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256171 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1842%20in%20music | 1842 in music |
Events
May 31 – Frederick William IV of Prussia creates a new order of merit for the arts and sciences. Those honoured include: Felix Mendelssohn, Franz Liszt and Gioacchino Rossini.
October 20 – Hans von Bülow attends the first performance of Wagner's Rienzi in Dresden.
December 7 The New_York_Philharmonic Orchestra performs its first concert.
Louis Gottschalk leaves the United States to obtain a classical training in Europe. Pierre Zimmerman, professor of piano at the Paris Conservatory, refuses to hear him because 'America is a country of Steam Engines'.
Franz von Suppé makes his debut as a singer as Dulcamara in Donizetti's L'Elisir d'Amore at the Ödenburg Theatre.
Camille Saint-Saëns begins studying piano under Camille-Marie Stamaty.
Popular music
Frederick Ellard – Sydney Corporation Quadrilles
Antoine Gérin-Lajoie – "Un Canadien errant" ("A Wandering Canadian")
Classical music
Franz Berwald
Symphony No. 1 in G minor "Sinfonie sérieuse"
Symphony No. 2 in D "Sinfonie capricieuse"
Ernste und heitere Grillen, for orchestra
Erinnerung an die norwegischen Alpen, for orchestra
Frédéric Chopin
Ballade No. 4
Polonaise for Piano in A flat major, B 147/Op. 53 "Heroic"
Josef Lanner – Die Schönbrunner Waltzer
Felix Mendelssohn – Symphony No. 3 ("Scottish")
Robert Schumann
Three String Quartets in A minor, F and A, Op. 41
Piano Quintet in E flat, Op. 44
Piano Quartet in E flat, Op. 47
Opera
Angelo Catelani – Caràttaco
Gaetano Donizetti – Linda di Chamounix, May 19 at Theater am Kärntnertor, Vienna
Mikhail Ivanovich Glinka – Ruslan and Lyudmila, November 27(Old Style) at Bolshoi Kamenny Theatre, Saint Petersburg
Albert Lortzing – Der Wildschütz, December 31 at Stadttheater, Leipzig
Giuseppe Verdi – Nabucco, March 9 at La Scala, Milan
Richard Wagner – Rienzi, October 20 at Hofoper, Dresden
Musical theatre
March 10 – Einen Jux will er sich machen by Johann Nestroy, with music by Adolf Müller, opens at the Theater an der Wien.
Births
February 24 – Arrigo Boito, Italian poet and composer (d. 1918)
March 10 – Mykola Lysenko, Ukrainian composer (d. 1912)
March 22 – Carl Rosa, musical impresario (d. 1889)
April 14 – Sven August Körling, composer of art songs (d. 1919)
May 3 – Sophus Hagen, composer (d. 1929)
May 12 – Jules Massenet, opera composer (d. 1912)
May 13 – Arthur Sullivan, composer (d. 1900)
May 14 – Alphons Czibulka, pianist, conductor and composer (d. 1894)
June 12 – Rikard Nordraak, Norwegian composer (d. 1866)
June 19 – Karl Zeller, Austrian composer (d. 1898)
July 4 – Gyula Erkel, Hungarian composer, son of Ferenc Erkel
July 29 – Charles Collette, actor and composer (d. 1924)
September 12 – Marianne Brandt, operatic contralto (d. 1921)
September 24 – Emma Livry, ballerina (d. 1863)
October 13 – Antonio Pasculli, oboist and composer (d. 1924)
October 26 – Hugo Alpen, composer (d. 1917)
November 8 – Eugen Gura, operatic baritone (d. 1906)
November 24 – Peter Jerndorff, Danish opera singer and stage actor (d. 1926)
date unknown – Pallavi Seshayyar, composer of Carnatic music (d. 1909)
Deaths
March 6 – Constanze Mozart, widow of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (b. 1762)
March 7 – Christian Theodor Weinlig, composer and conductor (b. 1780)
March 15 – Luigi Cherubini, composer (b. 1760)
April 6 – Johann Anton André, composer and music publisher (b. 1775)
May 5 – Jean Elleviou, operatic tenor (b. 1769)
June 4 – Georg Friedrich Treitschke, librettist (b. 1776)
June 20 – Michael Umlauf, violinist and composer (b. 1781)
July 23 – Timothy Swan, hat-maker and composer (b. 1758)
August 25 – Jérôme-Joseph de Momigny, composer and music theorist (b. 1762)
September 15 – Pierre Baillot, violinist and composer (b. 1771)
October 8 – Christoph Ernst Friedrich Weyse, composer (b. 1774)
November 3 – Franz Clement, violinist, pianist, composer, conductor and friend of Beethoven (b. 1780)
November 17 – Luigi Capotorti, Italian composer (b. 1767)
December 18 – Giuseppe Nicolini, composer (b. 1762)
December 25 – Bedřich Diviš Weber, composer and founding principal of the Prague Conservatory (b. 1766)
References
19th century in music
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256172 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Arthur%20E.%20Nelson | Arthur E. Nelson | Arthur Emanuel Nelson (May 10, 1892April 11, 1955) was an American lawyer and politician.
Biography
He graduated from Macalester College in 1912 and William Mitchell College of Law (then the St. Paul College of Law) in 1915. He also served briefly in the U.S. Army from August to November 1918.
Nelson was elected Mayor of Saint Paul, Minnesota, in 1922. He served one four-year term. Nelson unsuccessfully ran for the United States Senate as a Republican in 1928 against Henrik Shipstead (receiving 33.4% of the vote), but was elected fourteen years later, in November 1942 to finish out the term of deceased Senator Ernest Lundeen, which had temporarily been filled by appointee Joseph H. Ball (who won the November 1942 election for the full six-year term from 1943 to 1949). Nelson served less than two months, from November 18, 1942, to January 3, 1943. He never sought re-election.
Notes
1892 births
1955 deaths
United States senators from Minnesota
Republican Party United States senators
Minnesota Republicans
Macalester College alumni
William Mitchell College of Law alumni
Minnesota lawyers
United States Army soldiers
United States Army personnel of World War I
20th-century American politicians
People from Browns Valley, Minnesota
20th-century American lawyers
20th-century American Episcopalians | [
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256173 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1841%20in%20music | 1841 in music |
Events
April 13 – The first Dresden opera house in Germany opens with the performance of a work by Carl Maria von Weber.
Robert Schumann writes two symphonies: Symphony No. 1 in B-flat major, opus 38 (also called the "Spring" symphony), and Symphony No. 4 in D minor, opus 120. (The D-minor symphony is edited extensively by Schumann in 1851, and thus is given a much later opus number and subsequently referred to as No. 4, although it is actually his second.)
Tenor Domenico Donzelli retires from the stage.
Nikolay Afanas'yev resigns as concertmaster of the Bolshoi Theatre Orchestra in order to conduct the serf orchestra of a wealthy landowner at Vïksa, near St Petersburg.
Popular music
August Heinrich Hoffmann – "Deutschlandlied" (to music written in 1797 by Joseph Haydn)
Classical music
Adolphe Adam – Giselle (ballet)
Hector Berlioz
Rêverie et Caprice, H 88
Les nuits d'été
Frederic Chopin
Ballade No. 3
Fantaisie in F minor
Theodor Kullak – Cavatine de Robert le Diable
Friedrich August Kummer – 2 Concert Duos for Violin and Cello, Op. 67
Joseph Lanner – Abend-Sterne Walzer, Op.180
Henry Lemoine – Études enfantines, Op. 37
Jans Christian Lumbye – Döbler's Zauber Galop
Felix Mendelssohn
Variations sérieuses
Antigone, Op. 55
Clara Schumann
Die gute Nacht, die ich dir sage
Lieder, Op. 12
Robert Schumann
Symphony No.1, Op. 38
Overture, Scherzo and Finale, Op. 52
Symphony No.4, Op. 120
Fernando Sor
Le calme, Op. 50
Divertissement for 2 Guitars, Op. 62
Johann Strauss Sr
Amors-Pfeile, Op. 123
Elektrische Funken, Op. 125
Johannes Verhulst – Symphony in E minor
Opera
Daniel Auber – Les diamants de la couronne
Michael William Balfe – Keolanthe
Gaetano Donizetti – Adelia
Fromental Halévy
Charles VI
La reine de Chypre
Franz Lachner – Caterina Cornaro
Giovanni Pacini – L'uomo del mistero
Births
January 15 – Thorvald Lammers, singer, conductor and composer (died 1922)
January 18 – Emmanuel Chabrier, composer (died 1894)
January 23 – Sigismund Bachrich, violinist and composer (died 1913)
January 28 – Viktor Nessler, composer (died 1890)
January 31 – Michael Maybrick, composer and singer, better known as "Stephen Adams" (died 1913)
February 10 – Sir Walter Parratt, organist and composer (died 1924)
February 19
Elfrida Andrée, organist, conductor and composer (died 1929)
Felipe Pedrell, composer (died 1922)
March 1 – Romualdo Marenco, composer for ballet (died 1907)
May 15 – Giovanni Bolzoni, violinist and composer (died 1919)
May 21 – Joseph Parry, composer (died 1903)
May 28 – Giovanni Sgambati, Italian composer, pianist, and conductor
July 9 – Carl Christian Lumbye, Danish composer, son of Hans Christian Lumbye
July 18 – Hedvig Willman, Swedish opera singer (died 1887)
September 8 – Antonín Dvořák, composer (died 1904)
September 26 – Signor Brocolini, opera singer (died 1906)
October 11 – Friedrich Hegar, violinist, conductor and composer (died 1927)
November 4 – Karl Tausig, pianist and composer (died 1871)
November 29 – Joe Wilson, singer and songwriter (died 1875)
Deaths
January 25 – Maria Anna Thekla Mozart, "Marianne", cousin and correspondent of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (born 1758)
February 14 – Antun Sorkočević, diplomat, writer and composer (born 1775)
February 17 – Ferdinando Carulli, composer for guitar (born 1770)
May 18 – John Thomson, composer (born 1805)
June 12 – Konstantinos Nikolopoulos, archaeologist and composer (born 1786)
July 3 – Rosemond Mountain, actress and singer (born 1780s?)
August 13 – Bernhard Romberg, cellist and composer (born 1767)
August 24
Friedrich Curschmann, songwriter and singer (born 1805)
Theodore Hook, writer and composer (born 1788)
August 27 – Ignaz von Seyfried, conductor and composer (born 1776)
September 15 – Alessandro Rolla, violinist, composer and music teacher (born 1757)
September 16 – Thomas John Dibdin, songwriter (born 1771)
October 16 – Domenico Barbaia, impresario (born 1778)
October 28 – Francesco Morlacchi, composer (born 1784)
December 22 – Daniil Kashin, pianist, conductor and composer (born 1769)
date unknown – Justina Casagli, opera singer (born 1794) (suicide)
References
19th century in music
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256174 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1840%20in%20music | 1840 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1840.
Events
February 11 – Gaetano Donizetti's opera La Fille du Regiment premieres in Paris.
April 2 – Première of Ferdinand Hiller's oratorio, Die Zerstörung Jerusalems, at the Leipzig Gewandhaus; Robert Schumann is in the audience.
June 9 – Franz Liszt gives the first piano recital, in London's Hanover Square Rooms.
c. June - Felix Mendelssohn releases his score for String Quartet No. 3 in D Major.
August 6 – First major public performance since the death of Johann Sebastian Bach of the Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565 for organ attributed to him, given by Felix Mendelssohn in Leipzig; Robert Schumann is in the audience.
c. October – Richard Wagner is committed to debtors' prison in France while completing his opera Rienzi.
Robert Schumann's "year of song", in which he writes the two Liederkreis, Frauenliebe und -leben and Dichterliebe. He also marries Clara Wieck.
The first harmonium is built.
Anton Schindler's biography of Ludwig van Beethoven is published.
Michele Carafa becomes Professor of Counterpoint at the Paris Conservatoire.
Édouard Batiste and François Bazin share the Prix de Rome.
Popular music
Henry Russell (music) & Eliza Cook (lyrics) – "The Old Arm Chair"
Robert Lucas de Pearsall – "Lay a garland"
Classical music
Hector Berlioz - Grande symphonie funebre et triomphale 26 July
Felix Mendelssohn – Lobgesang (Symphony No. 2 in B-flat Major)
Robert Schumann
Liederkreis, Op. 24
Myrthen, Op. 25
Lieder und Gesänge volume, Op. 27
3 Gedichte, Op. 29
3 Gedichte, Op. 30
3 Gesänge, Op. 31
6 Lieder, Op. 33
4 Duets, Op. 34
12 Gedichte, Op. 35
6 Gedichte, Op. 36
Liederkreis, Op. 39
5 Lieder, Op. 40
Frauenliebe und -leben, Op. 42
3 Duets, Op. 43
Romanzen & Balladen volume I, Op. 45
Dichterliebe, Op. 48
Romanzen & Balladen volume II, Op. 49
Romanzen & Balladen volume III, Op. 53
Belsatzar, ballad, Op. 57
Louis Spohr – Symphony no 6 in G major, Op. 116 "Historical"
Opera
Gaetano Donizetti – "La Favorite" and La Fille du Régiment (The Daughter of the Regiment)
Albert Lortzing – Hans Sachs
Temistocle Solera – Ildegonda
Giuseppe Verdi – Un giorno di regno
Births
January 18 – Ernst Rudorff, composer and music teacher (d. 1918)
February 2 – Louis-Albert Bourgault-Ducoudray, pianist and composer (d. 1910)
February 12 – Philippe Decker, conductor and composer (d. 1881)
February 24 – Auguste Götze, German classical singer and vocal pedagogue (d. 1908)
March 8 – Franco Faccio, conductor and composer (d. 1891)
April 12 – Franz Xaver Haberl, musicologist (d. 1910)
May 7 – Pyotr Ilyich Tchaikovsky, composer (d. 1893)
May 9 – Blanche d'Antigny, singer and actress (d. 1874)
August 1 – Franz Simandl, double-bassist and teacher (d. 1912)
August 28 – Ira D. Sankey, gospel singer and composer (d. 1908)
September 14 – George Whiting, composer (d. 1923)
September 30 – Johan Svendsen, violinist, conductor and composer (d. 1911)
October 18 – Roberto Stagno, operatic tenor (d. 1897)
December 7 – Hermann Goetz, composer (d. 1876)
December 17 – C. F. E. Horneman, composer (d. 1906)
Deaths
March 20 – Anton Friedrich Justus Thibaut, lawyer and musician, 68
May 1 – Giuditta Grisi, operatic mezzo-soprano, 34
May 10 – Catterino Cavos, organist, conductor and composer, 64
May 25 – Nikolai Lavrov, operatic baritone, 37
May 27 – Niccolò Paganini, violinist and composer, 57
June 5 – William Dance, pianist and violinist, 84
June 16 – Joseph Kreutzer, violinist, conductor and composer, 49
November 19 – Johann Michael Vogl, baritone and composer, 72
References
19th century in music
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256175 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1839%20in%20music | 1839 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1839.
Events
March 21 – Felix Mendelssohn conducts the first known performance of Franz Schubert's Great C Major Symphony
November 17 – Giuseppe Verdi's first opera, Oberto, Conte di San Bonifacio, opens at La Scala, Milan.
Classical music
Hector Berlioz – Romeo et Juliette
Frédéric Chopin
Ballade No. 2
Scherzo No. 3
Piano Sonata No. 2
Mikhail Glinka
La séparation
Polonaise
Valse-Fantasie
Johann Nepomuk Hummel – 2 Preludes and Fugue for Organ (published posthumously)
Joseph Lanner – Amazonen-Galopp; Malapou Galop
Franz Liszt
Valse mélancolique, S.210
Angiolin dal biondo crin, S.269
Fantaisie sur des motifs favoris de l'opéra 'La sonnambula', S.393
Felix Mendelssohn
6 Gesänge, Op. 47
Piano Trio No. 1 in D Minor, Op. 49
"Liebe und Wein"
Robert Schumann:
Arabesque in C, Op. 18
Blumenstück (Flower Piece) in D, Op. 19
Humoreske in B, Op. 20
4 Nachtstücke (Night Pieces), Op. 23
Faschingsschwank aus Wien, Op. 26
3 Romances, Op. 28 (B minor, F, B)
Louis Spohr – Concerto for Violin no 14 in A minor, Op. 110 "Sonst und Jetzt"
Opera
Alexander Dargomyzhsky – Esmeralda
Gaetano Donizetti
L'Ange de Nisida
Il duca d'Alba (composed, premiered 1882)
Giuseppe Lillo – Il conte di Chalais
Giuseppe Verdi – Oberto, Conte di San Bonifacio
Published popular music
"Kathleen Mavourneen" w. Annie Barry Crawford m. Frederick William Nicholls Crouch
Births
January 1 – James Ryder Randall, popular songwriter
January 9 – John Knowles Paine, composer and musicologist
February 7 – Elie Miriam Delaborde, editor and pianist (died 1913)
April 18 – Lotten Edholm, composer
March 2 – Victoria Bundsen, alto
March 10 – Dudley Buck, American composer and organist
March 17 – Josef Rheinberger, composer (d. 1901)
March 19 – Gustav Roguski, composer and teacher of Mieczysław Karłowicz
March 21 – Modest Mussorgsky, composer (d. 1881)
April 12 – Victorin de Joncières, composer and music critic (d. 1903)
May 19 – Alice Mary Smith, composer (d. 1884)
July 14 – Sydney Smith, English composer and pianist
August 24 – Eduard Nápravník, composer (d. 1916)
November 24 – James Warren York, businessman, musical instrument maker
Deaths
February 16 – Ludwig Berger, pianist, composer and music teacher (b. 1777)
March 8 – Adolphe Nourrit, operatic tenor (b. 1802) (suicide)
April 20 – Giuseppe Rossini, father of the composer Gioacchino Rossini
May 3 – Ferdinando Paer, composer (b. 1771)
June 8 – Aloysia Weber, operatic soprano (b. c. 1760)
June 11 – Regina Strinasacchi, violinist (b. c. 1761)
June 14 – Nicolas Mori, violinist, conductor and music publisher (b. 1796)
June 15 – Hans Skramstad, pianist and composer (b. 1797)
July 10 – Fernando Sor, guitarist and composer (b. 1778)
September 21 – Gottfried Weber, music theorist (b. 1779)
December 7 – Jan August Vitásek, composer (b. 1770)
Awards
Prix de Rome – Charles Gounod
19th century in music
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256177 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1838%20in%20music | 1838 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1838.
Events
March 7 – Jenny Lind, the "Swedish Nightingale", debuts at the Stockholm Opera
November 8 – The ailing Polish-born composer and pianist Frédéric Chopin begins an uncomfortable (but compositionally productive) winter living with his lover, French novelist George Sand, on the Mediterranean island of Majorca in the abandoned Carthusian monastery of Valldemossa. Here he writes his 24 Preludes (Op. 28).
Giovanni Ricordi buys Giuseppe Verdi's copyrights.
Popular music
"Annie Laurie", words (1688) William Douglas, music Lady John Scott (Alicia Ann Spottiswoode)
"'Tis Home Where'er the Heart Is" – words by Robert Dale Owen, music by John Hill Hewitt
Classical music
Franz Lachner – Frauenliebe und -leben
Felix Mendelssohn – String Quartets Op. 44, No. 3 in D Major and No. 5 in E-Flat Major
Robert Schumann
Kinderszenen, Op. 15
Kreisleriana, Op. 16
Franz Liszt
'Études d'exécution transcendante d'après Paganini'
Grand galop chromatique
William Sterndale Bennett – Piano Concerto No. 4, Op. 19
Opera
Hector Berlioz – Benvenuto Cellini
Albert Grisar – Lady Melvil
Births
January 6 – Max Bruch, German composer (died 1920)
March 21 – Wilma Neruda, Moravian-born violinist (died 1911)
July 9 – Philip Bliss, American Gospel composer (died 1876)
October 25 – Georges Bizet, French composer (died 1875)
Deaths
January 13 – Ferdinand Ries, composer and pianist (born 1784)
March 2 – Ludwig Abeille, composer (born 1761)
March 24 – Thomas Attwood, organist and composer (b. 1765)
April 29 – Joseph von Henikstein, patron of the arts and friend of Mozart (b. 1768)
May 28 – Thomas Busby, English composer (b. 1755)
July 28 – Bernhard Henrik Crusell, clarinet player and composer (b. 1775)
August 17 – Lorenzo Da Ponte, librettist
December 26 – Franciszek Lessel, composer (born 1780)
References
19th century in music
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256178 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1837%20in%20music | 1837 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1837.
Events
March 31 – Franz Liszt and Sigismond Thalberg play a musical 'duel' at a charity event for refugees of the Italian war of independence at the home of Countess Belgiojoso.
June 11 – Prussian Copyright Act protecting for the first time performances of concert music
Pauline Viardot (as Pauline García) makes her concert debut at the age of sixteen.
Publications
François-Joseph Fétis – Traité du chant en choeur (Paris)
Published popular music
"Hark, Brothers, Hark", words and music by John Hill Hewitt
"Woodman, Spare That Tree!", words by George Pope Morris, music by Henry Russell
Classical music
Charles-Valentin Alkan – 3 Morceaux dans le genre pathétique, Op. 15
Hector Berlioz – Grande Messe des Morts
Frédéric Chopin
Hexaméron: Variation No. 6
Nocturne in C minor, B. 108
Largo in E-flat major, B. 109
Impromptu No. 1, Op. 29
Scherzo No. 2, Op. 31
Piano Sonata No. 2, Op. 35, III
Adolf von Henselt
Romance, Op. 10
Variations de concert sur le motif de l'opéra 'L'elisir d'amore''', Op. 1
Franz Liszt Grandes études, S. 137Album d'un voyageur, S. 156Hexaméron, S. 392Soirées musicales de Rossini, S. 424
12 Lieder von Franz Schubert, S. 558
Felix Mendelssohn
Piano Concerto No. 2 in D minor, Op. 40Psalm 42 for choir and orchestra, Op. 42
6 Lieder, Op. 50
String Quartet No. 4 in E minor
Robert Schumann
Davidsbündlertänze, Op. 6
Études symphoniques, Op. 13
Opera
Daniel Auber – The Black Domino (with libretto by Eugène Scribe)
Gaetano Donizetti – Roberto DevereuxMikhail Glinka – Ruslan and Lyudmila (composition began, premiered in 1842)
Albert Lortzing – Zar und ZimmermannGaspare Spontini – Agnes von Hohenstaufen Births
January 2 – Mily Balakirev, Russian pianist, conductor and composer (d. 1910)
January 12 – Adolf Jensen, German pianist, composer and music teacher (d. 1879)
March 15 – Célestine Galli-Marié, operatic mezzo-soprano, the original Carmen (d. 1905)
April 13 – Julius Weissenborn, German bassoonist, music teacher and composer (d. 1888)
June 1 – Ferdinand Quentin Dulcken, English (later American) pianist and composer (d. 1901)
July 30 – Signe Hebbe, operatic soprano (d. 1925)
August 24
Théodore Dubois, organist and composer (d. 1924)
Adolf Wilbrandt, writer and lyricist (died 1911)
December 9 – Emile Waldteufel, composer (d. 1915)
December 24 – Cosima Wagner, daughter of Franz Liszt and wife of Richard Wagner (d. 1930)
December 30 – Ida Marie Lipsius, music writer (d. 1927)date unknownKate Santley, actress and singer (d. 1923)
La Serneta, flamenco singer (d. 1910)
Deaths
January 23 – John Field, pianist and composer (b. 1782)
February 10 – Aleksandr Pushkin, Russian poet and librettist (born 1799)
April 9 – Polly Cuninghame, ballet dancer (b. c. 1785)
May 5
Niccolò Antonio Zingarelli, composer (b. 1752)
Salvatore Fighera, composer (b. 1771)
June 16 – Valentino Fioravanti, opera buffa composer (b. 1764)
July 28 – Joseph Schubert, violinist and composer (b. 1754)
August 6 – Johann Nepomuk Schelble, composer (b. 1789)
October 6 – Jean François Lesueur, composer (b. 1760/1763)
October 11 – Samuel Wesley, organist and composer, son of hymn-writer Charles Wesley
October 17 – Johann Nepomuk Hummel, composer (b. 1778)
October 28 – Jean-Blaise Martin, opera singer (b. 1768)date unknown''
Franz Joseph Antony, organist and choral composer (b. 1790)
Jean Théodore Latour, composer for piano (b. 1766)
Christina Rahm, opera singer (b. c. 1760)
19th century in music
Music by year | [
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256179 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest%20Lundeen | Ernest Lundeen | Ernest Lundeen (August 4, 1878August 31, 1940) was an American lawyer and politician.
Lundeen was born and raised on his father's homestead in Brooklyn Township of Lincoln County near Beresford in the Dakota Territory. His father, C. H. Lundeen, was an early pioneer who was credited with the naming of Brooklyn Township as well as with helping to establish the school and other institutions located there. Most of Ernest Lundeen's brothers and sisters died during a diphtheria epidemic during the 1880s. In 1896, Lundeen and his family moved to Harcourt, Iowa and then to Minnesota. He graduated from Carleton College in Northfield, Minnesota in 1901 and then studied law at the University of Minnesota Law School. In 1906, he was admitted to the bar.
Lundeen served in the United States Army during the Spanish–American War. He served in the Minnesota House of Representatives 1911–14. He then served as a Republican from Minnesota in the United States House of Representatives, from March 4, 1917, to March 3, 1919, in the 65th congress. As representative, he was one of 50 Congressman to vote against the declaration of war against Germany on April 6, 1917. Due to the vote, he would lose renomination for the Republican primary in 1918 to the eventual winner, Walter Newton. He served as a Minnesota Farmer-Labor Party member in the House from March 4, 1933, to January 3, 1937, in the 73rd and 74th congresses. He was elected to the United States Senate in 1936 as a member of the Farmer-Labor Party. He served from January 3, 1937, in the 75th and 76th congresses, until his death.
He remained sympathetic to Germany. According to Alton Frye, he had close ties to George Sylvester Viereck, a leading German agent. Viereck often used Lundeen's office, and "sometimes dictated speeches for Lundeen, openly using the Senator's telephones to obtain material from Hans Thomsen at the [German] embassy."
On June 14, 1939, The Evening Star reported that during the USS Hammann's sea trials off the coast of Fire Island in the Atlantic Ocean, Lundeen joined a civilian and press delegation aboard the ship which reached a maximum speed of 40 knots, put rudders in full reverse, causing the ship to come to a complete stop in 58 seconds, and then the ship travelled in reverse at a top speed nearing 20 knots. In that report, Lundeen is quoted as saying the experience was "astounding" and that the test showed that American ship designers "need bow to none."
On the afternoon of August 31, 1940, Lundeen was a passenger on Flight 19 of Pennsylvania Central Airlines, flying from Washington, D.C. to Detroit. The plane, a Douglas DC-3, flew into turbulence from a thunderstorm. The plane crashed near Lovettsville, Virginia and all 25 persons on board were killed, including Senator Lundeen.
See also
List of United States Congress members who died in office (1900–49)
References
External links
1878 births
1940 deaths
People from Beresford, South Dakota
American Methodists
American people of Swedish descent
Minnesota Republicans
American military personnel of the Spanish–American War
United States senators from Minnesota
Members of the Minnesota House of Representatives
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Minnesota
Accidental deaths in Virginia
University of Minnesota Law School alumni
Minnesota Farmer–Laborites
Farmer–Labor Party United States senators
United States Army soldiers
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Farmer–Labor Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Carleton College alumni
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in 1940
Victims of aviation accidents or incidents in the United States | [
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256180 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kangxi%20Emperor | Kangxi Emperor | The Kangxi Emperor (Xuanye; 4 May 1654– 20 December 1722) was the third Emperor of the Qing dynasty, and the second Qing emperor to rule over China proper, reigning from 1661 to 1722.
The Kangxi Emperor's reign of 61 years makes him the longest-reigning emperor in Chinese history (although his grandson, the Qianlong Emperor, had the longest period of de facto power, ascending as an adult and maintaining effective power until his death) and one of the longest-reigning rulers in history. However, since he ascended the throne at the age of seven, actual power was held for six years by four regents and his grandmother, the Grand Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang.
The Kangxi Emperor is considered one of China's greatest emperors. He suppressed the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, forced the Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan and assorted Mongol rebels in the North and Northwest to submit to Qing rule, and blocked Tsarist Russia on the Amur River, retaining Outer Manchuria and Outer Northwest China.
The Kangxi Emperor's reign brought about long-term stability and relative wealth after years of war and chaos. He initiated the period known as the "Prosperous Era of Kangxi and Qianlong" or "High Qing", which lasted for several generations after his death. His court also accomplished such literary feats as the compilation of the Kangxi Dictionary.
Early reign
Born on 4 May 1654 to the Shunzhi Emperor and Empress Xiaokangzhang in Jingren Palace, the Forbidden City, Beijing, the Kangxi Emperor was originally given the personal name Xuanye (; Manchu transliteration: hiowan yei). He was enthroned at the age of seven (or eight by East Asian age reckoning), on 7 February 1661. However, his era name "Kangxi", only started to be used on 18February 1662, the first day of the following lunar year.
Sinologist Herbert Giles, drawing on contemporary sources, described the Kangxi Emperor as "fairly tall and well proportioned, he loved all manly exercises, and devoted three months annually to hunting. Large bright eyes lighted up his face, which was pitted with smallpox."
Before the Kangxi Emperor came to the throne, Grand Empress Dowager Xiaozhuang (in the name of Shunzhi Emperor) had appointed the powerful men Sonin, Suksaha, Ebilun, and Oboi as regents. Sonin died after his granddaughter became Empress Xiaochengren, leaving Suksaha at odds with Oboi in politics. In a fierce power struggle, Oboi had Suksaha put to death and seized absolute power as sole regent. The Kangxi Emperor and the rest of the imperial court acquiesced to this arrangement.
In the spring of 1662, the regents ordered a Great Clearance in southern China that evacuated the entire population from the seacoast to counter a resistance movement started by Ming loyalists under the leadership of Taiwan-based Ming general Zheng Chenggong, also titled Koxinga.
In 1669, the Kangxi Emperor had Oboi arrested with the help of his grandmother Grand Dowager Empress Xiaozhuang, who had raised him. and began taking personal control of the empire. He listed three issues of concern: flood control of the Yellow River; repair of the Grand Canal; the Revolt of the Three Feudatories in south China. The Grand Empress Dowager influenced him greatly and he took care of her himself in the months leading up to her death in 1688.
Kangxi's relatives from the Han Chinese Banner Tong 佟 clan of Fushun in Liaoning falsely claimed to be related to the Jurchen Manchu Tunggiya 佟佳 clan of Jilin, using this false claim to get themselves transferred to a Manchu banner in the reign of Kangxi emperor.
Military achievements
Army
The main army of the Qing Empire, the Eight Banners Army, was in decline under the Kangxi Emperor. It was smaller than it had been at its peak under Hong Taiji and in the early reign of the Shunzhi Emperor; however, it was larger than in the Yongzheng and Qianlong emperors' reigns. In addition, the Green Standard Army was still powerful with generals such as Tuhai, Fei Yanggu, Zhang Yong, Zhou Peigong, Shi Lang, Mu Zhan, Shun Shike and Wang Jingbao.
The main reason for this decline was a change in system between the Kangxi and Qianlong emperors' reigns. The Kangxi Emperor continued using the traditional military system implemented by his predecessors, which was more efficient and stricter. According to the system, a commander who returned from a battle alone (with all his men dead) would be put to death, and likewise for a foot soldier. This was meant to motivate both commanders and soldiers alike to fight valiantly in war because there was no benefit for the sole survivor in a battle.
By the Qianlong Emperor's reign, military commanders had become lax and the training of the army was deemed less important as compared to during the previous emperors' reigns.
Revolt of the Three Feudatories
After the Qing takeover of China in 1644, large parts of the south and west were given as fiefs to three Ming generals who aided the Qing; in 1673 the three feudatories were controlled by Wu Sangui, Geng Jingzhong, and Shang Zhixin. Going against the advice of most of his advisors, Kangxi attempted to force the feudal princes to give up their lands and retire to Manchuria, sparking a rebellion that lasted eight years. For years afterwards Kangxi ruminated on his mistakes and blamed himself in part for the loss of life during the revolt.
Wu Sangui's forces overran most of southwest China and he tried to ally himself with local generals such as Wang Fuchen. The Kangxi Emperor employed generals including Zhou Peigong and Tuhai to suppress the rebellion, and also granted clemency to common people caught up in the war. He intended to personally lead the armies to crush the rebels but his subjects advised him against it. The Kangxi Emperor used mainly Han Chinese Green Standard Army soldiers to crush the rebels while the Manchu Banners took a backseat. The revolt ended with victory for Qing forces in 1681.
Taiwan
In 1683, the naval forces of the Ming loyalists on Taiwan—organized under the Zheng dynasty as the Kingdom of Tungning—were defeated off Penghu by 300-odd ships under the Qing admiral Shi Lang. Koxinga's grandson Zheng Keshuang surrendered Tungning a few days later and Taiwan became part of the Qing Empire. Zheng Keshuang moved to Beijing, joined the Qing nobility as the "Duke Haicheng" (), and was inducted into the Eight Banners as a member of the Han Plain Red Banner. His soldiers—including the rattan-shield troops (, tengpaiying)—were similarly entered into the Eight Banners, notably serving against Russian Cossacks at Albazin.
A score of Ming princes had joined the Zheng dynasty on Taiwan, including Prince Zhu Shugui of Ningjing and Prince Honghuan (朱弘桓), the son of Zhu Yihai. The Qing sent most of the 17 Ming princes still living on Taiwan back to mainland China, where they spent the rest of their lives. The Prince of Ningjing and his five concubines, however, committed suicide rather than submit to capture. Their palace was used as Shi Lang's headquarters in 1683, but he memorialized the emperor to convert it into a Mazu temple as a propaganda measure in quieting remaining resistance on Taiwan. The emperor approved its dedication as the Grand Matsu Temple the next year and, honoring the goddess Mazu for her supposed assistance during the Qing invasion, promoted her to "Empress of Heaven" ( Tianhou) from her previous status as a "heavenly consort" ( Tianfei). Belief in Mazu remains so widespread on Taiwan that her annual celebrations can gather hundreds of thousands of people; she is sometimes even syncretized with Guanyin and the Virgin Mary.
The end of the rebel stronghold and capture of the Ming princes allowed the Kangxi Emperor to relax the Sea Ban and permit resettlement of the Fujian and Guangdong coasts. The financial and other incentives to new settlers particularly drew the Hakka, who would have continuous low-level conflict with the returning Punti people for the next few centuries.
Russia
In the 1650s, the Qing Empire engaged the Tsardom of Russia in a series of border conflicts along the Amur River region, which concluded with the Qing gaining control of the area after the Siege of Albazin.
The Russians invaded the northern frontier again in the 1680s. A series of battles and negotiations culminated in the Treaty of Nerchinsk of 1689, by which a border was agreed between Russia and China.
Mongolia
The Inner Mongolian Chahar leader Ligdan Khan, a descendant of Genghis Khan, opposed and fought against the Qing until he died of smallpox in 1634. Thereafter, the Inner Mongols under his son Ejei Khan surrendered to the Qing and he was given the title of Prince (Qin Wang, 親王). The Inner Mongolian nobility now became closely tied to the Qing royal family and intermarried with them extensively. Ejei Khan died in 1661 and was succeeded by his brother Abunai. After Abunai showed disaffection with Manchu Qing rule, he was placed under house arrest in 1669 in Shenyang and the Kangxi Emperor gave his title to his son Borni.
Abunai bided his time then, with his brother Lubuzung, revolted against the Qing in 1675 during the Revolt of the Three Feudatories, with 3,000 Chahar Mongol followers joining in on the revolt. The revolt was put down within two months, the Qing defeating the rebels in battle on 20 April 1675, killing Abunai and all his followers. Their title was abolished, all Chahar Mongol royal males were executed even if they were born to Manchu Qing princesses, and all Chahar Mongol royal females were sold into slavery except the Manchu Qing princesses. The Chahar Mongols were then put under the direct control of the Qing Emperor unlike the other Inner Mongol leagues which maintained their autonomy.
The Outer Khalkha Mongols had preserved their independence, and only paid tribute to the Qing Empire. However, a conflict between the houses of Tümen Jasagtu Khan and Tösheetü Khan led to a dispute between the Khalkha and the Dzungars over the influence of Tibetan Buddhism. In 1688, the Dzungar chief, Galdan Boshugtu Khan, attacked the Khalkha from the west and invaded their territory. The Khalkha royal families and the first Jebtsundamba Khutuktu crossed the Gobi Desert and sought help from the Qing Empire in return for submission to Qing authority. In 1690, the Dzungars and Qing forces clashed at the Battle of Ulan Butung in Inner Mongolia, in which the Qing eventually emerged as the victor.
In 1696 and 1697 the Kangxi Emperor personally led campaigns against the Dzungars in the early Dzungar–Qing War. The western section of the Qing army defeated Galdan's forces at the Battle of Jao Modo and Galdan died in the following year.
Manchu Hoifan and Ula rebellion against the Qing
In 1700, some 20,000 Qiqihar Xibe were resettled in Guisui, modern Inner Mongolia, and 36,000 Songyuan Xibe were resettled in Shenyang, Liaoning. The relocation of the Xibe from Qiqihar is believed by Liliya M. Gorelova to be linked to the Qing's annihilation of the Manchu clan Hoifan (Hoifa) in 1697 and the Manchu tribe Ula in 1703 after they rebelled against the Qing; both Hoifan and Ula were wiped out.
Tibet
In 1701, the Kangxi Emperor ordered the reconquest of Kangding and other border towns in western Sichuan that had been taken by the Tibetans. The Manchu forces stormed Dartsedo and secured the border with Tibet and the lucrative tea-horse trade.
The Tibetan desi (regent) Sangye Gyatso concealed the death of the 5th Dalai Lama in 1682, and only informed the emperor in 1697. He moreover kept relations with Dzungar enemies of the Qing. All this evoked the great displeasure of the Kangxi Emperor. Eventually Sangye Gyatso was toppled and killed by the Khoshut ruler Lha-bzang Khan in 1705. As a reward for ridding him of his old enemy the Dalai Lama, the Kangxi Emperor appointed Lha-bzang Khan Regent of Tibet (). The Dzungar Khanate, a confederation of Oirat tribes based in parts of what is now Xinjiang, continued to threaten the Qing Empire and invaded Tibet in 1717. They took control of Lhasa with a 6,000 strong army and killed Lha-bzang Khan. The Dzungars held on to the city for three years and at the Battle of the Salween River defeated a Qing army sent to the region in 1718. The Qing did not take control of Lhasa until 1720, when the Kangxi Emperor sent a larger expedition force there to defeat the Dzungars.
Muslims
Manchu emperor Kangxi incited anti-Muslim sentiment among the Mongols of Qinghai (Kokonor) in order to gain support against the Dzungar Oirat Mongol leader Galdan. Kangxi claimed that Chinese Muslims inside China such as Turkic Muslims in Qinghai (Kokonor) were plotting with Galdan, who he falsely claimed converted to Islam. Kangxi falsely claimed that Galdan had spurned and turned his back on Buddhism and the Dalai Lama and that he was plotting to install a Muslim as ruler of China after invading it in a conspiracy with Chinese Muslims. Kangxi also distrusted Muslims of Turfan and Hami.
Chinese nobility
The Kangxi Emperor granted the title of Wujing Boshi (五經博士; Wǔjīng Bóshì) to the descendants of Shao Yong, Zhu Xi, Zhuansun Shi, Ran family (Ran Qiu, Ran Geng, Ran Yong), Bu Shang, Yan Yan (disciple of Confucius), and the Duke of Zhou's offspring.
Economic achievements
The contents of the national treasury during the Kangxi Emperor's reign were:
1668 (7th year of Kangxi): 14,930,000 taels
1692: 27,385,631 taels
1702–1709: approximately 50,000,000 taels with little variation during this period
1710: 45,880,000 taels
1718: 44,319,033 taels
1720: 39,317,103 taels
1721 (60th year of Kangxi, second last of his reign): 32,622,421 taels
The reasons for the declining trend in the later years of the Kangxi Emperor's reign were a huge expenditure on military campaigns and an increase in corruption. To fix the problem, the Kangxi Emperor gave Prince Yong (the future Yongzheng Emperor) advice on how to make the economy more efficient.
Cultural achievements
During his reign, the Kangxi Emperor ordered the compilation of a dictionary of Chinese characters, which became known as the Kangxi Dictionary. This was seen as an attempt by the emperor to gain support from the Han Chinese scholar-bureaucrats, as many of them initially refused to serve him and remained loyal to the Ming dynasty. However, by persuading the scholars to work on the dictionary without asking them to formally serve the Qing imperial court, the Kangxi Emperor led them to gradually taking on greater responsibilities until they were assuming the duties of state officials.
In 1705, on the Kangxi Emperor's order, a compilation of Tang poetry, the Quan Tangshi, was produced.
The Kangxi Emperor also was interested in Western technology and wanted to import them to China. This was done through Jesuit missionaries, such as Ferdinand Verbiest, whom the Kangxi Emperor frequently summoned for meetings, or Karel Slavíček, who made the first precise map of Beijing on the emperor's order.
From 1711 to 1723, Matteo Ripa, an Italian priest sent to China by the Congregation for the Evangelization of Peoples, worked as a painter and copper-engraver at the Qing court. In 1723, he returned to Naples from China with four young Chinese Christians, in order to groom them to become priests and send them back to China as missionaries. This marked the beginning of the Collegio dei Cinesi, sanctioned by Pope Clement XII to help the propagation of Christianity in China. This Chinese Institute was the first school of Sinology in Europe, which would later develop to become the Istituto Orientale and the present day Naples Eastern University.
The Kangxi Emperor was also the first Chinese emperor to play a western musical instrument. Thomas Pereira taught him how to play the harpsichord, and he employed Karel Slavíček as court musician. Slavíček was playing Spinet; later the emperor would play on it himself. He also invented a Chinese calendar. China's famed blue and white porcelain probably reached its zenith during the Kangxi Emperor's reign.
Christianity
In the early decades of the Kangxi Emperor's reign, Jesuits played a large role in the imperial court. With their knowledge of astronomy, they ran the imperial observatory. Jean-François Gerbillon and Thomas Pereira served as translators for the negotiations of the Treaty of Nerchinsk. The Kangxi Emperor was grateful to the Jesuits for their contributions, the many languages they could interpret, and the innovations they offered his military in gun manufacturing and artillery, the latter of which enabled the Qing Empire to conquer the Kingdom of Tungning.
The Kangxi Emperor was also fond of the Jesuits' respectful and unobtrusive manner; they spoke the Chinese language well, and wore the silk robes of the elite. In 1692, when Pereira requested tolerance for Christianity, the Kangxi Emperor was willing to oblige, and issued the Edict of Toleration, which recognized Catholicism, barred attacks on their churches, and legalized their missions and the practice of Christianity by the Chinese people.
However, controversy arose over whether Chinese Christians could still take part in traditional Confucian ceremonies and ancestor worship, with the Jesuits arguing for tolerance and the Dominicans taking a hard-line against foreign "idolatry". The Dominican position won the support of Pope Clement XI, who in 1705 sent Charles-Thomas Maillard de Tournon as his representative to the Kangxi Emperor, to communicate the ban on Chinese rites. Through de Tournon, the Pope insisted on sending his own representative to Beijing to oversee Jesuit missionaries in China. Kangxi refused, wanting to keep missionary activities in China under his final oversight, managed by one of the Jesuits who had been living in Beijing for years.
On 19 March 1715, Pope Clement XI issued the papal bull Ex illa die, which officially condemned Chinese rites. In response, the Kangxi Emperor officially forbade Christian missions in China, as they were "causing trouble".
Succession disputes
A prolonged struggle between various princes emerged during the Kangxi Emperor's reign over who should inherit the throne – the Nine Lords' War ().
In 1674 the Kangxi Emperor's first spouse, Empress Xiaochengren, died while giving birth to his second surviving son Yinreng, who at the age of two was named crown prince – a Han Chinese custom, to ensure stability during a time of chaos in the south. Although the Kangxi Emperor left the education of several of his sons to others, he personally oversaw the upbringing of Yinreng, grooming him to be a perfect successor. Yinreng was tutored by the mandarin Wang Shan, who remained devoted to him, and spent the later years of his life trying to persuade the Kangxi Emperor to restore Yinreng as the crown prince.
Yinreng proved to be unworthy of the succession despite his father showing favoritism towards him. He was said to have beaten and killed his subordinates, and was alleged to have had sexual relations with one of his father's concubines, which was deemed incest and a capital offence. Yinreng also purchased young children from Jiangsu to satisfy his pedophiliac pleasure. In addition, Yinreng's supporters, led by Songgotu, gradually formed a "Crown Prince Party" (太子黨), that aimed to help Yinreng get the throne as soon as possible, even if it meant using unlawful methods.
Over the years, the Kangxi Emperor kept constant watch over Yinreng and became aware of his son's many flaws, while their relationship gradually deteriorated. In 1707, the emperor decided that he could no longer tolerate Yinreng's behavior, which he partially mentioned in the imperial edict as "never obeying ancestors' virtues, never obliged to my order, only doing inhumanity and devilry, only showing maliciousness and lust", and decided to strip Yinreng of his position as crown prince. The Kangxi Emperor placed his oldest surviving son, Yinzhi, in charge of overseeing Yinreng's house arrest. Yinzhi, an unfavored Shu son, knowing he had no chance of being selected, recommended the eighth prince, Yinsi, and requested his father to order Yinreng's execution. The Kangxi Emperor was enraged and stripped Yinzhi of his titles. The emperor then commanded his subjects to cease debating the succession issue, but despite this and attempts to reduce rumours and speculation as to who the new crown prince might be, the imperial court's daily activities were disrupted. Yinzhi's actions caused the Kangxi Emperor to suspect that Yinreng might have been framed, so he restored Yinreng as crown prince in 1709, with the support of the 4th and 13th princes, and on the excuse that Yinreng had previously acted under the influence of mental illness.
In 1712, during the Kangxi Emperor's last inspection tour of the south, Yinreng, who was put in charge of state affairs during his father's absence, tried to vie for power again with his supporters. He allowed an attempt at forcing the Kangxi Emperor to abdicate when his father returned to Beijing. However, the emperor received news of the planned coup d'etat, and was so angry that he deposed Yinreng and placed him under house arrest again. After the incident, the emperor announced that he would not appoint any of his sons as crown prince for the remainder of his reign. He stated that he would place his Imperial Valedictory Will inside a box in the Palace of Heavenly Purity, which would only be opened after his death.
Seeing that Yinreng was completely disavowed, Yinsi and some other princes turned to support the 14th prince, Yinti, while the 13th prince supported Yinzhen. They formed the so-called "Eighth Lord Party" () and "Fourth Lord Party" ().
Death and succession
Following the deposition of the crown prince, the Kangxi Emperor implemented groundbreaking changes in the political landscape. The 13th prince, Yinxiang, was placed under house arrest as well for cooperating with Yinreng. The eighth prince Yinsi was stripped of all his titles and only had them restored years later. The 14th prince Yinti, whom many considered to be the most likely candidate to succeed the Kangxi Emperor, was sent on a military campaign during the political conflict. Yinsi, along with the ninth and tenth princes, Yintang and Yin'e, pledged their support to Yinti.
In the evening of 20 December 1722 before his death, the Kangxi Emperor called seven of his sons to assemble at his bedside. They were the third, fourth, eighth, ninth, tenth, 16th and 17th princes. After the Kangxi Emperor died, Longkodo announced that the emperor had selected the fourth prince, Yinzhen, as the new emperor. Yinzhen ascended to the throne and became known as the Yongzheng Emperor. The Kangxi Emperor was entombed at the Eastern Tombs in Zunhua, Hebei.
A legend concerning the Kangxi Emperor's will states that he chose Yinti as his heir, but Yinzhen forged the will in his own favour. It has, however, long been refuted by serious historians. Yinzhen, later the Yongzheng Emperor, has attracted many rumours, and some novel-like private books claim he did not die of illness but was assassinated by a swordswoman, Lü Siniang (), the granddaughter of Lü Liuliang, though this is never treated seriously by scholars.
Personality and achievements
The Kangxi Emperor was a great consolidator of the Qing dynasty. The transition from the Ming dynasty to the Qing was a cataclysm whose central event was the fall of the capital Beijing to the peasant rebels led by Li Zicheng, then to the Manchus in 1644, and the installation of the five-year-old Shunzhi Emperor on their throne. By 1661, when the Shunzhi Emperor died and was succeeded by the Kangxi Emperor, the Qing conquest of China proper was almost complete. Leading Manchus were already using Chinese institutions and mastering Confucian ideology, while maintaining Manchu culture among themselves. The Kangxi Emperor completed the conquest, suppressed all significant military threats and revived the central government system inherited from the Ming with important modifications.
The Kangxi Emperor was a workaholic, rising early and retiring late, reading and responding to numerous memorials every day, conferring with his councilors and giving audiences – and this was in normal times; in wartime, he might be reading memorials from the warfront until after midnight or even, as with the Dzungar conflict, away on campaign in person.
The Kangxi Emperor devised a system of communication that circumvented the scholar-bureaucrats, who had a tendency to usurp the power of the emperor. This Palace Memorial System involved the transfer of secret messages between him and trusted officials in the provinces, where the messages were contained in locked boxes that only he and the official had access to. This started as a system for receiving uncensored extreme-weather reports, which the emperor regarded as divine comments on his rule. However, it soon evolved into a general-purpose secret "news channel." Out of this emerged a Grand Council, which dealt with extraordinary, especially military, events. The council was chaired by the emperor and manned by his more elevated Han Chinese and Manchu household staff. From this council, the mandarin civil servants were excluded – they were left only with routine administration.
The Kangxi Emperor managed to woo the Confucian intelligentsia into co-operating with the Qing government, despite their deep reservations about Manchu rule and loyalty to the Ming. He appealed to this very sense of Confucian values, for instance, by issuing the Sacred Edict in 1670. He encouraged Confucian learning and made sure that the civil service examinations were held every three years even during times of stress. When some scholars, out of loyalty to the Ming, refused to take the exams, he hit upon the expedient of a special exam to be taken by nomination. He personally sponsored the writing of the Ming Official History, the Kangxi Dictionary, a phrase-dictionary, a vast encyclopedia and an even vaster compilation of Chinese literature. To promote his image as a "sage ruler," he appointed Manchu and Chinese tutors with whom he studied the Confucian classics and worked intensively on Chinese calligraphy.
In the one military campaign in which he actively participated, against the Dzungar Mongols, the Kangxi Emperor showed himself an effective military commander. According to Finer, the emperor's own written reflections allow one to experience "how intimate and caring was his communion with the rank-and-file, how discriminating and yet masterful his relationship with his generals".
As a result of the scaling down of hostilities as peace returned to China after the Manchu conquest, and also as a result of the ensuing rapid increase of population, land cultivation and therefore tax revenues based on agriculture, the Kangxi Emperor was able first to make tax remissions, then in 1712 to freeze the land tax and corvée altogether, without embarrassing the state treasury (although the dynasty eventually suffered from this fiscal policy).
Family
Empress
Empress Xiaochengren, of the Heseri clan (孝誠仁皇后 赫舍里氏; 3 February 1654 – 6 June 1674)
Chenghu (承祜; 4 January 1670 – 3 March 1672), second son
Yunreng, Prince Limi of the First Rank (理密親王 允礽; 6 June 1674 – 27 January 1725), seventh (second) son
Empress Xiaozhaoren, of the Niohuru clan (孝昭仁皇后 鈕祜祿氏; 1659 – 18 March 1678), second cousin
Empress Xiaoyiren of the Tunggiya clan (孝懿仁皇后 佟佳氏; d. 24 August 1689), first cousin
Eighth Daughter (13 July 1683 – 6 August 1683)
Miscarriage (August 1689)
Empress Xiaogongren of the Uya clan (孝恭仁皇后 烏雅氏; 28 April 1660 – 25 June 1723), personal name Malu (瑪琭)
Yinzhen, the Yongzheng Emperor (世宗 胤禛; 13 December 1678 – 8 October 1735), 11th (fourth) son
Yinzuo (胤祚; 5 March 1680 – 15 June 1685), 14th (sixth) son
Seventh daughter (5 July 1682 – September 1682)
Princess Wenxian of the First Rank (固倫溫憲公主; 10 November 1683 – August/September 1702), ninth daughter
Married Shun'anyan (舜安顏; d. 1724) of the Manchu Tunggiya clan in October/November 1700.
