rather than live there, and was only available during the afternoon for training. Because Schayes did not want to risk angering his best player, he scheduled the daily workout at 4 P.M. This angered the team, who preferred an early schedule to have the afternoon off, but Schayes just said: "There is no other way." Irv Kosloff, who now owned the Sixers alone after Richman's death, pleaded with Wilt to move to Philadelphia during the season, but was turned down. In the 1966 NBA playoffs, the Sixers again met the Celtics, and for the first time had home-court advantage. Despite this, Boston easily won the first two games on the road, winning 115–96 and 114–93; while Chamberlain played within his usual range, his supporting cast shot under 40%. This caused sports journalist Joe McGinnis to comment: "The Celtics played like champions and the Sixers just played." In Game 3, Chamberlain scored 31 points and 27 rebounds for an important road win, and the next day, coach Schayes planned to hold a joint team practice. Chamberlain said he was too tired to attend, and even refused Schayes' plea to at least show up and shoot a few foul shots with the team. In Game 4, Boston won 114–108. Prior to Game 5, Chamberlain was nowhere to be found, skipping practice and being non-accessible. Outwardly, Schayes defended his star center as "excused from practice", but his teammates knew the truth and were much less forgiving. In Game 5 itself, Chamberlain was superb, scoring 46 points and grabbing 34 rebounds, but the Celtics won the game 120–112 and the series. Cherry is highly critical of Chamberlain because, while conceding he was the only Sixers player who performed in the series, he pointed out his unprofessional, egotistical behavior as being a bad example for his teammates. 1966–67 NBA season: first championship season Prior to the 1966–67 NBA season, the friendly yet unassertive Schayes was replaced by a familiar face, the crafty but firm Alex Hannum. In what Cherry calls a tumultuous locker room meeting, Hannum addressed several key issues he observed during the last season, several of them putting Chamberlain in an unfavorable light. Sixers forward Chet Walker testified that on several occasions, players had to pull Chamberlain and Hannum apart to prevent a fistfight. Fellow forward Billy Cunningham observed that Hannum "never backed down" and "showed who was the boss." By doing this, he won Chamberlain's respect. When emotions cooled off, Hannum pointed out to Chamberlain that he was on the same page in trying to win a title; but to pull this off, like his teammates, he had to "act like a man" both on and off the court. Concerning basketball, he persuaded him to change his style of play. Loaded with several other players who could score, such as future Hall-of-Famers Hal Greer and newcomer Billy Cunningham, Hannum wanted Chamberlain to concentrate more on defense. As a result of his style of play change, Chamberlain was less dominant, taking only 14% of the team's shots (in his 50.4 points per game season, it was 35.3%) but extremely efficient, as he averaged a career-low 24.1 points. Nevertheless, he led the league in rebounds (24.2), ended third in assists (7.8), had a record-breaking .683 field goal accuracy, and played strong defense. His efficiency that season was reflected by a streak of 35 consecutive made field goals over the course of four games in February. For these feats, Chamberlain earned his third MVP award. The Sixers charged their way to a then-record 68–13 season, including a record 46–4 start. In addition, the formerly egotistical Chamberlain began to praise his teammates, lauding hardworking Luke Jackson as the "ultimate power forward", calling Hal Greer a deadly jumpshooter, and point guard Wali Jones an excellent defender and outsider scorer. Off the court, Chamberlain invited the team to restaurants and paid the entire bill, knowing he earned 10 times more than all the others. Greer, who was considered a consummate professional and often clashed with him because of his attitude, spoke positively of the new Chamberlain: "You knew in a minute the Big Fella [Chamberlain] was ready to go ... and everybody would follow." The Sixers' 1966–67 NBA season was a remarkable season, as recounted by writer Wayne Lynch in Season of the 76ers, his 2002 book centered on Chamberlain. The Sixers got the best regular-season record and Chamberlain won his first NBA championship, with Chamberlain himself describing the team as the best in NBA history. In the 1967 NBA playoffs, the Sixers yet again battled the Boston Celtics in the Eastern Division Finals, and again held home-court advantage. In Game 1, the Sixers beat Boston 127–112, powered by Hal Greer's 39 points and Chamberlain's unofficial quadruple double, with 24 points, 32 rebounds, 13 assists, and 12 unofficially counted blocks. In Game 2, the Sixers won 107–102 in overtime, and player-coach Russell grudgingly praised Chamberlain for intimidating the Celtics into taking low percentage shots from further outside. In Game 3, Chamberlain grabbed 41 rebounds and helped the Sixers win 115–104. The Celtics prevented a sweep by winning Game 4 with a 121–117 victory. In Game 5, the Sixers simply overpowered the Celtics 140–116, ending Boston's historic run of eight consecutive NBA titles. Chamberlain scored 29 points, 36 rebounds, and 13 assists, and was highly praised by Celtics Russell and K. C. Jones. In the 1967 NBA Finals, the Sixers were pitted against Chamberlain's old team, the San Francisco Warriors of his one-time backup Nate Thurmond and star forward Rick Barry. The Sixers won the first two games, with Chamberlain and Greer taking credit for defensive dominance and clutch shooting, respectively, but San Francisco won two of the next three games, so Philadelphia was up 3–2 prior to Game 6. In Game 6, the Warriors were trailing 123–122 with 15 seconds left. For the last play, Thurmond and Barry were assigned to do a pick and roll against Chamberlain and whoever would guard Barry; however, the Sixers foiled it because when Barry ran past Thurmond's pick and drove to the basket, he was picked up by Chet Walker, making it impossible to shoot. Meanwhile Thurmond was covered by Chamberlain, which made it impossible to pass. Barry botched his shot attempt, and the Sixers won the championship. Chamberlain, who contributed with 17.7 points per game and 28.7 rebounds per game against fellow future Hall-of-Fame pivot Nate Thurmond, never failing to snare at least 23 rebounds in the six games, said: "It is wonderful to be a part of the greatest team in basketball ... being a champion is like having a big round glow inside of you." 1967–68 NBA season In the 1967–68 NBA season, matters continued to turn sour between Chamberlain and the Sixers' sole surviving owner, Irv Kosloff. This conflict had been going along for a while. In 1965, Chamberlain asserted that he and the late Richman had worked out a deal which would give him 25% of the franchise once he ended his career. Although there is no written proof for or against, ex-Sixers coach Dolph Schayes and Sixers lawyer Alan Levitt assumed Chamberlain was correct. In any case, Kosloff declined the request, leaving Chamberlain livid and willing to jump to the rival ABA once his contract ended in 1967. Kosloff and Chamberlain worked out a truce, and later signed a one-year, $250,000 contract. On the hardwood, Chamberlain continued his focus on team play and registered 24.3 points and 23.8 rebounds a game for the season. On March 18, 1968, Chamberlain reportedly had a quintuple-double with 53 points, 32 rebounds, 14 assists, 24 blocks, and 11 steals in a 158–128 victory against the Lakers. Chamberlain also recorded the most points in a triple double, an NBA record broken by Russell Westbrook in 2017 and improved by James Harden in 2018. The 76ers had the best record in the league for the third straight season. Chamberlain also made history by becoming the only center in NBA history to finish the season as the leader in assists, his 702 beating runner-up, Hall-of-Fame point guard Lenny Wilkens' total by 23. Chamberlain likened his assist title to legendary home-run hitter Babe Ruth leading the league in sacrifice bunts, and he dispelled the myth that he could not and would not pass the ball. For these feats, Chamberlain won his fourth and final MVP title. Another landmark was his 25,000th point, making him the first-ever player to score that many points; he gave the ball to his team physician Stan Lorber. Winning 62 games, the Sixers easily took the first playoff berth of the 1968 NBA playoffs. In the 1968 Eastern Division Semifinals, they were pitted against the New York Knicks. In a physically tough matchup, the Sixers lost sixth man Billy Cunningham with a broken hand, and Chamberlain, Greer and Jackson were struggling with inflamed feet, bad knees, and pulled hamstrings, respectively. Going ahead 3–2, the Sixers defeated the Knicks 115–97 in Game 6 after Chamberlain scored 25 points and 27 rebounds; he had a successful series in which he led both teams in points (153), rebounds (145), and assists (38). In the 1968 Eastern Division Finals, the Sixers yet again met the Boston Celtics, again with home-court advantage, and this time as reigning champions. Despite the Sixers' injury woes, coach Hannum was confident to "take the Celtics in less than seven games", and he pointed out the age of the Celtics, who were built around Bill Russell and guard Sam Jones, both 34. On April 4, national tragedy struck with the assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. With eight of the ten starting players on the Sixers and Celtics being African-American, both teams were in deep shock, and there were calls to cancel the series. In a game called "unreal" and "devoid of emotion", the Sixers lost 127–118 on April 5. After attending the funeral of Martin Luther King Jr., Chamberlain called out to the angry rioters who were setting fires all over the country, stating King would not have approved. In Game 2, Philadelphia evened the series with a 115–106 victory, and won Games 3 and 4, with Chamberlain suspiciously often played by Celtics backup center Wayne Embry, causing the press to speculate Russell was worn down. Prior to Game 5, the Celtics seemed done, as no NBA team had overcome a 3–1 series deficit before, yet the Celtics rallied back, winning Games 5 and 6 122–104 and 114–106, respectively, powered by a spirited John Havlicek and helped by the Sixers' terrible shooting. What followed was the first of three consecutive controversial and painful Game 7s in which Chamberlain played. In that Game 7, the Sixers could not get their act together and 15,202 stunned Philadelphia fans witnessed a historic 100–96 defeat, making it the first time in NBA history a team lost a series after leading three games to one. Although Cherry points out that the Sixers shot badly (Hal Greer, Wali Jones, Chet Walker, Luke Jackson, and Matt Guokas hit a combined 25 of 74 shots), and Chamberlain grabbed 34 rebounds and shot 4-of-9, Chamberlain himself scored only 14 points. In the second half of Game 7, Chamberlain did not attempt a single shot from the field. Cherry observes a strange pattern in that game, as in a typical Sixers game, Chamberlain got the ball 60 times in the low post but only 23 times in Game 7, and only seven times in the third and only twice in the fourth quarter. Chamberlain later blamed coach Hannum for the lack of touches, a point which the coach conceded himself, but Cherry points out that Chamberlain, who always thought of himself as the best player of all time, should have been outspoken enough to demand the ball himself. The loss meant that Chamberlain was now 1–6 in playoff series against the Celtics. After that season, coach Alex Hannum wanted to be closer to his family on the West Coast; he left the Sixers to coach the Oakland Oaks in the newly founded American Basketball Association (ABA). Chamberlain then asked for a trade, and Sixers general manager Jack Ramsay traded him to the Los Angeles Lakers for Darrall Imhoff, Archie Clark, and Jerry Chambers. The motivation for this move remains in dispute. According to sportswriter Roland Lazenby, a journalist close to the Lakers, Chamberlain was angry at Kosloff for breaking the alleged Richman–Chamberlain deal. According to Ramsay, Chamberlain threatened to jump to the ABA after Hannum left, and forced the trade himself. Cherry finally adds several personal reasons, among them Chamberlain felt he had grown too big for Philadelphia, sought the presence of fellow celebrities, which were plenty in Los Angeles, and finally also desired the opportunity to date white women, which was possible for a black man in Los Angeles but hard to imagine elsewhere back then. Los Angeles Lakers (1968–1973) 1968–69 NBA season On July 9, 1968, the trade between the Lakers and Sixers was completed, making it the first time a reigning NBA MVP was traded the next season. Lakers owner Jack Kent Cooke gave Chamberlain an unprecedented contract, paying him $250,000 after taxes (about $ million in real value); in comparison, previous Lakers top earner Jerry West was paid $100,000 before taxes (about $,000 in real value). Chamberlain joined a squad which featured Hall-of-Fame forward Elgin Baylor and Hall-of-Fame guard Jerry West, along with backup center Mel Counts, forwards Keith Erickson and Tom Hawkins, and talented 5'11" guard Johnny Egan. The lack of a second guard next to West, and the lack of speed and quickness concerned, coach Butch Van Breda Kolff. After losing Clark and Gail Goodrich, who joined the Phoenix Suns after the 1968 expansion draft, he said: "Egan gets murdered on defense because of his [lack of] size ... but if I don't play him, we look like a bunch of trucks." In addition, Cherry observed that Chamberlain was neither a natural leader nor a loyal follower, which made him difficult to fit in. While he was on cordial terms with Jerry West, he often argued with team captain Elgin Baylor, later explaining in regard to Baylor: "We were good friends, but ... [in] black culture ... you never let the other guy one-up you." The greatest problem was his tense relationship with Lakers coach Bill Van Breda Kolff. Pejoratively calling the new recruit "The Load", he later complained that Chamberlain was egotistical, never respected him, too often slacked off in practice and focused too much on his own statistics. In return, Chamberlain blasted Van Breda Kolff as "the dumbest and worst coach ever." Laker Keith Erickson observed that "Butch catered to Elgin and Jerry ... and that is not a good way to get on Wilt's side ... that relationship was doomed from the start." Chamberlain experienced a problematic and often frustrating season. Van Breda Kolff benched him several times, which never happened in his career before; in mid-season, Chamberlain, a perennial scoring champion, had two games in which he scored only six and then only two points. Playing through his problems, Chamberlain averaged 20.5 points and 21.1 rebounds a game that season. Jack Kent Cooke was pleased because ticket sales went up by 11% since acquiring Chamberlain. In the 1969 NBA playoffs, the Lakers dispatched 4–2 Chamberlain's old club, the San Francisco Warriors, after losing the first two games, and then defeated the Atlanta Hawks, and met Chamberlain's familiar rivals, Bill Russell's Boston Celtics. Going into the series as 3-to-1 favorites, the Lakers won the first two games but dropped the next two. Chamberlain was criticized as a non-factor in the series, getting neutralized by Russell with little effort. In Game 5, Chamberlain scored 13 points and grabbed 31 rebounds, leading Los Angeles to a 117–104 win. In Game 6, the Celtics won 99–90, and Chamberlain only scored 8 points. Cherry accuses him of choking because if "Chamberlain had come up big and put up a normal 30 point scoring night", the Lakers would have probably won their first championship at Los Angeles. Game 7 featured a surreal scene because Lakers owner Jack Kent Cooke put up thousands of balloons in the rafters of the Forum in Los Angeles in anticipation of a Lakers win. This display of arrogance motivated the Celtics. In Game 7, the Lakers trailed 91–76 after three quarters. The Lakers mounted a comeback, but then Chamberlain twisted his knee after a rebound and had to be replaced by Mel Counts. With three minutes to go, the Lakers trailed 103–102, but they committed costly turnovers and lost the game 108–106, despite a triple-double from West, who had 42 points, 13 rebounds, and 12 assists, and became the only player in NBA history to be named Finals MVP despite being on the losing team. After the game, many wondered why Chamberlain sat out the final six minutes. At the time of his final substitution, he had scored 18 points (hitting seven of his eight shots) and grabbed 27 rebounds, significantly better than the 10 points of Mel Counts on 4-of-13 shooting. Among others, Russell did not believe Chamberlain's injury was grave, and openly accused him of being a malingerer, stating: "Any injury short of a broken leg or a broken back is not enough." In spite of their earlier quarrels, Van Breda Kolff came to his defense, insisting the often-maligned Chamberlain hardly was able to move in the end. Van Breda Kolff himself was perceived as "pig-headed" for benching Chamberlain, and soon resigned as Lakers coach. Cherry comments that some journalists reported how Game 7 destroyed two careers: "Wilt's because he wouldn't take over and Van Breda Kolff because he wouldn't give in." 1969–70 NBA season In the 1969–70 NBA season under new coach Joe Mullaney, Chamberlain began the season strongly, averaging 32.2 points per game and 20.6 rebounds per game over the first nine games of the season. During the ninth game, he had a serious knee injury, suffering a total rupture of the patellar tendon at the base of his right kneecap, and missed the next several months before appearing in the final three games of the 82-game regular season, the first season in which he failed to reach 20 rebounds per game. Owing to his strong start, he still managed to put up a season-average 27.3 points, 18.4 rebounds and 4.1 assists per game. The Lakers again charged through the 1970 NBA Playoffs, and in the 1970 NBA Finals were pitted against the New York Knicks, loaded with future Hall-of-Famers Willis Reed, Dave DeBusschere, Bill Bradley, and Walt Frazier. Cherry observed that Reed, a prolific midrange shooter, was a bad matchup for Chamberlain. Having lost lateral quickness due to his injury, Chamberlain was often too slow to block Reed's preferred high post jump shots. In Game 1, the Knicks masterminded a 124–112 win in which Reed scored 37 points. In Game 2, Chamberlain scored 19 points, grabbed 24 rebounds, and blocked Reed's shot in the final seconds, leading the Lakers to a 105–103 win. Game 3 saw Jerry West famously hit a 60-foot shot at the buzzer to tie the game at 102; however, the Knicks took the game 111–108. In Game 4, Chamberlain scored 18 points and grabbed 25 rebounds and helped tie the series at 2. In Game 5, with the Knicks trailing by double digits, Reed pulled his thigh muscle and seemed to be done for the series. By conventional wisdom, Chamberlain now should have dominated against little-used Knicks backup centers Nate Bowman and Bill Hosket or forwards Bradley and DeBusschere, who gave up more than half a foot against him. Instead, the Lakers gave away their 13-point halftime lead and succumbed to the aggressive Knicks defense, as they committed 19 second-half turnovers, and the two main scorers (Chamberlain and West) shot the ball in the entire second half only three and two times, respectively. The Lakers lost 107–100 in what was called one of the greatest comebacks in NBA Finals history. In Game 6, Chamberlain scored 45 points, grabbed 27 rebounds, and almost single-handedly equalized the series in a 135–113 Lakers win, and with Reed out, the Knicks seemed doomed prior to Game 7 in New York; however, the hero of that Game 7 was Willis Reed, who famously hobbled up court, scored the first four points, and inspired his team to one of the most famous playoff upsets of all time. The Knicks led by 27 at halftime, and despite scoring 21 points, Chamberlain could not prevent a third consecutive loss in Game 7. Chamberlain was criticized for his inability to dominate his injured counterpart but Cherry pointed out that his feat, coming back from a career-threatening injury himself, was too quickly forgotten. 1970–71 NBA season In the 1970–71 NBA season, the Lakers made a notable move by signing future Hall-of-Fame guard Gail Goodrich, who came back from the Phoenix Suns after playing for the Lakers until 1968. Chamberlain averaged 20.7 points, 18.2 rebounds, and 4.3 assists, once again led the NBA in rebounding, and the Lakers won the Pacific Division title. After losing Elgin Baylor to an Achilles tendon rupture that effectively ended his career, and especially after losing Jerry West after a knee injury, the handicapped Lakers were seen as underdogs against the Milwaukee Bucks of freshly crowned MVP Lew Alcindor, and veteran Hall-of-Fame guard Oscar Robertson in the Western Conference Finals. Winning the regular season with 66 wins, the Bucks were seen as favourites against the depleted Lakers; still, many pundits were looking forward to the matchup between the 34-year-old Chamberlain and the 24-year-old Alcindor. In Game 1, Alcindor outscored Chamberlain 32–22, and the Bucks won 106–85. In Game 2, the Bucks won again despite Chamberlain scoring 26 points, four more than his Milwaukee counterpart. Prior to Game 3, things became even worse for the Lakers when Keith Erickson, West's stand-in, had an appendectomy and was out for the season; with rookie Jim McMillian easing the scoring pressure, Chamberlain scored 24 points and grabbed 24 rebounds in a 118–107 victory, but the Bucks defeated the Lakers 117–94 in Game 4 to take a 3–1 series lead. Milwaukee closed out the series at home with a 116–98 victory in Game 5. Although Chamberlain lost, he was lauded for holding his own against MVP Alcindor, who was not only 10 years younger but healthy. After the 1971 NBA Playoffs, Chamberlain challenged heavyweight boxing legend Muhammad Ali to a fight. The 15-round bout would have taken place on July 26, 1971, in the Houston Astrodome. Chamberlain trained with Cus d'Amato but later backed out, withdrawing the much-publicized challenge, by way of a contractual escape clause which predicated the Chamberlain–Ali match on Ali beating Joe Frazier in a fight scheduled for early 1971, which became Ali's first professional loss, enabling Chamberlain to legally withdraw from the bout. In a 1999 interview, Chamberlain stated that boxing trainer Cus D'Amato had twice before, in 1965 and 1967, approached the basketball star with the idea, and that he and Ali had each been offered $5 million for the bout. In 1965, Chamberlain had consulted his father, who had seen Ali fight, and finally said no. Lakers owner Jack Kent Cooke had also offered Chamberlain a record-setting contract on the condition that Chamberlain agree to give up what Cooke termed "this boxing foolishness." In 1967, recently retired NFL star Jim Brown acted as Chamberlain's manager, but Ali's manager Jabir Herbert Muhammad backed out of the Chamberlain–Ali match which was slated to take place at Madison Square Garden. 1971–72 NBA season: second championship season In the 1971–72 NBA season, the Lakers hired former Celtics star guard Bill Sharman as head coach. Sharman introduced morning shoot-arounds, in which the perennial latecomer Chamberlain regularly participated (in contrast to earlier years with Dolph Schayes) and transformed him into a defensive-minded, low-scoring post defender in the mold of his old rival Bill Russell. Furthermore, he told Chamberlain to use his rebounding and passing skills to quickly initiate fastbreaks to his teammates. While no longer being the main scorer, Chamberlain was named the new captain of the Lakers. After rupturing his Achilles tendon, perennial captain Elgin Baylor retired, leaving a void Chamberlain now filled. Initially, Sharman wanted Chamberlain and West to share this duty, but West declined, stating he was injury-prone and wanted to solely concentrate on the game. Chamberlain accepted his new roles and posted an all-time low 14.8 points per game but also won the rebound crown with 19.2 rebounds per game and led the league with a .649 field goal percentage. Powered by his defensive presence, the Lakers embarked on an unprecedented 33-game win streak en route to a then-record 69 wins in the regular season, yet the streak led to one strangely dissonant event. According to Flynn Robinson, after the record-setting streak, Lakers owner Cooke sought to reward each of his players, who were expecting perhaps a trip to Hawaii, with a $5 pen set. In response, Chamberlain had everybody put all the pens in the middle of the floor and stepped on them. In the post-season, the Lakers swept the Chicago Bulls, then went on to face the Milwaukee Bucks of young superstar center and regular-season MVP Kareem Abdul-Jabbar (formerly Lew Alcindor). The matchup between Chamberlain and Abdul-Jabbar was hailed by Life magazine as the greatest matchup in all of sports. Chamberlain would help lead the Lakers past Abdul-Jabbar and the Bucks in six games. Particularly, Chamberlain was lauded for his performance in Game 6, which the Lakers won 104–100 after trailing by 10 points in the fourth quarter; Chamberlain scored 24 points and 22 rebounds, played all 48 minutes, and outsprinted the younger Bucks center on several late Lakers fast breaks. Jerry West called it "the greatest ball-busting performance I have ever seen." Chamberlain performed so well in the series that Time magazine stated: "In the N.B.A.'s western division title series with Milwaukee, he (Chamberlain) decisively outplayed basketball's newest giant superstar, Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, eleven years his junior." In the 1972 NBA Finals, the Lakers again met the New York Knicks, which were shorthanded after losing 6'9" Willis Reed to injury, and so undersized 6'8" Jerry Lucas had the task to defend against the 7'1" Chamberlain. Prolific outside shooter Lucas helped New York to win Game 1, hitting nine of his 11 shots in the first half alone. In Game 2, which the Lakers won 106–92, Chamberlain put Lucas into foul trouble, and the Knicks lost defensive power forward Dave DeBusschere to injury. In Game 3, Chamberlain scored 26 points and grabbed 20 rebounds for another Lakers win. In a fiercely battled Game 4, Chamberlain was playing with five fouls late in the game. Having never fouled out in his career, a feat that he was very proud of, Chamberlain played aggressive defense despite the risk of fouling out, and blocked two of Lucas' shots in overtime, proving those wrong who said he only played for his own stats; he ended scoring a game-high 27 points. In that game, he fell on his right hand, and was said to have sprained it but it was actually broken. For Game 5, Chamberlain's hands were packed into thick pads normally destined for defensive linesmen in American football; he was offered a painkilling shot but refused because he feared he would lose his shooting touch if his hands became numb. In Game 5, Chamberlain recorded 24 points, 29 rebounds, 8 assists, and 8 blocked shots. While blocked shots were not an official NBA statistic at that time, announcer Keith Jackson counted the blocks during the broadcast. Chamberlain's outstanding all-around performance helped the Lakers win their first championship in Los Angeles with a decisive 114–100 win. Chamberlain was named Finals MVP, and was admired for dominating the Knicks in Game 5 while playing injured. 1972–73 NBA season The 1972–73 NBA season was to be Chamberlain's last, although he did not know this at the time. In his last season, the Lakers lost substance, as Happy Hairston was injured, Flynn Robinson and LeRoy Ellis had left, and veteran Jerry West struggled with injury. Chamberlain averaged 13.2 points and 18.6 rebounds, still enough to win the rebounding crown for the 11th time in his career. In addition, he shot an NBA record 0.727 for the season, bettering his own mark of 0.683 from the 1966–67 season. It was the ninth time Chamberlain would lead the league in field goal percentage. The Lakers won 60 games in the regular season and reached the 1973 NBA Finals against the New York Knicks. This time, the tables were turned, as the Knicks now featured a healthy team with a rejuvenated Willis Reed, and the Lakers were now handicapped by several injuries. In that series, the Lakers won Game 1 115–112, but the Knicks won Games 2 and 3; things worsened when Jerry West injured his hamstring yet again. In Game 4, the shorthanded Lakers were no match for New York. In Game 5, the valiant but injured West and Hairston had miserable games, and despite Chamberlain scoring 23 points and grabbing 21 rebounds, the Lakers lost 102–93 and the series. After the Knicks finished off the close fifth game with a late flourish led by Earl Monroe and Phil Jackson, Chamberlain made a dunk with one second left, which turned out to be the last play of his NBA career. Coaching career San Diego Conquistadors (1973–1974) In 1973, the San Diego Conquistadors of the NBA rival league ABA signed Chamberlain as a player-coach for a $600,000 salary. The Lakers sued their former star and successfully prevented him from actually playing because he still owed them the option year of his contract. Barred from playing, Chamberlain mostly left the coaching duties to his assistant Stan Albeck, who recalled: "Chamberlain ... has a great feel for pro basketball ... the day-to-day things that are an important part of basketball ... just bored him. He did not have the patience." The players were split on Chamberlain, who was seen as competent but often indifferent and more occupied with promotion of his autobiography Wilt: Just Like Any Other 7-Foot Black Millionaire Who Lives Next Door than with coaching. He once skipped a game to sign autographs for the book. In his single season as a coach, the Conquistadors went a mediocre 37–47 in the regular season and lost against the Utah Stars in the Division Semifinals. After the season, Chamberlain retired from professional basketball; in addition, he was displeased by the meager attendance, as crowds averaged 1,843, just over half of the team's small San Diego 3,200-seat sports arena. NBA career statistics Regular season Playoffs Post-NBA career After his stint with the Conquistadors, Chamberlain successfully went into business and entertainment, made money in stocks and real estate, bought a popular Harlem nightclub, which he renamed Big Wilt's Smalls Paradise, and invested in broodmares. Chamberlain also sponsored his personal professional volleyball and track and field teams, and also provided high-level teams for girls and women in basketball, track, volleyball and softball, and made money by appearing in ads for TWA, American Express, Volkswagen, Drexel Burnham, Le Tigre Clothing, and Foot Locker. After his basketball career, volleyball became Chamberlain's new passion. Being a talented hobby volleyballer during his Lakers days, he became a board member of the newly founded International Volleyball Association in 1974, and then its president one year later. As a testament to his importance, the IVA All-Star game was televised only because Chamberlain also played in it; he rose to the challenge and was named the game's MVP. He played occasional matches for the IVA Seattle Smashers before the league folded in 1979. Chamberlain promoted the sport so effectively that he was named to the Volleyball Hall of Fame, and he became one of the few athletes who were enshrined in different sports. In 1976, Chamberlain turned to his interest in movies, forming a film production and distribution company to make his first film, entitled Go For It. Starting in the 1970s, he formed Wilt's Athletic Club, a track and field club in southern California, coached by then UCLA assistant coach Bob Kersee in the early days of his career. Among the members of the team were Florence Griffith, before she set the current world records in the 100 meters and 200 meters; three-time world champion Greg Foster; and future Olympic Gold medalists Andre Phillips, Alice Brown, and Jeanette Bolden. In all, he claimed 60 athletes with aspirations of expanding to 100. While actively promoting the sport in 1982, Chamberlain claimed he was considering a return to athletic competition but not in basketball; rather, in Masters athletics. At the time, he claimed he had only been beaten in the high jump once, by Olympic champion Charles Dumas, and that he had never been beaten in the shot put, including beating Olympic legend Al Oerter. Chamberlain played a villainous warrior and counterpart of Arnold Schwarzenegger in the film Conan the Destroyer (1984). In November 1998, he signed with Ian Ng Cheng Hin, CEO of Northern Cinema House Entertainment (NCH Entertainment), to do his own bio-pic, wanting to tell his life story his way. He had been working on the screenplay notes for over a year at the time of his death. Sy Goldberg, Chamberlain's longtime attorney, said: "He was more inquisitive than anybody I ever knew. He was writing a screenplay about his life. He was interested in world affairs, sometimes he'd call me up late at night and discuss philosophy. I think he'll be remembered as a great man. He happened to make a living playing basketball but he was more than that. He could talk on any subject. He was a Goliath." When million-dollar contracts became common in the NBA, Chamberlain increasingly felt he had been underpaid during his career. A result of this resentment was the 1997 book Who's Running the Asylum? Inside the Insane World of Sports Today (1997), in which he harshly criticized the NBA of the 1990s for being too disrespectful of players of the past. Even far beyond his playing days, Chamberlain was a very fit person. In his mid-forties, he was able to humble rookie Magic Johnson in practice, and he flirted with making a comeback in the NBA even in the 1980s. In the 1980–81 NBA season, coach Larry Brown recalled that the 45-year-old Chamberlain had received an offer from the Cleveland Cavaliers. When Chamberlain was 50, the New Jersey Nets had the same idea but were declined. He would continue to epitomize physical fitness for years to come, including participating in several marathons. Death Chamberlain had a history of heart trouble. In 1992, he was briefly hospitalized for an irregular heartbeat. According to those close to him, he eventually began taking medication for his heart troubles. In 1999, his condition deteriorated rapidly. During this time, he lost 50 pounds. After undergoing dental surgery in the week before his death, he was in great pain and seemed unable to recover from the stress. On October 12, 1999, Chamberlain died in Bel-Air, California, at the age of 63. His agent Sy Goldberg stated Chamberlain died of congestive heart failure. NBA players and officials were saddened at the loss of a player they universally remembered as a symbol of the sport. His lifelong on-court rival and personal friend Bill Russell stated "the fierceness of our competition bonded us together for eternity", and Celtics coach Red Auerbach praised Chamberlain as vital for the success of the entire NBA. Ex-Lakers teammate Jerry West remembered him as an utterly dominant yet friendly and humorous player, and fellow Hall-of-Famers Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, Johnny Kerr, Phil Jackson, and Wes Unseld called Chamberlain one of the greatest players in the history of the sport. Legacy Awards and honors NBA 2× NBA champion (, ) NBA Finals MVP (1972) 4× NBA Most Valuable Player (, –) 13× NBA All-Star (–, –) NBA All-Star Game MVP (1960) 7× All-NBA First Team (1960–, , 1966–1968) 3× All-NBA Second Team (, , ) 2× NBA All-Defensive First Team (1972, ) NBA Rookie of the Year (1960) Leading titles 7× NBA scoring champion (1960–1966) 11× NBA rebounding champion (1960–1963, 1966–, –1973) 9× NBA minutes leader (1960–1964, 1966–) 9x NBA field goal percentage leader (1962, 1963, 1965–1969, 1972–1973) NBA assist leader (1968) Post-career Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame (1978) NBA 35th Anniversary Team (1980) NBA 50th Anniversary Team (1996) Ranked No. 13 in ESPN list of top athletes of the 20th century (1999) Ranked No. 2 in ESPN list of best centers ever (2007) Ranked No. 2 in Slams "Top 50 NBA Players of All Time in NBA History" (2009) Ranked No. 6 in ESPN list of top 74 NBA players of all time (2020) NBA 75th Anniversary Team (2021) Retired numbers No. 13 jersey retired by the Kansas Jayhawks No. 13 retired by the Harlem Globetrotters No. 13 retired by the Golden State Warriors No. 13 retired by the Philadelphia 76ers No. 13 retired by the Los Angeles Lakers High school and college Mr. Basketball USA (1955) NCAA Tournament Most Outstanding Player (1957) 2× Consensus first-team All-American (1957, 1958) Individual achievements and recognition Chamberlain is regarded as one of the most extraordinary and dominant basketball players in the history of the NBA. The 1972 NBA Finals MVP is holder of numerous official NBA all-time records, establishing himself as a scoring champion, all-time top rebounder and accurate field goal shooter. He led the NBA in scoring seven times, field goal percentage nine times, minutes played eight times, rebounding eleven times, and assists once. He was also responsible for several rule changes, including widening the lane from 12 to 16 feet, as well as changes to rules regarding inbounding the ball, and shooting free throws. Chamberlain is most remembered for his 100-point game, which is widely considered one of basketball's greatest records. Decades after his record, many NBA teams did not even average 100 points, as fewer field goals per game were being attempted. The closest any player has gotten to 100 points was the Los Angeles Lakers' Kobe Bryant, who scored 81 in 2006. Afterwards, Bryant said Chamberlain's record was "unthinkable ... It's pretty exhausting to think about it." Chamberlain's main weakness was his notoriously poor free-throw shooting, where he has the third-lowest career free throw percentage in NBA history with 51.1% (based on a minimum of 1,200 attempts). Chamberlain claimed that he intentionally missed free throws so a teammate could get the rebound and score two points instead of one, but later acknowledged that he was "a psycho case" in this matter. On the other hand, he committed surprisingly few fouls during his NBA career despite his rugged play in the post. Chamberlain never fouled out of a regular-season or playoff game in his 14-year NBA career. His career average was only two fouls per game despite having averaged 45.8 minutes per game over his career. He had five seasons where he committed less than two fouls per game, with a career-low of 1.5 fouls during the 1962 season, in which he also averaged 50.4 points per game. His fouls per 36 minutes (a statistic used to compare players that average vastly different minutes) was a remarkable 1.6 per game. Sharman said: "First he was a scorer. Then he was a rebounder and assist man. Then with our great Laker team in 1972, he concentrated on the defensive end." In his two championship seasons, Chamberlain led the league in rebounding, while his scoring decreased to 24 and 15 points per game. As his scoring decreased, his assists increased to 4 per game, even recording two back-to-back seasons with 8 assists per game and one assist title. By 1971–72, at age 35 and running less, his game had transformed to averaging only nine shots per game compared to the 40 in his record-setting 1961–62 season. He also had a signature "Dipper" move, whereby he would fake a hook shot, and extend his arm to a short-range finger roll to shoot under a block attempt. For his feats, Chamberlain was enshrined in the Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame in 1978, named part of the NBA 35th Anniversary Team in 1980, one of the 50 Greatest Players in NBA History in 1996, ranked No. 13 in the ESPN list "Top North American Athletes of the Century" in 1999, voted the second best center of all-time by ESPN behind Kareem Abdul-Jabbar in 2007, and ranked No. 2 in Slams "Top 50 NBA Players of All-Time in NBA History" in 2009, and No. 6 in EPSN list of the top 74 NBA players of all time in 2020, the third-best center ever behind Abdul-Jabbar and Bill Russell. During his career, Chamberlain competed against future Hall-of-Famers including Russell, Thurmond, Lucas, and Walt Bellamy. He later faced Unseld, Abdul-Jabbar, Dave Cowens, and Elvin Hayes. Chamberlain–Russell rivalry From a historical NBA perspective, the rivalry between Chamberlain and his perennial nemesis Bill Russell is cited as the greatest on-court rivalry of all time. There were three NBA Finals matchups in the rivalry between Larry Bird and Magic Johnson, but they played different positions and did not guard each other. Russell's Celtics won seven of eight playoff series against Chamberlain's Warriors, 76ers, and Lakers teams, and went 57–37 against them in the regular season and 29–20 in the playoffs. The Hall-of-Famers who played with Chamberlain were Paul Arizin and Tom Gola for the Warriors; Hal Greer and Billy Cunningham for the Sixers; and Jerry West, Elgin Baylor, and Gail Goodrich for the Lakers. Russell's teams won all four seventh games against Chamberlain's; the combined margin was nine points. Chamberlain outscored Russell 30 to 14.2 per game and outrebounded him 28.2 to 22.9 in the regular season, and he outscored him 25.7 to 14.9 and outrebounded him 28 to 24.7 in the playoffs as well. The comparison between the two is often simplified to a great player (Chamberlain) versus a player who makes his team great (Russell), an individualist against a team player. In , when Chamberlain averaged 50.4 points per game, he noted that Boston did not rely on Russell's scoring, and he could concentrate on defense and rebounding. He wished people would understand that their roles were different. Chamberlain said: "I've got to hit forty points or so, or this team is in trouble. I must score—understand? After that I play defense and get the ball off the boards. I try to do them all, best I can, but scoring comes first." Russell won 11 NBA titles in his career while Chamberlain won two. Chamberlain was named All-NBA First Team seven times to Russell's three, but Russell was named league MVP—then selected by players and not the press—five times against Chamberlain's four. Russell and Chamberlain were friends in private life. Russell never considered Chamberlain his rival and disliked the term, instead pointing out that they rarely talked about basketball when they were alone. When Chamberlain died in 1999, Chamberlain's nephew stated that Russell was the second person he was ordered to break the news to. The two did not speak for two decades after Russell criticized Chamberlain after Game 7 of the 1969 Finals. Russell apologized privately to him and later publicly. Rule changes Chamberlain's impact on the game is also reflected in the fact that he was directly responsible for several rule changes in the NBA, including widening the lane to try to keep big men farther away from the hoop, instituting offensive goaltending, and revising rules governing inbounding the ball and shooting free throws, such as making it against the rules to inbound the ball over the backboard. Chamberlain, who reportedly had a vertical leap, was physically capable of converting foul shots via a slam dunk without a running start, beginning his movement at the top of the key. When his dunks practically undermined the difficulty of a foul shot, both the NCAA and the NBA banned his modus operandi. In basketball history, pundits have stated that the only other player who forced such a massive change of rules is 6'10" Minneapolis Lakers center George Mikan, who played a decade before Chamberlain and also caused many rule changes designed to thwart so-called big men. Reputation Although Chamberlain racked up some of the most impressive statistics in the history of Northern American professional sports, because he won only two NBA championships and lost seven out of eight playoff series against the Celtics teams of his on-court nemesis Bill Russell, Chamberlain was often called selfish and a loser. Frank Deford of ESPN said that Chamberlain was caught in a no-win situation: "If you win, everybody says, 'Well, look at him, he's that big.' If you lose, everybody says, 'How could he lose, a guy that size?' " Chamberlain himself often said: "Nobody roots for Goliath." Like later superstar Shaquille O'Neal, Chamberlain was a target of criticism because of his poor free-throw shooting, a .511 career average, with a low of .380 over the 1967–68 season. Countless suggestions were offered; he shot them underhanded, one-handed, two-handed, from the side of the circle, from well behind the line, and even banked in. Sixers coach Alex Hannum once suggested he shoot his famous fadeaway jumper as a free throw, but Chamberlain feared drawing more attention to his one great failing. Despite his foul line woes, Chamberlain set the NBA record, later tied by Adrian Dantley, for most free throws made (28) using the underhand technique in a regular-season game in his 1962 100-point game. Chamberlain later said that he was too embarrassed by the underhand technique to continue using it, even though it consistently gave him better results. Chamberlain damaged his reputation in an April 1965 article with Sports Illustrated. In an interview titled "My Life in a Bush League", he criticized his fellow players, coaches, and NBA administrators. Chamberlain later commented that he could see in hindsight how the interview could have been instrumental in hurting his public image. Contemporary colleagues were often terrified to play against Chamberlain. Russell regularly feared being embarrassed by Chamberlain, Walt Frazier called his dominance on the court "comical", and when 6-ft 11-in, 250-pound (in his early years) Hall-of-Fame center Bob Lanier was asked about the most memorable moment of his career, Lanier answered: "When Wilt Chamberlain lifted me up and moved me like a coffee cup so he could get a favorable position." Personal life Star status Chamberlain was the first big earner of basketball; he immediately became the highest-paid player upon entering the NBA. He was basketball's first player to earn at least $100,000 a year and earned an unprecedented $1.5 million during his Lakers years. As a Philadelphia 76er, he could afford to rent a New York apartment and commute to Philadelphia. In addition, he would often stay out late into the night and wake up at noon. When he became a Laker, Chamberlain built a million-dollar mansion he called the "Ursa Major" in Bel-Air, as a play on his nickname "The Big Dipper" (jazz composer Thad Jones also named the music composition Big Dipper after the basketball star). It had a 2,200-pound pivot as a front door and contained great displays of luxury. Robert Allen Cherry, journalist and author of the biography Wilt: Larger than Life, describes his house as a miniature Playboy Mansion, where he regularly held parties and lived out his later-notorious sex life. This was also helped by the fact that Chamberlain was a near-insomniac who often simply skipped sleeping. Designed according to his preferences, the house was constructed with no right angles, and had an "X-rated" room with mirrored walls and a fur-covered waterbed. Chamberlain lived alone, relying on a great deal of automated gadgets, with two cats named Zip and Zap and several Great Dane dogs as company. In addition, Chamberlain drove a Ferrari, a Bentley, and had a Le Mans-style car called Searcher One designed and built at a cost of $750,000 in 1996. Following his death in 1999, Chamberlain's estate was valued at $25 million. Love life Although Chamberlain was shy and insecure as a teenager, he became well known for his womanizing when he was an adult. As his lawyer Seymour "Sy" Goldberg put it: "Some people collect stamps, Wilt collected women." Swedish Olympic high jumper Annette Tånnander, who met him when he was 40 and she 19, remembers him as a pick-up artist who was extremely confident yet respectful: "I think Wilt hit on everything that moved ... he never was bad or rude." Los Angeles Times columnist David Shaw alleged that during a dinner with Shaw and his wife, Chamberlain was "rude and sexist toward his own date, as he usually was", adding that at one point Chamberlain left the table to get the phone number of an attractive woman at a nearby table. According to his contemporary Rod Roddewig, Chamberlain documented his love life using a Day-Timer. Every time Chamberlain went to bed with a different woman, he put a check in his Day-Timer. Over a 10-day period, there were 23 checks in the book, which would be a rate of 2.3 women per day. Chamberlain divided that number in half, to be conservative and to correct for degrees of variation. He then multiplied that number by the number of days he had been alive at the time minus 15 years. That was how the 20,000 number came into existence. In response to public backlash regarding his promiscuity, Chamberlain later emphasized that "the point of using the number was to show that sex was a great part of my life as basketball was a great part of my life. That's the reason why I was single." In a 1999 interview shortly before his death, he regretted not having explained the sexual climate at the time of his escapades, and warned other men who admired him for it, closing with the words: "With all of you men out there who think that having a thousand different ladies is pretty cool, I have learned in my life I've found out that having one woman a thousand different times is much more satisfying." Chamberlain also acknowledged that he never came close to marrying and had no intention of raising any children. In 2015, a man named Aaron Levi came forward claiming to be Chamberlain's son based on non-identifying papers from his adoption and information from his biological mother. Chamberlain's sister refused to provide DNA evidence for testing, so Levi's claim is not conclusive. Relationships Cherry points out that although Chamberlain was an egotist, he had good relationships with many contemporaries and enjoyed a great deal of respect. He was especially lauded for his good rapport with his fans, often providing tickets and signing autographs. Jack Ramsay recalled that Chamberlain regularly took walks in downtown Philadelphia and acknowledged honking horns with the air of a man enjoying all the attention. Jerry West called him a "complex ... very nice person", and NBA rival Jack McMahon even said: "The best thing that happened to the NBA is that God made Wilt a nice person ... he could have killed us all with his left hand." Celtics contemporary Bob Cousy even assumed that if Chamberlain had been less fixated on being popular, he would have been meaner and able to win more titles. During most of his NBA career, Chamberlain was good friends with Bill Russell. Chamberlain often invited Russell over to Thanksgiving, and at Russell's place, conversation mostly concerned Russell's electric trains. As the championship count became increasingly lopsided, the relationship got strained, and turned hostile after Russell accused Chamberlain of "copping out" in the notorious Game 7 of the 1969 NBA Finals. The two men did not talk with each other for over 20 years, until Russell apologized privately, then publicly in a 1997 joint interview with Bob Costas: "There was a thing almost 30 years ago ... I was wrong." Still, Chamberlain maintained a level of bitterness, regretted that he had not been "more physical" with Russell in their games, and privately continued accusing his rival for intellectualizing basketball in a negative way. More hostile was Chamberlain's relationship with fellow center Abdul-Jabbar, eleven years his junior. Although Abdul-Jabbar idolized him as a teenager and was once part of his inner circle, the student–mentor bond deteriorated into intense mutual loathing, especially after Chamberlain retired. Chamberlain often criticized Abdul-Jabbar for a perceived lack of scoring, rebounding, and defense. Abdul-Jabbar accused Chamberlain of being a traitor to the black race for his Republican political leanings, support of Richard Nixon, and relationships with white women. When Abdul-Jabbar broke Chamberlain's all-time scoring record in 1984, Chamberlain repeatedly called on Abdul-Jabbar to retire. When Abdul-Jabbar published his autobiography in 1990, he retaliated by writing a paper titled "To Wilt Chumperlane " in which he stated: "Now that I am done playing, history will remember me as someone who helped teammates to win, while you will be remembered as a crybaby, a loser, and a quitter." Their relationship remained mostly strained until Chamberlain's death. Politics Chamberlain denounced the Black Panthers Party and other black nationalist movements in the late 1960s, and supported Republican Richard Nixon in the 1968 and 1972 presidential elections. He accompanied Nixon to the funeral of Martin Luther King Jr. and considered himself a Republican. Sexual assault allegation In 2021, Cassandra Peterson, who is primarily known for her alter ego Elvira, Mistress of the Dark, alleged in her memoir Yours Cruelly, Elvira: Memoirs of the Mistress of the Dark that Chamberlain had sexually assaulted her during a party at his Bel Air mansion in the 1970s. Chamberlain allegedly offered to show Peterson his custom-built closet for his NBA jerseys, before he forced her to give him oral sex. Peterson had stated that she had blamed herself and was almost "convinced that I was a very bad person for letting that happen", until the Me Too movement made her rethink the experience. Peterson felt that the assault was "creepier" because Chamberlain had been a personal friend. See also List of National Basketball Association career scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association career rebounding leaders List of National Basketball Association career free throw scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association career minutes played leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff rebounding leaders List of National Basketball Association career playoff free throw scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association franchise career scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association players with most points in a game List of National Basketball Association single-game playoff scoring leaders List of National Basketball Association players with most rebounds in a game List of National Basketball Association players with most assists in a game List of National Basketball Association top individual scoring season averages List of National Basketball Association top rookie scoring averages List of National Basketball Association top individual rebounding season averages List of National Basketball Association top rookie rebounding averages List of National Basketball Association top individual field goal percentage seasons List of NCAA Division I men's basketball players with 30 or more rebounds in a game List of basketball players who have scored 100 points in a single game List of National Basketball Association annual minutes leaders List of National Basketball Association annual rebounding leaders Wilt Chamberlain argument Notes References Further reading External links Basketball-Reference.com: Wilt Chamberlain (as a coach) University of Kansas Men's Basketball NBA History: Wilt Chamberlain Summary 4th Quarter Radio Broadcast of Wilt's 100 Point Game "Wilt's Big Night", Weekend America, American Public Media, June 4, 2005, on how the 100-point game almost went un-recorded Image of Wilt Chamberlain making a dunk during a Los Angeles Lakers vs Milwaukee Bucks game, 1971 at the Los Angeles Times Photographic Archive (Collection 1429), UCLA Library Special Collections, Charles E. Young Research Library, University of California, Los Angeles. 1936 births 1999 deaths African-American basketball coaches African-American basketball players African-American volleyball players All-American college men's basketball players American Basketball Association announcers American men's basketball players American men's volleyball players Basketball coaches from Pennsylvania Basketball players at the 1957 NCAA University Division Final Four Basketball players from Philadelphia Centers (basketball) Harlem Globetrotters players Kansas Jayhawks men's basketball players Los Angeles Lakers players Naismith Memorial Basketball Hall of Fame inductees National Basketball Association All-Stars National Basketball Association broadcasters National Basketball Association players with retired numbers Pennsylvania Republicans Philadelphia 76ers players Philadelphia Warriors draft picks Philadelphia Warriors players Player-coaches People from Bel Air, Los Angeles San Diego Conquistadors 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255646	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Walter%20J.%20Turner	Walter J. Turner	Walter James Redfern Turner (13 October 1884 – 18 November 1946) was an Australian-born, English-domiciled writer and critic. Life Born in South Melbourne, the son of a church musician – organist at St Paul's Cathedral – and warehouseman, Walter James Turner, and Alice May (née Watson), he was educated at Carlton State School, Scotch College and the Working Men's College. In 1907 he left for England to pursue a career in writing. There he met and befriended a number of literary intellectual figures, including Siegfried Sassoon, Virginia Woolf, Vita Sackville-West, and Lady Ottoline Morrell (the caricature of her in his book The Aesthetes ended their friendship). On 5 April 1918, in Chelsea, he married Delphine Marguerite Dubuis (died 1951). During the period from the First World War until the mid-1930s, he was known primarily as a poet. His 1916 Romance ("Chimborazo, Cotopaxi....") is probably the best remembered of his poems. W. B. Yeats had the highest praise for Turner's poetry, saying that it left him "lost in admiration and astonishment", and included some of it in his Oxford Book of Modern Poetry (while omitting several authors very much better known today for their verse, such as Wilfred Owen). But today, although Turner produced several novels and plays, as well as books of poems, his reputation rests on his biographies of the composers Mozart, Beethoven and Berlioz. His Mozart has been reprinted many times since it was first published in 1938. Some of his music articles for the New Statesman (where he was music critic between 1915 and 1940) and other journals were reprinted in Music and Life, Facing the Music, Musical Meanderings, and Variations on the theme of Music. Turner was musically untrained, and in the words of the music critic Charles Reid, "unhampered by any excess of technical knowledge" to restrain his "racy dogmatism". Notoriously, on the fiftieth anniversary of Richard Wagner's death, he wrote: “I can confidently and in soberness declare that Wagner is a colossal fraud.” Turner was a close friend of the pianist Artur Schnabel, about whom he frequently wrote, and with whom he frequently went hiking. He was a champion of Arturo Toscanini's conducting, which was for him a revelation in structure and expression. Siegfried Sassoon was another close friend of Turner, at least for a while. Turner, his wife, and Sassoon all cohabited a house in London, No 54 Tufton Street, before Sassoon moved out in 1925. After this he fell out with Turner so badly that he made no mention whatsoever of him in his autobiography. During the Second World War, he was general editor of the series of short illustrated books "Britain in Pictures", for which he wrote the volumes on music and ballet, and edited seven omnibus volumes. On 18 November 1946 he died at Hammersmith of a cerebral thrombosis. Works Poetry The Hunter and other Poems (1916) The Dark Fire (1918) The Dark Wind (1920) this was a compilation of poems from The Hunter, The Dark Fire, and In Time Like Glass published in America. In Time Like Glass (1921) Paris and Helen (1921) Landscape of Cytherea (Record of a Journey into a Strange Country) (1923) The Seven Days of the Sun (1925) Marigold: An Idyll of the Sea (1926) New Poems (1928) Miss America (1930) Pursuit of Psyche (1931) Jack and Jill (1934) Songs and Incantations (1936) which included his Seven Sciagraphical Poems Selected Poems 1916–36 (1939) Fossils of a Future Time? (1946) Romance (1946) Plays The Man Who Ate the Popomack (1921) Smaragda's lover (1925) Jupiter Translated (unpublished; first performed 1933) Other books Music and life (1921) Variations on the theme of music (1924) Orpheus; or, The music of the future (1926) Beethoven, the search for reality (1927) Musical meanderings (1928) A trip to New York and a poem (1929) Eighteenth century poetry : an anthology chosen by W.J. Turner (1931) Wagner (1933) Facing the Music: Reflections of a Music Critic (1933) Berlioz: The Man and His Work (1934) Blow for Balloons (1935) Novel. Mozart, the man and his works (1938) The Duchess of Popocatapetl (1939) Novel. English Music (1941; "Britain in Pictures", no. 3) Fables, Parables and Plots: Revolutionary Stories for the Young and Old (1943) The English Ballet (1944; "Britain in Pictures", no. 80) A Treasury of English wild life edited by W.J. Turner (1946) Music, a short history (1949) See also Walter Turner is also the name of a Solenostemon scutellarioides cultivar Link to musical composition Earl's March 1889 dedicated to his excellency Adrian Hope 7th Earl of Hopetoun, also known as Marquess of Linlithgow, then Governor General of the British colonies in the Austral continent. This march was composed by Turner's father, also named Walter James Turner. References Sources External links Australian non-fiction writers Australian poets 20th-century British novelists British music critics 1884 births 1946 deaths Deaths from cerebral thrombosis British male poets British male novelists British male dramatists and playwrights 20th-century British poets 20th-century British dramatists and playwrights 20th-century British male writers Male non-fiction writers	[ 0.2770586609840393, 0.4881021976470947, -1.0369752645492554, -0.24193218350410461, 0.0320504754781723, 0.9185804128646851, 0.9642574191093445, -0.0733189582824707, -0.1214471384882927, -0.21797996759414673, -0.5188530683517456, 0.6611369848251343, -0.32947835326194763, 0.4950035512447357, 0.15047955513000488, 0.36654847860336304, -0.6144686341285706, -0.5395379066467285, -0.4308086633682251, -0.026073552668094635, -0.006836591754108667, -0.5938753485679626, 0.3366062641143799, 0.012071901932358742, -0.1507888287305832, -0.11072240769863129, 0.40468287467956543, -0.1764959841966629, 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255648	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nueva%20Ecija	Nueva Ecija	Nueva Ecija, officially the Province of Nueva Ecija ( , also ; Pangasinan: Luyag na Nueva Ecija; ; ) is a landlocked province in the Philippines located in the Central Luzon region. Its capital is the city of Palayan, while Cabanatuan City, its former capital, is the largest LGU. Nueva Ecija borders, from the south clockwise, Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac, Pangasinan, Nueva Vizcaya and Aurora. The province is nationally known as the Rice Granary of the Philippines, producing the largest rice yield in the country. Etymology Nueva Ecija was named by the Spanish colonisers after the small town of Écija, Spain. Its indigenous names, such as Pinagpanaan, meaning the place where the arrow hit - defining the precolonial artistry in archery in the area, were abolished and changed by the government during the post-colonial period after World War II, sparking outrage from scholars and indigenous communities. Nevertheless, the name-change of some municipalities into colonial names during the post-colonial period was continued by the national government. History The sprawling and varied geological features of the land now known as Nueva Ecija, includes plains, mountains and rivers, all the requisites for the birth and sustenance of life itself. The land's very first settlers came upon three mountain ranges to the East, North and West and vast southern plains. All these were sustained by a great flowing river, one whose earliest name was spoken in a now lost tongue, and which was called the Rio Grande de Pampanga by the Spanish people later on. The Great Pampanga River nourished wild, fruit-bearing trees, served as home to an abundance of fish and made possible lush, teeming woodlands that sheltered animals. All these combined must have been paradise in whatever language for the land's earliest settlers, who were able to not only survive but thrive in the surrounding abundance, all within easy reach. Precolonial era These first settlers included tribes of Ilongots (Egungot) or Italons, Abaca and Buquids. Settlements were built along the banks following the river's undulations. The Ilongots, meaning people of the forest, were the fierce headhunters and animist tribes who occupied Carranglan and the mountainous terrain of Sierra Madre and Caraballo. The head hunting communities were nestled along the riverbanks of Rio Grande's tributaries in the north. Abaca and Italon were subgroups of Ilongots meaning river settlers. Ilongots survived mainly by fishing and hunting. Food production was a secondary occupation. The agriculture-based community of Caraclans and Buquids were settled in Bongabon and Pantabangan along the riverbanks of Rio Grande's tributaries in the northeast. When the waves of Tagalog migrations took place between 300 and 200 B.C., intrepid travelers and traders set up settlements along Luzon's western coast. These early settlements formed the nucleus of the Pampango Empire that was consolidated by Balagtas. The flatlands of the southern portion of Upper Pampanga was a hospitable place for these new Tagalog settlers. The indigenous tribes were forced to take to the hills in the face of the Tagalogs' superior technology. Barter trade flourished among communities that settled along the great river. The constant riverside trading resulted in both a commercial and cultural exchange between the settlements in vast plains upstream of the Rio Grande de Pampanga. Settlements in Carranglan, Pantabangan, Bongabon and Puncan prospered and grew into more stable communities. Spanish attacks At the time, the Pampango crown has waned and had little resistance from Spanish invasion. When the Pampango Empire fell into the hands of Spanish forces under the command of Martin de Goiti in 1572, the conquistadores began their long upward trek towards Cagayan Valley and Mountain Province. Their forces passed through the settlement areas of the Upper Pampanga River. They also attacked the Caboloan of Pangasinan, effectively capturing more territories from local kingdoms. Because of growing territorial domain and evangelical missions, a command outpost or Commandancia in the Upper Pampanga River area was established. Then Governor-General Fausto Cruzat y Góngora (July 25, 1690 to December 8, 1701) had most likely spent much of his time in the northern outpost in Carranglan and Pantabangan and, baking in the fiercely hot climate, probably waxed nostalgic about his hometown in Ecija, Andalusia in Spain. Ecija, Andalusia was also known as la sarten or the frying pan because of its intensely hot summers. Thus the Governor-General hit upon the notion to name the outpost Nueva Ecija. Both the New and Old Ecija were washed by navigable rivers- the former, by Rio Grande de Pampanga and the latter, by the river Genil. Conversion to Christianity Consistent with the history of Hispanization in the rest of Philippine archipelago, Nueva Ecija was established by Augustinian missionaries. The first mission was established in Gapan in 1595. The Augustinians abandoned their missionary work in 1636, maintaining only the mission in Bongabon. At the turn of the 18th century, the missionaries resumed their evangelical work and redirected their efforts to the northeast, towards rough, mountainous terrain inhabited by Ilongots. On September 1, 1759, King Carlos III of Spain issued a Royal Decree that ended the founding missions of Augustinians and transferred all Augustinian responsibilities in the settlements of Nueva Ecija to Franciscan friars. Through tribute collections and polo y servicio or rendering of force labor, the Franciscans constructed churches, convents, parochial schools and tribunals. They also constructed roads and bridges to connect other settlements. In 1781, a simple irrigation system was constructed in Pantabangan. This new farming technology contributed to the promotion of agriculture in the province. New province To make possible the establishments of settlements, military force became necessary to protect the friars and whatever basic settlement structures were beginning to emerge. Thus military outposts were of utmost importance, especially with the friars trying to convert fierce head-hunting tribes with spears and bladed weapons. It was around this time, during the term of Governor General Fausto Cruzat y Gongora (July 25, 1690 to December 8, 1702), that he established the military outpost he named Nueva Ecija. At this time, however, Nueva Ecija was still part of upper Pampanga. In 2016, researchers of the National Historical Commission of the Philippines (NHCP) and the provincial government found documents showing that in 1799, Carlos IV ordered the separation of towns and parishes of Upper Pampanga, near the Sierra Madre range, as well as coastal towns of Tayabas, along the Pacific Ocean and their organization into a corregimiento (political-military administrative unit). Royal directives were implemented on April 25, 1801, and the corregimiento was named Nueva Ecija after the Spanish hometown of that period's Governor General Rafael Maria de Aguilar, with Baler as its capital. Since then, the province had undergone numerous changes in territorial composition. The progressive towns of Gapan, San Isidro, Cabiao and Aliaga were all annexed to Nueva Ecija, resulting in an economic as well as population boom for inhabitants. While Nueva Ecija only had a population of 9,165 in 1845, the annexation of new territories three years later pegged the population at 69,135. Other changes occurred in the following years until, in 1901, Nueva Ecija's northern municipalities of Balungao, Rosales, San Quintin and Umingan were annexed to Pangasinan. Nueva Ecija's shifting political boundaries in fact necessitated transferring its provincial capital four times. Still, these changes proved ultimately beneficial to Nueva Ecija, as they resulted in a territory with rich land resources nourished by an excellent river system composed of the Rio Grande de Pampanga, Talavera and Penaranda rivers. This would help lay the foundation for Nueva Ecija's abundant agricultural economy starting with the American Occupation in the early 20th century. Cry of Nueva Ecija The "Cry of Nueva Ecija" is the 1896 revolutionary battle led by General Mariano Llanera, manned and assisted by General Manuel Tinio and Pantaleon Valmonte of Gapan City, Nueva Ecija and Colonel Alipio Tecson of Cabiao, Nueva Ecija who later on became Brigadaire General. The battle was fought in Cabiao, Nueva Ecija. Alipio Tecson would eventually become Governadorcillo of Cabiao, Nueva Ecija. Tobacco monopoly Maintaining the Philippines as a colony became a challenge for the Spanish Empire. Expenses incurred in running the colony were usually paid for by a yearly subsidy (called real situado) sent from the Philippines' sister colony in Mexico. This financial support from the Spanish royal court was often insufficient, especially with expenditures in the Philippine colony growing each year. This prompted the royal fiscal assigned in Manila to devise a plan to allow the colony itself to raise revenues on its own and thus be able to supplement the Spanish subsidy. This royal fiscal was Francisco Leandro de Vianna, who first proposed creating a tobacco monopoly. De Vianna reasoned, tobacco was a product widely consumed throughout the islands, with a market of roughly one million. He projected earnings of as much as P400,000 from the venture. The first time the proposal was made, however, both King Carlos III of Spain and colonial officials didn't give the idea much importance. All that would change during the term of Governor-General Jose Basco y Vargas. Basco had plans to develop and promote Philippine agriculture, and de Vianna's proposal seemed attractive to him. After studying the proposal, Basco sent his plan to establish a large-scale tobacco production in the colony under complete ownership and management by the colonial government of Spain. What probably perked up the ears of the Spanish king about Basco's plan to make the Philippine colony financially self-sufficient, thus removing a huge financial burden from the Spanish crown. The King of Spain issued a royal decree on February 9, 1780, setting in motion Basco's plan. Almost two years to the date of that royal decree, Basco ordered local officials and military commanders to prevent unnecessary losses of tobacco revenues. By March 2, 1782, tobacco production was established in Luzon, with La Union, Ilocos, Abra, Cagayan Valley and Nueva Ecija (still part of Pampanga at the time) as the centers for planting, growing, harvesting and processing tobacco. This made a drastic and extreme change in the lives of all Novo Ecijanos. Where farmland used to bear rice, tobacco was now the only crop allowed to grow. These included the towns of Gapan, San Isidro, Jaen, Cabiao, Cabanatuan, Talavera, Santor and Bongabon. Each farming family was given a quota of tobacco plant to grow. By 1850 the tobacco monopoly was producing immense financial gain for the colonial government. Some reports at the time pegged the earnings by as much as $500,000. One account in 1866 reported a much higher amount, as earnings rose to $38,418,939 that year. Novo Ecijanos suffered a lot from the system. Nueva Ecija was more often able to meet production quotas compared to the other districts. Despite this, tobacco policy imposed a lower price on tobacco from areas closer to Manila. That meant that first-class tobacco leaf grown and harvested from Nueva Ecija was priced lower by one dollar, compared to those from Ilocos, La Union and Cagayan Valley. The tobacco monopoly did not spur Novo Ecijanos to revolt, unlike the Ilocanos who staged an uprising over injustices in the system. Some tobacco growers in Nueva Ecija resorted to smuggling their own harvests in order to get some profit. But getting caught entailed harsher fines and penalties. Even sympathetic local officials had no choice but to enforce the unjust policies under pain of arrest and hard labor, once laxity on their part resulted in low production. The flourishing tobacco industry coupled with the rich agricultural lands in central and northeastern Nueva Ecija also attracted migrants from neighboring Pampanga, Pangasinan, Ilocos and Tagalog areas. This made Nueva Ecija a melting pot of cultures and influences, the results of which are still evident in present-day Novo Ecijano culture. As the tobacco monopoly fuelled further unrest, Spain finally abolished the monopoly on December 3, 1882. It was only then that they could all once again grow rice for food. Rebellion against Spain One distinct feature of the 1896 revolution against Spain in Nueva Ecija was that it was led by the elite, ruling class instead of the masses. Leaders of the revolt in Nueva Ecija were municipal officials and prominent citizens, who refused to collaborate with the Spanish authorities when armed struggle broke out. Despite being in the ruling class and enjoying positions in the colonial government, these prominent Novo Ecijanos proved their patriotism and love for fellow Filipinos. In fact, one of the founding members of the reform movement La Liga Filipina was lawyer and Novo Ecijano Mamerto Natividad. By the time the Katipunan, the revolutionary movement against Spain, was formed, Novo Ecijanos were actively yet secretly joining it. Even local officials in Nueva Ecija secretly allied with the illustrados and farmers in forming the underground revolutionary society. Once the Spanish authorities learned of the Katipunan's existence, those perceived as sympathizers of the movement, and even those who were falsely accused of being members of it, were arrested. Mamerto Natividad was among those arrested for sedition, tortured and killed by guardia civil. He was one of the first Novo Ecijano martyrs for freedom. His death however, would result in bigger problems for the Spanish authorities. Mamerto Natividad's two sons, Mamerto Jr. and Benito Natividad, later joined the Katipunan. The Spaniards burned their house and sugar mills in Jaen. Mamerto Jr. was later jailed for shooting a Spanish judge who had slapped his younger brother. As the Revolution gained ground, Mamerto Jr. was released and he was able to join the revolutionary army of General Emilio Aguinaldo in Cavite. By August 30, 1896, a state of war was declared by the Spanish colonial government in several Luzon provinces including Nueva Ecija, Bulacan, Pampanga, Tarlac, Batangas, Laguna, Cavite and Manila. Novo Ecijanos immediately proved themselves worthy of the fight for freedom. On September 2, 1896, Novo Ecijanos led by Gen. Mariano Llanera, capital municipal of Cabiao and Gen. Pantaleon Valmonte, capitan municipal of Gapan attacked San Isidro, the provincial capital. Their 3,000-strong army attacked San Isidro in distinct Novo Ecijano fashion: accompanied by music played by the Banda de Cabiao or Cabiao band. It seems that in love or war, music is integral to Novo Ecijanos. Novo Ecijanos like Llanera, Valmonte, Mamerto Natividad, Jr. and Manuel Tinio conducted themselves heroically during the revolution. They were allied with Aguinaldo's Magdalo group. Aguinaldo was in fact so impressed, he appointed Natividad and Llanera to the two highest-ranking posts in the revolutionary army. Natividad became General Mamerto Natividad, commanding general of the revolutionary army, while General Llanera was vice-commander with the rank of Lieutenant-General. General Natividad proved himself worthy of the position by scoring victories against the Spanish in Tayug, Pangasinan and San Rafael, Bulacan. On November 11, 1897, Natividad's life would end after he was killed in action in Cabiao, Nueva Ecija. His death precipitated the Pact of Biak-na-Bato, a peace treaty that sought to end hostilities between Spanish authorities and the Filipino rebels. The treaty provided for a payment of P800,000 to the rebels who would then be exiled to Hong Kong. Five Novo Ecijanos would accompany Aguinaldo's exile. They were General Mariano Llanera, Benito Natividad, General Manuel Tinio, and Joaquin Natividad. Later on, Novo Ecijanos would continue to participate in the drama of war, revolution and the fight for freedom. They would fight when the revolt against Spain continued after the peace treaty broke down and the United States, after declaring war on Spain, promised to help Filipinos fight for freedom. Then, Novo Ecijanos again joined General Emilio Aguinaldo in the Philippine–American War (after it became evident the United States wanted to make the Philippines their own colony). Then when the Japanese tried to make the Philippines their own colony at the outbreak of the Second World War in the Pacific, Novo Ecijanos would also make history by participating in guerilla activities. The exploits of the Novo Ecijano guerillas have in fact been made into literature, through the World War II novel Ghost Soldiers by Hampton Sides and in Hollywood cinema, in the war film The Great Raid based on the book. American period History records how the Philippine–American War began after American troops killed a Filipino soldier who was crossing the San Juan bridge on February 4, 1899. One could also say however that hostilities and mistrust really began as early as August 13 the previous year. On that day, the Spanish colonial government in Intramuros surrendered to American forces instead of the Filipino soldiers that surrounded the Walled City. Thus began the United States own effort to have her own colonies, with the Philippines served, as it were, on a silver platter by the dying Spanish Empire thanks to the Treaty of Paris. When the war between Filipinos and Americans finally began, the fate of the infant Republic of the Philippines again lay in the hands of General Aguinaldo and his most trusted men who included Novo Ecijanos like General Llanera and General Tinio. And, as guerilla warfare became an effective tactic for the Filipinos, Novo Ecijanos were among the most feared guerillas around. Both the Novo Ecijanos and Americans were willing to resort to brutal tactics, torture and even atrocious killings in the course of the war. Two nove ecijanos were deported and exiled in Guam for not taking allegiance to the American government, they were General Mariano Llanera and Col. Alipio Tecson. By the time the war ended on April 1, 1901, with Aguinaldo's surrender to the Americans, Novo Ecijano guerillas who had fought so fiercely and bravely against two sets of foreign invaders reluctantly gave up. Still that was not the end of the association between them and the Americans. The end of the Philippine–American War also signaled a new beginning for Nueva Ecija and its people. The railway Before the American occupation, Nueva Ecija was already a hub of trade and commerce. Since Nueva Ecija in the 19th century had neither excellent roads nor the ideal land transport system, trading activities were done mainly through the waterways. While we moderns consider rivers as obstacles that need to be crossed, people in the 19th century valued rivers not just as sources of food and water but as passages for trading barges and boats. Thus, Nueva Ecijas early trading settlements sprouted along riverbanks. Commercial, interprovincial trade was carried out using the Rio Grande de Pampanga as main waterway, with trade outposts in San Isidro and Talipapa. Traders from Bulacan, Tondo and Manila regularly came to Nueva Ecija to carry back rice, palay, tobacco, sugar, corn and livestock. The Americans, however, wanted to shift from water-borne trade to a land-based trade system. Their idea for establishing this depended on something they were masters at: building railways. The American colonial government thought a railway could help boost Nueva Ecija's economic growth, in the same way that the US railway system helped unite and develop the economy of the North American continent. What made the railway project attractive was that it was less expensive than building roads. At first run by a private company, the US colonial government took over the ownership and management of the railway system by 1917. The Americans were soon proven right: trade conducted through the railways boosted Nueva Ecija's income by 25% while transport costs went down by 25% to as much as 75%. With the train able to transport more goods and more people at a cheaper rate, the railway helped spark a rice boom in Gapan, San Isidro, Cabanatuan, Santa Rosa and Penaranda. Farmers could devote more land to growing rice and even secondary crops like onions and watermelons. More rice mills, farmers and farmer settlers came to Nueva Ecija. By 1936, there were 42 rice mills in Nueva Ecija, owned mostly by Chinese. The agriculture-based economic boom brought about by the train's huge load capacity and greater speed (compared to boats) encouraged waves of migrations to Nueva Ecija from places like Ilocos, Pampanga, Pangasinan, Tarlac and Bulacan. The railway brought other changes to Nueva Ecija. While trade was still being done by waterways, settlements by necessity had to be established close to the rivers, where people's basic necessities came from. When the trains became the main mode of transporting goods and people, and with the influx of migrants, it became not only possible but crucial to build more communities further inland. This meant roads and irrigation systems were needed. Roads and irrigation As communities expanded inward, first along the rivers and then along the railways, the need for roads and irrigation systems leading to communities in the plains became more urgent. These made it possible for the more remote towns—those farther away from both rivers and railroads—to grow crops and participate in trade, ending what was until then a very slow pace of economic development. By 1912 Governor Benito Natividad had appropriated funds to fast-track the building of roads and bridges linking these remote towns and municipalities to then provincial capital Cabanatuan. The American government also constructed three major irrigation facilities: 1) The Talavera Irrigation System in 1924; 2) Penaranda River Irrigation System in 1930 and 3) Pampanga River Irrigation System in 1939. By the time these irrigation systems went in full swing, combined with the railway system and the many rice mills, Nueva Ecija had been established as the "Rice Granary of the Philippines." From 1930 to 1939, rice production in Nueva Ecija was averaging more than 9 million cavans of rice. Homesteading and US-style tenancy Unlike the American pioneers of the Old West, Filipinos were not so willing to occupy remote, unsettled and undeveloped areas. So when the American colonial government introduced homesteading, there were few takers among Filipinos. Essentially, homesteading happens when someone lays claim on, harnesses the resources and develops a parcel of land, even if it's still wilderness and far from population centers, for economic use. Homesteading could be done through a legal process of acquiring a land title, or even without a title at all. In the latter case however, the lack of a title makes the informal homesteader vulnerable to any legal action attempting to take the land away from him. When the Philippine Bill of 1902 was passed by the US Congress, the US colonial government was formally established in the Philippine islands. This meant the colonial government now had the authority to dispose of public lands on its own, without having to seek the approval of the President of the United States. Based on an earlier survey of public lands by the Philippine Commission, the new American colonial government offered public lands to settlers through homesteading, sale, purchase or lease. Under the American regime's homesteading system, an individual could get up to 16 hectares of land, while a corporation could get as much as 1,024 hectares. This did not result in a wide settlement of lands throughout the country, however. Nueva Ecija was one exception, as more settlers opted to homestead its lands. A 1928 Statistical Bulletin records nearly 70,000 hectares were given to more than five thousand homestead applicants. Among the immigrant-settlers of Nueva Ecija, the Ilocanos were mainly responsible for opening up through their homesteads, the once sparsely populated, remote areas of the province. Much like the early American pioneers, the Ilocanos tamed the land and turned what was once hostile wilderness into habitable and productive land. However, the homesteading effort under the American regime resulted in a drop in tenancy in 1918, it ultimately failed in succeeding decades. This was due to two major factors. First, the new farmer-settlers did not have enough capital to sustain farming costs. Without any financial assistance available from the government that granted them the land, farmer-settlers accumulated huge debts at very high interest rates from usurious moneylenders. Most of these homesteaders were later forced to sell their land and become tenant farmers instead. Civil government in the American period The civil governments established in various provinces in the Philippines under the American Occupation were supposed to teach Filipinos the basic principles of democracy, following US military rule. In general, each provincial government presided over local governments in each town or municipality. In turn, each municipality would have a president, vice-president and municipal councillors. These were elected by a select group of qualified electors for two-year terms. The second Philippine Commission went to what was then Nueva's provincial capital, San Isidro, on June 8, 1901, to begin proceedings for establishing the local and provincial governments. 16 out of Nueva Ecija's 19 towns were represented in the meeting. Elections of various representatives from the different towns were carried out successfully. However, there was still the thorny problem of deciding whether or not to move the provincial capital. The dilemma was caused by events related to the Philippine–American War. First, Nueva Ecija had been a hotbed of resistance against the American Occupation, and was therefore in a state of siege. Four of its towns, Balungao, Rosales, San Quentin and Umingan, which were further away from the capital and already considered pacified by US forces, had been annexed to the province of Pangasinan. The newly elected Nueva Ecija representatives were of the view that since a civil government under the Americans was already being established, it was time to return the four towns to Nueva Ecija. This would benefit the province as the four town were rich in natural resources. The fact that the towns were quite far from the capital, one of the representatives suggested, was no obstacle: the provincial capital could simply be moved to Cabanatuan. Other representatives objected to this proposal, pointing out that Cabanatuan had no infrastructures wherein to house the provincial government. The matter was not resolved until two years later, when the US governor-general signed Act No. 1748, ordering the transfer of the capital to Cabanatuan by 1912. The civil provincial government of Nueva Ecija was formally established by the Taft Commission on June 11, 1901. The very first governor under this new system was Epifanio de los Santos. The main artery connecting most of Metro Manila has been named after Governor de los Santos, which is Epifanio de los Santos Avenue or simply, EDSA. Education during the American period It was the Americans who succeeded in making education widely available to Filipinos. While the Spanish government did, rather belatedly in their rule (in the middle of the 19th century), decide to establish public schools, it was the Americans who were able to improve it. A report of the United States' Philippine Commission in 1900 showed, only 10 out of 23 municipalities in Nueva Ecija had a public school established during the Spanish times and according to the Philippine Commission figures by 1902, 37 public primary schools were established, and 63 Novo Ecijano teachers supported by 16 American "Thomasites", part of the larger group of some 500 pioneer American teachers who arrived aboard the in September 1901, to help establish an American public school system in the Philippines. The Education Act No. 74 approved by the Philippine Commission in 1901 proved to be the catalyst that made Novo Ecijanos rally behind the local and American teachers to make sure as many children as possible benefitted from the public school system. People contributed in the form of cash, construction materials or labor, and even vacant lots for the building of schools. Community support for the building of schools was such that by 1906, there were already 99 schools in Nueva Ecija. The Novo Ecijanos' high regard for the value of an education is a trait that persists until today. The public schools system was still hampered by a lot of problems, however. Relying only on local support, Nueva Ecija (and other places in the Philippines as well) could simply not meet the increasing needs of a growing number of schools, teachers and students. Given the high premium placed by Novo Ecijanos on education, a legislator from Nueva Ecija took the crucial step to compel the American colonial government to allot funding for public education via a legislative act. Assemblyman Isauro Gabaldon of Nueva Ecija filed an education bill before the 1907 Philippine Assembly, which would later be approved and known as the Gabaldon Education Act. The bill required government to earmark P1,000,000 for public schools throughout the Philippine islands. Nueva Ecija benefitted tremendously from the new education law. By 1908 Nueva Ecija had 144 primary schools, 11 non-sectarian private schools, 18 sectarian private schools, nine intermediate schools, one vocational school and one agricultural school, the Central Luzon Agricultural School, which is currently now operating as Central Luzon State University. World War II During World War II the Imperial Japanese Army entered the province and Nueva Ecija was taken in 1942. On March 29, 1942, under the leadership of Luis Taruc the Hukbalahap (Hukbo ng Bayan Laban sa Hapon-People's Army Against the Japanese) was organized in Sitio Bawit, Barrio San Julian in the town of Cabiao. It was perceived to be the military arm of the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas (Communist Party of the Philippines), that brought about the beginning of the early organized resistance of the Filipino people. During World War II under the Japanese occupation, The Philippine Commonwealth Army has the re-establishment of the Military General Headquarters, Military Bases and Camps here in the province of Nueva Ecija on January 3, 1942, to June 30, 1946, before the engagements of the Anti-Japanese Imperial Military Operations in Central Luzon include Nueva Ecija, Pampanga, Tarlac, Zambales, Bulacan and Northern Tayabas (now. Aurora) from 1942 to 1945 and aided the local recognized guerrillas and the Hukbalahap Communist guerrillas against the Japanese Imperial forces since the Japanese Counter-Insurgencies (1942-1944) and the Allied Liberation (1944-1945). In January to August 1945, combined American and Filipino soldiers liberated Nueva Ecija with the recognized guerrillas continuing to harass the Japanese at every opportunity. When Filipino soldiers of the 2nd, 22nd, 23rd, 25th and 26th Infantry Division of the Philippine Commonwealth Army and the 2nd Constabulary Regiment of the Philippine Constabulary was re-invading launches to entering liberated the province of Nueva Ecija and helping recognized guerrilla resistance fighter units, the Hukbalahap Communist guerrillas and the American troops against the Japanese Imperial forces during the Invasion of Nueva Ecija. On January 30, 1945, American Army Rangers, Alamo scouts and Filipino guerrillas conducted a raid to liberate Allied civilians and prisoners of war in Cabanatuan, this was successful with over 516 rescued. By January 31, 1945, the liberated civilians and POWs reached Talavera, the rescue is commemorated in Talavera. Contemporary era After the war, much rebuilding was made at the urban areas of the province, specifically Cabanatuan and Gapan. This became the focus of the administrations of Quezon, Roxas, Quirino, Magsaysay, Garcia, and Macapagal. The city of Palayan was formally established by law and became the new capital of the province. Much of the rebuilding and establishment of economic centers in the province spiraled down due to the declaration of martial law by Marcos, which was toppled by the EDSA People Power Revolution, where the namesake came from a Novo Ecijano. Repairing the economy was continued by the Aquino and Ramos governments. The Estrada government led to a decline in agriculture in the province. The Arroyo and Aquino governments swayed the losses and regained vitality in the province. The Duterte government accession made wary ups and downs in the provincial economy. Geography The province is the largest in Central Luzon, covering a total area of . Its terrain begins with the southwestern marshes near the Pampanga border. It levels off and then gradually increases in elevation to rolling hills as it approaches the mountains of Sierra Madre in the east, and the Caraballo and Cordillera Central ranges in the north. Nueva Ecija is bordered on the northeast by Nueva Vizcaya, east by Aurora, south by Bulacan, southwest by Pampanga, west by Tarlac, and northwest by Pangasinan. The province has four distinct districts. The first district (northwest) has a mixture of Ilokano, Pangasinense, and Tagalog cultures. The second district (northeast) is the most complex as it has at least 10 different ethnic groups. The third district (central) has a metropolitan culture, coming from a majority of Tagalog culture, as Cabanatuan City is within it. And the fourth district (southwest) has a mixture of Kapampangan and Tagalog cultures. Flora and fauna The species of flora and fauna in the province is diverse on its north and east borders, which exhibit a shared ecosystem with the Caraballo mountains in the north and the Sierra Madre mountains in the east. The southeast areas are also known for its diverse fauna and flora due to the presence of the Minalungao National Park. The ceratocentron fesselii orchid, which can only be found in the Pantabangan–Carranglan Watershed Forest Reserve in Carranglan, is considered one of the most critically endangered orchid species in the entire Southeast Asian region. It is endangered due to illegal gathering from the wild and due to the illegal black market trade. The forest reserve is also home to the endemic Rafflesia consueloae, which is the smallest rafflesia in the world and is found nowhere else. Philippine deer, Philippine warty pig, cloud rats, and other indigenous mouse species are also present in the province. In a recent activity, the presence of a Philippine Eagle couple was discovered in the Sierra Madre side of Nueva Ecija. The couple are now protected by the local government units in that area. Snakes, lizards, and various amphibian species are also present, especially in wetter months. Administrative divisions The province is divided into four congressional districts comprising 27 municipalities and 5 cities. The province has the most cities in the Central Luzon region. Climate Demographics The population of Nueva Ecija in the was people, with a density of . Ethnicity According to the Atlas Filipinas published by the National Commission for Culture and the Arts of the Philippines, 11 local ethnic languages with living ethnic speakers are present in Nueva Ecija, namely, Tagalog (in the entire province), Abellan (in a small part in the centre), Kapampangan (in the southwest-most section), Kankanaey (in the east central), Ilokano (northern areas and a small section in the centre), Alta (in the east central), Ayta Mag-antsi (in the centre and the north-central), Bugkalut (in Carranglan), Ibaloy (in Carranglan), Kalanguya' and 'Isinay (in Carranglan). Religion The province is predominantly Roman Catholic (about 82.43%). Other Christian groups are Iglesia ni Cristo (5.55%), Born-again Christians, Philippine Independent Church (2.50%), Evangelical (1.70%) & Methodists(1.62%). The remaining minorities (6.2%) are The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints, Jehovah's Witnesses and Seventh-day Adventist & Muslims. Anitists, and animists are also represented in the province practiced by indigenous ethnic groups. Economy Nueva Ecija is considered the main rice growing province of the Philippines and the leading producer of onions in the country. Major industries Nueva Ecija is one of the top producers of agricultural products in the country. Its principal crops is mainly rice but corn and onion are produced in quantity. The province is often referred to as the "Rice Granary of the Philippines." Other major crops are mango, calamansi (calamondin orange), banana, garlic, and vegetables. The municipality of Bongabon at the eastern part of the province at the foot of the Sierra Madre mountains and its neighbouring Laur and Rizal are the major producers of onion and garlic. Bongabon is called the "onion capital of the country". A sunflower farm is housed inside the Central Luzon State University campus in Science City of Muñoz. Education is very well established as a major industry in the province. The leading educational institutions are the Central Luzon State University in Science City of Munoz and Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology, Wesleyan University-Philippines, the only internationally accredited school in Central Luzon; College of the Immaculate Conception; La Fortuna College and Araullo University in Cabanatuan City. There are 18 tertiary level institutions in Cabanatuan City alone. Health services is a notable industry. Hospitals cater to patients from Nueva Ecija and some from neighbouring provinces. There are schools of nursing and midwifery, mostly in Cabanatuan City. There are poultry farms in a number of towns, most notably, the Lorenzo poultry farms in San Isidro which is one of the largest in the country. Duck raising and egg production is an important livelihood. Fishponds are unevenly distributed throughout the province but the largest concentrations are in San Antonio, Santa Rosa, and Cuyapo. Fabrication of tricycle "sidecars" is widespread in the province, notably in Santa Rosa, where prices are as low as PhP 7,000 which is practically the cheapest in the country. Several areas have mineral deposits. Copper and manganese have been found in General Tinio, Carranglan, and Pantabangan. The upper reaches of Carranglan and Palayan City are said to contain gold. In June 2008, it received the title "Milk Capital of the Philippines" because Nueva Ecija gathers more milk from cows and carabaos (water buffaloes) than any other place in the Philippines. The Philippine Carabao Center is in the CLSU compound in Science City of Munoz. Infrastructure Electricity Tourism Tourism in Nueva Ecija is focused on gatherings in churches, parks, and festivals. Some of these heritage areas are the Gapan Church, a Byzantine architecture church built from 1856 to 1872 which has been declared as a National Cultural Treasure, the first in the entire province; the Quezon Family Rest House in Bongabon which was also the place of death of former First Lady Aurora Quezon; Centuries-old brick walls of the Tabacalera in San Isidro remain as witness to the Novo Ecijanos' 100-year oppression, from 1782 to 1882, when the province became the center of the tobacco monopoly in Central Luzon and was thus restricted from raising other crops; the statue of Philippine hero General Antonio Luna astride a horse stands at the Cabanatuan plaza in front of the cathedral on the exact spot where the brave general was assassinated in 1899 in the city that adopted him subsequently; Site of the arrest of Philippine hero Apolinario Mabini, known as "the sublime paralytic," by the Americans on December 10, 1899, in Cuyapo; the Triala House of General Manual Tinio, built during the early Commonwealth period, it features ornately designed turn-of-the-century furniture and a life-size figure of esteemed Nove Ecijano Don Kapitan Berong in stained glass; The Grand Sedeco house in San Isidro, which General Emilio Aguinaldo frequented, marks this gallant town that has proven time and again to be cradle of Filipino heroes - it was here that General Frederick Funston planned the capture of Aguinaldo, first President of the Philippine republic, during the Philippine–American War; Wright Institute of San Isidro, of the first high schools established outside Metro Manila during the American period; the Dalton Pass located in Capintalan, Carranglan, the five-hectare area blessed with a cool climate houses the monument of General Dalton and a tower that borders the provinces of Nueva Ecija and Nueva Vizcaya - uphill is a World War II memorial in black marble where a historical account of the war had been etched in English and Japanese; the WWII Concentration Camp in Cabanatuan City; Nampicuan Church; Carranglan Church; Pantabangan Church; the grand Minalungao National Park, known for its high limestone formations sculpted by the Penaranda river; General Luna Fall in Rizal; Mount Olivete in Bongabon, which is frequented by pilgrims due to its holy spring; the Capintalan, which is a reserve known for its WWII tunnels, forests, rivers, and artifacts and has been maintained by the only Ifugao community in Nueva Ecija, located in Carranglan; Palaspas Falls in San Jose City; Gabaldon Falls in Gabaldon which is within the Sabani Estate Agricultural College; Peñaranda Church, which is one of the oldest in the province, built initially in 1887; Diamond Park in San Jose City; Pantabangan Dam, built in 1947, is the first and only rubber dam in Asia; the campus of the Philippine Rice Research Institute in Muñoz which is the main research and experimentation arm of the government for rice and other crops; Central Luzon State University, which is the most academically excellent in the province and the only Novo Ecijano university to be declared a cultural property of the nation; CLSU Agricultural Museum; Living Fish Museum in Muñoz; the Philippine Carabao Center in Muñoz, which is the main arm of the national government on carabao research and development; Mount Mapait in Palayan City; and the Philippine Eagle Exclusive Area in the Nueva Ecija Sierra Madres. Tourist attractions: Minalungao Park Pantabangan Lake Lupao Pinsal Falls Nabao Lake Fort Magsaysay Dam (Pahingahan) Tanawan Politics The Governor of Nueva Ecija is the highest-ranking official in the province, after the President of the Philippines. The province is divided into four congressional districts, which consists of 27 municipalities and five cities, namely: Cabanatuan, San Jose, Palayan, Gapan and Science City of Muñoz. The provincial capital is Palayan City. Each district has a specialization, where district 1 is known for its organic agriculture, district 2 is known for its highlands and protected forests, district 3 is known for its urban and economic settings, and district 4 is known for its diverse cultural celebrations. Each district is under a congressperson, whom represents the district at the House of Representatives in Congress. Political alliances in the province is extremely strong, with the ruling party, the Liberal Party of the Philippines, staying in power since the post-martial law era. Being an agricultural province, the main political agenda for the province is agricultural and aquacultural advancements, along with high level education, health, and job and business generation. The current governor of the province is Aurelio Umali and its vice governor is Anthony Umali. Culture Novo Ecijano culture is a mixture of Tagalog, Kapampangan, Pangasinense, Ilokano, and other indigenous cultures within the province. A melting pot of culture, the province has a varied of festivals, traditions, and beliefs that constitute Novo Ecijano heritage, along with tangible heritage structures, scenes, and objects. Cosmopolitanism Novoecijano architecture is based on indigenous Filipino types, Spanish colonial types, American colonial types, and modernist types. In rural areas, the bahay kubo is still present, but has decreased significantly. Spanish and American colonial architecture, like those in the National Capital Region, have slowly been demolished one after the other, signaling a destruction of colonial heritage. Despite this, there are still colonial structures preserved and conserved such as town churches and some houses surrounding them. The current architectural trend in the province is modernist architecture, signaling an end to colonial architecture in the province. Music The music of the Novo Ecijanos is more concentrated on the Tagalog traditional and international music. The province shares the music heritage of other Tagalog provinces such as Rizal, Batangas, Bataan, Bulacan, Quezon, and Laguna. Visual arts Many Novo ecijanos have been internationally known for their visual arts. The mediums are diverse, from garlic oil, blood, hair, threads, clays, pastels, leaves, mud, bronze, marble, cotton, pina, and paints which introduced as Indigenous Materials or Indigenouism movement started by Internationally known Hair and Blood Painter of the Philippines. Values As a general description, the distinct value system of Filipinos is rooted primarily in personal alliance systems, especially those based in kinship, obligation, friendship, religion, and commercial relationships. Filipino values are, for the most part, centered around maintaining social harmony, motivated primarily by the desire to be accepted within a group.