12th daughter (14 June 1686 – February/March 1697)
Yunti, Prince Xunqin of the Second Rank (恂勤郡王 允禵; 10 February 1688 – 16 February 1755), 23rd (14th) son
Imperial Noble Consort
Imperial Noble Consort Quehui, of the Tunggiya clan (愨惠皇貴妃 佟佳氏; September/October 1668 – 24 April 1743), first cousin
Imperial Noble Consort Jingmin, of the Janggiya clan (敬敏皇貴妃 章佳氏; d. 20 August 1699)
Yinxiang, Prince Yixian of the First Rank (怡賢親王 胤祥; 16 November 1686 – 18 June 1730), 22nd (13th) son
Princess Wenke of the Second Rank (和碩溫恪公主; 31 December 1687 – 27 July 1709), 13th daughter
Married Cangjin (蒼津) of the Onnigud Borjigit clan in August/September 1706
Princess Dunke of the Second Rank (和碩敦恪公主; 3 February 1691 – 2 January 1710), 15th daughter
Married Dorji (多爾濟; d. 1720) of the Khorchin Borjigit clan in January/February 1709, and had issue (one daughter)
Imperial Noble Consort Dunyi, of the Gūwalgiya clan (惇怡皇貴妃 瓜爾佳氏; 3 December 1683 – 30 April 1768), personal name Hanjiuchun (旱九春)
18th daughter (17 November 1701 – November 1701)
Noble Consort
Noble Consort Wenxi, of the Niohuru clan (溫僖貴妃 鈕祜祿氏; 14 February 1661 – 19 December 1694), second cousin
Yun'e, Duke of the Second Rank (輔國公 允䄉; 28 November 1683 – 18 October 1741), 18th (tenth) son
11th daughter (24 October 1685 – June/July 1686)
Consort
Consort Hui, of the Khorchin Borjigit clan (慧妃 博爾濟吉特氏; d. 30 May 1670), first cousin twice removed
Consort Hui, of the Ula Nara clan (惠妃 葉赫那拉氏; d. 1 May 1732), personal name Huase (花色)
Chengqing (承慶; 21 March 1670 – 26 May 1671), third son
Yunzhi, Prince of the Fourth Rank (貝子 允禔; 12 March 1672 – 7 January 1735), fifth (first) son
Consort Yi, of the Gorolo clan (宜妃 郭絡羅氏; 1660 – 2 October 1733)
Yunqi, Prince Hengwen of the First Rank (恆溫親王 允祺; 5 January 1680 – 10 July 1732), 13th (fifth) son
Yuntang, Prince of the Fourth Rank (貝子 允禟; 17 October 1683 – 22 September 1726), 17th (ninth) son
Yinzi (胤禌; 8 June 1685 – 22 August 1696), 20th (11th) son
Consort Rong, of the Magiya clan (榮妃 馬佳氏; d. 26 April 1727)
Chengrui (承瑞; 5 November 1667 – 10 July 1670), first son
Saiyinchahun (賽音察渾; 24 January 1672 – 6 March 1674), fourth son
Princess Rongxian of the First Rank (固倫榮憲公主; 20 June 1673 – 29 May 1728), third daughter
Married Örgen (烏爾袞; d. 1721) of the Barin Borjigit clan in June/July 1691 and had issue (a son)
Changhua (長華; 11 May 1674), sixth son
Changsheng (長生; 10 September 1675 – 27 April 1677), eighth son
Yunzhi, Prince Chengyin of the Second Rank (誠隱郡王 允祉; 23 March 1677 – 10 July 1732), tenth (third) son
Consort Ping, of the Hešeri clan (平妃 赫舍里氏; d. 18 July 1696)
Yinji (胤禨; 23 February 1691 – 30 March 1691), 24th son
Consort Liang of the Wei clan (良妃 衛氏; 1662 – 29 December 1711), personal name Shuangjie (雙姐)
Yunsi, Prince Lian of the First Rank (廉親王 允禩; 29 March 1681 – 5 October 1726), 16th (eighth) son
Consort Xuan, of the Khorchin Borjigit clan (宣妃 博爾濟吉特氏; d. 12 September 1736), third cousin, personal name Chenglian (成蓮)
Consort Cheng, of the Daigiya clan (成妃 戴佳氏; d. 18 December 1740)
Yunyou, Prince Chundu of the First Rank (淳度親王 允佑; 19 August 1680 – 18 May 1730), 15th (seventh) son
Consort Shunyimi, of the Wang clan (順懿密妃 王氏; d. 19 November 1744)
Yunxu, Prince Yuke of the Second Rank (愉恪郡王 允禑; 24 December 1693 – 8 March 1731), 25th (15th) son
Yunlu, Prince Zhuangke of the First Rank (莊恪親王 允祿; 28 July 1695 – 20 March 1767), 26th (16th) son
Yinxie (胤祄; 15 May 1701 – 17 October 1708), 28th (18th) son
Consort Chunyuqin, of the Chen clan (純裕勤妃 陳氏; d. 12 January 1754)
Yunli, Prince Guoyi of the First Rank (果毅親王 允禮; 24 March 1697 – 21 March 1738), 27th (17th) son
Consort Ding of the Wanlioha clan (定妃 萬琉哈氏; January/February 1661 – 24 May 1757), personal name Niuniu (妞妞)
Yuntao, Prince Lüyi of the First Rank (履懿親王 允祹; 18 January 1686 – 1 September 1763), 21st (12th) son
Imperial Concubine
Imperial Concubine An, of the Li clan (安嬪 李氏)
Imperial Concubine Jing, of the Wanggiya clan (敬嬪 王佳氏)
Imperial Concubine Duan, of the Dong clan (端嬪 董氏; d. 1702)
Second daughter (17 April 1671 – March/April 1673)
Imperial Concubine Xi, of the Hešeri clan (僖嬪 赫舍里氏; d. 31 October 1702)
Imperial Concubine Tong of the Ula Nara clan (通嬪 那拉氏; 1664 – 1 August 1744), personal name Zhanjimai (詹吉邁)
Princess Chunque of the First Rank (固倫純慤公主; 20 March 1685 – 22 April 1710), tenth daughter
Married Ts'ering (策棱; d. 1750) of the Khalkha Borjigit clan in June/July 1706, and had issue (one son)
Imperial Concubine Xiang of the Gao clan (襄嬪 高氏; d. 14 August 1746), personal name Zaiyi (在儀)
Yinji (胤禝; 25 October 1702 – 28 March 1704), 29th (19th) son
19th daughter (30 March 1703 – February/March 1705)
Yunyi, Prince Jianjing of the Third Rank (簡靖貝勒 允禕; 1 September 1706 – 30 June 1755), 30th (20th) son
Imperial Concubine Jin, of the Sehetu clan (謹嬪 色赫圖氏; 2 August 1682 – 23 April 1739)
Yunhu, Prince Gongqin of the Third Rank (恭勤貝勒 允祜; 10 January 1712 – 12 February 1744), 32nd (22nd) son
Imperial Concubine Jing, of the Shi clan (靜嬪 石氏; 13 December 1689 – 10 July 1758)
Yunqi, Prince Cheng of the Third Rank (誠貝勒 允祁; 14 January 1714 – 31 August 1785), 33rd (23rd) son
Imperial Concubine Xi, of the Chen clan (熙嬪 陳氏; April/May 1690 – 1 February 1737)
Yunxi, Prince Shenjing of the Second Rank (慎靖郡王 允禧; 27 February 1711 – 26 June 1758), 31st (21st) son
Imperial Concubine Mu, of the Chen clan (穆嬪 陳氏; d. 1727)
Yunbi, Prince Xianke of the First Rank (𫍯恪親王 允秘; 5 July 1716 – 3 December 1773), 34th (24th) son
Yinyuan (胤禐; 2 March 1718), 35th son
Noble Lady
Noble Lady Yi, of the Yi clan (伊貴人 易氏; d. 1728)
Noble Lady Bu, of the Joogiya clan (布貴人 兆佳氏; d. 21 February 1717)
Princess Duanjing of the Second Rank (和碩端靜公主; 9 June 1674 – March/April 1710), fifth daughter
Married Ga'erzang (噶爾臧; 1675–1722) of the Kharchin Ulanghan (烏梁罕) clan in November/December 1692, and had issue (one daughter)
Noble Lady, of the Nara clan (貴人 那拉氏)
Wanfu (萬黼; 4 December 1675 – 11 March 1679), ninth son
Yinzan (胤禶; 10 April 1679 – 30 April 1680), 12th son
Noble Lady, of the Gorolo clan (貴人 郭絡羅氏)
Princess Kejing of the First Rank (固倫恪靖公主; 4 July 1679 – March/April 1735), sixth daughter
Married Dondob Dorji (敦多布多爾濟; d. 1743) of the Khalkha Borjigit clan in December 1697 or January 1698 and had issue (three sons)
Yinju (胤䄔; 13 September 1683 – 17 July 1684), 19th son
Noble Lady, of the Yuan clan (貴人 袁氏; d. 25 September 1719)
Princess Quejing of the Second Rank (和碩愨靖公主; 16 January 1690 – 1736), 14th daughter
Married Sun Chengyun (孫承運; d. 1719) in 1706
Mistress
Mistress, of the Zhang clan (張氏)
First daughter (23 December 1668 – November 1671)
Fourth daughter (16 March 1674 – January/February 1679)
Mistress, of the Wang clan (王氏)
16th daughter (27 November 1695 – October/November 1707)
Mistress, of the Liu clan (劉氏)
17th daughter (12 January 1699 – December 1700 or January 1701)
Mistress, of the Niohuru clan (鈕祜祿氏)
20th daughter (20 November 1708 – January/February 1709)
Ancestry
Popular culture
Fiction
Kangxi Dadi (康熙大帝; The Great Kangxi Emperor), a historical novel by Er Yuehe which romanticises the Kangxi Emperor's life.
The Deer and the Cauldron (鹿鼎記), a wuxia novel by Louis Cha. In the story, by coincidence, the Kangxi Emperor and the protagonist, Wei Xiaobao, become close friends in their childhood. Wei helps the emperor consolidate his rule over the Qing Empire and plays an important role in affecting how significant historical events during the Kangxi era unfold.
Qijian Xia Tianshan (七劍下天山; Seven Swords Descend from Mount Heaven), a wuxia novel by Liang Yusheng. In the story, the Kangxi Emperor discovers that his father, the Shunzhi Emperor, has become a monk in a monastery on Mount Wutai. He orders a close aide to kill his father in order to consolidate power, and attempts to erase evidence of the murder later.
Film and television
Video games
Age of Empires III: The Asian Dynasties: The Kangxi Emperor is featured as the Chinese leader in this real-time strategy game.
Call Me Emperor: Kangxi is featured as a minister in this Strategy Click-RPG game.
See also
Chinese emperors family tree (late)
Kangxi Tongbao
Notes
References
Bibliography and further reading
.
Finer, S. E. (1997). The History of Government from the Earliest Times. (three-volume set, hardback)
.
.
.
Ch. 3, "Kangxi's Consolidation," in Jonathan D. Spence, The Search for Modern China (New York: Norton; 3rd, 2013), pp. 48–71.
External links
1654 births
1722 deaths
17th-century Chinese monarchs
18th-century Chinese monarchs
Child rulers from Asia
Qing dynasty emperors
Shunzhi Emperor's sons | [
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256181 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1805%20in%20music | 1805 in music | This is a list of music-related events in 1805.
Events
April 7 – Beethoven's Symphony No. 3, Eroica, has its public premiere at the Theater an der Wien in Vienna under his baton, marking the beginning of his middle period.
November 20 – Beethoven's only opera Fidelio in its original form (known retrospectively as Leonore) is premiered at the Theater an der Wien in Vienna.
Louis Spohr is appointed musical director to the court of Gotha.
Niccolò Paganini begins touring Europe.
Classical music
Ludwig van Beethoven
Piano Concerto No.4, Op. 58
Leonora Overture No.2, Op. 72a
Erlkönig, WoO 131
ETA Hoffmann – Piano Sonatas
Franz Krommer – Concerto for Oboe in F Major, Op. 52
Louis Spohr
2 String Quartets, Op. 4
Violin Concerto No. 3, Op. 7
Joseph Wölfl
Piano Sonata in C minor, Op. 25
Three Piano Sonatas, Op. 33
Opera
Michele Carafa – Il Fantasma
Luigi Cherubini – Faniska
James Hook – The Soldier's Return
Births
January 7 – Philip Klitz, composer (d. 1854)
February 22 – Robert Reinick, lyricist and artist (died 1852)
March 5 – Théodore Labarre, harpist and composer (d. 1870)
March 17 – Manuel García, singer and music teacher (d. 1906)
May 14 – Johan Peter Emilius Hartmann, composer (d. 1900)
July 8 – Luigi Ricci, opera composer (d. 1859)
July 27 – Luigi Felice Rossi, composer and musicologist (d. 1863)
October 28 – John Thomson, composer (d. 1841)
November 1 – Alessandro Nini, composer (d. 1880)
November 14 – Fanny Mendelssohn, pianist and composer (d. 1847)
Deaths
January 23 – Wenzel Pichl, composer (b. 1741)
February 4 – Johann George Tromlitz, flautist (b. 1725)
April – Emerico Lobo de Mesquita, organist, conductor, composer and music teacher (b. 1746)
April 28 – Peter Pelham, harpsichordist, organist and composer (b. 1721)
May 9 – Friedrich Schiller, librettist and poet (born 1759)
May 10 – Johann Evangelist Haydn, tenor, brother of Joseph Haydn and Michael Haydn (b. 1743)
May 28 – Luigi Boccherini, composer (b. 1743)
August – Ann Griffiths, hymn-writer (b. 1776)
November – Hamoir, dancer and theatre director
December 18 – Gennaro Astarita, opera composer (b. c.1745)
References
19th century in music
Music by year | [
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256183 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prebisch%E2%80%93Singer%20hypothesis | Prebisch–Singer hypothesis | In economics, the Prebisch–Singer hypothesis (also called the Prebisch–Singer thesis) argues that the price of primary commodities declines relative to the price of manufactured goods over the long term, which causes the terms of trade of primary-product-based economies to deteriorate. , recent statistical studies have given support for the idea. The idea was developed by Raúl Prebisch and Hans Singer in the late 1940s; since that time, it has served as a major pillar of dependency theory and policies such as import substitution industrialization (ISI).
Theory
A common explanation for this supposed phenomenon is that manufactured goods have a greater income elasticity of demand than primary products, especially food. Therefore, as incomes rise, the demand for manufactured goods increases more rapidly than demand for primary products.
In addition, primary products have a low price elasticity of demand, so a decline in their prices tends to reduce revenue rather than increase it.
This theory implies that the very structure of the global market is responsible for the persistent inequality within the world system. This provides an interesting twist on Wallerstein's neo-Marxist interpretation of the international order which faults differences in power relations between 'core' and 'periphery' states as the chief cause for economic and political inequality (However, the Singer–Prebisch thesis also works with different bargaining positions of labour in developed and developing countries). As a result, the hypothesis enjoyed a high degree of popularity in the 1960s and 1970s with neo-Marxist developmental economists and even provided a justification for an expansion of the role of the commodity futures exchange as a tool for development.
Singer and Prebisch noticed a similar statistical pattern in long-run historical data on relative prices, but such regularity is consistent with a number of different explanations and policy stances. Later in his career, Prebisch argued that, due to the declining terms of trade primary producers face, developing countries should strive to diversify their economies and lessen dependence on primary commodity exports by developing their manufacturing industry.
The hypothesis has lost some of its relevance in the last 30 years, as exports of simple manufactures have overtaken exports of primary commodities in most developing countries outside of Africa. For this reason, much of the recent research focuses less on the relative prices of primary products and manufactured goods, and more on the relationship between the prices of simple manufactures produced by developing countries and of complex manufactures produced by advanced economies.
In 1998, Singer argued that the thesis he pioneered has joined the mainstream:
One indication of this is that the PST is now incorporated, both implicitly and explicitly, in the advice given by the Bretton Woods Institutions to developing countries. They are warned to be prudent even when export prices are temporarily favourable and to guard against currency overvaluation and Dutch Disease, with all the unfavourable impact on the rest of the economy and all the dangers of macroeconomic instability which a sudden boom in a major export sector could imply. They are warned to remember that the outlook for commodity prices is not favourable and that windfalls will tend to be temporary, with the subsequent relapse likely to be greater than the temporary windfall. This is exactly the warning which the PST would give.
Recent statistical research has given the idea qualified support.
Criticism
During the 2000s commodities boom, the terms of trade of most developing countries improved, while east Asia (which exports mostly manufactured goods) saw deteriorating terms of trade—the opposite of what the hypothesis generally predicts.
Critics argue that it is not possible to compare the prices of manufactured goods over time because they change rapidly. The price relationship of Prebisch–Singer does not take into account technological change. The important thing is not the price of the goods but the service provided by said goods. For example, in 1800 an American worker could buy a candle that provided one hour of light for six hours of work. But in 1997 an American worker could buy an hour of light provided by a light bulb with barely half a second of work. That is to say, the invention of Edison improved by other North Americans managed to reduce the price drastically. Another case that we can see are personal computers that provide the service of calculations per second. Since the 1970s computers doubled their capacity of calculations per second every two years for the same amount of constant dollars. The fall in price is so rapid, that it has been necessary to invent new words because of the immense growth in the capacity of computers. First they were measured in bytes, then, kilobytes, megabytes, terabytes, yottabytes, etc ... Today's harvesters harvest many more hectares per hour than they did half a century ago, but they also have a geo-satellite system, combined with a chip that allows to improve productivity; plus air-conditioned, hermetic cabinets, which prevent dust intake and improve the quality of life of the operator, as well as radio and DVD player to improve his comfort.
These examples suffice to show that if we correct the imports/exports price relationships by technological change, we will obtain a conclusion opposite to that of Prebisch–Singer. It is therefore argued that the peripheral countries that export commodities benefit from trade with the central powers to a greater extent than they do, because by incorporating the new technologies incorporated into manufactures they multiply their productivity.
In fact, if we could easily find examples of the gap reduction of GDP per capita between rich and poor countries when they open to free trade. Such is the case of Argentina and England between 1875 and 1930. Or China and USA between 1980 and 2018, or many other countries.
History
Prebisch's lectures from 1945 to 1949 revealed the development of the theoretical strands of his argument. What he did not have was a statistical argument. In February 1949, Hans Singer, then working in the United Nations Department of Economic Affairs in New York City, published a paper titled "Post-war Price Relations between Under-developed and Industrialized Countries", which suggested that the terms of trade of underdeveloped countries had declined significantly between 1876 and 1948. Inspired by this, Raúl Prebisch presented a paper of his own discussing the decline at the United Nations Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbeans second annual meeting, in Havana in May 1949.
Therefore, the statistical argument about the long-term trend in terms of trade of underdeveloped countries must be attributed to Singer. However, both seem to have independently invented similar explanations, stressing that the terms of trade moved against the 'borrowing' (i.e., underdeveloped) and in favour of the 'investing' (i.e., developed) countries. However, Prebisch specifically deals with the economic cycle and highlights to a greater extent than Singer the reasons for the different behaviour of wages in developed and underdeveloped countries, and received much greater recognition for his work, in part because of efforts by industrialized countries like the United States to distance themselves from his work.
See also
Celso Furtado
Developmental economics
Group of 77
Structuralist economics
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (UNCTAD)
Unequal exchange
References
Other sources
Ocampo, José Antonio, and Parra, María Angela. (2003) The Terms of Trade for Commodities in the Twentieth Century.
United Nations Conference on Trade and Development (2005) Trade and Development Report Chapter 3: Evolution of the Terms of Trade and its Impact on Developing Countries.
Development economics
International trade theory
Imperialism studies | [
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256184 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1806%20in%20music | 1806 in music | This is a list of music-related events in 1806.
Events
Gioachino Rossini becomes the youngest member of the Philharmonics Society of Bologna, where he starts studying composition
Carl Czerny publishes his first composition at the age of 15.
The marimba is described for the first time by Juan Domingo Juarros, a Spanish historian, in his Compendium of the History of Guatemala.
Johann Simon Mayr founds a new music school at Bergamo, Italy. Gaetano Donizetti is one of its first pupils.
Marcussen & Søn, Danish organ-building firm, founded.
The poem "Twinkle Twinkle Little Star" is published in Rhymes for the Nursery; it would later be made into a popular song of the same name.
Classical Music
Ludwig van Beethoven
Symphony No. 4
Piano Concerto No. 4
Violin Concerto
3 String Quartets, Op. 59
32 Variations in C minor
Johann Nepomuk Hummel
7 Hungarian Dances
12 Minuets
Carl Maria Von Weber – Concertino for Horn and Orchestra
Joseph Wölfl – Piano Concerto No. 5 "Grand Concerto Militaire", Op. 43
Opera
Étienne Méhul – Uthal
Births
January 3 – Henriette Sontag, operatic soprano (d. 1854)
January 27 – Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga, "the Spanish Mozart" (d. 1826)
August 17 – Johann Kaspar Mertz, guitarist and composer (d. 1856)
September 2 – Josef Gusikov, klezmer musician (d. 1837)
November 4 – Anders Selinder, dancer and choreographer (d. 1874)
December 4 – Johann Friedrich Franz Burgmüller, composer (d. 1874)
Deaths
January 30 – Vicente Martín y Soler, opera and ballet composer (b. 1754)
February 23 – John Alcock, composer (b. 1715)
February 24 – Tommaso Giordani, composer (b. c. 1738)
March 23 – George Pinto, composer (b. 1785)
June 14 – Domenico Guardasoni, operatic tenor (b. c.1731)
August 10 – Michael Haydn, composer (b. 1737)
date unknown
Brigida Banti, operatic soprano (b. 1757)
José de Larrañaga, organist and composer (b. 1728)
Charles Le Picq, dancer and choreographer (b. 1744)
19th century in music
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256185 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1807%20in%20music | 1807 in music | This is a list of music-related events in 1807.
Events
Muzio Clementi begins negotiating for British publication rights to the music of Ludwig van Beethoven
Classical Music
Ludwig van Beethoven
Piano Concerto in D major, Op. 61a
Coriolan, Op.62
Symphony No.5, Op. 67 (composition begins)
Mass in C, Op. 86
6 Ecossaises, WoO 83
Johann Baptist Cramer
Piano Concerto No.5, Op. 48
Studio per il pianoforte, Op. 50, Book 2
Anton Eberl – Piano Quintet in G minor, Op. 41
Joseph Eybler – Omnes de Saba venient
Johann Nepomuk Hummel – Hélène and Paris (ballet)
Wenzel Thomas Matiegka – Serenade for Flute, Viola and Guitar, Op. 26
Antoine Reicha
Grand Quintet, Op. 106
Trio for 3 Cellos
Louis Spohr
Violin Concerto No.5, Op. 17
Potpourri No.2, Op. 22
Fantasia for Harp, Op. 35
Variations sur 'Je suis encore dans mon printemps', Op. 36
Carl Maria Von Weber – Symphony No. 1
Published popular music
Thomas Moore – Irish melodies (music by John Andrew Stevenson)
Opera
Joseph – Etienne-Nicolas Méhul
La Vestale (The Vestal Virgin) first performed in Paris. Music by Gaspare Spontini and libretto by Etienne Jouy.
Births
January 23 – Joseph Casavant, manufacturer of pipe organs (d. 1874)
February 14 – Ernest Legouvé, librettist and dramatist (died 1903)
February 15 – Ignacy Feliks Dobrzyński, Polish symphonist (d. 1867)
March 7 – , German composer (d. 1878)
March 30 – Henrik Rung, composer (d. 1871)
June 6 – Adrien-François Servais, cellist (d. 1866)
September 11 – Ignaz Lachner (d. 1895)
date unknown
James P. Clarke, composer (d. 1877)
Henriette von Schorn, lyricist and poet (died 1869)
Deaths
February 25 – Jeanne-Marie Marsan, actress and singer (b. 1746)
March 1 – Niel Gow, fiddler (b. 1727)
March 11 – Anton Eberl, pianist, composer and music teacher (b. 1765)
June 15 – Charles Bernardy, dancer and choreographer (b. 1724)
June 16 – John Skinner, songwriter (b. 1721)
December 21 – John Newton, author of the hymn, Amazing Grace (b. 1725)
References
19th century in music
Music by year | [
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256186 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1808%20in%20music | 1808 in music | This is a list of music-related events in 1808.
Events
December 20 – The original Covent Garden Theatre in London is destroyed by a fire, along with most of the scenery, costumes and scripts.
December 22 – Beethoven concert of 22 December 1808: Ludwig van Beethoven conducts and plays piano in a marathon benefit concert at the Theater an der Wien in Vienna consisting entirely of first public performances of works by him including the Symphony No. 5, Symphony No. 6, Piano Concerto No. 4 and Choral Fantasy.
Harvard University forms its own orchestra.
Ignaz Schuppanzigh's Schuppanzigh Quartet enters the employment of Count Andrey Razumovsky.
Ignaz Assmayer becomes organist of St Peter's Abbey, Salzburg.
Popular Music
"Believe Me, if All Those Endearing Young Charms", part of the Irish Melodies by poet Thomas Moore and composer (Sir) John Andrew Stevenson
Classical Music
Ludwig van Beethoven
Symphony No. 5, Op. 67 (completed)
Symphony No. 6, Op. 68
Cello Sonata No. 3, Op. 69
Piano Trios Op. 70 (including the "Ghost" Piano Trio)
Fantasia in C minor, Op. 80
2 Marches for Military Band, WoO 18-19
"Andenken", WoO 136
Bernhard Henrik Crusell – Clarinet Concerto no. 2
Johann Nepomuk Hummel – Piano Sonata No.4, Op. 38
Etienne Mehul – Symphony No.1 in G minor
Ferdinand Ries
Piano Quartet, Op. 13
Cello Sonata, Op. 20
Cello Sonata, Op. 21
Quintet or Septet, Op. 25
Piano Sonata, Op. 26
Violin Sonata No. 19 in D minor, Op. 83
Alessandro Rolla
Viola Concertino in E-flat major, BI 328
Divertimento for Viola and String Quartet, BI 330
Louis Spohr
2 Duos for 2 Violins, Op. 9
String Quartet No.4, Op. 15 No.1
Potpourri No.4, Op. 24
Clarinet Concerto No.1, Op. 26
Violin Concerto No.6, Op. 28
Symphonie concertante No.1, Op. 48
Carl Maria von Weber
7 Variations sur un thème original, Op. 9
Momento capriccioso, Op. 12
6 Lieder, Op. 15
Grand potpourri, Op. 20
Grande polonaise, Op. 21
Silvana, J.87 (opera)
Births
February 14 – Michael Costa, Italian-born conductor and composer (died 1884)
February 28 – Elias Parish Alvars, English-born arranger and harpist (died 1849)
March 24 – Maria Malibran, French-born Spanish soprano (died 1836)
April 10 – Auguste Franchomme, French cellist and composer (died 1884)
May 15 – Michael William Balfe, Irish composer (died 1870)
October 24 – Ernst Richter, German musical theorist (died 1879)
December 26 – Albert Grisar, Belgian composer (died 1869)
Deaths
February 29 – Carlos Baguer, Spanish composer (born 1768)
April 4 – Carlo Gozzi, Venetian lyricist and playwright (born 1720)
May 14 – Robert Broderip, English organist and composer
May 22 – Edmund Ayrton, English organist (born 1734)
July 20 – François-Hippolyte Barthélémon, French violinist (born 1741)
September 29 – Paul Wranitzky, Moravian composer (born 1756)
date unknown – Gaétan Vestris, French ballet dancer (born 1729)
References
19th century in music
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256189 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1809%20in%20music | 1809 in music |
Events
June 15 – Mozart's Requiem is performed at a memorial service for Joseph Haydn at the Schottenkirche, Vienna.
Stalybridge Old Band formed in the north of England, perhaps the first civilian brass band in the world.
Classical Music
Ludwig van Beethoven
Piano Concerto No.5, Op. 73 ("Emperor")
"Harp" Quartet in E-flat Major, Op. 74
6 Songs, Op. 75
Six variations on an original theme (the Turkish March from The Ruins of Athens) in D major, Op. 76
Fantasia for Piano in G minor, Op. 77
Piano Sonata No. 24 in F-sharp major, Op. 78
Piano Sonata No. 25 in G major, Op. 79
Four Ariettas and a Duet, Op. 82
Egmont, Op .84 (incidental music for the play by Goethe)
Die laute Klage, WoO 135 (or 1815)
Lied aus der Ferne, WoO 137
Der Jüngling in der Fremde, WoO 138
Der Liebende, WoO 139
François-Joseph Gossec – Symphonie à 17 parties
Etienne Mehul – Symphony No. 1 in G minor
Ferdinand Ries
Symphony No. 1 in D major, Op. 23
Clarinet Trio in B-flat major, Op. 28
Clarinet Sonata, Op. 29
String Quartet, Op. 70 No.2
Piano Trio, Op. 28
Carl Maria von Weber
6 Pièces, Op. 10a
Serenade, J.65
Andante e rondo ongarese, J.79
Opera
Gaspare Spontini – Fernand Cortez
Births
January 20 – Sebastián Iradier, composer (died 1865)
February 3 – Felix Mendelssohn, composer (died 1847)
March 19 – Fredrik Pacius, conductor and composer (died 1891)
March 31 – Otto Lindblad, composer (died 1864)
April 13 – Aleksander Mirecki, violinist (died 1882)
August 21 – Hanna Brooman, composer, translator and educator (died 1887)
October 12 – John Liptrot Hatton, composer, conductor, pianist and singer (died 1886)
October 22 – Federico Ricci, opera composer (died 1877)
November 16 – Leopoldine Blahetka, pianist and composer (died 1885)
Deaths
January 29 – Luigi Antonio Sabbatini, composer and music theorist (born 1732)
February – Francesco Azopardi, composer (born 1748)
March 7 – Johann Georg Albrechtsberger, organist, composer and music teacher (born 1736)
April 17 – Johann Christian Kittel, organist and composer (born 1732)
April 18 – Birgitte Winther, opera singer (born 1751)
May 1 – Gottlieb Konrad Pfeffel, librettist and writer (born 1736)
May 31 – Joseph Haydn, composer (born 1732)
July 2 or (3) – Joseph Quesnel, composer and writer (born 1746)
July 24 – Johann Gottfried Eckard, pianist and composer (born 1735)
September 21 – Alexander Reinagle, composer, organist, and theater musician (born 1736)
December 31 – Franz Ignaz Beck, composer (born 1734)
19th century in music
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256190 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1810%20in%20music | 1810 in music | This is a list of music-related events in 1810.
Events
April 27 - Ludwig van Beethoven composed one of his most popular compositions piano piece Für Elise
Friedrich Kuhlau leaves Hamburg for Copenhagen to avoid conscription into Napoleon's army.
Work begins on the San Carlo Opera House at Naples.
Classical Music
March for Military Band, WoO 20
Polonaise for Military Band, WoO 21
Ecossaise for Military Band, WoO 22
Ecossaise for Military Band, WoO 23
Bagatelle No. 25 in A minor for piano, "Für Elise", WoO 59
25 Irish Songs, WoO 152
26 Welsh Songs, WoO 155
Egmont, Op. 84, overture and incidental music (first performed, composed 1809)
3 Lieder, Op. 83
Ludwig van Beethoven
March for Military Band, WoO 20
Polonaise for Military Band, WoO 21
Ecossaise for Military Band, WoO 22
Ecossaise for Military Band, WoO 23
Bagatelle No. 25 in A minor for piano, "Für Elise", WoO 59
25 Irish Songs, WoO 152
26 Welsh Songs, WoO 155
Egmont, Op. 84, overture and incidental music (first performed, composed 1809)
3 Lieder, Op. 83
String Quartet No. 11 in F minor, "Serioso", Op. 95
Piano Sonata #26 (Les Adieux)
Joseph Eybler – Die vier letzen Dinge (oratorio)
Johann Nepomuk Hummel – Flute Sonata in D major, Op. 50
Friedrich Kuhlau – Piano Concerto in C major, Op. 7
Etienne Mehul – Symphony No. 4 in E major
Ferdinand Ries
Violin Concerto No. 1 in E minor, Op. 24
Piano Trio, Op. 28
Bernard Romberg – Trauer-Symphonie, Op .23
Louis Spohr
Clarinet Concerto No.2, Op. 57
Violin Concerto No.10, Op. 62
Carl Maria von Weber – Piano Concerto No. 1 in C major, Op. 11
Opera
Johann Nepomuk Hummel – Mathilde von Guise
Gioacchino Rossini – La Cambiale di Matrimonio
Carl Maria von Weber – Silvana
Popular music
Births
January 20 – Ferdinand David, violinist and composer (died 1873)
February 22 – Frédéric Chopin, composer, pianist (died 1849)
February 8 – Norbert Burgmüller, composer (died 1836)
March 15 – Carl Linger (died 1862)
May 2 – Hans Christian Lumbye, Danish composer (died 1874)
May 18 – Francesco Maria Piave, Italian librettist (died 1876)
20 May – Sara Augusta Malmborg, singer, pianist and painter (died 1860)
June 8 – Robert Schumann, composer (died 1856)
June 9 – Otto Nicolai, composer and conductor (died 1849)
June 17 – Ferdinand Freiligrath, lyricist and poet (died 1876)
June 19 – Ferdinand David, editor and musician (died 1873)
August 6 – Giorgio Ronconi, operatic baritone (died 1890)
September 22 – Paul Barroilhet, operatic baritone (died 1871)
October 18 – Giovanni Matteo Mario, operatic tenor (died 1883)
November 7 – Ferenc Erkel, opera composer (died 1893)
November 16 – Friedrich Wilhelm Kücken, conductor and composer (died 1882)
Deaths
January 7 – Joseph Lipavsky, composer
March 29 – John Garth, composer (born 1721)
April 8 – Venanzio Rauzzini, castrato singer, composer, pianist and teacher (born 1746)
July 19 – Joseph Stephenson, composer of West Gallery music (born 1723)
November 19 – Jean-Georges Noverre, ballet master (born 1727)
November 27 – Francesco Bianchi, opera composer (born 1752)
date unknown
Margaretha Christina Åbergsson, ballet dancer
Anna Davia, opera singer (born 1743)
Domenico Fischietti, composer (born 1725)
References
19th century in music
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256191 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Guy%20V.%20Howard | Guy V. Howard | Guy Victor Howard (November 28, 1879August 20, 1954) was an American politician.
Early life
Guy Victor Howard was born in Minneapolis, Minnesota in 1879. He attended public schools, Minneapolis School of Business, and Georgetown University in Washington, D.C. Howard served as a clerk in the post office in the United States House of Representatives from 1897 to 1901. He worked in the insurance business in Minneapolis in 1901, and was a presidential elector on the Republican ticket in 1916.
United States Senate
Howard was elected on November 3, 1936 to the United States Senate from Minnesota as a Republican. He was elected to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Thomas D. Schall and served from November 4, 1936, to January 3, 1937 in the 74th congress. He did not seek election for the full term beginning in 1937.
Later life
After the Senate, Howard returned to the insurance business and died in Minneapolis on August 20, 1954. He was interred in Lakewood Cemetery.
External links
1879 births
1954 deaths
United States senators from Minnesota
Minnesota Republicans
Republican Party United States senators | [
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256194 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Magnus%20Johnson | Magnus Johnson | Magnus Johnson (September 19, 1871September 13, 1936) was an American farmer and politician. He served in the United States Senate and United States House of Representatives from Minnesota as a member of the Farmer–Labor Party. Johnson is the only Swedish-born person to serve in the U.S. Senate.
Biography
Johnson was born near Karlstad, Sweden, and his family moved to La Crosse, Wisconsin, United States, in 1891. They moved to Meeker County, Minnesota, in 1893.
He worked as a millhand and lumberjack, became a farmer, and by 1913 was the leader of the Minnesota branch of the American Society of Equity and Vice President of the Equity-owned Equity Co-operative Grain Exchange and Farmers' Terminal Packing Co. He served in both the Minnesota House of Representatives and the Minnesota Senate before being elected to the U.S. Senate on the Farmer-Labor ticket, to fill the seat opened because of the death of Knute Nelson. Johnson served in the Senate from July 16, 1923, to March 4, 1925, in the 68th congress. He lost his bid for reelection in 1924. He was elected to the U.S. House of Representatives and served March 4, 1933, to January 3, 1935, in the 73rd congress, winning one of the general ticket seats. Subsequently, he resumed agricultural pursuits and served as state supervisor of public stockyards 1934 – 1936. He was an unsuccessful candidate for the Farmer-Labor nomination for Governor of Minnesota in 1936.
Johnson died in Litchfield, where he had gone for medical treatment, on September 13, 1936, and his interment is in Dassel Cemetery, Dassel, Minnesota.
See also
List of United States senators born outside the United States
References
External links
|-
1871 births
1936 deaths
American Lutherans
Members of the Minnesota House of Representatives
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Minnesota
Minnesota state senators
People from Meeker County, Minnesota
Swedish emigrants to the United States
United States senators from Minnesota
Farmer–Labor Party United States senators
Minnesota Farmer–Laborites
Farmer–Labor Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Leaders of the American Society of Equity | [
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256196 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1811%20in%20music | 1811 in music |
Events
None listed
Classical Music
Ludwig van Beethoven
Piano Trio No. 7 (the "Archduke")
Die Ruinen von Athen ("The Ruins of Athens")
Johann Nepomuk Hummel – 12 German Dances and Coda for Redout-Deutsche
Peter Casper Krossing – Symphony in C minor
Giacomo Meyerbeer – Gott und die Natur (oratorio)
Franz Xaver Wolfgang Mozart – Piano Concerto No. 1 in C major opus 14
George Onslow – Duo for Piano 4 hands no 1 in E minor
Ferdinand Ries
Horn Sonata, Op. 34
3 Violin Sonatas, Op. 38
Piano Concerto No.2, Op. 42
String Quintet, Op. 68
Concerto for 2 Horns, WoO 19
Joseph Wölfl – Piano Concerto No. 6 in D major "Le coucou", Op. 49
Opera
Carl Maria von Weber – Abu Hassan
Births
January 21 – Mademoiselle Ambroisine, ballet dancer (d. 1882)
February 4 – Aristide Cavaillé-Coll, organ builder (d. 1899)
March 13 – Camille-Marie Stamaty, composer and pianist (d. 1870)
March 23 – Carl Gottfried Wilhelm Taubert, composer (d. 1891)
May 22 – Giulia Grisi, operatic soprano (d. 1869)
July 19 – Vincenz Lachner, composer (d. 1893)
August 5 – Ambroise Thomas, opera composer (d. 1896)
August 25 – August Gottfried Ritter, organist and composer (d. 1885)
August 31 – Adolfina Fägerstedt, ballerina (d. 1902)
September – Charles Frederick Hempel, organist and composer (d. 1867)
September 29 – Adam Darr, guitarist, singer and composer (d. 1866)
October 16 – Gaetano Capocci, conductor and composer (d. 1898)
October 22 – Franz Liszt, pianist and composer (d. 1886)
October 24 – Ferdinand Hiller, pianist, composer and conductor (d. 1885)
November 11 – François Delsarte, operatic tenor and singing teacher (d. 1871)
November 26 – Franz Brendel, music critic (d. 1868)
December 8 – Louis Schindelmeisser, clarinettist, conductor and composer (d. 1864)
December 23 – Yevdokiya Rostopchina, lyricist and noble (died 1858)
undated – Francis Hartwell Henslowe, public servant and composer (died 1878)
probable – James Hill, folk musician (d. 1853)
Deaths
February 27 – Joseph Leutgeb, horn virtuoso, 78
March 19 – František Adam Míča, composer, 65
April 15 – Ernest Louis Muller, composer
May 12 – Louis-Charles-Joseph Rey, composer and cellist, 72
July 13 – Pierre Laujon, chansonnier (b. 1727)
July 19 – Christian Gotthilf Tag, composer
August 18 – Johann Heinrich Zang, composer
August 20 – Dorothea Wendling, operatic soprano, 75
September 6
Julien-Amable Mathieu, composer
Ignaz Fränzl, violinist and composer, 75
September 14 – Johanna Löfblad, actress and singer (b. 1733)
December 7 – Ignaz Spangler, composer
date unknown
John Antes, composer, 71
Barbara Ployer, pianist (b. 1765)
Louis-Abet Deffroy de Reigny, composer
Sir Peter Beckford, English peerage, patron of Muzio Clementi, 70
Thomas Ebdon, composer and organist (b. 1738)
References
19th century in music
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256197 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henrik%20Shipstead | Henrik Shipstead | Henrik Shipstead (January 8, 1881June 26, 1960) was an American politician. He served in the United States Senate from 1923 to 1947, from the state of Minnesota. He served first as a member of the Minnesota Farmer-Labor Party from 1923 to 1941 and then as a Republican from 1941 to 1947.
Few members of Congress in American history were more consistent in opposing US foreign interventionism.
Shipstead was born on a farm in Kandiyohi County, Minnesota, in 1881 to Norwegian immigrant parents. In the early 20th century, he set up a dental practice and was elected president of the village council of Glenwood in neighboring Pope County.
Political career
Shipstead started as a Republican but in 1922 was elected to the US Senate under the banner of the new Farmer-Labor Party. While he generally shared the party's left-wing agenda, he rejected the extreme anti-capitalism of some members. Although he was the only Farmer-Laborite in the Senate, he won appointment to the powerful Foreign Relations Committee.
Shipstead opposed U.S. entry into the League of Nations and the World Court. He called for the cancellation of German reparations, which he regarded as vindictive. Unlike non-interventionists in the Old Right, he objected to the U.S. occupation of Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Nicaragua. He blamed these interventions on the Roosevelt Corollary to the Monroe Doctrine of 1905, which had turned the United States into an arrogant "policeman of the western continent."
Shipstead did not consider himself an isolationist. While he favored a policy of political non-intervention overseas, he opposed the Smoot-Hawley Tariff of 1930, which he called "one of the greatest and most vicious isolationist policies this government has ever enacted." He argued that high tariffs "raise prices to consumers" and make "monopolies richer and people poorer." Affable and dignified, his adversaries generally liked him personally. He concluded, "It doesn't necessarily follow that a radical has to be a damned fool."
Along with Congressman Robert Luce of Massachusetts, he introduced the bill that enlarged the purview of the United States Commission of Fine Arts to include new buildings on private land facing federal property. The commission, established in 1910, reviews new buildings, memorials, monuments, and public art constructed on federal property in Washington, D.C. The bill, the Shipstead-Luce Act, is still in effect.
Shipstead defected from the Farmer-Labor party in the late 1930s, charging that Communist elements were taking control. He won reelection to the Senate in 1940 as a Republican.
Shipstead was "a known antisemite." He was an outspoken ally of Henry Ford and Charles Lindbergh, and he trafficked in anti-Jewish conspiracy theories, as well as straightforward bigotry against Jewish people. Shipstead said he believed that The Protocols of the Elders of Zion were fact, and he frequently encouraged other people to read them.
Meanwhile, few fought more tenaciously against Franklin D. Roosevelt's efforts to enter the war in Europe. Although Shipstead voted for the declaration of war after the attack on Pearl Harbor, he still maintained his independence from Roosevelt. In October 1942, for example, he was one of the very few to vote against Selective Service, just as he had in 1940.
In April 1943 Isaiah Berlin, a top British expert on American politics, secretly prepared an analysis for the British Foreign Office that stated that Shipstead was:
Shipstead's vote against US entry into the United Nations was entirely predictable by anyone who had followed his career. It was the capstone of decades of opposition to foreign entanglements. Like many modern conservative critics of the UN, he feared that it would foster a world superstate. But he also believed that the major powers would use the UN as a tool to dominate smaller countries. He and William Langer were the only two senators to vote against the United Nations Charter. Not surprisingly, Shipstead and Langer were also among the seven senators who opposed full United States entry into the United Nations. These votes may have cost him reelection a year later.
A new breed of "internationalists", led by Governor Edward John Thye and former Governor Stassen, assumed leadership of the Minnesota state GOP. In 1946, Shipstead lost the Republican primary to Thye. He retired to rural western Minnesota, where he died in 1960.
See also
List of United States senators who switched parties
References
Further reading
David T. Beito, "Henrik Shipstead Against the UN," History News Network, July 28, 2005.
Barbara Stuhler, "The Political Enigma of Henrik Shipstead," Ten Men of Minnesota and American Foreign Policy 1898–1968. St. Paul: Minnesota Historical Society, 1973. pp. 76–98.
External links
Henrik Shipstead photos at the Minnesota Historical Society
1881 births
1960 deaths
20th-century American politicians
20th-century Lutherans
American Lutherans
American people of Norwegian descent
Farmer–Labor Party United States senators
Minnesota Farmer–Laborites
Minnesota Republicans
Non-interventionism
Northwestern University Dental School alumni
Old Right (United States)
People from Alexandria, Minnesota
People from Kandiyohi County, Minnesota
People from Willmar, Minnesota
Republican Party United States senators
United States senators from Minnesota | [
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256198 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/String%20cheese | String cheese | String cheese is any of several different types of cheese where the manufacturing process aligns the proteins in the cheese, which makes it stringy.
When mozzarella is heated to 60 °C (140 °F) and then stretched, the milk proteins line up. It is possible to peel strings or strips from the larger cheese.
Central Europe
In Slovakia, korbáčiky is made, which is a salty sheep milk cheese, available smoked or unsmoked. It is traditionally made by hand-pulling steamed sheep's cheese into strings and braiding them. Cow milk versions are also available.
Eastern Europe/West Asia
In Turkey, the most common type of string cheese is dil peyniri ("tongue cheese"), a fresh white cheese made from cow's milk, traditionally in the provinces of Bilecik and Bursa. The stringy texture of dil becomes even more prominent when the cheese is melted.
In Armenia, traditional string cheese, chechil, is made with a white base. The type of milk used usually comes from an aged goat or sheep depending upon the production methods of the area of choice. It is seasoned with black cumin and mahleb, and is traditionally sold in the form of a braided endless loop. The cheese forms into strings due to how it is pulled during processing. It is also made in Syria and Turkey, both countries with significant Armenian populations.
In Georgia and Russia string cheese is known as tenili (, ). It is made from fermented sheep's milk and cream allowed to mature for 60 days in a salted and dried veal stomach.
Western Europe
Cheestrings became a popular snack in the UK and Republic of Ireland soon after their introduction in 1996. They are made from real cheese, not processed cheese, by Kerry Group and the mascot is a cartoon character called Mr Strings.
Cheestrings are currently available in Original (a cheese akin to mozzarella) and the two-colour Twisted variety. Discontinued flavours include cheddar, smoky bacon, and pizza, with the pizza flavour being reintroduced in May 2021 to celebrate the 25th anniversary of Cheestrings.
Kerry exports Gouda Cheestrings from Charleville, County Cork to the Netherlands, and a Gouda-Emmental mix to France, where the product is known as Ficello. Low cost imitations of the original cheddar Cheestrings were formerly manufactured in the UK by Tesco, Dairylea, and currently by Dunnes Stores. An item in the product range of the original Kerry Cheestrings, known as Attack-A-Snack (a rival to Dairylea Lunchables), packaged with a tortilla wrap or cracker, sachet of tomato ketchup, and piece of processed ham has been available from the late 90s.
North America
Mexico
In Mexico, the first type of string cheese was invented in 1885 by Leobarda Castellanos García at 14 years old. A very popular type of string cheese called Quesillo is sold today in balls of various sizes. It is also known as "Queso Oaxaca" or Oaxaca cheese referred to the place of origin it was invented, and now it's widely popular in all Mexican territories.
United States
In the United States, string cheese generally refers to snack-sized servings of low-moisture mozzarella. This form of string cheese is roughly cylindrical, about 6 inches (15 cm) long and less than 1 inch (2.54 cm) in diameter. The common term is a "cheese stick" which is cut and packaged, either individually or as a package of several lengths.
The cheese used is commonly a form of mozzarella, or a combination of mozzarella and cheddar. This type of string cheese gets its name because it can be eaten by pulling strips of cheese from the cylinder along its length and eating these strings. It was invented in 1976 by Frank Baker.
Oceania
In Australia, string cheese is sold by Bega Cheese and is called Bega Stringers. String cheese can also be sold in a can. In the Marquesas Islands, a popular variety of string cheese is made from breadfruit proteins and buffalo milk, and is marketed under the brand Sea King String.
See also
Armenian cuisine
List of cheeses
List of stretch-cured cheeses
Pasta filata
References
External links
Process of making mozzarella cheese — US Patent 5567464
American cheeses
Snack foods
Stretched-curd cheeses | [
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256199 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1812%20in%20music | 1812 in music | This is a list of music-related events in 1812.
Events
January 17 – Carl Maria von Weber leaves Leipzig for Gotha.
February 11 – Carl Czerny gives the first Vienna performance of Beethoven's "Emperor" concerto.
February 18 – Carl Maria von Weber performs in Dresden but is not a success.
February 20 – Weber and his friend, clarinettist Heinrich Baermann, stay overnight in Berlin with the family of Baermann's former teacher Joseph Beer (father of Giacomo Meyerbeer).
March 8 – Composer Georg Joseph Vogler and his pupil Jacob Beer, the future Meyerbeer, leave Darmstadt for Munich.
May – The Royal Swedish Opera reopens after a 5-year gap.
May 26 – Luigi Cherubini resigns from his position at the Académie Impériale de Musique.
June 17 – Vogler and his pupil Beer are presented to the Queen of Bavaria at Nymphenburg.
July 2 – Ludwig van Beethoven visits his patron Prince Kinsky, seeking an advance on his promised remuneration.
July 26 – Fifteen-year-old Franz Schubert makes his last appearance as a chorister at the Imperial Chapel in Vienna.
September 11 – Johann Nepomuk Hummel's ballet Sappho von Mitilene receives its première at Vienna.
October 5 – Ludwig van Beethoven comes to Linz to try to stop his brother Johann's affair with Therese Obermayer.
November 9 – Johann van Beethoven marries Therese Obermayer.
December 31 – Giacomo Meyerbeer becomes the toast of Munich after performing at a concert for the benefit of wounded Bavarian soldiers.
Date unknown – Irish composer John Field invents the Nocturne, redefining the form as a short, flowing piano composition written most often in compound duple meter. He writes his first three, out of eighteen, during this year.
A performance of George Frideric Handel's oratorio Alexander's Feast (Timotheus) is given in the Spanish Riding School of the Hofburg in Vienna, leading to the founding of the Gesellschaft der Musikfreunde by Joseph Sonnleithner.
Classical music
Ludwig van Beethoven
Symphony no. 7 (Opus 92) (finished, began 1811)
Symphony no. 8 (Opus 93)
Violin Sonata No. 10
3 Equali, WoO 30
Allegretto, WoO 39
12 Irish Songs, WoO 154
William Crotch – Palestine (oratorio)
Jan Ladislav Dussek – Two Duos for piano and harp
Mauro Giuliani
Studio per la Chitarra, Op. 1
Rondoletto, Op. 4
Grand Potpourri No.3, Op. 31
24 Etudes, Op. 48
Grand Potpourri for Flute and Guitar, Op. 53
Karol Kurpinski – Bitwa pod Możajskiem, Op. 15
Giovanni Paisiello – Mass in C
Ferdinand Ries
Piano Concerto No.3, Op. 55
3 Airs russes variés, Op. 72
Antonio Salieri – Kyrie in C
James Sanderson – "Hail to the Chief"
Franz Schubert
Overture in D major, D.12
Fugue in D minor, D.13
Der Geistertanz, D.15a
String Quartet No.1, D.18
Overture in D major, D.26
Piano Trio in B-flat major, D.28
Andante in C major, D. 29
Der Jüngling am Bache, D.30
String Quartet No. 2 in C major, D. 32
Serbate, o Dei custodi, D.35
String Quartet No.3, D.36
Die Advokaten, D.37
Klaglied
Carl Maria von Weber
6 Favorit-Walzer der Kaiserin von Frankreich Marie Louise, J.143–148
Piano Sonata No.1 in C major, Op. 24
Opera
François-Adrien Boieldieu – Jean de Paris
Giacomo Meyerbeer – Jephtas Gelübde (Hoftheater, Munich, 23 November)
Gioachino Rossini
Aureliano in Palmira (composition began)
Ciro in Babilonia
Demetrio e Polibio
L'inganno felice (Teatro San Moisè, Venice, 8 January).
L'occasione fa il ladro (intermezzo; Premiered November 24)
La pietra del paragone
La scala di seta
Franz Schubert – Der Spiegelritter (incomplete)
Births
January 8 – Vasily Botkin, translator and critic (died 1869)
January 14 – Karl Graedener, composer (d. 1883)
January 21 – Eduard Tauwitz, composer (d. 1894)
February 6 – Berthold Damcke, German composer (died 1875)
February 7 – Charles Dickens, writer and lyricist (died 1870)
February 19 – Zygmunt Krasiński, lyricist and bard (died 1859)
March 3 – Alexandre Dubuque, Russian composer (died 1898)
March 11 – William Vincent Wallace, composer (d. 1865)
April 20 – Pauline Åhman, harpist (d. 1904)
April 27 – Friedrich von Flotow, composer (d. 1883)
May 4 – Amalia Redec, pianist and composer (d. 1885)
May 7 – Robert Browning, lyricist and poet (died 1889)
May 12 – Edward Lear, lyricist ("The Owl and the Pussycat") and artist (died 1888)
May 14 – Emilie Mayer, composer (d. 1883)
June 27 – John Pyke Hullah, composer and music teacher (d. 1884)
July 28 – Józef Ignacy Kraszewski, lyricist and poet (died 1887)
August 12 – John Oxenford, librettist and dramatist (died 1877)
October 1 – Johann Rufinatscha, composer, music theorist and teacher (d. 1893)
November 1 – Hermann von Gilm, lyricist and poet (died 1864)
November 14 – Aleardo Aleardi, librettist and poet (died 1878)
November 28 – Ludvig Mathias Lindeman, composer (d. 1887)
December 6 – Gustave Vaëz, librettist and composer (died 1862)
December 28 – Julius Rietz, German cellist, conductor and composer (died 1877)
Deaths
February 9 – Franz Anton Hoffmeister, composer and music publisher (born 1754)
March 20 – Jan Ladislav Dussek, pianist and composer (born 1760)
March 27 – Joachim Albertini, composer (born 1748)
May 21 – Joseph Wölfl, pianist and composer (born 1773)
June 15 – Anton Stadler, clarinet and basset horn player (born 1753)
July 17 – John Broadwood, piano manufacturer (born 1732)
July 24 – Joseph Schuster, composer (born 1748)
August 19 – Vincenzo Righini, composer, singer and kapellmeister (born 1756)
September 21 – Emanuel Schikaneder, German impresario, actor, singer and librettist (born 1751)
December – Michel-Joseph Gebauer, instrumentalist, bandmaster and composer (born 1763)
December 13 – Marianne von Martinez, singer, pianist and composer (born 1744)
date unknown
Isaac Bickerstaffe, Irish librettist (born 1733)
Luciano Francisco Comella, librettist and playwright (born 1751)
Christian Benjamin Uber, amateur musician and composer (born 1746)
References
19th century in music
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256200 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wish%20%28manga%29 | Wish (manga) | is a Japanese shōjo manga series created by Clamp. It is published in English by Tokyopop. The American translation was imported to Australia by Madman Entertainment.
Plot
While walking home from work one day, a doctor named Shuichiro notices an angel, Kohaku, stuck on a tree while being attacked by a crow. He rescues Kohaku and, in return, Kohaku offers to grant him a wish. However, Shuichiro does not want one. He likes his life, his work is going well, he has no money problems and he believes in fulfilling his own dreams. So Kohaku decides that the best thing to do is stay and help him until he does think of a wish they can grant.
During their stay, the angel Hisui, and two demons, Koryuu and Kokuyo, also begin living in the house, along with the Koryuu's servants Ruri and Hari. Kokuyo is the son of Satan and is in love with Hisui, who is one of the four Angel Masters controlling the four elements: earth, wind, fire, and water; with wind being their element. Kokuyo admits that he made love to Hisui and that is how they ended up together. This relationship, however, is forbidden in both Heaven and Hell, so the two sought refuge on Earth. Kohaku originally came to Earth to find Hisui, who had been a mentor and parental figure to them. In spite his new housemates, Shuichiro remains as stoic as ever. Although he persists in not making a wish, without realizing it, he grows attached to Kohaku.
Eventually Kohaku is forced back to Heaven against their will by God, because they have the important task of hatching the eggs from the Tree of Life by singing to them. However, Kohaku deeply misses Shuichiro and realizes they had developed feelings for him. Likewise, Shuichiro misses them and continues to hold on to one of their earrings to try to prevent them from staying in Heaven. Unable to bear the separation, Kohaku returns without God's permission, and the couple is happily reunited. Their reunion is short-lived as the three remaining Angel Masters come to Earth to punish both Kohaku, and Hisui for being in love with a demon. Hisui is stripped of their Angel Master status and is banished from Heaven, to their and Kokuyo's delight. Kohaku, in turn, is stripped of their powers and forced to remain in a small form for the next one hundred years. They are devastated that they could not grant Shuichiro's wish, but as Shuichiro's wish was for Kohaku to stay with him forever, it was one he could not have fulfilled himself.
Shortly afterward, Shuichiro suddenly dies while on a walk with Kohaku. Kohaku is put into a one hundred years sleep, so that Shuichiro will have been reincarnated by the time Kohaku awakens. Kokuyo and Hisui are sentenced to look after their sleeping form. One hundred years later, the reincarnation of Shuichiro, now 17, passes by his old house which awakens Kohaku. He has no memory of them, so their relationship starts anew, but he soon remembers them.
Characters
The authors and the translators state both in the text and in the sidebars that there is no gender in either Heaven or Hell but they have adopted the convention of referring to characters with gendered pronouns to make things in the translation easier.
– The doctor who saves the angel Kohaku from a crow in the control of Koryu in the beginning of the story. He is sceptical of the fact Kohaku is indeed an angel (believing them at first to be a small child or even a talking doll), and is a bit slow to warm up to the truth, but they soon make enough of an impact on his life for him to truly miss them when they are forced to return to Heaven. He is a very no-nonsense sort of man who seems stoic and unfriendly, however he is a very patient man and is shown many times to have a great depth of compassion. He has made a few token wishes, all of which have been rejected by Kohaku as they are not true desires, merely acts of kindness to them - such as when they try to water his plants and fail. He is content with his life, and he insists he has no wishes for Kohaku to grant for him. However, this doctor hides quite a few secrets of his own.
– An angel from Heaven and the main protagonist of the tale. They have been sent to Earth to find their missing teacher; Hisui, the Angel Master of the Wind. However, since they are only an angel in training, they lose the majority of their powers on Earth when the sun sets, which turns them into a chibi form of themself. It is in this vulnerable state that they meet Shuichiro, who saves them from a crow, and are almost immediately taken with him. Though he insists he wants for nothing in his quiet life, they are bound by duty to pay off their debt to him. When Shinichiro Kudo comes to visit his grandson, he addresses Kohaku as a woman. Kohaku corrects him, and also tells him that they aren't a man either. The topic is left at that. Kohaku is very cheerful, sweet and often described as clumsy.
– A demon of Hell, they can be considered Kohaku's demon equivalent; they too are only in training, and while on Earth they is forced to turn into a chibi version of theirself during the daytime. They love to cause trouble for the little angel, and toward the end of the series it is implied that they merely teases Kohaku because they has a crush on them. They are the one who sent the crow to attack Kohaku in the beginning of the story.
and – Twin cat girls only distinguishable from each other by their jewellery. They are servants of Koryu, and both of them adore him to the point of bickering with each other on occasion. They change to black cats when their master is in his smaller form.
– The Archangel of the Wind, and Kohaku's mentor, who disappeared after a meeting at the bridge between Heaven and Hell. It is revealed that the relationship consummated between Hisui and Kokuyo, a Prince of Hell and son of Satan, meant in order to stop a war between the two worlds, the angel and demon pair must live on earth, protecting and watching over Kohaku.
– The Prince of Hell and son of Satan, who fell in love with Hisui, and now lives voluntarily on Earth for the sake of love. Out of consideration for Hisui he restrains his dietary cravings. Kokuyo is aware of Shuichiro's impending death, but God stops him from telling anyone else so as to make sure things go as they should.