[496] The main sanction against diverging from these values are the concepts of "Hiya", roughly translated as 'a sense of shame', and "Amor propio" or 'self-esteem'.[496] Social approval, acceptance by a group, and belonging to a group are major concerns. Caring about what others will think, say or do, are strong influences on social behavior among Filipinos. Other elements of the Filipino value system are optimism about the future, pessimism about present situations and events, concern and care for other people, the existence of friendship and friendliness, the habit of being hospitable, religious nature, respectfulness to self and others, respect for the female members of society, the fear of God, and abhorrence of acts of cheating and thievery. Dance A very Tagalog hotpot of culture, the novoecijano dance scheme is ruled by the carinosa, tinikling, and other Tagalog traditional dances. Cuisine Novo ecijano cuisine is varied. In its northwest, seafood and vegetable dishes with a lot of salt is prevalent due to its proximity with Pangasinan. In its northwest, highland crops are much prized. In its central and southern areas, food is very diverse due to its proximity with numerous sources of ingredients. Literature Novo Ecijano literature is defined by a strong nationalistic approach and a strong ethnically grounded scheme. The literature of the province is honed by the two literature departments of the Central Luzon State University, among others. The best known Tagalog novelist of the province is Lázaro Francisco. His novels depicted life in an agrarian society that gave rise to the social unrest of his period (1950s and 1960s). One of his novels was serialized by Liwayway Magazine, the most popular Tagalog magazine at that time until the 1970s. But unlike the Partido Komunista ng Pilipinas, Lazaro advocated for the peaceful resolution of the agrarian problem, relying on the benevolence of the government and the landlords. Lázaro Francisco was from Tarlac. As a child, her parents immigrated to Nueva Ecija. He practically grew up and studied in Cabanatuan. One of the elementary schools in Cabanatuan has been named after him. He was named a National Artist in 2012. He was also a Freemason, and one of the distinguished Master of Masonic Lodge 53 in Cabanatuan City. He was named a National Artist in 2012. Media Nueva Ecija has many of its own television channels and radio stations. Almost all towns have their own radio stations. Sports The most prevalent sport in the province, like in other provinces in the country, is basketball. Volleyball, badminton, cockfighting, and sepak takraw are the other big sports in the province. Games Traditional Novo Ecijano games are mainly Tagalog in nature. These games include luksong baka, patintero, piko, and tumbang preso. The novo ecijano art group "Makasining" is also a main author of "Laro ng Lahi" or Philippine Indigenous Games preservation advocacy. Festivals One of the most historic provinces of the Philippines, festivals and fiestas are celebrated in different places in Nueva Ecija. Local history, customs and traditions can be witnessed in the province's festivals of locality. Patimyas Ani Festival - Quezon, Nueva Ecija • A festival wherein elementary students from each barangay are doing street dancing and showdown in the football field in Quezon, Nueva Ecija. It celebrates every last week of January annually. Health The health issues facing the province are minimal because of the health establishments dotting all over the province. National health issues such as dengue, and malaria are on rise during rainy seasons, while HIV/AIDS is still low, but 2015 annual growth rate is unarguably high. Education The level of literacy in the province is very high. The top four universities in the province are Central Luzon State University at Science City of Muñoz, Wesleyan University Philippines, Nueva Ecija University of Science and Technology and Araullo University, all located at Cabanatuan City. The universities offer a diverse range of specializations. Every municipality also has local colleges. Central Luzon State University, a national cultural property, has also been accredited as being the twenty first to the sixth most academically excellent in the entire country. The university has also been cited as one of the 100 most significant educational institutions in Asia, overwhelming most schools in Metro Manila and other metropolitan areas in the country. Notable people General Mariano Llanera † (1855–1942) — fought in the provinces of Bulacan, Tarlac, Pampanga, and Nueva Ecija. Engr. Ponciano A. Bernardo † (December 2, 1905 — April 28, 1949) was the second Mayor of Quezon City. Ponciano Bernardo was born in Santa Rosa, Nueva Ecija, whose father immigrated from Pandi, Bulacan to PAPAYA now called General Tinio, Nueva Ecija. Ponciano Bernardo School and Ponciano Bernardo Park in Cubao, Quezon City is a memorial for him. Ponciano was killed in an ambush by Hukbalahap with the Philippine First Lady Aurora Quezon on their route to Aurora. Ponciano was appointed by the second Philippine President Manuel Quezon, prior to being Mayor he was Secretary of Department of Public Works and Highways. Ponciano was a Filipino engineer and politician who served as mayor of Quezon City, holding the position from 1947 until his death in 1949. It was during his tenure that Quezon City was designated as the capital city of the Philippines. Juan Pajota (c.1914 – 1976) was involved in the Raid at Cabanatuan, an action which took place in the Philippines on 30 January 1945 by US Army Rangers and Filipino guerrillas and resulted in the liberation of more than 500 American prisoners of war (POWs) from a Japanese POW camp near Cabanatuan City Epifanio de los Santos † (April 7, 1871 — April 18, 1928) — Epifanio de los Santos y Cristóbal, sometimes known as Don Pañong or Don Panyong he was born in 1871 in Malabon, province of Rizal, (now an independent city) to Escolastico de los Santos of Nueva Ecija and musician Antonina Cristóbal of Malabon. He was a noted Filipino historian, literary critic, art critic, jurist, prosecutor, antiquarian, archivist, scholar, painter, poet, musician, musicologist, philosopher, philologist, bibliographer, translator, journalist, editor, publisher, paleographer, ethnographer, biographer, researcher, civil servant, patriot and hero. He was appointed Director of the Philippine Library and Museum by Governor General Leonard Wood in 1925. He was appointed district attorney of San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. He was later elected as governor of Nueva Ecija in 1902 and 1904. His election victory made him the first democratically elected provincial governor and head of the Federal Party in Nueva Ecija. Ameurfina Melencio-Herrera, Filipino lawyer and jurist who served as Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines from 1979 to 1992. Herrera is a granddaughter of Emilio Aguinaldo. Felipe Padilla de León a Filipino classical music composer, conductor, and scholar. He was a 1997 National Artist of Philippines for Music. Lázaro Francisco is one of the finest Tagalog novelist. One of his novels has been serialized by Liwayway magazine, the most popular Tagalog magazine in the 1950s-1970s. A Freemason and one of the distinguished Master of Masonic Lodge 53 of Cabanatuan City, he was named National Artist in 2012. Catalino "Lino" Ortiz Brocka, also known as Lino Brocka (April 3, 1939 – May 22, 1991) born in Pilar, Sorsogon but he grew up in San Jose City, Nueva Ecija. He was a Filipino film director, widely regarded as one of the most influential and significant Filipino filmmakers in the history of Philippine cinema. In 1983, he founded the organization Concerned Artists of the Philippines (CAP), dedicated to helping artists address issues confronting the country. Francisco Fronda † (22 December 1896 – 17 February 1986) a Filipino scientist, Father of Poultry Science in the Philippines. He was a National Scientist of the Philippines for Animal Husbandry. Heber Gonzalez Bartolome (born November 4, 1948) — a Filipino folk and folk rock singer, songwriter, composer, poet, guitarist, bandurria player, bluesman, and painter. His music was influenced by the "stylistic tradition" of Philippine folk and religious melodies. Rogelio R. Sikat (Also known as Rogelio Sícat) (1940–1997) — A Filipino fictionist, playwright, translator and educator. He was born to Estanislao Sikat and Crisanta Rodriguez on June 26, 1940, in Alua, San Isidro, Nueva Ecija. He is the sixth of eight children. Sicat graduated with a B.Litt. in Journalism from the University of Santo Tomas and an M.A. in Filipino from the University of the Philippines. Dorothy Acueza Jones, also known as Nida Blanca † (January 6, 1936 – November 7, 2001) — Nida Blanca as popularly known by her stage name, was a Filipina actress. She starred in over 163 movies and 14 television shows and received over 16 awards for movies and six awards for television during her 50-year film career. She was named one of 15 Best Actress of all Time by YES magazine. Néstor de Villa † (July 6, 1928 – February 21, 2004) — was a Filipino actor frequently cast in musical films. He was a gifted dancer often paired with frequent onscreen partner Nida Blanca in both movies and television. His dancing talent led some to call him the "Fred Astaire of the Philippines", though the same moniker had also been given to Bayani Casimiro. Deo Macalma — news anchor currently working at DZRH in the Philippines. Live in Gapan City Jaime de los Santos (born April 1946, Nueva Écija — is a retired military general in the Philippines. He joined the Philippine Army in 1969 after graduating from the Philippine Military Academy with a degree Bachelor of Science in Military Engineering. De los Santos later on served as a Brigade Commander, Chief of Staff and Commanding General of an Infantry Division and Superintendent of the Philippine Military Academy. Frankie Evangelista † (July 24, 1934 — February 18, 2004) — A former radio and television broadcaster of ABS-CBN since 1953. Josepina "Josie" Padiermos Fitial (born November 25, 1962) — The current First Lady of the Northern Mariana Islands and the wife of Governor Benigno Fitial. She became First Lady upon the inauguration of her husband as the sixth governor of the Northern Mariana Islands on January 9, 2006.[1] Fred Panopio † (February 2, 1939 — April 22, 2010) — A Filipino singer and actor who rose to fame in the 1970s. Oscar A. Solis (October 13, 1953) — Oscar Azarcon Solis was born in San Jose City, Philippines. He studied at Christ the King Seminary of the Society of the Divine Word in Quezon City, Philippines, and at the Pontifical Royal Seminary, University of Santo Tomas, in Manila. After migrating to the United States in 1984, Father Solis served as associate pastor of St. Rocco's parish, New Jersey, 1984–1988. With permission from his Ordinary in the Philippines, he went to the Diocese of Houma-Thibodaux in 1988 where he was appointed associate pastor of St. Joseph Co-Cathedral. He was incardinated into the Diocese of Houma-Thibodaux in 1992, and was named pastor of St. Joseph Co-Cathedral in 1999. He has been a member of the Diocesan Priests' Council, the Personnel Committee and the College of Consultors. Solis is the first Filipino-American to be consecrated a bishop. Joe Taruc (September 18, 1946 - September 30, 2017) - Born in Gapan City, Jose Malgapo Taruc, Jr. is his full name. He is a longtime radio broadcaster of DZRH and also a host of his radio programs Pangunahing Balita and Damdaming Bayan. Anthony Taberna (January 16, 1975) — Born in San Isidro, Nueva Ecija, Anthony "Tunying" Taberna is a Filipino television news anchor and radio broadcaster. At ABS-CBN, Taberna has hosted television and radio programs covering news and public affairs. He is currently hosting Umagang Kay Ganda (where he gained popularity in the segment "Punto por Punto") and XXX: Exklusibong, Explosibong, Exposé. As a DZMM broadcaster, Taberna is one of the lead anchors for Dos Por Dos, a late afternoon show, along with Gerry Baja. Kathryn Bernardo (March 26, 1996) — Born in Cabanatuan City, Kathryn Chandria Manuel Bernardo is her full name. She is a Filipina actress and her career started in 2003. She is best known for her role as Mara in the primetime Filipino drama, Mara Clara. Kathryn is currently a contract artist of Star Magic and ABS-CBN and most recently starred as Ana Bartolome in the 2011 drama film, Way Back Home. She currently plays the main protagonist, Christina Charlota Tampipi, in the primetime series Got to Believe. Ameurfina Melencio-Herrera, Filipino lawyer and jurist who served as Associate Justice of the Supreme Court of the Philippines from 1979 to 1992. Herrera is a granddaughter of Emilio Aguinaldo. Willie Revillame (January 27, 1961) — A Novo Ecijano with roots from Cabanatuan City but he was born in Manila, Philippines. He started his career in 1986. He is a television host, actor, comedian and a recording artist in the Philippines. Elito Circa (January 28, 1970) — A Novo Ecijano from Pantabangan, Nueva Ecija better known as "Amangpintor", is a Filipino painter and folk artist, known for his indigenous human hair and blood medium for paintings with mythologism and mythicalism subject matters. He is noted as the "First Hair and Blood Painter" of his generation and known for his signature subject of Legend of Minggan. He also popularized Hand Painting performances done within five to ten minutes in a canvas of 432 square inches using the three primary colors. Jose "Kaka" Balagtas — A film director, writer, and actor. He is the Vice Mayor of San Antonio, Nueva Ecija. Joanna Cindy Miranda — A Filipina model and host from Rizal, Nueva Ecija, who won the Binibining Pilipinas-Tourism 2013 crown and will represent the country in Miss Tourism Queen International in Lhasa, Tibet in the first week of September, 2013. Paolo Ballesteros — (born November 29, 1982, in Cabanatuan City, is a Filipino actor, TV host and model. He has appeared in films and several TV shows. He has won numerous international awards, all portraying the struggles of the LGBT community. John Paul Lizardo — Also known as Japoy Lizardo, is a Filipino Taekwondo Asian Games Bronze medalist, Actor and commercial model from Cabanatuan City. Yen Santos — A Filipina actress and dancer. Part of ABS-CBN Star Magic. Had appeared in Growing Up and teleserye Pure Love. From Cabanatuan City. Jason Abalos — An actor, dancer and commercial model. Part of ABS-CBN Star Magic from Pantabangan, Nueva Ecija. Rommel Padilla — A politician, businessman, actor and endorser from Cuyapo, Nueva Ecija and Father of Daniel Padilla and Brother of Robin Padilla known for starring in the Philippine movies Lorenzo's Time (2012), Totoy Golem (1996) and Kahit Demonyo Itutumba Ko (2000). Ramon Valmonte— A writer and founder of Nueva Ecija Journal. Professor from Wesleyan University Philippines descendant of Pantaleón Valmonte y Rufino, sometimes referred to as Pantaleón Belmonte a capitan municipal (mayor) of Gapan and a general during the Philippine Revolution against Spain. Anselmo Roque— An agricultural columnist. Multiawarded journalist and educator Anselmo Roque. One of the longest-serving provincial writers of the Inquirer, Roque joined the paper in 1986 as its correspondent in Nueva Ecija province. Ryza Cenon — A Filipina actress born on December 21, 1987, in Gapan City, as Rhiza Ann Cenon Simbulan. She is an actress, known for Lovestruck (2005), Mr. & Mrs. Cruz (2018) and Sana ay ikaw na nga (2012). Renato Bautista — He was born in 1980 in Nueva Ecija, Philippines as Renato M. Bautista Jr. He is an assistant director and director, known for 'Di natatapos ang gabi (2010), Palitan (2012) and Expressway (2016). Bert Matias — He was born on July 6, 1937, in Cabanatuan City, Philippines as Lamberto I. Matias. He is an actor, known for Fred Claus (2007), Book of Swords (1996) and Renegade Force (1998). Vic Sotto — Multi-awarded Filipino actor, television host, comedian. Ruel S. Bayani — Filipino film and television director, writer, producer, who is best known for directing movies like One More Try, and No Other Woman and co-directing television shows like Budoy, Kokey, Mula Sa Puso. Samboy de Leon — Filipino professional basketball player who last played for the Star Hotshots of the Philippine Basketball Association (PBA). National Athletic Association of Schools, Colleges and Universities (NAASCU), where he was awarded the league MVP in 2014 played for CEU Scorpions. Coleen Perez — (born Coleen Nicole Perez Borgonia on 26 January 1995 in Gapan City, (Formerly known as Maricris Garcia and also known as Faye Lorenzo) is a Filipina commercial model and actress, known for her roles such as Molly Rivera in GMA Network's More Than Words. Nikki Brianne F. Samonte — better known as Nikki "Nikz" Samonte (born March 1, 2000) in Nueva Ecija is a Filipina child actress, singer and model. She is currently handled and managed by ABS-CBN's talent agency, Star Magic. Manuel Chua — (born October 29, 1980) in Cabanatuan City is a Filipino male model and actor. He was discovered in the Filipino version of the reality game show Pinoy Fear Factor which was aired on ABS-CBN, from November 2008 to February 2009. Chua currently is a member of ABS-CBN's elite circle of homegrown talents, Star Magic. Chua is currently a freelance artist. Fred Panopio — (February 2, 1939 – April 22, 2010) was a Filipino singer and actor who rose to fame in the 1970s. This particular kind of music is evident is many of his hits, such as "Pitong Gatang," "Markado," and "Tatlong Baraha". He was also an occasional actor, and appeared in several movies alongside Jess Lapid and Fernando Poe, Jr. He is also known sing the Poe's movie's theme songs.In 1999, Panopio and Victor Wood released an album and became part of the OPM legends. Kurt Isaiah Perez — (born December 1, 1997) in Cabanatuan City is a Filipino former child actor. He became famous for being the Ultimate Male Survivor of StarStruck Kids, the reality-based talent search show of GMA in the Philippines. See also List of radio stations in Nueva Ecija Super regions of the Philippines Intangible Cultural Heritage of the Philippines References External links Philippine Standard Geographic Code Local Governance Performance Management System Nueva Ecija Now and Beyond Provinces of the Philippines States and territories established in 1848 1848 establishments in the Philippines	[ -0.24771705269813538, -0.4850221276283264, 0.5147460699081421, 0.35539892315864563, -0.004170951433479786, -0.13022439181804657, -0.4203396737575531, 1.0200034379959106, -0.35397568345069885, -0.0614655502140522, 0.2374015599489212, 0.37152963876724243, -0.3221760094165802, 0.13820619881153107, -0.3655798137187958, 0.4909093976020813, 0.8112694621086121, 1.0031025409698486, -0.10815176367759705, -0.5211201906204224, -0.6653006076812744, -0.14787711203098297, 0.4168139100074768, 0.8091973662376404, 0.6442494988441467, -0.28968390822410583, -0.22223961353302002, -0.4087431728839874, 0.058607254177331924, 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255649	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dar	Dar	Dar or DAR may refer to: Settlements Dar es Salaam, the largest city of Tanzania and East Africa Dar, Azerbaijan, a village Dar, Iran, a village People Dar (tribe), a Kashmiri tribe in India and Pakistan Aleem Dar, Pakistani cricketer and international umpire Ami Dar, Israeli-American nonprofit leader Asif Dar, Pakistani-Canadian boxer Abdul Majeed Dar, commander of Hizbul Mujahideen Igal Dar (1936-1977), Israeli basketball player Noam Dar, Israeli-Scottish professional wrestler William Dar (born 1953), Filipino horticulturist and government administrator Dar Lyon, an English first-class cricketer Dar Robinson, American stunt performer and actor Dar Williams, folk-pop artist Fictional characters Dar, the main character in the 1982 fantasy movie The Beastmaster and the 1999-2002 Canadian Beastmaster TV series Dar Adal, one of the main characters in the TV Show, Homeland Abbreviation dar (disk archiver), a disk archiving tool similar to tar dar, ISO 639-3 code for the Dargwa language Darzhavna Aeroplanna Rabotilnitsa (Държавната аеропланна работилница) or DAR (ДАР), a Bulgarian aircraft manufacturer Daughters of the American Revolution Definite article reduction, a linguistic phenomenon Department of Agrarian Reform Designated Airworthiness Representative, a person authorized to issue Airworthiness Certificates in the United States Digital Assets Repository Dominion Atlantic Railway Julius Nyerere International Airport, the principal airport serving Dar es Salaam, Tanzania by IATA code Display aspect ratio Other uses Дар, Russian title of Vladimir Nabokov's book The Gift DAR!, an autobiographical webcomic by Erika Moen See also Darr (disambiguation) Secrets of the Alchemist Dar, a puzzle book by Michael Stadther Hebrew unisex given names	[ 0.099455326795578, 0.25479966402053833, -0.3306320309638977, -0.3676486611366272, -0.4887770116329193, 0.4537290930747986, 0.4974777102470398, 0.18866774439811707, -0.3875073790550232, 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255650	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hollywood%20and%20Vine	Hollywood and Vine	Hollywood and Vine, the intersection of Hollywood Boulevard and Vine Street in Hollywood, a district of Los Angeles, became known in the 1920s for its concentration of radio and movie-related businesses. The Hollywood Walk of Fame is centered on the intersection. Few production facilities are still located in the immediate area. One of the few remaining is the Capitol Records Tower to the north of the intersection. The namesake subway station for the Metro B Line is located directly below the intersection, but the entrance/exit to the station is located one block east at Hollywood and Argyle Avenue. The intersection is located in ZIP code 90028. History The area was a lemon grove until 1903, when Daeida Beveridge allowed one corner of the dirt intersection on her property to be used for the building of the Hollywood Memorial Church for the local German Methodist population. The streets were renamed in 1910, when the city of Hollywood was merged with Los Angeles. Beginning in the 1920s, during the Golden Age of Hollywood, the area began to see an influx of money and influence as movie and music businesses moved to the district, turning the local farms and orchards into movie backlots. Hollywood and Vine was the second busiest intersection in the area, after Wilshire Boulevard and Western Avenue. In the 1930s, radio station KFWB spoke of "broadcasting live from Hollywood and Vine," and newspaper columnists Hedda Hopper and Jimmie Fidler regularly touted the intersection's mystique. In 1958, the intersection became the central point of the newly installed Hollywood Walk of Fame. Later Neil Armstrong, Buzz Aldrin and Michael Collins, the astronauts of the first lunar landing mission Apollo 11, were awarded television stars for coverage of the mission, and given the places of honor at the corner of Hollywood and Vine. By the 1960s, however, many studios and broadcasters had moved onto more upscale areas, and the area fell into disrepair and disrepute, with many abandoned stores and offices, and the streets themselves, claimed by squatters and panhandlers. It took several decades for redevelopment to take hold, and visitors looking for Hollywood dreams were often taken aback by the area's contrast with shinier tourist meccas. The Hollywood/Vine subway station opened in 1999, and led to more sustained and serious redevelopment in the area. On May 29, 2003, Hollywood and Vine was named "Bob Hope Square" to commemorate Hope's 100th birthday. In urban folklore, many of the local buildings are considered to be part of "Haunted Hollywood", home to the ghosts of celebrities (and less stellar residents) of Hollywood's legendary past. The intersection has been mentioned or alluded to in dozens of songs, films, video games, music videos and other popular media, often as a symbol of Hollywood's lure as a destination for dreamers, or for its decadence and disappointments. Historic buildings The first "high-rise" building at Hollywood and Vine was the 12-story Taft Building, built in 1923 on the southeast corner on the site of the old Memorial Church. It was built for A.Z. Taft Jr. by architects Walker & Eisen, in the Renaissance Revival style. "In Hollywood's golden age, all the studios had offices there," said Hollywood Chamber of Commerce President Leron Gubler, including Charlie Chaplin and Will Rogers. From 1935 to 1945, it was home to the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences offices. On the northwest corner, the Laemmle Building was built in the International Style in 1932 by architect Richard Neutra for Carl Laemmle, head of Universal Pictures. Unfortunately, the original drawing depicting the design that Neutra intended was not built because of the 1929 stock market crash. It was significantly altered from 1940, and retained few of its original features. The building was gutted by fire in April 2008, and razed in October 2008. To the west of the Laemmle Building is another landmark International Style building, by Neutra's friend and rival Rudolf Schindler. The building was originally known for Sardi's Diner, and is now home to the Cave Theater. To the north of the Laemmle Building is a Spanish Colonial style building housing the Avalon Hollywood, opened on January 24, 1927, as the Hollywood Playhouse and designed by the architectural firm of H. L. Gogerty and Carl Jules Weyl. The building's name has changed many times over the 20th century, but was known as the Hollywood Palace for many years before its most recent renaming. [[File:Hollywood, Ca.-The Equitable Building of Hollywood-1930.jpg\|thumb\|250px\|Equitable Building of Hollywood]] On the northeast corner of Hollywood and Vine is the Equitable Building, a Gothic Deco commercial tower built in 1929 on the northeast corner, designed by Aleck Curlett. Next to it is the Art Deco movie house, the Pantages Theatre, built in 1930 by B. Marcus Priteca—the first of its kind in the United States. The Academy Award ceremonies were held at the Pantages from 1949 to 1959. On the southwest corner, the B.H. Dyas building was built in 1927 by architect Frederick Rice Dorn. The B.H Dyas Specialty Emporium was a victim of the depression. From 1931 to 1982 it housed The Broadway-Hollywood department store. The sign is a historical landmark and remains. In 2007, the Broadway Hollywood Building underwent extensive reconstruction and has opened as a luxury class apartment building. The building has an art deco style annex just to the west of it built in the 1930s. (1943). In 1927, while researching The Skyscraper for DeMille Studios, Ayn Rand visited the building and, while waiting for her contact to arrive, went to the nearby Hollywood Branch Library, where she was reunited with Frank O'Connor, whom she had lost track of 6 months earlier when DeMille's The King of Kings finished shooting; Rand and O'Connor then began dating, were married in 1929 until his death in 1979. Just to the south on Vine was the fabled Hollywood Plaza Hotel, built in 1924 and home to silent film star Clara Bow's "It Cafe". Across the street, the Hollywood Brown Derby restaurant, the second in the chain, opened in 1929 in a Spanish Colonial Revival building designed for Cecil B. DeMille; it was demolished in 1994, leaving only a part of the Derby facade, which itself was threatened with demolition as of April 2006. Farther south on Vine were the original Lasky-Paramount Studios, later NBC's West coast studios; and ABC's first West coast studios. Redevelopment and urbanization A number of high-profile projects are attempting to restore the lost luster of the area. As of May 2007, major renovations announced by the Los Angeles city council, began construction on the intersection, developments expected to cost upwards of $600-million. The new projects call for a 305-room W Hotel tower with 143 adjoining condominiums. Also part of the plan for the southeast corner of the intersection, 375 luxury apartments, restaurants, a nightclub, stores and a spa, as well as retail renovations of the Pantages Theater, similar to the Hollywood and Highland Center a mile down the Boulevard. Expected completion date is November 2009. Two other large projects are Palisades Development Group's $50-million conversion of the former Equitable office building to condominiums and Kor Group's $70-million conversion of the former Broadway department store, also into condos. Basque Nightclub fire On April 30, 2008, a large fire destroyed the Basque Nightclub at Hollywood and Vine. It required the calling of 23 fire engines. This destroyed the historic Laemmle building. References External links Hollywood Entertainment District Hollywood Boulevard - myth & reality Historic Resources Group - Historic LA Project Hollywood history and culture Hollywood Hollywood Boulevard	[ 0.6649461388587952, 0.32462379336357117, 0.4704783260822296, 0.1884993463754654, 0.6047860980033875, -0.23019661009311676, -0.12045720219612122, 0.15069587528705597, 0.3441430926322937, -0.5821105241775513, -0.2281191051006317, 0.3955153226852417, 0.17698535323143005, 0.6232796907424927, -0.47340115904808044, 0.01735580526292324, -0.15229322016239166, 0.3204791247844696, 0.6866868734359741, -0.4598926305770874, -0.22180232405662537, 0.013560117222368717, 0.3658005893230438, -0.09495612978935242, -0.1657770574092865, -0.3791402578353882, -0.6664533615112305, -0.20877638459205627, 0.25878649950027466, 0.9801434874534607, 0.29836198687553406, 0.3229152262210846, 0.02237427420914173, -0.27586790919303894, -0.500979483127594, -0.597305178642273, 0.7781575322151184, -0.1798643171787262, 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255652	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Francis%20Turner%20Palgrave	Francis Turner Palgrave	Francis Turner Palgrave (; 28 September 1824 – 24 October 1897) was a British critic, anthologist and poet. Life He was born at Great Yarmouth, the eldest son of Sir Francis Palgrave, the (born Jewish) historian to his wife Elizabeth, daughter of the banker Dawson Turner. His brothers were William Gifford Palgrave, Robert Harry Inglis Palgrave and Reginald Palgrave. His childhood was spent at Yarmouth and at his father's house in Hampstead. At fourteen he was sent as a day-boy to Charterhouse; and in 1843, having in the meanwhile travelled extensively in Italy and other parts of the continent, he won a scholarship at Balliol College, Oxford. In 1846 he interrupted his university career to serve as assistant private secretary to Gladstone, but returned, to Oxford the next year, and took a first class in Literae Humaniores. From 1847 to 1862 he was fellow of Exeter College, and in 1849 entered the Education Department at Whitehall. In 1850 Palgrave accepted the vice-principalship of Kneller Hall Training College at Twickenham. The Principal of the College was Frederick Temple, a friend from his Oxford days, who greatly added to the erudite lustre of his liberal companionship. There he also came into contact with Alfred Tennyson, with whom he laid the foundation of another lifelong friendship. When the training college was abandoned, Palgrave returned to Whitehall in 1855, becoming examiner in the Education Department, and eventually assistant secretary. He lived at the Hampstead home with his widowed father until on 30 December 1862, he married Cecil Grenville Milnes, daughter of James Milnes-Gaskell, MP for Much Wenlock and a friend of Gladstone. Temple, the Gladstones, who invited the couple to Hawarden Castle, and Tennyson were among the liberal-minded guests who attended the wedding. When they visited Hawarden again, her father had died, and Gladstone lost a good friend, for Cis accompanied her husband everywhere; to Aldworth and Farringford, Tennyson's houses, and to the Grosvenor family at the Duke of Westminster's house. Yet one of his greatest friends was Charles Alderson, with whose family he travelled to Grenoble, and whose familial Norfolk connections included the aesthete and doyenne, Lady Eastlake. Palgrave's flirtation with Liberalism came to an abrupt halt, when in 1885, he diverged with Gladstone over the Home Rule debate. While they lived at 5 York Gate, a mansion located in Regents Park, they took a holiday home, called Little Park, in 'Royalist' Lyme Regis, with a more Conservative inference; it belonged to his parents. Throughout 1870s the Palgraves paid repeated visits and stays at Hatfield House, the home of the future Conservative Prime Minister, Lord and Lady Salisbury. He was hugely impressed by the artistic beauty of the palace, its objets d'arts, fine art, and furniture being of national significance. Palgrave continued to work in the Privy Council's Education Department until he resigned his position in 1884, and in the following year succeeded John Campbell Shairp as professor of poetry at Oxford. For many years F. T. Palgrave remained the art critic for the popular Saturday Review. There was a minor scandal when he was commissioned to write a catalogue for the 1862 International Exhibition, in which he praised his friend the sculptor Thomas Woolner while simultaneously denigrating others, especially Woolner's main rival Carlo Marochetti. The well known controversialist Jacob Omnium pointed out in a series of letters to the press that the two lived together. William Holman Hunt wrote a reply supporting Palgrave and Woolner, but Palgrave was forced to withdraw the catalogue. He died in London, and was buried in the cemetery on Barnes Common. Poet/critic Palgrave published both criticism and poetry, but his work as a critic was by far the more important. His Visions of England (1880–1881) has dignity and lucidity, but little of the "natural magic" which the greatest of his predecessors in the Oxford chair considered to be the test of inspiration. His last volume of poetry, Amenophis, appeared in 1892. His criticism is considered to demonstrate fine and sensitive tact, quick intuitive perception, and generally sound judgment. His Handbook to the Fine Arts Collection, International Exhibition, 1862, and his Essays on Art (1866), though flawed, were full of striking judgments strikingly expressed. Nonetheless the critic John Ruskin wrote in 1855 on his History of Painting, "...i think it is a most valuable contribution." Palgrave was immediately encouraged to write History of Engraving which was completed in quick time, and hailed as a masterpiece. His Landscape in Poetry (1897) showed wide knowledge and critical appreciation of one of the most attractive aspects of poetic interpretation. But Palgrave's principal contribution to the development of literary taste was contained in his Golden Treasury of English Songs and Lyrics (1861), an anthology of the best poetry in the language constructed upon a plan sound and spacious, and followed out with a delicacy of feeling which could scarcely be surpassed. Palgrave followed it with a Treasury of Sacred Song (1889), and a second series of the Golden Treasury (1897), including the work of later poets, but in neither of these was quite the same exquisiteness of judgment preserved. Among his other works were The Passionate Pilgrim (1858), a volume of selections from Robert Herrick entitled Chrysomela (1877), a memoir of Arthur Hugh Clough (1862) and a critical essay on Sir Walter Scott (1866) as a preface to an edition of his poems. He published a small collection of hymns in 1867 which ran to three editions, each slightly enlarged. Palgrave was also a hymn-writer using the words, on one occasion, the Elizabethan version of 120th Psalm 'O Thou not made with hands' into a hymn. The highly poetical 'Little Child's Hymn' held great sentimental meaning for his daughter and biographer Gwenllian. Notes References External links Palgrave, Francis Turner [Frank] (1824–1897) 1824 births 1897 deaths Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford Fellows of Exeter College, Oxford Anthologists Oxford Professors of Poetry English Jewish writers English male poets English people of Jewish descent 19th-century English poets 19th-century English male writers People from Great Yarmouth	[ -0.04122701287269592, 0.44620153307914734, -1.0646508932113647, -0.5967593193054199, -0.12542428076267242, 1.2758415937423706, 1.0215544700622559, 0.17479778826236725, -0.3446384370326996, -0.4336283504962921, -0.5216227173805237, -0.1583089381456375, -0.12440278381109238, 0.036513473838567734, 0.16609908640384674, 0.18453815579414368, -0.7602019906044006, -0.48427334427833557, -0.09736020117998123, -0.25124093890190125, -0.24100032448768616, -0.10584600269794464, 0.6778091788291931, -0.339107483625412, -0.4801499545574188, -0.5600147247314453, 0.16824482381343842, -0.3580503463745117, -0.10610328614711761, 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255653	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Live%20Between%20Us	Live Between Us	Live Between Us is the first full-length live album by Canadian rock band The Tragically Hip. The album was recorded on November 23, 1996, at Cobo Arena in Detroit, Michigan, during the band's North American tour in support of Trouble at the Henhouse. Lead singer Gordon Downie was known for his intensity and spontaneity during the band's live concerts such as telling rants/stories, observations, and random comments before, during, and after songs, among other things. As such, this live recording documents him incorporating snippets of other songs in the middle of the band's own songs. This includes John Lennon's "Imagine" during "Grace, Too", Crowded House's "Into Temptation" during "Twist My Arm", David Bowie/Iggy Pop's "China Girl" and The Beach Boys' "Don't Worry Baby" during "New Orleans Is Sinking", and both Jane Siberry's "The Temple" and Rheostatics' "Bad Time to Be Poor" during "Nautical Disaster"; in addition, a lyrical snippet from Downie's own solo song "Every Irrelevance" is spoken as the introduction to "Ahead by a Century", and part of the band's own unreleased but widely bootlegged song "Montreal" appears in "Courage". Rheostatics were the opening act on the tour as documented by this album's liner notes, and announced by Downie during the fade-in at the beginning of the album's first track. In the week of the album's release, eight songs from the album appeared in the week's Top 20 singles chart. The title comes from graffiti in Kingston, Ontario, which read "The Hip live between us." This graffiti was penned by early band member Davis Manning, describing the impact that the band was having on his relationship with his girlfriend. The mural remained on the wall until the mid-2000s when it was painted over by the property owner. However, it is immortalized on the CD graphic. Commercial performance Live Between Us sold 35,000 units in its first two days and debuted at #1 on the Canadian Albums Chart on the strength of the first two days' sales. The album was certified double platinum on August 19, 1997. The album sold 400,000 units by the end of 1997. Between 1996 and 2016, Live Between Us was the best-selling live album by a Canadian band in Canada and the third best-selling live album by a Canadian artist overall in Canada. In Flanders, Live Between Us debuted at #47. Track listing "Grace, Too" – 6:18 "Fully Completely" – 4:11 "Springtime in Vienna" – 4:37 "Twist My Arm" – 4:05 "Gift Shop" – 5:09 "Ahead by a Century" – 5:25 "The Luxury" – 4:08 "Courage" – 5:08 "New Orleans Is Sinking" – 6:22 "Don't Wake Daddy" – 5:30 "Scared" – 5:00 "Blow at High Dough" – 4:54 "Nautical Disaster" – 5:31 "The Wherewithal" – 4:14 References The Tragically Hip albums 1997 live albums MCA Records live albums	[ 0.6932283639907837, -0.0018452293006703258, -0.5703505873680115, 0.0274660661816597, 0.32666489481925964, 0.1406528651714325, 0.2549934387207031, 0.05262861028313637, 0.2663123309612274, -0.4614853262901306, 0.4553256928920746, 0.6759032607078552, -0.36680400371551514, -0.2599932551383972, 0.1056358590722084, 0.05742384120821953, 0.08376441895961761, 0.14253219962120056, 0.626983106136322, -0.49372971057891846, 0.052115298807621, -0.203897625207901, 0.1913774162530899, -0.1511472761631012, -0.6762423515319824, 0.27834078669548035, -0.13161391019821167, 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255657	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phenacyl%20chloride	Phenacyl chloride	Phenacyl chloride, also commonly known as chloroacetophenone, is a substituted acetophenone. It is a useful building block in organic chemistry. Apart from that, it has been historically used as a riot control agent, where it is designated CN. It should not be confused with cyanide, another agent used in chemical warfare, which has the chemical structure CN−. Preparation Phenacyl chloride is readily available and was first prepared by chlorination of acetophenone vapour. It may be also be synthesized by the Friedel-Crafts acylation of benzene using chloroacetyl chloride, with an aluminium chloride catalyst: Riot control agent It was investigated, but not used, during the First and Second World Wars. Because of its significantly greater toxicity, it has largely been supplanted by CS gas. Even though CN is still supplied to paramilitary and police forces in a small pressurized aerosol known as “Mace” or tear gas, its use is falling as pepper spray both works and disperses more quickly than CN and is less toxic than CN. The term "Mace" came into being because it was the brand-name invented by one of the first American manufacturers of CN aerosol sprays. Subsequently, in the United States, Mace became synonymous with tear-gas sprays in the same way that Kleenex has become strongly associated with facial tissues (a phenomenon known as a genericized trademark). Like CS gas, this compound irritates the mucous membranes (oral, nasal, conjunctival and tracheobronchial). Sometimes it can give rise to more generalized reactions such as syncope, temporary loss of balance and orientation. More rarely, cutaneous irritating outbreaks have been observed and allergic contact permanent dermatitis. At high concentrations, CN may cause corneal epithelial damage and chemosis. It has also accounted for at least five deaths, which have resulted from pulmonary injury and/or asphyxia. TRPA1 (Transient Receptor Potential-Ankyrin 1) ion channel expressed on nociceptors (especially trigeminal) has been implicated as the site of action for CN, in vivo and in vitro References External links Riot control agents Lachrymatory agents Organochlorides Aromatic ketones Acetophenones	[ 0.050221022218465805, 0.2336360365152359, -0.09569323062896729, -0.09602457284927368, -0.47547242045402527, -0.20748642086982727, 0.03503851592540741, -0.058564990758895874, 0.0309924203902483, 0.27217984199523926, -0.5045346021652222, 0.3794519305229187, -0.6236534118652344, 0.5080042481422424, 0.33898770809173584, 0.7136346101760864, 1.0839290618896484, 0.912900984287262, -0.1349402219057083, -0.570968508720398, -0.08042823523283005, 0.24850420653820038, 0.07488080114126205, -0.6218211650848389, 0.8393279910087585, 0.06683845818042755, 0.13419058918952942, 0.1235748827457428, 0.5031313300132751, -0.11569103598594666, 0.6590695977210999, 0.5081002116203308, 0.6429853439331055, 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255662	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Campbell%20Shairp	John Campbell Shairp	John Campbell Shairp (30 July 1819 – 18 September 1885) was a Scottish critic and man of letters. Life He was born at Houstoun House, Linlithgowshire, the third son of Major Norman Shairp of Houstoun, and was educated at Edinburgh Academy and the University of Glasgow. Shairp gained a Shell exhibition to Balliol College, Oxford in 1840. In 1842 he won the Newdigate prize for a poem on Charles XII of Sweden, and took his degree in 1844. During these years the "Oxford Movement" was at its height. Shairp was stirred by John Henry Newman's sermons, and admired the poetry of John Keble, on whose character and work he wrote an essay; but he remained faithful to his Presbyterian upbringing. After leaving Oxford he took a mastership at Rugby School under Archibald Campbell Tait. In 1857 Shairp became assistant to the professor of humanity in the University of St Andrews, and in 1861 he was appointed to that chair. In 1868 he was presented to the principalship of the United College, St Andrews, and lectured from time to time on literary and ethical subjects. In 1877 he was elected Professor of Poetry at Oxford in succession to Francis Hastings Doyle. He was re-elected to the chair of poetry in 1882, and discharged his duties there and at St Andrews till the end of 1884. He was a friend and correspondent of the Scottish poet and composer, Mary Maxwell Campbell, who lived at St Andrews. Shairp died at Ormsary, Argyllshire. Works In 1864 Shairp published Kilmahoe, a Highland Pastoral, and in 1868 he republished some articles under the name of Studies in Poetry and Philosophy. A course of lectures was published in 1870 as Culture and Religion. In 1873 Shairp helped to edit the life of his predecessor James David Forbes, and in 1874 he edited Dorothy Wordsworth's Recollections of a Tour in Scotland. In 1877 Shairp published The Poetic Interpretation of Nature, in which he discussed science and poetry, and Hebrew, classical and English poets. In 1879 he contributed a life of Robert Burns to the "English Men of Letters" series. Lectures from his Oxford Professorship were published in 1881 as Aspects of Poetry. In 1888 appeared Glen Desseray, and other Poems, edited by Francis Turner Palgrave. References Further reading W. A. Knight, Principal Shairp and his Friends (1888). External links Attribution 1819 births 1885 deaths 19th-century Scottish writers Scottish poets Academics of the University of St Andrews Principals of the University of St Andrews Scottish literary critics Oxford Professors of Poetry 19th-century British journalists British male journalists Alumni of Balliol College, Oxford 19th-century Scottish poets Scottish male poets 19th-century British male writers	[ -0.04611104354262352, 0.6996651291847229, -0.8350781798362732, -0.888924777507782, -0.32244810461997986, 0.8698716163635254, 1.251688003540039, 0.3292267918586731, -0.2979552745819092, -0.4397169351577759, -0.7931617498397827, 0.14340434968471527, -0.16931553184986115, 0.8139188885688782, 0.12241413444280624, 0.2945021986961365, -0.48421311378479004, -0.15895327925682068, -0.4549039900302887, -0.042745981365442276, -0.3938666880130768, -0.27281951904296875, 0.5751879811286926, -0.26491600275039673, -0.25678011775016785, -0.5618035793304443, 0.3190191984176636, -0.08054781705141068, 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255665	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isabella%20II%20of%20Jerusalem	Isabella II of Jerusalem	Isabella II (12124 May 1228), also known as Yolande of Brienne, was a princess of French origin who became monarch of Jerusalem. Infant Queen Isabella II was born in Andria, in the southern Italian Kingdom of Sicily. She was the only child of Maria of Montferrat, Queen of Jerusalem, and John of Brienne. Maria was the daughter of Queen Isabella I of Jerusalem by her second husband Conrad I, and heiress, on her mother's death, of the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Maria died shortly after giving birth to Isabella II in 1212, possibly by puerperal fever. Because of this, Isabella II was proclaimed Queen of Jerusalem when she was only a few days old. Because her father John did not have a direct claim on the throne, he ruled as regent. Marriage with Frederick II During a meeting between John of Brienne, Pope Honorius III and Frederick II in the city of Ferentino in 1223, Isabella's fate was decided: Frederick accepted to finally go to the Crusade, but only as the legitimate King of Jerusalem, and this was only possible if he agreed to take the young Queen Isabella II as his wife (by this time, Frederick was a widower). This was planned by the Pope, who hoped by this bond to attach the Emperor firmly to the Sixth Crusade. The betrothal was confirmed, but the Emperor still delayed his departure until August 1225, when he and Isabella were married by proxy in the City of Acre. Days later, Isabella II was crowned as Queen of Jerusalem. Isabella arrived in Italy with twenty galleys sent by Frederick II to bring her to her father and married in person to Frederick II in the cathedral of Brindisi, on 9 November 1225. During the ceremony, Frederick declared himself King of Jerusalem and immediately saw to it that his new father-in-law John of Brienne, the current regent of Jerusalem, was dispossessed and his rights transferred to him. The contemporary chronicles described the exotic wedding celebrations, which took place in the Castle of Oria, and the indignant reaction of her father John of Brienne, now without royal authority. Death After the wedding, Isabella was kept in seclusion by her husband, in Palermo. Aged 14, in November 1226, she gave birth to her first child, a daughter (referred to by some sources as Margaret); the baby died in August 1227. Isabella died 4 May after giving birth to her second child, a son, Conrad, in Andria, Bari, on 25 April 1228. She was buried in the Andria Cathedral. Ancestry Notes References Uwe A. Oster: Die Frauen Kaiser Friedrichs II, Piper, Munich 2008. Jacqueline Alio: Queens of Sicily 1061-1266, Trinacria, New York 2018. Alberto Gentile: LE QUATTRO MOGLI DI FEDERICO II: FRA MITO E REALTÀ (Italian) in stupormundi.it [retrieved 22 May 2014]. 1212 births 1228 deaths 13th-century kings of Jerusalem 13th-century women rulers 13th-century women of the Holy Roman Empire Queens regnant of Jerusalem 15th-century Italian women Holy Roman Empresses Italian queens consort German queens consort Royal consorts of Sicily Medieval child rulers House of Brienne Frederick II, Holy Roman Emperor Deaths in childbirth 15th-century Sicilian people	[ -0.5524747371673584, 0.18861499428749084, 0.24838729202747345, -0.044518083333969116, -0.41865864396095276, 0.4964781701564789, 0.13403785228729248, -0.23728236556053162, -0.33984747529029846, -0.2483552098274231, -0.058230768889188766, -0.090085469186306, 0.2281491458415985, -0.07238483428955078, -0.6012571454048157, 0.3176564574241638, 0.5244166254997253, 0.36102941632270813, -0.2771768569946289, -0.8392924666404724, 0.3569982349872589, -0.0008939398685470223, 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255667	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karnack%2C%20Texas	Karnack, Texas	Karnack is a rural unincorporated community in northeastern Harrison County near Caddo Lake in the eastern region of the U.S. state of Texas. The town is named after Karnak, Egypt (near modern-day Luxor). It was thought that the community's alignment with the city of Port Caddo was relative to that of Karnak and Thebes. The Caddo Lake National Wildlife Refuge, formerly the Longhorn Army Ammunition Plant, is located in Karnack. Geography Karnack is located in the pine woods of Northeast Texas and beside Caddo Lake, one of the largest natural lakes in the Southeast. The surrounding country is mostly farm and timber land. According to The Handbook of Texas, Caddo Lake was one of the largest natural lakes in Texas before the construction of Caddo Dam in 1900 made the lake even larger. It is often called Texas' only natural lake, but many small natural lakes and oxbow lakes are found in Texas. The climate in this area is characterized by hot, humid summers and generally mild to cool winters. According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Karnack has a humid subtropical climate, abbreviated "Cfa" on climate maps. Education Karnack is served by the Karnack Independent School District. Karnack Elementary School and Karnack Junior/Senior High School serve the community. Notable people Lady Bird Johnson, former First Lady of the United States, born and raised in Karnack. 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255668	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jack%20Kennedy%20%28disambiguation%29	Jack Kennedy (disambiguation)	Jack Kennedy is a common popular reference to John F. Kennedy (1917–1963), the 35th president of the United States. Jack Kennedy may also refer to: Jack Kennedy (footballer, born 1873), Scottish international football player Jack Kennedy (footballer, born 1906), English football player Jack Kennedy (hurler), Irish forward Jack Kennedy (jockey) (born 1999), Irish jockey Jack Kennedy (train robber) (c. 1870–1922), American outlaw Jack Kennedy (Virginia politician) (born 1956), member of the Virginia House of Delegates Uncle Jack Kennedy (1919–2005), activist and spokesman for Australian Aboriginal rights See also John Kennedy (disambiguation)	[ -0.08492252230644226, 0.5449856519699097, -0.9550707936286926, 0.0909121185541153, 0.23116710782051086, 0.1972140222787857, 0.7081289887428284, 0.3349202573299408, -0.8547004461288452, 0.22575396299362183, -0.2697504758834839, 0.02809889428317547, -0.519022524356842, 0.6581017374992371, 0.25450462102890015, 0.3225793242454529, -0.001346722012385726, 0.7745977640151978, -0.02523893676698208, -0.5239125490188599, 0.10771623253822327, 0.12735602259635925, 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255669	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ameritech	Ameritech	AT&T Teleholdings, Inc., formerly known as Ameritech Corporation (and before that American Information Technologies Corporation), is an American telecommunications company that arose out of the 1984 AT&T divestiture. Ameritech was one of the seven Regional Bell Operating Companies that was created following the breakup of the Bell System. Ameritech was acquired in 1999 by SBC Communications, which subsequently acquired AT&T Corporation in 2006, becoming the present-day AT&T. Overview Ameritech was created as a holding company that owned five former Bell System companies in the Midwest. Under its umbrella were: Illinois Bell Telephone Company Indiana Bell Telephone Company, Inc. Michigan Bell Telephone Company Ohio Bell Telephone Company Wisconsin Bell, Inc. For Ameritech's first nine years, it maintained these Bell brands inherited from the Bell System—though public displays of the Bell companies' names were often captioned "An Ameritech Company". In January 1993, Ameritech officially retired the Bell brands and marketed itself with solely the Ameritech name across all five states in its territory. It added "d/b/a Ameritech (state)" to the names of its Bells to communicate brand unity. Ameritech also owned Ameritech Cellular, a wireless company that operated cellular networks in many of the major cities of these states. Ameritech Cellular was previously called Ameritech Mobile Communications. Ameritech Advanced Data Services (AADS) Network Access Point (NAP) was one of the original four National Science Foundation exchange points in the United States starting in 1994. AADS was a Tier 1 network Internet Exchange Point in Chicago, Illinois that provided service to higher education and research networks via a program called Star TAP and commercial networks. After the merger with SBC, AADS did business as the SBC Network Access Point or SBC/AADS NAP. Prior to its merger with SBC Communications, Ameritech's corporate headquarters were in a leased space above the Chicago Mercantile Exchange on floors 34 through 39 of 30 S Wacker Dr, Chicago. Further corporate offices were located at 225 W Randolph St, Chicago (formerly "The Illinois Bell Building") and 2000 W. Ameritech Center Drive, Hoffman Estates) ("The Ameritech Center"). It was traded on the NYSE under the "AIT" symbol. Merger with SBC Communications In May 1998, Ameritech announced its intent to merge with SBC Communications. This brought great concern to Federal and state regulators, who in turn didn't approve the merger until SBC and Ameritech agreed to several conditions to ensure adequate competition. Most notably, regulators required: that the merged company offer local phone service in thirty markets outside of its home territory within thirty months of the merger (i.e. by April 2002) or pay a $1.18B penalty and that Ameritech Cellular assets in Chicago be sold to GTE. Since SBC already had a majority stake in a large mobile provider (Cellular One), the merged company, if it were to operate Ameritech Cellular and Cellular One both in the same market, would have wielded too much market power. SBC and Ameritech officially merged on October 8, 1999. Prior to the merger, Ameritech's Chairman and CEO was Richard Notebaert, who later (in 2002) became CEO of competitor Qwest. The end of the Ameritech name On January 15, 2003, SBC Communications changed its d/b/a names, changed the legal name of Ameritech Corp. to SBC Teleholdings, Inc., which began doing business as SBC Midwest. On January 15, 2006, d/b/a names were again changed, and Ameritech was again renamed, becoming AT&T Teleholdings, Inc. and began doing business as AT&T Midwest. Several Ameritech subsidiaries remain legally named "Ameritech", such as Ameritech Advanced Services; however, they do business as "AT&T Advanced Solutions". In 2006, the holding companies Pacific Telesis and Southern New England Telecommunications were legally merged into AT&T Teleholdings. The company then became a holding company for Pacific Bell (and its subsidiary Nevada Bell) and Southern New England Telephone. In popular culture The Ameritech name was used in the storyline of the U.S. television miniseries Amerika to refer to one of the "sovereign" autonomous regions—Ameritech's regional operating area, the Great Lakes area of North America—that the former United States was divided into in result of the fictional Soviet occupation that is the base premise of the miniseries' plot. See also Ameritech Library Services (Dynix) References External links Bell System Memorial's RBOC page Archive of Ameritech Intercept Messages FCC APPROVES SBC-AMERITECH MERGER SUBJECT TO COMPETITION-ENHANCING CONDITIONS (FCC decree allowing merger) RBOCs (Regional Bell Operating Company) Bell System AT&T subsidiaries History of Chicago Companies based in Chicago 1983 establishments in Illinois Defunct telecommunications companies of the United States Telecommunications companies established in 1983 American companies established in 1983 1999 mergers and acquisitions	[ 0.18609565496444702, -0.0821094661951065, 0.19633707404136658, 0.5608692765235901, 0.647891104221344, 0.29173046350479126, -0.5359970331192017, 0.18278765678405762, 0.3160839378833771, -0.041105031967163086, -0.07250608503818512, 0.48237067461013794, 0.2157154679298401, 0.3851252794265747, 0.030345529317855835, -0.16614778339862823, -0.38540613651275635, 0.49374207854270935, -0.17015425860881805, -0.6097155213356018, 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255670	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20David%20Forbes	James David Forbes	James David Forbes (1809–1868) was a Scottish physicist and glaciologist who worked extensively on the conduction of heat and seismology. Forbes was a resident of Edinburgh for most of his life, educated at its University and a professor there from 1833 until he became principal of the United College of St Andrews in 1859. He invented the seismometer in 1842. Life and work Forbes was born on 20 April 1809 at 86 George Street in Edinburgh, the fourth son of Sir William Forbes, 7th Baronet, of Monymusk and Pitsligo (1773–1828) and Williamina Belches of Invermay. His brothers were the advocate and agriculturalist Sir John Stuart Hepburn Forbes of Fettercairn and Pitsligo and the banker Charles Forbes. He entered the University of Edinburgh in 1825, and soon afterwards began to contribute papers to the Edinburgh Philosophical Journal anonymously under the signature "Δ". At the age of nineteen he became a fellow of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, and in 1832 he was elected to the Royal Society of London. At this time he maintained correspondence with Sir David Brewster, who encouraged him to pursue an original research in science. A year later he was appointed professor of natural philosophy at the University of Edinburgh in succession to Sir John Leslie, and during his tenure of that office, which he did not give up till 1860, he not only proved himself an active and efficient teacher, but also did much to improve the internal conditions of the university. In 1859 he was appointed successor to Brewster in the principalship of the United College of St Andrews, a position which he held until his death at Clifton in 1868. As a scientific investigator he is best known for his researches on heat and on glaciers. Between 1836 and 1844 he published in the Trans. Roy. Soc. Ed. four series of "Researches on Heat," in the course of which he demonstrated that tourmaline would polarise infrared thermal radiation, by transmission through a bundle of thin mica plates inclined to the transmitted ray, and by reflection from the multiplied surfaces of a pile of mica plates placed at the polarising angle, and also its circular polarisation by two internal reflections in rhombs of rock salt. His work won him the Rumford Medal of the Royal Society in 1838, and in 1843 he received its Royal Medal for a paper on the "Transparency of the Atmosphere and the Laws of Extinction of the Sun's Rays passing through it." In 1846 he began experiments on the temperature of the earth at different depths and in different soils near Edinburgh, which yielded determinations of the thermal conductivity of trap-tufa, sandstone and pure loose sand. Towards the end of his life he was occupied with experimental inquiries into the laws of the conduction of heat in iron bars, and his last piece of work was to show that the thermal conductivity of iron diminishes with increase of temperature. His attention was directed to the question of the flow of glaciers in 1840 when he met Louis Agassiz at the Glasgow meeting of the British Association, and in subsequent years he made several visits to Switzerland, where he was particularly impressed by Bernhard Studer's theories, and also to Norway for the purpose of obtaining accurate data. His observations led him to the view that a glacier is an imperfect fluid or a viscous body which is urged down slopes of a certain inclination by the mutual pressure of its parts, and involved him in some controversy with Tyndall and others both as to priority and to scientific principle. A notable defender of Forbes in this controversy was John Ruskin, the two having first met by coincidence in 1844 during a study tour of the Alps. During these expeditions, he made many measurements of the boiling point of water at various altitudes. This data set, published in 1857, is often known in statistics as Forbes's data, its utility being that: It illustrates how a curvilinear relationship between a dependent and independent variable can be transformed into a linear model by knowledge of the physical phenomenon observed. It emphasises the importance of residuals analysis in linear regression as the residuals manifest an outlier that is not apparent in a visual inspection of the raw data. Forbes was also interested in geology, and published memoirs on the thermal springs of the Pyrenees, on the extinct volcanoes of the Vivarais (Ardèche), on the geology of the Cuchullin and Eildon hills, etc. In addition to about 150 scientific papers, he wrote Travels through the Alps of Savoy and Other Parts of the Pennine Chain, with Observations on the Phenomena of Glaciers (1843); Norway and its Glaciers (1853); Occasional Papers on the Theory of Glaciers (1859); A Tour of Mont Blanc and Monte Rosa (1855). He was also the author (1852) of the "Dissertation on the Progress of Mathematical and Physical Science," published in the eighth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica. The Forbes River and Forbes Glaciers in New Zealand are named after him as is Aiguille Forbes between the Glacier de Saleina and the Glacier du Tour in the Mont Blanc massif. James David Forbes was a devout Christian, as can be seen in the work "Life and Letters of James David Forbes" (1873), a compilation of personal letters written by Forbes, co-authored by John Campbell Shairp and Forbes's student Peter Guthrie Tait. He died on 31 December 1868 and is buried in Dean Cemetery in Edinburgh. The grave is marked by a simple but large grey granite Celtic cross and lies on the south side of the main path just west of the roundel. His wife, Alicia Wauchope (1824–1885), is buried with him. His cousins were Scottish Episcopal Church leaders Alexander Penrose Forbes and George Hay Forbes. His son was the scientist George Forbes. Selected publications References Further reading Professor Forbes and his Biographers, by John Tyndall (1873) External links Pictures and texts of Travels through the Alps of Savoy and other parts of the Pennine Chain by James David Forbes can be found in the database VIATIMAGES. Forbes's seismometer. 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255678	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winchester%20manuscript	Winchester manuscript	The Winchester manuscript may refer to: the oldest surviving manuscript of the Anglo-Saxon Chronicle, which is now in Cambridge a manuscript of Malory's Le Morte d'Arthur, which is now in the British Library	[ -0.11699208617210388, 0.1839117854833603, -0.3565787076950073, -0.33369165658950806, -0.15133902430534363, 0.5150523781776428, 0.1426212638616562, 0.14901962876319885, -0.726966142654419, -0.47714346647262573, -0.49365687370300293, -0.24347761273384094, 0.014948415569961071, 0.04788670316338539, 0.18656055629253387, -0.013655955903232098, 0.20356670022010803, 0.0894259437918663, 0.22903355956077576, -0.7424236536026001, 0.014261139556765556, -0.0008715799194760621, -0.18951202929019928, -0.4829063415527344, 0.30965709686279297, -0.28316158056259155, 0.1541755497455597, -0.8684682846069336, -0.49487656354904175, 0.25261735916137695, -0.4104481041431427, 0.9162907004356384, 0.35310858488082886, 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255680	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Starlight%20Express	Starlight Express	Starlight Express is a 1984 British musical, with music by Andrew Lloyd Webber and lyrics by Richard Stilgoe. Later productions have used additional songs with lyrics by Don Black, David Yazbek, Nick Coler and Lauren Aquilina, and with music by Andrew Lloyd Webber's son, Alistair. The musical tells the story of a young but obsolete steam engine, Rusty, who races in a championship against modern engines in the hope of impressing a first-class carriage, Pearl. Famously, the actors perform the entire show on roller skates. The show holds the record as the ninth-longest-running theatrical production in West End history, having been performed 7,409 times between 1984 and 2002. Starlight Express is also the most successful musical in Germany, where it has been performed in a purpose-built theatre since 1988. Background According to Andrew Lloyd Webber, Starlight Express has its roots in three abandoned projects: an animated TV series based on Thomas the Tank Engine, a novelty pop single, and an animated film based on Cinderella. In 1974, Lloyd Webber approached author Reverend W. Awdry about adapting Awdry's Thomas the Tank Engine stories as an animated TV series. Following the meeting, Lloyd Webber started composing, with actor and children's TV writer Peter Reeves contributing lyrics. They pitched their material to Granada TV, who commissioned a pilot episode. The episode was completed in early 1976, but Granada ultimately decided not to produce a full series as they feared that Awdry's stories were not then popular enough outside the UK to justify investing the time and money needed to make the series. (Ironically, the Thomas the Tank Engine series later premiered seven months after Starlight Express and became highly successful.) After withdrawing from the project, Lloyd Webber heard a recording of an American soul singer, Earl Jordan, who could sing three notes at once in the style of a steam whistle. Lloyd Webber and Peter Reeves wrote a novelty pop song for Jordan called "Engine of Love", which was released in 1977. The song failed to chart, but "Engine of Love" went on to feature in some productions of Starlight Express and the melody was also later used for "He'll Whistle At Me". Around the same time as writing "Engine of Love", an American TV station invited Lloyd Webber to compose songs for an animated film of Cinderella. In this version of the story, the Prince would hold a competition to decide which engine would pull the royal train across the United States of America. Cinderella would be a steam engine and the ugly sisters would be a diesel engine and an electric engine. The project went into development hell, but Lloyd Webber remained interested in the idea of telling a story with trains. Starlight Express proper began in early 1981. Lloyd Webber asked lyricist Richard Stilgoe to help him revive the idea as a concert for schools, in the style of Lloyd Webber's breakthrough musical, Joseph and the Amazing Technicolor Dreamcoat. Lloyd Webber and Stilgoe presented two songs the following summer at the Sydmonton Festival, Lloyd Webber's private event for showcasing new work. The director Trevor Nunn watched the performance and offered to help develop the material from something "twee" to something with more "spectacle and theatre magic". Together, Lloyd Webber, Stilgoe and Nunn developed the story to include the idea of trains and coaches racing. The choreographer Arlene Phillips was brought on board along with the designer John Napier, who suggested staging the show on roller skates. In 1983 the first act of Starlight Express was workshopped by Nunn and Phillips with a cast that included the comedian Tracey Ullman. Based on the workshop's success, Starlight Express went into full-scale production, eventually opening in March 1984. Synopsis Starlight Express has been revised many times since it was first produced. Each professional production has differed from the last. These differences range from tweaks to lyrics, to the omission or inclusion of entire songs, characters and sub-plots. Throughout Starlight Expresss history, however, the fundamental story has stayed the same: a young but obsolete steam engine, Rusty, races in a championship against modern engines in the hope of impressing a first-class carriage, Pearl. This plot summary reflects the show as it was first produced, in the West End in 1984. Act 1 The reigning champion – a diesel engine from the USA called Greaseball – enters with his cavalcade train of several other diesel engines and three freight trucks. They boast of diesel's supremacy ("Rolling Stock"). Next, a steam engine called Rusty enters. Greaseball mocks Rusty, who replies that he will win the championship, despite steam being obsolete compared to diesel ("Call Me Rusty"). Control intervenes and orders Rusty to collect a passenger train from the marshalling yard. He returns with four coaches that make up the passenger train: a dining car called Dinah, a smoking car called Ashley, a buffet car called Buffy, and an observation car called Pearl. Control sends Rusty away to fetch a freight train as the coaches introduce themselves to the audience ("A Lotta Locomotion"). Greaseball returns. He boasts again, this time to the coaches ("Pumping Iron"). Rusty returns with the six trucks that make up the freight train: three boxcars called Rocky 1, Rocky 2 and Rocky 3, a brick truck called Flat-Top, an aggregate hopper called Dustin and a brake truck called C.B.. They introduce themselves to the audience and argue with the coaches over whether it is preferable to carry people or cargo ("Freight"). Control declares entries for the championship open. Six trains arrive to challenge Greaseball: Bobo, the French Sud-Est, Espresso, the Italian Settebello, Weltschaft, the German Class 103, Turnov, the Trans-Siberian Express from Russia, Hashamoto, the Japanese Shinkansen Bullet Train, and the City of Milton Keynes, the Advanced Passenger Train from Great Britain. Entries are about to close when a surprise entry – an electric engine called Electra – arrives. Accompanied by his train of five components – an armaments truck called Krupp, a repair truck called Wrench, a money truck called Purse, a freezer truck called Volta and an animal truck called Joule – Electra declares that electricity is the future of the railways ("AC/DC"). Greaseball and Electra square up to each other as the entrants form a parade to celebrate the race ("Coda of Freight"). Control announces the rules of the championship: the trains will compete in pairs, with an engine pulling a coach. There will be three elimination heats, and the winner of each heat will move on to the finals to decide the fastest train. The engines start to pick their coaches. Rusty offers to race with Pearl, but she rejects him, explaining that she is waiting for her 'dream train' ("He Whistled at Me"). Electra's messenger, Purse, enters with an invitation from Electra. Even though Electra is not her dream train either, she accepts, leaving Rusty alone. The first heat pits Greaseball and Dinah against Espresso and Buffy, and Hashamoto and C.B.. C.B. sabotages Hashamoto by applying his brakes at key moments in the race. Greaseball and Dinah win comfortably, claiming a place in the finals. After the race, Dinah objects to Greaseball's cheating. In response he abandons her and C.B. comforts Dinah ("There's Me"). Meanwhile, a lonely Rusty has retreated to the freight yard where the former champion – an old steam engine called Poppa – sings a blues song to the trucks ("Poppa's Blues"). Poppa tries to persuade Rusty to race without Pearl, urging him to have faith in the Starlight Express. When Rusty refuses, Poppa introduces him to an old Pullman car called Memphis Belle ("Belle The Sleeping Car"). Rusty agrees to race with Belle. They compete in the second heat against Electra and Pearl, and Weltschaft and Joule. Electra and Pearl finish first, securing a place in the finals; Rusty and Belle finish in last place. Already despondent after losing Pearl as his race partner, Rusty loses his last shreds of confidence. Poppa decides to step up and prove that steam power is still relevant, despite everyone's misgivings, by racing himself in the third heat. Only Dustin is willing to race with him. Rusty points out that the race is already full, but suddenly Control announces that the British train has been scrapped, leaving space for a late entry. Poppa interprets this as a sign from the Starlight Express and enters the race. The third heat pits Poppa and Dustin against Bobo and Ashley, and Turnov and Wrench. Poppa wins the race, securing a place in the finals against Greaseball and Electra, but the effort of outracing the others and pulling the hefty Dustin exhausts him. Now worn out, he begs Rusty to take his place. Rusty refuses at first, but then he notices Pearl with Electra and is jealous. When C.B. offers to race with him, Rusty announces that he will take Poppa's place. Greaseball and the other competitors mock him then leave. Alone, Rusty prays to the supposedly mythical Starlight Express for help in the final ("Starlight Express"). Act 2 The trains debate whether Rusty should be allowed to take Poppa's place in the finals, since he's already competed and lost, or whether the place should go instead to Bobo, who finished second in Poppa's heat ("The Rap"). They ultimately decide to let Rusty race. Control offers the engines the chance to change partners. Pearl abandons Electra and joins Greaseball, leaving Dinah feeling betrayed. Dinah expresses her shame at being uncoupled, although she cannot bring herself to say the word itself ("U.N.C.O.U.P.L.E.D."). Ashley, Buffy and Belle try to persuade Dinah to fight for Greaseball's affections ("Rolling Stock (Reprise)"), but instead she accepts an offer from Electra to replace Pearl in the finals. Elsewhere, C.B. hatches a plan. He tells Greaseball he will help him win the championship by sabotaging Rusty. He then tells Electra he will wipe out Greaseball, clearing the way for Electra to win. When Electra expresses his surprise at C.B.'s duplicity, C.B. explains that he has spent a career secretly causing train crashes for fun ("C.B."). The finals takes place between Electra and Dinah, Greaseball and Pearl, and Rusty and C.B. C.B. sabotages Rusty, slowing him down so he misses a switch on the tracks and cannot finish the race. Electra and Greaseball finish in a dead heat. Control announces that there will be another race, with Electra and Greaseball going head-to-head to decide the winner. Rusty complains that he was cheated, but the marshals refuse to listen. Pearl confronts Greaseball, but he warns her to say nothing, as the marshals would consider her complicit and punish her as well. Rusty retreats to the freight yard, where he bumps into the Rockies. They tell him that without luck, he will never win and that he should just give up ("Right Place, Right Time"). The Rockies leave Rusty alone. He appeals again to the mythical Starlight Express for help, and this time, it hears. The Starlight Express appears in front of Rusty and just happens to be Poppa. He reminds him that whatever strength he needs – a starlight – is within him already ("I Am The Starlight"). Poppa disappears and Rusty finds himself back in the freight yard with Dustin, who says he was just asleep, but felt the starlight's presence. Rusty asks Dustin to race with him in the final. He accepts and they head off together. Moments before the race, Dinah, angry with the way Electra treats her, disconnects from him. Electra quickly appeals to C.B. to take her place. The trains gather to watch what they expect will be a head-to-head final between Greaseball and Pearl, and Electra and C.B.. Suddenly Rusty arrives with Dustin, and the marshals allow him to enter the race. The race is fast and furious. This time, the downhill track turns Dustin's weight into an advantage for Rusty. Greaseball struggles with an unwilling Pearl holding him back, and Electra uses all his power to disrupt his opponents. Electra zaps electricity at Greaseball, but misses and injures Pearl. Greaseball, showing no concern, simply disconnects Pearl at full speed. Rusty diverts from the race course just in time to save her, but at the cost of falling into a distant third place. To avoid being disqualified for not having a coach, Greaseball starts to grapple with Electra over C.B. The fight degenerates into chaos and Greaseball, Electra and C.B. crash, allowing Rusty to win the race. But instead of celebrating, he leaves immediately to find Pearl. Control warns that, if Rusty does not return quickly, his lap of honor will be cancelled. Meanwhile, humiliated and furious, Electra leaves the race track, swearing never to return ("No Comeback"). Greaseball and C.B. emerge in a tangled wreck. They lament the heavy toll that racing has taken on them ("One Rock 'n' Roll Too Many"). Poppa demands that Greaseball and C.B. help find Rusty. Away from the other engines, Pearl fears that she caused Rusty to lose the race. She realises that of all the trains she's raced with, only Rusty ever acted selflessly towards her ("Only He"). Rusty arrives. He tells Pearl that he won the race and confesses his love for her ("Only You"). The other trains arrive. Greaseball finally apologises to Dinah for his behavior and they reconcile. Greaseball complains that he's finished as a racer, but Poppa offers to rebuild him as a steam engine. Control tries to assert some control, announcing that Rusty's lap of honor is cancelled. Tired of Control's behavior, Poppa and the other engines tell Control to "shut it" and celebrate the second coming of steam power ("Light at the End of the Tunnel"). Characters Voices only Control – a PA system in charge of the Starlight Supertop, which is a railway the story takes place in. Mom – Control's mother. Engines Rusty McCoy – the play's protagonist. He is the Starlight Express II steam engine who longs to enter the race and win the heart of the beautiful Pearl. Ramblin' Poppa/Mama McCoy – the old Starlight Express I steam engine who was once a racing champion, is the parent and predecessor of Rusty and now acts as a mentor and guardian to him and the freight trucks. Greaseball – the macho diesel engine who was formerly crowned by Control as the reigning champion and one of the play's two main antagonists. Electra – a futuristic electric engine from Switzerland who is known as "the Engine of the Future" and one of the play's two main antagonists. Coaches Pearl the Observation Car – the newest 1st class observation car who is searching for her "dream train". Dinah the Dining Car – a sweet and lovable dining car. Ashley the Smoking Car – a wise, smoky and sexy smoking car. Buffy the Buffet Car – a smart, sassy, hot, cheap and quick buffet car. Memphis Belle the Sleeping Car – an old but luxurious Pullman 1st class sleeping car from the USA (designated as a Pullman car in 1984, cut from all productions after Broadway. Duvay the Sleeping Car (replaced Ashley in the 2012 UK tour and licensed amateur productions) Carrie the Luggage Car (replaced Buffy in the 30th Anniversary Bochum production) Belle the Lounge Car (replaced Ashley in the 30th Anniversary Bochum production. No relation to Memphis Belle) Tassita the Quiet Car (only featured in the 2017 workshop at The Other Palace Theatre in London) National champions These minor characters have frequently been renamed and substituted throughout various productions. Bobo/Coco 1 and 2 – the TGV Sud-Est or Underwater Train engines from France. Espresso/Pendelino 1 and 2 – the Settebello or Pizza Express engines from Italy. Weltschaft/Ruhrgold/The Flying Hamburger/Rhinegold 1 and 2 – the Class 103 or ICE engines from Germany. Turnov/Vladimir 1 and 2 – the Trans-Siberian Express engines from Russia. Hashamoto/Hashimoto/Nintendo/Nakamura/Yamamoto/Manga 1 and 2 – the Shinkansen Bullet Train engines from Japan. The City of Milton Keynes/The Prince of Wales/Brexit – the Advanced Passenger, British Royal or High Speed Train to Nowhere engine from Great Britain. (Starlight Express on Ice also included Canuck the Canadian Engine and Cesar the Mexican Engine. Expreso Astral included Carioca the Brazilian Engine, El Pibe the Argentinian Engine, Chen the Chinese Engine, and Conan the French Orient Express Engine.) Freight trucks Rocky 1, 2, 3 and 4 – a quartet of boxcar siblings. Rocky 4 was introduced to Broadway and Bochum in 1987, following the release of Rocky IV, although he was quickly removed. Hip Hopper 1, 2 and 3 (replaced the Rockies in the US/UK Tours and the revised Bochum production) Flat-Top – a brick truck who longs to become a new member of Greaseball's group. Dustin – a big iron aggregate hopper who is a friend of Rusty. He is shy and sensitive about his weight. C.B./The Red Caboose – a brake truck. He is a two-faced mischief-maker who causes disaster wherever he goes. A major character and the villain in the original plot, he was cut during revisions to the London production, although remained a main character in other productions. Electra's entourage of components Krupp 1 and 2 the Armaments Trucks (removed from the US/UK Tours and the Bochum production in 2017) Wrench the Repair Truck Purse the Money Truck (removed from the 2018 30th Anniversary Bochum Production) Volta 1 and 2 the Freezer Trucks Joule 1 and 2 the Animal/Dynamite Trucks Killerwatt the Security Truck (replaced Krupp and Purse in the 30th Anniversary Bochum Production) Ensemble Trax/The Track/Flying Marshal 1 and 2 – a duo of trick-skating freight truck twins who wear rollerblades rather than quad skates and function as race marshals, but do not sing. They wield the start and finish flags at the beginning and end of the races, tow crashed engines off the track and decide on the outcome of the aborted "Uphill Final". The 2nd and 3rd Class Sleeping Cars – originally portrayed by the same performers as Joule and Volta in the original 1984 production and removed during the show's revisions. Union Pacific Daylight – a gang of unruly diesel engine and freight truck multiplets who follow Greaseball himself. The original London production named each of the diesels "Gonk" and the trucks "Race Marshal Tank", "Race Marshal Gook" and "Race Marshal Lube". There are about 8-12 Members of the gang. Musical numbers The musical numbers in Starlight Express have changed many times since the first production opened in 1984. Each new production is "re-invented ... rewritten, rearranged, restaged and brought up to date ... rather than just [being] a copy of the original". This is because the show was envisaged as an introduction to live theatre for young audiences, particularly audiences "for whom theatre was a no-go zone". The score is grounded in popular music, which changes with each generation. Therefore, as Lloyd Webber has said, "Starlight Express by its nature has to change". This list shows the musical numbers in the original West End production, then which numbers have been added or removed over the years. Act 1 Overture - Control and Mom Rolling Stock – Greaseball and Gang Taunting Rusty – Rusty, Greaseball, Tank, Gook, Lube Call Me Rusty – Rusty, Pearl, Dinah, Buffy and Ashley Rusty, You Can't Be Serious – Rusty, Pearl, Dinah, Buffy and Ashley A Lotta Locomotion – Dinah, Ashley, Buffy and Pearl † Pumping Iron – Greaseball, Pearl, Ashley, Dinah, Buffy, 2nd and 3rd class Sleepers Freight – Pearl, Ashley, Dinah, Buffy, Rocky I, Rocky II, Rocky III, C.B, Dustin, Flat-Top Entry of the National Engines – The Company AC/DC – Electra, Krupp, Wrench, Purse, Joule, Volta and Company Coda of Freight – The Company Hitching and Switching – The Company Pearl, You've Been Honored – Purse, Pearl, Rusty He Whistled at Me – Pearl † Race: Heat 1 – Greaseball, Dinah, Espresso, Buffy, Hashamoto, CB That Was Unfair – Dinah, Greaseball, C.B. There's Me – C.B. † Poppa's Blues – Poppa, Rocky I, Rocky II, Rocky III, Rusty Belle the Sleeping Car – Belle † Starlight Express Introduction – Poppa, Belle, Rusty Race: Heat 2 – Electra, Pearl, Weltschaft, Joule, Rusty, Belle Boy, Boy, Boy – Poppa, Rusty, Belle, Trucks Race: Heat 3 – Bobo, Ashley, Turnov, Wrench, Poppa, Dustin † Laughing Stock – The Company Starlight Express – Rusty, Poppa Act 2 The Rap – The Company Pearl Twirl – Greaseball, Pearl, Dinah, Buffy, Ashley U.N.C.O.U.P.L.E.D. – Dinah Rolling Stock (Reprise) – Dinah, Belle, Ashley and Buffy † C.B. – C.B., Electra, Krupp, Wrench, Purse, Joule, Volta Race: Uphill Final – Greaseball, Pearl, Electra, Dinah, Rusty, CB I Was Robbed – C.B., Rusty, Greaseball and Pearl Right Place, Right Time – Rocky I, Rocky II, Rocky III I Am The Starlight – Rusty, Starlight Express, Dustin Rusty and Dustin – Rusty, Dustin He Whistled at Me (Reprise) – Dinah, Electra, Krupp, Wrench, Purse, Volta, Joule, C.B. † Race: Downhill Final – Greaseball, Pearl, Electra, CB, Rusty, Dustin No Comeback – Electra, Krupp, Wrench, Purse, Joule, Volta † One Rock & Roll Too Many – Greaseball, C.B. Only He – Pearl † Only You – Pearl, Rusty † Light at the End of the Tunnel – The Company Starlight Express Megamix – The Company † denotes songs no longer used in any production of Starlight Express. Additional songs These songs have been added to various incarnations of the show: "Engine of Love" (replacing "Call Me Rusty") "He'll Whistle at Me" "Crazy" (replacing "Call Me Rusty") "Make Up My Heart" (replacing "He Whistled at Me") "Next Time You Fall in Love" (lyrics by Don Black) (replacing "Only He"/"Only You") "A Whole Lotta Locomotion" (lyrics by David Yazbek) (replacing "A Lotta Locomotion") "I Do" (music Alistair Lloyd-Webber, lyrics by Nick Coler) (replacing "Only He"/"Only You") "I Got Me" (lyrics by Lauren Aquilina) (replacing "A Whole Lotta Locomotion") Production history West End (1984–2002) The original production (1984–1992) The first production of Starlight Express opened on 27 March 1984 at the Apollo Victoria Theatre. It was directed by Trevor Nunn. Arlene Phillips created the roller-skating choreography. John Napier designed by the set, which featured race tracks extending from the stage into the auditorium, as well as a six-tonne steel bridge which lifted and tilted to connect the various levels of the set. The original cast included Stephanie Lawrence, Frances Ruffelle, Jeff Shankley, Jeffrey Daniel and Ray Shell. The production received some minor updates after the Broadway show opened, bringing some new material across, such as "Engine of Love", "Make Up My Heart", and cutting "No Comeback". The 'New' Starlight Express (1992–2002) In November 1992, the London production was relaunched with major revisions as The New Starlight Express. Numerous changes from subsequent productions were incorporated: Twelve songs were removed: the Overture, "Engine of Love", "Call Me Rusty", "Hitching and Switching", "There's Me", "Belle The Sleeping Car", "Heat Three", "Wide Smile High Style", "No Comeback", "Only He" and "Only You". Five songs were added: "Crazy", "He'll Whistle at Me", "Make Up My Heart", "Next Time You Fall in Love", "The Megamix" "The Rap" that opens the second act was completely rewritten to become an anthem to racing. The "Entry of National Trains" was moved to the opening of the show. "Pumping Iron" was moved to after "AC/DC". The characters of Belle and C.B were cut. This required substantial changes to the plot as without a clear villain, Rusty, Electra and Greaseball had to cause their own problems or be the victims of circumstance to move the story along. Rather than winning a heat each, as in the five-race structure, Greaseball and Electra come first and second in the first heat, securing places in the final for each of them. Rusty now didn't race at all until the final, only reluctantly taking Poppa's place after the title song. After the Uphill Final, when Dinah uncouples Electra, with no C.B. he partners Buffy instead for the Downhill Final. At the end of the race, Electra and Greaseball now crashed accidentally, and Electra took C.B.'s place in "One Rock 'n' Roll Too Many". Starlight Express closed in London on 12 January 2002. Considered one continuous production despite revisions, Starlight Express ran for 7,409 performances, making it the ninth longest-running West End show. Broadway (1987–1989) The Broadway production of Starlight Express began performances on Broadway on 24 February 1987, and opened on 15 March, at the Gershwin Theatre. It ran for 761 regular performances and 22 previews, closing on 8 January 1989. Created by the original team of Trevor Nunn (direction), Arlene Phillips (choreography) and John Napier (design), this version of Starlight Express was extensively revised from the original West End production. The story was localised, with the trains now racing across America for a trophy called the "silver dollar". The plot was streamlined, with one fewer race compared to the West End production. Lloyd Webber and Stilgoe also made many changes to the music and lyrics, notably adding a ballad for Pearl, "Make Up My Heart", which has been included in every production since, and a reworked version of "Engine of Love", the novelty pop song Lloyd Webber wrote in 1977 for Earl Jordan. Additional adjustments were made to the costumes of characters including giving Rusty a "Starlight Express" outfit, which was deemed too similar to the rolling stock uniforms. This was eventually removed due to lack of quick-change time, and the costume not being different enough. Bochum (1988 to present) On 12 June 1988, Starlight Express opened at the purpose-built theatre in Bochum, Germany. As of 2021 the new reimagined production was still running and has been seen by more than 17 million people. The musical stopped due to the Covid-19 pandemic. The creative team included the choreographer and designer from the West End and Broadway productions, Arlene Phillips and John Napier, alongside a new director, Dion McHugh. Starlight Express in Bochum largely followed the template set by the Broadway production. However, the creative team made a further series of revisions, notably removing a character, Belle, who had been part of both the West End and Broadway productions. At the time of the Bochum production's opening, there were three markedly different versions of Starlight Express running concurrently. The production changed many times over the years most notably in 2018 to mark the show’s 30th year anniversary. After extensive workshops in London songs were cut, characters removed, female engines added and most notably Papa changed to Mama. Andrew Lloyd Webber and Arlene Philips felt the current zeitgeist was to make the show more “gender friendly”. The Starlight Express Theater features tracks on three levels in a U-shape, with the audience sitting in the middle and around these tracks. That the venue took less than one year build is documented in the Guinness Book of Records. In March 2008, the production ran a talent competition called Musical Showstar 2008 on German television to find the next Rusty and Pearl. The competition was won by Kevin Köhler and Anna-Maria Schmidt. Schmidt dropped out of training, but Köhler premiered as Rusty on 1 August 2008. Subsequent revisions The production has been updated periodically since 1988, taking in some changes from other worldwide productions: In 2003, the songs "Crazy", "Allein im Licht der Sterne" ("Next Time You Fall in Love") were added to the show, the latter replacing "Du Allein" ("Only You"). A "Megamix" was also added to the end of the show. "Liebesexpress" ("Engine of Love") was shortened. An extra track was added to the set, allowing greater flexibility of staging and more tricks for the skaters. In 2006 the Rockies were replaced by the Hip Hoppers from the second US tour. In 2007 the Rap was altered again. In 2008, the "Entry of the National Trains" was moved to the beginning of the show. "There's Me" was cut, and "Engine of Love" was replaced by shortened version of "Call Me Rusty". "Allein im Licht der Sterne" was cut. Additionally, the title song was reworked to the "When your goodnights have been said" lyric, "He'll Whistle at Me" had lyrics reworked, "The Rap" was changed to "It's Race Time", and the final duet between Rusty and Pearl was updated to the 2007 UK tour version of "Only He". In 2013, "A Whole Lotta Locomotion" ("Nie Genug") replaced "A Lotta Locomotion". "I Do" (Für Immer), a new song written for the 2012 UK and 2013 Asia tour by Lloyd Webber's son Alistair, replaced "Only He". Several songs had lyrics changed and costumes altered with a nod to the original London production. In 2017, Krupp, Electra's armaments truck, was cut from the production. 2018 revisions In 2017 Lloyd Webber visited the production for the charity gala in which the show was performed in English, and found it 'unrecognisable' following years of incremental revisions. Arlene Phillips added that in 2018 the 'overall tone of the show [now appeared] a little bit sexist'. Lloyd Webber resolved to shut down the production if he could not find a way to 'get Starlight back to its roots'. He wrote new material, which was workshopped for six performances at The Other Palace in London in September 2017 before being rolled out in Bochum. Phillips directed the stripped back workshop production with no set, costumes or roller skates. These changes included: adding a new song and musical motif for the coaches called "I Got Me" ("Ich Bin Ich"), with lyrics by Lauren Aquilina removing several songs that no longer fit the theme substantially revising the orchestration in favor of a more rock-based 1980s sound reintroducing the Rockies, replacing the Hip Hoppers changing the genders of Poppa and Bobo from male to female, becoming 'Momma' and 'Coco'. Rocky 3 became female; Volta became male. replacing Ashley and Buffy with Belle, the lounge car, and Tassita, the quiet carriage (in the German production, Tassita would become Carrie, the luggage car) replacing Electra's money truck, Purse, with Killerwatt, the security truck In May 2018 the Bochum production closed for a month to rehearse the new material and for significant technical updates to the 30 year old auditorium. Lloyd Webber, Phillips and original designer John Napier returned to oversee the changes, which Lloyd Webber now considers the definitive version of Starlight Express. As well as the changes from The Other Palace, they also: updated the German lyrics of several songs within the show redesigned many costumes based on new designs installed completely new sound and lighting introduced the British train named 'Brexit' and renamed the Japanese train 'Manga' made some characters "gender variable": Rocky 3, Wrench, Volta, and Manga – although primarily meant to be female, female, male, and male respectively – may be played by an actor of a different gender if it's necessary due to vacations/injuries etc. of the original actor, as well as (as of June 2019) Brexit (original meant to be male). Las Vegas (1993–1997) An abridged, 90-minute production without an intermission opened at the Las Vegas Hilton on 14 September 1993, with direction by Arlene Phillips and with Reva Rice and Greg Ellis reprising their roles of Pearl and Rusty. Several songs were cut and many lyrics trimmed to make it fit into its 90-minute run time with great care taken to preserve the integrity of the plot. This production was the first permanent legitimate musical theatre production in Las Vegas, however concessions were made in the form of a shortened run time and betting references in the race sequences. Additionally, partway through the run the Coaches' costumes were given a "Vegas Showgirl" makeover. This production used the filmed race sequences from the first US tour (which played in the background during the live races on stage), as well as some of the set pieces. When the hotel changed ownership, the new owners decided to end the run before its 5-year contract concluded, with the show closing on 30 November 1997. Mexico City (1997–1998) From October 1997 until April 1998, a Spanish-language production entitled Expreso Astral played at the Teatro Polanco in Mexico City. For the most part, it was a Spanish language version of the Las Vegas production (using the same edited script) with costumes and sets inspired by several earlier productions. The production was directed by Bobby Love, with the Spanish translation by Marco Villafan. Many of the character's names were Hispanicized, with Rusty becoming Ferro, Pearl becoming Perla, Poppa becoming El Jefe, and the National Engines were localised with Carioca, a Brazilian train, and Pibe, an Argentinian train. A cast recording of this production was made but, owing to complications with the rights, was never released. Touring productions North America A downsized version of the Broadway production, with a few changes, toured the US and Canada from November 1989 until April 1991. Rather than scaling the show up to fill stadiums, the set was small enough to fit regular regional theaters. The show was very much the same as the Australian/Japanese touring production with the "Silver Dollar" subplot being removed and the character of Memphis Belle being cut completely. With the "Silver Dollar" plot removed, an abbreviated version of "The Rap" from London was used to open Act II. The races were mostly shown on film, however a small race track extended out into the audience. The costumes were based on the original Broadway production and some were recycled directly from that earlier production. The second US tour opened in Biloxi, Mississippi on 1 April 2003 and toured the US until 13 June 2004. The show was originally performed featuring the songs "Wide Smile", "Girls' Rolling Stock", and "Only He" but for reasons Troika (the production company) never disclosed it was later shortened by the removal of "Wide Smile" and "Girls' Rolling Stock" and "Only He" was replaced by "Next Time You Fall In Love". This production featured revisions to the material by David Yazbek, including a new song, "A Whole Lotta Locomotion", and rewriting "The Rap". Owing to the restrictions of touring spaces available, digital video company Inition were commissioned to produce high-definition race footage in 3D film to replace the live races. Europe The first UK tour of Starlight Express (now entitled Starlight Express: The Third Dimension) opened on 4 November 2004 in Manchester. The production was produced by David Ian Productions and directed by Mykal Rand. Originally adapted from the second U.S. tour, most of David Yazbek's contributions were removed after Andrew Lloyd Webber visited a performance. In November 2007 the first UK tour production toured Stockholm, Gothenburg, Oslo and Helsinki, using an expanded set designed for use in stadium venues. Bill Kenwright Productions presented a second tour of the UK, beginning at the New Wimbledon Theatre on 10 May 2012. This production included a new song, "I Do", written by the composer's son, Alistair Lloyd-Webber in place of "Only You" or "Next Time You Fall in Love". Other changes included the character of Ashley The Smoking Car being replaced by Duvay The Sleeper Car, due to the recent British smoking ban, subsequent redundancy of smoking cars, and the general negative public attitude toward smoking. The production reused the race sequences filmed for the first UK tour. Asia A large-scale, "in-the-round" production played stadiums in Tokyo and Osaka from November 1987 to January 1988. Due to the scale of this production, the National Engines and Electra's Entourage where doubled up to fill the performance area. This production was based on the Broadway production, with only minor changes such as the removal of Belle and the "Silver Dollar" subplot. The stage design was unique to this production, featuring landmarks such as Mount Rushmore and had a platform that could elevate up from the floor to change the setting of the races. This tour went on to Australia through 1988. Due to popular demand, the in-the-round tour returned to Japan from 24 March to 18 July 1990. In 2013, the second UK tour traveled to Hong Kong, where it played at the Hong Kong Academy for Performing Arts from 11 October to 4 November 2013. From there it moved to Singapore, playing at the Marina Bay Sands from 13 November to 24 November 2013. This version of the show is licensed for amateur theatre groups as The Definitive Starlight Express. Australia The large-scale tour that began in Japan in 1987 continued to Australia, where it visited Sydney, Brisbane, Melbourne, Adelaide and Perth, ending in May 1988. New Zealand In 2009, following an extended run in Europe, the props and costumes from the second UK tour were shipped to New Zealand to form a new production. This production played arenas in Wellington, Christchurch and Auckland in July and August 2009, and featured some performers from various other international productions. Non-replica productions Starlight Express on Ice (1997) As the first ever non-replica production of the show, it was completely re-designed by Feld Entertainment's On Ice unit with The Really Useful Co. It toured the United States from until . The production was directed by Robin Cousins and featured figure- and stunt-skaters miming to pre-recorded music. It failed to find an audience and closed halfway through its scheduled tour. Johannesburg, South Africa (2013) The South African premiere took place at the Joburg Theatre, running from July 2 until September 1, 2013. The production was directed by Janice Honeyman with choreography by Karen Bruce, who were given "Carte blanche" to re-imagine the show. Regional and Amateur Licensed Productions The show is available to Regional and Schools groups in the USA. The regional premiere was performed in Tuacahn, Utah, in June 2013. It is licensed through The