– The Archangel of the Water in Heaven. Touki has a reputation for being cold-hearted, mostly because of the hardened look that's always on their face. Touki first appears to see why Usagi hasn't returned to Heaven and ends up bringing Kohaku back with them. They are very fond of Kohaku and protective of them in their own silent way. Touki has a very discreet relationship with Ranshou and though they are very shy with their feelings for them, Touki does genuinely care about Ranshou.
– The Archangel of the Earth in Heaven. They come off as one of the most easy-going angels in all of Heaven despite their status. They love to tease Kohaku and they're open with their affection for Touki. Like Touki, they are very discreet about their relationship but they can admit he loves them. But their loyalty to God is unwavering and they're not hesitant in delivering punishments handed out (as with the cases of Hisui and Kohaku).
– The Archangel of the Fire in Heaven. They have a very hotheaded personality and are quick to act before thinking. They are madly in love with Hisui and are convinced they were kidnapped out of Heaven, often ranting about Hisui in the presence of the other Angel Masters, so much so that Ranshou often leaves Touki to deal with it. When Ryuuki finds out Hisui left of their own volition and is deeply in love with Kokuyo, they are very hurt by it, but want Hisui to be happy and lets them go, though they vows to hate Kokuyo forever.
– Usagi is a small white rabbit with wings that relays messages from God. The messages it delivers look like flowers, that dissolve and automatically implant themselves in the receiver's mind. Usagi relays messages from Kohaku to God and back throughout the series. The messenger also appears in the same capacity in Kobato.
– Shuichiro Kudo's grandfather. He lives in Canada, though he comes to visit Shuichiro on occasion. During one such visit, he tells Kohaku about some of Shuichiro's background.
– Shuichiro Kudo's mother, seen during a segment when the characters travel to the past. She is blind and paraplegic, though she is still able to notices Kohaku and Koryu spying on her. She is actually a wisteria tree fairy and her abilities are sufficiently powerful enough for her to know that Shuichiro's father will die relatively soon. After she says goodbye to Shuichiro and wishes him a good future, she reverts to her true form as a wisteria tree. It seems doubtful that Shuichiro or Shinichiro know that Hotaru was really a wisteria tree fairy as they believed that she simply disappeared.
– Shuichiro's father and "husband" of Hotaru. He originally found Hotaru near a wisteria tree years before the beginning of the story and adopted Shuichiro as his son. He died in a plane crash when Shuichiro was in high school.
Media
Manga
Written and illustrated by Clamp, Wish appeared as a serial in the manga magazine Mystery DX from the November 1995 issue to the August 1998 issue. Kadokawa Shoten compiled the chapters into four bound volumes and published them from June 1, 1996, to August 1, 1998. In 2009, the series was republished with new covers from October 26 to September 26.
Tokyopop licensed the series for an English-language translation in North America and published it from August 27, 2002, to February 11, 2003. It was distributed in Australia and New Zealand by Madman Entertainment. Tokyopop returned the license following the closure of its North America publishing branch in 2011, and Viz Media is republishing Wish digitally, beginning on February 17, 2015. The series has also been translated into other languages such as French by Editions Tonkam, German by Carlsen Comics, Italian by Star Comics, Polish by Japonica Polonica Fantastica, Portuguese by Editora JBC (Brazil), and Spanish by Grupo Editorial Vid (Mexico) and Norma Editorial (Spain). Dark Horse Comics is republishing the manga in print form.
Volume list
Drama CD
Voice cast for the drama CD:
Kohaku: Hiroko Konishi
Shūichirō Kudō: Kazuya Ichijō
Kōryū: Yuka Imai
Hisui: Kikuko Inoue
Kokuyō: Jūrōta Kosugi
Ruri: Ikue Ōtani
Hari: Chinami Nishimura
Adaptation
A 6-minute long animation clip based on Wish was created in 1997. It was included on the DVD of CLAMP 15th anniversary album "CLAMPAZAR" released in 2007.
Appearances
Kohaku has made appearances in CLAMP in Wonderland, the manga and anime of Kobato, and in the manga Legal Drug (now known as Drug and Drop). Ruri and Hari has made appearances in Miyuki-Chan in Wonderland.
Reception
Adam Arnold of Animefringe enjoyed the series for its "unique story, snappy dialogue, and fun set of characters that'll keep you enthralled reading to the very end."
References
External links
Wish at Viz Media's official website
1997 anime films
Anime television films
Fantasy anime and manga
Kadokawa Shoten manga
Kadokawa Dwango franchises
Madman Entertainment manga
Romantic comedy anime and manga
Shōjo manga
Tokyopop titles
Works by Clamp (manga artists)
Viz Media manga | [
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256201 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/German%20submarine%20U-559 | German submarine U-559 | German submarine U-559 was a Type VIIC U-boat built for Nazi Germany's Kriegsmarine for service during World War II.
Laid down on 1 February 1940 at the Blohm & Voss shipyards in Hamburg as "Baunummer 535" ("Yard number 535"), she was launched on 8 January 1941 and commissioned on 27 February under Kapitänleutnant Hans Heidtmann.
She began her service career with the 1st U-boat Flotilla, undergoing training before being declared operational on 1 June 1941. She moved to the 29th U-boat Flotilla on 15 April 1942. She sank five ships but is perhaps best remembered for an incident during her sinking in the Mediterranean Sea in 1942, in which British sailors seized cryptographic material from her. This material was extremely valuable in breaking the U-boat Enigma machine cipher.
Design
German Type VIIC submarines were preceded by the shorter Type VIIB submarines. U-559 had a displacement of when at the surface and while submerged. She had a total length of , a pressure hull length of , a beam of , a height of , and a draught of . The submarine was powered by two Germaniawerft F46 four-stroke, six-cylinder supercharged diesel engines producing a total of for use while surfaced, two Brown, Boveri & Cie GG UB 720/8 double-acting electric motors producing a total of for use while submerged. She had two shafts and two propellers. The boat was capable of operating at depths of up to .
The submarine had a maximum surface speed of and a maximum submerged speed of . When submerged, the boat could operate for at ; when surfaced, she could travel at . U-559 was fitted with five torpedo tubes (four fitted at the bow and one at the stern), fourteen torpedoes, one SK C/35 naval gun, 220 rounds, and a C/30 anti-aircraft gun. The boat had a complement of between forty-four and sixty.
Service history
U-559 was originally intended to serve as an Atlantic U-boat during the Battle of the Atlantic against Allied convoys in the Western Approaches.
First and second patrols
Her first patrol took her from Kiel on 4 June 1941, across the North Sea and through the gap between Greenland and Iceland. She arrived at St. Nazaire in occupied France on 5 July.
Her second sortie met with success when she torpedoed and sank the Alva about west of Ushant. She returned to her French base on 22 August 1941.
Third patrol
For her third patrol, beginning on 20 September, she was assigned to the 'Goeben' group, which were the first U-boats to enter the Mediterranean in World War II through the heavily defended Strait of Gibraltar. She reached Salamis in Greece, after having first investigated the Libyan/Egyptian border.
Fourth patrol
On her fourth patrol, she torpedoed and sank the Australian sloop off the Libyan coast; although most survivors were picked up by other ships, three men managed to reach dry land where they were rescued by advancing British troops.
Fifth, sixth and seventh patrols
On her fifth patrol, which began on 8 December 1941, the boat sank on the 23rd. Shuntien carried 850 – 1,100 German and Italian prisoners of war. Between 800 and 1,000 people were killed, including at least 700 PoWs.
Her sixth and seventh patrols were both from Salamis to the area of the Libyan coast. They were without success.
Eighth and ninth patrols
Having moved to Pula in Croatia in March 1942, she then sortied on 18 May, and damaged the oiler Brambleleaf on 10 June.
Her ninth patrol, however, was without success.
Wolfpacks
U-559 took part in one wolfpack, namely:
Goeben (20 September – 5 October 1941)
Fate
It was her own demise that made her most famous. At about 05:00 on 30 October 1942, U-559 was spotted by a Royal Air Force Sunderland, W from 201 Squadron in position , 70 miles north of the Nile Delta. The destroyer was alerted by radio and steamed to intercept her, while the destroyers , , and sailed from Port Said, Egypt. At about 12:34 a Wellesley patrol aircraft, F from 47 Squadron, spotted the periscope of the submerged U-559 and attacked with depth charges.
The destroyer group hunted for the U-boat for 16 hours, constantly depth charging. After dark, U-559, with a cracked pressure hull, unable to maintain level trim and four of her crew dead from explosions and flooding, was forced to the surface. She was close to Petard, which immediately opened fire with her Oerlikon 20 mm cannon.
The German crew hurriedly scrambled overboard without destroying their codebooks or Enigma machine and, crucially, having failed to open all the sea-water vents to scuttle the U-boat properly. Three Royal Navy sailors, Lieutenant Anthony Fasson, Able Seaman Colin Grazier and NAAFI canteen assistant Tommy Brown, then boarded the abandoned submarine. There are differing reports as to how the three British men boarded the U-boat. Some accounts (such as that of Kahn) say that they "swam naked" to U-559, which was sinking, but slowly. Sebag-Montefiore states that they either leapt from Petard or, in Brown's case, from a whaler. They retrieved the U-boat's Enigma key setting sheets with all current settings for the U-boat Enigma network. Two German crew members, rescued from the sea, watched this material being loaded into Petard'''s whaler but were dissuaded from interfering by an armed guard. Grazier and Fasson were inside the U-boat, attempting to get out, when it foundered; both drowned.
Aftermath
Grazier and Fasson were awarded the George Cross posthumously, Brown was awarded the George Medal. The Victoria Cross was considered but not awarded, for the ostensible reason that their bravery was not "in the face of the enemy". Another consideration may have been that a Victoria Cross would have drawn unwanted attention to the U-boat capture from German Intelligence. It was also discovered that Brown had lied about his age in order to enlist, and was only 16 years old, making him one of the youngest recipients of the George Medal. He was discharged and returned home to North Shields, only to die two years later attempting to rescue his younger sister from a house fire.
The code-book material they retrieved was immensely valuable to the code-breakers at Bletchley Park, who had been unable to read the 4-rotor U-boat Enigma for ten months since its introduction by the German Kriegsmarine at the beginning of 1942. This captured material allowed them to read the cyphers for several weeks, and to break U-boat Enigma thereafter right through to the end of the war.
The recovery was one of several such events (e.g., the earlier capture of ), that inspired the fictional account of the submarine capture in the 2000 film U-571.
Summary of raiding history
See also
Mediterranean U-boat Campaign (World War II)
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
Kahn, David; Seizing the Enigma: The Race to Break the German U-Boats Codes, 1939-1943'', (1991)
External links
Memorial page for Fasson and Grazier {reference only}
Enigma machine
German Type VIIC submarines
World War II submarines of Germany
World War II shipwrecks in the Mediterranean Sea
U-boats commissioned in 1941
1941 ships
U-boats sunk in 1942
Ships built in Hamburg
U-boats sunk by depth charges
U-boats sunk by British warships
Maritime incidents in October 1942 | [
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256202 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1813%20in%20music | 1813 in music |
Events
March 8 – The inaugural concert of the Philharmonic Society takes place at the Argyll Rooms, off Piccadilly. Johann Peter Salomon leads the orchestra, and the pianist is Muzio Clementi.
March 21 – Pianist Josepha Barbara Auernhammer gives her last public concert, appearing with her daughter, Marianna Auenheim.
December 8 – Two new works by Ludwig van Beethoven, Wellington's Victory (originally written for panharmonicon) and Symphony No. 7 are premiered in a benefit concert held in Vienna for Austrian and Bavarian soldiers wounded at the Battle of Hanau. The orchestra, conducted by Beethoven himself, is led by his friend, Ignaz Schuppanzigh, and includes some of the finest musicians of the day, such as violinist Louis Spohr, Johann Nepomuk Hummel, Giacomo Meyerbeer, Antonio Salieri, Anton Romberg, and the Italian double bass virtuoso, Domenico Dragonetti.
December 18 – The Teatro Re in Milan is inaugurated with a new production of Rossini's Tancredi
Louise Reichardt moves to Hamburg, where she opens the first public music school for women and conducts a women's choir.
Franz Krommer succeeds Leopold Kozeluch as court composer to the Imperial Court of Austria.
The claviharp is invented by J. C. Dietz.
Bands formed
January 24 – Musicians found the Philharmonic Society of London (later The Royal Philharmonic Society) to give the first public orchestral concerts in London.
Classical Music
Ludwig van Beethoven
Wellington's Victory, Op. 91
Der Bardengeist, WoO 142
Friedrich Kalkbrenner – Fantasia No.1, Op. 5
Friedrich Kuhlau – 5 Variations on 'sur un air national danois', Op. 14
Ferdinand Ries
Symphony No. 5, Op. 112
Franz Schubert
Totengräberlied, D. 38
Unendliche Freude, D. 51
Unendliche Freude, D. 54
Hier strecket der wallende Pilger, D. 57
Dessen Fahne Donnerstürme wallte, D. 58
Hier umarmen sich getreue Gatten, D. 60
Ein jugendlicher Maienschwung, D. 61
Wer die steile Sternenbahn, D. 63
Frisch atmet des Morgens lebendiger Hauch, D. 67
Die zwei Tugendwege, D. 71
Thekla, D. 73
Trinklied, D. 75
Pensa, che questo istante, D. 76
Symphony No. 1 in D major, D. 82
Des Teufels Lustschloss, D. 84
Verschwunden sind die Schmerzen, D. 88
Johann Franz Xaver Sterkel – Ouverture in C major, StWV 131
Johann Wilhelm Wilms – Flute Concerto, Op. 24
Peter von Winter – Octet in E-flat major
Opera
François-Adrien Boieldieu – Le nouveau Seigneur de village
Giacomo Meyerbeer -Die beiden Kalifen
Giovanni Pacini – Annetta e Lucindo
Louis Spohr – Faust
Gioacchino Rossini
L'italiana in Algeri
Tancredi
Collaborative work (Johann Nepomuk Hummel, many others) – Fünf sind zwei
Births
February 14 – Alexander Dargomyzhsky, composer (d. 1869)
March 2 – George Alexander Macfarren, composer (d. 1887)
May 22 – Richard Wagner, composer (d. 1883)
June 16 – Otto Jahn, music writer (d. 1869)
August 10 – William Henry Fry, composer (d. 1864)
August 15 – Léon Gastinel, composer (d. 1906)
September 2 – Gustav Hölzel, operatic bass-baritone and composer (d. 1883)
September 3 – Mathilda Gelhaar, opera singer (d. 1889)
October 10 – Giuseppe Verdi, composer (d. 1901)
October 16 – Julie von Webenau, composer (d. 1887)
November 13 – Kreeta Haapasalo, Finnish kantele-player, singer and folk musician (d. 1893)
November 19 – Augusta Smith, opera singer
November 30 – Charles-Valentin Alkan, pianist and composer (d. 1888)
December 27 – Jakob Rosenhain, pianist and composer (d. 1894)
December 31 – Theodore Oesten, composer and musician (died 1870)
date unknown – Johanna von Schoultz, opera singer (d. 1863)
Deaths
January 11 – Giuseppe Aprile, castrato singer (b. 1731)
March 14 – Christian Ehregott Weinlig, composer and cantor (b. 1743)
May 5 – Stepan Degtiarev, composer (b. 1766)
June 7 – Maria Hester Park, pianist, singer and composer (b. 1760)
April 14 – Joachim Nicolas Eggert, Swedish composer (born 1779)
August 19 – Johann Carl Friedrich Rellstab, composer and music publisher (b. 1759)
August 20 – Johann Baptist Wanhal, composer (b. 1739)
August 26 – Daniel Gottlob Türk, composer, organist and music professor (b. 1756)
September 24 – André Grétry, composer (b. 1741)
October 5 – Etienne Ozi, bassoonist and composer (b. 1754)
November 2 – Johann Gottfried Vierling, organist and composer (b. 1750)
November 29 – Jean Balthasar Tricklir, cellist and composer (b. 1750)
December 1 – Ferdinando Bertoni, organist and composer (b. 1725)
References
19th century in music
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256204 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Whistle%20register | Whistle register | The whistle register (also called the flute register or flageolet register) is the highest register of the human voice, lying above the modal register and falsetto register. This register has a specific physiological production that is different from the other registers, and is so called because the timbre of the notes that are produced from this register is similar to that of a whistle.
In some sopranos, the modal register vocal production may extend into what is usually thought of as the whistle register.
Physiology and definition
The whistle register is the highest phonational register, that in most singers begins above the soprano "high D" (D6 or 1174.6 Hz) and extends to about an octave above (D7 or 2349.3 Hz). It is created by using only the back of the vocal folds. The lower part of the whistle register may overlap the upper parts of the modal and falsetto registers, making it possible for singers to phonate these notes in different ways. However, fundamentally the whistle register is most commonly used to produce pitches above D6. As with the other vocal registers, the whistle register does not begin at the same point within every voice, and there are rare voices which can extend the whistle register much higher or lower than the range listed above. For example, most operatic coloratura sopranos can sing up to the "high" F above "high" C without entering into the whistle register. Cleo Laine from the United Kingdom and Yma Sumac, from Peru, are two singers (contralto and soprano respectively) with extreme vocal ranges.
The physiology of the whistle register is the least understood of the vocal registers. Unlike other types of vocal production, it is difficult to film the vocal cords while they are operating in this manner as the epiglottis closes down over the larynx and the resonating chamber assumes its smallest dimensions. It is known that when producing pitches in this register, vibration occurs only in some anterior portion of the vocal folds. This shorter vibrating length naturally allows for easier production of high pitches.
Although the whole physiological production of whistle tone is not understood, it is known that when the lateral cricoarytenoid muscles are active but the transverse arytenoid muscles inactive, a triangular opening is seen between the arytenoids, the vocal processes contact each other, but the posterior parts at the apex do not contact each other. The exception to this would be if the vocal folds are not stretched, as stretching of the vocal ligaments abducts (moves away from) the vocal processes.
Use in music
In European classical music, the whistle register is used primarily by coloratura sopranos. Many parts in the coloratura soprano repertoire extend beyond "high C" and often extend up to high F (F6 or 1396.9 Hz). Although many coloratura sopranos use whistle tone vocal production to sing these notes, some operatic sopranos are capable of singing up to "high F" without utilizing the vocal production associated with the whistle register but remaining in the modal register. However, most coloratura sopranos do utilize the whistle register, particularly when singing staccato notes in rapid succession, during high trills, or other elaborate coloratura ornamentation in the upper tessitura. Rarely will coloraturas use whistle tone when doing high extended notes. However, singers like Mado Robin were noted for doing so.
In popular music, the whistle register is used with more variety and to produce much higher pitches than are called for in classical music. Mariah Carey is credited for popularising this technique in mainstream music. It has also mostly been used by female singers, with notable examples being Carey, Minnie Riperton, Christina Aguilera and Ariana Grande.
Some male singers can also make use of the whistle register, including Vitas, Adam Lopez, Dimash Kudaibergen and Wang Xiaolong. Wang Xiaolong holds the Guinness Book of Records title for the highest vocal note produced by a man (E8, 5243 Hz). Female singer Georgia Brown was listed in the 2005 Guinness World Records for highest note (G10 or 25 kHz) ever reached, but this claim was removed when the 2007 edition was issued, since no recording that would prove the note being real was ever released.
See also
Vocal register
References
Further reading
External links
Whistle register at SITE123
Singing
Voice registers
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256205 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20McCloskey | Robert McCloskey | John Robert McCloskey (September 15, 1914 – June 30, 2003) was an American writer and illustrator of children's books. He both wrote and illustrated eight picture books, and won two Caldecott Medals from the American Library Association for the year's best-illustrated picture book. Four of the eight books were set in Maine: Blueberries for Sal, One Morning in Maine, Time of Wonder, and Burt Dow, Deep-water Man (the last three of those four were all set on the coast). His best-known work is Make Way For Ducklings, set in Boston. In longer works, he both wrote and illustrated Homer Price and he illustrated Keith Robertson's Henry Reed series.
Personal life
McCloskey was born in Hamilton, Ohio, on September 15, 1914 to Howard and Mabel McCloskey. He had two sisters, Melba and Dorothy. As a teen, McCloskey was a camper-turned-counselor at Camp Campbell Gard, where at age 16 he carved a totem pole which stood at the camp for over 50 years. His work on the totem pole is said to have led to him being chosen to create the bas relief and cast aluminum pieces decorating the Hamilton Municipal building in 1934, when he was 19.
He reached Boston in 1932 with a scholarship to study at Vesper George Art School. After Vesper George, he moved to New York City for study at the National Academy of Design.
In 1940, he married Peggy Durand, daughter of the children's writer Ruth Sawyer. They had two daughters, Sally and Jane, and settled in New York State, spending summers on Scott Island, a small island off Little Deer Isle in East Penobscot Bay. McCloskey's wife and elder daughter Sally are the models for little Sal and her mother in Blueberries for Sal (1948), a picture book set on a "Blueberry Hill" in the vicinity. Three others of his picture books are set on the coast and concern the sea.
Peggy died in 1991. Twelve years later on June 30, 2003, McCloskey died in Deer Isle, Maine.
Recognition
McCloskey won the 1942 Caldecott Medal for Make Way for Ducklings. The story, set in Boston, Massachusetts, features a mallard pair that nests on an island in the Charles River. After raising eight ducklings on the island, the mother leads them to the Public Garden downtown. A friendly policeman stops traffic to let them cross a busy street. The story soon became a Boston institution. Sculptor Nancy Schön created a bronze statue of Mrs. Mallard and the ducklings in 1987, installed along a walkway between pond and street. There thousands of children climb them every year and many more people photograph them; the park is also the annual site of a Make Way for Ducklings Mother's Day parade, featuring hundreds of children dressed in the costumes of their favorite characters. Since 2003 Make Way for Ducklings is the official children's book of Massachusetts.
McCloskey won a second Caldecott Medal in 1958 for Time of Wonder. Meanwhile, he had been a runner-up in 1949 for Blueberries for Sal, in 1953 for One Morning in Maine, and in 1954 for JourneyCake, Ho!, the latter written by his mother-in-law Sawyer. In a 1958 magazine article titled "Bob McCloskey, Inventor", another Medal winner Marc Simont observed that "[his] talent for devising mechanical contraptions is topped only by his ability to turn out books that carry off the Caldecott Medal."
The Homer Price stories (two books) were translated into Russian in the 1970s and became popular in the Soviet Union.
The U.S. Library of Congress named McCloskey a "Living Legend" in 2000.
Films
One chapter from Homer Price was adapted as a short film, The Doughnuts (1963). The same chapter was adapted for an ABC Weekend Special called "Homer and the Wacky Doughnut Machine" (1977). Another chapter, "The Case of the Cosmic Comic", was also adapted as a short film.
In 1964, film producer Morton Schindel and Weston Woods Studios made Robert McCloskey, an 18-minute documentary that is sometimes screened in art schools. It shows McCloskey sitting in Boston Public Garden intercut with pages from his sketchbook drawings for Make Way for Ducklings, while the illustrator recounts experiences that influenced his work and discusses the relationship of craftsmanship to inspiration.
Public art
Totem Pole (summer 1931), now housed in the Hamilton, Ohio Municipal Building museum — McCloskey carved the totem pole while a counselor at Camp Campbell Gard where it stood for over 50 years
Sculpture (completed 1935), Hamilton, Ohio Municipal Building — McCloskey created models for relief bias.
Murals (1939), including six formerly housed in the Sloan Building (E52) on the MIT campus — McCloskey assisted Francis Scott Bradford depicting Beacon Hill socialites in large murals commissioned by the Lever Brothers of Cambridge, Massachusetts
Derivative art
In Boston Public Garden a sculpture of a family of nine ducks, by the sculptor Nancy Schön, installed in 1987, commemorates McCloskey's Make Way for Ducklings. A version was installed in Moscow in 1991. In Hamilton, Ohio, McCloskey's hometown, another sculpture by Schön, installed in 2002, depicts a boy and dog from McCloskey's first book, Lentil, published in 1940. McCloskey named the boy Lentil, but in a competition among schoolchildren the dog was given the name Harmony. In Boothbay Harbor, Maine, in the Coastal Maine Botanical Gardens, another sculpture by Schön, dedicated in 2010 and known as Sal's Bear, depicts
a baby bear and a nearby spilled pail of blueberries, based on the drawings in McCloskey's Blueberries for Sal.
Books
As author and illustrator
Lentil (1940)
Make Way for Ducklings (1941), Caldecott Medal winner
Homer Price (1943)
Blueberries for Sal (1948), a Caldecott Honor Award
Centerburg Tales: More Adventures of Homer Price (1951); also issued as More Homer Price
One Morning in Maine (1952), a Caldecott Honor Award
Time of Wonder (1957), Caldecott Medal winner
Burt Dow, Deep-water Man (1963)
As illustrator only
Yankee Doodle's Cousins (1941) written by Anne Malcolmson
Tree Toad: Adventures of the Kid Brother (1942) by Bob Davis, illus. McCloskey and Charles Dana Gibson
Young America's English Book One (1942) by Helen Fern Daringer
The Man Who Lost His Head (1942) by Claire Huchet Bishop; paperback reissue (1970)
Trigger John's Son (1949) by Tom Robinson
Journey Cake, Ho (1953) by Ruth Sawyer, a Caldecott Honor Book
Junket: The Dog Who Liked Everything "Just So" (1955) by Anne H. White
Henry Reed, Inc. (1958), by Keith Robertson
Henry Reed's Journey (1963), by Robertson
Henry Reed's Babysitting Service (1966), by Robertson
Henry Reed's Big Show (1970), by Robertson
See also
Notes
References
External links
"Maine Kennecott Winners by Robert McCloskey" by Elizabeth Kennedy, children's book guide at About.com
"Robert McCloskey" interviewed by Anita Silvey Horn Book Radio Review
1914 births
2003 deaths
American children's writers
Caldecott Medal winners
American children's book illustrators
Writers from Maine
Writers who illustrated their own writing
People from Deer Isle, Maine
People from Hamilton, Ohio
Books by Robert McCloskey | [
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256206 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1814%20in%20music | 1814 in music |
Events
Invention of the metronome by Johann Nepomuk Mälzel
February 27 – Première of Beethoven's Eighth Symphony in Vienna
September 14 – Francis Scott Key, inspired by the sight of the American flag over Fort McHenry, writes the lyrics of "The Star-Spangled Banner".
November – Gypsy composer János Bihari plays to the court during the Congress of Vienna.
Classical music
Ludwig van Beethoven
Polonaise in C major, Op. 89
Piano Sonata No. 27 in E minor, Op. 90
Merkenstein, Op. 100
Overture in C major, Op. 115
Elegischer Gesang, Op. 118
Der glorreiche Augenblick, Op. 136 (Cantata)
Germania, WoO 94
Chorus for the Allied Princes, WoO 95
Abschiedsgesang, WoO 102
Des Krieger's Abschied, WoO 143
Merkenstein, WoO 144
Resignation, WoO 149
20 Irish Songs, WoO 153
Johann Ludwig Böhner – Fantaisie and Variations for Clarinet and Orchestra, Op. 21
Franz Danzi – Horn Sonata, Op. 44
Anton Diabelli – 30 Sehr leichte übungsstücke, Op. 39
Friedrich Ernst Fesca – 3 String Quartets, Op. 1
John Field
Piano Concerto No.4, H 28
Nocturnes Nos. 1, 2, and 3 for piano
Mauro Giuliani – 6 Variations on 'I bin a Kohlbauern Bub', Op. 49
Johann Nepomuk Hummel
Serenade No.1, Op. 63
Piano Trio in G major, Op. 65
Serenade No.2, Op. 66
Piano Concerto No.4, Op. 110
6 Polonaises for piano
Nikolaus von Krufft – Sonata for Horn and Piano
Friedrich Kuhlau – Rondo, WoO 203
Ferdinand Ries
Symphony No. 2 in C minor, op. 80
Sextet, Op. 142
3 Flute Quartets, Op. 145
Sonate sentimentale, Op. 169
Franz Schubert
String Quartet No.7, D.94
Die Betende, D. 102
String Quartet Movement, D. 103
Die Befreier Europas in Paris, D. 104
Mass No.1, D. 105
String Quartet No.8, D. 112
An Emma, D. 113
Der Geistertanz, D. 116
Gretchen am Spinnrade, D. 118
Schäfers Klagelied, D. 121
Symphony No.2, D.125
Ballade, D. 134
Tantum ergo, D. 739
Louis Spohr
Violin Concerto No. 7 in E minor, Op. 38
Das befreite Deutschland (cantata), WoO 64
Carl Maria von Weber – Piano Sonata No.2 in A-flat major, Op. 39
Opera
Ludwig van Beethoven – Fidelio (Vienna)
Friedrich Kuhlau – Røverborgen (The Robbers' Castle)
Giovanni Pacini – La ballerina raggiratrice
Gioacchino Rossini – Il Turco in Italia
Popular music
"Sadak and Kalasrade, or the Waters of Oblivion" by Henry Bishop
"The Star-Spangled Banner" by Francis Scott Key
Births
January – Heinrich Wilhelm Ernst, violinist and composer (died 1865)
January 26 – Jean-Chrysostome Brauneis II, organist, composer and teacher, the first Canadian to study music in Europe (died 1871)
February 21 – Nicolò Gabrielli, opera composer (died 1891)
February 26 – Giuseppe Lillo, opera composer (died 1863)
March 3 – Charles Kensington Salaman, pianist and composer (died 1901)
April 9 – Félix Battanchon, composer and cellist (died 1893)
April 21 – Béni Egressy, composer and librettist (died 1851)
May 1 – Emma Albertazzi, contralto (died 1847)
May 7 – Henriette Hansen, Norwegian ballerina, singer and actor (died 1892)
May 10 – Stanislas Verroust, oboist and composer (died 1863)
May 12 – Adolf von Henselt, pianist and composer (died 1889)
November 6 – Adolphe Sax, inventor of the saxophone (died 1894)
Deaths
January 4 – Johann Georg Jacobi, lyricist and poet (born 1740)
February 3 – Jan Antonín Koželuh, composer (born 1738)
April 12 – Charles Burney, English music historian (born 1726)
April 15 – Karl Alois, dedicatee and patron (born 1761)
April 30 – Joseph Harris, composer and organist (born 1745)
May 6 – Georg Joseph Vogler, organist, composer and music theorist (born 1749)
June 8 – Friedrich Heinrich Himmel, composer (born 1765)
June 27 – Johann Friedrich Reichardt, composer and music critic (born 1752)
July 14 – Giovanna Sestini, opera singer (b. ca 174)
July 25 – Charles Dibdin, musician, songwriter, author of A Musical Tour through England (born c. 1745)
August 19 – Angelo Tarchi, opera composer (born c. 1760)
September 1 – Erik Tulindberg, first Finnish classical composer of note (born 1761)
References
19th century in music
Music by year | [
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256207 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1815%20in%20music | 1815 in music |
Events
March 24 - The Handel and Haydn Society is founded as an oratorio society in Boston by a group of Boston merchants and musicians
Spanish classical guitarist Fernando Sor moves to London, England to try to garner some success there.
Summer – Gioachino Rossini goes to Naples as musical and artistic director of the Teatro San Carlo. His first opera for this theatre, Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra, premieres here on October 4.
December 25 – The Handel and Haydn Society, the oldest continuously performing arts organization in the United States, gives its first performance, at the King's Chapel in Boston.
Classical music
William Beale – "Come let us join the Roundelay"
Ludwig van Beethoven
Cello Sonatas Nos. 4 and 5, Op. 102. Published in 1817.
25 Scottish Songs, Op. 108
Meeresstille und glückliche Fahrt, Op. 112, for chorus and orchestra
Zur Namensfeier overture, Op. 115
Leonore Prohaska, WoO 96
Es ist vollbracht, WoO 97
Die laute Klage, WoO 135
Des Krieger's Abschied, WoO 143
Das Geheimnis, WoO 145
12 Songs of Various Nationalities, WoO 157
Glück zum neuen Jahr, WoO 165
Kurz ist der Schmerz, und ewig ist die Freude, WoO 166
Leonhard von Call – 3 Guitar Sonatas, Op. 22
Matthew Camidge – 6 Concertos for Organ, Op. 13
Bartolommeo Campagnoli – Capricci, Op. 22
Luigi Cherubini – Symphony in D major
Carl Czerny – Variations brillantes, Op. 14
Friedrich Ernst Fesca – Psalm 103, Op. 26
Johann Nepomuk Hummel – Violin (or Flute) Sonata, Op. 64
Franz Krommer – Concerto No.2 for 2 Clarinets, Op. 91
Joseph Mayseder – String Quartet No.5, Op. 9
Giacomo Meyerbeer – Gli Amori di Teolinda (cantata)
Federico Moretti – "El amor y la amistad"
Anton Reicha
Wind Quintet, Op. 91 No.1
Concerto for Clarinet and Orchestra in G minor
Ferdinand Ries
The Dream, Op. 49
Piano Trio, Op. 63
Franz Schubert
Dozens and Dozens of Lieder, canons, and choruses, most notably:
Mailied, D. 129, 199 and D. 202
Rastlose Liebe, D.138
An den Mond, D.193
Adelwold und Emma, D.211
Alles um Liebe, D.241
Die Bürgschaft, D.246
Heidenröslein, D.257
Erlkönig, D. 328
6 Lieder, Op. posth. 118 (D. 233, 234, 221, 248, 270, 247)
Totus in corde langueo, D.136
20 Waltzes, D.146
10 Variations in F major, D.156
Piano Sonata in E major, D. 157 (and excerpt Allegro in E major, D.154)
Mass No.2, D.167 and Mass No.3, D.324
String Quartet No.9, D.173
Stabat Mater, D.175
Adagio in G major, D.178
Minuet in A minor, D.277a
Piano Sonata No. 2, D.279
12 Ecossaises, D.299
Minuet in A major, D.334
12 Ländler, D.681
Liebe säuseln die Blätter, D.988
Louis Spohr – String Quartet No.8, Op. 29 No.2
Johann Wilhelm Wilms – Sonata for Piano Four Hands, Op. 41
Opera
Gioachino Rossini
Elisabetta, regina d'Inghilterra
Torvaldo e Dorliska
Franz Schubert
Fernando, D.220
Claudine von Villa Bella, D.239
Die Freunde von Salamanka, D.326
Der Vierjahrige Posten
Births
January 22 – Ferdinand Praeger, composer, music teacher, pianist and writer (d. 1891)
March 8 – Jean Delphin Alard, composer and musician (died 1888)
March 11 – Anna Bochkoltz, German operatic soprano, voice teacher and composer (d. 1879)
April 6 – Robert Volkmann, composer (d. 1883)
April 12 – Henry Hugo Pierson, English composer (d. 1873)
May 10 – Anders Ljungqvist, fiddler (d. 1896)
June 28 – Robert Franz, composer (d. 1892)
July 30 – Herman Severin Løvenskiold, composer (d. 1870)
August 16 – Madame Céleste, dancer (d. 1882)
September 4 – Mihály Mosonyi, arranger and composer (died 1870)
September 17 – Halfdan Kjerulf, Norwegian composer (died 1868)
October 17 – Emanuel Geibel, lyricist and playwright (died 1884)
November – Adelaide Kemble, opera singer (d. 1879)
December 25 – Temistocle Solera, opera composer and librettist (d. 1878)
Deaths
February 19 – Leonhard von Call, Austrian composer (born 1767)
March 4 – Frances Abington, singer and actress (born 1737)
April 8 – Jakub Jan Ryba, composer (born 1765) (suicide)
May 21 – Roman Hofstetter, composer (born 1742)
May 25 – Domenico Puccini, composer (born 1772)
June 22 – William Reeve, theatre composer (born 1757)
September 29 – Frederick Charles Reinhold, bass singer and organist (born 1737)
October 3 – Daniel Belknap, farmer, mechanic, militia captain, poet and singing teacher, one of the first American composers. (born 1771)
November 15 – Kaspar Anton Karl van Beethoven, brother of Ludwig van Beethoven (born 1774)
November 28 – Johann Peter Salomon, violinist, conductor, impresario and composer (born 1745)
December 14 – Charles Luke Lennox, heir to banking company, pianist (born 1800) (murder)
date unknown – Giovanni Bertati, librettist (born 1735)
References
19th century in music
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256208 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1816%20in%20music | 1816 in music | This is a list of music-related events in 1816.
Events
January 9 – Ludwig van Beethoven obtains custody of his nephew Karl, after a legal battle with the boy's mother.
January 12 – The première of Gioacchino Rossini's new cantata, Giunone, takes place at the Teatro di San Carlo, Naples, where the composer is musical director.
February 12 – The Teatro di San Carlo in Naples burns down; reconstruction starts almost immediately, at the behest of King Ferdinand IV.
February 20 – Rossini's opera, Almaviva, ossia L’inutile precauzione (later better known as The Barber of Seville), receives its première at the Teatro Argentina, Rome.
March 21 – Prominent Jewish couple Abraham and Lea Mendelssohn arrange for their four children, Fanny, Felix, Rebecka and Paul, to be secretly baptized as Lutherans in the Jerusalemkirche, Berlin.
April 9 – Returning to Prague after a twenty-year absence, Johann Nepomuk Hummel gives a public recital.
April 17 – Josef von Spaun writes to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe for permission to have his poems set to music by the youthful Franz Schubert.
April 29 – Luigi Cherubini's cantata Inno alla primavera, commissioned by the Royal Philharmonic Society, is given its première in London, a year later than scheduled and without the composer present.
June 16 – In recognition of the 50th anniversary of his arrival in Vienna, Antonio Salieri is presented with a gold medal by the Lord Chamberlain on behalf of the Emperor Francis II.
July 13 – Carl Maria von Weber meets Count Vitzthum von Eckstädt at Carlsbad; the encounter leads to Weber being appointed Kapellmeister at Dresden.
October 2 – Johann Nepomuk Hummel is offered a post at Stuttgart by Duke Frederick I of Württemberg.
October 18 – Louis Spohr and Niccolò Paganini meet in Venice.
November 19 – Carl Maria von Weber becomes engaged to soprano Caroline Brandt.
November 25 – Muzio Clementi leaves London after a six-month stay.
Classical music
Ludwig van Beethoven
An die ferne Geliebte, Op. 98
Der Mann von Wort, Op. 99
Piano Sonata No. 28
Sehnsucht, WoO 146
Luigi Cherubini – Requiem in C minor
Johann Nepomuk Hummel – Septet No.1, Op. 74
Conradin Kreutzer – String Quintet, Op. 62
Franz Krommer – 3 String Quartets, Op. 92
Joseph Mayseder – Polonaise No.3, Op. 12
Giacomo Meyerbeer – Gli amori di Teolinda (cantata)
Ignaz Moscheles – Grande sonate, Op. 41
George Onslow – 3 String Quartets, Op. 9
Franz Schubert
Litanei auf das Fest Aller Seelen, D. 343
Stabat Mater in F minor
Overture in B-flat major, D.470
String Trio in B-flat major, D 471
Lieder: Stimme der Liebe, D.412; 3 Gesänge des Harfners, Op. 12, D.478; Der Wanderer, D.489; Loda's Gespenst, D.150; Die Erwartung, D.159
Jan Václav Voříšek – 6 Impromptus, Op. 7
Carl Maria von Weber – Divertimento assai facile, Op. 38
Opera
François Adrien Boieldieu
La fête du village voisin
Charles de France (with Ferdinand Hérold)
Michele Carafa – Gabriella di Vergy
Gaetano Donizetti – Il Pigmalione
Étienne Méhul – La journée aux aventures
Gioachino Rossini
Il Barbiere di Siviglia
Otello
Franz Schubert – Die Bürgschaft, D.435 (unfinished)
Carlo Soliva – La Testa di Bronzo
Louis Spohr – Faust
Births
February 26 – Franz Krenn, composer and music teacher (d. 1897)
March 19 – Johannes Verhulst, conductor and composer (d. 1891)
April 13 – William Sterndale Bennett, pianist and composer (d. 1875)
April 26 – Eugène Albert, woodwind instrument maker (d. 1890)
July 16 – Antoine François Marmontel, French pianist (died 1898)
August 17 – Benjamin Bilse, conductor and composer (d. 1902)
September 4 – François Bazin, opera composer (d. 1878)
November 17 – August Wilhelm Ambros, composer and music historian (d. 1876)
November 24 – Matteo Salvi, composer (d. 1887)
December 8 – Edvard Helsted, composer (d. 1900)
date unknown – Edward Edwards, musician and composer (d. 1897)
Deaths
February 10 – Jean Paul Egide Martini, composer (born 1741)
February 19 – Margareta Alströmer, singer and artist (born 1763)
March 16 – Giuseppe Jannaconi, composer (born 1740)
March 23 – Ignaz Vitzthumb, conductor and composer (born 1724)
May 4 – Marie-Madeleine Guimard, ballerina (born 1743)
May 25 – Samuel Webbe, composer (born 1740)
June 5 – Giovanni Paisiello, composer (born 1740)
July 31 – Josef Fiala, musician and composer (born 1748)
December 15 – Prince Joseph Franz Maximilian Lobkowitz, patron of Beethoven (born 1772)
date unknown – João José Baldi, pianist and composer (born 1770)
References
19th century in music
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256209 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1817%20in%20music | 1817 in music | This is a list of music-related events in 1817.
Events
Felix Mendelssohn begins studying composition with Carl Friedrich Zelter.
Improved form of ophicleide invented by Jean Hilaire Asté in France.
Classical music
Ludwig van Beethoven
String Quintet (Opus 104)
So oder So, WoO 148
Alexandre-Pierre-François Boëly – 30 Caprices, Op. 2
Ferdinando Carulli – 6 Duos for Guitar and Flute, Op. 109
Frederic Chopin – Two Polonaises
Muzio Clementi – Gradus ad Parnassum Volume I is published simultaneously in London, Paris and Leipzig on March 1.
Friedrich Dotzauer – Pot-Pourri for Cello and Guitar, Op. 21
Georg Gerson – Symphony in E-flat major
Mauro Giuliani
Divertimenti, Op. 78
Preludes, Op. 83
Johann Nepomuk Hummel
Adagio, Variationen und Rondo über 'Pretty Polly', Op. 75
Variations sur un theme original, Op. 76
Anselm Hüttenbrenner – 6 Variations, Op. 2
Jean-Baptiste Krumpholtz – 2 Harp Duos, Op. 5
Iwan Müller – Clarinet Quartet No. 2
Anton Reicha – Andante for Wind Quintet no. 1 in E-flat major
Franz Schubert
Piano Sonata No.4, D.537
String Trio in B-flat major, D. 581
Notable Lieder: Ganymed, D.544; Der Tod und das Mädchen, D.531; Trost, D.523; An die Musik, D.547;
Louis Spohr – String Quartet No.11, Op. 43
Václav Jan Tomášek – 6 Eglogues, Op. 47
Opera
Franz Danzi – Die Probe
Gioacchino Rossini – La Cenerentola, La Gazza Ladra, Armida, Adelaide di Borgogna
Published Popular Music
"Oft, in the Stilly Night" – w.m. (arr.) Thomas Moore
Births
February 22 – Niels Gade, composer (d. 1890)
March 2 – Hans Hansen, composer (d. 1878)
March 24 – Aimé Maillart, composer (d. 1871)
June 13 – Antonio Torres Jurado, Spanish guitar maker (d. 1892)
August 13 – Károly Thern, pianist, conductor and composer (d. 1886)
October 5 – Eduard Franck, German composer (died 1893)
November 12
Gustav Nottebohm, musicologist (d. 1882)
Carlo Pedrotti, composer and conductor (died 1893)
November 13
Louis James Alfred Lefébure-Wély, organist (d. 1869)
Henry Brinley Richards, composer (d. 1885)
Deaths
January 14 – Pierre-Alexandre Monsigny, composer (b. 1729)
January 28 – F.L.Æ. Kunzen, conductor and composer (b. 1761)
March 1 – Luigi Gatti, composer (b. 1740)
June 29 – Ernst Schulze, lyricist and poet (born 1789)
August 24 – Nancy Storace, operatic soprano (b. 1766)
October 11 – Franz Xaver Hammer, gambist, cellist and composer (b. 1741)
October 12 – Johann Franz Xaver Sterkel, composer and pianist (born 1750)
October 18 – Etienne Méhul, composer (b. 1763)
November 7 – Francesco Pasquale Ricci, composer (b. 1732)
December 1 – Justin Heinrich Knecht, organist and composer (b. 1752)
December 3 – August Eberhard Müller, German composer (born 1767)
December 11 – Max von Schenkendorf, poet and songwriter (born 1783)
date unknown – John Peacock, Northumbrian piper (b. c. 1756)
19th century in music
Music by year | [
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256212 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1818%20in%20music | 1818 in music | This is a list of music-related events in 1818.
Events
April 12 – Heinrich Stölzel and Friedrich Blühmel patent the first brass instrument valve.
June 10 – The Teatro Nuovo at Pesaro in the Papal States of Italy opens with a performance of Gioacchino Rossini's La gazza ladra conducted by the composer in the town of his birth (the theatre is later renamed in his honor).
September – Soprano Giuditta Pasta makes her Venice début.
October 12 – The first National Theatre Munich opens as a home for the Bavarian State Opera with a performance of Ferdinand Fränzl's Die Weihe.
October 16 – The first work for the newly invented valved horn is played, Concertino für drei Waldhörner und ein chromatisches Ventilhorn, by composer-performer Georg Abraham Schneider.
December 24 – The Christmas carol "Silent Night" (Stille Nacht) with words by the priest Josef Mohr set to music by organist Franz Xaver Gruber is first performed at St. Nikolaus parish church in Oberndorf bei Salzburg in Austria.
date unknown
Johann Nepomuk Schelble founds the Society of St Cecilia at Frankfurt.
Beethoven receives the gift of a piano from Thomas Broadwood of the London manufacturers John Broadwood & Sons.
Bands formed
Besses o' th' Barn brass band is formed in Whitefield, near Manchester, England, by this date.
Popular music
"The Crimson Banner", words and music by William Blacker
"Silent Night" (words by Joseph Mohr, music by Franz Xaver Gruber)
"Thou Bonnie Wood of Craigielea" (words by Robert Tannahill, music by James Barr)
Classical music
All of the following items are found in the IMSLP/Ptrucci Music Library.
George Anderson – The Battle of Waterloo
Heinrich Baermann – Clarinet Concertino, Op. 29
Bernhard Henrik Crusell – Clarinet Concerto No. 2, Op. 5
Franz Danzi
Symphony in D major, P. 223
Concerto Concertant, P. 227
Clarinet Potpourri No. 2, P. 246
Flute Sonatina in D major, P. 257
Clarinet Sonata in B-flat major
Friedrich Dotzauer – Oboe Quartet, Op. 37
Federigo Fiorillo – 3 Duos, Op. 31
Mauro Giuliani – Variations on "Deh! calma oh ciel" from Othello, Op. 101
Johann Neopmuk Hummel – Adagio, Variationen und Rondo über ein russisches Thema, Op. 78
Franz Krommer – String Trio, Op. 96
Karol Józef Lipiński – Variations, Op. 5
Sigismund Neukomm – Symphony, Op. 19
George Onslow – 3 Piano Trios, Op. 14
Anton Reicha – Wind Quintets, Op. 88
Franz Schubert
Adagio in D-flat major, D. 505
4 Polonaises, D. 599
3 Marches héroïques, D. 602
Fantasy in C major, D. 605a
March in E major, D. 606
Rondo in D major, D. 608
Die Geselligkeit, D. 609
Trio in E major, D. 610
Piano Sonata No.10, D. 613
Sonata for Piano Duet, D. 617
Polonaise in B-flat major, D. 618a
8 Variations on a French Song, D. 624
Piano Sonata No. 11, D.625
Blanka, D.631
3 Marches militaires, D.733
6 Grandes marches, D.819
Symphony No. 6
Louis Spohr - String Quartet No. 11 in E, Op. 43
Jan Václav Voříšek – 12 Rhapsodies, Op. 1
Ludwig van Beethoven – Piano Sonata in B flat "Hammerklavier" Op.106
Opera
Michele Carafa – Berenice in Siria
Gaetano Donizetti – Enrico di Borgogna
Giovanni Pacini – Atala
Gioacchino Rossini – Mosè in Egitto
Births
January 14 – Zacharias Topelius, lyricist and historian (died 1898)
February 6 or August 7– Henry Litolff, keyboard virtuoso and composer (d. 1891)
March 1 (2) – Giulio Briccialdi, composer (d. 1881)
March 11
Antonio Bazzini, composer and violinist (died 1897)
Marius Petipa, Russian ballet dancer (died 1910)
March 31 – Carolina Granberg, Swedish ballerina (d. 1884)
April 6 – Aasmund Olavsson Vinje, lyricist and author (died 1870)
April 19 – Manuel Saumell, composer (d. 1870)
June 17 – Charles Gounod, composer (d. 1893)
June 28 – Cesare Ciardi, composer and musician (died 1871)
July 1 – Henrietta Treffz, operatic mezzo-soprano and first wife of Johann Strauss II (d. 1878)
August 7 – Henry Charles Litolff, composer and virtuoso (died 1891)
September 12 – Theodor Kullak, pianist, composer and music teacher (d. 1882)
October 15 – Alexander Dreyschock, pianist and composer (d. 1869)
October 26 – Stefano Golinelli, pianist and composer (d. 1891)
Kurmangazy Sagyrbaev, Kazakh folk musician and composer (d. 1889)
Deaths
February 1 – Giuseppe Gazzaniga, composer (b. 1743)
March 20 – Johann Nikolaus Forkel, music theorist (b. 1749)
March 28 – Antonio Capuzzi, violinist and composer (b. 1755)
April 11 – Carl Andreas Göpfert, composer and musician (born 1768)
May 7 – Leopold Kozeluch, composer (b. 1747)
May 10 – Greta Naterberg, folk singer (b. 1772)
May 18 – Maddalena Laura Sirmen, violinist, singer and composer (b. 1745)
August 25 – Elizabeth Billington, opera singer (b. 1768)
October 22 – Joachim Heinrich Campe, lyricist and writer (born 1818)
December – Mikhail Kerzelli, pianist, violinist and composer (b. c. 1740)
December 31 – Jean-Pierre Duport, cellist (b. 1741)
References
19th century in music
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256215 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moses%20E.%20Clapp | Moses E. Clapp | Moses Edwin Clapp (May 21, 1851March 6, 1929) was an American lawyer and politician.
Biography
Born in Delphi, Indiana, Clapp moved with his parents to Hudson, Wisconsin. He went to University of Wisconsin Law School and practiced law in Hudson, Wisconsin. He was district attorney for St. Croix County, Wisconsin. He then moved to Fergus Falls, Minnesota where he practiced law.
He served as the Minnesota Attorney General from 1887 until 1893. In 1900, he entered the special election for Minnesota's seat in the United States Senate that was made vacant by the death of Cushman Davis. He won that election, and was later reelected in 1904 and 1910 for two additional terms. He served in the Senate from January 28, 1901 to March 4, 1917, a term that spanned the 57th, 58th, 59th, 60th, 61st, 62nd, 63rd, and 64th Congresses. He was not renominated by the party in 1916. Clapp, along with Hiram F. Stevens, Ambrose Tighe, Thomas D. O'Brien, and Clarence Halbert, was also a co-founder of William Mitchell College of Law.
Sources
External links
1851 births
1929 deaths
People from Delphi, Indiana
People from Fergus Falls, Minnesota
People from Hudson, Wisconsin
United States senators from Minnesota
Minnesota Attorneys General
Minnesota Republicans
Minnesota lawyers
Wisconsin lawyers
University of Wisconsin Law School alumni
Republican Party United States senators
19th-century American lawyers | [
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256224 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20A.%20Towne | Charles A. Towne | Charles Arnette Towne (November 21, 1858October 22, 1928) was an American politician.
Biography
Born near Pontiac, Michigan, he graduated from the University of Michigan and served in the United States House of Representatives from Minnesota as a Republican in the 54th congress and from New York as a Democrat in the 59th congress.
Towne also served in the United States Senate in the 56th congress, from Minnesota as a Democrat following the death of Cushman K. Davis.
Towne was appointed to the Senate to fill the vacancy, and served from December 5, 1900, to January 28, 1901, when the elected replacement took office.
Towne represented Minnesota in the House from March 4, 1895, to March 3, 1897. He ran for reelection in 1896 as an Independent and lost. In 1900, he declined the nomination for Vice President on the People's Party ticket.
He served again in the United States House of Representatives for the state of New York from March 4, 1905, to March 3, 1907. In December 1915, he and Benjamin F. Spellman represented L. Lawrence Weber as the appellant before the Supreme Court of the United States in the Weber v. Freed case concerning boxing match film distribution. The appeal was denied.
He died on October 22, 1928.
External links
OurCampaigns biography
Justia.com "Weber v. Freed"
1858 births
1928 deaths
19th-century American politicians
20th-century American politicians
Politicians from Pontiac, Michigan
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Minnesota
Members of the United States House of Representatives from New York (state)
Candidates in the 1904 United States presidential election
United States senators from Minnesota
University of Michigan alumni
Minnesota Democrats
Minnesota Republicans
New York (state) Democrats
Democratic Party United States senators
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Democratic Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Minnesota Independents | [
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256225 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20D.%20Washburn | William D. Washburn | William Drew "W.D." Washburn, Sr. (January 14, 1831 – July 29, 1912) was an American politician. He served in both the United States House of Representatives and the United States Senate as a Republican from Minnesota. Three of his seven brothers became politicians: Elihu B. Washburne, Cadwallader C. Washburn, and Israel Washburn, Jr. He was also cousin of Dorilus Morrison, the first mayor of Minneapolis. He served in the 46th, 47th, 48th, 51st, 52nd, and 53rd congresses.
Washburn was born in Livermore, Maine. A graduate of Bowdoin College, he first studied law in the office of John A. Peters in Bangor, Maine before moving to Minneapolis, Minnesota around 1857. There he practiced law, and worked for the Minneapolis Milling Company (founded by his brother Cadwallader). His business ventures in lumber and flour milling allowed him to amass a large fortune, and by the 1880s, he was among the wealthiest men in Minnesota. Washburn served as the first president from 1883 to 1889 of what was to become Soo Line Railroad. He also founded the Pillsbury-Washburn Milling Company, which later became the Pillsbury Company, and was eventually absorbed by his brother's firm, General Mills.
Washburn built a mansion known as "Fair Oaks" in 1883. It was designed by E. Townsend Mix, who also designed Minneapolis's Metropolitan Building, and the outdoor landscape was laid out by Frederick Law Olmsted. The grounds included an artificial stream leading to a pond, a rustic footbridge, a greenhouse, and a carriage house. The home was demolished in 1924 to make way for a park, although the region is now part of the Washburn-Fair Oaks Mansion District, which was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1977.
Washburn served in the Minnesota House of Representatives in 1871. He was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1878 and served from March 4, 1879 to March 3, 1885. He was elected to the Senate in 1888 and served from March 4, 1889 to March 4, 1895.
Washburn was a founder of the First Universalist Church of Minneapolis in 1859. A major benefactor, he served as a trustee and President for much of his remaining life. He died in Minneapolis in 1912. His grandson C. Langhorne Washburn was to be active in the Republican Party from the 1950s through the 1970s.
William Washburn's son, Cadwallader Lincoln Washburn, was born in 1866. Cad became deaf as a child. His talent as an artist was noticed at an early age. Cad eventually became a noted artist and news correspondent who pioneered many new painting techniques in the west. The arts center at his alma mater, Gallaudet University, is named for Cad Washburn. Another son William Drew Washburn, Jr. also served in the Minnesota House of Representatives.
References
The Washburn-Fair Oaks Historic District: History and Walking Tour. Hennepin History Museum.
External links
1831 births
1912 deaths
Members of the Minnesota House of Representatives
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Minnesota
United States senators from Minnesota
Minnesota Republicans
Bowdoin College alumni
People from Livermore, Maine
Politicians from Bangor, Maine
19th-century American railroad executives
Members of the Universalist Church of America
Republican Party United States senators
19th-century Christian universalists
20th-century Christian universalists
Washburn family
Soo Line Railroad
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
19th-century American politicians | [
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256226 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jenny%20Joseph | Jenny Joseph | Jenny Joseph (7 May 1932 – 15 April 2018) was an English poet.
Early life and education
Jennifer Ruth Joseph was born in Birmingham to Florence (née Cotton) and Louis Joseph, an antiques dealer. Her father's career led to the family relocating to Buckinghamshire where Jenny attended Badminton school. She won a scholarship to study English literature at St Hilda's College, Oxford (1950).
Career
Her poems were first published when she was at university in the early 1950s. She became a journalist and worked for the Bedfordshire Times, the Oxford Mail and Drum Publications (Johannesburg, South Africa).
Her first book of poems, The Unlooked-for Season, won a Gregory Award in 1960 and she won a Cholmondeley Award for her second collection, Rose in the Afternoon, in 1974.
"Warning"
Joseph's best known poem, "Warning", was written in 1961 when she was 28. First published in The Listener in 1962, "Warning" was later included in her 1974 collection Rose In the Afternoon, in The Oxford Book of Twentieth Century English Verse, and in her Selected Poems (1992).
The poem became well known in America after Liz Carpenter, (formerly the first woman executive assistant to Vice President Lyndon Baines Johnson and Press Secretary to former First Lady Lady Bird Johnson), wrote an article for the Reader's Digest in the early 1980s, about enjoying life having recovered from an illness, closing the article with "Warning". The poem was adopted by the greeting-card industry, led by graphic designer and calligrapher Elizabeth Lucas. Joseph ascribed the popularity of the poem "to her business acumen and energy I owe a hospitable following in California and later throughout northern America, more social, as I said, than literary.
"Warning" was identified as the UK's "most popular post-war poem" in a 1996 poll by the BBC.
The opening lines "When I am an old woman I shall wear purple, With a red hat which doesn't go, and doesn't suit me" was the inspiration for the Red Hat Society.
Due to its popularity, an illustrated gift edition of "Warning", first published by Souvenir Press Ltd in 1997, has now been reprinted 41 times. "Warning" was included in the anthology Tools of the Trade: Poems for new doctors (Scottish Poetry Library, 2014) and a copy was given to all graduating doctors in Scotland in 2014.
Joseph herself hated the colour purple, which is why she included it in the poem.
In 2021 the Bodleian Libraries in Oxford announced that the one millionth image from their collections to be digitised by the Digital Bodleian project was Joseph's first draft of "Warning".
Personal life
In 1961 Joseph married Charles Coles. The couple had three children, Martin, Nell and Bec and ran the Greyhound, a west London pub, whilst Joseph continued writing. They eventually divorced and Joseph retired to Gloucestershire. Her dedication of The Thinking Heart (1978) was “To my children, preventers of literature, life-savers”.
Awards and honours
1960 Gregory Award for Unlooked-for Season
1974 Cholmondeley Award for Rose in the Afternoon
1986 James Tait Black Memorial Prize for her fiction Persephone
1995 Travelling scholarship by the Society of Authors.
1999 Fellowship of the Royal Society of Literature in 1999.
Bibliography
Unlooked-for Season (1960 – winner of a Gregory Award)
Rose in the Afternoon (1974 – winner of a Cholmondeley Award)
The Thinking Heart (1978)
Beyond Descartes (1983)
Persephone (1986 – fiction in verse and prose)
Beached Boats (1992 – prose)
The Inland Sea (1992)
Selected Poems (1992) – which includes ("Warning")
Ghosts and Other Company (1996)
Extended Similes (1997 – prose fiction)
Warning (1997, illustrated gift edition)
All the Things I See (2000)
Led by the Nose (2002)
Extreme of Things (2006)
Nothing Like Love (2009)
References
External links
Poetry Archive profile and poems written and audio
Jenny Joseph Bloodaxe profile
Article on Jenny Joseph
Interview by BBC 25 February 2004
English women poets
English Jews
Jewish poets
People from Birmingham, West Midlands
Alumni of St Hilda's College, Oxford
Fellows of the Royal Society of Literature
1932 births
2018 deaths
James Tait Black Memorial Prize recipients
20th-century English poets
20th-century English women writers
21st-century English poets
21st-century English women writers | [
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256227 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Fall%20and%20Rise%20of%20Reginald%20Perrin | The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin | The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin is a British sitcom starring Leonard Rossiter in the title role. It is based on a series of novels written by David Nobbs and produced from 1976 to 1979. Nobbs adapted the screenplay for the first series from the novel. Some of its subplots were considered too dark or risqué for television and were toned down or omitted.
The story concerns a middle-aged middle manager, Reginald "Reggie" Perrin, who reveals himself in the first series to be aged 46, who is driven to bizarre behaviour by the pointlessness of his job at Sunshine Desserts. The sitcom proved to be a subversion of others of the era, which were often based on bland, middle-class suburban family life.
The first novel in the series, The Death of Reginald Perrin, was published in 1975. Later editions were retitled to match the title of the television series. The Return of Reginald Perrin (1977) and The Better World of Reginald Perrin (1978) were written by Nobbs to be adapted for the second and third television series; Rossiter did not want to take the series forward unless it continued to be grounded in novels.
The original three television series, all of the same name, were broadcast between 1976 and 1979; a fourth, The Legacy of Reginald Perrin, also written by Nobbs, followed in 1996.
Episodes
Series One (8 September – 20 October 1976)
The first series was based on Nobbs' novel The Death of Reginald Perrin, retitled The Fall and Rise of Reginald Perrin to tie in with the television series; it retains the replacement title.
Reginald Iolanthe Perrin is suffering a midlife crisis and tries to escape his dreary life. He lives at 12 Coleridge Close, part of the 'Poets Estate' in a south London suburb called Climthorpe, a development differing from those around it only by having its streets named after famous poets. From references, it would have approximately coincided with Teddington. He commutes to Sunshine Desserts, where he works as a sales executive. Each morning he is 11 minutes late (this increased to 17 then 22 minutes with subsequent series), yet each morning he gives a different excuse. These become increasingly bizarre ("defective junction box, New Malden" being one of the more plausible ones), reflecting the decline of British Rail and his own mental health. He enters the office building under the Sunshine Desserts sign which, as the series progresses, loses more and more of its letters.
"Reggie", as he is known, daydreams in Walter Mitty style. Part of the narrative demonstrates what voices in his head are saying. Although he appears to love his wife, he fantasises about his secretary, Joan Greengross. As his behaviour becomes more erratic, Reggie is unable to dictate letters without uttering words like "breast". Far from being offended, Joan welcomes the attention, adjusting her posture to show off her figure.
The endless marketing campaigns for bizarre products, satirised in reports from the product research department, combine with Reggie's relations with his oppressive boss 'CJ' and his yes-man subordinates to drive him over the edge. Ceasing to care about the consequences, he dictates offensive and condescending replies to customers.
At home, things are no better. Despite his warm relationship with his wife Elizabeth, he suffers from impotence. As pressures at work build, relations with his dysfunctional relatives deteriorate. His brother-in-law Jimmy and son-in-law Tom are both presented as incompetent. Tom's political correctness emphasises his pomposity. After Reggie commits a few reckless acts, including getting out of his car in the lion enclosure at a safari park, he fakes suicide by leaving clothes and personal effects on a beach.
Before this he sends CJ an anonymous threat containing the words "blood will flow" and dumps loganberry essence into a stream while CJ is angling. CJ collapses and the incompetent company doctor, Doc Morrisey, pronounces him dead. CJ opens one eye and says, "You're fired!"
Assuming disguises, Reggie encounters more of the banal and pompous side of life. Only as a buck-toothed farm labourer does he find fulfilment working in a sewage works and looking after pigs. Missing his wife, he assumes the identity of Martin Wellbourne, returned from South America, and visits her. He realises he still loves her. Elizabeth, seeing through his disguise, is happy to have him back.
Series Two (21 September – 2 November 1977)
In the second series (novelised as The Return of Reginald Perrin), Reggie is tired of being Martin Wellbourne and wants to be Reggie again. He reveals his true identity to his family (though his wife and daughter already know). When CJ learns from Doc Morrisey that he is Reggie, he sacks them both. Elizabeth goes out to work at Sunshine Desserts and Reggie returns to the pig farm, but they are both sacked after Reggie's employer learns of his faked suicide and Elizabeth sends a rude letter telling the truth about Sunshine's products.
Reggie then opens a shop called Grot, where he sells useless products – like square hoops, round dice and Tom's wine (made from sprouts, nettles and the like) – hoping it will be an interesting failure. However, the products are snapped up as novelties and Grot becomes a huge success. Reggie relapses into alienation and tries to destroy Grot from within by hiring incompetents, but this backfires as they all display unsuspected talents. Reggie finally resolves to disappear again, this time accompanied by Elizabeth.
Series Three (29 November 1978 – 24 January 1979)
In the third series (novelised as The Better World of Reginald Perrin), after seeing two men arguing pointlessly in a queue at the bank, Reggie and his wife open a community called Perrins for the middle-aged, middle class, designed to help them become "better, happier people". The project is a success until a group of people who have fallen afoul of the "Perrins Peace Keeping Force" trash the place.
Reggie is then hired by CJ's brother FJ at Amalgamated Aerosols, working directly under CJ. Reggie instantly returns to his eccentric ways and the final scene shows him contemplating another trip to the Dorset coast.
In the third series, the role of Reggie's son-in-law Tom is played by Leslie Schofield, replacing Tim Preece, who had played the role in the first two series. Preece returned to the role for The Legacy of Reginald Perrin (see below). Despite only being mentioned (rather than seen) in the previous series, Theresa Watson also became a regular cast member playing Pru, the wife of David Harris-Jones (Bruce Bould).
Christmas sketch (26 December 1982)
In 1982, as part of a BBC1 Christmas special called The Funny Side of Christmas, a short sketch featured the regular cast visiting Reggie's house on Christmas Day. Despite being annoyed at the continual interruption of his colleagues' arrival, he dispenses presents from beneath his own Christmas tree. In a final scene, Reggie's living room is shown empty, even of furniture. The sketch is unrelated to the regular series, which had finished three years earlier in 1979.
The Legacy of Reginald Perrin (22 September – 31 October 1996)
This follow-up series, made more than a decade after Leonard Rossiter's death, shows Reggie's legacy - a fortune left to friends and family, but with strange conditions. It failed with most viewers, as the loss of Leonard Rossiter removed some affection for the series. Despite a leading man in Geoffrey Palmer, it had no central character. Both book and series were titled The Legacy of Reginald Perrin.
In the series, Reggie's family and friends are told by lawyer Geraldine Hackstraw that each will inherit one million pounds, on the one condition that they do something totally absurd. The nature of their absurd task is left to the individuals, but it is to be judged by Ms Hackstraw. Most of them have fallen on hard times, having in the main been forced to retire or been made redundant due to their age.
After several pathetic solo attempts at being absurd (including both CJ and Doc asking out Geraldine), the potential legatees decide to pool forces, and, with Jimmy as leader, decide to mount a bloodless coup. They intend to reverse age roles, with such policies as pensions for the young. The policies are a success, but with the unexpected outcome of their losing the money in the bequest. As Geraldine points out, the idea has turned out not to be absurd after all.
The series' characters and actors comprised all of the central characters of the earlier series, except Reginald Perrin and Tony Webster (Trevor Adams). It also included Patricia Hodge as Geraldine Hackstraw and Michael Fenton Stevens as Hank.
Cast
Reginald Iolanthe Perrin: Leonard Rossiter
Elizabeth Perrin, his wife: Pauline Yates
Mark Perrin, their son: David Warwick (series one only)
Linda Patterson, their daughter: Sally-Jane Spencer
Tom Patterson, her husband: Tim Preece (first two series and Legacy) and Leslie Schofield (third series) (catchphrase: "I'm not a —— person.")
Joan Greengross, his secretary: Sue Nicholls
CJ (Charles Jefferson), his boss: John Barron (who also played CJ's brother FJ). CJ is much given to Dundrearyisms and pompous statements beginning,"I didn't get where I am today by ..." – except when Reggie becomes his boss, whereupon he says, "I didn't get where you are today by ..."; also, "Neither Mrs CJ nor I have ever..." and "We're not one of those dreadful firms that..."
Tony Webster, "Great!": Trevor Adams
David Harris-Jones, "Super!": Bruce Bould
Jimmy Anderson, Elizabeth's brother: Geoffrey Palmer (catchphrase: "Bit of a cock up on the —— front.")
Doc (Gerald) Morrissey, company doctor at Sunshine Desserts: John Horsley
Seamus Finnegan, "a poor tongue-tied labourer from the land of the bogs and the little people" with an unrecognised genius for management: Derry Power (series two and three only)
Kenny McBlane, Scottish chef at Perrin's: Joseph Brady (series three only)
Pru Harris-Jones, wife of David Harris-Jones: Theresa Watson (series three and Legacy only)
Production
At the end of the first series, Reggie fakes suicide by leaving his clothes on a beach in Dorset and running into the sea. Coincidentally, John Stonehouse MP faked his own death in this manner shortly before the book was published, although neither was inspired by the other; the novel was written before Stonehouse's faked suicide in November 1974, but not published until 1975. The phrase "do a Reggie Perrin" did enter the vernacular, however, assisted by the Stonehouse affair.
The series introduced catchphrases that entered popular culture in the UK, including Perrin's reflexive apology for a late arrival at the office; his boss CJ's "I didn't get where I am today ..."; the fawning junior executives Tony Webster and David Harris-Jones with their alternating "great/super"; and Perrin's brother-in-law Major Jimmy Anderson, an army officer with no grasp of organisation or leadership, coming to eat because of a "bit of a cock-up on the catering front" (caused in the original novel by his wife's alcoholism).
The first series included the character of Mark Perrin, Reggie's son, played by David Warwick. However, David Nobbs felt he diverted the comedy from Reggie, so he was written out by going on tour with a theatre group in Africa.
Although mainly produced on video and shot on studio sets, the series also incorporated innovative surreal escapism through film inserts, notably during scenes in which, whenever his mother-in-law is mentioned, Reggie visualises a hippopotamus trotting along.
Writer David Nobbs went on to create the Channel 4 comedy series Fairly Secret Army, whose lead character, Harry, was inspired by, if not directly related to, the Perrin character of Jimmy, and also played by Geoffrey Palmer.
Filming
Exterior views of the Perrin residence – 12 Coleridge Close, in the fictional suburb Climthorpe – were shot at 6 Beaufort Close, Ealing, W5. Reggie's walk to work was shot on the corner of Audley Road and The Ridings and on the corner of Ashbourne Close. All three roads are within about 100 yards of one another.
Many exterior scenes were filmed at sites in Cheltenham including Eldorado Road and the Beehive public house.
The Sunshine Desserts office building is at 32–36 Telford Way, Acton. (now demolished)
Reggie's faked suicide, which formed part of the title sequence, occurred at West Bay, Dorset, with the East Cliff visible in the very opening shot.
The first episode begins with commuters making their way to Norbiton railway station in the Royal Borough of Kingston upon Thames. The morning trains' constant lateness in the earlier series is usually blamed on incidents at actual stations along the railway from Norbiton and Kingston to Waterloo.
DVD releases
Remakes
A short-lived U.S. version was produced and broadcast on ABC in 1983 as Reggie, with Richard Mulligan in the title role.
Martin Clunes starred in a BBC revival of the series, titled simply Reggie Perrin. The supporting cast members were Fay Ripley, Wendy Craig, Geoffrey Whitehead, Neil Stuke, and Lucy Liemann. The series was written by Simon Nye and original series creator David Nobbs. It ran for two series from April 2009 to November 2010.
References
External links
Official Reggie Perrin website
Second Sight Films (released the DVDs)
BBC television sitcoms
1976 British television series debuts
1970s British sitcoms
Midlife crisis in television
Television series by Entertainment One
English-language television shows
1979 British television series endings
1990s British sitcoms
1996 British television series debuts
1996 British television series endings | [
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256230 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/H%C3%A5kon%20Melberg | Håkon Melberg | Håkon Melberg (January 1, 1911 – November 4, 1990) was one of Norway's foremost linguists. He knew 42 languages and could communicate in an additional 20.
Born in Halden, Melberg graduated from the Halden Latin School in 1930 with top grades. He went on to study languages and linguistics at the University of Oslo for 6 or 7 years, but left without obtaining a formal degree. He received a scholarship to study modern English in London as preparation for a professorate in English, and wrote the novel 'Solen går aldri ned' in 1938. Melberg then received research funding from NAVF to study Celtic languages, staying in Ireland, Wales, Scotland, and Brittany for long periods. To support a rather meagre economy and encourage the work with Celtic languages, Thomas Coats 2nd Baron Glentanar and the Earl of Bute gave Melberg a sum of money that he did not use himself, but instead handed over to Oslo University in support of a Celtic institute.
During the occupation years in Norway, Melberg was one of the leaders of XU Pan, a spy organisation that collected secret German information and transmitted it to London. This work is described in the book 'Dobbeltspill - Nazilensmannen som lurte tyskerne' (1988) by T. Brynildsen and H. Melberg.
From 1940-43, Melberg worked as a jiu jitsu instructor at his brother Sam's training institute in Oslo. Melberg wrote the introductory chapter titled "Vitenskapen å slåss" ("The Science of Fighting") to Sam's book, 'Jiu Jitsu'.
In September 1945, Melberg presented the first version of his hypothesis on the origin of the Scandinavian nations to the Norwegian Science Academy in Oslo. It was met with silence. A year later, it was presented to the Danish Science Academy in Copenhagen, where it provoked animated discussion. Due to misunderstandings and the need for background information that became apparent during these discussions, Melberg decided to present his work with all the information required to evaluate the hypothesis. The outcome was the two-volume work, 'Origin of the Scandinavian Nations and Languages' (1953). They are available with searchable text in and
After the publication of that work, Melberg continued his work with Celtic languages for some years. The rest of his active life was spent working with and for children in Halden. In 1945, Melberg and his wife began running an activity center for children called Barnas hus. He wrote the text for a children's opera, 'Nattmannens barn', which was first presented in 1960. Melberg died in 1990.
References
University of Oslo alumni
1911 births
1990 deaths
People from Halden
Linguists from Norway
XU
20th-century linguists | [
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256233 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chance%20in%20a%20Million | Chance in a Million | Chance in a Million is a British sitcom broadcast between 1984 and 1986, produced by Thames Television for Channel 4.
The series was co-written by Andrew Norriss and Richard Fegen and starred Simon Callow and Brenda Blethyn.
The producer and director of the series was Michael Mills.
Plot
The premise of the show is that the main character, Tom Chance, is frequently the victim of unlikely circumstances, although he cares little about this and is, in fact, largely oblivious to much of what happens around him.
He meets his long-suffering girlfriend, Alison Little, by chance. This happens when Tom Chance goes to the same hotel on a blind date to meet a girl (who is also called Alison), that Alison Little has arranged to meet her cousin Tom (for the first time since they were young children).
Tom is shy towards Alison. However, Alison has fallen in love with Tom at first sight and she is keen for their friendship to develop into something more intimate.
Tom has a tendency to get into trouble as a result of unlikely coincidences. This leads to Tom being arrested for crimes he did not commit – which happens so often that police Sergeant Gough eventually gives orders for Tom not to be arrested, no matter how suspicious the circumstances. Tom accepts the unintentional incidents which continuously occur in his life with great stoicism.
Tom has an amusing ability to drink an entire pint of beer in one gulp whilst in the middle of speaking a sentence. (According to Callow in a DVD commentary, a trick glass containing a fraction of a pint was actually used.)
Tom's style of speaking is a key component of his comic nature. He speaks only in short staccato sentences similar to a telegram: "Can’t talk Alison. Car being towed. Problem with lawn furniture."
He also has a fascination with Surrey and England cricketer Alec Bedser, and a cricket bat, which has been autographed by the cricketer, is one of Tom's most treasured possessions. (Or at least was, before it was chewed up by next door's alsatian.) And in the penultimate episode, Alison presents her husband-to-be with a book containing a signed dedication by Bedser, to Tom's great delight.
Cast
Simon Callow as Tom Chance
Brenda Blethyn as Alison Little
Ronnie Stevens (series 1), Hugh Walters (series 2 and 3) as Mr. Little
Deddie Davies as Mrs. Little
Bill Pertwee as Sergeant Gough
Angus MacKay as Terrence Wingent
Geraldine Gardner aka Trudi Van Doorn as Barbara Wingent – (series 2 & 3)
Peter Corey as Cousin Thomas
Rosemary Smith as "Janet" – (series 3)
Episodes
Series overview
Series 1 (1984)
Series 2 (1986)
Series 3 (1986)
Home releases
Notes
Speaking about the series following its release on DVD Simon Callow said: "I loved doing it and it's one of the most popular things I ever did. The central character, Tom Chance, was a guy who was plagued by coincidence that was the basic formula of the series. The charming thing about him was that he seemed to belong to another world completely. He spoke in the most extraordinary way, which I think was derived from Mr. Jingle in The Pickwick Papers – he never used the personal pronouns ... He'd say, "... went to bank ... had problem ... sat down ... couldn't get out ... killed a woman ... very sad...". Brenda Blethyn, she's absolutely superb in it. Brenda and I and the writers are desperately keen to do a series, 25 years later on ... same couple ... I think it would be wonderful."
Brenda Blethyn, in her 2006 autobiography Mixed Fancies, speaks of the series at length with clear affection and happy memories of the project.
References
The Penguin TV Companion (2nd Edition) – Jeff Evans, Penguin Books Ltd., London, 2003
External links
Chance in a Million – BBC Comedy Guide
Chance in a Million — Summary and Cast – British TV Comedy
Chance in a Million — Episode List – British TV Comedy
1980s British sitcoms
1984 British television series debuts
1986 British television series endings
Channel 4 sitcoms
Television series by Fremantle (company)
Television shows produced by Thames Television
English-language television shows | [
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256235 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lobero%20Theatre | Lobero Theatre | The Lobero Theatre is an historic building in Santa Barbara, California. The theater was originally built as an opera house, in a refurbished adobe school building, by Italian immigrant José Lobero in 1873. Located downtown at the corner of Anacapa and Canon Perdido streets, the Lobero Theatre is registered as a California Historical Landmark.
History
The Lobero was founded in 1873. By the early 1920s, the old opera house was becoming dilapidated and was rebuilt as a theater, to Spanish Colonial Revival style designs by architects George Washington Smith and Lutah Maria Riggs. The client was the Drama Branch of the Community Arts Association. The Lobero Theater opened in August 1924, during a period in which civic groups in Santa Barbara were beginning to unify the town's architectural look around a Spanish Colonial style.
Present day
The theatre continues to host arts and cultural events on 250 or more days per year. Because of its live acoustics and relatively small size it is particularly suited to chamber music. The Music Academy of the West holds many of its summer concerts in the Lobero.
See also
History of Santa Barbara, California
California Historical Landmarks in Santa Barbara County, California
External links
Lobero Theater Records, at the University of California, Santa Barbara Library.
References
History of Santa Barbara County, California
Buildings and structures in Santa Barbara, California
Landmarks in California
Tourist attractions in Santa Barbara, California
Spanish Colonial Revival architecture in California
Theatres in California
Event venues established in 1873 | [
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256238 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gramercy | Gramercy | Gramercy means 'many thanks'. It is derived from the French term , meaning 'big thanks'.
The term may refer to:
Places in the United States
Gramercy, Louisiana
Gramercy Park, a private park and neighborhood in New York City
Gramercy Park, Los Angeles
Other uses
Gramercy Books, an imprint of Random House
The Gramercy Five, a quintet formed by bandleader Artie Shaw
Gramercy Funds Management, an investment manager dedicated to global emerging markets based in Greenwich, CT.
Gramercy Mansion, a historic building in Stevenson, Maryland
Gramercy Pictures, a film studio, currently owned by Focus Features under Universal Pictures
The Gramercy Residences, a supertall residential building in Makati, Philippines
The Gramercy, a mixed-use development in the Las Vegas Valley
Gramercy Tavern, a restaurant in New York City | [
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256240 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1819%20in%20music | 1819 in music | This is a list of music-related events in 1819.
Events
February 23 - Johann Nepomuk Hummel is appointed Kapellmeister to the Weimar court, where he would remain for the rest of his life.
Breitkopf & Härtel publishes piano music by Maria Szymanowska.
Christoph Ernst Friedrich Weyse is appointed composer to the court of Denmark.
Franz Liszt plays for Carl Czerny for the first time. The latter is impressed and agrees to take him on as a pupil.
Classical music
Hector Berlioz – La Dépit de la bergère, H 7
João Domingos Bomtempo – Requiem in C Minor
Muzio Clementi – The publication of Gradus ad Parnassum Volume II is entered at Stationer's Hall, London on April 16.
Louis-Francois Dauprat – 3 Mélodies, Op. 25
Friedrich Ernst Fesca – String Quartet, Op. 12
Johann Nepomuk Hummel
Piano Sonata No.5, Op. 81
Piano Trio in E major, Op. 83
Friedrich Kuhlau – 8 Variations on a Danish Song, Op. 16
Ignaz Moscheles – Grande Sonate, Op. 47
George Onslow – Violin Sonata No.4, Op. 15
Anton Reicha – Andante for Wind Quintet no 2 in F major
Andreas Romberg – Sinfonia alla turca, Op. 51
Franz Schubert – Trout Quintet
Maria Szymanowska
Caprice sur la romance de Joconde
Grande valse
6 Minuets
Polonaise sur l'air national favori du feu Prince Joseph Poniatowsky
Carl Maria von Weber
Rondo brillante, Op. 62
Polacca brillante, Op. 72
Opera
Saverio Mercadante – L'Apoteosi d'Ercole
Giovanni Pacini
Il falegname di Livonia
La sposa fedele
Andreas Romberg – Die Großmut des Scipio
Gioachino Rossini
Bianca e Falliero
La donna del lago
Eduardo e Cristina
Ermione
Births
January 12 – Giovanni Guicciardi, Italian opera singer (d. 1883)
January 18 – Henriette Nissen-Saloman, opera singer (d. 1879)
February 11 – Samuel Parkman Tuckerman, composer (d. 1890)
February 24 – Emilia Uggla, pianist (d. 1855)
13 March – Henriette Wienecke, composer (d. 1907)
April 4 – Lucile Grahn, ballerina (d. 1907)
April 7 – Hubert Léonard, composer and musician (died 1890)
April 11 – Sir Charles Hallé, pianist and conductor (d. 1895)
April 18 – Franz von Suppé, composer (d. 1895)
May 3 – Nicola De Giosa, Italian composer (died 1885)
May 5
Achille De Bassini, operatic baritone (d. 1881)
Stanisław Moniuszko, composer, conductor and teacher (d. 1872)
May 13 – Henry Farmer, British composer (died 1891)
June 12 – Wilhelmina Fundin, Swedish operatic soprano (d. 1911)
June 20 – Jacques Offenbach, composer (d. 1880)
July 3 – Théodore Gouvy, composer (d. 1898)
July 26 – Justin Holland, classical guitarist and civil rights activist (d. 1887)
September 13 – Clara Schumann, pianist, composer (d. 1896)
September 15 – Jules Étienne Pasdeloup, composer and conductor (died 1887)
October 20 – Carl Mikuli, pianist, conductor, composer (d. 1897)
October 23 – Isaac Baker Woodbury, music collector and composer (died 1858)
date unknown – Ebba d'Aubert, Swedish pianist (d. 1860)
Deaths
March 9 – János Fusz, composer (b. 1777)
April 29 – Louis-Augustin Richer, classical singer, singing master and composer (b. 1740)
May 16 – Micaela Villegas, Peruvian entertainer (b. 1748)
June 20 – Maria Anna Braunhofer, operatic soprano (b. 1748)
June 21 – Georg Druschetzky, composer (b. 1745)
June 30 – Ernst Ludwig Gerber, composer and compiler of a dictionary of musicians (b. 1746)
September 7 – Jean-Louis Duport, cellist (b. 1749)
December 29 – Josepha Weber, operatic soprano (b. 1758)
date unknown – Anant Fandi, Marathi Shahir poet-singer (b. 1744)
References
19th century in music
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256242 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1820%20in%20music | 1820 in music | This is a list of music-related events in 1820.
Events
Pietro Raimondi returns to Naples and begins his career as an opera composer.
The Musical Fund Society is founded at Musical Fund Hall in Philadelphia. Its first public concert on April 22, 1821 featured Beethoven's 2nd Symphony.
Franz Liszt plays in public for the first time in Ödenburg.
Classical music
Ludwig van Beethoven – Piano Sonata No. 30
Franz Berwald – Violin Concerto in C sharp minor, Op. 2
Felix Mendelssohn – Violin Sonata in F major
Franz Schubert
Lazarus, oratorio
Quartettsatz, D. 703
Louis Spohr
Grand Rondo in G major for violin and piano, Op. 51
Potpourri on Irish Themes in A major, Op. 59
Potpourri on Themes from Mozart's Die Zauberflöte for violin and piano in F-sharp minor, Op. 50
Quintet for piano and winds in C minor, Op. 52
Symphony No. 2 in D minor, Op. 49
Violin Concerto No. 9 in D minor, Op. 55
Opera
Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga – Los Esclavos Felices
Giovanni Pacini – La schiava di Bagdad (première October 28 at Teatro Carignano, Turin)
Published popular music
"Hail to the Chief" – words, Sir Walter Scott; music James Sanderson
"D'ye Ken John Peel" – words, John Woodcock Graves. music traditional.
Births
January 9 – Pavel Křížkovský, conductor and composer (d. 1885)
February 10 – Cornelius Gurlitt, composer (d. 1901)
February 17 – Henri Vieuxtemps, violinist and composer (d. 1881)
March 24 – Fanny Crosby, American lyricist (d. 1915)
May 21 – Michel Lentz, lyricist of the Luxembourg national anthem (d. 1893)
July 20 – Enrico Crivelli, Italian opera singer (d. 1870)
July 26 – Maria Severa Onofriana, Portuguese singer and guitarist, considered the founder of fado (d. 1846)
August 13 – George Grove, music writer (d. 1900)
August 30 – George Frederick Root, songwriter (d. 1895)
September 5 – Louis Köhler, pianist, composer and conductor (d. 1886)
October 6 – Jenny Lind, Swedish singer (d. 1887)
December 17 – Karl Anton Eckert, conductor and composer (d. 1879)
date unknown
Maria Severa Onofriana, fado singer (d. 1846)
Anna-Kajsa Norman, Swedish folk musician (d. 1903)
Deaths
February 2 – Peder Schall, composer (b. 1762)
March 26 – Jean-Étienne Despréaux, French dancer, choreographer and composer (b. 1748)
August 6 – Antonín Vranický, Bohemian violinist and composer (b. 1761)
August 28 – Antonín Kraft, cellist and composer (b. 1749)
October 3 – Ludwig Wenzel Lachnith, horn player and composer (b. 1746)
date unknown – Marie Bigot, piano teacher (b. 1786)
probable
Mikhail Matinsky, scientist, writer and composer (b. 1750)
Louis Joseph Saint-Amans, composer (b. 1749)
References
19th century in music
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256244 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1821%20in%20music | 1821 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1821.
Events
Construction work begins on the Teatro Regio at Parma.
José Bernardo Alcedo wins a contest, sponsored by General José de San Martín, to choose a national anthem for Peru. The anthem is "Somos libres, seámoslo siempre," with lyrics by José de la Torre Ugarte.
Classical music
Ludwig van Beethoven – Piano Sonata No. 31
Friedrich Kuhlau – 9 Variations For Piano
Felix Mendelssohn – Symphonies for Strings 1–6
Ferdinand Ries
2 Piano Sonatinas, Op. 5
Fantasie nach Schiller's Gedicht 'Resignation', Op. 109
Franz Schubert
"Gesang der Geister über den Wassern", D.714; part song for male voices and low strings; Op.posth. 167 (1858)
Symphony No. 7 in E major, D 729
Louis Spohr
Clarinet Concerto No. 3 in F minor, WoO 19
Mass in C minor, Op. 54
Jan Václav Voříšek – Symphony in D
Carl Maria von Weber – Konzertstück in F minor, for piano and orchestra, Op. 79
Opera
Johann Kaspar Aiblinger – Rodrigo und Chimene
Michele Carafa – Jeanne d'Arc à Orléans
Saverio Mercadante
Andronico
Elisa e Claudio
Giovanni Pacini – Cesare in Egitto
Carl Maria von Weber – Der Freischütz
Publications
Ananias Davisson – Introduction to Sacred Music, Extracted from the Kentucky Harmony and Chiefly Intended for the Benefit of Young Scholars
Births
April 27 – Henry Willis, organ builder (d. 1901)
May 6 – Emilie Hammarskjöld, composer (d. 1854)
May 25 – Diederich Krug, pianist and composer (d. 1880)
June 15 – Nikolai Zaremba, musical theorist and composer (d. 1879)
June 27 – August Conradi, organist and composer (d. 1873)
July 18 – Pauline Viardot, singer and composer (d. 1910)
October 4 – Fanny Stål pianist (d. 1889)
October 8 – Friedrich Kiel, composer (d. 1885)
October 13 – Oscar Byström, academic and composer (d. 1909)
October 16 – Franz Doppler, flautist and composer (d. 1883)
October 20 – Emilio Arrieta, composer (d. 1894)
December 8 – Josif Runjanin, composer of the Croatian national anthem (d. 1878)
December 22 – Giovanni Bottesini, composer (d. 1889)
Deaths
March 8 – Harriett Abrams, operatic soprano (b. c.1758)
May 15 – John Wall Callcott, composer (b. 1766)
June 25 – Antoine Bullant, bassoonist and composer (born 1750)
August 6 – Antonio Bartolomeo Bruni, violinist, conductor and composer (born 1757)
August 10 – Salvatore Viganò, choreographer and composer (born 1769)
September 22 – Louise-Rosalie Lefebvre, "Madame Dugazon", entertainer (born 1755)
October 28 – Gaspare Pacchierotti, castrato singer (born 1740)
November 10 – Andreas Romberg, violinist and composer (born 1767)
date unknown
Jules Granier, composer (born 1770)
Kamalakanta Bhattacharya, Bengali poet and songwriter (born 1722)
References
19th century in music
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256245 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1822%20in%20music | 1822 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1822.
Events
March 16 – Marriage of Gioacchino Rossini and Spanish soprano Isabella Colbran.
Official date of the invention of the accordion by Christian Friedrich Ludwig Buschmann. (This has been thrown into doubt by the discovery of an accordion apparently manufactured in 1816.)
The Royal Academy of Music was founded.
Johann Wenzel Kalliwoda became musical director to Prince Karl Egon II of Furstenburg.
Harpist Franz Stockhausen marries soprano Margarethe Schmuck.
Franz Liszt arrives in Vienna and commences piano lessons with Carl Czerny and theory lessons with Antonio Salieri. The latter writes a letter to Prince Esterhazy to advocate for Liszt's continued study in Vienna. On December 1, Liszt gives his first public performance in Vienna, sharing the billing with Caroline Unger. He plays Hummel's Piano Concerto No. 2.
Popular music
"Araby's Daughter" (song) w. Thomas Moore m. George Kiallmark. The words are derived from Moore's "Farewell to Araby's Daughter" published in 1817.
Classical music
Ludwig van Beethoven - Sonata op. 111 in C minor
Fernandino Carulli – 3 Nocturnes concertants, Op. 143
Mauro Giuliani – Serenade, Op. 19
Johann Nepomuk Hummel – Birthday Cantata for Goethe
Niels Peter Jensen – Flute Sonata, Op. 6
Friedrich Kuhlau
Violin Sonata, Op. 33
Leichte Variationen über sechs Oestreichische Volkslieder, Op. 42
3 Sonatinas, Op. 44
Luigi Legnani – 36 Caprices, Op. 20
Franz Liszt – Variation on a Waltz by Diabelli
Ferdo Livadić – Nocturne in F-sharp minor
Joseph Mayseder – String Quartet No.6, Op. 23
Felix Mendelssohn
Concerto for Piano and Strings in A minor
Piano Quartet No. 1 in C minor
Sinfonia for Strings No. 7 in D minor
Sinfonia for Strings No. 8 in D Major
Brizio Petrucci – Requiem Mass
Anton Reicha – Wind Quintet, Op. 99 Nos. 2, 5
Ferdinand Ries – Variations, Op. 105 Nos. 1 and 2
Pierre Rode – 24 Caprices for Solo Violin, Op. 22
Franz Schubert
Symphony no. 8 in B minor,"Unfinished"
Wanderer Fantasy
Der Wachtelschlag, D.742
Die Rose, D.745
Geist der Liebe, D.747
Am Geburtstage des Kaisers, D.748
Heliopolis, D.753
Jan Václav Voříšek – Impromptu
Opera
Gaetano Donizetti – Zoraida di Granata
Giacomo Meyerbeer – L'esule di Granata
Franz Schubert
Die Verschworenen, D.787
Alfonso und Estrella
Births
January 8 – Carlo Alfredo Piatti, cellist (d. 1901)
February 14 – Betty Boije, Finnish-Swedish contralto and composer (d. 1854)
February 26 – Franz Strauss, horn player and composer, father of Richard Strauss (d. 1905)
February 28 – Nicolas Maline, luthier (d. 1877)
March 7 – Victor Massé, composer (d. 1884)
April 3 – Elma Ström, Swedish opera singer (d. 1889)
April 8 – Giuseppe Apolloni, opera composer (d. 1889)
April 25 – James Pierpont, songwriter (d. 1893)
May 27 – Joachim Raff, pianist, composer and music teacher (d. 1882)
July 22 – Luigi Arditi, violinist, conductor and composer (d. 1903)
August 15 – Wilhelm Rust, musicologist and composer (d. 1892)
October 13 – Carl Martin Reinthaler, organist, conductor and composer (d. 1896)
October 14 – Julie Berwald, singer.
October 15 – Kornél Ábrányi, pianist and composer (d. 1903)
December 3 – Korla Awgust Kocor, conductor and composer (d. 1904)
December 10 – César Franck, organist and composer (d. 1890)
December 16 – Charles Edward Horsley (d.1876)
December 22 – Charles Lebouc, cellist (d. 1893)
date unknown – Giulio Regondi, guitarist and composer (d. 1872)
Deaths
January – Americo Sbigoli, operatic tenor (burst blood vessel)
February 2 – Jean-Baptiste Davaux, French violinist and composer, 79
March 2 – Hermann Uber, composer, 40
March 19 – Józef Wybicki, soldier-poet, lyricist of the Polish national anthem, 74
March 22 – Johann Wilhelm Hässler, organist, pianist and composer, 74/5
April 3 – Édouard Du Puy, violinist, singer and composer, 51/2
June 25 – E. T. A. Hoffmann, composer and author, inspiration for Tales of Hoffmann, 46
August 25 – William Herschel, British astronomer and composer, 83
September 8 – Joseph Karl Ambrosch, operatic tenor and composer, 63
October 16 – Eva Marie Veigel, dancer, 98
November 18 – Anton Teyber, pianist and composer, 66
December 28 – Albert Christoph Dies, composer and painter, 67
References
19th century in music
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256246 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Curtisia | Curtisia | Curtisia dentata (commonly known as the Assegai tree or Cape lancewood, , , ) is a flowering tree from Southern Africa. It is the sole species in genus Curtisia, which was originally classed as a type of "dogwood" (Cornaceae), but is now placed in its own unique family Curtisiaceae.
It is increasingly popular as an ornamental tree for gardens, with dark glossy foliage and sprays of pure white berries. The bark of this tree is a very popular component of traditional African medicine, leading to overexploitation and a decline in the species in some areas of South Africa. The tree is protected in South Africa.
Name
This tree gets its common name from the African spear - the Zulu Assegai - which was traditionally made from this tree's strong wood. The Zulu would intentionally damage the tree's main trunk, causing the tree to coppice from its base. The straight, strong shoots of the coppice were used for the shafts of the spears.
Its genus name, "Curtisia", is from the botanist William Curtis (founder of The Botanical Magazine) and "dentata" is simply the Latin for "toothed", referring to the slightly serrated margins of its leaves.
Appearance
A medium to tall evergreen tree (up to 15 m in height), usually immediately recognizable due to the striking contrast between its dark, glossy foliage and its sprays of cream-white berries. It has a clean, unbuttressed bole and the bark is smooth and grey or cinnamon-coloured. The leaves have pointed tips and toothed edges, and are arranged in opposite pairs. The leaf surface is smooth and dark glossy green, while the stalks and the twigs are covered in silky reddish hair. Very young growth is also velvety to the touch and bronze-gold in colour. The tiny flowers are cream-coloured and velvety, but relatively inconspicuous.
The tree bears dense clusters of small, white berries. They generally appear in winter and are pure white (sometimes tinged with pink or red). They remain on the tree for a long time and can be very decorative.
Distribution
The Assegai tree grows in the forests of South Africa and Swaziland, ranging from sea level to 1800 meters elevation, and from Cape Town in the south to Limpopo province in the north. In deep Afromontane forest it grows into a tall tree, but on open mountain slopes and by the coast it remains a small bushy tree. Curtisia has been in decline in some areas, as its bark is highly valued for traditional medicine. It is now a Protected Tree in South Africa.
Growing Curtisia dentata
The Assegai tree is attractive, fast-growing and hardy. When planted alone, it grows into a shapely, evergreen tree. Planted in a row it makes an attractive, tall, leafy hedge and it grows especially dense and bushy when planted in the sun. However, it can be grown in light shade as well as full sun, and its roots are non-invasive so it can also be planted near to buildings. It does not create much leaf litter, and it is storm-firm due to its deep roots and tough branches. The tree's edible (but bitter) berries also attract birds to the garden.
The bark of this tree is widely used as a traditional medicine for curing stomach ailments and diarrhoea. It is also reputed to be an aphrodisiac. Due to this, the tree is often overexploited and even effectively exterminated from some parts of the country.
The Assegai is best propagated by seed. Remove the fleshing covering of its white berries and plant them in moist soil. Germination takes a few weeks and seedlings grow rapidly, though they should be kept well-watered and out of direct sunlight.
It is sensitive to frost and drought, although established trees can survive both.
Gallery
See also
List of Southern African indigenous trees
References
External links
Curtisia dentata at PlantZAfrica.com
Afromontane flora
Cornales
Flora of South Africa
Traditional African medicine
Trees of South Africa
Protected trees of South Africa
Ornamental trees
Trees of Mediterranean climate
Monotypic asterid genera
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256247 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1823%20in%20music | 1823 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1823.
Events
April 13 – According to his official biographer, Gustav Schilling, eleven-year-old Franz Liszt gives a concert after which he is personally congratulated by Ludwig van Beethoven; however, there is no record of Beethoven having attended the concert.
May 8 - The most famous song of the nineteenth century Home, Sweet Home was sung for the first time in London. (melody by Englishman Sir Henry Bishop, lyrics by John Howard Payne.
August 12 – Hector Berlioz writes to the journal Le Corsaire defending Gaspare Spontini's opera La vestale.
Gioachino Rossini arrives in London and is presented to King George IV.
The arpeggione is invented by Viennese guitar maker Johann Georg Staufer.
Soprano Henriette Méric-Lalande catches the attention of the critic Castil-Blaze, who introduces her to the famous tenor Manuel García, thereby advancing her career.
Franz Liszt is denied entry into the Paris Conservatory by the Director, Luigi Cherubini, who states that he cannot admit foreigners.
Classical music
Ludwig van Beethoven –
Diabelli Variations, Op. 120
Missa Solemnis, Op. 123
Hector Berlioz – Amitié, reprends ton empire, H 10b
Ferdinando Carulli – Duos Nocturnes, Op. 189
Carl Czerny – Toccata, Op. 92
Louis Ferdinand, Prince of Prussia – Rondo, Op. 13
Mauro Giuliani – 6 Variations, Op. 112
Johann Nepomuk Hummel
Nocturne, theme et variations, Op. 99
Introduction, theme et variations, Op. 102
Friedrich Wilhelm Kalkbrenner – Piano Concerto No. 1, Op. 61
August Alexander Klengel – Piano Trio, Op. 36
Ernst Krähmer – Variations brillantes, Op. 18
Franz Krommer
Flute Quintet, Op. 101
Symphony No. 6 in D
Friedrich Kuhlau
3 Flute Quintets, Op. 51
6 Sonatinas, Op. 55
Felix Mendelssohn – Concerto for 2 pianos
Giovanni Morandi – Raccolta di sonate per gli organi moderni No.4
George Onslow
Piano Trio No. 7, Op. 20
Grand Sonata No. 2, Op. 22
String Quintets Nos.7-9, Opp. 23–25
Ferdinand Ries
Symphony Nos. 4 and 5, Opp. 110 and 112
Introduction et rondeau sur une danse russe, Op. 113, No. 1
Piano Sonata, Op. 114
Cello Sonata No. 4 in G minor, Op. 125
Christian Heinrich Rinck – 12 Adagios for Organ, Op. 57
Bernhard Romberg – Cello Concerto No. 5, Op. 30
Franz Schubert –
Die Schöne Müllerin
Drang in die Ferne, D. 770
Der Zwerg, D.771
Wehmut, D.772
Auf dem Wasser zu singen, D. 774
Louis Spohr
Potpourri on Irish Themes, Op. 59
String Quartet No.18, Op. 61
Stage Works
Gaetano Donizetti – Alfredo il grande
Saverio Mercadante – Didone abbandonata
Gioachino Rossini – Semiramide
Franz Schubert
Fierrabras
Rosamunde
Carl Maria von Weber – Euryanthe
Popular Music
"Home! Sweet Home!" w. John Howard Payne m. Henry Bishop
Publications
Alling Brown – The Gamut, or Scale of Music (New Haven: A. H. Maltby and Co.)
Thomas Busby – A Musical Manual (London: Goulding & D'Almaine)
Emanuel Aloys Förster – Anleitung zum General-Baß
Philippe Marc Antoine Geslin – Exposition de la gamme (Paris)
Births
January 3 – Jacques-Nicolas Lemmens, organist and composer (died 1881)
January 27 – Édouard Lalo, composer (died 1892)
July 22 – Paulina Rivoli, operatic soprano (died 1881)
August 14 – Karel Miry, Belgian composer (died 1889)
August 15 – Léon Gastinel, French composer (died 1906)
August 17 – Theodor Julius Jaffé, opera singer and actor (died 1898)
October 21 – Emilio Arrieta, composer (died 1894)
November 4 – Karel Komzák I, composer and conductor (died 1893)
November 26 – Thomas Tellefsen, pianist and composer (died 1874)
December 1 – Ernest Reyer, opera composer and music critic (died 1909)
December 10 – Theodor Kirchner, composer and musician (died 1903)
December 11 – David Bennett, Canadian soldier and musician (died 1902)
date unknown – John Diamond, dancer and minstrel (died 1857)
Deaths
February 16 – Johann Gottfried Schicht, conductor and composer (born 1753)
March 1 – Pierre-Jean Garat, singer (born 1764)
March 18 – Jean-Baptiste Breval, French cellist and composer (born 1753)
April – Jacques Widerkehr, Alsatian composer (born 1759)
April 15 – Louis Deland, actor, singer and dancer (born 1772)
June 20 – Theodor von Schacht, German composer (born 1748)
October 2 – Daniel Steibelt, German pianist and composer (born 1765)
November 12 – Emanuel Aloys Förster, composer and music teacher (born 1748)
date unknown – Federigo Fiorillo, composer and musician (born 1755)
References
19th century in music
Music by year | [
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256248 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Windom | William Windom | William Windom (May 10, 1827January 29, 1891) was an American politician from Minnesota. He served as U.S. Representative from 1859 to 1869, and as U.S. Senator from 1870 to January 1871, from March 1871 to March 1881, and from November 1881 to 1883. He also served two non-consecutive times as Secretary of the Treasury from March to November 1881, and from 1889 to 1891, under three Presidents. He was a Republican. He was the great-grandfather of actor William Windom, who was named for him.
Early life
Windom was born in Belmont County, Ohio. He moved to Minnesota Territory in 1855 and settled in the town of Winona on the banks of the Mississippi River in southeastern Minnesota.
Political career
Windom was elected U.S. Representative in 1859, filling one of Minnesota's two at-large seats. He was re-elected in 1861, again at-large. By 1862, Minnesota had established Congressional districts, and in that year he was re-elected from Minnesota's 1st congressional district; and also in 1864 and 1866. He was not a candidate in 1868.
Senator Daniel S. Norton died on July 13, 1870. On July 15, Governor Alexander Ramsey appointed Windom to the resulting vacancy, to serve until the legislature elected a replacement. When the legislature met in January 1871, they elected Ozora P. Stearns to serve the last 41 days of the current term (January 22 – March 4), and elected Windom to serve the next full term, beginning March 4. Windom was re-elected in 1877, and served until March 7, 1881, when he resigned to become Secretary of the Treasury.
In the United States Senate, Windom was recognized as a strong advocate of railroad regulation. Indeed, in December 1872, he became the chairman of the Senate Select Committee on Transportation Routes to the Seaboard to investigate transportation practices. The select committee's report was submitted to the Senate on April 24, 1874, and was ordered to be printed the same day. The analytical report, among other conclusions and recommendations, recommended a Bureau of Commerce; it would have all the basic elements of the Interstate Commerce Commission, as created thirteen years later, in January 1887, and other follow-on. Almost 35 years later the Progressive Era Inland Waterways Commission, looking into similar issues and many new ones, would recognize the "Report of the Windom Select Committee" as the third epoch in the movement toward developing the inland waterways of the country.
In 1880, Windom sought the Republican nomination for President. But at the Republican National Convention, he received only 10 votes on the first ballot. The convention deadlocked, and after over 30 ballots began to consider choosing a "dark horse" candidate, such as Windom. But instead of Windom, they nominated James A. Garfield, who was subsequently elected president.
On March 7, 1881, Windom resigned from the Senate and was appointed Secretary of the Treasury by Garfield, taking office the next day.
Windom served as Treasury Secretary until November 13, when he resigned. On October 26, he was again elected Senator by the Minnesota Legislature, this time to fill the vacancy left by his own resignation. He re-assumed his Senate seat on November 15 and served until the end of his term on March 4, 1883. He sought re-election in 1882, but was defeated.
In 1883, he moved to New York City, where he practiced law until 1889. After President Benjamin Harrison was elected in 1888, he appointed Windom as Secretary of the Treasury. Taking office on March 8, 1889, Windom served as Treasury Secretary until his death on January 29, 1891. He died while giving a speech in the famous Delmonico's Steak House in New York City.
During the last year of his treasury service he purchased 1,145,577 acres of land from the railroad for 3 cents per acre, when others were paying $5.00.
Memorials
Windom's engraved portrait appeared on the $2.00 denomination of U.S. silver certificates from 1891 to 1896.
The revenue cutter USS Windom was named for him, as was a World War II Liberty Ship.
The city of Windom in Cottonwood County, Minnesota is named for him.
Windom Park in Winona, Minnesota is named after him, as are Windom Northeast Park and Windom South Park in Minneapolis.
The Windom and Windom Park neighborhoods in Minneapolis are named after him.
William Windom is the namesake of Windom Peak, in Colorado.
References
Treasury biography
1827 births
1891 deaths
19th-century American politicians
People from Belmont County, Ohio
American Quakers
Minnesota Republicans
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Minnesota
United States Secretaries of the Treasury
United States senators from Minnesota
Republican Party United States senators
Benjamin Harrison administration cabinet members
Garfield administration cabinet members
Arthur administration cabinet members
New York (state) Republicans
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
Chairmen of the Senate Committee on Foreign Relations | [
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256250 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prince%20of%20Orange | Prince of Orange | Prince of Orange (or Princess of Orange if the holder is female) is a title originally associated with the sovereign Principality of Orange, in what is now southern France and subsequently held by sovereigns in the Netherlands.
The title "Prince of Orange" was created in 1163 by the Emperor Frederick Barbarossa, by elevating the county of Orange to a principality, in order to bolster his support in that area in his conflict with the Papacy. The title and land passed to the French noble houses of Baux, in 1173, and of Chalons, in 1393, before arriving with Rene of Nassau in 1530. The principality then passed to a Dutch nobleman, Rene’s cousin William (known as "the Silent"), in 1544.
In 1702, after William the Silent's great-grandson William III of England died without children, a dispute arose between his cousins, Johan Willem Friso and Frederick I of Prussia. In 1713, under the Treaty of Utrecht Frederick William I of Prussia ceded the Principality of Orange to King Louis XIV of France (while retaining the title as part of his dynastic titulature). In 1732, under the Treaty of Partition, Friso's son, William IV agreed to share use of the title "Prince of Orange" (which had accumulated prestige in the Netherlands and throughout the Protestant world) with Frederick William.
With the 19th century emergence of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, the title has been traditionally borne by the heir apparent of the Dutch monarch. Although originally only carried by men, since 1983 the title descends via absolute primogeniture, which means that the holder can be either Prince or Princess of Orange.
The current Dutch royal dynasty, the House of Orange-Nassau, is not the only family to claim the dynastical title. Rival claims to the title have been made by German emperors and kings of the House of Hohenzollern and by the head of the French noble family of Mailly. The current users of the title are Princess Catharina-Amalia of the Netherlands (Orange-Nassau), Georg Friedrich (of Hohenzollern), and Guy (of Mailly-Nesle).
History
County of Orange
The title originally referred to Orange in the Vaucluse department in the Rhone valley of southern France, which was a property of the House of Orange, then of the House of Baux and the House of Châlon-Arlay before passing in 1544 to the Dillenburg branch of the House of Nassau, which since then is known as the House of Orange-Nassau.
The Principality originated as the County of Orange, a fief in the Holy Roman Empire, in the Empire's constituent Kingdom of Burgundy. It was awarded to William of Gellone (born 755), a grandson of Charles Martel and therefore a cousin of Charlemagne, around the year 800 for his services in the wars against the Moors and in the reconquest of southern France and the Spanish March. His Occitan name is Guilhem; however, as a Frankish lord, he probably knew himself by the old Germanic version of Wilhelm. William also ruled as count of Toulouse, duke of Aquitaine, and marquis of Septimania.
The horn that came to symbolize Orange when heraldry came in vogue much later in the 12th century represented a pun on William of Gellone's name in French, from the character his deeds inspired in the chanson de geste, the Chanson de Guillaume: "Guillaume au Court-nez" (William the Short-Nosed) or its homophone "Guillaume au Cornet" (William the Horn).
The chanson appears to incorporate material relating to William of Gellone's battle at the Orbieu or Orbiel river near Carcassonne in 793 as well as to his seizure of the town of Orange.
Principality of Orange
As the kingdom of Burgundy fragmented in the early Middle Ages, the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I Barbarossa elevated the lordship of Orange to a principality in 1163 to shore up his supporters in Burgundy against the Pope and the King of France. As the Empire's boundaries retreated from those of the principality, the prince acceded to the sovereign rights that the Emperor formerly exercised. As William the Silent wrote in his marriage proposal to the uncle of his second wife, the Elector August of Saxony, he held Orange as "my own free property", not as a fief of any suzerain; neither the Pope, nor the Kings of Spain or France. That historical position of honor and reputation would later drive William the Silent forward, as much as it also fueled the opposition of his great grandson William III to Louis XIV, when that king invaded and occupied Orange.
The last descendant of the original princes, René of Châlon, left the principality to his cousin William the Silent, who was not a descendant of the original Orange family but the heir to the principality of Orange by testament, however in violation against the inheritance pattern enacted by the last will of Marie des Baux, the Princess of Orange through kinship to whom Prince René derived his own right thereto.
In 1673, Louis XIV of France annexed all territory of the principality to France and to the royal domain, as part of the war actions against the stadtholder William III of Orange — who later became King William III of Great Britain. Orange ceased to exist as a sovereign realm, de facto.
In 1673, Louis XIV bestowed the titular princedom on Louis Charles de Mailly, Marquis de Nesle, whose wife was a direct descendant, and heiress-general by primogeniture, of the original princes of Orange.
After the marquis (who died in 1713), the next holder was , marquis de Nesle (1689–1764). Although no longer descended from Louis-Charles, a branch of the Mailly family still claims the title today.
In 1714 Louis XIV bestowed the usufruct of the principality on his kinsman, Louis Armand of Bourbon, Prince de Conti. After his death in 1727 the principality was deemed merged in the Crown by 1731.
Abolition of the principality, continuation of the title
Because William III died without legitimate children, the principality was regarded as having been inherited by his closest cognate relative on the basis of the testament of Frederic-Henry, Frederick I of Prussia, who ceded the principality — at least the lands, but not the formal title — to France in 1713.