Musical Company As of June 2018, it appears that the Amateur licensed script will be updated to reflect the changes made to the flagship professional production in Germany, in line with the creative team's goals to update the show for the modern audience. Cast Awards and nominations Original London production Original Broadway production Recordings Cast Recordings Charts Singles Engine of Love/Steaming (1977) I am the Starlight/Starlight Express (1984) AC/DC/The CB Side (1984) Only You/Rolling Stock (1984) Only He (Has the Power to Move Me)/Engine Race (1984) The Race is On (Harold Faltermeyer)/The Race is On (Radio Edit)/The Race is On (Instrumental)/The Race is On (Dub Version) (1987) Er Allein/Ich Bin Wie Ich Bin – Angelika Milster (1988) The Train/Girls' Rolling Stock (1990) Only You (1992) Next Time You Fall in Love/Make Up My Heart/Mega Mix (1993) Crazy/Starlight Express/Allein Im Licht der Sterne/Mega Mix/Starlight Express (Boy Band Version) (2003) References External links Starlight Express Starlight Express Bochum Original trailerson Vimeo 1984 musicals Broadway musicals West End musicals Musicals by Andrew Lloyd Webber Trains in fiction Sung-through musicals Fantasy theatre British musicals Plays about rail transport Tony 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255681	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Edward%20Clark%20%28governor%29	Edward Clark (governor)	Edward Clark (April 1, 1815May 4, 1880) was the eighth Governor of Texas. His term coincided with the beginning of the American Civil War. Early life Edward Clark was born on April 1, 1815 in New Orleans, Louisiana. His father was named Elijah Clark Jr. His paternal uncle, John Clark, served as the Governor of Georgia from 1819 to 1823. His paternal grandfather was Elijah Clarke. Clark grew up in Georgia. After his father died in the 1830s, he moved to Montgomery, Alabama with his mother and studied the law. Career Clark moved to Texas in 1842 and set up a law practice. He served in the Texas Annexation Convention and two terms as a state representative in the Texas Legislature. During the Mexican–American War he served on the staff of Major General J. Pinckney Henderson and fought in the Battle of Monterrey. When the war ended, he served as secretary of state under Governor Elisha M. Pease and as lieutenant governor serving under Governor Sam Houston. When Sam Houston refused to take an oath of allegiance to the Confederacy, Clark became governor. Among Clark's first actions was to order the surrender of all fire arms and ammunition from private merchants to the state. Furthermore, all privately owned firearms were to be canvassed. Few weapons were ever turned in and most Texans did not comply for fear of future confiscation. (Lone Star by T.R. Fehrenbach, pg 353) After losing the governor's race by 124 votes to Francis Lubbock, Clark became a colonel in the Texas militia during the American Civil War. In 1863 he joined the Confederate States Army and was commissioned colonel of the 14th Texas Infantry Regiment. He commanded the unit, as part of the Greyhound Division, until being wounded in the Battle of Pleasant Hill. A promotion to brigadier general wasn´t confirmed by the Confederate Congress and he left the service; however, in 1865 he was made a brigadier in the militia. He fled briefly to Mexico at the end of the American Civil War, and returned home to Marshall, Texas. Personal life Clark married Lucy Long in 1840, but she died shortly after. He married Martha Melissa Evans in 1849. They had four children, including: William Evans Clark (Apr 1849 in Marshall, Harrison County, Texas – Jun 1852 in same); John Evans Clark (30 Jan 1852 in Marshall, Harrison County, Texas – 9 Oct 1923 in same), who married twice and had at least three children; William Evans Alfred Clark (12 Jul 1853 – 9 Apr 1879); and Nannie M Clark (c. 1855 – 8 Jan 1913 Harrison County, Texas), m. 23 Nov 1881 in Harrison County to Daniel C Wallis (alias Wallace). Death Clark died on May 4, 1880 in Marshall, Texas. His grave in the Marshall City Cemetery is marked with a historical marker. See also List of American Civil War generals (Acting Confederate) References External links 1815 births 1880 deaths 19th-century American politicians American military personnel of the Mexican–American War Confederate state governors Confederate States Army officers Confederate militia generals Democratic Party state governors of the United States Governors of Texas Lieutenant Governors of Texas People from Marshall, Texas People of Texas in the American Civil War Secretaries of State of Texas Texas Democrats Texas state senators Military personnel from Texas	[ -0.8544238805770874, 0.3680715262889862, 0.017724601551890373, -0.028021421283483505, 0.09061218798160553, 0.4866987466812134, 1.2692975997924805, 0.5393819212913513, -0.6445580720901489, -0.48701727390289307, 0.25017353892326355, 0.2988719344139099, -0.5651936531066895, 0.5599220991134644, -0.3654870092868805, 0.8001037836074829, 0.4032564163208008, -0.28567615151405334, -0.4996318817138672, -0.04024350270628929, 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255682	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Traherne	Thomas Traherne	Thomas Traherne (; 1636 or 1637) was an English poet, Anglican cleric, theologian, and religious writer. The intense, scholarly spirituality in his writings has led to his being commemorated by some parts of the Anglican Communion on 10 October (the anniversary of his burial in 1674) or on 27 September. The work for which Traherne is best known today is the Centuries of Meditations, a collection of short paragraphs in which he reflects on Christian life and ministry, philosophy, happiness, desire and childhood. This was first published in 1908 after having been rediscovered in manuscript ten years earlier. His poetry likewise was first published in 1903 and 1910 (The Poetical Works of Thomas Traherne, B.D. and Poems of Felicity). His prose works include Roman Forgeries (1673), Christian Ethics (1675), and A Serious and Patheticall Contemplation of the Mercies of God (1699). Traherne's writings frequently explore the glory of creation and what he saw as his intimate relationship with God. His writing conveys an ardent, almost childlike love of God, and is compared to similar themes in the works of later poets William Blake, Walt Whitman, and Gerard Manley Hopkins. His love for the natural world is frequently expressed in his works by a treatment of nature that evokes Romanticism—two centuries before the Romantic movement. Biography Early life and education Traherne's birth and baptism are not recorded in parish registers. According to antiquarian Anthony à Wood (1632–1695), he was a "shoemaker's son of Hereford" born in either 1636 or 1637. identifies this shoemaker as John Traherne (born 1566). However, other sources say that Thomas was the son of Philipp Traherne (or Trehearne) (1568–1645), a local innkeeper and twice Mayor of Hereford, and his third wife, Mary Lane. Traherne writes about his childhood, which included a natural wonder at and appreciation of the world around him, in Centuries of Meditations and in his poetry. Traherne was educated at Hereford Cathedral School and matriculated in Brasenose College, Oxford, on 2 April 1652, receiving his baccalaureate degree on 13 October 1656. Five years later he was promoted to the degree of Master of Arts (Oxon.) on 6 November 1661, and he received a Bachelor of Divinity (B.D.) on 11 December 1669. Church ministry After receiving his baccalaureate degree from Oxford in 1656, he took holy orders. On 30 December 1657, he was appointed as the rector of Credenhill near Hereford, by the Commissioners for the Approbation of Public Preachers, although at the time he was not an ordained priest. A curious note appended to the record of his appointment is that Traherne counted upon the patronage of Ambella, Countess Dowager of Kent. Traherne served in this post for ten years. Following the restoration of the monarchy and the return of Charles II, Traherne was ordained priest on 20 October 1660 by the Bishop of Oxford, Robert Skinner, at Launton near Bicester. In 1667, Traherne became the private chaplain to Sir Orlando Bridgeman, 1st Baronet, of Great Lever, the Lord Keeper of the Great Seal to King Charles II, at Teddington (near Hampton Court) in Middlesex. It was while residing there that Traherne died on 27 September 1674, having that day dictated a brief nuncupative will to his friend and neighbour John Berdoe, in which he made bequests to the servants who had looked after him and left his few belongings to his brother Philip and sister-in-law Susan. On 10 October 1674 he was buried in St Mary's Church at Teddington, under the church's reading desk. Character and lifestyle Traherne was described as "one of the most pious ingenious men that ever I was acquainted with", and "a man of a cheerful and sprightly Temper … ready to do all good Offices to his Friends, and Charitable to the Poor almost beyond his ability". Traherne believed he suffered from the weaknesses of a sociable personality: "Too much openness and proneness to Speak are my Diseas. Too easy and complying a Nature". According to Anthony à Wood, Traherne "always led a simple and devout life; his will shows that he possessed little beyond his books ...". Writings Publication history during lifetime and soon after Traherne was an inconsequential literary figure during his lifetime and his works were not known or appreciated until long after his death. As a country priest he led a devout, humble life and did not participate in literary circles. Only one of his works, Roman Forgeries (1673), was published in his lifetime. Christian Ethicks (1675) followed soon after his death, and later A Serious and Patheticall Contemplation of the Mercies of God (1699), which was published as the work of an anonymous author whose character and background were discussed in a brief introduction by the publisher. At Traherne's death in 1674 most of his manuscripts were bequeathed to his brother Philip. After Philip's death they apparently passed into the possession of the Skipp family of Ledbury in Herefordshire, where they languished for almost 200 years. In 1888 the family's assets were dissolved, yet the manuscripts did not re-emerge until 10 years later. Later publication history In the winter of 1896–97, William T. Brooke of London discovered some anonymous manuscripts in a "barrow of books about to be trashed" or a "street bookstall". Brooke thought that they might be lost works by Henry Vaughan and showed them to Alexander Grosart (1827–99), a Scottish clergyman and expert on Elizabethan and Jacobean literature who reprinted rare works. Grosart agreed that the manuscripts were by Vaughan and planned to include them in an edition of Vaughan's works that he was preparing for publication. Grosart died in 1899 and the proposed edition was never completed. Grosart's collection, including the manuscripts, was purchased by Charles Higham, a London bookseller, who asked his friend Bertram Dobell to examine them. Dobell was convinced that they were not by Vaughan and soon deduced that they were by Traherne. The manuscripts included poetry as well as a collection of contemplative paragraphs "embodying reflexions on religion and morals". The Poetical Works of Thomas Traherne was published in 1903 and Centuries of Meditations in 1908. Other publications followed. Eventually the Centuries were to be described as "one of the finest prose-poems in our language" and passages from them were set to music almost as often as the poems. Manuscripts A Traherne manuscript of "Centuries," the Dobell Folio (also called the "Commonplace Book"), "The Church's Year Book," and the "Early Notebook" (also called Philip Traherne's Notebook) is held at the Bodleian Library, Oxford, the Burney Manuscript (also known as "Poems of Felicity") at the British Library, London, and "Select Meditations" in the Osborn Collection, Beinecke Library, New Haven, Connecticut. A manuscript discovered in 1996 in the Folger Library in Washington, DC, by Julia Smith and Laetitia Yeandle was later identified as an unfinished 1,800-line epic poem by Traherne entitled "The Ceremonial Law." In 1997 Jeremy Maule, a Fellow of Trinity College, Cambridge, discovered more works by Traherne among 4,000 manuscripts in the Library of Lambeth Palace, the London residence of the Archbishop of Canterbury. The Lambeth manuscripts, mostly prose, encompass four complete works and a fragment of a fifth: Inducements to Retiredness, A Sober View of Dr Twisse, Seeds of Eternity, The Kingdom of God and the fragmentary Love. Reception of the poetry Although Traherne is now counted one of the leading Metaphysical poets, the name of that "school" went unmentioned on his first publication. In his preface to The Poetical Works, Dobell linked him with "that small group of religious poets which includes Herbert, Vaughan and Crawshaw", but distinguished him as uniquely individual and "neither a follower nor imitator of any of these". In the selection of his poems that followed two years later, they were accompanied in the same volume by the 'verse-remains' of Henry Vaughan's twin brother Thomas (Eugenius Philalethes) and John Norris of Bemerton. The reputation of the two latter was then and remains as philosophers. Both were also clergymen and Norris was the incumbent of Herbert's former parsonage; it was not until much later that he was to be described also as "the last of the Metaphysicals". Traherne, then, is being presented by propinquity as a representative of the line of 17th-century devotional poets rather than the member of a particular school. At the time of publication, those writers whom Samuel Johnson had described dismissively as "metaphysical poets" had yet to achieve the critical prominence they were given after the appearance of Herbert Grierson's anthology, Metaphysical Lyrics and Poems of the Seventeenth Century (1921). In any case, none of Traherne's poems were included there and when he did come to the notice of T. S. Eliot, it was only to be put aside as "more a mystic than a poet". After that, it took decades before his work was given more serious scrutiny. Certainly, the mystical element is strikingly evident in Traherne, but his Metaphysical credentials are confirmed by the way in which he seeks to explain issues of truth, knowledge, and the faculties of the mind and heart by methods of theological and rational examination. Typical also is the way in which these meditations are worked out as extended Baroque conceits, of which "Shadows in the Water" is a particularly striking example. A further link with fellow devotional poets of his period is found in the idealisation of childish innocence and the use of Platonic themes which Traherne shares with Henry Vaughan and John Norris. Influences Development of personal faith Given some of the autobiographical and confessional material in his works (notably in Centuries of Meditations), Traherne must have suffered from a lack of faith in his formative years at Oxford. He describes this as a period of Apostasy and that he later found his way back to faith: However, there is an alternative reading possible, which may be closer to the facts of Traherne's experience as he expresses them in the quote above. This is that he did not suffer a loss of faith, but rather identified his maturation away from a natural, innocent child's view of the world and his place in it, from an innate understanding of the wonder of God's creation, to a burdened grappling with the rules and expectation of church and society as an apostasy itself, which he had to overcome then by careful and disciplined study ("the highest reason"). This childlike, accepting, and joyous view of faith and religious ecstasy is at the core of the writing from which the excerpt above is drawn, and is part of the reason for Traherne's appeal. Neoplatonism Traherne is heavily influenced by the works of Neoplatonist philosophers and several of his contemporaries who were called the Cambridge Platonists. The Cambridge Platonists were latitudinarians in that they argued for moderation and dialogue between the factions of Puritans and High Churchmen in the Anglican church. They believed that religion and reason could be in harmony with one another based on a mystical understanding of reason—believing that reason rose beyond mere sense perception but was "the candle of the Lord" and an echo of the divine residing within the human soul. Reason was both God-given and of God. Indeed, critic K. W. Salter notes that Traherne "writes of the senses as if they were spiritual and of the spirit as if it were sensuous." However, according to Gladys Wade's 1946 biography of Traherne, she distinguished that the Cambridge Platonists "wasted their energies on Hermetic and Cabalistic and Rosicrucian lore, and on incredible experiments in magic and necromancy," and remarked that Traherne's mysticism was "perfectly free from any taint of this." Theology and ethical themes Defence of Anglican and criticism of Catholic churches Traherne was also concerned with the stability of the Christian church in England during the period of the Restoration. In some of his theological writings, Traherne exhibits a passion for the Anglican faith and the national church that is evident in his confrontations with Roman Catholicism and Nonconformism during this time of political and religious upheaval. The recent discoveries of previously unknown manuscripts further establish Traherne's reputation as an Anglican divine and his works offer fresh and comprehensive insight on ongoing theological arguments regarding the nature of divinity, ethics and morality, and the nature of sin. For instance, Traherne passionately critiques Roman Catholicism in Roman Forgeries (1673)—the only work published during his lifetime. It is a polemical treatise in the form of a dialogue between two men—a Protestant and a Roman Catholic. Relying on the Scriptures and the pronouncements of the First Council of Nicaea to formulate the idea of a legitimate church authority, Traherne criticises the state of the contemporary Catholic Church and claims through a conspiracy theory that because the Vatican has had control over the manuscripts that the Catholic Church was in a position to corrupt, misuse or suppress documents to support its claim to authority. The abusive nature of the narrator's critique of the Church of Rome is in sharp contrast to the tenor of Traherne's poetry or his other writings on theological topics. However, Traherne takes a less polemic tone in the posthumously published Christian Ethicks (1675) in which he explores theological implications of Calvinist thought on freedom and necessity. In this work, Traherne refuses to define ethics as a secular phenomenon—instead pointing to a firm reliance on the will of God. Because of human limitations and failings, one cannot build a suitable and coherent moral system of beliefs—those virtues must derive from a divine source and their reward from perceiving the infinite love of God at the root of all things. Sin Traherne dedicated considerable examination to the subject of sin and its place vis-a-vis the church doctrines. In the recently discovered work, A Sober View of Dr Twisse, Traherne discusses sin and salvation within the frame of a larger discussion of questions of election and reprobation. Traherne writes: Mysticism and divine union Traherne's works are inherently mystical in that they seek to understand and embrace the nature of God within his creation and within man's soul. Traherne seems to describe his own journey of faith in Centuries of Meditation, which was likely written when Traherne was at Credenhill—a work that is noted for its "spiritual intensity," and "the wide scope of the writer's survey" which includes "all heaven and earth he takes for the province of the pious soul". Traherne's work is said to look "upon the hidden things of the soul, and, in them, he sees the image of the glory and love of God" and "the eternal theme of the goodness and the splendour of God." Traherne's poems frequently explore the glory of creation and what he perceived as his intimate relationship with God. He drew deeply on the writings of Aristotle and on the early Church Fathers for his concept of Man and human nature. Little mention is made of sin and suffering in the works that have dominated 20th-century criticism, and some critics have seen his verse as bordering upon pantheism (or perhaps panentheism). Felicity At the core of Traherne's work is the concept of "felicity", that highest state of bliss in which he describes the essence of God as a source of "Delights of inestimable value." Traherne says that 'understanding set in him' secured his felicity. He argues that man can experience this felicity only by understanding the will of God and divine love and he describes the beauty of this in childlike terms. Traherne seeks to explain the "Principle of Nature" in which through his inclination to love truth ("Light") and beauty seek him to identify felicity as its source and a natural experience. Other themes Nature Another great passion that is depicted in Traherne's work is his love of nature and the natural world, frequently displayed in a very Romantic treatment of nature that has been described as characteristically pantheist or panentheist. While Traherne credits a divine source for its creation, his praise of nature seems nothing less than what one would expect to find in Thoreau. Many scholars consider Traherne a writer of the sublime, and in his writing he seems to have tried to reclaim the lost appreciation for the natural world, as well as paying tribute to what he knew of in nature that was more powerful than he was. In this sense Traherne seems to have anticipated the Romantic movement more than 130 years before it actually occurred. There is frequent discussion of man's almost symbiotic relationship with nature, as well as frequent use of "literal setting", that is, an attempt to faithfully reproduce a sense experience from a given moment, a technique later used frequently by William Wordsworth. Childlike joy and attitude In the spirit of the gospels, Traherne's "great theme is the visionary innocence of childhood," and his writings suggest "that adults have lost the joy of childhood, and with it an understanding of the divine nature of creation." Traherne seems to convey the idea that paradise can be rediscovered and regained only through reacquiring this childlike innocence—a state which "precedes the knowledge of good and evil" and seems to be composed of a boundless love and wonder. In this respect, Traherne's work is often compared to the abounding joy and mysticism found in the works of William Blake, Walt Whitman, and Gerard Manley Hopkins. According to Traherne scholar Denise Inge, Traherne's introduction of a child's viewpoint to narrate his theological and moral premises was unknown or certainly unappreciated in the literature of this time. Happiness Achieving happiness is another focus of Traherne's work. He wrote "I will first spend a great deal of time in seeking Happiness, and then a great deal more in enjoying it." He wrote that many people despise happiness, but that "Heaven is a place where our happiness shall be seen of all. We shall there enjoy the happiness of being seen in happiness, without the danger of ostentation." Practical philosophy Traherne was intent that insights gained through philosophy be used in daily life. Legacy Traherne's works remained largely unpublished until their publication at the start of the 20th century. Those who have acknowledged an influence since then have been the Trappist monk Thomas Merton; the Christian humanist Dorothy L. Sayers; the poet Elizabeth Jennings; and C. S. Lewis, who called Centuries of Meditations "almost the most beautiful book in English". They also had their influence within the Anglican Communion which, though it does not create saints in the same way as in the Roman Catholic tradition, has frequently canonised people of great holiness, sometimes by a formal process and sometimes by popular acclamation or local custom. Following this precedent, and in commemoration of his poems and spiritual writings, Thomas Traherne is included in the Calendar of Saints in many national churches within the Anglican Communion. He is remembered in the Church of England with a commemoration. The commemoration of Traherne is held on either 27 September (the date of his death) or 10 October (the date of his burial). In 2009 the General Convention of the Episcopal Church in the United States approved the following Collect for the observation of Traherne's feast day: Observed on 27 September Episcopal Church in the United States Observed on 10 October Church of England; Anglican Church of Korea; Hong Kong Sheng Kung Hui (also known as the Hong Kong Anglican Church) A century of musical settings It has been observed of Traherne that "more than any other form of art, if one may judge from the frequency and fervor of the references, Traherne loved music", that this was of long standing and life-long. The Traherne Association has compiled a check list of some hundred composers who have recognised the lyrical power of his writing and set words by him to music. Several of these are from the poet's native Herefordshire, while a significant proportion come from other countries and not all from the English-speaking world. There have also been a wide variety of musical styles over the past century, from art song to devotional motets, from advanced modernism to minimalism, and there have been some purely instrumental interpretations as well. Britain The earliest known setting was by Welsh-born Bryceson Treharne (1879–1948). His "Invocation" of 1917 was stanza 11 of an untitled poem in Traherne's Christian Ethicks: "O holy Jesus who didst for us die", set for baritone and piano. It was followed in 1924 by Rutland Boughton's "Contentment", a part-song for unaccompanied men's voices which sets Traherne's "Contentment is a sleepy thing", also from Christian Ethicks. Later composers set both verse and prose for singing within the same work, of which one example from 1978 was Elizabeth Maconchy's cycle "Sun, Moon and Stars" for soprano and piano. It was in the 1920s that Gerald Finzi began work on his ambitious Dies natalis, a cantata for high solo voice and string orchestra. Only completed in 1939, the work's premiere was cancelled due to the outbreak of the Second World War, and it was not performed until some months later in January 1940. Its purely instrumental "Intrada" is followed by a section of prose passages from the third in his Centuries of Meditations, and then by three poems: "The Rapture", "Wonder" and "The Salutation". The texts chosen reflect the joy and wonder of a newborn child's innocent perspective and wonderment at a world of such beauty. Given Traherne's calling and piety, many modern settings of Traherne's work have a devotional context. His poem "The Rapture" was included in the Cambridge Hymnal (1967) as Hymn 97, with music by the composer William Wordsworth. Also among the largely sacred choral music of Patrick Larley has been his On Christmas Day (2002), a sequence of seven pieces, of which numbers 1, 3 and 7 incorporate verses from Traherne's poem "On Christmas-Day". Several other pieces were commissioned for special occasions: from Colin Matthews ("Shadows in the water", 1978/9); Francis Jackson ("On Christmas Day", 1995); John Casken ("A song of Chimes", 1996); Andrew Carter ("The saints of God", 2005); Cecilia McDowall, ("The skies in their magnificence", 2008); Francis Pott, ("The love of God is in eternity", 2011); and David Sawer, ("Wonder", 2012). International Sawer's choral work was written to celebrate the Diamond Jubilee of Elizabeth II. Earlier, Toivo Tulev (born 1958) had set lines from Traherne's Centuries of Meditations as "Rejoice! Rejoice! Rejoice!" for a performance in honour of the queen's state visit to Estonia in October, 2006. Other settings of Traherne's work have been made by Bulgarian-born Dobrinka Tabakova ("Centuries of Meditations", selections set for full choir, harp or piano and strings, 2012); by the French Claude Ballif, (Poème de la félicité for three female voices, 1977); and by the Finnish Jouni Kaipainen, whose "Felicity and Fullnesse" is described as a monodrama for high baritone and orchestra in which verses by Traherne alternate with verses by Hanno Eskola (2006). In North America, the Canadian composer Frederick Karam (1926–1978) wrote "From Dust I Rise", an anthem based on lines from Traherne's poem "The Salutation", first performed in 1958. In the United States, Aaron Jay Kernis set the song cycle "Two Awakenings and a Lullaby" for soprano, violin, guitar and piano in 2006; in 2012 Bob Chilcott set "The sun and stars are mine" for high voices and piano; and most recently Garrett George composed "4 Traherne Songs" for soprano with piano accompaniment (2018). Instrumental and other formats Two Japanese works by Satoru Ikeda (born 1961) have taken their beginning from Traherne's "The Salutation". The first was a vocalic transposition of the English text for chamber choir, accordion, tuba and harp, in which the instruments "are symbols of Heaven, Earth, and Man" (2003). Later the composer wrote a purely instrumental work for alto flute which was divided into three movements (Abyss, Awakening and Apparition), inspired by three stanzas from the poem (2015). Another interpretation of Traherne for full orchestra was Australian composer Nigel Butterley's Meditations of Thomas Traherne (1968), based on five prose meditations. Two organ works have been inspired by Tom Denny's Traherne windows in the Audley chapel in Hereford Cathedral. In addition, American Peter Stoltzfus Berton (born 1968) based the fifteen pieces in his "Hereford Variations" (2007) on Traherne's Centuries of Meditations. Martin Bussey's organ work "Hereford Windows" followed in 2014. Traherne's writing has also contributed to two larger-scale works. Kenneth Leighton's Symphony No.2 (Sinfonia mistica, 1974) set lines from Traherne's "Thanksgivings for the Body" as its third movement (Meditation). Later, Harrison Birtwistle had Christ quote from "Thanksgivings for the Body" in Vision 1 of his opera The Last Supper (1999). Lying outside the classical music tradition, the Incredible String Band's piece "Douglas Traherne Harding" on the Wee Tam and the Big Huge album (1968) incorporated lines from Centuries of Meditations and demonstrates the wide versatility of application of which Traherne's work has been capable. Works and publications Published during Traherne's life and times 1673: Roman Forgeries, Or, A True Account of False Records Discovering the Impostures and Counterfeit Antiquities of the Church of Rome (London: Printed by S. & B. Griffin for Jonathan Edwin, 1673). 1675: Christian Ethicks: Or, Divine Morality. Opening the Way to Blessedness, By the Rules of Vertue and Reason (London: Printed for Jonathan Edwin, 1675). 1699: A Serious and Pathetical Contemplation of the Mercies of God, In Several Most Devout and Sublime Thanksgivings for the same (London: Printed for Samuel Keble, 1699). 1717: Meditations on the Creation, in A Collection of Meditations and Devotions, in Three Parts. (London: Published by Nathaniel Spinkes. Printed for D. Midwinter, 1717). Later compilations and editions 1903: A second edition appeared in 1906. 1905: 1908: 1910: Traherne's Poems of Felicity (edited by H. I. Bell) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1910). 1932: The Poetical Works of Thomas Traherne, faithfully reprinted from the Author's Original Manuscript, together with Poems of Felicity, reprinted from the Burney manuscript, and Poems from Various Sources (edited by Gladys I. Wade) (London: P. J. & A. E. Dobell, 1932). 1941: A Serious and Pathetical Contemplation of the Mercies of God, In Several most Devout and Sublime Thanksgivings for the same (edited by Roy Daniells) (Toronto: University of Toronto Press, 1941). 1958: Centuries, Poems, and Thanksgivings 2 volumes (edited by H. M. Margoliouth) (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1958). 1966: Meditations on the Six Days of the Creation (edited by George Robert Guffey) (Los Angeles: William Andrews Clark Memorial Library, University of California, 1966). 1966: Poems, Centuries, and Three Thanksgivings (edited by Anne Ridler) (London: Oxford University Press, 1966). 1968: Christian Ethicks (edited by Carol L. Marks and Guffey) (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1968). 1989: Commentaries of Heaven: The Poems (edited by D. D. C. Chambers) (Salzburg: Institut für Anglistik und Amerikanistik Universitat Salzburg, 1989). 2005–2017: Volume I: Inducements to Retirednes, A Sober View of Dr Twisses his Considerations, Seeds of Eternity or the Nature of the Soul, The Kingdom of God (2005). Volume II: Commentaries of Heaven, part 1: Abhorrence to Alone (2007) Volume III: Commentaries of Heaven, part 2: Al-Sufficient to Bastard (2007) Volume IV: Church's Year-Book, A Serious and Pathetical Contemplation of the Mercies of GOD, [Meditations on the Six Days of the Creation] (2009) Volume V: Centuries of Meditations and Select Meditations (2013) Volume VI: Verse: from the Dobell Folio, Poems of Felicity, The Ceremonial Law Volume VII: Roman Forgeries, Christian Ethicks: or, Divine Morality (not yet published) Volume. VIII: Commentary and Index (not yet published) Volume IX: Notebooks (not yet published) Translations Poèmes de la Félicté, trans. Jean Wahl, Éditions du Seuil, Paris 1951; some originally appeared in the magazine Mésures in April 1936 Les Centuries, trans. Magali Jullien, Arfuyen, 2011 Robert Jones' "That Cross is a Tree set on fire with invisible flame" (Das Kreuz ist ein flammender Baum), a setting for full choir and organ which draws its text from three of Thomas Traherne's Centuries; a German translation provided by Meik Impekoven. Published: Dr. J. Butz, Bonn, 2015. Goûter Dieu, trans. Magali Jullien, Arfuyen, 2020 See also List of poetry groups and movements Metaphysical poetry Saints in Anglicanism Notes References Further reading Day, Malcolm. Thomas Traherne. (Boston: Hall, 1982). Gander, Forrest. "The Strange Case of Thomas Traherne", in Jacket Magazine (2007). Inge, Denise. Wanting Like a God: Desire and Freedom in the Work of Thomas Traherne. (SCM, 2009). Inge, Denise. Happiness and Holiness, Thomas Traherne and His Writings. (Canterbury Press, 2008). Inge, Denise (editor). Thomas Traherne: Poetry and Prose (SPCK, 2002). Jordan, Richard Douglas. The Temple of Eternity: Thomas Traherne's Philosophy of Time. (Port Washington, NY: Kennikat Press, 1972). Martz, Louis L. The Paradise Within: Studies in Vaughan, Traherne, and Milton. (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1964). Sluberski, Thomas Richard (editor). A Mind in Frame, The Theological Thought of Thomas Traherne. (The Lincoln Library, 2008). Stewart, Stanley. The Expanded Voice: The Art of Thomas Traherne. (San Marino: Huntington Library, 1970). Wącior, Sławomir. Strategies of Literary Communication in the Poetry of Thomas Traherne. An Analytical Study. (Lublin: Catholic University Press, 1990). External links The Thomas Traherne Association Thomas Traherne Centuries Selected Poetry of Thomas Traherne at Representative Poetry Online 1630s births 1674 deaths 17th-century English Anglican priests 17th-century Christian mystics 17th-century Christian saints 17th-century English poets 17th-century English male writers Alumni of Brasenose College, Oxford Anglican poets Anglican saints Christian poets Christian writers English Christian theologians English male poets Metaphysical poetry People educated at Hereford Cathedral School People from Hereford Protestant mystics	[ -0.442146897315979, 0.6115812063217163, -0.956908106803894, -0.7840396165847778, 0.33021706342697144, 1.1462794542312622, 1.214487910270691, 0.2320370376110077, -0.3612126111984253, -0.079426608979702, -0.3306698203086853, 0.1932692527770996, -0.16332073509693146, -0.08109676092863083, -0.124808169901371, -0.04600439965724945, -0.15974709391593933, -0.35135313868522644, 0.09383538365364075, -0.2053855061531067, 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255688	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Poughkeepsie%20%28disambiguation%29	Poughkeepsie (disambiguation)	Poughkeepsie is a city in Dutchess County, New York, United States. Poughkeepsie can also refer to: Relating to Poughkeepsie, New York: Poughkeepsie (Metro-North station), a railroad station in the city Poughkeepsie (town), New York, a town surrounding the city The Poughkeepsie Tapes, a 2007 film based in and named after the aforementioned city. Poughkeepsie, Arkansas, an unincorporated area in Sharp County, Arkansas	[ -0.9499703049659729, -0.02282172441482544, -0.17242133617401123, -0.23469093441963196, 0.39602211117744446, 0.08488737791776657, 0.8548152446746826, 0.5582938194274902, -0.5761121511459351, -0.3966602087020874, -0.44426673650741577, 0.06424631178379059, -0.6055951714515686, 0.5435164570808411, -0.9942165613174438, 0.09172187000513077, 0.22642867267131805, 0.6206581592559814, 0.2306462526321411, -0.6219238042831421, 0.14353491365909576, 0.2292979508638382, 0.09011956304311752, 0.02758939191699028, -0.05498192831873894, 0.15290428698062897, 0.6464448571205139, -0.22425518929958344, 0.4969934821128845, 0.1750577986240387, -0.858314037322998, 0.5019322037696838, -0.10466138273477554, -0.47398337721824646, 0.28920459747314453, -0.1686709225177765, -0.32982897758483887, -0.30623796582221985, -0.2684817314147949, -0.3047036826610565, -0.47923946380615234, -0.10335470736026764, -0.12852919101715088, 0.10012111812829971, 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255697	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Herrick%20%28poet%29	Robert Herrick (poet)	Robert Herrick (baptised 24 August 1591 – buried 15 October 1674) was a 17th-century English lyric poet and Anglican cleric. He is best known for Hesperides, a book of poems. This includes the carpe diem poem "To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time", with the first line "Gather ye rosebuds while ye may". Early life Born in Cheapside, London, Robert Herrick was the seventh child and fourth son of Julia Stone and Nicholas Herrick, a prosperous goldsmith. He was named after an uncle, Robert Herrick (or Heyrick), a prosperous Member of Parliament (MP) for Leicester, who had bought the land Greyfriars Abbey stood on after Henry VIII's dissolution in the mid-16th century. Nicholas Herrick died in a fall from a fourth-floor window in November 1592, when Robert was a year old (whether this was suicide remains unclear). The tradition that Herrick received his education at Westminster is based on the words "beloved Westminster" in his poem "Tears to Thamesis", but the allusion is to the city, not the school. It is more likely that he, like his uncle's children, attended The Merchant Taylors' School. In 1607 he became apprenticed to his other uncle, Sir William Herrick, a goldsmith and jeweller to the king. The apprenticeship ended after only six years, when Herrick, aged 22, gained admission at St John's College, Cambridge. He later migrated to Trinity Hall, graduating in 1617. Herrick became a member of the Sons of Ben, a group centred on an admiration for the works of Ben Jonson, to whom he wrote at least five poems. Herrick was ordained into the Church of England in 1623 and in 1629 became the vicar of Dean Prior in Devonshire. Civil War In 1647, in the wake of the English Civil War, Herrick was ejected from his vicarage for refusing the Solemn League and Covenant. He returned to London to live in Westminster and depend on the charity of his friends and family. He spent some time preparing his lyric poems for publication and had them printed in 1648 under the title Hesperides; or the Works both Human and Divine of Robert Herrick, with a dedication to the Prince of Wales. Restoration and later life When King Charles II was restored to the throne in 1660, Herrick petitioned for his own restoration to his living. He had obtained favour by writing verses celebrating the births of both Charles II and his brother James before the Civil War. Herrick became the vicar of Dean Prior again in the summer of 1662 and lived there until his death in October 1674, at the age of 83. His date of death is unknown, but he was buried on 15 October. Herrick was a bachelor all his life. Many of the women he names in his poems are thought to be fictional. He is buried in the churchyard of St George the Martyr parish church, Dean Prior. Poetic style and stature Herrick wrote over 2,500 poems, about half of which appear in his major work, Hesperides. Hesperides also includes the much shorter Noble Numbers, his first book of spiritual works, first published in 1648. He is well known for his style, and in his earlier works for frequent references to lovemaking and the female body. His later poetry was of a more spiritual and philosophical nature. Among his most famous short poetical sayings are the unique monometers, such as number 475, "Thus I / Pass by / And die,/ As one / Unknown / And gone." Herrick sets out his subject-matter in the poem he printed at the beginning of his collection, "The Argument of his Book". He dealt with English country life and its seasons, village customs, complimentary poems to various ladies and his friends, themes taken from classical writings, and a solid bedrock of Christian faith, not intellectualized but underpinning the rest. It has been said of Herrick's style that "his directness of speech with clear and simple presentation of thought, a fine artist working with conscious knowledge of his art, of an England of his youth in which he lives and moves and loves, clearly assigns him to the first place as a lyrical poet in the strict and pure sense of the phrase." Herrick never married and none of his love poems seems to connect directly with any one woman. He loved the richness of sensuality and the variety of life. This appears vividly in such poems as "Cherry-ripe", "Delight in Disorder" and "Upon Julia's Clothes". The overriding message in Herrick's work is that life is short, the world beautiful and love splendid. We must use the short time we have to make the most of it. This message is clear in "To the Virgins, to make much of Time", "To Daffodils", "To Blossoms" and "Corinna's Going A Maying", where the warmth and exuberance of a seemingly kind and jovial personality comes over. The opening stanza in one of his more famous poems, "To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time", runs: This is an example of the carpe diem genre, whose popularity Herrick's poems helped to revive. His poems were none too popular on publication. A style influenced by Ben Jonson, the classical Roman writers and the late Elizabethan era must have seemed old-fashioned to an audience tuned to the complexities of metaphysical poets such as John Donne and Andrew Marvell. His work was rediscovered in the early 19th century and has been regularly printed since. The Victorian poet Swinburne described Herrick as "the greatest song writer ever born of English race". Despite his use of classical allusions and names, Herrick's poems are easier for modern readers than those of many of his contemporaries. In literature Herrick appears in James Branch Cabell's "Concerning Corrina", published in his 1916 short-story volume The Certain Hour: Dizain des Poëtes. The story strongly suggests that the poet was an adept of the dark arts. Though technically a mystery or horror story, it is best classed as a philosophical comedy. Herrick is a major character in Rose Macaulay's 1932 historical novel They Were Defeated. Samuel Beckett's play Happy Days has the character Winnie quote from Herrick's "To the Virgins to Make Much of Time". In Ken Bruen's debut novel Rilke on Black makes Herrick's two-line poem "Dreams" a favorite with the protagonist Nick. Robert Herrick is one of many historical characters in the alternate history series 1632. The dedication in Thomas Burnett Swann's Will-o-the-Wisp (1976, ) is "A novel suggested by the life of Robert Herrick, poet, vicar, and pagan". Herrick was referred to by the character Clement in HBO's 'Industry' (December 2020), in view of a candle on a birthday cake representing the passing of precious time. In music The first composers to set Herrick to music were near-contemporaries: at least 40 settings of 31 poems appear in manuscript and printed songbooks of 1624–1683, by Henry and William Lawes, John Wilson, Robert Ramsey and others. It is clear from references within Hesperides that many other settings have not survived. In the early 20th century Herrick's verse became popular with a range of composers. One of them, Fritz Hart, was by far the most prolific, with more than 120 settings composed throughout his life, mostly collected in Fourteen Songs, Op. 10 (1912), Twenty-One Songs, Op. 23 (1916), Twenty Five Songs in five sets, Opp. 50–54 (1922), Nine Sets of Four Songs Each, Opp. 82–90 (1930), Three Sets of Five Songs, Opp. 148–150 (1941), and Two Sets of Five Songs, Opp. 166–167 (1948). Other settings from this period include: Arnold Bax: To Daffodils; Eternity Lennox Berkeley: How love came in Havergal Brian: The Mad Maid's Song; Why dost thou wound, and break my heart?; The Night Piece Frank Bridge: The Primrose; The Hag; Fair Daffodils Benjamin Britten: Spring Symphony (To Violets); Five Flower Songs (To Daffodils; The Succession of the Four Sweet Months) Benjamin Burrows: Upon Love; The Olive Branch; The Wounded Cupid; To Music Samuel Coleridge-Taylor: The Guest (Scena) Walford Davies: Eternity; Noble Numbers, Op. 28 (Weigh me the fire; God's Dwelling; Grace for a Child; What Sweeter Music) Frederick Delius To Daffodils George Dyson: To Music John Foulds: To Music Ivor Gurney: To Violets; Lullaby Joseph Holbrooke: To Dianeme Herbert Howells: Here she lies, a pretty bud Peter Hurford: Litany to the Holy Spirit Hubert Parry: Julia Roger Quilter: To Julia, Op. 8 ('The Bracelet; The Maiden Blush; To Daisies; The Night Piece; Julia's Hair; Cherry Ripe). To Electra; Tulips Alan Rawsthorne: To Daffodils Charles Villiers Stanford: To Carnations; To the Rose; A Welcome Song; To Music Robert Still: To Julia; Upon Julia's Clothes Ralph Vaughan Williams: To Daffodils (two settings) Peter Warlock: Two Short Songs (I held love's head; Thou gav'st me leave to kiss) See also Country house poems References Further reading Elizabeth H. Hageman, Robert Herrick: A Reference Guide (Boston: G. K. Hall, 1983) George Walton Scott, Robert Herrick, 1591–1674 (London: Sidgwick & Jackson, 1974) Gordon Braden, "Robert Herrick and Classical Lyric Poetry," in his The Classics and English Renaissance Poetry: Three Case Studies (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1978), pp. 154–254 Ann Baynes Coiro, Robert Herrick's "Hesperides" and the Epigram Book Tradition (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1988) Robert L. Deming, Ceremony and Art: Robert Herrick's Poetry (The Hague & Paris: Mouton, 1974) T. S. Eliot, "What Is Minor Poetry?," in his On Poetry and Poets (New York: Farrar, Straus & Cudahy, 1957), pp. 34–51 Achsah Guibbory, "Robert Herrick: 'Repullulation' and the Cyclical Order," in her The Map of Time: Seventeenth-Century English Literature and Ideas of Pattern in History (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1986), pp. 137–167 John L. Kimmey, "Order and Form in Herrick's Hesperides," Journal of English and Germanic Philology, 70 (Spring 1971): 255–268. Kimmey, "Robert Herrick's Persona," Studies in Philology, 67 (April 1970): 221–236 Kimmey, "Robert Herrick's Satirical Epigrams," English Studies, 51 (August 1970): 312–323 F. W. Moorman, Robert Herrick: A Biographical and Critical Study (London: John Lane, 1910; New York: Russell & Russell, 1962) S. Musgrove, The Universe of Robert Herrick, Auckland University College Bulletin, no. 38, English Series, no. 4 (Auckland: Pelorus Press, 1958) Roger B. Rollin and J. Max Patrick, eds., "Trust to Good Verses": Herrick Tercentenary Essays (Pittsburgh: University of Pittsburgh Press, 1978) Louise Schleiner, "Herrick's Songs and the Character of "Hesperides," English Literary Renaissance, 6 (Winter 1976): 77–91 Claude J. Summers, "Herrick's Political Counter-plots," SEL: Studies in English Literature 1500–1900, 25 (Winter 1985): 165–182 Harold Toliver, "Herrick's Book of Realms and Moments," English Literary History, 49 (Summer 1982): 429–448 Thomas R. Whitaker, "Herrick and the Fruits of the Garden," English Literary History, 22 (March 1955): 16–33 External links Chrysomela: A Selection from the Lyrical Poems of Robert Herrick Upon Kings. Poems Upon Several Personages of Honour ... The Complete Poetry of Robert Herrick (with full biography) Site at Newcastle University for the new edition of Herrick's Poetry Robert Herrick, The Poetry Foundation Britannica.com: Robert Herrick Luminarium: "The Life of Robert Herrick" Texts by Robert Herrick on IMSLP 1591 births 1674 deaths People educated at Merchant Taylors' School, Northwood Alumni of St John's College, Cambridge Alumni of Trinity Hall, Cambridge People from the City of London People educated at Westminster School, London English male poets	[ -0.5915274620056152, 0.34065404534339905, -0.4507697820663452, -0.6376134157180786, -0.21169885993003845, 0.8217868208885193, 1.2220101356506348, 0.14322727918624878, -0.3526736795902252, -0.28984296321868896, -0.2261778563261032, 0.29183053970336914, -0.42128053307533264, -0.0688633844256401, -0.08319664746522903, 0.41099783778190613, -0.4198727607727051, -0.45564672350883484, -0.22284035384655, -0.4066946506500244, -0.11264457553625107, -0.3913266062736511, 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255698	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pendleton%20Murrah	Pendleton Murrah	Pendleton Murrah (1824/1826August 4, 1865) was the tenth Governor of Texas. His term in office coincided with the American Civil War. Career Murrah's birth date and birth location vary from source to source. Some have him born in 1824; others give his birth year as 1826. According to his 1850 and 1860 entries in the U.S. Census, Murrah was a native of Alabama. His birthplace is sometimes listed as South Carolina, but more recent sources indicate he was born in Bibb County and was the illegitimate son of Peggy Murrah, a daughter of Charles and Avarilla Jones Murrah. He was raised and educated in a Baptist orphanage, and graduated from Brown University in 1848. He then studied law and was admitted to the bar. He moved to Texas and opened a law practice in Marshall. After losing a race in 1855, Murrah won election to the Texas House of Representatives in 1857, and also served on the executive committee of the Texas Democratic Party. In 1861 he declined to run for a seat in the Confederate Congress because of ill health, probably tuberculosis, but his health recovered sufficiently that he accepted a commission in the 14th Texas Infantry, a Confederate Army unit commanded by former governor Edward Clark. Murrah soon resigned his commission, but he won the gubernatorial election in 1863, and served until the fall of the Confederacy. As governor during the American Civil War, Murrah emphatically supported the Confederate cause, although he ended up in a controversy over the conscription of Texas militia troops into the Confederate Army. Still, even after Robert E. Lee surrendered in 1865, he encouraged Texans to continue the fight. When he learned that Union Army forces were en route to Texas, Murrah fled to Mexico with other Confederate leaders. Lieutenant Governor Fletcher Summerfield Stockdale filled the vacant post, acting as governor for five days, until provisional governor Andrew J. Hamilton assumed office in August 1865. The trip to Mexico took a toll on Murrah's health, and he died in Monterrey on August 4, 1865. His grave is located in the Panteon Municipal of Monterrey, Mexico. Family Charles Murrah, the grandfather of Pendleton Murrah, was born in 1775 in Warren County, North Carolina. He traced his ancestry through his parents Charles and his Margaret (Peggy) Murrah, and through them to his grandparents Lodowick and Mira Ann Jeter Murrah of Caroline County, Virginia. In 1850 Murrah married Sue Ellen Taylor, daughter of a prominent Texas plantation owner. According to the 1860 census, they had no children. See also "Died of states' rights" at the article Confederate States of America External links Entry about Pendleton Murrah from the Biographical Encyclopedia of Texas published 1880, hosted by the Portal to Texas History. References 1820s births 1865 deaths Brown University alumni Governors of Texas People from Marshall, Texas People of Texas in the American Civil War Infectious disease deaths in Mexico Texas Democrats Confederate state governors 19th-century American politicians Democratic Party state governors of the United States	[ -0.38257837295532227, 0.26568499207496643, -0.384450227022171, -0.2224164456129074, 0.13359549641609192, 0.2613736093044281, 0.9092460870742798, 0.1604902297258377, -0.5259876251220703, -0.23135393857955933, 0.10946214199066162, 0.24941344559192657, -0.43350905179977417, 0.6773747801780701, -0.7383180856704712, 0.9623439908027649, 0.13003426790237427, -0.24947084486484528, 0.14105165004730225, 0.14775687456130981, -0.3864171802997589, -0.1239967793226242, 0.5222199559211731, -0.07225148379802704, -0.2438400536775589, -0.13993646204471588, 0.013767017051577568, 0.10348447412252426, 0.09694335609674454, 0.4360164999961853, 0.010327482596039772, 0.694771945476532, 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255704	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mere%2C%20Wiltshire	Mere, Wiltshire	Mere is a small town and civil parish in Wiltshire, England. It lies at the extreme southwestern tip of Salisbury Plain, close to the borders of Somerset and Dorset. The parish includes the hamlets of Barrow Street, Burton, Charnage, Limpers Hill, Rook Street and Southbrook. The A303 trunk road passed through Mere until a bypass was built on the northern edge of the town in 1976. There is an old market square (although markets have not been held for several years), a chiming town clock and a large 15th-century parish church. The steep slope of Castle Hill rises from the northwestern side of Mere. Local industry and commerce includes the Hill Brush company, large wholesale plant nurseries and Yapp's wine merchants. History Evidence of prehistoric activity in the area is provided by bowl barrows, including four on Long Hill, overlooking the town. On the northwestern boundary of the parish is Whitesheet Hill, with barrows and an Iron Age hill fort, White Sheet camp. A burial dating from either the 7th or 8th has been found in the town. Mere had a church from the end of the 12th century. The Earl of Cornwall built Mere Castle on a hill which is connected to Long Hill, overlooking the town, in the mid-13th century. The castle was abandoned in the 14th century and today only earthworks remain. The Duchy of Cornwall still owns much land in the area. Mere Down, north of the town, has medieval Strip lynchets. Governance The civil parish elects a town council. It is in the area of Wiltshire Council unitary authority, which performs most significant local government functions. An electoral ward with the same name exists. The ward starts in the east at West Knoyle, stretches through Mere, continues to Zeals and finishes in the northwest at Kilmington. The population of the ward taken from the 2011 census was 4,285. Religious sites Parish church The Anglican church of St Michael the Archangel is from the 13th, 14th and 15th centuries, and contains remnants from an earlier building. Pevsner describes the church and its furnishings in considerable detail. The church has a tower with eight bells and is unusual in that it has 10 misericords; those on the south side of the choir date from the 15th century, whilst those on the north side are early 20th century. Restoration in 1856 was by T.H. Wyatt. In 1966 the church was designated as Grade I listed. The benefice was combined with West Knoyle in 1929, and Maiden Bradley in 1976, forming the parish of Mere with West Knoyle and Maiden Bradley. Others Mere Methodist Church was built as a Primitive Methodist chapel in 1846; a gallery was added in 1859 and a schoolroom in 1874. It was de-consecrated in 2017 and sold at auction in April 2018. It is currently being converted for residential use. Mere United Reformed Church was built in 1868 as a Congregational chapel, joining the United Reformed Church at its formation in 1972. Precursors of the present building were a small Presbyterian chapel of 1700, an Independent chapel of 1795 and a larger chapel of 1852. The church of St Matthew was built in 1882 by C.E. Ponting, on a rural site at White Hill, southeast of the town. It was a mission church, served by the clergy of St Michael's. The church closed in 2004 and was sold for residential use in 2008. St Mary's Roman Catholic church was built in 1946 after the community purchased a surplus Nissen hut. Notable buildings Woodlands Manor, south of the town, is a Grade I listed manor house and chapel from the 14th century, which was restored to its 17th-century appearance in the 20th century. Buildings designated as Grade II* are the Old Ship Hotel, formerly a house dated 1711, later the Ship Inn; the Chantry, a 15th-century house for chantry priests; and Dewes House, 17th century. Schools The town has a primary school. The local secondary school is Gillingham School, Dorset, about away. The present school was opened in 1965 at a new site, on Duchy land, as Duchy Manor Secondary School. Accommodation for younger children was added on the same site in 1992 and in 2004 the whole premises became the primary school. Earlier schools were, firstly, the British School, founded c. 1830 and from 1852 housed in the schoolroom under the new Congregational chapel, later taking over the whole building when the larger adjacent chapel was built in 1868. Secondly, the National School, opened near St Michael's in 1840, extended 1864, and augmented in 1899 by the adjacent Grove Building which was funded by Miss Julia Chafyn Grove of Zeals House. The schools amalgamated in 1922 and continued on the same sites as Mere First School (until 1992) and Mere Senior School, later Junior School (until 1972). Amenities The town's library and museum are housed in the 1839 National School building, which was converted in 1970. The town centre has three pubs, the George Inn and the Butt of Sherry. The Walnut Tree Inn is towards the south of the town. The Monarch's Way long-distance recreational footpath passes through the town. The town is part of the West Country Carnival circuit. The nearest railway station is in neighbouring Gillingham, Dorset, on the Exeter to Waterloo line. Notable people Edward Henslow (1879–1947), British Army officer and first-class cricketer Sir Harrison Birtwistle (1934- ), British composer, is a current resident of the town. 