France supported his claim. In this way, the territory of the principality lost its feudal and secular privileges and became a part of France. The Treaty of Utrecht allowed the King of Prussia to erect part of the duchy of Gelderland (the cities of Geldern, Straelen, and Wachtendonk with their bailiwicks, Krickenbeck, Viersen, the land of Kessel, and the lordships of Afferden, Arcen-Velden-Lomm, Walbeck-Twisteden, Raay and Klein-Kevelaer, Well, Bergen, and Middelaar) into a new Principality of Orange.
The kings of Prussia and the German emperors styled themselves Princes of Orange till 1918.
An agnatic relative of William III, John William Friso of Nassau, who was also cognatically descended from William the Silent, was designated the heir to the Princes of Orange in the Netherlands by the last will of William III. Several of his descendants became stadtholders. They claim the principality of Orange on the basis of agnatic inheritance, similar to that of William the Silent, who had inherited Orange from his cousin René of Châlon. They did however have a claim, albeit distant, to the principality itself due to John William Friso's descent from Louise de Coligny, who was a descendant of the original Princes of Orange. (Louise's great grandmother, Anne Pot, Countess of St. Pol, was a descendant of Tiburge d'Orange, who married into the des Baux family)
They could also claim descent from the del Balzo, an Italian branch of the des Baux family, via the marriage of Princess Anne to William IV, Prince of Orange. Anne was the eldest daughter of George II of Great Britain, who was a descendant of Elizabeth Woodville, wife of Edward IV of England. Elizabeth Woodville's grandmother was Margherita del Balzo, another descendant of Tiburge d'Orange.
They also claimed on the basis of the testaments of Philip William, Maurice, and William III. Finally, they claimed on the basis that Orange was an independent state whose sovereign had the right to assign his succession according to his will. France never recognized any of this, nor allowed the Orange-Nassaus or the Hohenzollerns to obtain anything of the principality itself. The Oranje-Nassaus nevertheless assumed the title and also erected several of their lordships into a new principality of Orange.
From that derivation of the title comes the tradition of the House of Orange-Nassau (originally Nassau-Dietz), the later stadtholders of the Netherlands, and the present-day royal family of the Netherlands, of holding this title. They maintain the tradition of William the Silent and the House of Orange-Nassau.
There are two other
claimants to this title:
The House of Hohenzollern, who reigned in Prussia until 1918
The House of Mailly-Nesles
Bearers of the title
As Counts of Orange
First House of Orange
As sovereign prince of Orange
Until 1340, it was customary for all sons of the prince of Orange to inherit the title.
Only the direct line of descent to Raimond V is shown here.
House of Baux
The house of Baux succeeded to the principality of Orange when Bertrand of Baux married the heiress of the last native count of Orange, Tiburge, daughter of William of Orange, Omelaz, and Montpellier. Their son was William I of Baux-Orange. Bertrand was the son of Raymond of Baux and Stephanie of Gevaudan. Stephanie was the younger daughter of Gerberga, the heiress of the counts of Provence. For a genealogical table, see the reference cited:
{| width=100% class="wikitable"
!No
!Name
!Picture
!Birth
!Created Prince of Orange
!Ceased to be Prince of Orange
!Death
!Other titles while Prince of Orange
!PrincessofOrange
|-
|align="center"| 1.
|align="center"| Prince Bertrand I
|align="center"|
|align="center"| 1110/1115
|align="center"| 1173<small>After the death of his brother-in-law, Raimbaut, Count of Orange, the County of Orange was elevated to a principality in 1163 by the Holy Roman Emperor Frederick I.</small>
|align="center" colspan="2"| April/October 1180
|align="center"| Lord of Baux
|| Tibors de Sarenom
|-
|}
Bertrand I used as Prince of Orange the coat of arms of the House of Baux: a 16-pointed white star placed on a field of gules. Later on, the Princes of Orange quartered the legendary bugle-horn as a heraldic figure into their coat of arms.
House of Baux-Orange
House of Châlon-Orange (also House of Ivrea of Anscarid dynasty)
The lords of Chalons and Arlay were a cadet branch of the ruling house of the county of Burgundy, the Anscarids or House of Ivrea. They married the heiress of Baux-Orange.
House of Châlon-Orange
Rene inherited the principality of Orange from his uncle Philbert on the condition that he bear the name and arms of the house of Châlon-Orange. Therefore, he is usually counted as one of the Châlon-Orange and history knows him as Rene of Châlon, rather than "of Nassau".
House of Orange-Nassau (first incarnation)
William of Nassau inherited the principality of Orange from his cousin René. Although William descended from no previous Prince of Orange, as René had no children or siblings, he exercised his right as sovereign prince to will Orange to his first cousin on his father's side, who actually had no Orange blood. This began the Dutch Royal House of Orange-Nassau.
Title without territory
House of Orange-Nassau (second incarnation)
The 2nd house of Orange-Nassau (see House of Orange-Nassau family tree) were cousins on their father and mother's side of the 1st house.
Head of house
Netherlands heir apparent
House of Hohenzollern
Frederick I of Prussia (1702–1713), a senior descendant in female line from William the Silent, who ceded his claims to the lands of Orange to France in 1713, and his descendants, but kept his right to use the title.
House of Mailly
Louis de Mailly, Marquis de Nesle et de Mailly, appointed by the French king, and his descendants, descended through another line of the house of Chalons-Arlay, currently Guy, Marquis de Nesle et de Mailly, Prince d'Orange.
House of Bourbon
Louis Armand II, Prince of Conti, appointed by the French king, and his descendants, the Princes of Conti becoming extinct in 1815.
Princes of Orange of the House of Orange-Nassau
Historical background
William the Silent (Willem I) was the first stadtholder of the Dutch Republic and the most significant representative of the House of Orange in the Netherlands. He was count of a portion of the German territory of Nassau and heir to some of his father's fiefs in Holland. William obtained more extensive lands in the Netherlands (the lordship of Breda and several other dependencies) as an inheritance from his cousin René of Châlon, Prince of Orange, when William was only 11 years old. After William's assassination in 1584, the title passed to his son Philip William (who had been held hostage in Spain until 1596), and after his death in 1618, to his second son Maurice, and finally to his youngest son, Frederick Henry.
The title of Prince of Orange became associated with the stadtholder of the Netherlands.
William III (Willem III) was also King of England, Scotland and Ireland, and his legacy is commemorated annually by the Protestant Orange Order. William's mother, Mary, was the daughter of King Charles I of England and therefore a princess of England as well as Princess of Orange by marriage.
William III and Mary II had no legitimate children. After William's death in 1702, his heir in the Netherlands was John William Friso of Nassau-Diez, who assumed the title, King William having bequeathed it to him by testament. The other contender was the King in Prussia, who based his claim to the title on the will of Frederick Henry, William III's grandfather. Eventually, a compromise was reached by which both families were entitled to bear the title of Prince of Orange. By then, it was no more than a title because the principality had been annexed by Louis XIV of France.
Friso's line held it as their principal title during the 18th century. The French army expelled them from the Netherlands in 1795, but on their return, the Prince of Orange became the first sovereign of the Netherlands in 1813.
After the establishment of the current Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1815, the title was partly reconstitutionalized by legislation and granted to the eldest son of King William I of the Netherlands, Prince William, who later became William II of the Netherlands. Since 1983, the heir to the Dutch throne, whether male or female, bears the title Prince or Princess of Orange. The first-born child of the heir to the Dutch throne bears the title Hereditary Prince(ss) of Orange. When her father Willem-Alexander became King of the Netherlands following the abdication of Queen Beatrix, Princess Catharina-Amalia became the Princess of Orange.
Style
The Prince(ss) of Orange is styled His/Her Royal Highness the Prince(ss) of Orange (Dutch: Zijne/Hare Koninklijke Hoogheid de Prins(es) van Oranje).
During the 15th, 16th and 17th Centuries, the Prince(ss) of Orange was styled His/Her Highness the Prince(ss) of Orange (Dutch: Zijne/Hare Hoogheid de Prins(es) van Oranje), except for William III, who rated the "Royal/Koninklijke".
Arms
The princes of Orange in the 16th and 17th century used the following sets of arms. On becoming Prince of Orange, William placed the Châlon-Arlay arms in the center ("as an inescutcheon") of his father's arms. He used these arms until 1582 when he purchased the marquisate of Veere and Vlissingen. He then used the arms attributed to Frederick Henry, etc. with the arms of the marquisate in the top center, and the arms of the county of Buren in the bottom center. Their growing complexity shows how arms are used to reflect the growing political position and royal aspirations of the house of Orange-Nassau.
When William VI of Orange returned to the Netherlands in 1813 and was proclaimed Sovereign Prince of the Netherlands, he quartered the former Arms of the Dutch Republic (1st and 4th quarter) with the "Châlon-Orange" arms (2nd and 3rd quarter), which had come to symbolize Orange. As an in escutcheon he placed his ancestral arms of Nassau. When he became King in 1815, he combined the Dutch Republic Lion with the billets of the Nassau arms and added a royal crown to form the Coat of arms of the Netherlands. In the 19th century, the Dutch Crown prince, who holds the title "Prince of Orange" ("Prins van Oranje"), and his son, who holds the title "Hereditary Prince of Orange" ("Erfprins van Oranje") had their own pre-defined arms. The House of Orange, now the Royal House of the Netherlands, and their descendants the House of Orange-Nassau, kept this title for their family. Wilhelmina further decreed that in perpetuity her descendants should be styled "princes and princesses of Orange-Nassau" and that the name of the house would be "Orange-Nassau" (in Dutch "Oranje-Nassau"). Since then, individual members of the House of Orange-Nassau are also given their own arms by the reigning monarch, similar to the United Kingdom. This is usually the royal arms, quartered with the arms of the principality of Orange, and an in escutcheon of their paternal arms.
As a former territory of the Holy Roman Empire, the princes of Orange used an independent prince's crown. Sometimes, only the coronet part was used (see, here and here). After the establishment of the Kingdom of the Netherlands, they used the Dutch Royal Crowns:
See also
List of heirs to the Dutch throne
References
Literature
Herbert H. Rowen, The princes of Orange: the stadholders in the Dutch Republic. Cambridge and New York: Cambridge University Press, 1988.
John Lothrop Motley, "History of the United Netherlands from the Death of William the Silent to the Synod of Dort". London: John Murray, 1860.
John Lothrop Motley, "The Life and Death of John of Barenvelt". New York & London: Harper and Brothers Publishing, 1900.
Petrus Johannes Blok, "History of the people of the Netherlands". New York: G. P. Putnam's sons, 1898.
Reina van Ditzhuyzen, Het Huis van Oranje: prinsen, stadhouders, koningen en koninginnen''. Haarlem : De Haan, [1979].
External links
Treaty ceding the Principality to Louis XIV
Treaty of Partition (1732)
Heirs to the throne
Orange
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256251 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1824%20in%20music | 1824 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1824.
Events
May 7 – First performance of Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 (the "Choral") at the Theater am Kärntnertor in Vienna.
June 21 – Franz Liszt makes his London debut. Muzio Clementi, Ferdinand Ries, Friedrich Kalkbrenner and Cipriani Potter are in the audience.
Baluswami Dikshitar (brother of Muthuswami Dikshitar) is appointed State Vidwan of Ettayapuram.
Franz Liszt commences theory lessons with Antonin Reicha and composition lessons with Ferdinando Paer.
First Norfolk and Norwich Festival held in England
Popular Music
Robert Stephen Hawker – "The Song of the Western Men"
"O Tannenbaum" lyrics published by Ernst Anschutz
Classical music
Ludwig van Beethoven
Missa Solemnis
Symphony No. 9 in D minor "Choral"
Hector Berlioz – Messe solennelle
Ferdinando Carulli – 18 Petits morceaux, Op. 211
Frederic Chopin – Mazurka Op. 7 No. 4
Johann Baptist Cramer – Piano Sonata, Op. 63
Carl Czerny – Piano Sonata Nos.3, 4, and 5, Op. 57, 65 and 76
Friedrich Ernst Fesca – String Quartet, Op.34
Fanny Hensel – Sonata for Piano in C minor
Johann Nepomuk Hummel – Introduction et rondo brillant, Op. 98
Friedrich Kuhlau
3 Grand Solos, Op. 57
3 Sonatinas, Op. 59
3 Sonatas with Variations, Op. 60
Kaspar Kummer – Flute Trio, Op. 24
Maximillian Joseph Leidesdorf – Horn Sonata, Op. 164
Felix Mendelssohn – Symphony No. 1 in C minor, Op. 11
Bernhard Molique – Flute Concerto, Op. 69
George Onslow
Piano Trio No.8, Op. 26
Piano Trio No.9, Op. 27
Antoine Reicha – 6 Piano Trios, Op. 101
Ferdinand Ries – Rule Britannia, Op. 116
Franz Schubert: List of compositions by Franz Schubert (1824), 799–822, including:
Octet, D 803
String Quartet No. 13, D 804 (Rosamunde)
String Quartet No. 14, D 810 (Death and the Maiden)
Sonata in C major for piano four-hands, D 812
"Gebet", D 815
Arpeggione Sonata, D 821 (Grand Duo)
Opera
Gaetano Donizetti – L'ajo nell'imbarazzo
Friedrich Kuhlau – Lulu
Giacomo Meyerbeer – Il crociato in Egitto
Waldemar Thrane – Fjeldeventyret ("The mountain adventure")
Nicola Vaccai
Pietro il grande (première January 17 at Teatro Ducale, Parma)
La pastorella feudataria (première September 18 at Teatro Carignano, Turin)
Births
January 22 – Josef Leopold Zvonař, composer, music teacher and critic (d. 1865)
March 2 – Bedřich Smetana, composer (d. 1884)
March 7 – Robert Ambrose, organist and composer (d. 1908)
April 22 – Richard Wüerst, composer and music teacher (d. 1881)
June 13 – Julius Eichberg, composer (d. 1893)
June 23 – Carl Reinecke, pianist, conductor and composer (d. 1910)
August 1 – John P. Ordway, doctor, composer, music entrepreneur, and politician (d. 1880)
August 19 – Georg Goltermann, cellist and composer (d. 1898)
September 4 – Anton Bruckner, composer (d. 1896)
September 8 – Jaime Nunó, composer of the Mexican national anthem (d. 1908)
November 25 – Antonio Ghislanzoni, librettist (d. 1893)
date unknown
François Xavier Bazin, bow-maker (d. 1865)
Velvel Zbarjer, Brody singer (d. 1884)
Charlotta Norberg, ballerina (d. 1892)
Frederick Ellard (d. 1874)
Deaths
January 7 – Faustino Arévalo, hymnographer (born 1747)
February 1 – Maria Theresia von Paradis, musician and composer (born 1759)
March 3 – Giovanni Battista Viotti, violinist and composer (born 1755)
April 18 – Edward Jones, royal harpist (born 1752)
June 21 – Étienne Aignan, opera librettist (born 1773)
September 16 – Giacomo Tritto, opera composer (born 1733)
December 5 – Anne Louise Boyvin d'Hardancourt Brillon de Jouy, harpsichordist (born 1744)
date unknown
Nicolas Lupot, luthier (born 1758)
Alexander Uber, cellist and composer (born 1783)
probable – János Bihari, violinist (born 1764)
References
19th century in music
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256252 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1825%20in%20music | 1825 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1825.
Events
March 21 – British première of Ludwig van Beethoven's Symphony No. 9 (1824) is presented by the Philharmonic Society of London.
May – Chopin performs for Tsar Alexander I in Warsaw.
Singer Maria Malibran (as Maria García) makes her operatic debut as Rosina in The Barber of Seville at the King's Theatre in London.
September – In Vienna:
Joseph Lanner and Johann Strauss I quarrel, and Strauss leaves Lanner's orchestra.
Danish composer and pianist Friedrich Kuhlau, on an extended visit to the city, meets Beethoven.
November 29 – A touring opera company led by Manuel García performs Rossini's The Barber of Seville in New York City, the first opera to be sung in Italian in the Americas. The troupe includes his daughters Maria, who meets and hastily marries banker Francois Eugene Malibran, and Pauline.
December 10 – François-Adrien Boieldieu's opéra comique La dame blanche is premièred by the Opéra-Comique at the Théâtre Feydeau in Paris.
Classical music
Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga – Symphony in D major
Ludwig van Beethoven
String Quartet No. 13 in B-flat major
String Quartet No. 15 in A Minor
Franz Schubert
Ellens Gesang III
Piano Sonata in A minor
Jean-François Lesueur – Te Deum (for the coronation of King Charles X of France)
Felix Mendelssohn – Octet for Strings
Opera
Vincenzo Bellini – Adelson e Salvini
Gaetano Donizetti – Alahor in Granata
Franz Grillparzer - König Ottokars Glück und Ende (written 1923, premiered February 19, 1825 in Vienna's Burgtheater].
Franz Liszt – Don Sanche ou le Chateau d'Amour (Don Sanche or the Castle of Love)
Giovanni Pacini – L'ultimo giorno di Pompei
Nicola Vaccai – Giulietta e Romeo
Popular music
"Cherry Ripe" – w. Robert Herrick m. Charles Edward Horn
"The Minstrel's Return'd From The War" – John Hill Hewitt
Births
January 23 – Louis Ehlert, composer and music critic (d. 1884)
February 28 – Jean-Baptiste Arban, cornet virtuoso and conductor (d. 1889)
March 12 – August Manns, conductor (d. 1907)
June 24 – Jovan Sundečić, poet and lyricist (d. 1900)
June 30 – Hervé, singer, conductor and composer of operettas (d. 1892)
August 9 – Gaetano Antoniazzi, violin-maker (d. 1897)
August 21 – Kate Loder, pianist and composer (d. 1904)
August 22 – Julius Schulhoff, pianist and composer (d. 1898)
August 24 – Charles Wels, pianist, organist, composer and music teacher (d. 1906)
September 25 – Johann Strauss II, conductor and composer (d. 1899)
December 19 – George Frederick Bristow, composer (d. 1898)
date unknown – Balbina Steffenone, operatic soprano (d. 1896)
Deaths
February 5 – Pierre Gaveaux, operatic tenor and composer (b. 1761)
March 24 – Giovanni Domenico Perotti, composer (b. 1761)
May 6 – Lady Anne Barnard, balladeer (b. 1750)
May 7 – Antonio Salieri, composer (b. 1750)
May 12 – Elias Mann (b. 1750)
July 10 – Ludwig Fischer, operatic bass (b. 1745)
July 29 – Micah Hawkins, composer and writer (b. 1777)
August 3 – Ambrogio Minoja, composer (b. 1752)
August 23 – Amos Bull, composer (b. 1744)
September 13 – Luigi Bassi, operatic baritone (b. 1766)
November 1 – Rodrigo Ferreira da Costa, composer
November 12 – Joseph Reinagle, string and horn player, trumpeter and composer (b. 1762)
November 19 – Jan Václav Voříšek, pianist, organist and composer (b. 1791)
December 29 – Giuseppe Maria Gioacchino Cambini, composer
December 30 – Peter Gronland, composer
probable – Giuseppe Cambini, violinist and composer (b. 1746)
References
19th century in music
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256253 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leeuwenhoek%20Medal | Leeuwenhoek Medal | The Leeuwenhoek Medal, established in 1877 by the Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW), in honor of the 17th- and 18th-century microscopist Antoni van Leeuwenhoek, is granted every ten years to the scientist judged to have made the most significant contribution to microbiology during the preceding decade. From 2015 the Royal Dutch Society for Microbiology (KNVM) will be awarding the Leeuwenhoek Medal.
Recipients
Source: KNVM
1877 Christian Gottfried Ehrenberg, Germany
1885 Ferdinand Cohn, Germany
1895 Louis Pasteur, France
1905 Martinus Beijerinck, Netherlands
1915 Sir David Bruce, United Kingdom
1925 Félix d'Herelle, (at the time) Egypt
1935 Sergei Nikolaevitch Winogradsky, France
1950 Selman Abraham Waksman, United States
1960 André Lwoff, France
1970 Cornelius Bernardus van Niel (Kees van Niel), United States
1981 Roger Yate Stanier, France
1992 Carl Woese, United States
2003 Karl Stetter, Germany
2015 Craig Venter, United States of America
See also
Royal Society Leeuwenhoek Lecture
List of biology awards
References
Biology awards
Dutch honorary society awards
Dutch science and technology awards
Microbiology
1877 establishments in the Netherlands
Antonie van Leeuwenhoek
Awards established in 1877 | [
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256254 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1826%20in%20music | 1826 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1826.
Events
Chopin begins to study with Józef Elsner at the Warsaw Conservatory
Published popular music
"The Old Oaken Bucket" w. Samuel Woodworth m. George F. Kiallmark. Words written in 1817.
Classical music
Ludwig van Beethoven
String Quartet No. 13 in B-flat major, Op. 130
String Quartet No. 14 in C-sharp minor, Op. 131
Muzio Clementi – Complete Gradus ad Parnassum (100 pieces) appears for the first time, simultaneously in Paris, Leipzig and London on October 31.
Johannes Frederik Frøhlich – Concertino for violin and orchestra in D major
Franz Liszt – Initial version of the Étude en douze exercices
Felix Mendelssohn – Overture "A Midsummer Night's Dream" in E major for orchestra, Op. 21
Niccolò Paganini – Violin Concerto No. 2
Franz Schubert
Symphony No. 9 in C major "Great"
String Quartet No. 15 in G major
Piano Sonata No. 18 in G major "Fantasie"
Opera
John Barnett – Before Breakfast
Vincenzo Bellini – Bianca e Fernando
Gaetano Donizetti – Alahor in Granata
Joseph Augustine Wade – The Two Houses of Granada
Carl Maria von Weber – Oberon, King of the Fairies (first performed in London, libretto by James Robinson Planche).
Births
February 1 – Marie Carandini, opera singer (d. 1894)
February 16 – Franz von Holstein, composer
March 6 – Marietta Alboni, operatic contralto (d. 1894)
March 14 – William Fisk Sherwin, composer
March 23 – Léon Minkus, composer (d. 1917)
April 7 – Johann Hermann Berens, composer (d. 1880)
April 28 – Alexander Stadtfeld, composer
June 1
Carl Bechstein, piano-maker (d. 1900)
Hermann Zopff, composer
July 4 – Stephen Foster, songwriter (d. 1864)
July 8 – Friedrich Chrysander, music historian (d. 1901)
July 22 – Julius Stockhausen, singer and music teacher (d. 1906)
August 13 – William Thomas Best, organist (d. 1897)
August 28 – Walter Cecil Macfarren, pianist and composer
October 13 – Johanna Jachmann-Wagner, operatic mezzo-soprano (d. 1894)
October 14 – Georges Mathias, composer and pianist (d. 1910)
October 16 – Piotr Studzinski, composer
Mathilda Ebeling, Swedish soprano (died 1851)
October 22 – Guglielmo Quarenghi, cellist and composer (d. 1882)
December 21 – Ernst Pauer, composer (d. 1905)
December 24 – Ignacy Krzyżanowski, Polish composer (d. 1905)
date unknown – Edward Mack, songwriter (d. 1882)
Deaths
January 17 – Juan Crisóstomo Arriaga, composer (b. 1806)
February 11 – Charles Benjamin Incledon, singer (b. 1763)
March 14 – Julie Alix de la Fay, ballerina (b. 1748)
April 3 – Reginald Heber, hymn-writing bishop (b. 1783)
April 13 – Franz Danzi, cellist, conductor and composer (b. 1763)
May 6 – Sophie Hagman, ballerina (b. 1758)
May 24 – Frederic Ernest Fesca, violinist and composer (b. 1789)
May 27 – Carl David Stegmann, singer, harpsichordist, conductor and composer (b. 1751)
June 5 – Carl Maria von Weber, composer (b. 1786)
July 7 – Friedrich Ludwig Dulon, flautist and composer (b. 1768)
July 11 – Carl Bernhard Wessely, composer
August 30 – Theodor Zwetler, composer
September 28 – Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel, inventor of the first working metronome (b. 1780)
October 9 – Michael Kelly, actor, singer and composer (b. 1762)
November 17 – Caroline Frederikke Müller, operatic mezzo-soprano (b. 1755)
December 3 – Elizabeth Sandunova soprano
December 10 – Benedikt Emanuel Schack, singer and composer (b. 1758)
19th century in music
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256255 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Daniel%20Sheldon%20Norton | Daniel Sheldon Norton | Daniel Sheldon Norton (April 12, 1829July 13, 1870) was an American lawyer and politician who served in the Minnesota State Senate and as a U.S. Senator from Minnesota.
Life and career
Norton was born in Mount Vernon, Ohio to Daniel Sheldon and Sarah Sheldon (née Banning). He had a brother, Anthony Banning Norton, who also became a politician. He attended Kenyon College but left school to serve with the 2nd Ohio Volunteers in the Mexican–American War. After returning from the war he studied law under his brother-in-law Judge Rollin C. Hurd. For several years he moved to California and Nicaragua but he returned to Ohio in 1852 and was admitted to the bar shortly thereafter. He practiced law in Mount Vernon for several years before he moving to Minnesota Territory in 1855.
After initially living in St. Paul, Minnesota, Norton eventually settled in Winona, Minnesota. In 1857 Norton was elected to the Minnesota State Senate for its first legislative session. He was reelected in 1860 and 1863 serving four total terms in seven years. In 1865 the state legislature elected him to the US Senate where he served in the 39th and 40th congresses. Initially elected as a Unionist, Norton later aligned himself with the more moderate Republican faction in the senate. He supported President Andrew Johnson's stance on reconstruction and opposed his impeachment. This led to tension with the more radical Republicans of Minnesota who passed a resolution censuring Norton for his actions and calling for his resignation.
Norton died while in office on July 13, 1870. He is buried in Green Mount Cemetery in Baltimore, Maryland.
See also
List of United States Congress members who died in office (1790–1899)
References
1829 births
1870 deaths
People from Mount Vernon, Ohio
Members of the Minnesota House of Representatives
Minnesota state senators
United States senators from Minnesota
Minnesota Republicans
American military personnel of the Mexican–American War
Republican Party United States senators
19th-century American politicians | [
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256256 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hooded%20merganser | Hooded merganser | The hooded merganser (Lophodytes cucullatus) is a species of merganser. It is the only extant species in the genus Lophodytes. The genus name derives from the Greek language: lophos meaning 'crest', and dutes meaning 'diver'. The bird is striking in appearance; both sexes have crests that they can raise or lower, and the breeding plumage of the male is handsomely patterned and coloured. The hooded merganser has a sawbill but is not classified as a typical merganser.
Hooded mergansers are the second smallest species of merganser, with only the smew of Europe and Asia being smaller, and it also is the only merganser whose native habitat is restricted to North America.
A species of fossil merganser from the Late Pleistocene of Vero Beach, Florida, was described as Querquedula floridana (a genus now included in Anas), but upon reexamination turned out to be a species closely related to the hooded merganser; it is now named Lophodytes floridanus, but the exact relationship between this bird and the modern species is unknown.
Taxonomy
The hooded merganser was one of the many bird species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae, where it was given the binomial name Mergus cucullatus.
Description
The hooded merganser is a sexually dimorphic species. The adult female has a greyish-brown body, with a narrow white patch over the lower breast and belly. She has a light reddish-brown crest extending from the back of the head. During the nonbreeding season the male looks similar to the female, except that his eyes are yellow and the female's eyes are brown.
In breeding plumage the dorsal areas and the head, neck and breast of the mature male are mainly black with white markings; there are large white patches on either side of the crest, and they are particularly conspicuous when he raises his crest during courtship. His lower flanks are a rich reddish-brown or chestnut in colour, and the breast and undersides are more or less white, extending into white stripes across the crop and breast.
In both sexes there are narrow white stripes along the tertial wing feathers; when the bird is in repose they have the appearance of longitudinal white stripes along the bird's lower back, if they are visible.
First-winter birds differ from adult females in appearance in that they have a grey-brown neck and upper parts; the upper parts of adult females are much darker — nearly black. Furthermore, the young birds have narrower white edges to their tertial feathers than adults do. Females of all ages are dark-eyed, whereas in males the eyes become pale during their first winter.
Measurements:
Length: 15.8-19.3 in (40-49 cm)
Weight: 16.0-31.0 oz (453-879 g)
Wingspan: 23.6-26.0 in (60-66 cm)
Distribution and habitat
Hooded mergansers are short-distance migrants, and they winter in the United States in regions where winter temperatures allow for ice-free conditions on ponds, lakes and rivers. They have two major year-round ranges. One is in the eastern United States from the southern Canada–US border along the Atlantic Coast to the Gulf Coast in the region of the Mississippi delta. A smaller year-round range extends from Washington state and southern British Columbia to northern Idaho. They also breed to some extent in regions from Missouri to southern Canada and from Nova Scotia to eastern North Dakota and Saskatchewan, migrating when necessary to avoid winter conditions. From 1966 - 2015, the hooded merganser experienced a >1.5% yearly population increase throughout its breeding range.
For preference the hooded merganser lives on small bodies of water such as ponds and small estuaries where there is ample emergent aquatic vegetation, but it also inhabits larger wetlands, impoundments, flooded timber, and rivers. They prefer fresh water but do occur on brackish water bodies as well.
Vagrancy to Europe
Although the hooded merganser is a common species in captivity in Europe and most specimens recorded in the wild are regarded as escapes, a small number of birds have been regarded as genuinely wild vagrants. Britain's current first accepted record is a bird which was seen on North Uist in October 2000. Small numbers are seen regularly in Dublin, but these are presumed to be escapes.
Diet
The hooded merganser is a diving predator that largely hunts by sight while under water. Most studies report that its diet varies according to circumstances, usually being dominated by fish (44-81%). In addition it feeds on aquatic insects (13-20% of its diet) and other aquatic invertebrates such as crabs and crayfish (22-50%).
Reproduction
Males and females of the hooded merganser form monogamous pairs and they remain together until the female has selected a nesting cavity and completed laying her clutch. After that, the male leaves the female to incubate and care for the brood. Females will actively seek out cavities in dead trees or artificial nest boxes such as those provided for nesting wood ducks. They prefer cavities 4–15 feet off the ground. Breeding occurs anytime between the end of February and the end of June, depending on the region.
The female will lay a clutch of 7-15 eggs but only begins incubation when the last egg has been laid, thereby permitting synchronous hatching. All hatchlings are consequently of the same size, which facilitates efficient parental care. During incubation, the female may lose anywhere from 8% to 16% of her body weight.
Like most waterfowl, hooded merganser hatchlings are precocial and usually leave the nest within 24 hours after they hatch; this is about long enough to accommodate synchronous hatching. Once they leave the nest, the young are capable of diving and foraging, but remain with the female for warmth and protection.
Management and conservation
Population declines in the past have been linked with large scale deforestation. Because these waterfowl are cavity nesters, they require mature trees in which suitable nesting sites are likely to be found. It has been suggested that in recent years proper timber management is increasing available habitat successfully. One priority consideration when managing wooded habitat for cavity nesting ducks, is to maintain a sufficient population of mature trees in which suitable nesting cavities would be plentiful. In addition these ducks do make use of artificial nest boxes when available.
Because of their high reliance on aquatic prey, hooded mergansers are very susceptible to harm from many types of pollution, some of which are poisons that accumulate in the food organisms, directly poisoning predators high in the food chain, and some of which simply reduce the populations of their prey.
See also
Pilling's Pond
References
External links
Hooded Merganser Species Account – Cornell Lab of Ornithology
Hooded Merganser - Lophodytes cucullatus - USGS Patuxent Bird Identification InfoCenter
eNature.com: Hooded merganser
Massachusetts Breeding Bird Atlas - Hooded merganser
hooded merganser
Merginae
Birds of North America
hooded merganser
hooded merganser | [
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256258 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Global%20Affairs%20Canada | Global Affairs Canada | Global Affairs Canada (GAC; ; AMC) is the department of the Government of Canada that manages Canada's diplomatic and consular relations, promotes Canadian international trade, and leads Canada's international development and humanitarian assistance. It is also responsible for maintaining Canadian government offices abroad with diplomatic and consular status on behalf of all government departments.
History
The department has undergone numerous name changes and re-organizations since its founding in 1909. Originally established as the Department of External Affairs, the department has also been known as Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development Canada, and Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada throughout its lifetime.
Origins (early 20th century)
Global Affairs Canada was first founded as the Department of External Affairs on 1 June 1909.
During and after World War I, however, Canada assumed progressively greater control over its foreign relations, with its full autonomy in this field being confirmed by the Statute of Westminster in 1931. Still, for historical reasons, the name External Affairs was retained.
The Department of Trade and Commerce, which included the Trade Commissioner Service, was created in 1892 and was combined with the Department of Industry in 1969 to form the Department of Industry Trade and Commerce (ITC). Both External Affairs and ITC maintained networks of offices abroad, with varying degrees of coordination among them. The Department of Citizenship and Immigration also had offices abroad, in some cases dating back to Confederation.
Reorganization (1970s–80s)
In the 1970s and early 1980s, there were growing efforts to ensure coordination among all Canadian government offices outside Canada and to strengthen the leadership role and authority of heads of post (ambassadors, high commissioners, consuls general) over all Canadian government staff in their areas of accreditation. This led to a 1979 decision by Prime Minister Joe Clark to consolidate the various streams of the Canadian Foreign Service, including the "political" (traditional diplomatic) stream, the Trade Commissioner Service, and the Immigration Foreign Service.
This was followed by a decision in February 1982 by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau to combine External Affairs and International Trade into a single department, initially as the Department of External Affairs and then as External Affairs and International Trade. The change was reflected in a new Department of External Affairs Act passed in 1983. The 1982 merger was part of larger reorganization of government that also combined the Industry component of ITC with the Department of Regional Economic Expansion.
Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade (1993–95)
The department's name was changed to the Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade (DFAIT) in 1993, formalized by an Act of Parliament in 1995, about 60 years after Canada had gained control over its foreign policy (1931). DFAIT maintained two separate ministers: the Minister of Foreign Affairs, with lead responsibility for the portfolio, and the Minister of International Trade. The Minister for International Cooperation, who was responsible for agencies such as the Canadian International Development Agency (CIDA), also fell under DFAIT. Moreover, the responsibilities of DFAIT would include Canadian relations with Commonwealth nations—though such nations are not considered 'foreign' to one another.
CIDA was formally established in 1968, although a preceding External Aid Office was created as a branch of the External Affairs Department in 1960, building on roots that go back to the Colombo Plan in the early 1950s.
Recent developments (21st century)
Through an administrative separation of the Department of Foreign Affairs and International Trade, two separate departments named Foreign Affairs Canada (FAC) and International Trade Canada (ITCan), respectively, were created in December 2003. However, legislation to formally abolish DFAIT and provide a statutory basis for the separate departments failed to pass a first vote in the House of Commons on 15 February 2005. The government, nonetheless, maintained the administrative separation of the two departments despite neither having been established through an Act of Parliament.
In early 2006, under the new government of Prime Minister Stephen Harper, Foreign Affairs Canada and International Trade Canada were re-joined to again form a single department known as Foreign Affairs and International Trade Canada.
In 2013, included within the Conservative government's omnibus budget bill, An Act to implement certain provisions of the budget tabled in Parliament on March 21, 2013 and other measures (or Bill C-60), was a section that would fold the Canadian International Development Agency into the department, creating the Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development (DFATD). The bill received royal assent on 26 June 2013.
On 4 November 2015, the Prime Minister Justin Trudeau's new Liberal government modified the name of the department again. While the legal name of the department remains the Department of Foreign Affairs, Trade and Development, its public designation (applied title) under the Federal Identity Program is Global Affairs Canada. Despite the change to the applied title of the department, the senior minister responsible is called the Minister of Foreign Affairs, rather than "Minister of Global Affairs".
Functions and structure
GAC is headquartered in the Lester B. Pearson Building at 125 Sussex Drive on the banks of the Rideau River in Ottawa, but operates out of several properties in Canada's National Capital Region.
Ministers
Ministers and parliamentary secretaries to ministers are elected members of the House of Commons and accountable to Parliament. Ministers are also members of the cabinet and privy council (and thus entitled to use the prefix "the Honourable"). The current leadership of GAC is provided by three ministers, each with their own responsibilities.
The minister of foreign affairs (currently Mélanie Joly) is the senior minister in the department, with responsibility for foreign policy matters as well as the department overall. This ministerial portfolio includes:
Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada
International Joint Commission
Permanent Joint Board on Defense
Roosevelt Campobello International Park Commission
The minister of international development (currently Harjit Sajjan) is responsible for international development, poverty reduction, and humanitarian assistance. This ministerial portfolio includes:
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Business Advisory Council
Development finance institutions
African Development Bank
Asian Development Bank
Inter-American Development Bank
Caribbean Development Bank
International Development Research Centre (IDRC)
The minister of international trade, export promotion, small business and economic development (currently Mary Ng) is responsible for matters of international trade. This ministerial portfolio includes:
Business Development Bank of Canada
Canadian Commercial Corporation (CCC)
Export Development Canada (EDC)
Invest in Canada
Office of the Extractive Sector Corporate Social Responsibility Counsellor
Trade Commissioner Service
Current departmental structure
Deputy ministers are senior public servants who take political direction from ministers and are responsible for the day-to-day operations of the department.
The current departmental structure, and corresponding executives, are as follows:
Minister of Foreign Affairs – Mélanie Joly
Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Foreign Affairs – Rob Oliphant
Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs – Marta Morgan
Associate Deputy Minister of Foreign Affairs – Christopher MacLennan
North America
Latin America and the Caribbean
Europe, Middle East and the Maghreb
Asia & Africa
Minister of International Development – Harjit Sajjan
Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of International Development – Kamal Khera
Deputy Minister of International Development – Leslie MacLean
International Development Research Centre
International Assistance Operations – C. Campbell
Minister of International Trade, Export Promotion, Small Business and Economic Development – Mary Ng
Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister of Small Business, Export Promotion and International Trade – Rachel Bendayan
Deputy Minister of International Trade – John Hannaford
Trade Commissioner Service
Export Development Canada
Canadian Commercial Corporation
Office of the Extractive Sector Corporate Social Responsibility Counsellor
Branches of Global Affairs each have their own Assistant Deputy Minister, who report to all three deputy ministers:
Strategic Planning and Policy
Consular, Security and Emergency Management Branch
Global Issues
International Security
International Business Development, Investment & Innovation
Trade Policy & Negotiation
International Platform
Legal Advisor
Human Resources
Corporate Finance and Operations
Organizations
Included in the portfolios of the three Global Affairs ministers are:
Crown corporations:
Business Development Bank of Canada
Canadian Commercial Corporation (CCC)
Export Development Canada (EDC)
International Development Research Centre (IDRC)
Invest in Canada
shared-governance corporations (responsibility of Foreign Affairs minister):
Asia Pacific Foundation of Canada
International Joint Commission
Permanent Joint Board on Defense
Roosevelt Campobello International Park Commission
international organizations:
African Development Bank
Asian Development Bank
Inter-American Development Bank
Caribbean Development Bank
Asia-Pacific Economic Cooperation Business Advisory Council
Nomenclature
The change of terminology from external affairs to foreign affairs recognized, albeit belatedly, a shift that had occurred many years before.
At the time that the external affairs portfolio was created in 1909, Canada was a self-governing dominion in the British Empire and did not have an independent foreign policy. The term external affairs avoided the question of whether a colony or dominion—self-governing and hence sovereign in some respects—could, by definition, have foreign affairs. Implicitly, since the department was responsible for affairs with both Commonwealth and non-Commonwealth countries, all external relations were of a type, even when the head of state was shared with other nations.
Under section 132 of the British North America Act, 1867, the federal government had authority to conduct and implement relations with other parts of the British Empire, which were not considered foreign lands. The United Kingdom and other colonial powers still routinely divided their conduct of overseas policy into foreign affairs (e.g. the Foreign Office) and domestic or colonial affairs (the Colonial Office or Dominion Office, which were later reorganized and combined into one department: the Foreign and Commonwealth Office). Canadian interests outside the empire (e.g. between Canada and its non-empire neighbours, the United States, Russia, St. Pierre and Miquelon, and Greenland) were under the purview of the UK Foreign Office. Informally, however, Canada had had relations with the United States in particular, with trade and other relationships pre-dating Confederation.
Foreign relations
Canada's management of its own foreign relations evolved over time, with key milestones including: the First World War (at the conclusion of which Canada was a signatory of the Treaty of Versailles and a member of the League of Nations); the Balfour Declaration; increased direct conduct of bilateral matters with the United States (where Canada had its own representatives since at least 1927); and finally, the Statute of Westminster and the Second World War. In terms of Canada's commercial relations, the first trade commissioner, John Short Larke, was named following a successful trade delegation to Australia led by Canada's first minister of trade and commerce, Mackenzie Bowell.
The Statute of Westminster clarified that Canada (and certain other dominions, such as Australia and New Zealand) were primarily responsible for, among other things, the conduct of their own foreign affairs. After World War II, Canada was a founding member of the United Nations and participant in its own right in post-war settlement talks and other international fora, and in most respects the conduct of foreign affairs was no longer colonial.
Over the years after the Second World War, a number of other historical traditions were slowly abolished or brought into accordance with reality, such as the practice of Canadian ambassadors presenting diplomatic credentials signed by the monarch of Canada (including, on occasion, credentials written in French as an official language of Canada); Canadian ambassadors now present credentials signed by the governor general of Canada as representative of the Canadian monarch. Other traditions remain, such as the exchange of high commissioners, instead of ambassadors, between Commonwealth countries. (High commissioners present credentials from the head of government [the prime minister], as the head of state was historically shared, and would not accredit a representative to one's self.) Nonetheless, by the time the change in terminology was effected in 1993, Canada's foreign affairs had been conducted separately from the United Kingdom in most significant respects for the entire post-war period, or over 60 years since the Statute of Westminster.
This process was paralleled in other areas over this period, including the establishment of Canada's own supreme court as the court of last resort, the patriation of the constitution, and Canadian citizenship (Canadians had been British subjects, and no citizenship per se existed until 1947).
In September 2012, the Canadian Department of Foreign Affairs and the UK Foreign and Commonwealth Office signed a memorandum of understanding on diplomatic cooperation, which promotes the co-location of embassies, the joint provision of consular services, and common crisis response. The project has been criticized by leading Canadian foreign affairs scholars for undermining Ottawa's foreign policy independence.
International Development and Humanitarian Assistance
Global Affairs Canada funds humanitarian projects, contributes to the United Nations Central Emergency Response Fund, makes smaller emergency contributions through the Canadian Red Cross and Canadian Foodgrains Bank and funds Canadian humanitarian organisations via the Humanitarian Coalition.
Support is guided by Canada's Feminist International Assistance Policy.
International trade
Within Global Affairs Canada, there are several bodies that facilitate Canada's international trade system, including the Trade Controls Bureau, Export Development Canada, Canadian Commercial Corporation, and the Trade Commissioner Service. Other organizations that facilitate international trade and foreign investment in Canada include the Canada Border Services Agency (CBSA), Invest in Canada (formerly Foreign Investment Review Agency), and the Canadian International Trade Tribunal, which is an independent quasi-judicial body. The CBSA and Statistics Canada collect information on all items exported from Canada, and classify these items using categories negotiated by the World Customs Organization.
See also
List of Canadian Representatives Abroad
Notable Canadian diplomats
Norman Robertson
Lester B. Pearson
Norman Robinson
Hume Wrong
History of Canadian foreign policy
References
Notes
External links
The Canadian Trade Commissioner Service (TCS)
Invest In Canada
Travel Reports & Warnings on travel.gc.ca
Embassy: Canada's Foreign Policy Newsweekly
Canada
Diaspora ministries
Ministries established in 1993
1993 establishments in Canada | [
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256259 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1827%20in%20music | 1827 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1827.
Events
March 29 – The funeral of Ludwig van Beethoven is attended by huge crowds.
April 5 – Pope Leo XII honours Nicolo Paganini with the Order of the Golden Spur.
April 13 – 18-year-old soprano Eugenia Savorani marries Giovanni Tadolini, her 42-year-old singing teacher.
date unknown
Franz Liszt moves to Paris after the death of his father. He will live there for the next five years.
François Dauverné becomes one of the first musicians to use the new F three-valved trumpet in public performance.
Rossini's mother dies, prompting his return home to Bologna.
The term "Gesamtkunstwerk" is first used in print, in an essay by Eusebius Trahndorff; it is later adopted by Richard Wagner.
Soprano Laure-Cinthie Montalant marries the tenor Vincent-Charles Damoreau.
The Zagreb Music Association is founded; one of its earliest members is Ivan Padovec.
Popular music
"I'd Be a Butterfly" w.m. Thomas Haynes Bayly
Classical music
Dionisio Aguado – 4 Rondos brillants, Op. 2
Hector Berlioz – La mort d’Orphée (cantata)
Frederic Chopin – Variations on "Là ci darem la mano" Op. 2
Carl Czerny
3 Sonatines faciles et brillantes, Op. 104
Piano Sonata Nos.6–9, Opp. 124, 143–145
100 Progressive Studies, Op. 139
Concerto for Piano Four-Hands and Orchestra, Op. 153
Mauro Giuliani – 6 Airs Irlandois nationales variées (for guitar), Op. 125
Johann Wenzel Kalliwoda – Symphony No.1, Op. 7
Friedrich Kuhlau
Flute Sonata, Op. 85
4 Sonatinas, Op. 88
Kaspar Kummer – Trio for Flute, Clarinet and Bassoon, Op. 32
Felix Mendelssohn – String Quartet No.2, Op.13
Pierre Rode – Violin Concerto No.11 in D major, Op. 23
Franz Schubert
Winterreise (song cycle)
Piano Trio No. 1
Piano Trio No. 2
Impromptus, D.899 and D.935
3 Gesänge, D.902
Zur guten Nacht, D.903
Alinde, D.904
An die Laute, D.905
Variations on a Theme from Herold's 'Marie', D. 908
Phantasie for violin and piano in C major, D.934
12 Valses nobles, D. 969
Ignaz Seyfried – Libera me Domine, continuation of Mozart's Requiem
Louis Spohr – Violin Concerto No.11, Op. 70
Opera
Vincenzo Bellini – Il Pirata
Michele Carafa – Les Deux Figaro
Giovanni Pacini – Margherita regina d'Inghilterra
Births
January 14 – Enderby Jackson, pioneer of the British brass band (d. 1903)
January 16 (or 17) – Antonio Giuglini, operatic tenor (d. 1865)
March 5 – Hans Balatka, composer (d. 1899)
April 25 – Jean Antoine Zinnen, composer (d. 1898)
August 20 (or 22) – Josef Strauss, waltz composer (d. 1870)
September 5 – Goffredo Mameli, lyricist of the Italian national anthem (d. 1849)
November 12 – Gustav Merkel, organist and composer (d. 1885)
November 26 – Hugo Ulrich, composer, teacher and arranger (d. 1872)
December 31 – Marie Caroline Miolan-Carvalho, French operatic soprano (d. 1895)
date unknown
Martino Frontini, composer (d. 1909)
George Lichtenstein, Hungarian-born pianist and music teacher (d. 1893)
Deaths
January 18 – John Hoyland, organist and composer (b. 1783)
January 30 – Johann Philipp Christian Schulz, composer (b. 1773)
February 2 – Johann Nepomuk Kalcher, opera composer (b. 1764)
February 11 – José Lidon, composer and musician (born 1748)
February 26 – David Moritz Michael, composer (b. 1751)
March 9 – Franz Xaver Gerl, operatic bass and composer (b. 1764)
March 26 – Ludwig van Beethoven, composer (b. 1770)
April 3 – Ernst Chladni, physicist and musician, "Father of acoustics" (b. 1756)
July 17 – Charles Borremans, violinist and conductor (b. 1769)
August 2 – James Hewitt, composer, conductor and music publisher (b. 1770)
August 3 – Lorenz Leopold Haschka, lyricist of the Austrian national anthem (b. 1749)
August 9 – Marc-Antoine Madeleine Désaugiers, composer, dramatist and songwriter (b. 1772)
August 28 – Adam Liszt, Hungarian musician, father of Franz Liszt (b. 1776)
September 8 – Reginald Spofforth, composer (b. 1769)
November 6 – Bartolomeo Campagnoli, violinist (b. 1751)
November 11 – Franz von Walsegg, count who commissioned Mozart's Requiem (b. 1763)
November 20 – Alexey Nikolayevich Titov, violinist and composer (b. 1769)
date unknown
James Hook, composer (b. 1746)
Syama Sastri, oldest of the Trinity of Carnatic music (b. 1762)
References
19th century in music
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256260 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1828%20in%20music | 1828 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1828.
Events
January 14 & December 30 – Franz Schubert's song cycle Winterreise is published, the second part posthumously.
February 29 – Daniel Auber's La muette de Portici ("Masaniello"), the earliest French grand opera, premières at the Salle Le Peletier of the Paris Opéra.
March 9 – The Orchestre de la Société des Concerts du Conservatoire of Paris gives its first concert, including music by Beethoven, Rossini, Meifreid, Rode and Cherubini.
March 26 – Franz Schubert gives his only public concert of his own works eight months before his death aged 31 in Vienna of typhoid fever or symptoms related to syphilis.
August – Genoa-born violinist Niccolò Paganini begins his European tour in Vienna. It establishes his international reputation as the greatest violinist of his time and inspires other instrumentalists to mimic his innovations on the piano (Chopin, Liszt).
November 3 – Composer Ferdinand Hérold is awarded the Légion d'honneur.
December 27 – Soprano Elisabetta Manfredini-Guarmani gives her last known performance, at Rimini. She disappears from the historical record after this.
Flugelhorn introduced by Heinrich Stölzel in Berlin.
Popular music
"Oh! No! We Never Mention Her" by Thomas Haynes Bayly & E. Riley
"Tyrolese Evening Hymn" by Felicia Hemans & Augusta Browne
"Jump Jim Crow" by Thomas D. Rice
Classical music
Hector Berlioz – Waverly Overture, Op. 1)
Frédéric Chopin
Piano Sonata No. 1 Op. 4
Fantasy on Polish Airs Op. 13
Rondo à la Krakowiak Op. 14
Johannes Frederik Fröhlich – Ouverture til Freias Alter
Ferdinand Hérold – La fille mal gardée (ballet)
Franz Schubert
Der Hirt auf dem Felsen
Fantasia in F minor for piano four-hands
Mass no. 6 in E-flat major
String Quintet in C major, D. 956
Schwanengesang
Last three piano sonatas
Louis Spohr – Symphony No. 3, Op. 78
Opera
Daniel Auber – La muette de Portici
Vincenzo Bellini – Bianca e Fernando
Gaetano Donizetti – L'esule di Roma
Heinrich Marschner – Der Vampyr
Gioacchino Rossini – Le comte Ory (Count Ory) first performed in Paris. Libretto by Eugène Scribe and Charles-Gaspard Delestre-Poirson.
Peter Josef von Lindpaintner – Der Vampyr
Saverio Mercadante – Adriano in Siria (Ita) and Gabriella di Vergy (Ita)
Births
January 6 – Robert Keller, music editor (d. 1891)
January 17 – Ede Reményi, violinist (d. 1898)
January 20 – Johanna Sundberg, ballerina (d. 1910)
February 8 – Antonio Cagnoni, composer (d. 1896)
14 February – Julius Reisinger, choreographer (d. 1892)
April 5 – Pietro Platania, composer and music teacher (d. 1907)
April 15 – Robert Sands, first conductor of the Mormon Tabernacle Choir
April 26 – Francesco Graziani (baritone), operatic baritone (d. 1901)
June 2 – James Cutler Dunn Parker, composer (d. 1916)
June 24 – Adolphe Blanc, chamber music composer (d. 1885)
July 15 – Raffaele Fiorini, violin maker (d. 1898)
July 31 – François-Auguste Gevaert, composer (d. 1908)
October 3 – Woldemar Bargiel, composer (d. 1897)
October 19 – Adolfo Fumagalli, pianist (d. 1856)
November 3 – Joseph Hellmesberger, Sr., violinist and conductor (d. 1893)
November 10 – Hector-Jonathan Crémieux, librettist (d. 1892)
November 23 – Clemente Aguirre, composer and music teacher (d. 1900)
December 23 – Mathilde Wesendonck, poet and collaborator of Richard Wagner (d. 1902)
Deaths
January 12 – Peter Mandrup Lem, violinist (b. 1758)
March 26 – Elisabeth Olin, operatic soprano (b. 1740)
April 25 – François Benoît Hoffmann, opera librettist (b. 1760)
July 9 – Cathinka Buchwieser, German opera singer and actress (b.1789)
July 22 or July 28 – Antonio Calegari, composer (b. 1757)
September 25 – Charlotta Seuerling, singer, harpsichordist, composer and poet (b. c. 1783)
October 31 – John Marsh, composer (b. 1752)
November 19 – Franz Schubert, composer (b. 1797)
December 30 – Waldemar Thrane, composer (b. 1790)
date unknown – Vincenzo dal Prato, castrato singer (b. 1756)
References
19th century in music
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256265 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alonzo%20J.%20Edgerton | Alonzo J. Edgerton | Alonzo Jay Edgerton (June 7, 1827 – August 9, 1896) was a United States Senator from Minnesota and a United States District Judge of the United States District Court for the District of South Dakota.
Education and career
Born June 7, 1827, in Rome, Oneida County, New York, Edgerton graduated from Wesleyan University in 1850 and read law in 1855. At Wesleyan, he became a member of the Mystical Seven. He was admitted to the bar and entered private practice in Mantorville, Minnesota, from 1855 to 1861. He was prosecutor for Dodge County, Minnesota. He was a member of the Minnesota Senate from 1858 to 1859. In 1862, during the American Civil War, Edgerton organized a company of militia which later constituted Company B of the Tenth Minnesota Infantry Volunteers. By January 1864, he had risen to the rank of Colonel of the 67th Regiment Infantry United States Colored Troops. He was brevetted a Brigadier General on March 13, 1865, and confirmed on April 10, 1866. He resumed private practice in Mantorville from 1867 to 1871. He was Railroad Commissioner for Minnesota from 1871 to 1874. Edgerton became a regent of the University of Minnesota in 1872. He again resumed private practice in Mantorville from 1874 to 1877. He served as a member of the Minnesota House of Representatives and returned to private practice in Mantorville from 1878 to 1881.
Congressional service
Edgerton was appointed as a Republican to the United States Senate to fill the vacancy caused by the resignation of United States Senator William Windom and served from March 12, 1881, to October 30, 1881, during the 47th United States Congress, when a successor was elected.
Later career
Following his departure from Congress, Edgerton served as a Judge of the District Court for the District of Dakota Territory from 1881 to 1885. He returned to private practice in Mitchell, Dakota Territory (State of South Dakota from November 2, 1889) from 1885 to 1889. He served as President of the constitutional convention of South Dakota.
Federal judicial service
Edgerton received a recess appointment from President Benjamin Harrison on November 19, 1889, to the United States District Court for the District of South Dakota, to a new seat authorized by 25 Stat. 676. He was nominated to the same position by President Harrison on December 16, 1889. He was confirmed by the United States Senate on January 16, 1890, and received his commission the same day. His service terminated on August 9, 1896, due to his death in Sioux Falls, South Dakota. He was interred in Evergreen Cemetery in Mantorville.
Membership
Edgerton was a freemason.
Honor
The town of Edgerton, Minnesota, is named in Edgerton's honor.
See also
List of American Civil War generals (Union)
List of American Civil War brevet Generals (Union)
References
Sources
1827 births
1896 deaths
Politicians from Rome, New York
People of Minnesota in the American Civil War
Wesleyan University alumni
Union Army colonels
Minnesota state senators
United States senators from Minnesota
Minnesota Republicans
Politicians from Sioux Falls, South Dakota
Judges of the United States District Court for the District of South Dakota
United States federal judges appointed by Benjamin Harrison
19th-century American judges
Justices of the Dakota Territorial Supreme Court
Republican Party United States senators
South Dakota Republicans
United States federal judges admitted to the practice of law by reading law
People from Mantorville, Minnesota
19th-century American politicians | [
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256267 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1829%20in%20music | 1829 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1829.
Events
March 11 – German composer Felix Mendelssohn (age 20) conducts the first performance of Johann Sebastian Bach's St Matthew Passion since the latter's death in 1750, at the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin; the success of this performance sparks a revival of interest in Bach.
April–September – Mendelssohn pays his first visit to Britain. This includes the first London performance of his concert overture to A Midsummer Night's Dream and his trip to Fingal's Cave.
July – George Washington Dixon popularizes "Coal Black Rose" singing in blackface in New York City.
December 29 – Soprano Eugenia Tadolini makes a house debut at the Teatro Regio di Parma.
Frédéric Chopin concludes his studies at the music academy in Warsaw which will later be named after him. He also hears Paganini perform and begins writing his Etudes.
Popular music
"There's Nothing True but Heaven" words by Thomas Moore, music by Oliver Shaw
Classical music
Hector Berlioz – La Mort de Cleopatre
Norbert Burgmüller – Piano Concerto in F-sharp minor
Frederic Chopin
Introduction and Polonaise Brillante Op. 3
Piano Trio Op. 8
Étude Op. 10, No. 8
Étude Op. 10, No. 9
Étude Op. 10, No. 10
Étude Op. 10, No. 11
Fanny Hensel – Capriccio for Cello and Piano in A-flat major
Gioachino Rossini – William Tell Overture
Opera
Michael William Balfe – I rivali di se stessi
Gioacchino Rossini – Guillaume Tell (William Tell) first performed in Paris. Libretto by Étienne de Jouy, Florent Bis and Armand Marrast.
Births
January 24 – William Mason, pianist and composer (d. 1908)
March 6 – Heinrich Lichner, composer (d. 1898)
May 8 – Louis Moreau Gottschalk, pianist and composer (d. 1869)
May 9 – Ciro Pinsuti, pianist and composer (d. 1888)
June 9 – Gaetano Braga, cellist and composer (d. 1907)
June 11 – Horace Poussard, violinist and composer (d. 1898)
August 7 – Timoteo Pasini, composer, conductor, and pianist (d. 1888)
August 21 – Otto Goldschmidt, pianist, conductor and composer (d. 1907)
August 25 – Carlo Acton, pianist and composer (d. 1909)
August 28 – Albert Dietrich, composer (d. 1908)
November 28 – Anton Rubinstein, pianist, conductor and composer (d. 1894)
Deaths
January 25 – William Shield, violinist and composer (b. 1748)
February 16 – François Joseph Gossec, composer (b. 1734)
February 18 – Jan Křtitel Kuchař, organist, composer and teacher (b. 1751)
May 8 – Mauro Giuliani, guitarist and composer (b. 1781)
October 29 – Maria Anna Mozart, elder sister of Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (b. 1751)
December 14 – Luigi Marchesi, castrato singer (b. 1754)
References
19th century in music
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256268 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rio%20Grande%20do%20Sul | Rio Grande do Sul | Rio Grande do Sul (, , ; "Great River of the South") is a state in the southern region of Brazil. It is the fifth-most-populous state and the ninth largest by area. Located in the southernmost part of the country, Rio Grande do Sul is bordered clockwise by Santa Catarina to the north and northeast, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, the Uruguayan departments of Rocha, Treinta y Tres, Cerro Largo, Rivera and Artigas to the south and southwest, and the Argentine provinces of Corrientes and Misiones to the west and northwest. The capital and largest city is Porto Alegre. The state has the highest life expectancy in Brazil, and the crime rate is relatively low compared to the Brazilian national average. Despite the high standard of living, unemployment is still high in the state, as of 2017. The state has 5.4% of the Brazilian population and it is responsible for 6.6% of the Brazilian GDP.
The state shares a gaucho culture with its neighbors Argentina and Uruguay. Before the arrival of Portuguese and Spanish settlers, it was inhabited mostly by the Guarani and Kaingang peoples (with smaller populations of Charrúa and Minuano). The first Europeans there were Jesuits, followed by settlers from the Azores. In the 19th century it was the scene of conflicts including the Farroupilha Revolution and the Paraguayan War. Large waves of German and Italian migration have shaped the state as well.
Geography
Rio Grande do Sul is bordered to the northeast by the Brazilian State of Santa Catarina, to the southeast by the Atlantic Ocean, on the southwest by Uruguay, and to the northwest by the Argentine provinces of Corrientes and Misiones.
The northern part of the state lies on the southern slopes of the elevated plateau extending southward from São Paulo across the states of Paraná and Santa Catarina, and is much broken by low mountain ranges whose general direction across the trend of the slope gives them the appearance of escarpments. A range of low mountains extends southward from the Serra do Mar of Santa Catarina and crosses the state into Uruguay. West of this range is a vast grassy plain devoted principally to stock-raising – the northern and most elevated part being suitable in pasturage and climate for sheep, and the southern for cattle. East of it is a wide coastal zone only slightly elevated above the sea; within it are two great estuarine lagoons, the Lagoa dos Patos and Lagoa Mirim, which are separated from the ocean by two sandy, partially barren peninsulas. The coast is one great sand beach, broken only by the outlet of the two lakes, called the Rio Grande, which affords an entrance to navigable inland waters and several ports. There are two distinct river systems in Rio Grande do Sul – that of the eastern slope draining to the lagoons, and that of the Río de la Plata basin draining westward to the Uruguay River.
The larger rivers of the eastern group are the Jacuí, Sinos, Caí, Gravataí and Camaquã, which flow into the Lagoa dos Patos, and the Jaguarão which flows into the Lagoa Mirim. All of the first named, except the Camaquã, discharge into one of the two arms or estuaries opening into the northern end of Lagoa dos Patos, which is called the Guaíba River, though technically it is not a river but a lake.
The Guaíba River is broad, comparatively deep and about long, and with the rivers discharging into it affords upwards of of fluvial navigation. The Jacuí is one of the most important rivers of the state, rising in the ranges of the Coxilha Grande of the north and flowing south and southeast to the Guaíba estuary, with a course of nearly It has two large tributaries, the Vacacaí from the south and the Taquari from the north, and many small streams. The Jaguarão, which forms part of the boundary line with Uruguay, is navigable 42 km up to and beyond the town of Jaguarão.
In addition to the Lagoa dos Patos and Lagoa Mirim there are a number of small lakes on the sandy, swampy peninsulas that lie between the coast and these two, and there are others of a similar character along the northern coast. The largest lake is the Lagoa dos Patos (Lake of the Patos – an Indian tribe inhabiting its shores at the time of European discovery), which lies parallel with the coastline, northeast and southwest, and is about long exclusive of the two arms at its northern end, 40 58 km long respectively, and of its outlet, the Rio Grande, about 39 km long. Its width varies from 35 to 58 km. The lake is comparatively shallow and filled with sand banks, making its navigable channels tortuous and difficult. The Lagoa Mirim occupies a similar position farther south, on the Uruguayan border, and is about long by 10 to 35 km wide. It is more irregular in outline and discharges into Lagoa dos Patos through a navigable channel known as the São Gonçalo Channel. A part of the lake lies in Uruguayan territory, but its navigation, as determined by treaty, belongs exclusively to Brazil. Both of these lakes are evidently the remains of an ancient depression in the coastline shut in by sand beaches built up by the combined action of wind and current. They are of the same level as the ocean, but their waters are affected by the tides and are brackish only a short distance above the Rio Grande outlet.
Fully one-third of the state belongs to the Río de la Plata drainage basin. Of the many streams flowing northward and westward to the Uruguay, the largest are the Ijuí of the plateau region, the Ibicuí, which has its source near Santa Maria in the central part of the state and flows westward to the Uruguay a short distance above Uruguaiana, and the Quaraí River which forms part of the boundary line with Uruguay. The Uruguay River itself is formed by the confluence of the Canoas and Pelotas rivers. The Pelotas, which has its source in the Serra do Mar on the Atlantic coast, and the Uruguay River forms the northern and western boundary line of the state down to the mouth of the Quaraí, on the Uruguayan frontier.
Climate
Rio Grande do Sul lies within the south temperate zone and is predominantly humid subtropical (Cfa, according to the Köppen climate classification). The climate is subtropical highland (Cfb) in the highest areas. There are four relatively well-defined seasons and rainfall is well distributed throughout the year, but occasional droughts can occur. The winter months, June to September, are characterized by heavy rains and by a cold southwesterly wind, called minuano, which sometimes lowers the temperature to below freezing, especially in the mountainous municipalities, where snowfalls can occur. The lowest official temperature registered in the state was in Bom Jesus, on August 1, 1955. In summer, the temperature rises to , and heat related injuries are not uncommon.
Ecoregions
Several ecoregions cover portions of the state. In the northeastern corner of the state, between the Serra do Mar/Serra Geral and the Atlantic, lies the southern extension of the Serra do Mar coastal forests, a belt of evergreen tropical moist forests that extend north along the coastal strip as far as Rio de Janeiro state. The high plateau behind the Serra do Mar is occupied by the Araucaria moist forests, a subtropical forests characterized by evergreen, laurel-leaved forests interspersed with emergent Brazilian Pines (Araucaria angustifolia). The Alto Paraná Atlantic forests lie on the lower slopes of the plateau south and east of the Araucaria forests, including much of the lower basin of the Jacuí and its tributaries. These forests are semi-deciduous, with many trees losing their leaves in the winter dry season. The Atlantic Coast restingas, distinctive forests which grow on nutrient-poor coastal dunes, extend along the coast, as far as the Uruguayan border.
The southeastern portion of the state is covered by the Pampas, which extends south into Uruguay, in a plateau named Serras de Sudeste (Southeastern Mountain Ranges).
History
During the Brazilian Colonial period, the province of South Rio Grande was the scene of small wars and border skirmishes between Portugal and Spain for the region, the Sacramento Colony, and the Guarani Missions. It was also a focal point for internal rebellions in the 19th and the early 20th centuries.
Guarani Wars
According to the treaty of Tordesillas, the region was to be part of the Spanish possessions in South America. However, the Spanish were much more interested in the Pacific Coast, where gold, silver, and gems were quickly found. Even in the Atlantic coast, their attention was on the River Plate where they built the seaport of Buenos Aires, on its right bank. Consequently, Spanish settlement followed the course of the River Plate and its tributaries, especially the Paraná and Uruguay rivers, largely ignoring the Rio Grande do Sul area. The Spanish introduced livestock which escaped into the plains and attracted gauchos to the area.
The first Spanish to settle in the region that is now Paraguay, northwestern Argentina (Corrientes, Misiones), and Rio Grande do Sul were Jesuit missionary priests who came with the idea of converting the indigenous population to Catholic Christianity. To that end, they founded missionary villages known in Spanish as misiones or reducciones, populated by Guarani Indians.
In the early 17th century, the Jesuits founded missions to the east of the Uruguay river, and in the northwest of modern Rio Grande do Sul.
The missions were destroyed and their Guarani inhabitants were enslaved in large raids by bandeirantes between 1636 and 1638; however, in 1687, the Jesuits were back in the region, having refounded seven reductions, the Misiones Orientales. The region remained under Spanish sovereignty, though in practice the Jesuits operated quite independently, up to the late 17th century. But in 1680, the Portuguese founded Colônia do Sacramento on the northern bank of the River Plate, in what is now Uruguay. War ensued and was intermittent until the independence of Uruguay in 1828.
The logistics of defending Colônia against the Spanish resulted in a government effort to settle Rio Grande do Sul's coastal region with Brazilian and Portuguese colonists. In 1737, a fortified village (today the city of Rio Grande) was built at the entrance of Lagoa dos Patos. In 1752, a group of Azorean settlers founded Porto Alegre; to the west, Rio Pardo was also founded. Towards the middle of the century, Brazilians and Portuguese arrived to the west of the region, clashing with the Jesuits and the Guaranis. Up to 1756, the Guaranis fought back, under the leadership of Sepé Tiaraju, who was popularly canonized as São Sepé (Saint Sepé). However, the Portuguese and Brazilians eventually crushed the resistance, destroyed the missions, and the region came definitely into Portuguese hegemony.
In 1738 the territory (which included the present state of Santa Catarina) became the Capitania d'el Rei and was made a dependency of Rio de Janeiro. Territorial disputes between Spain and Portugal led to the occupation by the Spaniards of the town of Rio Grande (then the capital of the capitania) and neighboring districts from 1763 to 1776, when they reverted to the Portuguese. The capture of Rio Grande in 1763 caused the removal of the seat of government to Viamão at the head of Lagoa dos Patos; in 1773 Porto dos Cazaes, renamed Porto Alegre, became the capital. These historic acts were planned and directed by Manuel Sepúlveda, who used the fictitious name or pseudonym José Marcelino de Figueiredo, to hide his identity. In 1801 news of war between Spain and Portugal led to the capture of the Sete Povos and some frontier posts.
In 1777, the Santo Ildefonso Treaty granted the coastal region to Portugal, and the Missões to Spain; but, in practice, both regions were populated by Portuguese and Brazilian settlers. In 1801, the Badajoz treaty handed the Misiones (Missões) to the Portuguese; only the borders between modern Uruguay and Rio Grande do Sul remained in dispute.
Cisplatine War
The districts of Santa Catarina and Rio Grande had been separated in 1760 for military convenience, and in 1807 the latter was elevated to the category of a "capitania-geral", with the designation of "Sao Pedro do Rio Grande", independent of Rio de Janeiro, and with Santa Catarina as a dependency. In 1812 Rio Grande and Santa Catarina were organized into two distinct comarcas, the latter becoming an independent province in 1822 when the Empire of Brazil was organized.
In 1816, the Portuguese captured Uruguay, which became a Province of Brazil (Província Cisplatina). This situation outlasted Brazil's independence from Portugal in 1822; in 1825, however, Juan Antonio Lavalleja proclaimed the independence of Uruguay; war followed, until in 1828 Brazil recognized Uruguayan independence.
Farroupilha Revolution
Populating Rio Grande do Sul was a constant concern of the Portuguese. To that end, the metropolitan Crown distributed land in the form of enormous latifundia.
In those large latifundia, cattle raising was the predominant economic activity. The Guaranis, under Jesuit rule, had started raising cattle in the Missões. The destruction of the Missões left astray immense herds, which went feral. Thus the newcomers from São Paulo and Santa Catarina settled by re-domesticating these feral herds, called "gado xucro".
The Azorean settlers, on the other hand, mainly introduced wheat crops in much smaller properties. Up to the beginning of the 19th century, wheat was the main export product of Rio Grande do Sul.
However, the introduction of charqueadas in the Southern coast, following the 1777 drought in Ceará, opened new opportunities to husbandry, as from them on, instead of moving herds by land to São Paulo, cattle could be sold in the relatively nearby region of Pelotas, to be slaughtered and processed there, and further transported by sea to Santos, Rio de Janeiro, and other Brazilian harbours. The cheap jerky was commonly used as food for the enslaved laborers in other parts of Brazil.
Up to 1830, political unrest in Argentina and Uruguay favoured the jerky producers of Pelotas. But with order restored in these countries, competition by Argentinian and Uruguayan jerky producers became a concern. The jerky industry of the Plata was favored by the superior quality of Argentinian and Uruguayan pastures, by their better seaports, and by their use of free labor, instead of slavery. Consequently, the regional elites soon started to demand customs protection for the gaúcho jerky against the product of the Rio de la Plata; on the failure of the Imperial government to address those concerns, political demands of greater autonomy, and ideas of a federal relationship towards the rest of Brazil were put forth.
These escalated into full rebellion in 1835. In 1834, the Imperial government issued an "Ato Adicional", allowing for elected Provincial legislative assemblies. The first gaúcha Legislative Assembly, inaugurated in April 1835, quickly confronted the Provincial President (appointed by the Regency on behalf of the Emperor, who was a minor). Rebellion broke out in the province on September 20, 1835; giving up hope of redress of the situation by the Imperial Government, the gaúchos proclaimed independence of the Riograndense Republic on September 11, 1836.
The ensuing Farroupilha Revolution (known locally as Guerra dos Farrapos) lasted ten years. The rebels stormed Porto Alegre, but were driven out from there in June 1836. From then on, the Empire was able to control most of the coastal region, achieving decisive strategic advantage from this. However, in 1839, the rebels were still able to invade Santa Catarina, where they proclaimed a Juliana Republic, in a federal relationship with Rio Grande do Sul (during the Santa Catarina campaign, Giuseppe Garibaldi joined the rebels for a while before he returned to Europe and eventually became a hero in his native Italy). The Empire soon retook initiative, though, and from them on the rebels fought in the defensive.
In 1842, the Empire assigned a new Provincial governor and military commander, the Baron, later Duke of Caxias. The inability of the rebels to secure contact with the world through a seaport, the dwindling economy of the Province, combined with Caxias' superior capabilities as military commander, led to the fall, in 1843, of important rebel strongholds, Caçapava do Sul, Bagé, and Alegrete. Economically exhausted and militarily defeated, the rebels accepted Caxias' terms of surrender. A general amnesty was declared, the rebellious officials were incorporated into the Imperial Army, slaves enrolled in the rebel Army were freed. Additionally, the Empire imposed a 25% tax on foreign jerky imports.
The province suffered greatly in the struggle, but recovered quickly, not only due to the import tax protection, but mainly due to renewed instability in Argentina and Uruguay: Rosas' government in Argentina continually interfered in Uruguayan affairs until 1851, and Buenos Aires was blockaded by the French and the English from 1845 to 1848.
Conflicts with neighbouring countries
At mid-19th century, Rio Grande do Sul was repeatedly involved in war between Brazil and its neighbours. Those included war against Argentina and Uruguay (deposal of Juan Manuel Rosas, Argentinian dictator, and Manuel Ceferino Oribe y Viana, Uruguayan president, 1852) and intervention in Uruguay (deposal of Atanasio Cruz Aguirre, 1864). This, in turn, led to Paraguayan intervention, and the Paraguayan War, known in Portuguese as Guerra do Paraguai.
In the war against Rosas, 75% of the Brazilian troops were gaúchos. As the only Brazilian boundaries actually facing foreign armies able to project the Empire's power, Rio Grande do Sul and its gaúchos quickly developed a reputation as soldiers.
Paraguayan War
During this long and bloody war against Paraguay, Rio Grande do Sul remained usually a secondary front. But in 1865 a Paraguayan division invaded the state, occupying Uruguaiana by August 5. By August 16, troops of the Triple Alliance put siege to Uruguaiana, and by September 17, an ultimatum was delivered to General Estigarribia, commander of the Paraguayan division. Having no possibility of breaking the siege or defending the position, the Paraguayans surrendered, under conditions, the following day.
But if the territory of Rio Grande do Sul was spared most action, its dwellers provided a very significant part of the Brazilian troops: about 34,000 soldiers, more than 25% of the Brazilian army. This military characteristic of Rio Grande do Sul lasted long after the Paraguayan War: In 1879, of a standing army of less than 15,000, more than 5,000 were in Rio Grande do Sul. On the other hand, during the late Empire, more Brazilian generals were from Rio Grande do Sul than from any other province. In 1889, of 25 generals born in Brazil, four were from Rio Grande do Sul; and of the three born abroad, two were born in Uruguay but made their careers in Rio Grande do Sul.
Late Empire
Political agitation was frequent in Rio Grande do Sul, but no important revolution occurred after the Ponche Verde Treaty in 1845 until the presidency at Rio de Janeiro of General Floriano Peixoto, whose ill-considered interference with state governments led to the revolt of 1892–94, under Gumercindo Saraiva.
After the Paraguayan War, Rio Grande do Sul underwent important changes in its economy. Railways connected the countryside to Porto Alegre and Rio Grande. Together with the introduction of steam ships, this reduced the costs and duration of transportation, facilitating the province's exports. New cattle breeds were introduced, and barbed wire was used to demarcate properties.
As a consequence, the population of the province doubled between 1872 and 1890, from 434,813 inhabitants to 897,455. This was partly due to immigration: about 60,000 immigrants, mostly from Italy, and, in lesser numbers, from Germany, came to Rio Grande do Sul during this period. Most of the Italians settled in the Serra Gaúcha, and most of the Germans in the valleys of the Jacuí, Sinos, and Caí, as small landed proprietors, and agricultural producers. In the area of German settlements, a messianic movement, the Muckers (German for false Saints) erupted in 1874, and was smashed by the Brazilian Army.
Also during this period, the Liberal Party established its hegemony over the province, meaning control of the provincial legislature, the National Guard in Rio Grande do Sul, and most of the municipal governments. Before the War of the Triple Alliance, the Conservative and Liberal parties had alternated in local power, following the national tendency. But, from 1872 on, the Liberals, under the leadership of Gaspar Silveira Martins, were able to retain provincial power, even when the Conservatives won at national level.
1893 Revolution
In this struggle the revolutionaries occupied Santa Catarina and Paraná, capturing Curitiba, but were eventually overthrown through their inability to obtain munitions of war. An incident in this struggle was the death of Admiral Saldanha da Gama, one of the most brilliant officers of the Brazilian navy and one of the chiefs of the naval revolt of 1893–94, who was killed in a skirmish on the Uruguayan border towards the end of the conflict.
1923 Revolution
In 1923, civil war again exploded between supporters of State President Borges de Medeiros and opposition linked to the Partido Libertador and Assis Brasil.
1930 Revolution
In 1930, State President Getúlio Vargas, after unsuccessfully running in the presidential elections against the candidate of São Paulo, Júlio Prestes, led a revolt against the Federal government, and succeeded in overthrowing it. This eventually led to the Vargas dictatorship in 1937 and the period known as the Estado Novo. What is now the Rio Grande do Sul Military Brigade fought on the side of the state leadership and, as a result, was never reformed. In fact, the Brigade remains the only state militia in Brazil. (The Military Police is the federal force that polices in the other states.) A poignant example of the Brigade's quasi-autonomy is the participation of its servicemen in both the coup attempt of 1961 and the military coup in 1964.
Demographics
According to the IBGE of 2008, there were 10,860,000 people residing in the state. The population density was .
Urbanization: 81% (2004); population growth: 1.2% (1991–2000); houses: 3,464,544 (2005).
The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) counted 8,776,000 white people (81%), 1,495,000 brown (Multiracial) people (14%), 529,000 black people (5%), 43,000 Amerindian people (0.4%), 11,000 Asian people (0.1%).
According to a genetic study from 2013, Brazilians in Rio Grande do Sul have an average of 73% European, 14% African and 13% Amerindian ancestry.
Ethnic groups
People of Portuguese – mostly Azorean – background predominate in the coastal region. The Southwest, on the other hand, was originally populated by Pampeano Indians. Like the other Gauchos from the La Plata Basin the population there was a result from the mixture of Spanish and Portuguese men with Amerindian women with a possible predominant Spanish ancestry and also a significant African contribution, resulting in a population that is 81.20% White.
These theoretical speculations about Spanish predominance among the population of Southwestern Rio Grande do Sul are widely presumed, but they contradict the historical and modern genetic knowledge about the region. In fact, there was always some Spanish colonial presence there, however in practice restricted to Jesuit religious initiatives towards the Amerindian populations, which had limited genetic impact in the demographic composition of aboriginal populations. On the other hand, it is broadly accepted that it is northern Uruguay that always has had an important Luso-Brazilian influence, which in fact impacts to this day the mixed Spanish-Portuguese language of northern Uruguay along the border with Brazil (borderlands).
People of German descent predominate in the Sinos Valley (Novo Hamburgo, São Leopoldo, Nova Hartz, Dois Irmãos, Morro Reuter, etc.) and in the center-eastern part of the State (Santa Cruz do Sul). People of Italian descent predominate in the mountains (Serra Gaúcha: Caxias do Sul, Bento Gonçalves, Farroupilha, Garibaldi, etc.). The Northern and Northwestern parts of the State also have significant numbers of people of both Italian and German descent. There are sizeable communities of Poles and Ukrainians across the state, notably in the northwest. People of African ancestry are concentrated in the capital city and in some cities in the litoral, such as Pelotas and Rio Grande.
According to Argentine demographer Miguel Ángel García, Italian immigrants were 60% of the total immigration to Rio Grande do Sul and according to French historian Jean Roche as of 1950 people of German descent made up 21.6% of the state's population.
The region that is now Rio Grande do Sul was originally settled by Amerindian peoples, mostly Guaraní and Kaingangs. European presence in the region started in 1627 with Spanish Jesuits. The Jesuits established Indian Reductions in the region; those reductions where populated exclusively by Amerindians, mainly Guarani, and certainly not by Europeans, either Spanish or Portuguese. Portuguese Jesuits established Indian Reductions in 1687 and dominated the region. Most of the Indians of the region became Catholics and went to live among the Jesuits. These reductions were destroyed by the Bandeirantes from São Paulo in the 18th century, who wanted to enslave the Indians. The Portuguese settlement in Rio Grande do Sul was largely increased between 1748 and 1756, with the arrival of two thousand immigrants from the Azores Islands, Portugal. They settled many parts of the state, including the nowadays capital, Porto Alegre. Blacks were 50 percent of Rio Grande do Sul's population in 1822. This proportion decreased to 25 percent in 1858 and to only 5.2 percent in 2005. Most of them were brought from Angola to work as slaves in the charqueadas.
German immigrants first arrived to Southern Brazil in 1824. They were attracted to Brazil to protect the country from invasions of the neighboring countries and to populate the empty interior of the southern region. The first city to be settled by them was São Leopoldo. In the next five decades, around 28 thousand Germans were brought to the region to work as small farmers in the countryside.
Italian immigrants started arriving in Rio Grande do Sul in 1875. They were mostly poor peasants from Trentino and Veneto, Northern Italy, who were attracted to Southern Brazil to get their own farms. Italian immigration to the region lasted until 1914, with a total of 100,000 Italians settling there in this period. Most of the immigrants worked as small farmers, mainly cultivating grapes in the Serra Gaúcha part of the state.
Other European immigrants migrated to Rio Grande do Sul, mostly from Eastern Europe. The Jewish Colonization Association assisted Russian-Jewish immigrants to settle on agricultural land in the state. A memoir of one such immigrant community, Filipson, Memórias da primeira colônia judaica no Rio Grande do Sul (Filipson: Memories of the First Jewish Colony in Rio Grande do Sul), was published by Frida Alexandr in 1967.
European genomic ancestry predominates throughout Brazil at 80%, except for the Southern Region (which includes Rio Grande do Sul), where it reaches 90%. "A new portrayal of each ethnicity contribution to the DNA of Brazilians, obtained with samples from the five regions of the country, has indicated that, on average, European ancestors are responsible for nearly 80% of the genetic heritage of the population. The variation between the regions is small, with the possible exception of the South, where the European contribution reaches nearly 90%. The results, published by the scientific magazine 'American Journal of Human Biology' by a team of the Catholic University of Brasília, show that, in Brazil, physical indicators such as skin colour, colour of the eyes and colour of the hair have little to do with the genetic ancestry of each person, which has been shown in previous studies".
As of 2013, there were fewer than 30,000 Nisei in Rio Grande do Sul. Japanese immigrant families from São Paulo State began arriving in Rio Grande do Sul in the 1930s. In 1956, the first 23 official immigrants came to the state, and 26 families arrived at Rio Grande in the years from 1956 through 1963. In 2013, Peter B. Clarke, author of Japanese New Religions in Global Perspective, wrote that "Nowadays we cannot speak of a Japanese colony in RS."
Largest cities
Religion
According to the 2010 Brazilian Census, most of the population (68.8%) is Roman Catholic, other religious groups include Protestants or evangelicals (18.3%), Spiritists (0.8%), Nones 5.3%, and people with other religions (4.4).
Economy
The industrial sector is the largest component of GDP at 43%, followed by the service sector at 41%. Agriculture represents 16% of GDP (2004). Rio Grande do Sul exports: footwear 18%, soybeans 14%, tobacco 13.6%, vehicles 8%, frozen meat 7.2%, chemicals 6.8%, and leather 5% (2002).
Share of the Brazilian economy: 7% (2005).
One of the most prosperous Brazilian states, Rio Grande do Sul is known especially for its grain production, viticulture, ranching, and for its considerable industrial output.
In 1827, emigrants from Idar-Oberstein discovered the world's most important agate deposit in Rio Grande do Sul. As early as 1834, the first delivery of agate from Rio Grande do Sul had been made to Idar-Oberstein. The Brazilian agate exhibited very even layers, much more even than those seen in the local agates. This made them especially good for making engraved gems.
In agriculture, the state stands out in the production of soybeans, maize, wheat, rice, tobacco, grape, apple, cassava and yerba mate, in addition to also producing oat, barley, orange, peach, fig, tangerine, persimmon and strawberry.
In 2020, the South Region produced 32% of the national total of cereals, vegetables and oilseeds. There were 77.2 million tons, second place in Brazil, losing only to the Midwest. Rio Grande do Sul (14.3%) was the 3rd largest producer in the country.
Rio Grande do Sul is the largest producer of rice in the country, with 70.5% of Brazil's production, close to 7.3 million tons in 2020. It is also the largest producer of tobacco in Brazil, and is the largest exporter in the world. Brazil is the second largest producer in the world and leader in tobacco exports since the 1990s, with 98% of Brazilian production being carried out in the South Region. The state is responsible for 90% of the national production of grapes, and produces 90% of the wine produced in the country, 85% of the sparkling wine, and 90% of the grape juice, mainly in the area of Caxias do Sul and surroundings: 664.2 thousand tons of grape in 2018.
In soy, Rio Grande do Sul is the 3rd largest producer in the country, with about 16% of national production. It produced 19.3 million tons. In 2017, it was also 3rd largest producer of maize.
Rio Grande do Sul is also the largest national producer of wheat, with 2.3 million tons in 2019. The South Region is also the largest producer of oats in Brazil. In 2019, national production was close to 800 thousand tons, being almost all carried out in the South (Paraná and Rio Grande do Sul).
The three Southern States of the country are responsible for 95% of the national production of apple, and Santa Catarina appears at the top of the production list, disputing with Rio Grande do Sul. Rio Grande do Sul harvests 45% of Brazilian apples, and is the largest exporter of apples in the country. The region in the vicinity of Vacaria is the highlight: it concentrates 88% of the state's production and 37% of the national production.
In cassava production, Brazil produced a total of 17.6 million tons in 2018. The state was the 4th largest producer in the country, with almost 1 million tons.
About orange, Rio Grande do Sul was the 5th largest producer in Brazil in 2018, with a total of 367 thousand tons.
Rio Grande do Sul is the largest producer of peaches in Brazil, with half the volume harvested in Brazil in 2018. It is also the largest producer of fig in the country, according to data from 2018. In 2018, Rio Grande do Sul was the 3rd largest producers of tangerine in Brazil. Rio Grande do Sul is also responsible for 19% of Brazil's persimmon production, being the 2nd largest national producer. In 2019, in Brazil, there was a total production area of around 4 thousand hectares of strawberry. Rio Grande do Sul was the 3rd largest producer.
In 2019, Brazil produced about 900 thousand tons of yerba mate annually. Paraná is the largest producer in volume and Rio Grande do Sul in plantation areas (and where the sector is more industrialized). According to 2017 data, Paraná harvested 301 thousand tons of yerba mate by extractive method, while Rio Grande do Sul harvested 17 thousand tons. On the other hand, while the gauchos harvested 302 thousand tons of planted grass, the Paraná harvested 237 thousand tons in this method. The productive potential of yerba mate is still little explored in Brazil, with a good part of the harvest carried out by the extractive system and with low levels of productivity. However, many new producers are adopting more professional and efficient production systems, with technical acuity of management and globalized market vision. This tends to increase Brazil's export of this product.
In 2018, the state's cattle herd was 12.5 million head, 7th place in the country, 6.5% of Brazil's cattle herd.
In 2019, Rio Grande do Sul produced a total of 4.5 billion liters of milk, making it the third largest producer in the country, with 13.0% of the country's total.
In sheep farming, in 2017 the South Region was the 2nd largest in the country, with 4.2 million heads. Rio Grande do Sul has 94% of the country's wool production.
In pork, the 3 southern states are the largest producers in the country. Brazil had 41.1 million head in 2017. Rio Grande do Sul (14.6%) is the 3rd largest producer.
The Brazilian poultry flock, in 2018, was of the order of 1.5 billion heads. In 2017, the main poultry producing states in Brazil were Paraná (25.3%), São Paulo (14.0%), and Rio Grande do Sul (11.0%). In terms of chickens, in 2017 there were 242.8 million heads in the country. Among the states that were the largest producers, São Paulo led with 21.9%, followed by Paraná (10.1%) and Rio Grande do Sul (8.8%). In the production of chicken eggs, the state ranks fifth in Brazil, with 8% of national production. There were 354 million dozen in 2018.
The South region was the main producer of honey in the country in 2017, accounting for 39.7% of the national total. Rio Grande do Sul was the largest producer in the country, with 15.2%.
Regarding mining, the state is a major producer of gemstones. Brazil is the world's largest producer of amethyst and agate, and Rio Grande do Sul is the largest producer in the country. Agate has local extraction since 1830. The largest producer of amethyst in Brazil is the city of Ametista do Sul. This stone was very rare and expensive worldwide, until the discovery of large deposits in Brazil, causing its value to drop considerably. There is also some jasper and opal in the state.
About industry, Rio Grande do Sul had an industrial GDP of R$82.1 billion in 2017, equivalent to 6.9% of the national industry. It employs 762,045 workers in the industry. The main industrial sectors are: Construction (18.2%), Food (15.4%), Industrial Public Utility Services, such as Electricity and Water (9.8%), Chemicals (6.8%), and Machinery and Equipment (6.6%). These 5 sectors concentrate 56.8% of the state's industry.
In the automotive sector, the state has a GM plant.
The leather-footwear sector (Footwear industry) stands out particularly in Novo Hamburgo, Sapiranga and Campo Bom, and in virtually all other municipalities in Vale dos Sinos. in 2019 Brazil produced 972 million pairs. Exports were around 10%, reaching almost 125 million pairs. Brazil is in the 4th position among the world producers, behind China (who produces more than 10 billion pairs), India and Vietnam, and in 11th place among the biggest exporters. The largest pole of production in Brazil is located here. The Brazilian state that most exports the product is Rio Grande do Sul: in 2019 it exported US$448.35 million. The majority of the product goes to United States, Argentina and France. Domestic consumption absorbs a large part of production. The state has or created some of the most important factories in Brazil in the sector.
In Food industry, In 2019, Brazil was the 2nd largest exporter of processed foods in the world, with a value of U $34.1 billion in exports. The Brazilian food and beverage industry's revenue in 2019 was R $699.9 billion, 9.7% of the country's Gross Domestic Product. In 2015, the industrial food and beverage sector in Brazil comprised 34,800 companies (not counting bakeries), the vast majority of which were small. These companies employed more than 1,600,000 workers, making the food and beverage industry the largest employer in the manufacturing industry. There are around 570 large companies in Brazil, which concentrate a good part of the total industry revenue. Rio Grande do Sul created food companies of national importance such as the Neugebauer chocolate factory; Vinícola Aurora and Vinícola Salton, two of the largest wineries in the country. and Camil Alimentos, which owns the brand Açúcar União (the most famous sugar brand in the country), Arroz Carretero (one of the most famous rice brands in Brazil), among others.
The mechanical and metallurgical industry also reach considerable expression, especially in Porto Alegre, Novo Hamburgo, São Leopoldo and Canoas, in addition to Gravataí, Sapucaia do Sul, Esteio and Sapiranga, which have large companies in the sector and which also belong to the Metropolitan Region of Porto Alegre . These centers are joined by São Jerônimo, which houses the Charqueadas steel plant. The steel mill Aços Finos Piratini is located in Charqueadas, which belongs to Gerdau. It is geared mainly to serve the automotive industry.
In the metallurgical business, the state has one of the most famous companies in the country, Tramontina, originally from Rio Grande do Sul and famous manufacturer of knives, pans, shovels and various utensils, which has more than 8,500 employees and 10 manufacturing units. Other famous companies in the state are Marcopolo, a manufacturer of bus bodies, which had a market value of R $2.782 billion in 2015, and Randon, a group of 9 companies specialized in solutions for the transportation, which brings together manufacturers of vehicles, auto parts, and road equipment – employs around 11,000 people and recorded gross sales in 2017 of R $4.2 billion.
Another industrial area is the so-called old colonization region, in which the municipalities of Caxias do Sul, Garibaldi, Bento Gonçalves, Flores da Cunha, Farroupilha and Santa Cruz do Sul are integrated. The manufacturing activity is marked by the production of wine and processing of agropastoral products, such as leather, lard, maize, wheat and tobacco.
In the rest of the state there are several dispersed industrial centers, all linked to the processing of agropastoral raw materials. In this group, Erechim, Passo Fundo, Santa Maria, Santana do Livramento, Rosário do Sul, Pelotas, Rio Grande and Bagé stand out.
Statistics
Vehicles: 4,367,980 (March 2008)
Mobile phones: 12.3 million (June 2008)
Telephones: 3 million (April 2008)
Cities: 496 (2007)
Education
There are more than 100 universities in the state.
The largest public university is UFRGS and the largest private one is PUCRS.
Infrastructure
International airports
Porto Alegre
With 37.6 thousand square meters of constructed area and four levels, the passenger terminal at Salgado Filho International Airport can receive 28 large airplanes simultaneously.
The terminal has 32 check-in counters, ten boarding bridges, nine elevators and ten escalators. It has a totally automated aircraft movement control center and the main spaces are air conditioned.
The apron, surfaced with prestressed concrete, can serve jumbo jets like the Boeing 747-400. The garage structure has eight levels, 44 thousand square meters and 1,440 parking spaces.
Another terminal, with 15 thousand square meters and capacity for 1.5 million passengers a year, serves general, executive and third-tier aviation (conventional piston-engine and turboprop planes).
Porto Alegre Airport was the first one administered by Infraero to have integrated check-in. This service offers flexibility in use of terminal facilities and installations, enabling carriers to access their own data centers via shared-use computers from any check-in counter position. This makes it much easier to allocate counter space according to demand fluctuations, making for less idle space.
The Aeroshopping area – a center for commerce and leisure – operates 24 hours a day with shops, services, a food court, along with a triplex cinema, the first to be established at a Brazilian airport.
Salgado Filho International Airport also has an air cargo terminal, built in 1974, with 9,500 thousand square meters of area and capacity to handle 1,500 tons of export cargo and 900 tons of imports each month.
The average daily movement (arrivals and departures) is 174 aircraft, flying scheduled routes connecting Porto Alegre directly or indirectly to all the country's other major cities, as well as smaller cities in the interior of the states of the South Region and São Paulo. There are also international flights with direct connections to cities of the Southern Cone.
Pelotas
The Pelotas International Airport is commonly used by the Brazilian Air Force as the last stop in Brazil on its flights to the Brazilian Antarctic Base.
Bagé
Comandante Gustavo Kraemer Airport opened on July 5, 1946. This airport came under Infraero administration on October 27, 1980. It is located on the rural outskirts of Bagé, from the Uruguayan border and from Porto Alegre. Comandante Gustavo Kraemer Airport does not operate with scheduled commercial flights. There are two daily flights carrying bank pouches, as well as air taxi services and executive jets. Most of the airport's users are businesspeople from the central part of Brazil who have interests in the region in breeding thoroughbred English and Arabian horses, cattle ranching, fruit growing, wine making, wood pulp and power generation.
Uruguaiana
Located on the border with Argentina (across the Uruguay River from the Argentine city of Paso de los Libres), Uruguaiana is considered the major inland port in Latin America, thanks to its strategic position with the countries of Mercosur. Rubem Berta International Airport, however, has only one flight, on Azul Brazilian Airlines, to Porto Alegre, – a situation Infraero intends to change, as was confirmed in an official visit to the airport in December 2004.
With more than 700 thousand square meters of constructed area, it is the largest airport in the interior of the state of Rio Grande do Sul.
There are two highways, BR-290 and BR-472, running near the airport, besides a railroad line about 2,500 meters from the terminal. Located from the city center, this airport is at an elevation of 78 meters and the average annual temperature is 20C, with a good deal of variation from summer to winter.
Located from the state capital (Porto Alegre), Uruguaiana was founded on May 29, 1746, and has a current population of 126,936. Farming and ranching are the main economic activities of the region, which has 1,509 rural properties.
National airports
Caxias do Sul
Hugo Cantergiani Airport (CXJ/SBCX) serves a vast region of important economical and touristic counties in the vicinities of Caxias do Sul, totalling 34 municipalities in this area of the "Serra Gaúcha". It is located at an altitude of 754 m (2 474 ft) as has one concrete runway (15/33) with the length of 2 000 m (6 562 ft) although only 1.650 m are usable if landing on runway 15. It is served on a daily basis by GOL and Azul airlines linking Caxias do Sul to São Paulo. It is equipped with a VASIS visual approach aid and is also certified for IFR approaches. References to these informations are published in the Portuguese version of this site.
Highways
BR-101,
BR-116,
BR-285,
BR-290,
BR-386,
BR-392.
Culture
The state of Rio Grande do Sul is renowned as one of the most culturally rich states of Brazil. Rio Grande's music is a blend of many styles (most a continuum of rhythms found in neighboring countries), including the Chamamé, Milonga, Polca and Chacarera. Modern gaucho music or tchê music has been popular since the late 1980s. The inhabitants of the state are known in the country for drinking chimarrão, a local version of the mate drunk in neighbouring Uruguay and Argentina, and for consuming churrasco very regularly (a practice common due to the abundant sources of high quality meat), even going so far as considering this one of the most important elements of everyday life. Porto Alegre is home to Sport Club Internacional and Gremio Foot-Ball Porto Alegrense. They are arch-rivals, one of the biggest rivalries in Brazil.
Each region of the state has its own cultural background. In the pampas (Southwest), the culture is still largely influenced by the old Gaúchos. Gaúcho is a term that can describe anyone born in the state of Rio Grande do Sul. However, it is also used to describe the 19th century rural workers of the region.
Other parts of the state have a slightly different culture, influenced mainly by German or Italian immigrants. After some generations, the descendants of immigrants were integrated in the local society, even though their cultural influences are still strong, mostly in the countryside. Despite these differences, the Gaucho people maintain a particular zeal for their culture and its variations.
Although the Gaucho culture and its Portuguese-based language prevails in Rio Grande do Sul, the southernmost state of Brazil, sharing many of its folklore characteristics with neighboring horseback livestock raising, grassland centered cultures, such as found in Uruguay and in Argentina, the state also has other strong albeit less prominent cultural focus areas.
These are, notably the German-Brazilian cultural identity and the Riograndenser Hunsrückisch language (the estimated number of speakers are around 1,500,000), spoken in the state since 1824; it received official recognition by the state House of Representatives in 2012 by unanimous vote. Also, as the result of European immigration stated in the 19th century, the state has an Italian culture and language of its own, the Talian language (a Veneto-based language/dialect), spoken mostly in the highlands region, at the so-called Old Italian Colonies in the upper state (see Italian-Brazilian).
However, there are many other much smaller cultural minorities in the state (for example, the Afro-Brazilian community, the Guarani and Kaingang indigenous peoples, also Pomeranian, Polish, German-Jewish, etc.), However, these three are the predominant cultural expressions found in the state, each with living linguistic expressions which attest to their existence.
Language
As in all Brazil, Portuguese is the main spoken language. A few expressions of Spanish origin are common (such as "gracias" instead of "obrigado", or the vocative "tchê") etc., due to the proximity with Argentina and Uruguay and their common Gaucho past. Also a few words of German origin, particularly referring to cuisine, have entered the vocabulary, such as "chimia" (from "schmier") and "cuca" (from "Kuchen"). Words of Guarani language origin also make up the vocabulary, an example being the largely used word "guri", meaning "boy".
The Gaúchos are also famous by their use of the pronoun "tu", instead of "você", the latter being the formal second person singular noun and the first being the informal noun equivalent. In the traditional Gaúcho dialect of the Pampas, the verb is conjugated correctly in the second person singular, just like the European Portuguese (tu cantas, tu bates, tu partes, tu pões). In the colloquial Portuguese of Porto Alegre, however, the verb is conjugated in the second person as in the third person (tu canta, tu bate, tu parte, tu põe).
Gaúcho Portuguese phonology
Phonemes of Porto-alegrense Portuguese
Although this process is very common in the Southeast, in Gaúcho Portuguese the letters "s" and "z" are never pronounced as palato-alveolar consonants in coda position (e.g., pasto "pasture" is [ˈpaʃtu] in Rio de Janeiro, but [ˈpastu] in Porto Alegre).
In Rio Grande do Sul, as in most of Brazil, the letters "t" and "d" are pronounced as palato-alveolar affricate consonants, when immediately succeeded by the vowel "i" (a process very similar to Russian palatalization and which, however, does not happen in the varieties of the Pampas). Moreover, the unstressed "e" and "o" are often "reduced" into and , respectively. Therefore, in Porto Alegre, the unstressed "te" syllables are pronounced , for example, while in the Pampas they are usually pronounced :
Porto Alegre: antigamente – or
Gaúcho Pampas: antigamente –
(compare Spanish: antiguamente – )
The dialect of the Pampas had suffered a stronger influence of Spanish language, while the dialect of Porto Alegre suffers modern influences of the Southeastern varieties.
Also, the vowel nasalization in Porto-alegrense Portuguese is far different from that seen in French, for example. In French, the nasalization extends uniformly through the entire vowel. In Porto Alegre, the nasalization begins almost imperceptibly, and then gets far stronger in the end of the vowel, therefore being closer to the nasalization of Hindi-Urdu phonology (see Anusvara). In some cases, the nasal archiphoneme actually represents the addition of a nasal consonant, like .
manta =
tampa =
banco =
bem =
bom = or or
pan = or
It is also noteworthy that, in everyday speech, many unstressed vowels are not fully pronounced as they are supposed to be. For example:
toque =
mente =
pouco =
Essentially, the vowels [e] and [i] are both reduced and devoiced (or completely deleted) in word-final position, and sometimes also when unstressed and between consonants, always palatalizing the previous consonant. The vowels [o] and [u] are also reduced and devoiced to [ʊ̥], analogously to what happens in Japanese (see Japanese phonology#Devoicing). More rarely, [a] may become [ɐ̥] as well.
Example
"Dom Sebastião I era o décimo-sexto Rei de Portugal, e sétimo da Dinastia de Avis. Era neto do rei João III, tornou-se herdeiro do trono depois da morte do seu pai, o príncipe João de Portugal, duas semanas antes do seu nascimento, e rei com apenas três anos, em 1557. Em virtude de ser um herdeiro tão esperado para dar continuidade à Dinastia de Avis, ficou conhecido como O Desejado; alternativamente, é também memorado como O Encoberto ou O Adormecido, devido à lenda que se refere ao seu regresso numa manhã de nevoeiro, para salvar a Nação."
OBS: The pronunciation may be subject to free variation.
Minority languages
Minority languages spoken in Rio Grande do Sul include Indigenous languages (Guarani, Kaingang, etc.), and European derived languages (Talian, Riograndenser Hunsrückisch, East Pomeranian dialect of
Low German, Yiddish and Polish).
Most of the German dialects speakers in southern Brazil spoke or eventually adopted Hunsrückisch so that it became the most commonly used German dialect in this part of the world and is still spoken by many people today (also referred to as Riograndenser Hunsrückisch to differentiate it from the Hunsrückisch spoken in Germany).
In its 180 years of history Riograndenser Hunsrückisch has been influenced by Portuguese and by other German dialects, such as Pfälzisch.
Talian is a Brazilian variety of the Venetian language, also often called Vêneto for that reason.
All minority languages in southern Brazil have experienced a significant degree of decline in the last few decades.
Tourism and recreation
Ecotourism is very popular in the Germanesque cities of Gramado and Canela; their cold weather is among their attractions for internal tourism. Tourism is also high in the wine regions of the state, principally Caxias do Sul and Bento Gonçalves. The pampas of the native Brazilian Gaúcho are both a national and international curiosity to tourists and their customs are alive in the capital city of Porto Alegre as well as in the cities of the "interior" or western Rio Grande do Sul such as Santa Maria and Passo Fundo. The state is also home to the historic São Miguel das Missões, the ruins of an 18th-century Jesuit Mission.
The state of Rio Grande do Sul and its cities have developed a series scenic routes to appeal to tourists. The Rota Romântica is a popular scenic drive that exhibits the diverse Germanic culture of the mountainous regions of the state referred to as the Serra Gaúcha. One can visit the state's Italian settlements through Caminhos da Colônia, tour the wine country through the Wine and Grapes Route and visit a subsection of the Rota Romântica called the Região das Hortênsias, the region filled with blue hydrangea flowers each spring.
In the far western area of the state are the remnants of Brazil's 17th century Jesuit missions or reductions (aldeias) to the Guaraní Indians.
Of all the ruins left behind by the vanished Guarani Missions, the most significant one is São Miguel or São Miguel Arcanjo, located nearby the present city of Santo Ângelo. There is an ongoing Light and Sound (or Som e Luz in Portuguese) show presented at the ruins of the São Miguel church.
Notes
References
External links
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256270 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dwight%20M.%20Sabin | Dwight M. Sabin | Dwight May Sabin (April 25, 1843December 22, 1902) was an American politician who served as U.S. Senator from Minnesota and in the Minnesota Legislature.
Life and career
Sabin was born in 1843 in Marseilles, Illinois to Horace Carver Sabin and Maria Elizabeth Webster. In 1857 his family moved back to his grandfather's farm in Windham, Connecticut after both of his parents had become ill and unable to manage their own farm. He briefly attended Phillips Academy studying civil engineering and mathematics but left school during the American Civil War. He acted as a quartermaster's clerk with the United States Treasury and as an aide attached to a cavalry brigade. After his father died in 1864 he was discharged and returned to Connecticut to manage his family's farm.
In 1867 his doctor suggested Sabin relocate for the sake of his health. He moved to Minnesota, settling in Stillwater, Minnesota and becoming involved in different lumber and manufacturing interests. In 1870 he was first elected to the Minnesota Senate. Over the next 12 years he won election to both the Minnesota Senate and Minnesota House of Representatives a total of six times. In 1883 he was elected to the United States Senate from Minnesota. He served from March 4, 1883, to March 4, 1889 in the 48th, 49th, and 50th congresses and was involved in legislation regarding railroads, veterans pensions and the development of the Soo Locks (where one lock is named in his honor). He also served as the chair of the Republican National Committee from 1883 to 1884.
In 1888 he was not renominated by his party and returned to his business pursuits. Sabin died on December 22, 1902 in Chicago, Illinois. He is buried in Fairview Cemetery in Stillwater, Minnesota.
He is the namesake of the city of Sabin, Minnesota.
Notes
External links
|-
|-
1843 births
1902 deaths
Members of the Minnesota House of Representatives
Minnesota Republicans
Minnesota state senators
People from Marseilles, Illinois
People from Stillwater, Minnesota
Republican National Committee chairs
Republican Party United States senators
United States senators from Minnesota
19th-century American politicians | [
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256276 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Mower%20Rice | Henry Mower Rice | Henry Mower Rice (November 29, 1816January 15, 1894) was a fur trader and an American politician prominent in the statehood of Minnesota.
Early life
Henry Rice was born on November 29, 1816, in Waitsfield, Vermont to Edmund Rice and Ellen (Durkee) Rice. Both Edmund and Ellen were of entirely English ancestry; their ancestors had been in New England since the early 1600s. Rice lived with family friends from an early age due to the death of his father.
When Rice was 18, he moved to Detroit, Michigan, and participated in the surveying of the canal route around the rapids of Sault Ste. Marie between Lake Superior and Lake Huron.
In 1839 Rice secured a job at Fort Snelling, near what is now Minneapolis, Minnesota. He became a fur trader with the Ho-Chunk and Chippewa (Ojibwe) Indians, attaining a position of prominence and influence. Rice was trusted by the Indians, and he was instrumental in negotiating the United States treaty with the Ojibwe Indians in 1847 by which they ceded extensive lands.
Political career
Rice lobbied for the bill to establish Minnesota Territory in 1849 and later served as its delegate to the 33rd and 34th Congresses from March 4, 1853, to March 4, 1857. His work on the Minnesota Enabling Act, passed by Congress on February 26, 1857, facilitated Minnesota's statehood.
Henry Rice was a Democrat in the wing of the Minnesota Democratic party sometimes referred to at the time as "Moccasin Democrats" because of his affiliation with the fur trade and the supplying of Indian Agency contracts. He and his one-time partner trader Henry H. Sibley, also a Democrat, had a falling out in 1849 and thereafter were political rivals, Sibley being part of the non-Rice wing of the party.
At statehood in 1858 Rice and James Shields were elected by the Minnesota legislature as Democrats to the United States Senate. Rice served from Minnesota's admittance on May 11, 1858 to March 4, 1863 in the 35th, 36th, and 37th Congresses and was not a candidate for re-election; he was an unsuccessful candidate for governor in 1865.
Rice also served as a member of the board of regents of the University of Minnesota from 1851 to 1859 and was president of the Minnesota Historical Society.
H.M. Rice participated in official or unofficial capacities in a number of Indian treaties: the 1846 Winnebago treaty at Washington, the 1847 treaties with Ojibwe at Fond du Lac (Minn) and Leech Lake (Minn.), the 1854 treaty with Ojibwe at LaPointe (Wisc), as a United States Commissioner during 1887 – 1888, with the Ojibwe of Minnesota, and is rumored to have influenced the secondary negotiations with the Dakota at St. Paul after the Senate revised the 1851 Dakota treaties of Mendota and Traverse des Sioux (Minnesota). He helped organize the Winnebago (Ho-Chunk) removal from the Neutral Ground (Iowa) in 1848 and received a federal contract to re-remove Winnebago in 1850 who had either not removed to Long Prairie (Minnesota Territory) or who had scattered away. Documentation of these activities is in the federal United States Congressional Serial Set, newspapers such as the Minnesota Pioneer and the Prairie du Chien Patriot, and William Watts Folwell's A History of Minnesota (1921).
He died on January 15, 1894, while on a visit to San Antonio, Texas.
Legacy
In 1916, the state of Minnesota donated a marble statue of Rice by Frederick Triebel to the National Statuary Hall Collection at the United States Capitol. Rice County, Minnesota is named for him. His brother Edmund Rice served in the U.S. House of Representatives.
An earlier, 1906, marble statue of Rice by Luella A. Varney Serrao was placed in the Minnesota State Capitol.
Ancestry
Henry Mower Rice was a direct descendant of Edmund Rice, an early immigrant to Massachusetts Bay Colony, as follows:
Henry Mower Rice, son of
Edmund Rice (March 26, 1784 – May 27, 1829), son of
Jedediah Rice (b. April 2, 1755), son of
Ashur Rice (July 6, 1694 – August 20, 1773), son of
Thomas Rice (June 30, 1654 – 1747), son of
Thomas Rice (January 26, 1626 – 1682), son of
Edmund Rice (1594 – May 3, 1663)
Henry Mower Rice married Matilda Whitall of Richmond, Virginia, in March 1849. They resided in St. Paul, Minnesota.
See also
List of United States senators expelled or censured
References
External links
|-
|-
1816 births
1894 deaths
19th-century American politicians
Delegates to the United States House of Representatives from Minnesota Territory
Democratic Party United States senators
Minnesota Democrats
People from Waitsfield, Vermont
Rice County, Minnesota
United States Indian agents
United States senators from Minnesota | [
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256277 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1836%20in%20music | 1836 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1836.
Events
June 7 – Huddersfield Choral Society formed in the north of England.
July – Soprano Maria Malibran is seriously injured in a riding accident, but refuses to see a doctor; she dies later in the year at the age of 28.
September 9 – Frédéric Chopin proposes marriage to Maria Wodzinski in Marienbad.
November 24 – Richard Wagner marries Minna Planer.
Saverio Mercadante is invited to Paris by Gioacchino Rossini.