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255708	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20Murphy%20%28writer%29	Arthur Murphy (writer)	Arthur Murphy (27 December 1727 – 18 June 1805), also known by the pseudonym Charles Ranger, was an Irish writer. Biography Murphy was born at Cloonyquin, County Roscommon, Ireland, the son of Richard Murphy and Jane French. He studied at Jesuit run Saint-Omer, France, and was a gifted student of the Latin and Greek classics. He worked as an actor in the theatre, became a barrister, a journalist and finally a (not very original) playwright. He edited Gray's Inn Journal between 1752 and 1754. As Henry Thrale's oldest and dearest friend, he introduced Samuel Johnson to the Thrales in January 1765. He was appointed Commissioner of Bankruptcy in 1803. Murphy is known for his translations of Tacitus in 1753. They were still published in 1922. He wrote also three biographies: his 1792 An Essay on the Life and Genius of Samuel Johnson, his 1762 Fielding's Works and his 1801 Life of David Garrick. Murphy is thought to have coined the legal term "wilful misconstruction" whilst representing the Donaldson v. Becket appeal to the House of Lords in 1774 against the perpetual possession of copyright. He died at Knightsbridge, London, and was buried at Hammersmith, London. A biography was written in 1811 by Dr. Jesse Foot. Nathaniel Dance painted his portrait which is thought to now be in the Irish National Portrait Collection. His elder brother used his mother's surname and was known as James Murphy French (1725–59). He lived in London with his brother. Arthur Murphy was devoted to Ann Elliot and he missed her after her early death. After Arthur Murphy's death this relationship was written about by Fanny Burney who found Murphy's devotion to Eliot fascinating. Murphy's drama An example of Murphy's theatrical writings is The Citizen, a farce, first produced at Drury Lane in 1761. The play included Ann Elliot as Maria. Ann was Murphy's protege and mistress. Philpot, a wealthy skinflint, has bargained with Sir Jasper Wilding, a fox hunter, for his son Young Philpot, a buck and wastrel, to marry Maria Wilding, and for his daughter Sally to marry Wilding's son, for settlements and twenty thousand pounds paid to Sir Jasper. Young Philpot has lost a fortune, but borrows money from his father and embarks on an insurance fraud involving shipwrecked goods. Maria plans to marry Beaufort, who loves her. As Young Philpot tries to propose, she convinces him she is half-witted, and he spurns her. In the second act, Philpot senior is visiting Corinna, a lady of loose virtue, but hides under the table when his son calls upon her. He overhears as Young Philpot tells her how he has cajoled the money out of his father. Maria's brother surprises them, and old Philpot is also discovered, to their mutual shame. In the final scene Sir Jasper with a lawyer obtains Philpot's signature to the agreements, but meanwhile Maria, an educated girl, shows her strong character to Young Philpot and he again refuses to propose. Having signed away his rights old Philpot offers to marry her, but the lawyer reveals himself as Beaufort, and explains that he has swapped the deeds, so that Philpot has unwittingly signed his agreement for Maria to marry Beaufort. Works Dramas All dates refer to the play's first production, except where otherwise stated. The Apprentice The Upholsterer (1758) The Orphan of China (1759), tragedy (an adaption of L'Orphelin de la Chine (1755) by Voltaire and its source, a translation of The Orphan of Zhao) The Way to Keep Him (1760), comedy The Desert Island (1760), dramatic poem The Citizen (1761) All in the Wrong (1761), comedy The Old Maid (1761) No One's Enemy But His Own (1764) Three Weeks After Marriage (1764) The Choice (1764) The School for Guardians (1767) Zenobia (1768), tragedy The Grecian Daughter (1772), tragedy Alzuma (1773), tragedy News from Parnassus, A Prelude (1776) Know Your Own Mind (1777), comedy The Rival Sisters (written 1783), tragedy Biographies Fielding's Works (1762) An Essay on the Life and Genius of Samuel Johnson (1792) Life of David Garrick (1801) Notes Sources Emery, John Pike. 1946. Arthur Murphy: An Eminent English Dramatist of the Eighteenth Century. University of Pennsylvania Press. ASIN B0006AQYEA. Murphy, Arthur. 1786. The Works of Arthur Murphy, Esq. in Seven Volumes. London: Cadell. (Volume One is available to download on Google books.) Spector, Robert Donald. 1979. Arthur Murphy. Twain. . External links Arthur Murphy at the Eighteenth-Century Poetry Archive (ECPA) 1727 births 1805 deaths People from County Roscommon Irish dramatists and playwrights Irish male dramatists and playwrights Irish barristers Streathamites 18th-century Irish writers 18th-century Irish male writers 19th-century Irish writers	[ 0.03689770773053169, 0.24436183273792267, -0.736082911491394, -0.2583642899990082, 0.40988922119140625, 0.6660855412483215, 1.0518522262573242, 0.27884483337402344, -0.23273777961730957, -0.37379956245422363, 0.01941179297864437, 0.027531536296010017, -0.5108289122581482, -0.05134601891040802, -0.18946628272533417, 0.34127277135849, -0.40869438648223877, 0.02802439220249653, -0.3439013659954071, -0.6696255207061768, -0.36513885855674744, -0.017730368301272392, 0.32357457280158997, -0.5585532784461975, -0.10277040302753448, -0.06280089169740677, 0.08967486023902893, -0.2031329721212387, -0.13961836695671082, -0.04700826480984688, -0.3292423486709595, 0.39809054136276245, 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255709	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/National%20Rugby%20League	National Rugby League	The National Rugby League (NRL), formed in 1998, is the pre-eminent rugby league club competition in Australia and New Zealand. It contains some clubs from the original Sydney club Rugby League competition, which had been running continuously since 1908. A single team from New Zealand also plays in the league. The NRL formed in the aftermath of the 1990s' Super League war as a joint partnership between the Australian Rugby League (ARL) and media giant News Corporation-controlled Super League, after both organisations ran premierships parallel to each other in 1997. This partnership was dissolved in February 2012, with control of the NRL going solely to the re-constituted ARL which was re-structured with an independent board of directors and renamed as the Australian Rugby League Commission. NRL matches are played in Australia and New Zealand from March to October. The season culminates in the premiership-deciding game, the NRL Grand Final, traditionally one of Australia's most popular sporting events. In addition, the NRL premiers also play in the World Club Challenge against the champions of the Super League competition. The reigning premiers are the Penrith Panthers, having won their third premiership at the conclusion of the 2021 season. History Origin and establishment The New South Wales Rugby League ran the major rugby league competition of New South Wales from its inception in 1908 until 1994. Following the introduction of a new format for interstate rugby league, the State of Origin series in 1980, the decade of the 1980s brought about expansion of the NSWRL premiership, with the introduction of commercial sponsorship, the Winfield Cup, and the addition of non-Sydney-based teams, Canberra and Illawarra in 1982. Although this move brought more interest in the competition statewide in New South Wales, it would spell the beginning of the demise of some of the traditional Sydney-based clubs as well as having a negative effect on the Brisbane Rugby League premiership. Following the 1983 season, Sydney foundation club Newtown Jets were ultimately forced to withdraw from the competition because of financial difficulties. Further expansion of the league followed in 1988, with another three teams based outside Sydney introduced to the competition; the Newcastle Knights and the first two Queensland teams, the Brisbane Broncos and Gold Coast-Tweed Giants. The Brisbane and Newcastle sides proved to be successful and popular and paved the way towards a push for a truly national competition. This was attempted in 1995 with control of the premiership passing from the NSWRFL to the Australian Rugby League (ARL), who invited four more teams from outside NSW to participate in 1995. Ultimately this competition failed, but in its demise the National Rugby League was born, incorporating the traditional Sydney clubs, successfully coercing the Sydney market to follow the newly created national competition. The prospect of a truly national rugby league competition in addition to the introduction of pay television in Australia attracted the attention of global media organisation, News Corporation, and it followed that professional rugby league was shaken to its very foundations in the mid-1990s with the advent of the Super League war. Initially a conflict over broadcasting rights, it became a dispute as to who controlled the sport and which traditional clubs would survive into the new national era, as News Limited formed their own Super League and admitted some former ARL clubs, poaching players from the original ARL league with high salaries. With twenty-two teams of highly varying quality playing in two competitions that year, crowd attendances and corporate sponsorships were spread very thinly, and many teams found themselves in financial difficulty. The ARL undertook moves to invite the traditional clubs that had moved to the Super League competition back into a re-unified competition. Following a period of negotiation with News Corporation, on 23 September 1997 the ARL announced that it was forming a new company to conduct the competition in 1998. On 7 October News' Manaaki Ranginui announced that he was confident that there would be a single competition in 1998. On 19 December, representatives of clubs affiliated with the Australian Rugby League gathered at the Sydney Football Stadium to decide whether to accept News Limited's offer of a settlement – eventually voting in favour by 36 votes to 4. As a result, in the following months the National Rugby League, jointly owned by the ARL and News Limited, was formed. It was announced that the inaugural National Rugby League (NRL) season of 1998 would have 20 teams competing, 19 remaining Super League and ARL teams plus the Melbourne Storm, who were created by Super League for their 1998 season. Clubs on both sides of the war were shut down. Super League decided to close the Hunter Mariners and the financially ruined Perth Reds, who were $10 million in debt at the end of 1997, while the ARL decided to close down the South Queensland Crushers, who were also in severe financial trouble. Additionally, at the end of 1998 the NRL decided to close down former Super League club, the Adelaide Rams and former ARL club, the Gold Coast Chargers, despite the Gold Coast franchise being one of the few clubs to make a profit during the Super League war. 1998–2002: Rationalisation One condition of the peace agreement between the ARL and News Limited was that there would be a 14-team competition in 2000. The 20 clubs that played in 1998 would be assessed on various items such as sponsorship, crowds, on-field success and the like. It was also announced that clubs that merged would receive a large sum of money, as well as a guaranteed position in the 2000 NRL Competition. The St. George Dragons and the Illawarra Steelers were the first clubs to take up the offer, forming the joint-venture St. George Illawarra Dragons at the end of the 1998 season. The 1999 NRL Grand Final brought about a new official world record attendance for a game of rugby league. 107,999 spectators saw the Melbourne Storm defeat the newly created St. George Illawarra Dragons in the decider at Stadium Australia. Balmain and Western Suburbs formed the joint-venture club, the Wests Tigers at the end of 1999, while North Sydney and Manly Warringah created the ill-fated Northern Eagles. As part of another image makeover, a number of teams also released new club logos. The most notable of these was the Sydney Roosters, dropping the City section of their name for the 2000 season and beyond. Souths were controversially axed from the competition at the end of 1999 for failing to meet the criteria. This move was highly controversial and on 12 November 2000 about 80,000 marched in protest at their continued exclusion. South Sydney challenged the decision in the Federal Court claiming that the NRL agreement was exclusionary, intended to unfairly exclude South Sydney, and breached the Trade Practices Act. Justice Paul Finn ruled that the agreement did not specifically exclude any club and dismissed the Rabbitohs' claims for re-instatement into the national competition. Souths appealed this decision and were re-admitted into the competition in 2002. The Auckland Warriors experienced much financial hardship in the early part of the decade, ultimately collapsing before being resurrected as the New Zealand Warriors for the 2001 season. They made the Grand Final in 2002 and then again in 2011, losing both encounters to the Sydney Roosters and the re-instated Manly Warringah Sea Eagles, respectively. In 2001, Australia's largest telecommunications provider Telstra became naming rights sponsor of the NRL, with the competition's name becoming the NRL Telstra Premiership, while in 2002 David Gallop took over the CEO role from David Moffett, and the competition has become more and more popular each season. In 2001 the NRL Grand Final started to be played on Sunday nights, a shift from the traditional Sunday afternoon slot used for over a decade prior. 2003–2010: Record popularity, expansion and centenary The 2003 season was widely regarded as the most successful since the beginning of the National Rugby League in 1998. The Manly Warringah Rugby League Football Club took over the NRL licence from the Northern Eagles franchise, after the financial bankruptcy of the North Sydney faction made the joint-venture untenable. The Penrith Panthers rose from the bottom of the table to win the Premiership, while the Brisbane club returned to Suncorp Stadium mid-year. Season 2004 proved even more successful than 2003, with the North Queensland Cowboys going from 11th position in 2003 to 3rd in 2004, narrowly missing out on a maiden Grand Final berth. Crowd average records were broken in 2003, 2004 and 2005. In 2005, the NRL reached record levels of popularity for its competition. Total crowds for the competition season almost reached the figures for the last year of the competition conducted by the ARL competition of 1995, prior to the Super League war. The average attendance record remained until 2010. From 2004 to 2005, there was a 39% increase in sponsorship, a 41% increase in merchandise royalties, and a 12% increase in playing participation. In 2005, Business Review Weekly ranked the NRL 497 in revenue of Australian private companies, with revenue of A$66.1m (+7%) with 35 employees. In 2004, Canterbury-Bankstown put a year of turmoil and disgrace at the aftermath of the alleged rape scandal to hold aloft the NRL trophy and give the club their first premiership since 1995. In 2005, a record national audience of 4.1 million tuned in to watch the grand final between the Wests Tigers and the North Queensland Cowboys. The 2006 NRL Grand Final was won by the Brisbane Broncos over the Melbourne Storm, 15–8. The matchup was a significant milestone in the history of the NRL, as two interstate teams (teams not from New South Wales, the "heartland" of the NRL) contested the grand final for the first time. In the city of Melbourne, whose team was playing in their second grand final, the game's television ratings were higher than in Sydney where the game was played. Crowds were down on 2005, however were better than any other year prior to that. In its tenth season the NRL returned to having a club based on the Gold Coast, Queensland with the inclusion of the Gold Coast Titans. The Titans were the first professional sporting team to occupy the Gold Coast since 1998, when the Gold Coast Chargers were one of the teams removed during the NRL's rationalisation process between the end of the Super League war and the 2000 season. The 2007 season saw the return of Monday Night Football and the inclusion of two Friday night games. Both of which turned out to be ratings successes. Another change from the previous seasons was a reduction in the number of byes per team in the season. With an odd number of teams contesting between 2002 and 2006, the draw meant that at least one team would have to have a bye each weekend. With the inclusion of the 16th team for the 2007 season, the National Rugby League had the option of reverting to back to the system used between 2000 and 2001 where every team played each round. That system was not used however, with teams were given just a single bye during the year, grouped in periods that will assist clubs around representative fixtures. The opening round saw two matches at Brisbane's Suncorp Stadium, the first featuring reigning champions Brisbane against fellow Queensland side North Queensland, while the second match featured the new club, the Gold Coast playing St. George Illawarra. The weather during the middle of the season was less than ideal, with cyclonic conditions severely affecting many NRL games played in Sydney and Newcastle. The 2007 finals series saw the South Sydney Rabbitohs return to finals football for the first time in decades. The season culminated on 30 September 2007, with the Grand Final contested between Manly and Melbourne. Melbourne won the title 34–8 and the Grand Final achieved the honour of being the most watched television show in Australia in 2007. Throughout 2008, the NRL celebrated 100 years since rugby league was introduced into Australia, with several initiatives to recognise the important milestone, including an extensive marketing campaign called the 'Centenary of Rugby League'. The competition began in March, with a special Heritage round held in mid-April, coinciding with the first round of competition played in 1908. At a Gala event on 17 April 2008 the Team of the Century was announced, being: Full-back: Clive Churchill Wingers: Ken Irvine, Brian Bevan Centres: Reg Gasnier, Mal Meninga Five-eighth: Wally Lewis Half-back: Andrew Johns Lock: John Raper Second Row: Norm Provan, Ron Coote Props: Arthur Beetson, Duncan Hall Hooker: Noel Kelly Reserves: Graeme Langlands, Dally Messenger, Bob Fulton, Frank Burge Coach: Jack Gibson. For the second year in a row, the Grand Final was played between the Melbourne Storm and the Manly Warringah Sea Eagles, in the NRL's first ever twilight decider. The Manly club took out the premiership game 40–0, setting the record for the highest winning margin in a Grand Final (although the club formerly known as St. George Dragons were beaten 38–0 in 1975 and using the modern point scale of 4-point tries, this would amount to 46–0.) Furthermore, it was the first time a team had been kept scoreless in a Grand Final since 1978. The 2009 season marked the beginning of the second century of rugby league in Australia. The Grand Final that year was played between the Parramatta Eels and once again Melbourne Storm. Melbourne defeated Parramatta 23 – 16 to win the premiership to make it two premierships out of the last four grand finals for the Melbourne side. In 2010 the Inaugural All Stars Match was held on 13 February, in conjunction with the Sorry Day reconciliation anniversary to promote rugby league's long association and involvement with the Aboriginal community. The first match saw the Indigenous All Stars beat the NRL All Stars 16–12. The success of this event has seen it become a recurring fixture on the rugby league calendar with Queensland awarded the hosting rights for the next three years. The 29th State of Origin series was also played featuring the world's first live free-to-air 3D TV broadcast. Queensland later made further history by winning an unprecedented fifth series in a row, and winning the 2010 series by a scoreline of 3–0, their first Origin whitewash since 1995. In 2010 the NRL set a record total season average attendance of 17,367 per game and a record total season aggregate attendance of 3,490,778. During the 2010 finals series, the second qualifying match between the Wests Tigers and Sydney Roosters became the first McIntyre System final to go into extra time, with the One Hundred Minute Epic described in media circles as one of the greatest of the modern era. The 2010 Grand Final was played between the St. George Illawarra Dragons and the Sydney Roosters. St. George Illawarra won 32–8. This was the first premiership won by the club in its eleven-year existence and the first time in 31 years for the St. George part of the joint venture. 2010–present: Establishment of the ARLC After several years of preparation and build up, on 14 December 2010 the Australian Rugby League and News Corporation agreed upon a constitutional framework paving the way for the establishment of a new and independent commission to govern the sport in Australia. The negotiations of such a framework became drawn out over establishing details, primarily of sponsorship, media rights, funding of state bodies, funding of the Melbourne Storm, debate over News Ltd private ownership of clubs, and also of individual appointments to the new body. The 2011 Grand Final was contested between the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles and the New Zealand Warriors. This was the second grand final involving the New Zealand Warriors. Manly recorded a 24–10 win claiming their second premiership under head coach Des Hasler. On 10 February 2012, the independent commission, known as the Australian Rugby League Commission assumed control of all levels of the game, replacing former state based boards and assuming full control of the NRL from the NRL partnership (comprising the previous ARL board and News Limited). The current Chairman is Peter V'landys AM. The 2012 Grand Final involved the Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs and the Melbourne Storm, this was the first time since 2008 that the first and second placed teams contested the Grand Final. The Melbourne Storm recorded a 14–4 victory thus achieving their second premiership and claiming some vengeance for the stripped premierships. The 2013 season saw the resurgence of foundation clubs the Sydney Roosters and the South Sydney Rabbitohs with both clubs finishing first and second place respectively. The NRL was also left with a black eye after the Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks were caught using performance-enhancing substances by ASADA dating back to 2011. The 2013 Grand Final was played between the Sydney Roosters and the Manly-Warringah Sea Eagles with the Roosters recording a 26–18 victory. The 2014 season started with the introduction of the Auckland Nines and was marred by the handing down of a million dollar fine to the Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks for their role in the ASADA scandal while head coach Shane Flanagan was suspended for the entirety of the 2014 season. The 2014 Grand Final was contested by the South Sydney Rabbitohs and the Canterbury-Bankstown Bulldogs. This was South Sydney's first grand final appearance since 1971. South Sydney would break their 43-year premiership drought with a 30–6 victory. The 2015 season saw the return of the Queensland juggernauts, The North Queensland Cowboys and the Brisbane Broncos who would finish inside the top four and contest the 2015 Grand Final. The 2015 Grand Final is considered by many to be the greatest grand final of all time as a high intensity match ended in dramatic circumstances when North Queensland scored as the full-time siren sounded. Johnathan Thurston would miss the conversion from the sideline as the ball hit the post thus sending the match into golden point, the first golden point grand final. Ben Hunt would drop the ball on the kick-off and hand the North Queensland side the chance to win which was converted as Johnathan Thurston successfully kicked a field goal to win the match 17–16. The 2016 season saw the Melbourne Storm return to the minor premiership position while the Canberra Raiders returned to the top four for the first time since the 2003. The Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks and reigning premiers North Queensland would fill out the top four. The season continued a trend of the minor premiership not being decided to the final round, the fourth consecutive year. The 2016 Grand Final was contested between the Melbourne Storm and the Cronulla-Sutherland Sharks, it was the Cronulla's fourth grand final appearance while it was the seventh for the Melbourne club. The match was a tight affair and was not settled until after the siren had sounded. The Cronulla-Sutherland claimed their first premiership ending a famous 49-year drought by a score of 14–12. Following the success generated by the 2017 Women's Rugby League World Cup, a national women's league was established, and the first season commenced in September 2018 comprising four clubs aligned to existing NRL clubs. Coronavirus impact On 22 March 2020, during the COVID-19 pandemic, the NRL became one of the last major sports in the world to continue playing games. The other major Australian football code, the Australian Football League (AFL), announced suspension of their season on that day. AFL's decision came as the Australian federal government announced a ban on "non essential" travel and closing of pubs, clubs and other venues. AFL leaders commented "As a community and as a code we all need to take the unprecedented and required actions to get through this together." However, the NRL announced it would be moving forward with their season. The decision prompted a wave of condemnation online, including from Australian personalities and sport people. The following day after Queensland closed its borders, the NRL announced that the season would have to be suspended indefinitely. It has been said that some teams may not survive this period without income, as many have described it as a financial catastrophe. On 9 April 2020, ARL Commissioner Wayne Pearce announced the NRL would return on May 28. The announcement came under heavy criticism from the Government of New South Wales and health officials, with Premier Gladys Berejiklian saying she had not approved a return. However, the NRL released documents signed by NSW Police Commissioner Mick Fuller, showing approval for the NRL to continue without crowds. The competition ended up kicking off on that date, with the Parramatta Eels defeating the Brisbane Broncos 34–6 at Suncorp Stadium behind closed doors. The match drew the highest TV ratings for a regular season game since 2014. Expansion in 2023 In October 2021, after months of speculation, the NRL and the ARLC announced that the competition would expand to 17 teams, with the admission of The Dolphins for the 2023 season. The Dolphins are based in the far northern-suburb of Redcliffe, near Brisbane. Teams The NRL currently consists of sixteen clubs. Nine clubs are based within the Greater Sydney area (including one that also represents the Illawarra region south of Sydney), another in regional New South Wales, three in Queensland, and one each in Victoria, the Australian Capital Territory, and New Zealand. The league operates on a single group system, with no divisions or conferences and no relegation or promotion. A total of twenty-three clubs have played in the NRL since its first season in 1998. Eleven clubs have been members for every season. Two of the clubs currently in the NRL were founded in 1908, the first year of rugby league competition in Australia: the Sydney Roosters (founded as 'Eastern Suburbs') and the South Sydney Rabbitohs. The Wests Tigers are a merger of two other foundation clubs: The Western Suburbs Magpies and the Balmain Tigers. Current clubs Future clubs Defunct clubs Season structure Pre-season The NRL pre season typically begins in February and ends in early March. Clubs generally use this time to organise trial matches to test playing combinations. However, some clubs play for trophies: Easts and Wests play for the Foundation Cup while South Sydney and St. George Illawarra play for the Charity Shield. The trials are typically played in cities and towns that normally don't host NRL matches. In the past a World Seven's rugby league football tournament has been hosted, however this was scrapped due to injury concerns. All Stars match Beginning in 2010, the All Stars match has become a major fixture in the NRL preseason. The teams are chosen via public voting and the two sides play for the Arthur Beetson Trophy. In 2018, the game was temporarily removed from the calendar due to the World Cup being played the previous year citing an excessive player workload. The match returned in 2019 and was hosted in Melbourne with the Australian Indigenous All Stars taking on the New Zealand Maori All Stars. NRL Nines In 2014, the inaugural rugby league nines tournament took place, featuring all sixteen NRL clubs. It was initially staged at Eden Park, Auckland, New Zealand. This two-day tournament has now become a regular fixture, taking place in February each year. Women's nines games were also fixtured alongside the main tournament between the Australian and New Zealand women's teams, however now feature the four NRLW teams. In 2018 the tournament was removed from the calendar due to the World Cup being played the previous year citing an excessive player workload, however, it was brought back in 2020. World Club Challenge The World Club Challenge is an annual pre-season match played between the champion of the National Rugby League and the champion of the Super League. The first match of its kind was the 1976 World Club Challenge and it was then played sporadically throughout the late 80s and 90s, including a one off Super League tournament in 1997, before becoming a regular annual pre-season fixture since 2000. In 2015, the competition was expanded to include two exhibition games before the Challenge game. This expanded series, called the World Club Series, ran from 2015 to 2017. The first two Series saw the leagues’ champions joined by two invited teams from each league, resulting in a three-game series. Each invited team represented their league in a single game, played in the days leading up to the usual Challenge match. In 2017, only one invited team from each league participated, with the NRL citing tight schedules, distant travel and long seasons as an impediment to the Series. In 2018 the series was cancelled, with only the usual Challenge match played and has continued as a single match since. Premiership rounds As rugby league is a winter sport in Australia, the NRL premiership season begins in early March, with games played every weekend (except for a bye round held at the end of June for the 2nd State of Origin game and internationals) for 25 weeks, until the start of September. In most rounds, one match is played on Thursday night, two on Friday night, three on Saturday and two on Sunday. Special themed weeks include ANZAC Round, Heritage Round, Women in League Round, Retro Round, Beanies for Brain Cancer round and Rivalry Round. Separate trophies between rival teams are also presented throughout the season. In 2019, the NRL introduced Magic Round, which featured all sixteen teams playing at Suncorp Stadium in Brisbane over the weekend. It was deemed a success and it's scheduled to comeback in 2021. Teams receive two competition points for a win, and one point for a draw. The bye also receives two points; a loss, no points. Teams on the ladder are ranked by competition points, then match points differential (for and against) and points percentage are used to separate teams with equal competition points. At the end of the regular season, the club which is ranked highest on the ladder is declared minor premiers. Representative season As well as playing for their club in the premiership, NRL players are regularly selected to play in a number of representative competitions that are conducted throughout each season. The representative season is generally considered to be a period of rugby league that runs from about the middle of April until the middle of July each year. Up until the 2017 season the fixtures took into account the following games: The annual Anzac Test between Australia and New Zealand (Early to mid April) The New South Wales City vs Country Origin match (Early to mid April, same weekend as the Anzac Test) The Pacific Tests, played on the same weekend as the Anzac Test and City vs Country Origin, these games feature matches placed between Fiji, Samoa, Papua New Guinea and Tonga The three match State of Origin series (June – July) From 2018, the season was altered to create a shorter workload for players. A number of representative games were scrapped and timing changed therefore the representative season was changed to include: The Pacific Tests, played on the same weekend as the second State of Origin game The three match State of Origin series (June – July) with the second game featuring on a standalone weekend. Other representative matches that can occur later in the year are: The Prime Minister's XIII match in Papua New Guinea The Four Nations tournament – Australia, New Zealand and England plus another qualifier The quadrennial World Cup tournament Additional test Matches between Australia and New Zealand. The Rugby League World Cup 9s Finals series The eight highest placed teams at the end of the regular season compete in the finals series. The system consists of a number of games between the top eight teams over four weeks in September, until only two teams remain. These two teams then contest the Grand Final, which is usually played on the first Sunday of October. From 1998 to 2011, the NRL used the McIntyre Final Eight System but with the introduction of the ARLC, it was decided to change to the current format which was perceived as fairer for teams finishing in the Top 4. Grand Final The NRL Grand Final, which determines the season's premiers, is one of Australia's major sporting events and is one of the largest attended club championship events in the world. Since 1999 it has been contested at Sydney's Stadium Australia, which was the primary athletics venue for the 2000 Summer Olympic Games. The first year it was held at Stadium Australia, the NRL Grand Final broke the record for attendance at an Australian rugby league game, with 107,999 people attending. The Grand Final had traditionally been played on Sunday afternoons, shifting to 8 pm in 2001, then to 7 pm thereafter. However, from 2008, a compromise was reached between official broadcaster Nine Network's preferred starting time and the afternoon starting time of 3 pm, with the Grand Final beginning at 5 pm AEST. Each year the NRL Grand Final Breakfast, a function that is attended by both teams, hundreds of guests and screened live on Australian television is held during the week before the game. The game itself is usually preceded by an opening ceremony featuring entertainment and the singing of the national anthem by well-known Australasian and international musical acts. After the pre-game entertainment it is traditional for the NRL trophy to be delivered to the field by an Australian Army helicopter shortly before kick off. At the conclusion of the Grand Final there is a presentation ceremony where the winning team are awarded premiership rings. The player judged to be the man-of-the-match by the Australian national team selectors is awarded the prestigious Clive Churchill Medal and the Prime Minister of Australia is typically on-hand to hand the trophy to the winning captain. In 2010 the Government of New South Wales secured the grand final for ANZ Stadium until 2022 for $45 million. Premiership winners Note – Melbourne Storm were stripped of their 2007, 2009 premiership titles and their 2006, 2007, 2008 minor premiership titles due to their breach of the salary cap. The titles were withheld by the NRL rather than awarding them to the runners up. Results NOTE: These stats NRL era only (1998 to present) Ranking: Teams are ranked in order of premierships won, grand final runners up then minor premierships won. To see the complete list of premiers in Australian Rugby League, see List of NRL Premiers Players National Rugby League footballers are among Australasia's most famous athletes, commanding multimillion-dollar playing contracts and sponsorship deals. Each club in the NRL has a "top squad" of twenty-five players, who are signed under a salary cap. For the most part, the players who play in NRL matches are sourced from these top squads. During a season the need may arise for a club to use players outside these 25, in which case players are usually sourced from the club's corresponding NRL Under-20s team or a feeder club in the New South Wales Cup or Queensland Cup. Demographics In the recent years, the influence of Polynesian players on the NRL has grown, with figures from the 2011 season showing that 35% of NRL players and over 45% of NRL Under-20s players are of Polynesian background. This increase in Polynesian players has been blamed for the decline of Indigenous players, dropping from 21% in the 1990s to 11% for the 2009 season. The first Indigenous Australian to play in the NSWRL/NRL was New South Wales Rugby League premiership player George Green, who debuted in 1909. Since that time, many high-profile indigenous athletes have played in the competition, including Arthur Beetson (the first Aboriginal person to captain an Australian national team in any sport) and former Test match representatives Johnathan Thurston and Greg Inglis. At the elite level of the game, Indigenous Australians represented 35% of the roster for the Kangaroos, 21% of players at the 2012 State of Origin series, 12% of NRL players and a further 8% of the NRL Under-20s players. By way of comparison, 2.3% of the Australian population identified themselves as Indigenous in the 2006 Australian census. To celebrate the strong Indigenous ties to the game, the NRL holds a preseason All Stars game, featuring a team made up of Indigenous Australians playing a publicly voted team consisting of the non-Indigenous players, and an Indigenous Leadership Group has formed, consisting of the game's elite Indigenous players. The Leadership Group hosts regular multi-day camps where all Indigenous NRL players are invited to learn more about Indigenous culture. Both the All Stars match and the Leadership Group were ideas pioneered by former player Preston Campbell, with the All Stars man of the match receiving the Preston Campbell medal. Salary cap A salary cap was introduced to the NSWRL in 1990 to even the playing field of teams in the Winfield Cup. As of 2013 the club grant is $7.1 million which covers the salary cap of $5.85 million and a minimum wage for $80,000 for the top twenty-five players at each club. The salary cap will increase to $6.3 million in 2014, $6.55 million in 2015, $6.8 million by 2016 and $7 million in 2017. The cap is actively policed and penalties for clubs found to have breached the NRL salary cap regulations include fines of lesser of half the amount involved or $500,000 and/or deduction of premiership points. For example, six clubs were fined for minor infractions in 2003. These infractions are usually technical in nature, and can sometimes be affected by third-party factors such as loss of sponsorship revenue affecting an allowance. During the 2007 season the NRL implemented ways of creating a fair and more beneficial cap for players and clubs. In 2010, following the Melbourne Storm salary cap scandal, the NRL introduced requirements for players and their agents to sign statutory declarations pledging their contracts comply with salary cap regulations, where previously only club chairmen and chief executives did so for biannual salary cap audits. Major breaches of the cap In 2002, the Bulldogs were fined the maximum of $500,000 and deducted all 37 premiership points received during the season after it was found that they had committed serious and systematic breaches of the salary cap totalling $2.13 million over the past three years, including $750,000 in 2001 and $920,000 in 2002; these were described by NRL chief executive David Gallop as "exceptional in both its size and its deliberate and ongoing nature". The points penalty meant that the club won the 2002 wooden spoon (Souths would have finished last if not for the breaches), and as the club had been leading the competition table prior to the imposition of the penalties, this was a shattering outcome for the club and its fans. Two senior club officials were jailed for fraud as a result of these breaches. In 2005, the New Zealand Warriors were fined $430,000 and were ordered to start the 2006 season with a four premiership point deficit and cut their payroll by $450,000 after club officials revealed that their former management had exceeded the salary cap by $1.1 million over the last two years. The points penalty meant that the Warriors missed a finals berth in 2006. On 22 April 2010, following revelations by an internal whistle blower and investigation by the NRL, Storm officials revealed that the club had committed serious and systematic breaches of the salary cap regulations between 2006 and 2010 by running a well-organized dual contract and bookkeeping system that concealed a total of $3.78 million in payments made to players outside of the salary cap from the NRL. This included: $303,000 in 2006, $459,000 in 2007, $957,000 in 2008, $1.021 million in 2009 and $1.04 million in 2010. As a result, the club was stripped of the 2007 and 2009 premierships, 2006–2008 minor premierships and the following year, the 2010 World Club Challenge trophy. They were also fined a then Australian sporting record of $1.689 million ($1.1 million in NRL prize money which was equally distributed between the remaining 15 clubs, $89,000 in prize money from the World Club Challenge which was distributed to the Leeds Rhinos, and a maximum of $500,000 for breaching the salary cap regulations). In addition they were ordered to cut their payroll by $1.0125 million, deducted all eight premiership points received during the 2010 season and barred from receiving premiership points for the remainder of the 2010 season. The points penalty meant that the club won the 2010 wooden spoon. The former directors attempted unsuccessful legal action against the penalties which collapsed, and the club also had to pay the NRLs legal costs. The matter was also referred to ASIC, the Australian Tax Office, the Victorian State Revenue Office, and the Victoria Police to investigate possible fraud however by May 2011 these investigations were closed. The players themselves were found to have not done anything wrong during this time so individual awards are recognised in addition, the players were still eligible for Test/State of Origin selection. Prior to the start of the 2016 NRL season, the Parramatta Eels faced the prospect with starting the season on −4 points due to salary cap indiscretions in 2015, however the NRL was satisfied with governance changes at the Eels and no points were deducted. However, it was revealed in March that third-party payments had been made by several companies to several players, which is strictly prohibited in the NRL. On 3 May 2016, NRL CEO Todd Greenberg announced that the club would be docked the twelve competition points they have accrued so far this season, as well as fined $1 million and stripped of the 2016 NRL Auckland Nines title it won in February. In addition, the NRL also announced that the Eels would not be able to accrue any further competition points until they fall under the salary cap, which they were reported to be $500,000 over as of 3 May 2016. Five officials, including chairman Steve Sharp, deputy chairman Tom Issa, director Peter Serrao, chief executive John Boulous and football manager Daniel Anderson, were also sacked. On 9 July, after over 2 months of club officials contesting the preliminary penalties, Parramatta were handed their punishment with the addition of their for/against points tally accumulated from rounds 1–9 being deducted. Recently, in 2018, Manly Sea-Eagles were fined $750,000, two officials (Neil Bare and Joe Kelly were suspended and a $660,000 penalty was applied to the salary cap for 2018 and the next year for breaches of the salary cap). Manly was proved by the NRL chief executive that third-party payments and deals were made to attract more players to the club. Judiciary and Integrity Unit The NRL Judiciary is made up of former players who convene in three-man panels to rule on on-field incidents. The judiciary is currently chaired by Wollongong district court judge Paul Conlon and made up of former players Mal Cochrane, Michael Buettner, Bradley Clyde, Sean Garlick, Don McKinnon and Bob Lindner. An integrity Unit was formed on 7 February 2013 and is headed by former Federal Court judge Tony Whitlam. Awards Provan-Summons trophy The Provan-Summons trophy is the NRL's main prize, awarded to the team that wins the premiership. Its sculptured design is similar to the Winfield Cup trophy, which was introduced for the 1982 NSWRFL season. It is a three-dimensional cast of a famous photo called The Gladiators, which depicts a mud-soaked Norm Provan of St. George and Arthur Summons of Western Suburbs embracing after the 1963 NSWRFL season's Grand Final. It was not officially named the Provan-Summons Trophy until 2013, the 50th anniversary of the 1963 Grand Final. The trophy is awarded following each grand final to the captain of the winning club. The trophy was mysteriously broken during grand final celebrations in 2021. Each player from the premiership winning side are also awarded Premiership Rings. J. J. Giltinan Shield Created in 1951, the J. J. Giltinan Shield is awarded to the club ranked highest on the NRL ladder after the premiership season concludes. Typically this team is known as the minor premiers. Clive Churchill medal The Clive Churchill Medal is awarded to the most outstanding player in a grand final. It is named after former Australian fullback Clive Churchill. Dally M awards The Dally M Medal is the highlight of the Dally M Awards and was named after Henry Herbert 'Dally' Messenger, who was instrumental in the establishment of rugby league football in Australia. The awards were introduced in 1980 by News Limited. The Dally M has been the official player-of-the-year award, and the highest individual honour in Australian rugby league, since the unification of the game in 1998. Before 1998 the highest award was the Rothmans Medal. The medal is awarded, usually by the Australian Prime Minister, at the annual Dally M Awards night. As well as honouring the best and fairest player of the year, the Dally M awards recognise the premier player in each position, the best coach and the most outstanding rookie of the season. The Immortals Originally The Immortals were Four players named by the sport's major Australian magazine Rugby League Week as the nation's greatest ever. Established in 1981, the group of four former Test captains: , Clive Churchill, Bob Fulton, Reg Gasnier, Johnny Raper and were those appointed by Rugby League Week between 1981 and 2012. Wally Lewis, Graeme Langlands added in 1999 Arthur Beetson 2003 Andrew Johns 2012 Following the demise of Rugby League Week, the Australian Rugby League Commission took ownership of The Immortals concept and expanded the group on 1 August 2018 by inclusion of Mal Meninga, Norm Provan, Frank Burge, Dave Brown and Dally Messenger. Queensland Rugby League's Team of the Century The Queensland Rugby League's Team of the Century is a team that consisted of the greatest rugby league players from 1909 to 2008. This team was picked by six judges in 2008 from a list of 100 nominated players. New South Wales Rugby League's Team of the Century The New South Wales Rugby League's Team of the Century is a team that consisted of the greatest rugby league players from 1908 to 2007. Audience The 2019 NRL Season rated 88.201 million viewers at an average viewership of 459,000 per game, with an almost even split between free to air viewers on Nine and GEM, as well as Fox League. Media coverage Television ANZ and Pacific Within Australia all matches are broadcast on either the Nine Network (through 2022) and Fox Sports (through 2027). In New Zealand all matches, including representative fixtures such as the All Stars Match and the State of Origin series, are shown live on Sky Sport. Prime broadcasts select games live in New Zealand starting from the 2022 season, and will continue to broadcast every Warriors match on delay. Detailed Australian coverage By Matchday Thursday Night Football is broadcast live on the Nine Network and simulcast on Fox League and Kayo. Kickoff is at 7:50pm. Friday Night Football consists of 2 matches. The first match kicks off at 6:00pm and is broadcast live on Fox League. The second match kicks off at 7:55pm and is broadcast live on the Nine Network and simulcast on Fox League and Kayo. Super Saturday consists of 3 matches. The first match kicks off at 3:00pm, the second match kicks off at 5:30pm and the third match kicks off at 7:35pm. All 3 matches are broadcast live on Fox League and are simulcast live on Kayo. During the final 5 rounds of the year, the 7:35pm match is also simulcast on Nine NRL Sunday Ticket consists of 2 matches. The first match kicks off at 2:00pm and is broadcast live on Fox League and Kayo. The second match kicks off at 4:10pm and is broadcast live on the Nine Network and simulcasted on Fox League and Kayo. During daylight savings, the 2:00pm game is moved to 6:10pm. By Network Fox League and Kayo televise all matches live and commercial free (excluding the Grand Final). Nine Network televises the Thursday night game until 2022, second Friday night game and the second Sunday afternoon game (first in daylight savings), as well as the last five Saturday 7:30pm games of the year and all matches of the finals series including the NRL Grand Final. The State of Origin series is televised exclusively live on the Nine Network, with extensive pre-game and post-game coverage, starting at 7:00pm. The NRL Grand Final televised exclusively live on the Nine Network. Since 2013, the match has kicked off at 7:30pm Source: NRL-related television programs In Australia there are television shows dedicated to discussing the NRL. The programs are listed in order of the day and time viewed in their primary broadcast market: NRL 360 (Mondays-Wednesdays 6:30 pm on Fox League 502). Hosted by Yvonne Sampson and Paul Kent. Sunday Night with Matty Johns (following Sunday Football on Fox League 502). Hosted by Matthew Johns. The Fan (Tuesdays 7:30 pm on Fox League 502). Hosted by Andrew Voss. The Late Show with Matty Johns (Thursdays 10:00 pm on Fox League 502). Hosted by Matthew Johns. League Legends (Sundays 6:30pm on Fox League 502). Hosted by Tim Sheridan. (Broadcast during the off-season) The Sunday Footy Show (Sunday 11.00 am on Channel Nine): a recap of Thursday, Friday and Saturday's games, and preview of Sunday's games. 