Classical music
William Sterndale Bennett – Overture to The Naiads
Fanny Mendelssohn – Frühzeitiger Frühling
Felix Mendelssohn – St. Paul
Robert Schumann – Fantasie in C
Henri Vieuxtemps – Violin Concerto No. 2 in F♯ minor
Issac Nathan – "Queen of Evening"
Opera
Adolphe Adam – Le Postillon de Longjumeau
Louise Bertin – La Esmeralda (with libretto by Victor Hugo)
Gaetano Donizetti – Belisario
Mikhail Glinka – A Life for the Tsar
Giacomo Meyerbeer – Les Huguenots
Richard Wagner – Das Liebesverbot
Popular music
!Fair Harvard" (lyrics by Samuel Gilman)
"Morning Star" (music by Francis F. Hagen)
Publications
John Addison – Singing Practically Treated in a Series of Instructions
Births
February 21 – Léo Delibes, composer (d. 1891)
February 22 – Mitrofan Belyayev, music publisher (d. 1904)
March 21 – Bertha Tammelin, Swedish musician, composer and singer (died 1915)
March 24 – Eufrosyne Abrahamson, Swedish soprano (d. 1869)
12 June – Bernardine Hamaekers, Belgian opera singer (died 1912)
June 29 – Thomas Philander Ryder, composer, organist, teacher, conductor, and organ builder (d. 1887)
October 27 – Luigi Hugues, geographer, flautist and composer (d. 1913)
October 28 – Eliakum Zunser, Yiddish songwriter (d. 1925)
November 18 – W. S. Gilbert, dramatist, poet and librettist (d. 1911)
December 2 – Giuseppe Donati, inventor of the ocarina (d. 1925)
date unknown – Tamburi Ali Efendi, Turkish tanbur virtuoso and composer (d. 1902)
Deaths
January 3 – Friedrich Witt, cellist and composer (b. 1770)
February 8 – Franziska Stading, opera singer (b. 1763)
February 22 – John Clarke Whitfield, organist and composer (b. 1770)
May 7 – Norbert Burgmüller, composer (b. 1810) (drowned)
May 28 – Anton Reicha, composer (b. 1770)
June 9 – Supply Belcher, composer, singer, and compiler of tune books (b. 1751)
June 26 – Claude Joseph Rouget de Lisle, composer of "La Marseillaise" (b. 1760)
September 21 – John Stafford Smith, British composer, organist and musicologist (b. 1750)
September 23
Maria Malibran, operatic soprano (b. 1808)
Andreas Razumovsky, patron of Ludwig van Beethoven (b. 1752)
December 5 – Giuseppe Ciccimarra, operatic tenor (b. 1790)
December 26 – Hans Georg Nägeli, composer and music publisher (b. 1773)
December 29 – Johann Baptist Schenk, Austrian composer and teacher (b. 1753)
References
19th century in music
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256278 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Penetration%20pricing | Penetration pricing | Penetration pricing is a pricing strategy where the price of a product is initially set low to rapidly reach a wide fraction of the market and initiate word of mouth. The strategy works on the expectation that customers will switch to the new brand because of the lower price. Penetration pricing is most commonly associated with marketing objectives of enlarging market share and exploiting economies of scale or experience.
Motivation
These are advantages of penetration pricing to the firm:
It can result in fast diffusion and adoption, which can achieve high market penetration rates quickly and take the competitors by surprise, not giving them time to react.
It can create goodwill among the early adopters segment and can create more trade through word of mouth.
It creates cost control and cost reduction pressures from the start, leading to greater efficiency.
It discourages the entry of competitors. Low prices act as a barrier to entry (see Porter's 5-forces analysis).
It can create high stock turnover throughout the distribution channel, which can create critically important enthusiasm and support in the channel.
It can be based on marginal cost pricing, which is economically efficient.
The main disadvantage with penetration pricing is that it establishes long-term price expectations for the product, and image preconceptions for the brand and company. That makes it difficult to eventually raise prices. Some commentators claim that penetration pricing attracts only the switchers (bargain hunters) and that they will switch away as soon as the price rises. There is much controversy over whether it is better to raise prices gradually over a period of years (so that consumers do not notice), or employ a single large price increase. A common solution to this problem is to set the initial price at the long-term market price, but include an initial discount coupon (see sales promotion). That way, the perceived price points remain high even though the actual selling price is low.
Another potential disadvantage is that the low profit margins may not be sustainable long enough for the strategy to be effective.
Price penetration is most appropriate in these circumstances:
Product demand is highly price elastic.
Substantial economies of scale are available.
The product is suitable for a mass market, with enough demand.
The product will face stiff competition soon after introduction.
There is not enough demand amongst consumers to make price skimming work.
In industries in which standardization is important. The product that achieves high market penetration often becomes the industry standard (such as Microsoft Windows) and other products, whatever their merits, become marginalized. Standards carry heavy momentum.
A variant of the price penetration strategy is the bait and hook model (also called the razor and blades business model). A starter product is sold at a very low price but requires more expensive replacements (such as refills) which are sold at a higher price. It is an almost universal tactic in the desktop printer business, with printers selling in the US for as little as $100 including two ink cartridges (often half-full), which themselves cost around $30 each to replace. Thus, the company makes more money from the cartridges than it does for the printer itself.
Taken to the extreme, penetration pricing is known as predatory pricing, when a firm initially sells a product or service at unsustainably low prices to eliminate competition and establish a monopoly. In most countries, predatory pricing is illegal, but it can be difficult to differentiate illegal predatory pricing from legal penetration pricing.
Let's take an example of penetration pricing strategies being put to work. A Friday night trip to a video or DVD rental shop was a family tradition across the nation for at least a generation. When Netflix entered the market, it had to convince consumers to wait a day or two to receive their movies. To accomplish this goal, it offered introductory subscription prices as low as a dollar. The pricing strategy was so effective that traditional providers such as Blockbuster soon were edged out of the market.
Research
In an empirical study, Martin Spann, Marc Fischer and Gerard Tellis analyze the prevalence and choice of dynamic pricing strategies in a highly complex branded market, consisting of 663 products under 79 brand names of digital cameras. They find that, despite numerous recommendations in the literature for skimming or penetration pricing, market pricing dominates in practice. In particular, the authors find five patterns: skimming (40% frequency), penetration (20% frequency), and three variants of market-pricing patterns (60% frequency), where new products are launched at market prices. Skimming pricing launches the new product 16% above the market price and subsequently increases the price relative to the market price. Penetration pricing launches the new product 18% below the market price and subsequently lowers the price relative to the market price. Firms exhibit a mix of these pricing paths across their portfolios. The specific pricing paths correlate with market, firm, and brand characteristics such as competitive intensity, market pioneering, brand reputation, and experience effects.
See also
Pricing
Marketing
Microeconomics
Outline of industrial organization
Business model
Price skimming
Sales promotion
Product differentiation
References
Pricing
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] |
256280 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1800%20in%20music | 1800 in music | This is a list of music-related events in 1800.
Events
January 16 – Luigi Cherubini's opera, Les Deux Journées ("The Water Carrier"), is premièred in Paris at the Salle Feydeau.
February 22 – Lorenzo da Ponte, best known as Mozart's former librettist, goes bankrupt in London; his partner in the publishing business, Jan Ladislav Dussek, has already gone into hiding.
March 28 – Anton Weidinger gives the first public performance of Haydn's Trumpet Concerto in E flat major at the Vienna Burgtheater.
April 2 – Beethoven's Symphony No. 1 debuts at the Burgtheater in Vienna.
April 21 – Haydn's Creation is performed in London. In the interval, Samuel Wesley plays one of his own organ concertos.
June 2 – The premiere of Cesare in Farmacusa, with music by Antonio Salieri and words by Carlo Prospero Defranceschi, takes place at the Kärntnertortheater, Vienna.
September 6 – During Lord Nelson's visit to Eisenstadt, his companion Emma, Lady Hamilton, performs Haydn's Arianna a Naxos and The Battle of the Nile, with Haydn himself on piano.
September 16 – François-Adrien Boïeldieu's opera, Le calife de Bagdad, opens at Paris's Salle Favart.
October 8 – Prince Joseph Franz von Lobkowitz pays Ludwig van Beethoven 200 florins for his String Quartets.
October 14 – Nine-year-old prodigy Jakob Meyer Beer makes his début on the concert platform, playing a Mozart piano concerto; Jakob later reinvents himself as Giacomo Meyerbeer.
December 1 – Franz Anton Hoffmeister and Ambrosius Kühnel establish the Bureau de Musique, a music publishing company, in Leipzig.
Classical music
Ludwig van Beethoven
Symphony No. 1
Piano Concerto No. 3 (composed; first performance in 1803)
Piano Sonata in B-flat Major Op. 22
Piano Sonata in A-flat Major Op. 26
François Adrien Boieldieu – Harp concerto in C Major
Bartolomeo Campagnoli – 6 Fugues for Solo Violin, Op. 10
Adelaide Suzanne Camille Delaval – Prelude, Divertimento and Waltz, Op. 3
Jan Ladislav Dussek – Piano Sonata No.18, Op. 44
Giacomo Gotifredo Ferrari – 3 Trio Sonatas, Op. 25
Adalbert Gyrowetz – Divertissement, Op. 50
Louis-Emmanuel Jadin – 3 String Quartets, Livre 1
Leopold Kozeluch – Three Grand Sonatas for piano accompanied by violin and cello
Franz Krommer – 3 String Quartets, Op. 18
Wenzel Thomas Matiegka – Fantaisie in C major, Op. 4
Johann Friedrich Reichardt – Der Jubel oder Juchhei (liederspiel)
Carl Maria von Weber – 6 Variations sur un thème original, Op. 2 1832
Opera
François Adrien Boieldieu – Le Calife de Bagdad
Luigi Cherubini – Les deux journées
Ferdinando Paer – La testa riscaldata, La sonnambula, Ginevra degli Almieri and Poche ma buone
William Reeve – Paul and Virginia
Antonio Salieri – Cesare in Farmacusa and L'Angiolina
Carl Maria Von Weber – Das stumme Waldmädchen
Methods and theory writings
Anton Bemetzrieder – A Complete Treatise on Music (London: Thomas Rickaby)
Johann Dalberg – Untersuchungen über den Ursprung der Harmonie (Erfurt: Beyer und Maring)
Gottlieb Graupner – A New Preceptor for the German Flute (Boston: G. Graupner)
P. Hoey – A Plain and Concise Method of Learning the Gregorian Note (Dublin: P. Wogan)
Samuel Holyoke – The Instrumental Assistant (Exeter, NH: H. Ranlet)
William Shield – An Introduction to Harmony (London: printed for the Author, sold by G. G. & J. Robinson)
Georg Joseph Vogler
Choral-System (Kopenhagen: Haly'schen Musikhandlung)
Musik-skole (Kiøbenhavn: Niels Christensen)
Births
January 1
Filipina Brzezinska-Szymanowska, Polish pianist and composer (died 1886)
Johann Kulik, luthier (died 1872)
January 11 – Giuseppina Ronzi de Begnis, Italian operatic soprano (died 1853)
January 14 – Ludwig Ritter von Köchel, music researcher and composer (died 1877)
March 5 – Georg Friedrich Daumer, librettist and philosopher (died 1875)
May 5 – Raymond Brucker, librettist and writer (died 1875)
June 24 – Antonio James Oury (Anna Caroline Oury), composer and pianist (died 1880)
July 30 – Alexander Veltman, lyricist and writer (died 1870)
July 31 – Michel Masson, lyricist and writer (died 1883)
August 26 – Joseph Christoph Kessler, German pianist and composer (died 1872)
October 12 – Francesco Florimo, composer and music historian (died 1888)
November 6 – Eduard Grell, composer and conductor (died 1886)
December 1 – Mihály Vörösmarty, lyricist and poet (died 1855)
December 4 – Emil Aarestrup, lyricist and poet (died 1856)
date unknown
Eduard Brendler, composer (died 1831)
Maria Caterina Rosalbina Caradori-Allan, French operatic soprano (died 1865)
Pavel Mochalov, lyricist and actor (died 1848)
Deaths
January 4 – Giovanni Battista Mancini, Italian castrato and singing teacher (born 1714)
January 6 – William Jones, music theorist and clergyman (born 1726)
March 9 – Dominique Della-Maria, composer and mandolin virtuoso (born 1768)
April 29 – Johann Christian Fischer, oboist and composer (born 1733)
May 7 – Niccolò Piccinni, composer (born 1728)
June 6 – Margareta Sofia Lagerqvist, opera singer (born 1771)
June 10 – Johann Abraham Peter Schulz, composer (born 1747)
June 11 – Margarethe Danzi, German composer and soprano (born 1768)
August 3 – Carl Friedrich Christian Fasch, harpsichordist and composer (born 1736)
August 4 – Julije Bajamonti, composer and historian (born 1744)
September 8 – Pierre Gaviniès, French violinist and composer (born 1728)
September 26 – William Billings, America's first major composer (born 1746)
September 27 – Hyacinthe Jadin, French composer (born 1776; tuberculosis)
References
Music by year
18th century in music | [
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256282 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1835%20in%20music | 1835 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1835.
Events
January 2 – The Neue Leipziger Zeitschrift für Musik, edited by Robert Schumann, changes its name to Neue Zeitschrift für Musik.
January 24 – Postponed premiere Vincenzo Bellini's I Puritani in Théâtre-Italien Paris
January 25 – Hector Berlioz becomes resident music critic for the Journal des Débats.
May 4 – Samuel Sebastian Wesley, son of the composer Samuel Wesley, grandson of Charles Wesley, and organist of Hereford Cathedral, elopes with and marries Mary Anne Merewether, sister of the cathedral's dean.
June 4 – Franz Liszt joins his mistress, Marie d'Agoult, in Basel, Switzerland.
July 8 – Dan Emmett is discharged from the US Army and begins his career as a blackface banjoist and singer.
October – Contralto Clorinda Corradi relocates to Havana, Cuba.
November 9 – At a concert in Johann Sebastian Bach's home city of Leipzig, Felix Mendelssohn, Clara Wieck and Louis Rakeman perform Bach's Concerto in D minor for three keyboards and orchestra.
November 28 – 25-year-old Robert Schumann and 16-year-old Clara Wieck begin their romance.
December 14 – The St James's Theatre, London, opens with an "operatic burletta", Agnes Sorel.
Soprano Fanny Corri-Paltoni makes her last known stage appearance, at Alessandria in Italy.
Rossini completes Les soirées musicales which includes the patter song "La Danza".
Music department added to the Prussian Academy of Arts in Berlin.
Publications
Luigi Cherubini – Cours de contrepoint et de fugue
Classical music
Frédéric Chopin – Ballade No. 1
Otto Nicolai – Gran marcia funebre
Ferdinand Ries – Symphony No. 7
Robert Schumann - Carnaval, Op. 9
Giuseppe Verdi – Messa di Gloria
Samuel Sebastian Wesley – Larghetto for Organ in F minor
Opera
Princess Amalie of Saxony – La casa disabitata
Daniel Auber – Le cheval de bronze
Vincenzo Bellini – I puritani
Gaetano Donizetti
Lucia di Lammermoor
Maria Stuarda
Fromental Halévy
L'éclair
La Juive
Giuseppe Persiani – Ines de Castro
Mikhail Zagoskin – Askold's Grave (Аскольдова могила, Askol’dova mogila)
Births
January 14 – Felix Otto Dessoff, conductor and composer (d. 1892)
January 23 – August Lanner, composer
February 24 – John Henry Martin, band instrument manufacturer (d. 1910)
March 15 – Eduard Strauss, composer
March 24 – August Winding, composer (d. 1899)
July 10 – Henryk Wieniawski, violinist and composer (d. 1880)
August 20 – Oscar Stoumon, music critic and composer (d. 1900)
October 7 – Felix Draeseke, composer (d. 1913)
October 9 – Camille Saint-Saëns, composer (d. 1921)
October 11 – Theodore Thomas, conductor (d. 1905)
November 25 – Joseph Glæser, organist and composer (d. 1891)
December 1 – Carl Johan Frydensberg, composer (d. 1904)
date unknown – Abu Khalil Qabbani, Syrian dramatist and composer (d. 1902)
Deaths
February 19 – Amzi Chapin, cabinetmaker, singing-school teacher and shapenote composer
April 23 – Joseph Antonio Emidy, violinist and composer (b. 1775)
April 25 – François Tourte, bowmaker (b. 1747)
May 9 – Sebastian Mayer, operatic bass (b. 1773)
August 3 – Wenzel Müller, composer (b. 1767)
August 10 – Claus Schall, violinist and composer (b. 1757)
September 23 – Vincenzo Bellini, composer (b. 1801)
October 21 – Muthuswami Dikshitar, youngest of the Carnatic Music composer trinity (b. 1775)
November 19
Thomas Linley the elder, musician and founder of a musical dynasty (b. 1733)
Abraham Mendelssohn Bartholdy, banker and father of Felix and Fanny Mendelssohn (born 1776)
References
19th century in music
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256284 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1834%20in%20music | 1834 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1834.
Events
September – Viennese ballerina Fanny Elssler makes her debut with the Ballet du Théâtre de l'Académie Royale de Musique at the Paris Opera's Salle Le Peletier.
October 7 – Birmingham Town Hall in Birmingham, England, designed by Joseph Hansom and Edward Welch, is opened for the Birmingham Triennial Music Festival.
Statue of Jean-Jacques Rousseau is erected in his birthplace of Geneva.
Mikhail Glinka returns to Russia after several years away with the intention of composing Russian nationalist music.
Publications
Pierre Baillot – L'art du violon
Popular music
"Alphabet song" (copyrighted by C. Bradlee)
Classical music
Hector Berlioz – Harold in Italy
Luigi Cherubini – String Quartet No. 3 in D minor
Frederic Chopin – Fantaisie-Impromptu (published posthumously in 1855)
William Sterndale Bennett – Piano Concerto in C Minor
Opera
John Barnett – The Mountain Sylph
Konradin Kreutzer – Das Nachtlager in Granada
Saverio Mercadante – Uggiero il danese
Births
January 14 – William C. F. Robinson, colonial administrator (d. 1897)
January 28 – Sabine Baring-Gould, clergyman, hymn-writer, song collector, writer and scholar (d. 1834)
February 28 – Sir Charles Santley, baritone (d. 1922)
March 1 – Hildegard Werner, conductor (d. 1911)
March 23 – Julius Reubke, pianist, organist and composer (d. 1858)
June 8 – George Garrett, composer (d. 1897)
June 24 – George Becker, composer and music writer (d. 1928)
August 9 – Elias Álvares Lobo, composer (d. 1901)
August 17 – Peter Benoit, composer (d. 1901)
August 31 – Amilcare Ponchielli, composer (d. 1886)
October 31 – Knowles Shaw, composer of gospel hymns (d. 1878)
Deaths
February 4 – Amélie-Julie Candeille, singer, librettist and composer (b. 1767)
September 2 – David Charles, hymn-writer (b. 1762)
August 8 – Silvestro Palma, Italian composer (b. 1754)
October 8 – François-Adrien Boïeldieu, composer (b. 1775)
date unknown
Antoine-Laurent Baudron, violinist and composer (b. 1742)
August Duranowski, violinist and composer (b. c. 1770)
Filip Višnjić, gusle player (b. 1767)
19th century in music
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256285 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Samuel%20J.%20R.%20McMillan | Samuel J. R. McMillan | Samuel James Renwick McMillan (February 22, 1826October 3, 1897) was an American lawyer, judge and Republican politician. He served on the Minnesota District Court, the Minnesota Supreme Court and as U.S. Senator from Minnesota.
Life and career
McMillan was born in Brownsville, Pennsylvania in 1826. His parents Thomas Long and Jane McMillan (née Gormly) were of Scottish and Irish ancestry. He attended the University of Pittsburgh (then known as the Western University of Pennsylvania) in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania and studied law under Edwin M. Stanton, graduating in 1846. In 1850 he married Harriet Butler. McMillan and his wife moved to Minnesota in 1852, initially settling in Stillwater and later moving to St. Paul.
When Minnesota achieved statehood in 1858 McMillan was named as the first judge of the newly formed Minnesota District Court. During the Dakota War of 1862 McMillan served as a Second Lieutenant in a militia unit known as the Stillwater Frontier Guards which was only briefly active. In 1864 he was appointed to the Minnesota Supreme Court as one of two new justices to replace the recently resigned Justices Charles Eugene Flandrau and Isaac Atwater. In 1874 he was promoted to Chief Justice to replace Christopher G. Ripley who had also resigned. In 1875, the Minnesota Legislature elected him to serve as U.S. Senator. He served in the 44th, 45th, 46th, 47th, 48th, and 49th United States Congresses from March 4, 1875, to March 3, 1887.
McMillan did not stand for re-election in 1886 and returned to his law practice after the end of his term. He died in Saint Paul on October 3, 1897. He is buried in Oakland Cemetery in St. Paul, Minnesota.
Samuel James Renwick McMillan family papers, 1818-1956. Minnesota Historical Society
Ravi D. Goel collection of Samuel James Renwick McMillan family papers, 1818-1956, Minnesota Historical Society. The collection includes photos, personal letters, transcribed documents, and printed publications from 1818 to 1956. These papers span five generations & start with a direct connection to the Revolutionary War.
References
1826 births
1897 deaths
People from Brownsville, Pennsylvania
United States senators from Minnesota
Minnesota Republicans
Chief Justices of the Minnesota Supreme Court
Minnesota state court judges
Republican Party United States senators
University of Pittsburgh alumni
Minnesota lawyers
19th-century American politicians
19th-century American judges
19th-century American lawyers | [
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256286 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20Oregon%20ballot%20measures | List of Oregon ballot measures | The list of Oregon ballot measures lists all statewide ballot measures to the present.
In Oregon, the initiative and referendum process dates back to 1902, when the efforts of the Direct Legislation League prompted amending the Oregon Constitution for the first time since 1859. The process of initiative and referendum became nationally known as the Oregon System.
Types
There are three types of ballot measures: initiatives, referendums, and referrals. Initiatives and referendums may be placed on the ballot if their supporters gather enough signatures from Oregon voters; the number of signatures is a percentage based on the number of voters casting ballots in the most recent election for the Governor of Oregon.
initiative Any issue may be placed before the voters, either amending the Constitution or revising or adding to the Oregon Revised Statutes. Constitutional initiatives require the signature of eight percent of recent voters to qualify for the ballot; statutory reforms require six percent.
referendum The public may act to undo any bill passed by the Oregon Legislative Assembly, by putting a referendum on the ballot. A referendum requires four percent of recent voters to qualify for the ballot.
referral The Legislative Assembly may refer any bill it passes to the public for approval, and must do so for any amendment to the Constitution. Additionally, the Legislative Assembly may refer revisions to the Constitution; a revision differs from an amendment in that it may alter multiple provisions of the Constitution.
The constitutional foundation for ballot measures (and legislation produced by the Oregon Legislative Assembly) may be found in Article IV of the Oregon Constitution, and Chapter 250 of the Oregon Revised Statutes relates to initiative and referendum as well.
The Oregon Blue Book, produced by the Oregon government, maintains a list similar to this one.
1900s
1902
1904
1906
1908
1910s
1912
1913
1914
1916
1917
1918
1919
1920s
1921
1922
1923
1924
1926
1927
1928
1930s
1932
1933
1934
1934
1936
1938
1940s
1942
1944
1945
1946
1947
1948
1950s
1952
1954
1956
1958
1960s
1962
1963
1964
1966
1968
1969
1970s
1972
7 — Repealed Governors Retirement Act that was created through House Bill 1728 in 1971 that provided lifetime pensions for Oregon Governors who served at least two years. The measure passed with little objection.
1973
1974
1976
1977
1978
1980s
1982
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
May 17, 1988 primary election
November 8, 1988 general election
1989
May 16 Special Election
June 27 Special Election
1990s
1990
May
November
1992
May
November
1993
June
November
1994
May
November
NOTE: Detailed information about elections from 1995 to the present, including ballot measure text, sponsorship, and arguments for and against, may be found at the Oregon Secretary of State's web site.
1995
May
1996
May
November
November 5 General Election
1997
May
November
1998
May
November
1999
November
2000s
2000
May
November
2002
May
September
November
General Election: Detailed information on Measures 14-18 and 21-27, and official election results available at the Secretary of State's web site.
2003
January
September
2004
February
November
In the fall election, Measure 36 (outlawing gay marriage) dominated public attention: 81,667 (or 4.7%) more votes were cast on Measure 36 than the average of all other measures on the ballot. Measure 37 (restricting land use regulation) was contentious before the election, and became more controversial after the fact, as state and local governments attempted to implement it.
Two other measures passed in 2004, both referred by the Legislature for the General Election, and neither one drawing any opposition in the Voters' Pamphlet. Measure 31 made it possible to postpone certain elections in the event of a candidate's death, and Measure 32 changed the way revenue from mobile home taxes is handled.
2006
In 2006, voters considered 11 statewide ballot measures. All were placed on the ballot by initiative.
Nearly all the measures were defeated. Measures extending prescription drug pricing benefits (Measure 44) and restricting the government's power of eminent domain (39) were the only ones that passed without qualification; a campaign finance reform system (47) passed as well, but a companion measure (46) that would have provided necessary constitutional support for it failed.
Out-of-state interests spent millions of dollars supporting—and in one significant case, opposing—Oregon ballot measures. None of these big-money measures passed; in fact, Measures 39 and 44 passed without drawing any organized opposition.
Unsuccessful measures
Measures 41 and 48 aimed to restrict the amount of money the State government could raise and spend, respectively. They were both mostly funded by the Taxpayers Association of Oregon, which in turn received nearly all its funding from Illinois-based Americans for Limited Government. Opposition to these two measures was paired as well, spending $1.9 million to defeat the two measures.
Measure 42 was promoted by conservative ballot measure activist Bill Sizemore. Sizemore broke with his custom by promoting a consumer-oriented bill, which would have outlawed the use of credit data in determining insurance premiums. Opponents of the measure spent over $3.7 million (nearly all of which came from out of state), defeating the measure. Their advertising focused heavily on Sizemore's credibility. Sizemore did not run an active campaign promoting the measure. He and his longtime political ally Loren Parks were the only people to submit arguments in favor for the Voters' Guide.
Measure 45, almost entirely financed by $1.2 million from Illinois-based U.S. Term Limits, would have established strict term limits in the Oregon Legislative Assembly. Term limits had previously been in place in the late 1990s, but the prior law was declared unconstitutional by the Oregon Supreme Court. The measure failed.
Measures 46 and 47 were presented as a single package; 46 would have amended the Constitution to allow limitations on campaign financing (heavily favoring popular vote, and requiring a 75% vote for such changes in the Legislature); and 47 detailed specific limitations. Measure 47 passed, but in the absence of the kind of Constitutional support Measure 46 would have provided, it will have no effect. The campaigns both for and against this package were funded almost entirely from Oregon sources.
Measure 40 sought to require that judges of the Oregon Supreme Court be elected by district, rather than statewide.
Measure 43 sought to require parental notification in the event of certain teenage abortions. (Two measures restricting abortion were also rejected in the 1990 general election.)
Successful measures
Measure 39, described by its proponents as a natural extension of 2004's Measure 37, restricted the governments powers of eminent domain. Measure 44 extended a state prescription drug benefit, previously only available to seniors, to cover all uninsured Oregonians.
2007
In 2007, voters considered 2 statewide ballot measures.
2008
May
Three measures (51, 52, and 53), all legislative referrals and all constitutional amendments, were on the May 2008 primary ballot. All three passed; the first two by wide margins, and Measure 53 by a margin so narrow that it triggered an automatic recount.
November
In November 2008, voters considered eight initiatives and four legislative referrals. The four referrals all passed, and the initiatives all failed.
2010s
2010
January
May
November
2012
November
2014
November
2016
May
November
2018
January
November
2020s
2020
See also
List of California ballot propositions
List of Washington initiatives
Lists of Oregon-related topics
Government of Oregon
Capital punishment in Oregon
References
External links
Election History from Oregon Blue Book List of Initiatives, Referenda, and Recalls, also from Oregon Blue Book''
Oregon Secretary of State Elections Division
Secretary of State's news release announcing what measures qualified for 2006 General Election ballot.
Ballotpedia - Oregon Ballot Measures
Ballot measures
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256290 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1833%20in%20music | 1833 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1833.
Events
February 24 – The Grand Theatre, Warsaw, Poland, is inaugurated with a production of Rossini's The Barber of Seville.
May 13 – Felix Mendelssohn's Italian Symphony in A major, Op. 90, is premièred under the composer's baton in London; although very successful there he withdraws it for revision.
July 8 – Lyrics by Francisco Acuña de Figueroa are selected as the National Anthem of Uruguay.
October 3 – French composer Hector Berlioz marries Anglo-Irish actress Harriet Smithson in a civil ceremony at the British Embassy in Paris with Liszt as one of the witnesses.
December 1 – Launch of Le Ménestrel, a French weekly music journal; it survives until 1940.
Late – First publication of the Toccata and Fugue in D minor, BWV 565 for organ attributed to Johann Sebastian Bach as part of a collection of Bach's organ works produced by Breitkopf & Härtel in Leipzig and partly prepared by Mendelssohn.
Carl Friedrich Rungenhagen, director of the Sing-Akademie zu Berlin, conducts the first performance of Johann Sebastian Bach's St John Passion after the composer's death in 1750.
Popular music
"God Rest You Merry, Gentlemen"
"Još Hrvatska ni propala" m. Ferdo Livadić w. Ljudevit Gaj (written in 1832)
Classical music
Charles Valentin Alkan – Rondo Brilliant for String Quartet
William Sterndale Bennett – Piano Concerto No. 3 in C minor
Frédéric Chopin
Grande valse brillante in E-flat major, Op. 18
Boléro, Op. 19
Johann Nepomuk Hummel – Fantasy for piano
Felix Mendelssohn – Symphony No. 4 "Italian"
Opera
Gaetano Donizetti – Lucrezia Borgia
Heinrich Marschner – Hans Heiling
Births
March 7 – Franz Wohlfahrt, violin teacher and composer (d. 1884)
March 17 – Giuseppe Gariboldi, flautist and composer (d. 1905)
April 30 – Hortense Schneider, operatic soprano (d. 1920)
May 5 – Jean Becker, violinist (d. 1884)
May 7 – Johannes Brahms, composer (d. 1897)
May 9
Beniamino Carelli, singing teacher (d. 1921)
Bolesław Dembiński, organist and composer (d. 1914)
June 7 – Alexander Ritter, composer and violinist (d. 1896)
June 27 – , composer and pianist (b. 1902)
July 26 – Otto Singer, composer (d. 1894)
September 26 – Gustav Stolpe, conductor and composer (d. 1902)
October 26 – Adelaide Phillips, operatic contralto (d. 1882)
November 12 – Alexander Borodin, composer (d. 1887)
date unknown
Luigi Bassi, clarinet player and composer (d. 1871)
Mathilda Enequist, opera singer (d. 1898)
Deaths
January 16 - Nannette Streicher, German piano maker, composer, music educator and writer (b 1769)
January 19 – Ferdinand Hérold, composer (b. 1791)
January 20 – Gertrud Elisabeth Mara, operatic soprano (b. 1749)
March 3 – Heinrich Werner, composer (b. 1800)
April 7 – Antoni Radziwiłł, Polish aristocrat and musician (b. 1775)
May 25 – Johann Andreas Streicher, pianist, composer and piano maker (b. 1761)
May 28 – Johann Christian Friedrich Hæffner, composer (b. 1759)
May 29 – William Marshall, fiddler and composer (b. 1748)
July 24 – Hedda Wrangel, Swedish aristocrat and musician (b. 1792)
September 14 – John Andrew Stevenson, composer (b. c.1761)
October 1 – Luísa Todi, operatic soprano (b. 1753)
November 8 – Maximilian Stadler, pianist and composer (b. 1748)
References
19th century in music
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256292 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1832%20in%20music | 1832 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1832.
Events
Spring – Elias Parish Alvars gives concerts in Constantinople before Sultan Mahmud II.
February 26 – Chopin gave his debut Paris concert at the Salle Pleyel.
April 20 – Franz Liszt attends a charity concert for the Parisian cholera epidemic given by Niccolò Paganini. He vows to become the 'Paganini of the Piano'.
May 14 – Première of Felix Mendelssohn's overture The Hebrides is held in London.
September – Paris's Opéra-Comique moves from Salle Ventadour to Salle de la Bourse.
November 22 – Baritone Manuel García marries operatic soprano Cécile Eugénie Mayer.
Changes to American Army regulations make bandsmen regular soldiers, required to serve in battle if needed, establishes a position for bandmasters, and limits the size of regimental bands.
Classical Music
Charles-Valentin Alkan – Concerti da Camera nos. 1 and 2, Op. 10
Hector Berlioz – Lelio
Friedrich Kuhlau
La clochette, Op. 121
Allegro pathetique for Piano 4-hands, Op. 123
Adagio and Rondo for Piano 4-Hands, Op. 124
Albert Lortzing – Singspiel Szenen aus Mozarts Leben
Felix Mendelssohn – Hebrides Overture
Clara Schumann – Caprices en forme de valses, Op. 2
Robert Schumann - Toccata in C, Op. 7
Johann Strauss, Sr.
Cotillons, Op. 50
Bajaderen-Walzer, Op. 53
Contratänze, Op. 54
Alexandra-Walzer, Op. 56
Sigismond Thalberg – 6 Deutsche Lieder, Op. 8
Richard Wagner – Symphony in C
Opera
Gaetano Donizetti – L'elisir d'amore, May 12, Teatro della Canobbiana, Milan.
Gaetano Donizetti – Sancia di Castiglia (opera seria, first performed at the Teatro San Carlo in Naples, on November 4, 1832)
Fromental Halévy – La tentationPopular music
"The Bloom is on the Rye (My Pretty Jane)" by Edward Fitzball & Henry Rowley Bishop
Publications
Joseph Funk – A Compilation of Genuine Church MusicBirths
January 17 – Marie Wieck, pianist, singer, piano teacher, and composer (died 1916)
January 28 – Franz Wüllner, conductor and composer (died 1902)
February 12 – Gustave Satter, pianist and composer (died 1879)
February 15 – Nicolás Ruiz Espadero, pianist, composer, piano teacher and editor of the works of Louis Moreau Gottschalk (died 1890)
March 4 – Ivan Melnikov, operatic baritone (died 1906)
June 3 – Charles Lecocq, composer (died 1918)
July 17 – August Söderman, composer (died 1876)
August 3 – Ivan Zajc, composer, conductor, director and teacher (died 1914)
August 7 – Julius Epstein, pianist (died 1926)
September 9 – Petro Nishchynsky, composer (died 1896)
September 14 – Giuseppe Capponi, operatic tenor (died 1889)
September 20 – Johann Joseph Abert, composer (died 1915)
October 1 – Henry Clay Work, US composer (died 1884)
October 22
Leopold Damrosch, conductor (died 1885)
August Labitzky, composer and kapellmeister (died 1903)
October 29 – Anders Heyerdahl, violinist and composer (died 1918)
November 1 – Eleanora Ehrenbergů, operatic soprano (died 1912)
November 11 – Paolo Giorza, composer (died 1914)date unknown – Julián Arcas, composer for guitar (died 1882)
Deaths
March 10 – Muzio Clementi, composer and pianist, 80
March 12 – Friedrich Kuhlau, composer, 55
March 23 – Wilhelm Würfel, pianist, conductor and composer, 41
May 15 – Carl Friedrich Zelter, conductor, composer and music teacher, 73
May 26 – François-Louis Perne, composer and musicologist, 59
June 10 – Manuel García, opera singer, 57
August 19 – George Aspull, pianist, singer and composer, 19
September 9 – Bernhard Klein, composer, 39
November 3 – Pietro Generali, composer, 59
December 12 – Andrea Nozzari, operatic tenor, 57
December 22 – Ishmail Spicer, composer, 72
December 31 – Adelaide Malanotte, operatic contralto, 47date unknown'' – Philip Antony Corri, composer (b. 1784)
References
19th century in music
Music by year | [
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256293 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1831%20in%20music | 1831 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1831.
Events
Frédéric Chopin arrives in Paris.
The first opera, Deux mots by Nicolas Dalayrac in performed in Oslo directed by August Schrumpf with Augusta Smith in the main part. Emilie da Fonseca is employed at Christiania Theatre.
Popular music
William Crosswell – "Lord, Lead the Way the Saviour Went" (hymn)
Classical music
Hector Berlioz
Overture 'King Lear', H 53
Intrata di Rob-Roy MacGregor, H 54
Méditation religieuse, H 56
La captive, H 60
Frédéric Chopin – Arrangement of "Casta Diva"
Carl Czerny – Piano Sonata No.10, Op. 268
Franz Lachner – Fragen
Felix Mendelssohn
Piano Concerto No. 1, Opus 25 (premièred October 17 in Munich)
Die erste Walpurgisnacht, secular cantata, Opus 60 (first version)
George Onslow – Symphony No. 2 in D Minor, Opus 42
Gioachino Rossini – Stabat Mater (composition begins, premiere in 1842)
Richard Wagner
7 Kompositionen zu Goethe's Faust, WWV 15
Concert Overture No.1 in D minor, WWV 20
Piano Sonata in B-flat major, WWV 21
Fantasia in F-sharp minor, WWV 22
Polonaise in D major, WWV 23
Incidental Music to 'König Enzio', WWV 24
Piano Sonata in A major, WWV 26
Opera
Vincenzo Bellini
Norma
La Sonnambula
Carlo Coccia – Edoardo in Iscozia
Louis Joseph Ferdinand Herold – Zampa
Giacomo Meyerbeer – Robert le diable
Births
January 15 – Albert Niemann, operatic tenor (d. 1917)
February 21 – Henri Meilhac, opera librettist (d. 1897)
February 26 – Filippo Marchetti, opera composer (d. 1902)
February 28 – Carl Kölling, composer for piano (d. 1914)
May 24 – Richard Hoffman, composer and pianist (d. 1909)
June 10 – Silverio Franconetti, flamenco singer (d. 1889)
June 28 – Joseph Joachim, violinist (d. 1907)
July 7 – Eugène Ketterer, pianist and composer (d. 1870)
August 1 – Antonio Cotogni, operatic baritone (d. 1901)
August 13 – Salomon Jadassohn, composer, teacher and theorist (d. 1902)
August 28 – Ludvig Norman, Swedish composer (d. 1885)
December 10 – Philippe Gille, opera librettist (d. 1901)
December 25 – Johann von Herbeck, composer and musician (died 1877)
Deaths
January 6 – Rodolphe Kreutzer, violinist, conductor and composer (b. 1766)
January 8 – Franz Krommer, composer (b. 1759)
January 21 – Achim von Arnim, publisher and lyricist (born 1781)
March 4 – Georg Michael Telemann, theologian and composer (b. 1748)
March 12 – Friedrich von Matthisson, dedicatee and lyricist (born 1761)
April 13 – Ferdinand Kauer, pianist and composer (b. 1751)
June 23 – Mateo Albéniz, composer (b. 1755)
July 25 – Maria Agata Szymanowska, composer (b. 1789)
August 5 – Sébastien Érard, maker of pianos and harps (b. 1752)
September 8 – John Aitken, music publisher (b. c. 1745)
September 15 – Andrea Leone Tottola, Italian librettist
September 18 – Peter Hänsel, German composer (born 1770)
November 14 – Ignaz Pleyel, piano-maker and pupil of Joseph Haydn (b. 1757)
November 30 – Catharine Frydendahl, opera singer (b. 1760)
date unknown
Domenico Gilardoni, composer and librettist (born 1798)
Peter Anton Kreusser, composer (b. 1765)
Guillaume Lasceux, composer and organist (born 1740)
Benedicto Sáenz the elder, cathedral organist of Guatemala
19th century in music
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256296 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1830%20in%20music | 1830 in music | This article is about music-related events in 1830.
Events
August 25 – A performance of Daniel Auber's La muette de Portici at La Monnaie in Brussels helps trigger the Belgian Revolution.
October
Maria Malibran, Margarethe Stockhausen and Charles de Bériot tour the English Midlands.
Felix Mendelssohn arrives in Italy.
November 2 – Frédéric Chopin, aged twenty, leaves Warsaw for Austria.
December 5 – Franz Liszt attends the first performance of Hector Berlioz's Symphonie fantastique. It inspires him to search for new expressive effects on the piano.
In Britain:
The Royal Academy of Music is granted a charter by King George IV of the United Kingdom.
Charles Lucas is appointed official composer and cellist to Queen Adelaide.
Classical music
Frédéric Chopin
Piano Concerto No. 1
Revolutionary Étude, Op. 10, No. 12
George Onslow – Symphony No. 1 in A Major
Hector Berlioz – Symphonie Fantastique
Felix Mendelssohn – Symphony No. 5 in D major/D minor, Op. 107, "Reformation"
Robert Schumann – Variations on the name "Abegg"
Opera
Daniel Auber – Fra Diavolo first performed in Paris. Libretto by Eugène Scribe.
Vincenzo Bellini – La Capuleti e i Montecchi (Venice)
Gaetano Donizetti – Anna Bolena first performed in Milan. Libretto by Felice Romani.
Jacques-François-Fromental-Elie Halévy – Attendre et courir
Louis Joseph Ferdinand Herold – L'Auberge d'Auray
Births
January 23 – Ivan Larionov, Russian composer (d. 1889)
February 11
Peter Arnold Heise, composer (d. 1879)
Hans Bronsart von Schellendorff, composer (d. 1913)
April 13 – Eduard Lassen, conductor and composer (d. 1904)
May 18 – Karl Goldmark, composer (d. 1915)
June 22 – Theodor Leschetizky, Polish pianist, teacher, and composer (d. 1915)
July 30 – Giovanni Masutto, Italian musicologist and flautist (d.1894)
July 31 – František Zdeněk Skuherský, Czech composer and teacher (d. 1892)
August 13 – Gustav Lange, German composer (d. 1889)
September 25 – Karl Klindworth, German composer, pianist, conductor, violinist and music publisher (d. 1916)
November 27 – Harrison Millard, American composer (d.1895)
December 23 – Charlotte Alington Barnard ('Claribel'), English ballad composer (d. 1869)
Deaths
January 19 – Wenzel Thomas Matiegka, composer (b. 1773)
February 17 – Marcos Portugal, composer (b. 1762)
March 2 – Ignaz Schuppanzigh, violinist (b. 1776)
April 18 – José Maurício Nunes Garcia, composer (b. 1767)
November 25 – Pierre Rode, violinist and composer (b. 1774)
November 29 – Charles Simon Catel, composer (b. 1773)
19th century in music
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256299 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ozora%20P.%20Stearns | Ozora P. Stearns | Ozora Pierson Stearns (January 15, 1831June 2, 1896) was an American politician and attorney. A member of the Republican Party, he served as a US Senator from the state of Minnesota. Prior to his election to the Senate, he served as mayor of Rochester, Minnesota and county attorney of Olmsted County. He was a Colonel in the Union Army during the American Civil War.
Early years
Stearns was born January 15, 1831, in De Kalb, New York. He was the tenth of eleven children. In 1833, the Stearns family moved to Madison, Ohio.
Education
Stearn attended Oberlin College, graduated from the University of Michigan in 1858, and from the law department of that university in 1860. He was admitted to the bar in 1860 and commenced practice in Rochester, Minnesota.
Career
Stearns was elected prosecuting attorney of Olmsted County, Minnesota in 1861, formed a law partnership with Charles M. Start in 1863, and served as mayor of Rochester from 1866 to 1868.
He served in the Union Army during the Civil War as a first lieutenant in the 9th Minnesota Volunteer Infantry Regiment and later as colonel of the 39th United States Colored Infantry. He led the latter regiment at the Battle of the Crater on July 30, 1864.
Stearns was elected as a Republican to the United States Senate from Minnesota on January 18, 1871, to fill the vacancy caused by the death of Daniel S. Norton. He served in the 41st Congress from January 23, 1871 to March 4, 1871.
In 1872, Stearns moved to Duluth and formed a law partnership with J. D. Ensign (future mayor of Duluth). Governor Cushman Kellogg Davis appointed Stearns as a judge of the eleventh judicial district of Minnesota in 1874. He was re-elected three times, serving until 1895. According to Stearns, when he began as a judge, "there was not a court-house in the district. We held court where we could— in churches, in stores, school-houses, and sometimes in places not quite so respected."
Stearns also served as a regent of the University of Minnesota (1890–1895), president and treasurer of the Lakeside Land company, director in the West Duluth Land company, the Duluth Electric Light and Power company, the Masonic Temple association, the Duluth Building and Loan association and the Duluth Union National bank.
Personal life
Stearns married Sarah Burger Stearns, the first president of the Minnesota Woman Suffrage Association. In 1891, he suffered a stroke, and they moved to California in 1894 because of his failing health. He died in Pacific Beach, California on June 2, 1896. His remains were cremated in Los Angeles, California and the ashes interred in Forest Hill Cemetery, Duluth, Minnesota.
References
External links
1831 births
1896 deaths
Mayors of Rochester, Minnesota
Minnesota state court judges
United States senators from Minnesota
Minnesota Republicans
Union Army colonels
Republican Party United States senators
University of Michigan Law School alumni
People from De Kalb, New York
University of Michigan alumni
19th-century American politicians
19th-century American judges | [
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] |
256300 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Happy%20Mondays | Happy Mondays | Happy Mondays are an English rock band formed in Salford in 1980. The band's original line-up was Shaun Ryder (vocals), his brother Paul Ryder (bass), Gary Whelan (drums), Paul Davis (keyboard), and Mark Day (guitar). Mark "Bez" Berry later joined the band onstage as a dancer/percussionist. Rowetta joined the band as a vocalist in 1990.
The group's work bridged the Manchester independent rock music of the 1980s and the emerging UK rave scene, drawing influence from funk, house, and psychedelia to pioneer the Madchester sound. They experienced their commercial peak with the releases Bummed (1988), Madchester Rave On (1989), and Pills 'n' Thrills and Bellyaches (1990), with the last going platinum in the UK. They disbanded in 1993, and have reformed several times in subsequent decades.
History
First incarnation
The band were signed to Factory Records after passing a demo tape to Phil Saxe, a trader at Manchester Arndale who was on friendly terms with Mike Pickering, a DJ at the Haçienda nightclub. Saxe became the band's manager.
Their first release was the "Forty Five EP", often called the "Delightful EP" after its first track. It was released on Factory Records in September 1985. Their first album, Squirrel and G-Man Twenty Four Hour Party People Plastic Face Carnt Smile (White Out), was released in 1987 and was produced by John Cale. This was followed by two further albums: Bummed, in 1988, produced by Martin Hannett, and Pills 'n' Thrills and Bellyaches, in 1990, produced by Paul Oakenfold and Steve Osborne. The latter, recorded at Capitol Studios in Los Angeles, went platinum in the UK, selling more than 350,000 copies. Singles "Step On" and "Kinky Afro" from this album both reached number 5 in the UK singles chart.
By the late 1980s, the Happy Mondays were an important part of the Manchester music scene and personified rave culture. Numerous world tours meant the band had international success as well as massive success in their home country. The line-up of the band during this first and most important ten-year phase never changed, and the six original members Shaun Ryder, Paul Ryder, Gary Whelan, Paul Davis, Mark Day, and Mark "Bez" Berry remained a tight unit until the first incarnation came to an end in 1994. The band headlined the Friday night at Glastonbury Festival 1990. In November of that year, Paul McCartney commented in NME: "I saw the Happy Mondays on TV, and they reminded me of the Beatles in their 'Strawberry Fields' phase."
Musically, the band fused indie pop guitars with a rhythmic style that owed much to house music, Krautrock, funk, and northern soul. Much of their music was remixed by popular DJs, emphasizing the dance influences even further. In terms of style and dress, they crossed hippy fashion and ideals with 1970s glamour. Sartorially and musically, the band helped to encourage the psychedelic revival associated with acid house. One of their most popular songs is "Lazyitis (One Armed Boxer)", featuring a surreal duet between Ryder and Karl Denver. In February 1991, Happy Mondays played in Rock in Rio 2 at the Maracanã Stadium in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, and famously went to meet Ronnie Biggs in Brazil with Piers Morgan, who at the time was a writer for The Sun newspaper. The Mondays also influenced many bands around the Northwest and beyond, including the Stone Roses, Oasis, and the Charlatans. A multi-city US tour followed, with the group returning home early in May 1991. In 1991, they played to 30,000 people at Elland Road, Leeds, said to be the Happy Mondays' own Spike Island. By July that year, they revealed details of a fourteen track 'official bootleg' live album, Baby Big Head, recorded at the Elland Road concert. The official record label release, Live followed later in the year.
Yes Please! followed in 1992, produced by Chris Frantz and Tina Weymouth, recorded at Eddy Grant's studio in Barbados. The album was a commercial failure that bankrupted Factory Records.
Second incarnation
Happy Mondays disbanded in 1993, and Shaun Ryder and Bez formed Black Grape with ex-Paris Angels guitarist "Wags" (who would later go on to serve in the 1999–2000 reincarnation of the Mondays) and ex-Ruthless Rap Assassins star Kermit. Seven years passed, and in 1999 Happy Mondays re-formed, with founding members Shaun Ryder, Paul Ryder, Gary Whelan and Bez but without Paul Davis and Mark Day. In the place of Day and Davis were Wags and a number of other session musicians including Ben Leach who had once been a member of The Farm, percussionist Lea Mullen, and rapper "Nuts". Also joining the new line-up was soul diva Rowetta Satchell (who sang back-up on Pills, Thrills, and Bellyaches, as well as Yes Please!, and who would go on to have solo success). The band toured extensively in the UK and internationally, selling out the 20,000 capacity Manchester Arena and two nights at Brixton Academy, and released a new single, a cover version of the Thin Lizzy hit "The Boys Are Back in Town". The single reached number 24 in the UK Singles Chart. They provided support for Oasis on their "Standing on the Shoulder of Giants" arena tour, played at the Fuji Rock Festival in Japan, numerous European festivals including T in the Park and also toured Australia the same year. Although critically acclaimed and playing to sell-out crowds, the band once more ceased their activity in 2001 following the departure of bass player and founding member Paul Ryder.
A fictionalised depiction of the band is featured in the 2002 film 24 Hour Party People, with Danny Cunningham as Shaun Ryder and Paul Popplewell as Paul Ryder. Paul Ryder himself had a cameo role in the film as a gangster and Rowetta (who sang for the band on Pills 'n' Thrills and Bellyaches and Yes Please!) appeared in the film as herself.
Third incarnation
2004 saw another re-formation, comprising original members Bez, Whelan and Shaun Ryder along with another group of musicians. Shaun Ryder recruited Kav Sandhu to join on guitar & bring in a new group of musicians. Kav brought on-board bassist Mikey Shine, keyboard player Dave Parkinson & guitarist Jonn Dunn. Dave Parkinson was later replaced by Dan Broad. Backing singers on the first tour were Angie Brown and Ron Carroll. from 2004 to 2006 the band were managed by Danny Newman, MD at London Club Turnmills brother of London Club DJ Tall Paul. Rowetta's backing vocal role was now being performed by Julie E. Gordon who toured with the band until 2010. Paul Ryder was not present, having sworn to never perform with his brother again following the 2000 break-up, and formed his own band Big Arm. That year, the Mondays released a live DVD of a show in Barcelona. The Mondays played a variety of festival dates in 2005 (including Global Gathering), capping it off with a concert at the Manchester Arena.
In June 2006, Happy Mondays performed in Liverpool, and on 30 July 2006 they were special guests at the Fuji Rock Festival. In August 2006, the band announced that they had completed their first album in fourteen years, with producers Sunny Levine and Howie B, and had signed to Sanctuary Records. A single "Playground Superstar", from the soundtrack for the football film Goal!, was released a few months prior to completion of the new album, Uncle Dysfunktional released in mid 2007. on Noel Gallaghers label Big Brother Records.
Happy Mondays performed before another re-formed act, Rage Against the Machine, at the 2007 Coachella Music Festival in Indio, California. They were introduced by Tony Wilson. Bez missed the show because he could not get into the US due to "passport issues". The band then toured throughout the summer of 2007 including a trip to the Numusic Festival in Norway. They played Splendour in the Grass in Australia in July 2009, and the UK V Festival in August 2009.
Happy Mondays toured the US and Canada with The Psychedelic Furs in late 2009 with Paul Ryder's son and Shaun Ryder's nephew Jake Ryder filling in for Gaz Whelan on drums.
Happy Mondays appeared at the Wizard Festival in North-East Scotland in August 2010.
This version of the band continued until 2010. Members Mikey Shine, Jonn Dunn & Dan Broad continued to back Shaun Ryder for his solo tour until 2011, surrounding the release of his autobiography.
Fourth incarnation
On 29 January 2012, Shaun Ryder announced on radio station Xfm that the band would return with the original and definitive lineup of himself, his brother Paul Ryder on bass, Gary Whelan on drums, Rowetta as female vocalist, Mark Day on guitar, Paul Davis on keyboards and dancer Mark Berry. They appeared on ITV's This Morning, and were interviewed by Philip Schofield. Shaun Ryder pronounced that amends had been made, friendships reinstated and that it was just like the old days, but without the madness. They did a 13-date UK tour in May 2012, most of which were sold out, and an extra date was added at London's Brixton Academy due to the demand for tickets. The tour included other shows at the Manchester Arena, plus other dates in Bournemouth, Glasgow, Dublin, Leeds, Sheffield and Nottingham. To coincide with the band's reformation tour a best of album, Double Double Good was released in July 2012, as well as a live recording of the band's May 2012 gig in Brixton. The band went on to play gigs in Chile and Argentina in May 2012 and then a number of European festivals in the summer of 2012, including Ireland's Sea Sessions, Scotland's T in the Park, the band were headliners at Camp Bestival in Dorset in July 2012 and they performed at the V Festivals in August 2012. They then travelled to Majorca and Ibiza to play the Ibiza and Majorca Rocks events.
The band announced in September 2012 that they were writing their first album with the original lineup in more than 20 years.
The band played two nights at the Roundhouse, London and in Manchester in December 2012. They travelled to Dubai in April 2013 to perform and in May 2013 played gigs at Bristol's Vegfest and one in Brighton. June 2013 brought gigs at the Isle of Wight Festival and Scarborough, then in July 2013 they played at the Warrington Music Festival and at Sandown Park Racecourse in Esher, Surrey. They played dates in Belfast, Crewe and Dublin in August 2013. In October 2013 they travelled to Spain to do gigs in Barcelona and Madrid then in November 2013 they kicked off a 16 date UK tour to celebrate 25 years since their second critically acclaimed album Bummed was released, and the band plan to play most of the songs from that infamous album.
The band signed to Creation Management in 2015. They have announced an international tour to coincide with the 25th anniversary of the Pills 'n' Thrills and Bellyaches.
In September 2015, a special programme on Watch called Singing in the Rainforest followed the band as they travelled to Panama to record a new song with an isolated tribe called the Embera. The band composed a track with members of the tribe for a performance, penning the track "Ooo La La to Panama". Although billed as the first original line-up recording since 1992, Paul Davis was not present, and no mention of him was made. Gaz Whelan confirmed via the Happy Mondays Twitter account (in answer to a question from a Twitter user named ormi_shinobi) that Davis had left the band.
The band toured New Zealand and Australia in February and March 2019, performing their 1990 album Pills 'N' Thrills And Bellyaches.
Awards and nominations
{| class=wikitable
|-
! Year !! Awards !! Work !! Category !! Result
|-
| 1989
| rowspan="3" | NME Awards
| "WFL"
| Best Dance Record
|
|-
| rowspan="4" | 1990
| Pills 'n' Thrills and Bellyaches
| Best LP
|
|-
| rowspan="6" | Themselves
| rowspan=2|Best Band
|
|-
| rowspan=3|Smash Hits Poll Winners Party
|
|-
| Best New Act
|
|-
| rowspan="3" | 1991
| Best Indie Group
|
|-
| rowspan="2" | Brit Awards
| Best British Newcomer
|
|-
| Best British Group
|
|-
| 2013
| Q Awards
| Bummed| Q Classic Album
|
|-
| 2016
| Ivor Novello Awards
|Themselves
| The Ivor's Inspiration Award
|
DiscographySquirrel and G-Man Twenty Four Hour Party People Plastic Face Carnt Smile (White Out) (1987)Bummed (1988)Pills 'n' Thrills and Bellyaches (1990)Yes Please! (1992)Uncle Dysfunktional (2007)
Members
Current
Shaun Ryder – lead vocals, guitar (1980–1993, 1999–2001, 2004–2010, 2012–present)
Gary Whelan – drums (1980–1993, 1999–2001, 2012–present)
Paul Ryder – bass, keyboards (1980–1993, 1999–2001, 2012–present)
Mark "Bez" Berry – dancer, percussion (1980–1993, 1999–2001, 2004–2010, 2012–present)
Rowetta – vocals (1990–1993, 1999–2001, 2012–present)
Mark Day – guitar (1980–1993, 2004–2010, 2012–present)
Dan Broad – keyboards, samples, programming, musical director (2016–present)
Former
Paul Davis – keyboards, samples, programming (1980–1993, 2012–2015)
Kav Sandhu – guitar, keyboards (2004–2008)
Timeline
See also
List of number-one dance hits (United States)
List of artists who reached number one on the US Dance chart
References
General
Vinylnet Record Label Discographies''. link. – Factory Catalogue Numbers.