100% Footy (Mondays 10:30pm on Channel 9): A recap of the weekend results along with topical discussions on the major issues surrounding the game. Hosted by James Bracey. Over The Black Dot (Wednesdays 8:30pm on NITV): An Indigenous Australian perspective on the NRL featuring highlights, discussion and interviews Former shows: Barefoot Sports (Thursday 8:30 pm on NITV) Hosted by Brad Cooke and formerly known as The Barefoot Rugby League Show. One Week at a Time (Mondays, at 9:30 pm, on One), recapping the weekend games The Game Plan (Thursday 8:30 pm, on Channel Ten) Hosted by Steve Roach, Joel Caine and Andrew Moore. The Matty Johns Show (Thursdays, 7.30 pm on Channel Seven) A more sketch-and-regular-segment-oriented version of The Footy Show and The Game Plan, not related to Monday Night with Matty Johns. The Sunday Roast (Sunday Midday on Channel Nine) Now incorporated into the Sunday Footy Show. NRL Full-time, a weekly half-hour highlights show for the UK audience. On the Couch with Sterlo League Life (Wednesdays 7:30pm on Fox League 502). Hosted by Yvonne Sampson. Queenslanders Only (Wednesdays 8:00pm on Fox League 502). Hosted by Hannah Hollis. (Airs at 7:00pm Queensland time during the month of March due to NSW Daylight Saving Time) Narrow World of Sports (Fridays 10:00pm on Fox League 502). Hosted by James ‘The Professor’ Rochford. NZ Coverage Sky Sport: All games live on Sky Sport 4 including State of Origin and the Grand Final. Prime: New Zealand Warriors games on delay. Some select matches live. Three: Select State of Origin games live Pacific In most Pacific countries, all matches are broadcast on Digicel and other networks in these three countries. In PNG, the NRL also broadcast for free on TVWan. Outside ANZ and Pacific The NRL is also available to the rest of the world. Internet Outside of Australia, New Zealand, and the Pacific Islands, all matches are currently available in high definition on the subscription streaming service Watch NRL which operates through its website and a dedicated app. Watch NRL is operated by Fox Sports Australia. A selection of classic NRL games is available for free worldwide on the league's website. Radio Australia The NRL has several exclusive rights partners to broadcast matches live via radio nationwide. FM coverage is provided by Triple M while AM coverage is contracted to ABC Local Radio and 2GB. All radio coverage is available to be streamed live from the NRL website. 2GB has the commercial rights to one Friday night match, the 5:30 pm Saturday game, and the 2 pm Sunday match, covering the game through the Continuous Call Team program. 2GB also air representative games, as well as all matches throughout the finals series, and all three matches on Grand Final day. The coverage is networked to stations across the country, typically those owned by Southern Cross Media Group, Grant Broadcasters and other station groups on Nine Radio. 2SM has the rights to air Thursday Night and Sunday 4pm games via NRL Nation. These games are also aired across their affiliates across NSW. ABC Local Radio has the rights to all NRL matches in the Australian Capital Territory, Queensland and New South Wales. Triple M has exclusive access to Thursday night, Saturday 4 pm and Sunday night matches and is broadcast on commercial stations across the country. Triple M also broadcast the State of Origin series, the finals series and the Grand Final. Print Big League is the competition's official publication, released Thursday and produced by News Magazines. Other News Magazines publications, ALPHA Magazine, regularly publishes league-related stories and interviews, as well as Rugby League Review, a newspaper that reviews the last month. Theme songs 1985–1988: The Boys Are Back in Town – Thin Lizzy 1989: What You Get Is What You See – Tina Turner 1990–1995: Simply The Best – Tina Turner 1997 (SL): Two Tribes – Frankie Goes to Hollywood 1997 (ARL): It's My Game – NSWRL 1998: Tubthumping – Chumbawamba 1999: Blow That Whistle – Thomas Keneally 2000: What A Game – Tom Jones 2001: Racing Car Noises over Action Highlights 2003–2007: That's My Team – Hoodoo Gurus 2008: Centenary of Rugby League Campaign 2009: Feels Like Woah – Wes Carr 2010: Social Currency – Children Collide 2011–2012: This Is Our House – Bon Jovi 2013: Something's Got a Hold on Me – Jessica Mauboy 2014: My Songs Know What You Did in the Dark – Fall Out Boy 2015: Let Me Entertain You – Robbie Williams 2016: History Happens 2017: Let's Make History 2018: Whatever It Takes – Imagine Dragons 2019: High Hopes — Panic! at the Disco Video games There have been many top selling video games made for the Australian rugby league market. The games below are sorted by year released. E.T.'s Rugby League, named for Andrew Ettingshausen, was released on Amiga in 1992. Australian Rugby League (1995) for Sega Mega Drive ARL '96 was a PC game published by EA Sports for the 1996 season. Rugby League (2003) for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, and Xbox Rugby League 2 (2005) for Microsoft Windows, PlayStation 2, and Xbox Rugby League 2: World Cup Edition (2008) for PlayStation 2 NRL Mascot Mania (2009) for Nintendo DS Rugby League Challenge (2009) for PlayStation Portable Rugby League 3 (2010) for Wii Rugby League Live (2010) for PlayStation 3 Xbox 360; (2011) for Microsoft Windows Rugby League Live 2 (2012) for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 Rugby League Legends (2012) iOS Rugby League Live 2: World Cup Edition (2013) for PlayStation 3 and Xbox 360 Rugby League Live 3 (2015) for Steam, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One Rugby League Live 4 (2017) for Steam, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One Rugby League Live 4 World Cup Edition (2017) for Steam, PlayStation 3, Xbox 360, PlayStation 4 and Xbox One Cheerleading Most NRL teams have a squad of dancers for cheerleading that are usually involved in dancing, charity work, fundraisers, and modelling. Some Notable NRL cheerleaders are Jennifer Hawkins for the Newcastle Knights, Chloe Butler for the Emeralds and Tabrett Bethell for the Cronulla Sharks Mermaids. Cheer Squads Records Official NRL statistics encompass all first grade competitions, namely the New South Wales Rugby League, Australian Rugby League, Super League, and the present day NRL. Team Most premierships – 21 South Sydney Rabbitohs Most minor premierships – 20 Sydney Roosters Most premierships in a row – 11 St George Most wooden spoons – 17 Western Suburbs Magpies Highest score in a game – 91, St. George against Canterbury (1935) Largest winning margin in a game – 85, St. George against Canterbury (1935) Longest winning streak – 19 matches, Eastern Suburbs Roosters Melbourne Storm (1975) (2021) Longest undefeated streak – 35 matches, Eastern Suburbs (1935–1938) Longest losing streak- 42 matches, University (1934–1936) Individual Most games played – Cameron Smith 430 games Leading pointscorer – Cameron Smith 2,810 points (48 tries, 1307 goals, 4 field goals) Leading tryscorer – Ken Irvine, 212 tries Most points in a Full Season – including Finals 342, Hazem El Masri (16 tries, 139 goals) (2004) Most points in a Regular Season 300, Reuben Garrick (21 tries, 110 goals) (2021) Most tries in a season 38, Dave Brown (1935) Most points in a game 45, Dave Brown (1935). Most tries in a game 8, Frank Burge (1920) Coaches Premiership Winning Coaches (NRL Era) Match officials On-Field Match Officials Matt Cecchin Gerard Sutton Ben Cummins Ashley Klein Grant Atkins David Munro Adam Gee Chris Butler Peter Gough Matt Noyen Chris Sutton Jon Stone Phil Henderson Belinda Sharpe Kasey Badger Ziggy Przeklasa-Adamski Drew Oultram Todd Smith Liam Kennedy Darian Furner Wyatt Raymond Bunker Review Officials (Video Referees) Steve Chiddy Alan Shortall Ashley Klein (also an on-field match official) Grant Atkins (also an on-field match official) Henry Perenara Chris Butler (also an on-field match official) Matt Noyen (also an on-field match official) Sponsorship The NRL and its clubs receive significant revenue from sponsorships, with sponsors' logos appearing on most parts of players' and referees' uniforms, the playing surface and even the ball itself. Since 2001, the National Rugby League premiership has been sponsored by Telstra and known as the 'NRL Telstra Premiership'. Prior to this, the competition was simply known as the 'National Rugby League'. The Telstra Premiership has had five competition logos since 2001. The first, lasting only through the 2001 regular season, was the Telstra logo with an elongated circle enclosing the word Premiership. From the Finals series of 2001 through to the end of 2006 the logo was based around the shape of a football, with the words Telstra Premiership on respective lines along the bottom, culminating with a small football similar to the one in the official NRL logo at the peak. The main colours were dark blue and orange, the corporate colours of Telstra. The company worked with the NRL to create the third logo for the 2007 season onward as part of a new sponsorship deal. This logo was quite similar to the original National Rugby League emblem. From the 2011 Finals Series, a newer logo was commissioned in concert with a corporate re-brand undertaken by Telstra. The 2007 logo remained on club jerseys until 2012 due to the lateness of the change and was phased out in time for the 2013 NRL Season. From 2013, under a dramatic image rebranding of the competition, the Telstra Premiership logo was changed in conjunction with a new sponsorship deal to incorporate the key elements of rugby league in Australia to include the shield and chevrons, the green and gold, a red "Telstra" logo perched above the top of the shield and for the first time the iconic Provan-Summons trophy awarded to the premiers at the end of the season centred in the middle of the badge. At the end of the 2018 season the NRL launched a bold new look for its Telstra Premiership. The new look aims to modernise the Telstra Premiership brand as well as integrate it more seamlessly with the 16 clubs. The new brand, highlighting the shield and the chevron – which have both been synonymous with Rugby League since the game's inception. Other notable sponsorships include Hisense (Thursday Night Football), Victoria Bitter (Friday Night Football), Bundaberg Rum (Super Saturday), Chemist Warehouse (Sunday Football). Steeden is the official match ball supplier, Schick (razors) sponsor the match ball. The State of Origin series and the Australian Test matches (Kangaroos). Youi and Harvey Norman sponsor the on-field match officials and KFC sponsors the NRL Bunker. Other Official NRL Sponsors are: Coca Cola Amatil, Hankook, Home Hardware, Rebel, TWE (Wolf Blass), Accor, Drinkwise, P&O, Gallagher and EISS Super. Partners of the NRLW Competition are: Telstra, Harvey Norman, Chemist Warehouse, Flight Centre and Rebel. See also Rugby league in Australia New South Wales Rugby League premiership List of sports attendance figures – the NRL's attendance in a worldwide context NRL Women's Premiership – the official league for women's rugby league in Australia starting in 2018 References External links Official website Official Livestream channel Rugby league competitions in Australia Nine's Wide World of Sport Fox Sports (Australian TV network) 1997 establishments in Australia Sports leagues established in 1997 Professional sports leagues in Australia Professional sports leagues in New Zealand Multi-national professional sports leagues	[ 0.32612350583076477, -0.5693155527114868, -0.594237744808197, -0.2047760784626007, -0.0234175194054842, 0.5033425688743591, 0.13940636813640594, 0.3318325877189636, -0.28800317645072937, -0.4162321984767914, 0.0963197648525238, 0.41670456528663635, -0.15187393128871918, 0.3785918951034546, 0.27007800340652466, 0.6529312133789062, 0.25499817728996277, 0.3668801784515381, 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255710	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kawaii	Kawaii	Kawaii is the culture of cuteness in Japan. It can refer to items, humans and non-humans that are charming, vulnerable, shy and childlike. Examples include cute handwriting, certain genres of manga, and characters including Hello Kitty and Pikachu. The cuteness culture, or kawaii aesthetic, has become a prominent aspect of Japanese popular culture, entertainment, clothing, food, toys, personal appearance, and mannerisms. Etymology The word kawaii originally derives from the phrase kao hayushi, which literally means "(one's) face (is) aglow," commonly used to refer to flushing or blushing of the face. The second morpheme is cognate with -bayu in mabayui (眩い, 目映い, or 目映ゆい) "dazzling, glaring, blinding, too bright; dazzlingly beautiful" (ma- is from me "eye") and -hayu in omohayui (面映い or 面映ゆい) "embarrassed/embarrassing, awkward, feeling self-conscious/making one feel self-conscious" (omo- is from 面 omo, an archaic word for "face, looks, features; surface; image, semblance, vestige"). Over time, the meaning changed into the modern meaning of "cute" or "shine" , and the pronunciation changed to kawayui and then to the modern kawaii. It is commonly written in hiragana, , but the ateji, , has also been used. The kanji in the ateji literally translates to "able to love/be loved, can/may love, lovable." History Original definition The original definition of kawaii came from Lady Murasaki's 11th century novel The Tale of Genji, where it referred to pitiable qualities. During the Shogunate period under the ideology of neo-Confucianism, women came to be included under the term kawaii as the perception of women being animalistic was replaced with the conception of women as docile. However, the earlier meaning survives into the modern Standard Japanese adjectival noun かわいそう kawaisō (often written with ateji as 可哀相 or 可哀想) "piteous, pitiable, arousing compassion, poor, sad, sorry" (etymologically from 顔映様 "face / projecting, reflecting, or transmitting light, flushing, blushing / seeming, appearance"). Forms of kawaii and its derivatives kawaisō and kawairashii (with the suffix -rashii "-like, -ly") are used in modern dialects to mean "embarrassing/embarrassed, shameful/ashamed" or "good, nice, fine, excellent, superb, splendid, admirable" in addition to the standard meanings of "adorable" and "pitiable." Cute handwriting In the 1970s, the popularity of the kawaii aesthetic inspired a style of writing. Many teenage girls participated in this style; the handwriting was made by writing laterally, often while using mechanical pencils. These pencils produced very fine lines, as opposed to traditional Japanese writing that varied in thickness and was vertical. The girls would also write in big, round characters and they added little pictures to their writing, such as hearts, stars, emoticon faces, and letters of the Latin alphabet. These pictures made the writing very difficult to read. As a result, this writing style caused a lot of controversy and was banned in many schools. During the 1980s, however, this new "cute" writing was adopted by magazines and comics and was often put onto packaging and advertising of products, especially toys for children or “cute accessories”. From 1984 to 1986, studied the development of the cute handwriting (which he called Anomalous Female Teenage Handwriting) in depth. This type of cute Japanese handwriting has also been called: , meaning "round writing", , meaning "kitten writing", , meaning "comic writing", and , meaning "fake-child writing". Although it was commonly thought that the writing style was something that teenagers had picked up from comics, Kazuma found that teenagers had come up with the style themselves, spontaneously, as an ‘underground trend’. His conclusion was based on an observation that cute handwriting predates the availability of technical means for producing rounded writing in comics. Cute merchandise , author of Cool Japan, says cute fashion in Japan can be traced back to the Edo period with the popularity of netsuke. Illustrator Rune Naito, who produced illustrations of "large-headed" (nitōshin) baby-faced girls and cartoon animals for Japanese girls' magazines from the 1950s to the 1970s, is credited with pioneering what would become the culture and aesthetic of kawaii. Because of this growing trend, companies such as Sanrio came out with merchandise like Hello Kitty. Hello Kitty was an immediate success and the obsession with cute continued to progress in other areas as well. More recently, Sanrio has released kawaii characters with deeper personalities that appeal to an older audience, such as Gudetama and Aggretsuko. These characters have enjoyed strong popularity as fans are drawn to their unique quirks in addition to their cute aesthetics. The 1980s also saw the rise of cute idols, such as Seiko Matsuda, who is largely credited with popularizing the trend. Women began to emulate Seiko Matsuda and her cute fashion style and mannerisms, which emphasized the helplessness and innocence of young girls. The market for cute merchandise in Japan used to be driven by Japanese girls between 15 and 18 years old. Aesthetics , in his work Kawaii Syndrome, claims "cute" and "neat" have taken precedence over the former Japanese aesthetics of "beautiful" and "refined". As a cultural phenomenon, cuteness is increasingly accepted in Japan as a part of Japanese culture and national identity. , author of Cool Japan, believes that "cuteness" is rooted in Japan's harmony-loving culture, and , a sociology professor at Musashi University in Tokyo, has stated that "cute" is a "magic term" that encompasses everything that is acceptable and desirable in Japan. Gender performance Japanese women who feign kawaii behaviors (e.g., high-pitched voice, squealing giggles) that could be viewed as forced or inauthentic are called burikko and this is considered a gender performance. The neologism developed in the 1980s, perhaps originated by comedian . Physical attractiveness In Japan, being cute is acceptable for both men and women. A trend existed of men shaving their legs to mimic the neotenic look. Japanese women often try to act cute to attract men. A study by Kanebo, a cosmetic company, found that Japanese women in their 20s and 30s favored the "cute look" with a "childish round face". Women also employ a look of innocence in order to further play out this idea of cuteness. Having large eyes is one aspect that exemplifies innocence; therefore many Japanese women attempt to alter the size of their eyes. To create this illusion, women may wear large contact lenses, false eyelashes, dramatic eye makeup, and even have an East Asian blepharoplasty, commonly known as double eyelid surgery. Idols are media personalities in their teens and twenties who are considered particularly attractive or cute and who will, for a period ranging from several months to a few years, regularly appear in the mass media, e.g. as singers for pop groups, bit-part actors, TV personalities (tarento), models in photo spreads published in magazines, advertisements, etc. (But not every young celebrity is considered an idol. Young celebrities who wish to cultivate a rebellious image, such as many rock musicians, reject the "idol" label.) Speed, Morning Musume, AKB48, and Momoiro Clover Z are examples of popular idol groups in Japan during the 2000s & 2010s. Cute fashion Lolita Lolita fashion is a very well-known and recognizable style in Japan. Based on Victorian fashion and the Rococo period, girls mix in their own elements along with gothic style to achieve the porcelain-doll look. The girls who dress in Lolita fashion try to look cute, innocent, and beautiful. This look is achieved with lace, ribbons, bows, ruffles, bloomers, aprons, and ruffled petticoats. Parasols, chunky Mary Jane heels, and Bo Peep collars are also very popular. Sweet Lolita is a subset of Lolita fashion that includes even more ribbons, bows, and lace, and is often fabricated out of pastels and other light colors. Head-dresses such as giant bows or bonnets are also very common, while lighter make-up is sometimes used to achieve a more natural look. Curled hair extensions, sometimes accompanied by eyelash extensions, are also popular in helping with the baby doll look. Another subset of Lolita fashion related to "sweet Lolita" is Fairy Kei. Themes such as fruits, flowers and sweets are often used as patterns on the fabrics used for dresses. Purses often go with the themes and are shaped as hearts, strawberries, or stuffed animals. Baby, the Stars Shine Bright is one of the more popular clothing stores for this style and often carries themes. Mannerisms are also important to many Sweet Lolitas. Sweet Lolita is sometimes not only a fashion, but also a lifestyle. This is evident in the 2004 film Kamikaze Girls where the main Lolita character, Momoko, drinks only tea and eats only sweets. Gothic Lolita, Kuro Lolita, Shiro Lolita, and Military Lolita are all subtypes, also, in the US Anime Convention scene Casual Lolita. Decora Decora is a style that is characterized by wearing many "decorations" on oneself. It is considered to be self-decoration. The goal of this fashion is to become as vibrant and characterized as possible. People who take part in this fashion trend wear accessories such as multicolor hair pins, bracelets, rings, necklaces, etc. By adding on multiple layers of accessories on an outfit, the fashion trend tends to have a childlike appearance. It also includes toys and multicolor clothes. Decora and Fairy Kei have some crossover. Kawaii men Although typically a female-dominated fashion, some men partake in the kawaii trend. They transform themselves into women—specifically kawaii women—by wearing wigs, false eyelashes, applying makeup, and wearing kawaii female clothing. This is seen predominately in male entertainers, such as Torideta-san, a DJ who transforms himself into a kawaii woman when working at his nightclub. Japanese pop stars and actors often have longer hair, such as Takuya Kimura of SMAP. Men are also noted as often aspiring to a neotenic look. While it doesn't quite fit the exact specifications of what cuteness means for females, men are certainly influenced by the same societal mores - to be attractive in a specific sort of way that the society finds acceptable. In this way both Japanese men and women conform to the expectations of Kawaii in some way or another. Products The concept of kawaii has had an influence on a variety of products, including candy, such as Hi-Chew, Koala's March and Hello Panda. Cuteness can be added to products by adding cute features, such as hearts, flowers, stars and rainbows. Cute elements can be found almost everywhere in Japan, from big business to corner markets and national government, ward, and town offices. Many companies, large and small, use cute mascots to present their wares and services to the public. For example: Pikachu, a character from Pokémon, adorns the side of ten ANA passenger jets, the Pokémon Jets. Asahi Bank used Miffy (Nijntje), a character from a Dutch series of children's picture books, on some of its ATM and credit cards. The prefectures of Japan, as well as many cities and cultural institutions, have cute mascot characters known as yuru-chara to promote tourism. Kumamon, the Kumamoto Prefecture mascot, and Hikonyan, the city of Hikone mascot, are among the most popular. The Japan Post "Yū-Pack" mascot is a stylized mailbox; they also use other cute mascot characters to promote their various services (among them the Postal Savings Bank) and have used many such on postage stamps. Some police forces in Japan have their own moe mascots, which sometimes adorn the front of kōban (police boxes). NHK, the public broadcaster, has its own cute mascots. Domokun, the unique-looking and widely recognized NHK mascot, was introduced in 1998 and quickly took on a life of its own, appearing in Internet memes and fan art around the world. Sanrio, the company behind Hello Kitty and other similarly cute characters, runs the Sanrio Puroland theme park in Tokyo, and painted on some EVA Air Airbus A330 jets as well. Sanrio’s line of more than 50 characters takes in more than $1 billion a year and it remains the most successful company to capitalize on the cute trend. Cute can be also used to describe a specific fashion sense of an individual, and generally includes clothing that appears to be made for young children, apart from the size, or clothing that accentuates the cuteness of the individual wearing the clothing. Ruffles and pastel colors are commonly (but not always) featured, and accessories often include toys or bags featuring anime characters. Non-kawaii imports There have been occasions on which popular Western products failed to meet the expectations of kawaii, and thus did not do well in the Japanese market. For example, Cabbage Patch Kids dolls did not sell well in Japan, because the Japanese considered their facial features to be "ugly" and "grotesque" compared to the flatter and almost featureless faces of characters such as Hello Kitty. Also, the doll Barbie, portraying an adult woman, did not become successful in Japan compared to Takara's Licca, a doll that was modeled after an 11-year-old girl. Industry Kawaii has gradually gone from a small subculture in Japan to an important part of Japanese modern culture as a whole. An overwhelming number of modern items feature kawaii themes, not only in Japan but also worldwide. And characters associated with kawaii are astoundingly popular. "Global cuteness" is reflected in such billion-dollar sellers as Pokémon and Hello Kitty. "Fueled by Internet subcultures, Hello Kitty alone has hundreds of entries on eBay, and is selling in more than 30 countries, including Argentina, Bahrain, and Taiwan." Japan has become a powerhouse in the kawaii industry and images of Doraemon, Hello Kitty, Pikachu, Sailor Moon and Hamtaro are popular in mobile phone accessories. However, Professor Tian Shenliang says that Japan's future is dependent on how much of an impact kawaii brings to humanity. The Japanese Foreign Ministry has also recognized the power of cute merchandise and has sent three 18-year-old women overseas in the hopes of spreading Japanese culture around the world. The women dress in uniforms and maid costumes that are commonplace in Japan. Kawaii manga and magazines have brought tremendous profit to the Japanese press industry. Moreover, the worldwide revenue from the computer game and its merchandising peripherals are closing in on $5 billion, according to a Nintendo press release titled "It's a Pokémon Planet". Influence upon other cultures In recent years, Kawaii products have gained popularity beyond the borders of Japan in other East and Southeast Asian countries, and are additionally becoming more popular in the US among anime and manga fans as well as others influenced by Japanese culture. Cute merchandise and products are especially popular in other parts of East Asia, such as mainland China, Hong Kong, Macau, Taiwan and South Korea, as well as Southeast Asian countries including the Philippines, Singapore, Thailand, and Vietnam. Sebastian Masuda, owner of 6%DOKIDOKI and a global advocate for kawaii influence, takes the quality from Harajuku to Western markets in his stores and artwork. The underlying belief of this Japanese designer is that "kawaii" actually saves the world. The infusion of kawaii into other world markets and cultures is achieved by introducing kawaii via modern art; audio, visual, and written media; and the fashion trends of Japanese youth, especially in high school girls. Japanese kawaii seemingly operates as a center of global popularity due to its association with making cultural productions and consumer products "cute". This mindset pursues a global market, giving rise to numerous applications and interpretations in other cultures. The dissemination of Japanese youth fashion and "kawaii culture" is usually associated with the Western society and trends set by designers borrowed or taken from Japan. With the emergence of China, South Korea and Singapore as global economic centers, the Kawaii merchandise and product popularity has shifted back to the East. In these East Asian and Southeast Asian markets, the kawaii concept takes on various forms and different types of presentation depending on the target audience. In East Asia and Southeast Asia Taiwanese culture, the government in particular, has embraced and elevated kawaii to a new level of social consciousness. The introduction of the A-Bian doll was seen as the development of a symbol to advance democracy and assist in constructing a collective imagination and national identity for Taiwanese people. The A-Bian dolls are kawaii likeness of sports figure, famous individuals, and now political figures that use kawaii images as a means of self-promotion and potential votes. The creation of the A-Bian doll has allowed Taiwanese President Chen Shui-bian staffers to create a new culture where the "kawaii" image of a politician can be used to mobilize support and gain election votes. Japanese popular "kawaii culture" has had an effect on Singaporean youth. The emergence of Japanese culture can be traced back to the mid-1980s when Japan became one of the economic powers in the world. Kawaii has developed from a few children's television shows to an Internet sensation. Japanese media is used so abundantly in Singapore that youths are more likely to imitate the fashion of their Japanese idols, learn the Japanese language, and continue purchasing Japanese oriented merchandise. The East Asian countries of mainland China, Hong Kong, Taiwan and South Korea, as well as the Southeast Asian country of Thailand either produce kawaii items for international consumption or have websites that cater for kawaii as part of the youth culture in their country. Kawaii has taken on a life of its own, spawning the formation of kawaii websites, kawaii home pages, kawaii browser themes and finally, kawaii social networking pages. While Japan is the origin and Mecca of all things kawaii, artists and businesses around the world are imitating the kawaii theme. Kawaii has truly become "greater" than itself. The interconnectedness of today's world via the Internet has taken kawaii to new heights of exposure and acceptance, producing a kawaii "movement". The Kawaii concept has become something of a global phenomenon. The aesthetic cuteness of Japan is very appealing to people globally. The wide popularity of Japanese kawaii is often credited with it being "culturally odorless". The elimination of exoticism and national branding has helped kawaii to reach numerous target audiences and span every culture, class, and gender group. The palatable characteristics of kawaii have made it a global hit, resulting in Japan's global image shifting from being known for austere rock gardens to being known for "cute-worship". In 2014, the Collins English Dictionary in the United Kingdom entered "kawaii" into its then latest edition, defining it as a "Japanese artistic and cultural style that emphasizes the quality of cuteness, using bright colours and characters with a childlike appearance". Controversy In his book The Power of Cute, Simon May talks about the 180 degree turn in Japan’s history, from the violence of war to kawaii starting around the 1970s, in the works of artists like Takashi Murakami, amongst others. By 1992, kawaii was seen as "the most widely used, widely loved, habitual word in modern living Japanese." Since then, there has been some controversy surrounding the term kawaii and the expectations of it in Japanese culture. Natalia Konstantinovskaia, in her article “Being Kawaii in Japan”, says that based on the increasing ratio of young Japanese girls that view themselves as kawaii, there is a possibility that “from early childhood, Japanese people are socialized into the expectation that women must be kawaii.” The idea of kawaii can be tricky to balance - if a woman’s interpretation of kawaii seems to have gone too far, she is then labeled as buriko, “a woman who plays bogus innocence.” In the article “Embodied Kawaii: Girls’ voices in J-pop”, the authors make the argument that female J-pop singers are expected to be recognizable by their outfits, voice, and mannerisms as kawaii - young and cute. Any woman who becomes a J-pop icon must stay kawaii, or keep her girlishness, rather than being perceived as a woman, even if she is over 18. See also Aegyo Camp (style) Chibi (slang) Culture of Japan Ingénue Kawaii metal, Kawaii bass (Music genre) Moe Yuru-chara References Further reading Concepts in aesthetics Japanese aesthetics Japanese culture Japanese fashion Japanese popular culture Japanese words and phrases	[ 0.09007082879543304, -0.03168678656220436, -0.3425673842430115, 0.020238902419805527, -0.5896744728088379, 0.3220353126525879, 0.4349212944507599, 0.7221433520317078, -0.3964013457298279, -0.5059648752212524, -0.45030948519706726, -0.1019422709941864, 0.18250101804733276, 0.30314019322395325, -0.6080082058906555, -0.12580527365207672, 0.3847925364971161, 0.766211986541748, 0.19047440588474274, -0.05084734782576561, -0.5853167772293091, -0.6061504483222961, -0.558383584022522, -0.3209918141365051, 0.19211295247077942, -0.5872820019721985, 0.780045747756958, 0.6145432591438293, 0.39079415798187256, -0.4148038327693939, -0.19401699304580688, 1.00710129737854, 0.241981640458107, 0.04611064866185188, 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255714	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Michael%20Hayes	John Michael Hayes	John Michael Hayes (11 May 1919 – 19 November 2008) was an American screenwriter, who scripted four of Alfred Hitchcock's films in the 1950s. Early life Hayes was born in Worcester, Massachusetts to John Michael Hayes Sr. and Ellen Mabel Hayes. Hayes Sr. was a tool and die maker but had performed as a song and dance man on the Keith-Orpheum vaudeville circuit earlier in life. As a child, Hayes missed much of his school career from second grade through fifth grade due to ear infections. During that time away from school, he discovered a love of reading. In junior high school, he became a staff writer on The Spectator, the school newspaper, and at age 16, he wrote for the high school yearbook as well as editing a Boy Scout weekly, The Eagle Trail. His work brought him to the attention of Worcester's Evening Gazette, and Hayes began penning articles about Boy Scout activities for the paper. Later stints with the Worcester Telegram and a profile in The Christian Science Monitor led to a job with the Associated Press. Working diligently, Hayes managed to amass enough money to attend Massachusetts State College. Radio At college, Hayes became interested in radio and won a contest to write radio stories for Crosley Corporation in Cincinnati, Ohio. Following a period in the US Army during World War II, Hayes moved to California and resumed his radio career. In California, Hayes scripted for various radio comedies and dramas, including The Adventures of Sam Spade, Alias Jane Doe, Inner Sanctum Mysteries, My Favorite Husband, Sweeney and March, Twelve Players and Yours Truly, Johnny Dollar. Films His success in radio led to an invitation from Universal-International Pictures to write screenplays. His first screen credit was for Redball Express in 1952. Much of Hayes's career was spent writing screenplays for glossy, big-budget melodramas like Torch Song with Joan Crawford, BUtterfield 8 with Elizabeth Taylor, The Carpetbaggers with Carroll Baker, and Where Love Has Gone with Susan Hayward, Mike Connors and Bette Davis. His adaptation of Grace Metalious's steamy bestseller, Peyton Place, earned him an Academy Award nomination. Hayes collaborated with director Alfred Hitchcock on four films: Rear Window (for which he won an Edgar Award and an Oscar nomination), To Catch a Thief, The Trouble with Harry and The Man Who Knew Too Much. Their first collaboration, Rear Window, is considered by many critics to be one of Hitchcock's best and most thrilling pictures. The Man Who Knew Too Much, a remake of Hitchcock's 1934 film of the same name, became one of the most financially successful films of its year of release. After several years of retirement, Hayes resurfaced to co-write director Charles Haid's family adventure drama Iron Will, starring Kevin Spacey, in 1994. He taught film writing at Dartmouth College until he retired in 2000. In 2001, Hayes's collaboration with Alfred Hitchcock was the subject of the book Writing with Hitchcock by Steven DeRosa, which gave a full account of Hayes's four film collaboration with the director. In 2004, Hayes was the recipient of the Writers Guild of America's highest honor, the Screen Laurel Award. Hayes died of natural causes on November 19, 2008, in Hanover, New Hampshire. A movie based upon Writing with Hitchcock is currently in development and a new edition was published in 2011 containing additional material. Select filmography Thunder Bay (1953) Torch Song (1953) Rear Window (1954) To Catch a Thief (1955) The Trouble with Harry (1955) The Man Who Knew Too Much (1956) Peyton Place (1957) The Matchmaker (1958) But Not for Me (1959) BUtterfield 8 (1960) The Children's Hour (1961) The Chalk Garden (1964) Harlow (1965) Nevada Smith (1966) Judith (1966) Winter Kill (1974) Pancho Barnes (1988) Iron Will (1994) References External links 1919 births 2008 deaths American male screenwriters Dartmouth College faculty Edgar Award winners Writers from Worcester, Massachusetts United States Army soldiers United States Army personnel of World War II Screenwriters from Massachusetts Screenwriters from New Hampshire 20th-century American male writers 20th-century American screenwriters	[ -0.3997668921947479, 0.4968934953212738, -0.7645097374916077, 0.2498328685760498, 0.44019702076911926, 0.4472302198410034, 0.4023101329803467, -0.28068259358406067, 0.056789666414260864, 0.001901152660138905, 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255718	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Van%20der%20Waals	Van der Waals	Van der Waals or Van der Waal may refer to: People Fransje van der Waals (born 1950), Dutch medical physician Grace VanderWaal (born 2004), American singer-songwriter Henk van der Waal (born 1960), Dutch poet Joan van der Waals (born 1920), Dutch physicist Johannes Diderik van der Waals (1837–1923), Dutch physicist (1912-1950), Dutch spy, in German service during World War II (see Dutch resistance) Physics There are a series of subjects named after Johannes Diderik van der Waals: Van der Waals force Van der Waals equation Van der Waals molecule Van der Waals radius Van der Waals surface Other uses Van der Waals (crater), named after the physicist Mona Vanderwaal, Pretty Little Liars character	[ -0.3326157331466675, 0.3365086019039154, -0.038767360150814056, -0.48919203877449036, -0.49849796295166016, 0.5454350113868713, 0.6031099557876587, -0.4536270201206207, -0.6942378878593445, -0.27150052785873413, 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255719	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas-Michael%20Gribow	Thomas-Michael Gribow	Thomas-Michael Gribow was conductor of the Akademische Orchestervereinigung in Göttingen, Germany from 1991-2003.; He is also study leader and conductor of the Chemnitz Opera. References German male conductors (music) Living people 21st-century German conductors (music) 21st-century German male musicians Year of birth missing (living people)	[ -0.5276464819908142, 1.1542836427688599, -0.21814344823360443, -0.5925405025482178, -1.0889891386032104, 0.5162917971611023, 0.9131068587303162, 0.15081696212291718, -0.4534370005130768, -0.28888052701950073, -0.09981387108564377, 0.0832860916852951, 0.2054184079170227, 0.20555827021598816, 0.006102775689214468, 0.41918671131134033, 0.673667311668396, 0.3713243901729584, -0.5418422818183899, -0.5374277234077454, 0.05516999587416649, -0.4766852557659149, 0.399608314037323, 0.18836644291877747, -0.19709134101867676, 0.2217796891927719, 0.030210109427571297, 0.12874019145965576, 0.1170671284198761, -0.48548761010169983, 0.1998758465051651, 1.3700031042099, -0.017976410686969757, -0.41678085923194885, 0.3504834771156311, 0.16548559069633484, 0.318184494972229, -0.4867183268070221, 0.3857424855232239, -0.09774085879325867, 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255720	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Metaphysical%20poets	Metaphysical poets	The term Metaphysical poets was coined by the critic Samuel Johnson to describe a loose group of 17th-century English poets whose work was characterised by the inventive use of conceits, and by a greater emphasis on the spoken rather than lyrical quality of their verse. These poets were not formally affiliated and few were highly regarded until 20th century attention established their importance. Given the lack of coherence as a movement, and the diversity of style among poets, it has been suggested that calling them Baroque poets after their era might be more useful. Once the Metaphysical style was established, however, it was occasionally adopted by other and especially younger poets to fit appropriate circumstances. Origin of the name In the chapter on Abraham Cowley in his Lives of the Most Eminent English Poets (1779–81), Samuel Johnson refers to the beginning of the 17th century in which there "appeared a race of writers that may be termed the metaphysical poets". This does not necessarily imply that he intended "metaphysical"" to be used in its true sense, in that he was probably referring to a witticism of John Dryden, who said of John Donne: He affects the metaphysics, not only in his satires, but in his amorous verses, where nature only should reign; and perplexes the minds of the fair sex with nice speculations of philosophy, when he should engage their hearts, and entertain them with the softnesses of love. In this...Mr. Cowley has copied him to a fault. Probably the only writer before Dryden to speak of the new style of poetry was Drummond of Hawthornden, who in an undated letter from the 1630s made the charge that "some men of late, transformers of everything, consulted upon her reformation, and endeavoured to abstract her to metaphysical ideas and scholastical quiddities, denuding her of her own habits, and those ornaments with which she hath amused the world some thousand years". Criticism The Augustans Johnson's assessment of "metaphysical poetry" was not at all flattering: The metaphysical poets were men of learning, and, to show their learning was their whole endeavour; but, unluckily resolving to show it in rhyme, instead of writing poetry, they only wrote verses, and, very often, such verses as stood the trial of the finger better than of the ear; for the modulation was so imperfect, that they were only found to be verses by counting the syllables... The most heterogeneous ideas are yoked by violence together; nature and art are ransacked for illustrations, comparisons, and allusions; their learning instructs, and their subtilty surprises; but the reader commonly thinks his improvement dearly bought, and, though he sometimes admires, is seldom pleased. Johnson was repeating the disapproval of earlier critics who upheld the rival canons of Augustan poetry, for though Johnson may have given the Metaphysical "school" the name by which it is now known, he was far from being the first to condemn 17th-century poetic usage of conceit and word-play. John Dryden had already satirised the Baroque taste for them in his Mac Flecknoe and Joseph Addison, in quoting him, singled out the poetry of George Herbert as providing a flagrant example. 20th-century recognition During the course of the 1920s, T.S. Eliot did much to establish the importance of the Metaphysical school, both through his critical writing and by applying their method in his own work. By 1961 A. Alvarez was commenting that "it may perhaps be a little late in the day to be writing about the Metaphysicals. The great vogue for Donne passed with the passing of the Anglo-American experimental movement in modern poetry." A further two decades later, a hostile view was expressed that emphasis on their importance had been an attempt by Eliot and his followers to impose a "high Anglican and royalist literary history" on 17th-century English poetry. But Colin Burrow's dissenting opinion, in the Oxford Dictionary of National Biography, is that the term 'Metaphysical poets' still retains some value. For one thing, Donne's poetry had considerable influence on subsequent poets, who emulated his style. And there are several instances in which 17th-century poets used the word 'metaphysical' in their work, meaning that Samuel Johnson's description has some foundation in the usage of the previous century. However, the term does isolate the English poets from those who shared similar stylistic traits in Europe and America. Since the 1960s, therefore, it has been argued that gathering all of these under the heading of Baroque poets would be more helpfully inclusive. Defining the canon There is no scholarly consensus regarding which English poets or poems fit within the Metaphysical genre. In his initial use of the term, Johnson quoted just three poets: Abraham Cowley, John Donne, and John Cleveland. Colin Burrow later singled out John Donne, George Herbert, Henry Vaughan, Andrew Marvell, and Richard Crashaw as 'central figures', while naming many more, all or part of whose work has been identified as sharing its characteristics. Two key anthologists in particular were responsible for identifying common stylistic traits among 17th-century poets. Herbert Grierson's Metaphysical Lyrics and Poems of the Seventeenth Century (1921) was important in defining the Metaphysical canon. In addition, Helen Gardner's Metaphysical Poets (1957) included 'proto-metaphysical' writers such as William Shakespeare and Sir Walter Raleigh and, extending into the Restoration, brought in Edmund Waller and Rochester. While comprehensive, her selection, as Burrow remarks, so dilutes the style as to make it "virtually coextensive with seventeenth-century poetry". Late additions to the Metaphysical canon have included sacred poets of both England and America who had been virtually unknown for centuries. John Norris was better known as a Platonist philosopher. Thomas Traherne's poetry remained unpublished until the start of the 20th century. The work of Edward Taylor, who is now counted as the outstanding English-language poet of North America, was only discovered in 1937. A sense of community Johnson's definition of the Metaphysical poets was that of a hostile critic looking back at the style of the previous century. In 1958 Alvarez proposed an alternative approach in a series of lectures eventually published as The School of Donne. This was to look at the practice and self-definition of the circle of friends about Donne, who were the recipients of many of his verse letters. They were a group of some fifteen young professionals with an interest in poetry, many of them poets themselves although, like Donne for much of his life, few of them published their work. Instead, copies were circulated in manuscript among them. Uncertain ascriptions resulted in some poems from their fraternity being ascribed to Donne by later editors. A younger second generation was a close-knit group of courtiers, some of them with family or professional ties to Donne's circle, who initially borrowed Donne's manner to cultivate wit. Among them were Lord Herbert of Cherbury and his brother George, whose mother Magdalen was another recipient of verse letters by Donne. Eventually George Herbert, Henry Vaughan and Richard Crashaw, all of whom knew each other, took up the religious life and extended their formerly secular approach into this new area. A later generation of Metaphysical poets, writing during the Commonwealth, became increasingly more formulaic and lacking in vitality. These included Cleveland and his imitators as well as such transitional figures as Cowley and Marvell. What all had in common, according to Alvarez, was esteem, not for metaphysics but for intelligence. Johnson's remark that "To write on their plan it was at least necessary to read and think" only echoed its recognition a century and a half before in the many tributes paid to Donne on his death. For example, Jasper Mayne's comment that for the fellow readers of his work, "Wee are thought wits, when 'tis understood". Coupled with it went a vigorous sense of the speaking voice. It begins with the rough versification of the satires written by Donne and others in his circle such as Everard Gilpin and John Roe. Later it modulates into the thoughtful religious poems of the next generation with their exclamatory or conversational openings and their sense of the mind playing over the subject and examining it from all sides. Helen Gardner too had noted the dramatic quality of this poetry as a personal address of argument and persuasion, whether talking to a physical lover, to God, to Christ's mother Mary, or to a congregation of believers. Elegists A different approach to defining the community of readers is to survey who speaks of whom, and in what manner, in their poetry. On the death of Donne, it is natural that his friend Edward Herbert should write him an elegy full of high-flown and exaggerated Metaphysical logic. In a similar way, Abraham Cowley marks the deaths of Crashaw and of another member of Donne's literary circle, Henry Wotton. Here, however, though Cowley acknowledges Crashaw briefly as a writer ("Poet and saint"), his governing focus is on how Crashaw's goodness transcended his change of religion. The elegy is as much an exercise in a special application of logic as was Edward Herbert's on Donne. Henry Wotton, on the other hand, is not remembered as a writer at all, but instead for his public career. The conjunction of his learning and role as ambassador becomes the extended metaphor on which the poem's tribute turns. Twelve "Elegies upon the Author" accompanied the posthumous first collected edition of Donne's work, Poems by J.D. with elegies of the author’s death (1633), and were reprinted in subsequent editions over the course of the next two centuries. Though the poems were often cast in a suitably Metaphysical style, half were written by fellow clergymen, few of whom are remembered for their poetry. Among those who are, were Henry King and Jasper Mayne, who was soon to quit authorship for clerical orders. Bishop Richard Corbet's poetry writing was also nearly over by now and he contributed only a humorous squib. Other churchmen included Henry Valentine (fl 1600–1650), Edward Hyde (1607–1659) and Richard Busby. Two poets, Lucius Cary, 2nd Viscount Falkland and Thomas Carew, who were joined in the 1635 edition by Sidney Godolphin, had links with the heterodox Great Tew Circle. They also served as courtiers, as did another contributor, Endymion Porter. In addition, Carew had been in the service of Edward Herbert. Isaac Walton's link with Donne's circle was more tangential. He had friends within the Great Tew Circle but at the time of his elegy was working as a researcher for Henry Wotton, who intended writing a life of the poet. This project Walton inherited after his death, publishing it under his own name in 1640; it was followed by a life of Wotton himself that prefaced the collection of Wotton's works in 1651. A life of George Herbert followed them in 1670. The links between Donne's elegists were thus of a different order from those between Donne and his circle of friends, often no more than professional acquaintanceship. And once the poetic style had been launched, its tone and approach remained available as a model for later writers who might not necessarily commit themselves so wholly to it. Characteristics Free from former artificial styles Grierson attempted to characterise the main traits of Metaphysical poetry in the introduction to his anthology. For him it begins with a break with the formerly artificial style of their antecedents to one free from poetic diction or conventions. Johnson acknowledged as much in pointing out that their style was not to be achieved "by descriptions copied from descriptions, by imitations borrowed from imitations, by traditional imagery and hereditary similes". European Baroque influences, including use of conceits Another characteristic singled out by Grierson is the Baroque European dimension of the poetry, its "fantastic conceits and hyperboles which was the fashion throughout Europe". Again Johnson had been partly before him in describing the style as "borrowed from Marino and his followers". It was from the use of conceits particularly that the writing of these European counterparts was known, Concettismo in Italian, Conceptismo in Spanish. In fact Crashaw had made several translations from Marino. Grierson noted in addition that the slightly older poet, Robert Southwell (who is included in Gardner's anthology as a precursor), had learned from the antithetical, conceited style of Italian poetry and knew Spanish as well. The European dimension of the Catholic poets Crashaw and Southwell has been commented on by others. In the opinion of one critic of the 1960s, defining the extent of the Baroque style in 17th-century English poetry "may even be said to have taken the place of the earlier discussion of the metaphysical". Southwell counts as a notable pioneer of the style, in part because his formative years were spent outside England. And the circumstance that Crashaw's later life was also spent outside England contributed to making him, in the eyes of Mario Praz, "the greatest exponent of the Baroque style in any language". Crashaw is frequently cited by Harold Segel when typifying the characteristics of The Baroque Poem, but he goes on to compare the work of several other Metaphysical poets to their counterparts in both Western and Eastern Europe. The use of conceits was common not only across the Continent, but also elsewhere in England among the Cavalier poets, including such elegists of Donne as Carew and Godolphin. As an example of the rhetorical way in which various forms of repetition accumulate in creating a tension, only relieved by their resolution at the end of the poem, Segel instances the English work of Henry King as well as Ernst Christoph Homburg's in German and Jan Andrzej Morsztyn's in Polish. In addition, Marvell's "To His Coy Mistress" is given as a famous example of the use of hyperbole common to many other Metaphysical poets and typical of the Baroque style too. Wordplay and wit The way George Herbert and other English poets "torture one poor word ten thousand ways", in Dryden's phrase, finds its counterpart in a poem like "Constantijn Huygens’ Sondagh (Sunday) with its verbal variations on the word 'sun'. Wordplay on this scale was not confined to Metaphysical poets, moreover, but can be found in the multiple meanings of 'will' that occur in Shakespeare's "Sonnet 135". and of 'sense' in John Davies’ "That the Soul is more than a Perfection or Reflection of the Sense". Such rhetorical devices are common in Baroque writing and frequently used by poets not generally identified with the Metaphysical style. Another striking example occurs in Baroque poems celebrating "black beauty", built on the opposition between the norm of feminine beauty and instances that challenge that commonplace. There are examples in sonnets by Philip Sidney, where the key contrast is between 'black' and 'bright'; by Shakespeare, contrasting 'black' and various meanings of 'fair'; and by Edward Herbert, where black, dark and night contrast with light, bright and spark. Black hair and eyes are the subject in the English examples, while generally it is the colour of the skin with which Romance poets deal in much the same paradoxical style. Examples include Edward Herbert's "La Gialletta Gallante or The sun-burn'd exotic Beauty" and Marino's "La Bella Schiave" (The Beautiful Slave). Still more dramatically, Luis de Góngora's En la fiesta del Santísimo Sacramento (At the Feast of the Blessed Sacrament) introduces a creole dialogue between two black women concerning the nature of their beauty. Much of this display of wit hinges upon enduring literary conventions and is only distinguished as belonging to this or that school by the mode of treatment. But English writing goes further by employing ideas and images derived from contemporary scientific or geographical discoveries to examine religious and moral questions, often with an element of casuistry. Bringing greater depth and a more thoughtful quality to their poetry, such features distinguish the work of the Metaphysical poets from the more playful and decorative use of the Baroque style among their contemporaries. Platonic influence Ideas of Platonic love had earlier played their part in the love poetry of others, often to be ridiculed there, although Edward Herbert and Abraham Cowley took the theme of "Platonic Love" more seriously in their poems with that title. In the poetry of Henry Vaughan, as in that of another of the late discoveries, Thomas Traherne, Neo-Platonic concepts played an important part and contributed to some striking poems dealing with the soul's remembrance of perfect beauty in the eternal realm and its spiritual influence. Stylistic echoes Long before it was so-named, the Metaphysical poetic approach was an available model for others outside the interlinking networks of 17th century writers, especially young men who had yet to settle for a particular voice. The poems written by John Milton while still at university are a case in point and include some that were among his earliest published work, well before their inclusion in his Poems of 1645. His On the Morning of Christ's Nativity (1629) and "On Shakespear" (1630) appear in Grierson's anthology; the latter poem and "On the University Carrier" (1631) appear in Gardner's too. It may be remembered also that at the time Milton composed these, the slightly younger John Cleveland was a fellow student at Christ's College, Cambridge, on whom the influence of the Metaphysical style was more lasting. In Milton's case, there is an understandable difference in the way he matched his style to his subjects. For the 'Nativity Ode' and commendatory poem on Shakespeare he deployed Baroque conceits, while his two poems on the carrier Thomas Hobson were a succession of high-spirited paradoxes. What was then titled "An Epitaph on the Admirable Dramaticke Poet, W. Shakespeare" was included anonymously among the poems prefacing the second folio publication of Shakespeare's plays in 1632. The poems on Thomas Hobson were anthologised in collections titled A Banquet of Jests (1640, reprinted 1657) and Wit Restor’d (1685), bracketing both the 1645 and 1673 poetry collections published during Milton's lifetime. The start of John Dryden's writing career coincided with the period when Cleveland, Cowley and Marvell were first breaking into publication. He had yet to enter university when he contributed a poem on the death of Henry Lord Hastings to the many other tributes published in Lachrymae Musarum (1649). It is typified by astronomical imagery, paradox, Baroque hyperbole, play with learned vocabulary ("an universal metampsychosis"), and irregular versification which includes frequent enjambment. The poem has been cited as manifesting "the extremes of the metaphysical style", but in this it sits well with others there that are like it: John Denham's "Elegy on the death of Henry Lord Hastings", for example, or Marvell's rather smoother "Upon the death of the Lord Hastings". The several correspondences among the poems there are sometimes explained as the result of the book's making a covert Royalist statement. In the political circumstances following the recent beheading of the king, it was wise to dissemble grief for him while mourning another under the obscure and closely wrought arguments typical of the Metaphysical style. The choice of style by the young Milton and the young Dryden can therefore be explained in part as contextual. Both went on to develop radically different ways of writing; neither could be counted as potentially Metaphysical poets. Nor could Alexander Pope, yet his early poetry evidences an interest in his Metaphysical forebears. Among his juvenilia appear imitations of Cowley. As a young man he began work on adapting Donne's second satire, to which he had added the fourth satire too by 1735. Pope also wrote his "Elegy to the Memory of an Unfortunate Lady" (1717) while still young, introducing into it a string of Metaphysical conceits in the lines beginning "Most souls, 'tis true, but peep out once an age" which in part echo a passage from Donne's "Second Anniversary". By the time Pope wrote this, the vogue for the Metaphysical style was over and a new orthodoxy had taken its place, of which the rewriting of Donne's satires was one expression. Nevertheless, Johnson's dismissal of the 'school' was still in the future and at the start of the 18th century allusions to their work struck an answering chord in readers. Notes and references Bibliography A. Alvarez, The School of Donne, London 1961 "Elegies upon the Author" in Poems by J.D. with elegies of the author’s death, London 1633 Gardner, Helen, The Metaphysical Poets. (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1957) Grierson, Herbert J.C., Metaphysical Lyrics & Poems of the Seventeenth Century, Oxford, 1921 Johnson, Samuel: "The Life of Cowley" extracted from Lives of the Poets (London 1780) Segel, Harold B., The Baroque Poem: a comparative survey, New York 1974 External links 17th Century English Literature Metaphysical Poets – Luminarium website anthology Metaphysical Poetry – Timeline, Context, Biographies of Various Poets, Critical Analysis – Crossref-it.info The Metaphysical Poets, by T.S. 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255721	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable%20Game%20Notation	Portable Game Notation	Portable Game Notation (PGN) is a standard plain text format for recording chess games (both the moves and related data), which can be read by humans and is also supported by most chess software. History PGN was devised around 1993, by Steven J. Edwards, and was first popularized and specified via the Usenet newsgroup rec.games.chess. Usage PGN is structured "for easy reading and writing by human users and for easy parsing and generation by computer programs." The chess moves themselves are given in algebraic chess notation using English initials for the pieces. The filename extension is .pgn. There are two formats in the PGN specification, the "import" format and the "export" format. The import format describes data that may have been prepared by hand, and is intentionally lax; a program that can read PGN data should be able to handle the somewhat lax import format. The export format is rather strict and describes data prepared under program control, similar to a pretty printed source program reformatted by a compiler. The export format representations generated by different programs on the same computer should be exactly equivalent, byte for byte. PGN text begins with a set of "tag pairs" (a tag name and its value), followed by the "movetext" (chess moves with optional commentary). Tag pairs Tag pairs begin with an initial left bracket , followed by the name of the tag in plain ASCII text. The tag value is enclosed in double-quotes, and the tag is then terminated with a closing right bracket . A quote inside a tag value is represented by the backslash immediately followed by a quote. A backslash inside a tag value is represented by two adjacent backslashes. There are no special control codes involving escape characters, or carriage returns, and linefeeds to separate the fields, and superfluous embedded spaces are usually skipped when parsing. PGN data for archival storage is required to provide seven tag pairs – together known as the "Seven Tag Roster". In export format, these tag pairs must appear before any other tag pairs and in this order: The standard allows for other optional tag pairs. The more common ones include: Movetext The movetext describes the actual moves of the game. This includes move number indicators (numbers followed by either one or three periods; one if the next move is White's move, three if the next move is Black's move) and movetext in Standard Algebraic Notation (SAN). For most moves the SAN consists of the letter abbreviation for the piece, an x if there is a capture, and the two-character algebraic name of the final square the piece moved to. The letter abbreviations are K (king), Q (queen), R (rook), B (bishop), and N (knight). The pawn is given an empty abbreviation in SAN movetext, but in other contexts the abbreviation P is used. The algebraic name of any square is as per usual algebraic chess notation; from white's perspective, the leftmost square closest to white is a1, the rightmost square closest to the white is h1, and the rightmost (from white's perspective) square closest to black side is h8. In a few cases, a more detailed representation is needed to resolve ambiguity; if so, the piece's file letter, numerical rank, or the exact square is inserted after the moving piece's name (in that order of preference). Thus, Nge2 specifies that the knight originally on the g-file moves to e2. SAN kingside castling is indicated by the sequence O-O; queenside castling is indicated by the sequence O-O-O (note that these are capital Os, not zeroes, contrary to the FIDE standard for notation). Pawn promotions are notated by appending = to the destination square, followed by the piece the pawn is promoted to. For example: e8=Q. If the move is a checking move, + is also appended; if the move is a checkmating move, # is appended instead. For example: e8=Q#. An annotator who wishes to suggest alternative moves to those actually played in the game may insert variations enclosed in parentheses. They may also comment on the game by inserting Numeric Annotation Glyphs (NAGs) into the movetext. Each NAG reflects a subjective impression of the move preceding the NAG or of the resultant position. If the game result is anything other than *, the result is repeated at the end of the movetext. Comments Comments are inserted by either a ; (a comment that continues to the end of the line) or a { (which continues until a }). Comments do not nest. Example Here is the PGN format of the 29th game of the 1992 match played in Yugoslavia between Bobby Fischer and Boris Spassky: [Event "F/S Return Match"] [Site "Belgrade, Serbia JUG"] [Date "1992.11.04"] [Round "29"] [White "Fischer, Robert J."] [Black "Spassky, Boris V."] [Result "1/2-1/2"] 1. e4 e5 2. Nf3 Nc6 3. Bb5 a6 {This opening is called the Ruy Lopez.} 4. Ba4 Nf6 5. O-O Be7 6. Re1 b5 7. Bb3 d6 8. c3 O-O 9. h3 Nb8 10. d4 Nbd7 11. c4 c6 12. cxb5 axb5 13. Nc3 Bb7 14. Bg5 b4 15. Nb1 h6 16. Bh4 c5 17. dxe5 Nxe4 18. Bxe7 Qxe7 19. exd6 Qf6 20. Nbd2 Nxd6 21. Nc4 Nxc4 22. Bxc4 Nb6 23. Ne5 Rae8 24. Bxf7+ Rxf7 25. Nxf7 Rxe1+ 26. Qxe1 Kxf7 27. Qe3 Qg5 28. Qxg5 hxg5 29. b3 Ke6 30. a3 Kd6 31. axb4 cxb4 32. Ra5 Nd5 33. f3 Bc8 34. Kf2 Bf5 35. Ra7 g6 36. Ra6+ Kc5 37. Ke1 Nf4 38. g3 Nxh3 39. Kd2 Kb5 40. Rd6 Kc5 41. Ra6 Nf2 42. g4 Bd3 43. Re6 1/2-1/2 Handling chess variants Many chess variants can be recorded using PGN, provided the names of the pieces can be limited to one character, usually a letter and not a number. They are typically noted with a tag named "Variant" giving the name of the rules. The term "Variation" must be avoided, as that refers to the name of an opening variation. Note that traditional chess programs can only handle, at most, a few variants. Forsyth-Edwards Notation is used to record the starting position for variants (such as Chess960) which have initial positions other than the orthodox chess initial position. See also X-FEN Smart Game Format – Format for recording go games Portable Draughts Notation References Chess notation Computer file formats 1993 introductions	[ 0.0006529638194479048, 0.17387650907039642, 0.15152013301849365, 0.2946333587169647, -0.013755631633102894, -0.20347250998020172, -0.44467806816101074, 0.08798261731863022, -0.49651673436164856, -0.5809462070465088, -0.3207382559776306, 0.09509390592575073, -0.2513013482093811, -0.19850237667560577, 0.1434272825717926, 0.08416411280632019, 0.27130597829818726, 0.0690617486834526, -0.23834002017974854, -0.6303049921989441, -0.33108749985694885, -0.09720928221940994, -0.21341371536254883, -0.3544069826602936, -0.13112623989582062, 0.11000581830739975, 0.11591086536645889, 0.27181369066238403, -0.5003231167793274, 0.14201544225215912, 0.16129764914512634, 0.43185874819755554, 0.4547671675682068, -0.2210235297679901, 0.1923247128725052, -0.08443380892276764, -0.12997256219387054, 0.2915194034576416, 0.14246295392513275, 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255722	https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jimmy%20Hoffa	Jimmy Hoffa	James Riddle Hoffa (born February 14, 1913 – disappeared July 30, 1975, declared dead July 30, 1982) was an American labor union leader who served as the president of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters (IBT) from 1957 until 1971. From an early age, Hoffa was a union activist, and he became an important regional figure with the IBT by his mid-twenties. By 1952, he was the national vice-president of the IBT and between 1957 and 1971 he was its general president. He secured the first national agreement for teamsters' rates in 1964 with the National Master Freight Agreement. He played a major role in the growth and the development of the union, which eventually became the largest by membership in the United States, with over 2.3 million members at its peak, during his terms as its leader. Hoffa became involved with organized crime from the early years of his Teamsters work, a connection that continued until his disappearance in 1975. He was convicted of jury tampering, attempted bribery, conspiracy, and mail and wire fraud in 1964 in two separate trials. He was imprisoned in 1967 and sentenced to 13 years. In mid-1971, he resigned as president of the union as part of a commutation agreement with US President Richard Nixon and was released later that year, but Hoffa was barred from union activities until 1980. Hoping to regain support and to return to IBT leadership, he unsuccessfully tried to overturn the order. Hoffa disappeared on July 30, 1975. He is believed to have been murdered by the Mafia and was declared legally dead in 1982. Hoffa's legacy continues to stir debate. Early life and family Hoffa was born in Brazil, Indiana, on February 14, 1913, to John and Viola (née Riddle) Hoffa. His father, who was of German descent from what is now referred to as the Pennsylvania Dutch, died in 1920 from lung disease when Hoffa was seven years old. His mother was of Irish ancestry. The family moved to Detroit in 1924, where Hoffa was raised and lived for the rest of his life. Hoffa left school at the age of 14 and began working in full-time manual labor jobs to help support his family. Hoffa married Josephine Poszywak, an 18-year-old Detroit laundry worker of Polish heritage, in Bowling Green, Ohio, on September 24, 1936. The couple had met six months earlier during a nonunionized laundry workers' strike action. They had two children: a daughter, Barbara Ann Crancer, and a son, James P. Hoffa. The Hoffa's paid $6,800 in 1939 for a modest home in northwestern Detroit. The family later owned a simple summer lakefront cottage in Orion Township, Michigan, north of Detroit. Early union activity Hoffa began union organizational work at the grassroots level as a teenager through his job with a grocery chain, which paid substandard wages and offered poor working conditions with minimal job security. The workers were displeased with that situation and tried to organize a union to better their lot. Although Hoffa was young, his courage and approachability in that role impressed fellow workers, and he rose to a leadership position. By 1932, after refusing to work for an abusive shift foreman, Hoffa left the grocery chain, partly because of his union activities. He was then invited to become an organizer with Local 299 of the Teamsters in Detroit. Growth of Teamsters The Teamsters, founded in 1903, had 75,000 members in 1933. As a result of Hoffa's work with other union leaders to consolidate local union trucker groups into regional sections and then into a national body, which Hoffa ultimately completed over two decades, membership grew to 170,000 members by 1936, and three years later, there were 420,000. The number grew steadily during World War II and in the postwar boom to top a million members by 1951. The Teamsters organized truck drivers and warehousemen throughout the Midwest and then nationwide. Hoffa played a major role in the union's skillful use of "quickie strikes," secondary boycotts, and other means of leveraging union strength at one company, then to move to organize workers, and finally to win contract demands at other companies. That process, which took several years starting in the early 1930s, eventually brought the Teamsters to a position of being one of the most powerful unions in the United States. Trucking unions in that era were heavily influenced by—and in many cases controlled by elements of—organized crime. For Hoffa to unify and expand trucking unions, he had to make accommodations and arrangements with many gangsters, beginning in the Detroit area. Organized crime influence on the IBT increased as the union itself grew. Rise to power Hoffa worked to defend the Teamsters from raids by other unions, including the Congress of Industrial Organizations, and he extended the Teamsters' influence in the Midwest from the late 1930s to the late 1940s. Although he never actually worked as a truck driver, he became president of Local 299 in December 1946. He then rose to lead the combined group of Detroit-area locals shortly afterwards and later advanced to become head of the Michigan Teamsters groups. Meanwhile, Hoffa obtained a deferment from military service in World War II by successfully making a case for his union leadership skills being of more value to the nation by keeping freight running smoothly to assist the war effort. At the 1952 IBT convention in Los Angeles, Hoffa was selected as national vice-president by incoming president Dave Beck, the successor to Daniel J. Tobin, who had been president since 1907. Hoffa had quelled an internal revolt against Tobin by securing Central States' regional support for Beck at the convention. In exchange, Beck made Hoffa a vice-president. The IBT moved its headquarters from Indianapolis to Washington, DC, taking over a large office building in the capital in 1955. IBT staff was also meanwhile enlarged, with many lawyers hired to assist with contract negotiations. Following his 1952 election as vice-president, Hoffa began spending more of his time away from Detroit, either in Washington or traveling around the country for his expanded responsibilities. Hoffa's personal lawyer was Bill Bufalino. Teamsters presidency Hoffa took over the presidency of the Teamsters in 1957, at the convention in Miami Beach, Florida. His predecessor, Beck, had appeared before the John L. McClellan-led US Senate Select Committee on Improper Activities in Labor or Management Field in March 1957 and took the Fifth Amendment 140 times in response to questions. Beck was under indictment when the IBT convention took place and was convicted and imprisoned in a trial for fraud held in Seattle. Teamsters expelled from AFL-CIO The 1957 AFL–CIO convention, held in Atlantic City, New Jersey, voted nearly five to one to expel the IBT. Vice-President Walter Reuther led the fight to oust the IBT for charges of Hoffa's corrupt leadership. President George Meany gave an emotional speech, advocating the removal of the IBT and stating that he could agree to further affiliation of the Teamsters only if they would dismiss Hoffa as their president. Meany demanded a response from Hoffa, who replied through the press, "We'll see." At the time, IBT was bringing in over $750,000 annually to the AFL-CIO. National Master Freight Agreement Following his re-election as president in 1961, Hoffa worked to expand the union. In 1964, he succeeded in bringing virtually all over-the-road truck drivers in North America under a single National Master Freight Agreement, which may have been his biggest achievement in a lifetime of union activity. Hoffa then tried to bring the airline workers and other transport employees into the union, with limited success. He was then facing immense personal strain as he was under investigation, on trial, launching appeals of convictions, or imprisoned for virtually all of the 1960s. Hoffa was re-elected without opposition to a third five-year term as president of the IBT, despite having been convicted of jury tampering and mail fraud in court verdicts that were stayed pending review on appeal. Delegates in Miami Beach also elected Frank Fitzsimmons as first vice president, who would become president "if Hoffa has to serve a jail term." Criminal charges Hoffa had first faced major criminal investigations in 1957, as a result of the McClellan Committee. On March 14, 1957, Hoffa was arrested for allegedly trying to bribe an aide to the Select Committee. Hoffa denied the charges (and was later acquitted), but the arrest triggered additional investigations and more arrests and indictments over the following weeks. When John F. Kennedy was elected president in 1960, he appointed his younger brother Robert as Attorney General. Robert Kennedy had been frustrated in earlier attempts to convict Hoffa, while working as counsel to the McClellan subcommittee. As Attorney General from 1961, Kennedy pursued a strong attack on organized crime and he carried on with a so-called "Get Hoffa" squad of prosecutors and investigators. Prison sentences In May 1963, Hoffa was indicted for jury tampering in Tennessee, charged with the attempted bribery of a grand juror during his 1962 conspiracy trial in Nashville. Hoffa was convicted on March 4, 1964, and subsequently sentenced to eight years in prison and a $10,000 fine. While on bail during his appeal, Hoffa was convicted in a second trial held in Chicago, on July 26, 1964, on one count of conspiracy and three counts of mail and wire fraud for improper use of the Teamsters' pension fund, and sentenced to five years in prison. Hoffa spent the next three years unsuccessfully appealing his 1964 convictions. Appeals filed by his chief counsel, St. Louis defense attorney Morris Shenker, reached the U.S. Supreme Court. He began serving his aggregate prison sentence of 13 years (eight years for bribery, five years for fraud) on March 7, 1967, at the Lewisburg Federal Penitentiary in Pennsylvania. Appointment of Fitzsimmons as caretaker president When Hoffa entered prison, Frank Fitzsimmons was named acting president of the union, and Hoffa planned to run the union from prison through Fitzsimmons. Fitzsimmons was a Hoffa loyalist, fellow Detroit resident, and a longtime member of Teamsters Local 299, who owed his own high position in large part to Hoffa's influence. Despite this, Fitzsimmons soon distanced himself from Hoffa's influence and control after 1967, to Hoffa's displeasure. Fitzsimmons also decentralized power somewhat within the IBT's administration structure, forgoing much of the control Hoffa took advantage of as union president. While still in prison, Hoffa resigned as Teamsters president on June 19, 1971, and Fitzsimmons was elected Teamsters president on July 9, 1971. After prison On December 23, 1971, less than five years into his 13-year sentence, Hoffa was released from prison when US President Richard Nixon commuted it to time served. As a result of Hoffa's previous resignation, he was awarded a $1.75 million lump sum termination benefit by the Teamsters Retirement and Family Protection Plan. That type of pension settlement had never occurred with the Teamsters. The IBT then endorsed Nixon, a Republican, in his presidential re-election bid in 1972. In prior elections, the union had normally supported Democratic nominees but had endorsed Nixon in 1960. Hoffa regained his freedom, but the commutation from Nixon did not allow Hoffa to "engage in the direct or indirect management of any labor organization" until March 6, 1980. Hoffa contended that he had never agreed to that condition. Hoffa accused senior Nixon administration figures, including Attorney General John N. Mitchell and White House Special Counsel Charles Colson, of depriving him of his rights by imposing that condition. It was suspected that the condition had been imposed upon Hoffa because of requests from the Teamsters' leadership, but that was denied by Fitzsimmons. By 1973, Hoffa was planning to seize the presidency of the Teamsters again. Hoffa sued to invalidate the restriction so that he could reassert his power over the Teamsters. John Dean, former White House counsel to Nixon, was among those called upon for depositions in 1974 court proceedings. Dean, who had become famous as a government witness in prosecutions arising from the Watergate scandal by mid-1973, had drafted the clause in 1971 at Nixon's request. Hoffa ultimately lost his court battle since the court ruled that Nixon had acted within his powers by imposing the restriction, as it had been based on Hoffa's misconduct while he was serving as a Teamsters official. Hoffa faced immense resistance to his re-establishment of power from many corners and had lost much of his earlier support even in the Detroit area. As a result, he intended to begin his comeback at the local level with Local 299 in Detroit, where he retained some influence. In 1975, Hoffa was working on an autobiography, Hoffa: The Real Story, which was published a few months after his disappearance. He had earlier published a book titled The Trials of Jimmy Hoffa (1970). Disappearance Prelude Hoffa's plans to regain the leadership of the union were met with opposition from several members of the Mafia. One of them was Anthony Provenzano, who had been a Teamsters local leader in New Jersey and a national vice-president of the union during Hoffa's second term as its president. Provenzano had once been a friend of Hoffa's but became an enemy after a reported feud when both were in federal prison at Lewisburg, Pennsylvania, in the 1960s. In 1973 and 1974, Hoffa asked him for his support to regain his former position, but Provenzano refused and threatened Hoffa by reportedly saying he would pull out his guts and kidnap his grandchildren. Provenzano was a caporegime in the New York City Genovese crime family. At least two of Provenzano's union opponents had been murdered, and others who had spoken out against him had been assaulted. Other Mafia figures who became involved were Anthony Giacalone, an alleged kingpin in the Detroit Mafia, and his younger brother, Vito. The FBI believes that they were positioning themselves as "mediators" between Hoffa and Provenzano. The brothers had made three visits to Hoffa's home at Lake Orion and one to the Guardian Building law offices. Their avowed purpose in meeting Hoffa was to set up a "peace meeting" between Provenzano and Hoffa. Hoffa's son, James, said, "Dad was pushing so hard to get back in office, I was increasingly afraid that the mob would do something about it." James was convinced that the "peace meeting" was a pretext to Giacalone's "setting Dad up" for a hit since Hoffa had been increasingly uneasy each time the Giacalone brothers arrived. Events of July 30 Hoffa disappeared on July 30, 1975 after he had gone out to the meeting with Provenzano and Giacalone. The meeting was due to take place at 2:00 p.m. at the Machus Red Fox restaurant in Bloomfield Township, a Detroit suburb. The place was known to Hoffa, as it had been the site of the wedding reception of his son James. Hoffa wrote Giacalone's initials and the time and location of the meeting in his office calendar: "TG—2 p.m.—Red Fox." Hoffa left his home at 1:15 p.m. Before heading to the restaurant, he stopped at the office of his close friend Louis Linteau, a former president of Teamsters Local 614 who now ran a limousine service. Linteau and Hoffa had been enemies early in their careers but eventually became friends. When Hoffa left prison, Linteau had also become Hoffa's unofficial appointment secretary and arranged a dinner meeting between Hoffa and the Giacalone brothers on July 26 in which they had informed him of the July 30 meeting. Linteau was out to lunch when Hoffa stopped by and so Hoffa talked to some of the staff present and left a message for Linteau before he left for the Machus Red Fox. Between 2:15 and 2:30 p.m., an annoyed Hoffa called his wife from a payphone on a post in front of Damman Hardware, directly behind the Machus Red Fox, and complained that Giacalone had not shown up and that he had been stood up. His wife told him she had not heard from anyone. He told her he would be home at 4:00 p.m., to grill steaks for dinner. Several witnesses saw Hoffa standing by his car and pacing the restaurant's parking lot. Two men saw Hoffa, recognized him, and stopped to chat with him briefly and to shake his hand. Hoffa also made a call to Linteau in which he again complained that the men were late. Linteau gave the time as 3:30 p.m., but the FBI suspected that it was earlier, based on the timing of other phone calls from Linteau's office from around that time. The FBI estimates that Hoffa left the location without a struggle around 2:45–2:50 p.m. One witness reported seeing Hoffa in the back of a maroon "Lincoln or Mercury" car with three other people. Investigation At 7 a.m. the next day, Hoffa's wife called her son and daughter to say that their father had not come home. On her way home, Hoffa's daughter claimed to have had a vision of her father, who, she was already sure, was dead. He was slumped over and wore a dark-colored, short-sleeved polo shirt. It had mystified her ever since, that although she could not have possibly known that prior to her arrival at Lake Orion, the clothing in her vision was exactly what Hoffa was wearing when he disappeared. At 7:20 a.m., Linteau went to the Machus Red Fox and found Hoffa's unlocked car in the parking lot, but there was no sign of Hoffa nor any indication of what had happened to him. He called the police, who later arrived at the scene. The Michigan State Police were brought in, and the FBI was alerted. At 6 p.m., Hoffa's son, James, filed a missing person report. The Hoffa family offered a $200,000 reward for any information about the disappearance. The primary piece of physical evidence obtained in the investigation was a maroon 1975 Mercury Marquis Brougham, which belonged to Anthony Giacalone's son Joseph. The car had been borrowed earlier that day by Charles "Chuckie" O'Brien to deliver fish. O'Brien was Hoffa's foster son although relations between them had soured in the years preceding Hoffa's disappearance. Investigators and Hoffa's family suspected that O'Brien had a role in Hoffa's disappearance. On August 21, police dogs identified Hoffa's scent in the car. Giacalone and Provenzano, who denied having scheduled a meeting with Hoffa, were found not to have been near the restaurant that afternoon. Provenzano told investigators that he was playing cards with Stephen Andretta, Thomas Andretta's brother, in Union City, New Jersey, the day that Hoffa disappeared. Despite extensive surveillance and bugging, investigators found that the Mafia members who they thought were involved were generally unwilling to talk about Hoffa's disappearance, even in private. On December 4, 1975, a federal investigator in Detroit said in court, presided by James Paul Churchill, that a witness had identified three New Jersey men as having participated "in the abduction and murder of James R. Hoffa." The three men were close associates of Provenzano; Thomas Andretta, Salvatore Briguglio and his brother Gabriel Briguglio. Later in 1975, Michigan Attorney General Frank J. Kelley went to Waterford Township to supervise an unsuccessful digging expedition for Hoffa. After years of investigation, involving numerous law enforcement agencies including the FBI, officials have not reached a definitive conclusion as to Hoffa's fate and who was involved. Hoffa's wife, Josephine, died on September 12, 1980 and is interred at White Chapel Memorial Cemetery in Troy, Michigan. On December 9, 1982, Hoffa was declared legally dead as of July 30, 1982, by Oakland County, Michigan Probate Judge Norman R. Barnard. In 1989, Kenneth Walton, the agent-in-charge of the FBI's Detroit office, told The Detroit News that he knew what had happened to Hoffa. "I'm comfortable I know who did it, but it's never going to be prosecuted because we would have to divulge informants, confidential sources." In 2001, the FBI matched DNA from Hoffa's hair, taken from a brush, with a strand of hair found in Joseph Giacalone's car, but it is possible that Hoffa had traveled in the car on a different day. On June 16, 2006, the Detroit Free Press published the entire "Hoffex Memo," a 56-page report prepared by the FBI for a January 1976 briefing on the case at the FBI headquarters in Washington. Although not claiming conclusively to establish the specifics of his disappearance, the memo records a belief that Hoffa was murdered at the behest of organized crime figures, who regarded his efforts to regain power in the Teamsters as a threat to their control of the union's pension fund. As of 2021, digs are still periodically conducted in the Detroit area in search of Hoffa's body, but a common theory among experts is that the body was cremated. Claims and developments Crime historians and investigators There is wide agreement among crime historians and investigators that Hoffa was murdered on the order of his enemies in the Mafia. However, key details remain either unknown or unprovable, and this has ensured that no individuals have ever been charged in relation to the case. In discussing potential motives, both the 1976 Hoffex Memo and scholarship prior to its release focus on Mafia opposition to Hoffa's plans to regain the Teamsters' leadership and the threat Hoffa posed to the Mafia's control over the union's pension fund. The Hoffex Memo noted that Provenzano was not senior enough to order a Mafia hit, though it did not rule out the possibility that his or someone else's personal vendetta against Hoffa was a motive. Scott Burnstein, a crime historian and journalist, argued in 2019 that Provenzano's role in the entire case was limited to acting as a lure. Dan Moldea mentioned the possibility that Hoffa had retaliated against his Mafia opponents by co-operating with investigations against them. The Hoffex Memo includes this as a possible motivation. Vincent Piersante, the state government's former chief investigator into the Hoffa case, doubted that Hoffa could have seriously threatened the Mafia in this way, as any incriminating information he knew either would have incriminated himself or concerned crimes that were outside of the statute of limitations. Piersante suggested that the killing was accidental, and that the men who were sent to meet Hoffa were only meant to be "insultingly low-level messengers". He argued that Hoffa had no realistic prospects for a comeback, that the disappearance did not share the usual characteristics of a Mafia hit and that it risked encouraging action against organized crime (as indeed happened). This theory did not gain wide acceptance among criminologists. In his 1991 book Hoffa, Arthur A. Sloane said that the most common theory of FBI investigators was that Russell Bufalino was the mob boss who ordered the murder, and Salvatore "Sally Bugs" Briguglio, his brother Gabriel Briguglio, Thomas Andretta and Charles "Chuckie" O'Brien were the men who lured Hoffa away from the restaurant. The theory is that O'Brien was used as an "unwitting dupe" to lure Hoffa away, because Hoffa was suspicious of Provenzano and would not have entered the car unless there was a familiar figure present. Keith Corbett, a former US Prosecuting Attorney, has since suggested that O'Brien would have been considered too unreliable to be entrusted with a role in such a high-profile murder. He instead suggested that Vito "Billy" Giacalone was the familiar figure. The location of the murder is also unknown, but any violence in the restaurant parking lot would have easily attracted witnesses. Therefore, the Hoffex Memo suspects Hoffa was lured away to a separate murder location. James Buccellato, a professor of Criminology and Criminal Justice at Northern Arizona University, suggested in 2017 that it was likely that Hoffa was murdered one mile away from the restaurant at the house of Carlo Licata, the son of the mobster Nick Licata. Sloane listed a local waste incinerator and a landfill in Jersey City as the possible locations where the body was taken; the latter is also supported by Dan Moldea. Buccellato listed two waste incinerators and a crematorium, all in the Detroit area. He doubted the body had been transported a long distance: "It's just not practical." The Hoffex Memo similarly said: "If the Detroit LCN was used to assist in the disappearance, it is unknown why the body would be transported back to New Jersey when Detroit Organized Crime people have proven in the past that they are capable of taking care of such things." Other accounts and speculation In the book I Heard You Paint Houses: Frank "The Irishman" Sheeran and the Closing of the Case on Jimmy Hoffa (2004), author Charles Brandt writes that Frank Sheeran, an alleged professional killer for the mob and a longtime friend of Hoffa, confessed to assassinating him. According to the book, Sheeran claims O'Brien drove him, Hoffa, and fellow mobster Sal Briguglio to a house in Detroit where he shot Hoffa twice in the back of the head. Further, in 2003 Sheeran admitted to reporters that he murdered Hoffa, although blood stains found in the Detroit house in which Sheeran claimed the murder had happened were determined not to match Hoffa's DNA. The truthfulness of the book, including Sheeran's confessions to killing Hoffa, has been disputed by "The Lies of the Irishman," an article in Slate by Bill Tonelli, and "Jimmy Hoffa and 'The Irishman': A True Crime Story?" by Harvard Law School Professor Jack Goldsmith, which appeared in The New York Review of Books. Buccellato doubts that the Mafia would have entrusted an Irish American with this role and also believes that Hoffa would have refused to travel that far from the restaurant. Hoffa's body was rumored to be buried in Giants Stadium. In an episode of the Discovery Channel show MythBusters, "The Hunt for Hoffa," the locations in the stadium in which Hoffa was rumored to be buried were scanned with a ground penetrating radar. That was intended to reveal if any disturbances indicated a human body had been buried there, but no trace of any human remains was found. In addition, no human remains were found when Giants Stadium was demolished in 2010. In 2012, Roseville, Michigan, police took samples from the ground under a suburban Detroit driveway after a person reported having witnessed the burial of a body there around the time of Hoffa's 1975 disappearance. Tests by Michigan State University anthropologists found no evidence of human remains. In January 2013, the reputed gangster Tony Zerilli implied that Hoffa was originally buried in a shallow grave, with a plan to move his remains later to a second location. Zerilli said that the plans were abandoned and that Hoffa's remains lay in a field in northern Oakland County, Michigan, not far from the restaurant in which he had been last seen. Zerilli denied any responsibility for or association with Hoffa's disappearance. On June 17, 2013, investigating the Zerilli information, the FBI was led to a property in Oakland Township, in northern Oakland County, which was owned by Detroit mob boss Jack Tocco. After three days, the FBI called off the dig. No human remains were found, and the case remains open. Thomas Andretta, who died in 2019, and his brother Stephen, who reportedly died of cancer in 2000, were named by the FBI as suspects. Both were New Jersey Teamsters and reputed Genovese crime family mob associates. The FBI called Thomas Andretta a "trusted associate of Anthony Provenzano; reported to be involved in the disappearance of Hoffa." In an April 2019 interview with DJ Vlad, the former Colombo crime family capo Michael Franzese stated that he was certain that Hoffa's disappearance had been mob-related, that he was aware of the location of Hoffa's body and of the identity of his shooter, and had tapes that revealed details of his disappearance. Franzese said, "I can tell you that it's wet, that's for sure," and "Upon good information, again, I think I know who the real shooter was; still alive today, in prison." In a deathbed statement, a landfill worker claimed to have buried Hoffa's body in a steel drum 15 feet below the surface in a landfill beneath the Pulaski Skyway in Jersey City, New Jersey. In October 2021, the FBI obtained a warrant and completed a site survey in the landfill. Results of the survey have not been released. Legacy Hoffa's legacy remains controversial. Arthur Sloane wrote, "To many, Hoffa was a kind of latter-day Al Capone... others, he was... hugely successful in improving working conditions for [his truck-driver constituents]." In film and fiction In the 1978 film F.I.S.T., Sylvester Stallone plays Johnny Kovak, a character based on Hoffa. In the 1983 television miniseries Blood Feud, Hoffa is portrayed by Robert Blake. In the 1984 television film The Jesse Owens Story, Hoffa is portrayed by Tom Bosley. In the 1985 television miniseries Robert Kennedy and His Times, Hoffa is portrayed by Trey Wilson. In the 1992 film Hoffa, Hoffa is portrayed by Jack Nicholson. He is portrayed by Thomas Wagner in the 1993 television film Marilyn & Bobby: Her Final Affair. Author James Ellroy features a fictional historical version of Hoffa in the Underworld USA Trilogy novels as an important secondary character, most prominently in the novels American Tabloid (1995) and The Cold Six Thousand (2001). In the 2003 comedy/drama film Bruce Almighty, the titular character uses powers endowed by God to manifest Hoffa's body in order to procure a story interesting enough to reclaim his career in the news industry. In the 2019 Martin Scorsese film The Irishman, which adapts the book I Heard You Paint Houses, Hoffa is portrayed by Al Pacino. Pacino was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actor for his performance. See also List of people who disappeared List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States References Further reading Vendetta: Bobby Kennedy Versus Jimmy Hoffa (2016) by James Neff, excerpt Jimmy Hoffa's Hot, by John Bartlow Martin, 1959, Fawcett Publications, Greenwich, Conn. Hoffa and the Underworld, by Paul Jacobs, Dissent, vol. 6, no. 4 (Autumn 1959), pp. 435–445. The Enemy Within: The McClellan Committee's Crusade Against Jimmy Hoffa and Corrupt Labor Unions, by Robert F. Kennedy, 1960, Harper and Brothers, New York. The State of the Unions, by Paul Jacobs, 1963, Atheneum, New York. Tentacles of Power, by Clark Mollenhoff, 1965, World Publishing Company, Cleveland and New York. Hoffa! Ten Angels Swearing, by Jim Clay, 1965, Beaverdam Books, Beaverdam, Va. Hoffa and the Teamsters: A Study of Union Power, by Ralph James and Estelle James, 1965, Van Nostrand, New York. The Ominous Ear, by Bernard Spindel, 1968, Award House, New York. The Trials of Jimmy Hoffa: An Autobiography, by James R. Hoffa as told to Donald I. Rogers, 1970, Henry Regnery, Chicago, . Kennedy Justice, by Victor Navasky, 1971, Atheneum, New York. The Fall and Rise of Jimmy Hoffa, by Walter Sheridan, 1972, Saturday Review Press, New York. Hoffa: The Real Story, by James R. Hoffa as told to Oscar Fraley, 1975, Stein and Day, New York, . The Strange Disappearance of Jimmy Hoffa, by Charles Ashman and Rebecca Sobel, 1976, Manor Books, New York. The Teamsters, by Steven Brill, 1978, Simon & Schuster, New York, . Mafia Kingfish: Carlos Marcello and the Assassination of John F. Kennedy, by John H. Davis (author), 1989, McGraw-Hill, New York. Hoffa, by Arthur A. Sloane, 1991, MIT Press, Boston, . Hoffa, by Ken Englade, 1992, Harper Paperbacks, New York, (Novelization based on David Mamet's screenplay of the 1992 film by 20th Century Fox). The Hoffa Wars: Teamsters, Rebels, Politicians and the Mob, 1978, first edition, by Dan Moldea, Paddington Press, New York and London, . The Hoffa Wars: Teamsters, Rebels, Politicians and the Mob, 1993, second edition, by Dan Moldea, SPI, New York. Mob Lawyer, by Frank Ragano and Selwyn Raab, 1994, Charles Scribner's Sons, . All-American Mobster, by Charles Rappleye and Ed Becker, [about John Roselli] Barricade Books, 1995, . Out of the Jungle: Jimmy Hoffa and the Remaking of the American Working Class, by Thaddeus Russell, 2001, Alfred A. Knopf, New York, . Watergate: The Hidden History, by Lamar Waldron, 2012, Counterpoint, Berkeley, California. I Heard You Paint Houses: Frank "The Irishman" Sheeran and the Inside Story of the Mafia, the Teamsters, and the Last Ride of Jimmy Hoffa [Paperback], by Charles Brandt External links HDSI—Who Killed Jimmy Hoffa? Documentary produced by the PBS Series History Detectives Guide to James R. Hoffa Documentation Collection, 1954–1976, Special Collections Research Center, Estelle and Melvin Gelman Library, The George Washington University 20th-century American criminals 1913 births 1970s missing person cases 1982 deaths Abuse of the legal system American people convicted of bribery American people convicted of fraud American people of German descent American people of Irish descent American people of Pennsylvania Dutch descent American trade union officials convicted of crimes Criminals from Indiana Criminals from Michigan International Brotherhood of Teamsters International Brotherhood of Teamsters people Missing people Missing person cases in Michigan People declared dead in absentia People from Brazil, Indiana People from Detroit Presidents of the International Brotherhood of Teamsters Recipients of American presidential clemency Trade unionists from Michigan	[ -0.053421810269355774, 0.15787598490715027, -0.7335889339447021, -0.3390391170978546, 0.10611162334680557, 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