External links
Official website
English alternative rock groups
English electronic music groups
Alternative dance musical groups
Madchester groups
Musical groups established in 1980
Musical groups from Manchester
Music in Salford
Factory Records artists
Elektra Records artists
Sibling musical groups | [
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256301 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mazda%20RX-8 | Mazda RX-8 | The Mazda RX-8 is a sports car manufactured by Japanese automobile manufacturer Mazda between 2002 and 2012. It was first shown in 2001 at the North American International Auto Show. It is the successor to the RX-7 and, like its predecessors in the RX range, it is powered by a rotary Wankel engine. The RX-8 was available for sale in North America from the 2003 model year.
Mazda announced on August 23, 2011, that the RX-8 was to be discontinued citing 2012 model year to be the last year of its availability. The RX-8 was removed from the European market in 2010 after the car failed to meet emissions standards.
Due to falling sales from Europe coupled with rising Yen prices, Mazda could not justify the continued sale of the RX-8 in other markets.
Background
Mazda introduced rotary-powered vehicles in the US in 1971, beginning with the R100 and eventually introduced the RX-2, RX-3, RX-4, RX-5, and three generations of the RX-7 sports car in the US and worldwide markets. However, due to the lack of conveniences and user-friendliness, coupled with the high price tag and declining interest in sports cars and coupés at the time, Mazda decided to withdraw the RX-7 from most major markets except Japan. After 1995, Mazda suffered from a relatively undistinguished and ordinary product line in the US except for the MX-5 Miata.
As popular interest in import tuning and performance cars resurged in the late-1990s due in part to various popular cultural influences, Japanese automakers waded back into the performance and sports car market in the US and in worldwide markets. In addition, Mazda endeavored to rejuvenate itself around this time, partially with financial and management assistance from its new owner Ford, and successfully developed a new product line of high quality cars with desirable styling and superior driving dynamics compared to their competitors, beginning with the Mazda6 and followed by the Mazda3, paving the way for the arrival of Mazda's next-generation rotary powered sports car.
The RX-8 combined two previous products (the internationally sold RX-7, and the Cosmo which was exclusive to Japan), with the exterior dimensions of the RX-8 to be slightly smaller than those of the Cosmo. Mazda chose not to install the 2.0 L three-rotor 20B-REW, which was discontinued in 1996 when the Cosmo ceased production. In Japan, sales were affected by the fact that the RX-8 did not comply with Japanese Government's dimension regulations, and Japanese buyers were liable for yearly taxes for driving a larger car. The rotary engine had financial advantages to Japanese consumers in that the engine displacement remained below 1.5 litres, a significant determination when paying the Japanese annual road tax which kept the obligation affordable to most buyers, while having more power than the traditional inline engines.
Development and design
The development of the RX-8 can be traced as far back as the 1995 RX-01 concept car, which featured an early iteration of the 13B-MSP engine. Because of Mazda's financial position at the time and the growing market interest in SUVs, the RX-01 did not see further development or production. However, a "skunkworks project" engineering team within Mazda kept the development of the 13B-MSP alive using an elongated MX-5 chassis known internally as "gokiburi-ka", or "cockroach car" translated to English, eventually catching the attention of management, which was by then heavily influenced by Ford. Development of the 13B-MSP advanced and eventually led to the RENESIS name debuting along with the RX-EVOLV concept car which began to bear semblance to the production version of the RX-8 with the "freestyle" rear suicide doors. The styling was further refined, in Mazda tradition, by competition between its design studios in Japan, the US, and Europe. The lead designer was Ikuo Maeda, the son of Matasaburo Maeda (the lead designer of the original RX-7). The project obtained official approval from management under one condition, that the resulting car should have four doors, and eventually the RX-8 concept car (design/engineering model) was produced and shown in 2001, closer resembling the production version. A near-production "reference exhibit" RX-8 was shown shortly thereafter at the 2001 Tokyo Motor Show, pending final approval for production. The production version of the RX-8 closely resembles this vehicle save for minor trim details, and "Job 1" began in February, 2003 at Mazda's Hiroshima plant in Japan.
The RX-8 was designed as a front mid-engine, rear-wheel-drive, four-door, four-seater quad coupé. The car has a near 50:50 front-rear weight distribution and a low polar moment of inertia, achieved by mounting the engine behind the front axle and by placing the fuel tank ahead of the rear axle. The front suspension uses double wishbones and the rear suspension is multi-link. Weight is trimmed through the use of materials such as aluminum and plastic for several body panels. The rest of the body is made of steel, except for the plastic front and rear bumpers. The manual gearbox model uses a carbon fiber composite driveshaft to reduce the rotational mass (momentum of inertia) connected to the engine. Power is sent to the rear wheels through a torque-sensing conical limited-slip differential for improved handling. , the RX-8 is considered its successor as Mazda's rotary engine sports car.
A prominent feature of the RX-8 is its rear-hinged "freestyle" doors (similar to suicide doors) that provide easier access to the rear seats. The RX-8 has no B-pillars between the front and rear doors, but the leading edge of the rear door acts as a "virtual pillar" to maintain structural rigidity. Because of the overlapping design, the rear doors can be opened only when the front doors are open. The RX-8's cabin was designed to allow enough room to house four adults, making it a genuine 4-seater rather than a 2+2. In designing the RX-8, Mazda's engineers were able to achieve a chassis stiffness rating of 30,000 Nm/deg.
Initial release (2002–2008)
The earlier models of the RX-8, having chassis codes SE3P, and JM1FE, were produced from the 2003 model year, though the car's U.S. debut was for the 2004 model year. It is powered by the RENESIS 13B-MSP (2-rotor, multi-side-port) Wankel engine displacing . The 4-port standard RENESIS was rated at and was coupled with either a 5-speed manual or 4-speed automatic transmission. The 6-port high power RENESIS was only available with a six-speed manual transmission and was rated at . For the North American market, Mazda revised the reported output rating of the standard and high power RENESIS soon after launch to and , respectively. With exhaust ports now located in the side housing, the RENESIS boasted improved fuel efficiency and emissions rating over the 13B-REW employed by the preceding RX-7, thereby making it possible to be sold in North America.
At launch, the RX-8 was available in various models in different markets around the world. The variations according to different markets are as follows:
6-speed manual with a claimed output of at 8,250 rpm and of torque at 5,500 rpm with a 9,000 rpm (redline limited) (Sold in North America). This model was equivalent to the "Type S" trim in Japan.
5-speed manual with engine tuned to with the redline reduced to 7,500 rpm. This powertrain combination was not available in North America.
6-speed automatic with manual paddle shifting option (introduced in the U.S. for the 2006 model year, replacing the 4-speed automatic transmission of 2004–2005) with the engine rated at and of torque with a redline at 7,500 rpm. This was the revised standard RENESIS, now with two extra intake ports like the high power version. The 2006 automatic RX-8 model also was given a second oil cooler, as was standard in the manual transmission model.
Automatic versions all had lower output/lower rpm engines due to the lack of availability of a transmission that would be able to reliably cope with the engine's high rpm limits.
Mazdaspeed
In 2003 Mazda announced a factory Mazdaspeed Version of the RX-8 exclusively in Japan. Based on the Type S and tuned by Mazda's in-house division Mazdaspeed, the car included both mechanical, suspension, and aerodynamic improvements over the standard RX-8's. Mazdaspeed RX-8's were considered the highest performance model of the pre-facelift RX-8. Mechanical and suspension improvements included a new performance exhaust system, upgraded spark plugs, grounding kit, lightweight flywheel, re-balanced eccentric shaft, performance brake pads, stiffer anti roll bars, four point front strut tower brace, rear strut tower brace, as well as a set of height and damping force adjustable coil-overs. Mazdaspeed also redesigned the aerodynamics of the car, giving it a new front bumper, with enlarged venting and oil cooler ducting, as well as side skirts, rear under spoiler, and a rear wing. The Mazdaspeed RX-8 was offered in either Strato Blue Mica, or Sunlight Silver Metallic as exclusive colors. A total of 480 factory Mazdaspeed Version RX-8's were built, and had a suggested retail price of JP¥3,650,000.00. Mazda also sold Mazdaspeed accessories worldwide through their dealerships. These accessories included both parts that weren't equipped on factory Mazdaspeed RX-8's as well as nearly all the parts equipped on the factory Mazdaspeed Version. This allowed standard RX-8's to be upgraded to Mazdaspeed standards through dealerships around the world.
NR-A
Mazda introduced the NR-A kit for the RX-8 Type S in January 2004 approved by the Japan Automobile Federation (JAF). The NR-A kit, sold through Mazda Anfini and other dealers throughout Japan, brings the RX-8 up to specification in terms of eligibility for participation in the one-make Party Race sanctioned by JAF. The kit includes a roll bar, sports radiator, oil-cooler kit, tow hooks, and racing brake pads.
Hydrogen RE
At the 2004 North American International Auto Show, Mazda unveiled the RX-8 Hydrogen RE concept car, designed to run on either hydrogen or gasoline. In February, 2006, Mazda announced that it would start leasing a dual fuel RX-8 to commercial customers in Japan, and in March, 2006 announced its first two customers, claiming the first fleet deliveries of a dual hydrogen/gasoline production car. In 2008, 30 RX-8 HRE were delivered to HyNor.
Shinka
In 2005 and 2006, Mazda introduced the first special edition of the RX-8 called "Sports Prestige Limited" in Japan and "Shinka" in North America. The Shinka takes its name from the Japanese word meaning "transformation" or "evolution". Marketed as a more luxurious grand touring model, it came with Black Cherry in 05 and Various Special exterior colours in 06. Sand color parchment leather and suede interior along with subtly chromed 18-inch wheels. Out of the total production of 2,150 vehicles, 1,357 were produced for the North American market. The most significant mechanical change were slightly revised Bilstein shocks and suspension cross member injected with urethane foam to improve ride quality.
Evolve
Launched in 2006, the 'Evolve' was the first special edition for the UK. The new model was named after the original Mazda concept car seen in Detroit in 2000 and was limited to a production run of just 500 cars.
Based on the high-power version, it had several unique exterior features. These include a choice of two exclusive exterior colors (Copper Red Mica 400 and Phantom Blue Mica 100), unique dark silver 18 × 8J alloy wheels, a polished aluminum Rotary crest on the front air dam, dark silver bezel headlamps, sports door mirrors, polished aluminum side air outlet fins, Rotary branded B-pillar trims, chrome exhaust surrounds.
Inside, the Evolve features unique stone leather and alcantara sporty seat trim, plus black leather-wrapped steering wheel, gear knob and hand-brake lever.
PZ
In May, 2006,the Mazda released the RX-8 PZ for the UK market. This car was jointly developed with motorsports company Prodrive. Only available with a six-speed manual, it featured custom 10-spoke alloy wheels supplied by Italian F1 team supplier OZ Racing in "Dark Silver" finish, mirrors developed to reduce drag, front and rear black mesh grilles, and a rear spoiler to provide more stability at higher speeds. Both the wheels and rear wing are badged in carbon fiber with "Prodrive". Significant revisions were also made to the suspension to improve the handling: dampers from Bilstein and coil springs from Eibach are used in addition to reducing the ride height by and an increase in spring rate of 60%. Finally, the car was supplied with a unique upgraded twin exhaust system, with exhaust tailpipes branded as "Prodrive". Only 800 cars were made at an MSRP of £25,995. It was available in two colors, Galaxy Grey (380) and Brilliant Black (420).
Revelation
The Revelation was an Australian special edition of the RX-8 with a limited production run of 100 cars. The model incorporated the top specification features of the standard RX-8 with the 9 speaker Bose sound system, leather seats in a sand beige color, more piano black accents on the interior, and came with the same 13B Renesis rotary engine. Like regular RX-8 variants, the Revelation features 18-inch alloy wheels and tires, traction control, Dynamic Stability Control (DSC), six airbags, cruise control, power windows/mirrors, limited-slip differential, six-CD in-dash audio system and climate control air-conditioning. The revelation though, added stiffer anti-roll bars, foam-filled cross members and special edition grey spoke alloys. The Revelation also offered a new color, Copper Red, and also came in Brilliant Black. It also came with xenon headlights with chrome bezels, while being the first Mazda sold in Australia with keyless entry and start.
Nemesis
The 'Nemesis' model is the third special edition model launched as a UK exclusive. It was launched in 2006, although some cars were registered in 2007 due to stock runoff. The 'Nemesis' features unique paint colors and interior trim, plus an exclusive accessory package, at a cost that was at the time £330 less than the model on which it is based – when similarly specified. Based on the standard version of the Mazda RX-8, it included a unique stone leather seat trim interior and came with a five-speed manual transmission. The Nemesis has several other unique exterior and interior features. Two exclusive colors were available, Copper Red Mica and Stormy Blue Mica, each Nemesis also comes with a polished aluminum Rotary crest on the front air dam, polished aluminum side air-outlet trims behind the front wheel arches, special B-pillar trims with a Rotary crest and 'Nemesis' badging. Inside, these special edition models also featured Nemesis branded luxury carpet mats and Mazda RX-8 branded aluminum door scuff plates. Like other standard RX-8s, the Nemesis has front fog lights, heated front seats, electrically operated driver's seat, climate control air-conditioning, nine-speaker BOSE premium audio system with 6-CD auto-changer, plus a black leather-wrapped steering wheel, gear knob and hand-brake lever. The Nemesis has a top speed of and accelerates from 0 to in 7.2 seconds. Each Nemesis buyer also qualified for a complimentary Prodrive experience day. Just 350 examples were built, 200 in Copper Red and 150 in Stormy Blue.
Mazdaspeed M'z Tune
In December 2006, a new Mazdaspeed RX-8 became available exclusively in Japan. The Mazdaspeed M'z Tune was focused on performance without the expense of comfort, and was equipped with a performance exhaust system, lightweight flywheel, improved radiator, Bilstein shock absorbers, and sport springs. The car came with a new exclusive aerodynamic kit, featuring a new front lip, side skirts, and rear lower bumper.
Kuro
In 2007 Mazda released a Japan-North America limited edition known as the Kuro (Japanese for black).
Production run was limited to 500 cars. All cars were finished in Sparkling Black paint, with 18-inch Monoblock wheels. The Kuro version used a more evolved RENESIS engine and 6 Speed manual transmission with a claimed output of and . Inside, it featured black colored leather interior, Bose premium audio system with 6-CD auto-changer, heated seats, electrically operated driver's seat, and climate control air-conditioning, cruise control, traction control, dynamic stability control and eight airbags. This edition has racing-type fully adjustable front & rear Tein suspension, bigger exhaust tips, fog lights, stiffer anti roll bars, better engine cooling system, limited slip differential and a rear spoiler to provide more stability at higher speeds. After the Kuro version, Mazda announced that this is the absolute Mazda RX-8 version with a suggested retail price of US$60,000/JP¥6,653,550.00.
40th Anniversary Limited Edition
2008 saw the introduction of a limited edition to celebrate the 40th anniversary of Mazda's rotary engine. It had 10-spoke, 18-inch diameter alloy wheels of a new design that were later incorporated in the 2009 facelift. Also added were blue-light front fog lamps, a 40th Anniversary badge on each front wing and an aerodynamic rear spoiler. Exclusive sport-tuned suspension with Bilstein dampers were added along with an enhanced urethane foam injected front cross member intended to improve steering feel. The 40th anniversary limited editions were slightly different in the various international markets. The Japanese version came in Marble White as a homage to the Mazda Cosmo Sport, which was initially only available in white. The North American (USA and Canada) version came in Metropolitan Grey Mica exterior color with the interior clad in special Cosmo Red leather. In North America, this special edition was available only in 2008. For Canada - production was limited to 100 cars. The interior had black leather with copper red accented door inserts. For the Australian market, only 200 examples of the 40th Anniversary Edition were produced in 2008 exclusively. It was available in Metropolitan Grey, Dark Blue, or Brilliant Black exterior paint. The interior came with exclusive white Alcantara and black leather seats with contrasting white stitching. In the United Kingdom, this edition was limited to 400 cars which came in two exclusive exterior colors – Metropolitan Grey Mica or Crystal White Pearlescent. Seats were trimmed in black leather with stone Alcantara midsections.
Mid-cycle refresh (2008–2012)
In November 2008, Mazda improved the RX-8 body rigidity through the addition of structural reinforcements, by adding a trapezoidal shock tower brace and enhancing the local rigidity of the front suspension tower areas. The rear suspension geometry was revised for better handling, and the final-drive-gear ratio on manual transmission cars was shortened from 4.444 to 4.777 for improved off-the-line performance. While minimal, these changes gave the updated RX-8 increased acceleration and performance. Mazda engineers claimed that the 2nd generation RX-8 was (slightly) faster than the previous generation due to the lower gearing and improved suspension. The Renesis II engine iteration that was launched in the 2009 model year included a third oil injection port in each rotor housing to feed oil to the middle of the rotor facing, making this their first all-new EMOP (Electric Metering Oil Pump) with a total of 6 lubrication injectors, plus an all-new engine oil pump with higher pressure rating that requires specific oil filter rated for the higher pressure. New catalytic converter was used to reduce clogging that resulted in overheating exhaust stream forward of the catalytic converter and eventual rotor side seal failure, which was responsible for majority of RX-8 engine failures. Ignition coil packs, which suffer reduced performance over time and leads to unburnt fuel and oil that eventually clogs the catalytic converter, was not upgraded from series 1 RX-8. Due to higher usage cycle that is two to three times higher in Wankel compared to Otto cycle, ignition coil packs on RX-8 can degrade much sooner than Piston engines using similar hardware, and cause unburnt fuel to reach the catalytic converter, clogging it and cause engine overheating leading to side seal springs failure.
The updated RX-8 also received design enhancements that were meant to freshen the styling and give the RX-8 a new look, without impairing the basic design theme. Refinements for the 2009 model year included a more aggressive restyled front and rear bumper as well as a new front fascia. The updated RX-8 also came with sporty, high-quality finish front and rear headlamps as well as larger exhaust pipes (now measuring across). The 2009 RX-8 also offered a new five-spoke wheel design featuring a symbolic and sporty design reminiscent of the rotary engine, with different arrangements for each wheel size. A rear spoiler was also added dependent on the trim level selected. There were three trims available to consumers from 2009 to 2012: Sport, Grand Touring, and R3.
Mazdaspeed Concept
In 2008, Mazda unveiled a Mazdaspeed RX-8 equipped with racing seats, and a new aerodynamic package for the refreshed RX-8. Mazda however didn't end up selling any new generation Mazdaspeed editions or accessories to the public.
R3
The R3 version was first introduced in 2005 in Japan. This version was very limited and had the 1.3 L RENESIS Wankel engine and a Bose sound system. The R3 model was again introduced in 2009. The 2009 R3 package added slightly improved suspension over the base model by adding Bilstein shock absorbers and a foam filled front crossmember to improve rigidity. It also came with 19-inch forged aluminum-alloy wheels and high performance tires. On the exterior, the R3 had a different, lower front bumper sporting a splitter, lower side sills, and a standard rear spoiler. There is a pair of special Recaro seats up front, along with the same 300-watt Bose audio system, along with Bluetooth and the Mazda advanced keyless entry and start system. No electric sunroof was offered in the R3 model.
Spirit R
The Spirit R is a limited edition of the RX-8 built to celebrate the end of the RX-8's production. The name "Spirit R" was based on the final limited edition of the RX-7, the RX-7 Spirit R. It is the fastest and most expensive RX-8 ever made. The Spirit R was limited to only 1,000 cars and exclusively sold in Japan.
The car had two transmission choices: a 6-speed manual transmission and a 6-speed automatic with paddle shifters. Features exclusive to the RX-8 Spirit R were bi-xenon headlamps, 4 piston front and rear red brake calipers, high performance Bridgestone Potenza summer tires, a 7.1 channel 300 watt Bose premium audio system with AudioPilot noise cancellation technology, and piano-black transmission tunnel trim.
Mazda reworked a lot of the engine and related electronics in order to enable the engine to have the highest amount of peak power. A high-pressure fuel pump was added, as was a larger radiator with faster fans to help with cooling. The cold air intake system was upgraded, and the S-DIAS gained a second intake port, which would open at 5,500 rpm to allow more air into the engine. The oil-metering pump was upgraded to provide more oil to the rotors. A less restricted stainless steel exhaust was added with larger 3.5 inch tips. A Tochigi Fuji torque vectoring limited-slip differential was added. the engine ignition system was upgraded to the high output revision-C coils, for increased performance and engine response. A bespoke track-ready suspension with Bilstein dampers and a urethane-foam-injected front suspension cross member was added. Mazda also focused on reducing weight. The front hood, rear doors and boot lid were made from aluminum. A magnesium steering frame, together with a lightweight carbon fiber prop shaft, was also added. The manual transmission model came with exclusive lightweight red leather SPIRIT R bucket seats from Recaro, and lightweight, forged 19-inch BBS bronze aluminum alloy wheels. The automatic transmission model included 10-way adjustable power leather seats with lumbar support and 2-position memory in black with red stitching, and 18-inch lightweight BBS dark gunmetal alloy wheels wrapped in Bridgestone Potenza summer tires. Some models came with red leather seats with white stitching. A tire upgrade was also available, swapping the Bridgestone's for higher performance Falken extreme summer tires. The automatic models could be specified with the manual transmission model's Recaro bucket seats and 19-inch wheels.
With all the improvements combined, the Spirit R could accelerate from 0 to in 5.7 seconds, as opposed to the base model's 6-second time. The car could also reach a top speed of more than , making it the fastest factory RX-8 ever built.
The body color choices for the Spirit R were limited to Aluminum Metallic, Sparkling Black Mica, and a special color, Crystal White Pearl Mica, exclusive to the Spirit R.
A small number of Spirit R RX-8s can be found in Indonesia, Malaysia, and New Zealand.
End of production
Sales of the RX-8 ended in 2010 in Europe after failing to meet the region's emission standards.
The production of the RX-8 ended in 2012 in Japan. Mazda has produced 192,094 units since 2003. Production of the rotary engine ended on June 21, 2012, followed by the end of RX-8 assembly on June 22, 2012 at Mazda's Ujina, Hiroshima plant.
Engines
Warranty extension program
Mazda North American Operations extended the engine warranty on all model year 2004–2008 RX-8s. The warranty extension covers only the engine core which consists of the rotor housing and internal parts as well as the seals and gaskets. It does not include clutch or drive train (transmission or differential). An extended engine warranty for emissions was not offered in any other RX-8 markets.
Motorsport
The RX-8 has been campaigned and used in various racing series by privateers. It has seen a considerable amount of success, the most prominent of which being the 2008 and 2010 24 Hours of Daytona GT-class wins campaigned by SpeedSource Race Engineering. This victory also marks the 23rd endurance race win at Daytona by a Mazda rotary-powered race car. While the cars are powered by the 20B rotary engines, the car is in fact built on a tube frame chassis and not on the production car.
Ryan Eversley won both races of the 2010 SCCA World Challenge Mid-Ohio Grand Prix in the touring car class.
Other racing series include the KONI Challenge Series in the Street Tuner class.
In the UK, the RX-8 featured in the Mazda sponsored "Formula Women" series (2004), which involved all women drivers with slightly modified RX-8s, and the RX-8 was also campaigned successfully in the Britcar series endurance races (2005/2006). In Belgium, Mazda are currently sponsoring an RX-8 silhouette racer in the GT series. The car also won the IMSA Continental Tire Sports Car Challenge in 2005.
In 2014 the North Island Mazda Rotary Racing Association in New Zealand launched a RX-8 category in its Pro7 racing series which is the oldest MotorSport NZ sanctioned series in NZ. The RX-8's now dominate this racing series and is competed in the North and South Islands as well as a NZ championship. The category was renamed in 2019 to the Mazda Racing Series and now some of the largest grids in the country.
In 2019, the Classic Sports Car Club in the UK launched the RX-8 Trophy for road legal first generation Mazda RX-8's. Developed in two years, the class was designed to provide the cheapest way of going racing in a performance car. The class stipulates that the RX-8 entering the race must have a valid MOT and retain creature comforts such as air con, heater and stereo, therefore allowing the car to be used as a daily driver, as well as to and from the race track.
The RX-8 has been used occasionally for professional drifting (Formula Drift), with drivers like Masao Suenaga from Japan, "Mad" Mike Whiddet from New Zealand, and Kyle Mohan from the USA choosing the develop the chassis each to suit their own goals.
Awards
As of October 2006 the RX-8 has won 37 international motoring awards including 2003 International Engine of the Year, the 2003 Japanese Car of the Year, Australia's Wheels magazine's Car of the Year for 2003, the 2004 Singapore Car of the Year, the 2004 U.S. Best Sports Car, and several UK Best Car Awards. It was named on Car and Driver magazine's Ten Best list for 2004, 2005, and 2006. It also took home 1st place on Car and Driver's "Four of a Kind" comparison test. 2010 RX-8 placed 3rd out of 7 on Car and Driver's The Best-Handling Car in America for Less Than $100,000. It was also awarded the Editors' Choice Award by Grassroots Motorsports in 2003.
References
Sources
External links
RX-8
Cars introduced in 2002
2010s cars
Sports cars
Coupés
Police vehicles
Rear-wheel-drive vehicles
Cars powered by Wankel engines | [
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256302 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1801%20in%20music | 1801 in music |
Events
January 12 – Domenico Cimarosa is buried at Chiesa di Sant’Angelo, Venice, with a requiem mass performed by local musicians.
March 28 – Ludwig van Beethoven's ballet The Creatures of Prometheus (Die Geschöpfe des Prometheus) premières in Vienna's Burgtheater.
April 12 – Théâtre Feydeau in Paris closes down as a result of its director's other commitments.
April 21 – The Teatro Nuovo in Trieste is inaugurated with a performance of Johann Simon Mayr's Ginevra di Scozia.
April 24 – Joseph Haydn's oratorio The Seasons is premièred as Die Jahreszeiten in Vienna for its aristocratic patrons at the Palais Schwarzenberg; it has its public première on May 19 at the Redoutensaal.
December 27 – Nineteen-year-old Niccolò Paganini becomes first violin of Lucca's national orchestra.
Publication of Introduction to the Art of Playing on the Piano Forte by Muzio Clementi in London.
Probable publication of A Favorite Collection of Tunes with Variations Adapted for the Northumberland Small Pipes, Violin, or Flute by William Wright in Newcastle upon Tyne with contributions by John Peacock (piper).
Published popular music
"'Twas in the Solemn Midnight Hour", composed and sung by Mrs Bland
Classical music
Ludwig van Beethoven
Violin Sonata No. 4, Op. 23
Violin Sonata No. 5, Op. 24
Piano Sonata No. 12, Op. 26
Piano Sonata No. 13 & No. 14 (Moonlight), Op. 27
Piano Sonata No. 15, Op. 28
String Quintet, Op. 29
The Creatures of Prometheus, Op. 43
Johann Baptist Cramer – Piano Sonatas, Op. 25
Jan Ladislav Dussek
Two Piano Sonatas C.184-5
Piano Concerto, Op. 49
John Field – Three Piano Sonatas Op. 1
Franz Joseph Haydn
Mass in B-flat major, Hob.XXII:13
The Spirit's Song, Hob.XXVIa:41
Franz Krommer – 3 String Quartets, Op. 19
John Marsh – Symphony no. 30 in E minor
Johann Baptist Vanhal – Clarinet Sonata in C major
Pavel Vranický – Ballet Das Urteil des Paris
Joseph Woelfl – Duet for Cello and Piano, Op. 31
Anton Wranitzky – 3 String Quintets, Op. 8
Carl Friedrich Zelter – 12 Lieder am Clavier zu singen, Z.122
Opera
Domenico Cimarosa – Artemisia
Simon Mayr – Ginevra di Scozia
Étienne Méhul – L'irato
Rodolphe Kreutzer – Astyanax
Marcos Portugal – La morte di Semiramide
Johan Rudolf Zumsteeg – Das Pfauenfest
Methods and theory writings
Johann Georg Heinrich Backofen – Anleitung zum Harfenspiel
André Ernest Modeste Grétry – Méthode simple pour apprendre à préluder (Paris: l'imprimerie de la République)
Johann Christian Kittel – Der angehende praktische Organist (Erfurt: Beyer und Maring)
Giovanni Punto – Étude ou Exercice Journalier (Offenbach: Johann André)
Karl Zelter – Karl Friedrich Christian Fasch (Berlin: Johann Friedrich Unger)
Births
January 11 – John Lodge Ellerton, composer (died 1873)
January 29 – Johannes Bernardus van Bree, composer (died 1857)
February 1 – Adolf Fredrik Lindblad, Swedish Composer (died 1878)
February 21 – Jan Kalivoda, composer
February 22 – William Barnes, lyricist and writer (died 1886)
March 11 – Frédéric Bérat, composer and songwriter (died 1855)
March 19 – Salvatore Cammarano, Italian librettist (died 1852)
March 26 – Sophie Daguin, ballerina and choreographer (died 1881)
April 12 – Joseph Lanner, composer (died 1843)
June 20 – Gustavo Carulli, composer (died 1876)
June 25 – Antonio D'Antoni, composer and conductor (died 1859)
August 1 – Karl Johann Philipp Spitta, librettist and poet (died 1859)
September 13 – Stefan Witwicki, lyricist and poet (died 1847)
October 17 – Alessandro Curmi, pianist and composer (died 1857)
October 23 – Albert Lortzing, composer (died 1851)
November 3 – Vincenzo Bellini, composer (died 1835)
November 27 – Aleksandr Varlamov, Russian composer (died 1848)
Deaths
January 11 – Domenico Cimarosa, composer, 51 (probable stomach cancer)
March 2 – Charles-Albert Demoustier, lyricist and writer (born 1760)
March 14 – Christian Friedrich Penzel, composer, 63
March 21 – Andrea Luchesi, composer, 59
March 25 – Friedrich von Hardenberg, librettist and poet (born 1772)
May 13 – Bartholomeus Ruloffs, Dutch conductor and composer, 59
May 14 – Johann Ernst Altenburg, composer, organist and trumpeter, 66
August 31 – Nicola Sala, composer and music theorist, 88
October 23 – Johann Gottlieb Naumann, conductor and composer, 60
November – Thomas Augustine Geary, Irish composer (born 1773)
November 9 – Carl Stamitz, composer, 56
December 10 – Jonathan Battishill, composer of church music, 63
References
19th century in music
Music by year | [
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] |
256305 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Santa%20Catarina%20%28state%29 | Santa Catarina (state) | Santa Catarina (, ) is a state in the South Region of Brazil. It is the 7th smallest state in total area and the 11th most populous. Additionally, it is the 9th largest settlement, with 295 municipalities. The state, which has 3.4% of the Brazilian population, is responsible for 3.8% of the Brazilian GDP.
Santa Catarina is bordered by Paraná to the north, Rio Grande do Sul to the south, the Atlantic Ocean to the east, and to the west by the Argentine province of Misiones. The coastal path is over 450 km, i.e., about half of Portugal's mainland coast. The host city of the state executive, legislative and judiciary powers is the capital Florianópolis. Joinville, however, is the most populous city in the state. Besides Espírito Santo, Santa Catarina is the only state whose capital is not the most populous city. South of the Tropic of Capricorn, situated in the planet's southern temperate zone, the state has a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) in the east and west and an oceanic climate (Cfb) in the center. Climatic conditions vary according to the relief of the region: in the west and mountainous plateau, it is relatively frequent that frosts and snow occur, while on the coast the climate is warmer, capable of reaching high temperatures in summer.
The territory of Santa Catarina is one of the oldest states in Brazil, separated from São Paulo in 1738, its first governor being José da Silva Pais. The state was created for one reason only: to extend the Portuguese domains to southern Brazil until reaching the Rio de la Plata region. It is also the oldest state of the South Region of Brazil, older than Rio Grande do Sul (1807) and Paraná (1853). The state of Santa Catarina was settled by European immigrants: the coast was colonized by the Azorean Portuguese in the 18th century; the Itajaí Valley – a portion of the southern region and northern Santa Catarina – was settled by the Germans in the mid 19th century. The south of the state was populated by the Italians in the last years of the 19th century. Children and grandchildren of Italian and German immigrants who moved from Rio Grande do Sul settled the west of Santa Catarina in the mid 20th century.
The state's social indexes are among the best in Brazil. It has the highest rate of life expectancy in the country (just like the Federal District), the lowest infant mortality rate and is also the state with the lowest economic inequality and illiteracy in Brazil. Santa Catarina has the 6th highest GDP in the country, with a diverse economy and strong affinities to industrialization.
Geography
Santa Catarina is in a very strategic position in Mercosul, the South American Common Market. Its position in the map is situated between the parallel 25º57'41" and 29º23'55" of the Southern latitude and between the meridians 48º19'37" and 53º50'00" of Western longitude. Florianópolis, its capital, is from Brasilia, from São Paulo, from Rio de Janeiro and from Buenos Aires.
The Serra Geral, a southern extension of the Serra do Mar, runs north and south through the state parallel to the Atlantic coast, dividing the state between a narrow coastal plain and a larger plateau region to the west.
The Atlantic coast of Santa Catarina has many beaches, islands, bays, inlets, and lagoons. The humid tropical Serra do Mar coastal forests cover the narrow coastal zone, which is crossed by numerous short streams from the wooded slopes of the serras.
The central part of the state is home to the Araucaria moist forests, dominated by emergent Brazilian pines (Araucaria angustifolia). The drainage of the plateau is westward to the Paraná River, the rivers being tributaries of the Iguaçu, which forms its northern boundary, and of the Uruguay River, which forms its southern boundary. The semi-deciduous Alto Paraná Atlantic forests occupy the westernmost valleys of the Iguaçu and Uruguay rivers.
The highest point of the state is the Morro da Boa Vista, with an altitude of 1,827 m, and the second-highest point is the Morro da Igreja, in the town of Urubici, with an altitude of 1,822 m.
History
European settlement began with the Spanish settlement of Santa Catarina island in 1542. The Portuguese took control in 1675 and established the captaincy of Santa Catarina in 1738, bringing families from the Azores to populate the shore.
In 1839, during the Ragamuffin War, there was an unsuccessful attempt for Santa Catarina to secede from the Empire of Brazil to form the independent Juliana Republic (allied with the Riograndense Republic to the south) which was defeated after four months.Between the early 19th century and mid 20th century, a great number of European immigrants arrived to Santa Catarina; these immigrants were taken to populate the south of the Nation by Imperial initiative. About 50% of these immigrants were from Germany and Austria. The rest came mainly from Italy, Poland, Russia, Ukraine, Netherlands, Norway, Sweden, Denmark, Luxembourg, Switzerland, Lithuania, France, Finland, Croatia, Serbia, Estonia, Slovenia and Latvia; these immigrants created an abundance of small, family-held farms, many of which continue to exist in the interior of the state.
Late in March 2004, the state was hit by the first hurricane ever recorded in the South Atlantic. Because there is no naming system for such an event in Brazil, Brazilian meteorologists called it Hurricane Catarina, after the state.
Demographics
According to the IBGE of 2008, there were 6,091,000 people residing in the state. The population density was .
Urbanization: 83% (2006); Population growth: 2% (1991–2000); Houses: 1,836,000 (2006).
The last PNAD (National Research for Sample of Domiciles) census revealed the following numbers: 5,297,000 White people (86.96%), 608,000 Brown (Multiracial) people (9.98%), 160,000 Black people (2.63%), 15,000 Asian people (0.25%), 5,000 Amerindian people (0.09%).
People of Portuguese ancestry, mostly Azoreans, predominate on the coast. People of German descent predominate in the northeast region (Itajaí Valley) and in the north (Joinville region). There are many German communities in the west. People of Italian descent predominate in the south, as well in many areas in the west. People of African, Amerindian or Japanese origin are present in small communities in a few towns.
According to a genetic study with 20 samples (for 6.7 million people) from 2013, the population of Santa Catarina is made up by 79.7% European, 11.4% African and 8.9% Amerindian ancestry groups. A genetic study found out an isolated Azorean-Brazilian community from Santa Catarina to have between 80.6% to 93.5% European input, along with 12.6% to 6.8% African and 4.1% to 2.4% Native American ancestries.
European settlement
One of the Brazilian states that exhibits the most evident signs of 19th-century European immigration, Santa Catarina, where the vast majority of the population descends from European settlers, is also the state with the highest percentage of European phenotype citizens.
The state is also famous for having towns where most of the population belongs to a single main ancestry thanks to the settlement program with European colonists. Here are a few examples of such towns in the Southern region:
Santa Catarina where over 50% of the population has German, Austrian and Luxembourgish ancestry (the local Hunsrückisch is known as Katharinensisch, East Pomeranian is still spoken in the town of Pomerode and Southern Austro-Bavarian by the Tyrolean population in Treze Tílias) was also the main destination for Danes in Brazil and the state that was sparsely populated and had its shore mainly inhabited by Azoreans in the 18th century (e.g. Laguna born Anita Garibaldi, wife and comrade-in-arms of Italian Unification revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi), also received Italians, French, Swedes, Norwegians, Swiss, Lithuanians and Latvians, Estonians, Finns, Poles, Slovenians, Croatians, Belgians, American Confederates and Spaniards to populate its interior during the 19th century. The town of Brusque founded by Austrian Baron von Schneeburg bringing German families from the Grand Duchy of Baden to settle in the northeast of Santa Catarina, besides receiving additional waves of Italians from the Tyrol–South Tyrol–Trentino Euroregion, Poles and Swedes, was also one of the destinations in the South and Southeast for American Confederate settlers in 1867, differing from São Paulo and Paraná colonies, where the American Confederate presence gave birth to new towns such as Americana in São Paulo. Neighboring towns such as Nova Trento founded in 1875, similarly received subjects from the Austro-Hungarian Empire because Italian-speaking Tyroleans known as trentinos and Germans from the Kingdom of Prussia, historic Swabia and Baden faced an immense crisis in the agricultural sector caused by the conflicts of the unification of Italy and Germany respectively, that weakened local trade. Istrian Italians under the Austrian Empire rule also fled Istria to settle in Brazil, and a few towns like Nova Veneza, founded in 1891 still have an over 90% Venetian population of which many still speak the Talian dialect. Most Venetians settled after the Third Italian War of Independence in 1866, when Venice, along with the rest of the Veneto, became part of the newly created Kingdom of Italy.
Portuguese
The Portuguese started arriving in the 1750s, mainly from the Azores islands, and colonized the coast. In the late 18th century, half of Santa Catarina's population was Portuguese-born. These Portuguese established many important towns in the state, such as Florianópolis, the capital.
Germans and Austrians
German people started arriving in 1828, after Brazilian independence. These were peasants attracted by the opportunity to have their own land, as Germanic countries were overpopulated and many people had no land to work. German immigration was very low until the 1850s, when waves started arriving in southern Brazil. To stimulate the German colonization of southern Brazil, the Brazilian government created many German colonies: these were ethnically Germanic areas where people from many parts of what is now Germany, Austria, Czech Republic and Poland settled. Initially, these colonies were in rural areas, where immigrants were able to cultivate their own farms. Many of these German colonies developed greatly and became large cities, Joinville and Blumenau a, among them.
Germans were isolated in rural communities for decades. They did not have much contact with the other peoples of Brazil, and for generations they were able to speak the German language and maintain German traditions in Brazil. This situation changed in 1942, during World War II, when Brazil declared war on Germany, and German immigrants and their descendants were required to learn Portuguese and to culturally integrate their respective states.
Still, German influence in the state remains very strong and visible. Many towns and cities retain notable aspects of German culture: in Pomerode, for example, a small town in which nine-tenths of the population is of German-Brazilian descent, most inhabitants still speak German fluently; and Oktoberfest continues to be celebrated in Blumenau and in many other towns in the region. Architecture, too, shows German influence, as do popular customs and local cuisine.
Italians
Italian settlers started arriving in Santa Catarina in 1875 and immigrated in large numbers until the 1910s. They were peasants from Northern Italy and established themselves in ethnically Italian colonies close to the coast. In the beginning, Italian settlements failed, because many Italians died of tropical diseases or left the colonies to find better conditions. However, in the Vale do Tubarão region (southern Santa Catarina), Italian immigrants found cooler weather and better lands, and the settlements prospered. Many of them worked in the coal industry and, unlike the German immigrants, they did not dedicate themselves very much to agriculture, except in places as Vale do Itajaí, where Northern Italians worked together with Germans.
Religion
According to the 2010 population census, the population of Santa Catarina is made up of Roman Catholics (73.07%); Protestants or evangelicals (20.4%); spiritists (1.58%); Jehovah's Witnesses (0.74%); Mormons (0.11%) Brazilian Catholic Apostolic Church (0.17%); Buddhists (0.05%); new Eastern religious (0.04%), among which the Messianic (0.03%); Islamic (0.01%); Orthodox Christians (0.07%); umbandistas (0.14%); Jewish (0.02%); spiritualists (0.03%); esoteric traditions (0.17%); indigenous (0.03%); candomblezeiros (0.09%) and Hindus (0.01%). Another 3.27% had no religion, including atheists (0.29%) and agnostics (0.6%); 0.29% followed other Christian religions; 0.21% had no determined faith; 0.04% did not know, 0.04% other Eastern religions and 0.03% did not declare.
Economy
The industrial sector is the largest component of GDP at 52.5%, followed by the service sector at 33.9%. Agriculture represents 13.6% of GDP (2004). Santa Catarina exports: aviculture 26.1%, wood products 15.4%, compressors 8.5%, cotton 6.8%, and vehicles 5.8% (2002).
Share of the Brazilian economy: 4% (2005).
Santa Catarina has one of the highest standards of living in Brazil, and is a major industrial and agricultural center. The capital city, Florianópolis, has a diversified economy, being an important pole for the technology industry and a major touristic destination. Commerce and services are also very strong in the capital. Cities from Florianópolis metro area, like São José, Palhoça and Biguaçu are important and diverse industrial poles, as well as strong commerce areas. In the northeast of the state, electric-mechanical, textile and furniture industries are strong; in the west, cattle and poultry breeding predominate, while in the south it is ceramics and shellfish. The corridor between Joinville, Jaraguá do Sul and Blumenau is heavily industrialized – more than 50% of the state's industrial output is concentrated in this small, but highly developed area.
In agriculture, the state stands out in the production of rice, apple and onion, in addition to having an important production of soy, maize, banana, grape, garlic, barley, wheat and yerba mate.
With only 1.12% of the national territory, Santa Catarina was the 8th largest producer of maize and the 11th largest producer of soybeans in Brazil, in the year 2017. But when taken into account the volume produced by area size, the State becomes national leader in corn, with an average of 8.1 thousand kilos per hectare, and the second placed in productivity in soybeans, with 3.580 kilos per hectare. In 15 years, there has been a 118% growth in corn productivity and 58% in soybean. In 2019, corn production in the state reached 2.8 million tons (in 2018 Brazil was the 3rd largest producer in the world, with 82 million tons. However, the annual demand for corn in the state is 7 million tons – 97% is for animal consumption, especially for the production of pigs and broilers (83.8%), as Santa Catarina is the largest pig producer state in Brazil and the second largest poultry . The deficit is covered by interstate imports, mainly from Mato Grosso do Sul, Mato Grosso, Paraná and Goiás, and from countries like Argentina and Paraguay. In soy production, in 2019 the state harvested 2.3 million tons (Brazil produced 116 million tons this year, being the largest producer in the world).
The state was the 2nd largest rice producer in the country in 2020, second only to Rio Grande do Sul. This year, the state harvested around 1.1 million tons of the product. Total national production was 10.5 million tons this year.
The three Southern States of the country are responsible for 95% of the national apple production, and Santa Catarina appears at the top of the production list, competing with Rio Grande do Sul. The São Joaquim region is responsible for 35% of the national planting apple.
Santa Catarina is also a national leader in the production of onions. In 2017, it produced 630 thousand tons, especially in the municipalities of Alfredo Wagner, Angelina and Rancho Queimado.
In banana production, in 2018 Santa Catarina was the 4th largest national producer.
Santa Catarina was the third largest producer of garlic in Brazil in 2018, with a planted area of approximately two thousand hectares. The Curitibanos region is the largest producer in the state.
Santa Catarina is one of the few states in the country that cultivates barley. In the 2007–2011 period, the state had 2.5% of national production. The cultivation was concentrated in the microregions of Canoinhas (57.6%), Curitibanos (26.5%) and Xanxerê (11.5%). It's also one of the few states that cultivates wheat, also due to the climatic factor. In 2019 the estimated production of the state was 150 thousand tons, still small compared to the 2.3 million tons produced by both Rio Grande do Sul and Paraná. Because the country has to import these 2 cereals in high volume every year, the State has been trying to stimulate the production of winter grain crops with incentive programs.
Regarding yerba mate, Santa Catarina produced close to 100 thousand tons in 2018, mainly in the cities of Chapecó and Canoinhas.
The state had an annual production of about 23 thousand tons of grape in 2019, with 86% of the state production located in the municipalities of Caçador, Pinheiro Preto, Tangará and Videira. Most of the national production, however, is located in Rio Grande do Sul (664.2 thousand tons in 2018).
In pork, Santa Catarina is the largest producer in Brazil. The State is responsible for 28.38% of the country's slaughter and for 40.28% of Brazilian pork exports. The number of pigs in Brazil was 41.1 million head in 2017. Santa Catarina had 19.7% of the total.
The number of chickens in Brazil was 1.4 billion head in 2017. Santa Catarina had 10.8% of the national total, being the 4th largest state in the country.
In milk production, Brazil is the fifth largest milk producer in the world, having obtained, in 2018, almost 34 billion liters, 4% of world production. The State of Santa Catarina was responsible for 8.78% of the national production, almost 3 billion liters of milk. In the production of chicken eggs, Santa Catarina represented 4.58% of the national total, which was 3.6 billion dozens in 2018. The State alone was responsible for 165 million dozens.
In cattle raising, Brazil had almost 215 million head in 2017. Santa Catarina had about 5 million head of cattle in 2018.
Santa Catarina was the 5th largest honey producer in the country in 2017, with 10.2% of the national total.
Fishing plays an important role in the state's economy. The production of oysters, scallops and mussels in Brazil was 20.9 thousand tons in 2017. Santa Catarina was the main producing state, responsible for 98.1% of the national production. Palhoça, Florianópolis and Bombinhas led the ranking of municipalities.
Santa Catarina is the largest coal producer in Brazil, mainly in the city of Criciúma and surroundings. The production of crude mineral coal in Brazil was 13.6 million tons in 2007. Santa Catarina produced 8.7 Mt (million tons); Rio Grande do Sul, 4.5 Mt; and Paraná, 0.4 Mt. Despite the extraction of mineral coal in Brazil, the country still needs to import about 50% of the coal consumed, as the coal produced in the country is of low quality, as it has a lower concentration of carbon. Among the countries that supply Brazil with mineral coal is South Africa, USA and Australia. Mineral coal in Brazil supplies, in particular, thermoelectric plants that consume about 85% of production. The cement industry in the country, on the other hand, is supplied with approximately 6% of this coal, leaving 4% for the production of cellulose paper and only 5% in the food, ceramics and grains industries. Brazil has reserves of peat, lignite and hard coal. Coal totals 32 billion tons of reserves and is mainly in Rio Grande do Sul (89.25% of the total), followed by Santa Catarina (10.41%). The Candiota Deposit (RS) alone has 38% of all national coal. As it is a coal of inferior quality, it is used only in the generation of thermoelectric energy and at the site of the deposit. The oil crisis in the 1970s led the Brazilian government to create the Energy Mobilization Plan, with intense research to discover new coal reserves. The Geological Survey of Brazil, through works carried out in Rio Grande do Sul and Santa Catarina, greatly increased the reserves of coal previously known, between 1970 and 1986 (mainly between 1978 and 1983). Good quality coal, suitable for use in metallurgy and in large volume (seven billion tons), was then discovered in several deposits in Rio Grande do Sul (Morungava, Chico Lomã, Santa Teresinha), but at relatively great depths (up to 1,200 m), which has hindered its use until now. In 2011, coal accounted for only 5.6% of the energy consumed in Brazil, but it is an important strategic source, which can be activated when, for example, the water levels in the dams are very low, reducing excessively the supply of water. hydroelectric power. This happened in 2013, when several thermoelectric plants were then shut down, thus maintaining the necessary supply, albeit at a higher cost.
About industry, Santa Catarina had an industrial GDP of R $63.2 billion in 2017, equivalent to 5.3% of the national industry. It employs 761,072 workers in the industry. The main industrial sectors are: Construction (17.9%), Food (15.9%), Clothing (7.4%), Industrial Public Utility Services, such as Electricity and Water (6.9%), and Textiles (6.0%). These 5 sectors concentrate 54.1% of the state's industry.
The main industrial centers in Santa Catarina are Jaraguá do Sul, Joinville, Chapecó and Blumenau. The first has a diversified character, with factories of fabrics, food products, foundries and the mechanical industry. Chapecó's economy is based on agribusiness. Blumenau concentrates its activity in the textile industry (together with Gaspar and Brusque) and recently also in the software industry. In the interior of the state, there are numerous small manufacturing centers, linked both to the industrialization of wood and to the processing of agricultural and pastoral products.
In Textile industry, Santa Catarina stands out. Brazil, despite being among the 5 largest producers in the world in 2013, and being representative in the consumption of textiles and clothing, has very little insertion in global trade. In 2015, Brazilian imports ranked 25th in the ranking (US$5.5 billion). And in exports, it was only 40th in the world ranking. Brazil's participation in the world trade in textiles and clothing is only 0.3%, due to the difficulty of competing in price with producers in India and mainly in China. The gross value of production, which includes consumption of intermediate goods and services, by the Brazilian textile industry corresponded to almost R $40 billion in 2015, 1.6% of the gross value of Industrial Production in Brazil. The South has 32.65% of production, Among the main textile clusters in Brazil, the Vale do Itajaí (SC) stand out. In 2015, Santa Catarina was the 2nd largest textile and clothing employer in Brazil. It occupied the national leadership in the manufacture of pillows and is the largest producer in Latin America and the second in the world in woven labels. It is the largest exporter in the country of toilet / kitchen clothes, cotton terry cloth fabrics and cotton knit shirts. Some of the most famous companies in the region are Hering, Malwee, Karsten and Haco.
In Food industry, In 2019, Brazil was the 2nd largest exporter of processed foods in the world, with a value of U $34.1 billion in exports. The Brazilian food and beverage industry's revenue in 2019 was R $699.9 billion, 9.7% of the country's Gross Domestic Product. In 2015, the industrial food and beverage sector in Brazil comprised 34,800 companies (not counting bakeries), the vast majority of which were small. These companies employed more than 1,600,000 workers, making the food and beverage industry the largest employer in the manufacturing industry. There are around 570 large companies in Brazil, which concentrate a good part of the total industry revenue. The top 50 were: JBS, Ambev, Bunge, BRF, Cargill, Marfrig, LDC do Brasil, Amaggi, Minerva Foods, Coca Cola Femsa, Aurora, Vigor, M.Dias Branco, Camil Alimentos, Solar.Br, Granol, Caramuru Alimentos, Bianchini, Copacol, Citrosuco, Três Corações Alimentos S.A., Itambé, Ajinomoto, Algar Agro, Piracanjuba, Vonpar, Agrex, Frimesa, GTFoods Group, Grupo Simões, Elebat Alimentos, Garoto, Pif Paf Alimentos, J. Macêdo, Frigol, Josapar, Olfar Alimento e Energia, Embaré, Alibem, Dalia Alimentos, Asa Participações, Cacique, Frisa, Arroz Brejeiro, Gomes da Costa, Pamplona, Moinhos Cruzeiro do Sul, Better Beef, SSA Alimentos and Correcta. Santa Catarina created companies such as Sadia and Perdigão (which later merged into BRF), Seara Alimentos (which today belongs to JBS), Aurora (all meat specialists), Gomes da Costa (fish and canned), Eisenbahn Brewery and Hemmer Alimentos (specialist in preserves such as cucumber, beet, heart of palm, among others).
In the automotive sector, the state has GM and BMW plants.
In the North Region of the state (Canoinhas, Três Barras, Mafra), the wood and paper industry stands out, where large industries are concentrated due to the potential and existence of raw materials in the region. In the Serra industries (Rio Negrinho and São Bento do Sul), wood processing works are carried out, creating various derivatives and the final product. The state stands out nationally in the production of wooden furniture. In these cities, together with the city of Palhoça, the largest volume of companies is concentrated. The industry has a 7.5% share in the national sector. The state is the second largest furniture exporter in the country (2014). The Santa Catarina timber industry stands out with a 17.1% share in Brazil. It is among the largest in the country in the production of wooden doors and is a national leader in frames.
Responsible for handling R$6.5 billion in gross value of the Industrial Production of Santa Catarina, the paper and cellulose sector is one of the most important economic vocations of the mountainous part of the state. In Santa Catarina it is the 8th in exports and the 10th in job creation, with more than 20.2 thousand vacancies, according to data from 2015. The municipalities of Lages and Otacílio Costa together represent about 47% of the exports of the Pulp and Paper sector State role.
In the south of the state (including the cities of Imbituba, Tubarão, Criciúma, Forquilhinha, Içara and Urussanga) are concentrated the main ceramic tile factories in Brazil. The state of Santa Catarina also leads, in the country, the production of crockery and crystals.
The northeast of the state stands out in the production of moto-compressors, auto parts, refrigerators, engine es and electrical components, industrial machines, tubes and connections. In Santa Catarina, the machinery and equipment industry stands out in the manufacture of compressors, being a leader in exports of this product among the states of the country. It is also an important producer of forestry equipment. In metallurgy, the state has the largest national manufacturer of stainless steel sinks, vats and tanks, trophies and medals, fixing elements (screws, nuts, etc.), jacketed tanks for fuels, industrial pressure vessels and of malleable iron connections. It is a world leader in engine blocks and iron heads, being Brazil's largest exporter of this product.
In the leather-footwear sector (Footwear industry),the state has a producing pole in São João Batista.
In the household appliances industry, sales of so-called "white line" equipment (refrigerator, air conditioning and others) were 12.9 million units in 2017. The sector had its peak sales in 2012, with 18.9 million units. The brands that sold the most were Brastemp, Electrolux, Consul and Philips.Consul is originally from Santa Catarina, having merged with Brastemp and today being part of the multinational Whirlpool Corporation.
The major cities and their respective fields are:
Florianópolis, technology; tourism; services; commerce; government; education.
Joinville, metal-mechanic; automobile; tourism/events; software development; commerce; plastic; textile; chemistry; education.
Blumenau, textile; software; commerce and beer.
São José, industry; commerce and services.
Criciúma, ceramics.
Chapecó, cattle and poultry breeding.
Lages tourism and wood industry.
Itajai, seaport.
Jaraguá do Sul, electric motors and textile.
Palhoça, industry.
Balneário Camboriú tourism; commerce.
Tubarão.ceramics
Brusque, textile.
Rio Negrinho, furniture.
Caçador, furniture; metal-mechanics; agribusiness.
Campos Novos, agribusiness.
Concórdia, Swine industry.
Curitibanos, Agribusiness, wood industry, education.
São Joaquim, tourism.
Statistics
Vehicles: 2,489,343 (March/2007);
Mobile phones: 3.7 million (April/2007); Telephones: 1.6 million (April/2007). Cities: 293 (2007).
Education
Portuguese is the official national language, and thus the primary language taught in schools. English, Spanish and sometimes German are part of the official high school curriculum.
There are more than 105 universities within the state of Santa Catarina.
Colleges and Universities
Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina (UFSC) (Federal University of Santa Catarina) (Public);
Universidade Federal da Fronteira Sul (UFFS) (Federal University of the Southern Border)(Public);
Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina (UDESC) (University of the State of Santa Catarina) (Public);
Instituto Federal de Santa Catarina (IFSC) (Federal Institute of Santa Catarina) (Public);
Instituto Federal Catarinense (IFC) (Santa Catarina's Federal Institute) (Public);
Fundação Universidade Regional de Blumenau (FURB) (Regional University Foundation of Blumenau) (Public, but paid);
Universidade do Sul de Santa Catarina (UNISUL) (University of Southern Santa Catarina) (Private);
Universidade do Vale do Itajaí (UNIVALI) (University of the Itajaí Valley) (Private);
Universidade da Região de Joinville (UNIVILLE) (University of the Region of Joinville) (Private);
Universidade para o Desenvolvimento do Alto Vale do Itajaí (UNIDAVI) (University for the development of the upper valley of the Itajaí) (Private);
Centro Universitário Leonardo da Vinci (UNIASSELVI) (University Center Leonardo da Vinci) (Private);
Universidade Católica de Santa Catarina (Catholic University of Santa Catarina) (Private);
Universidade do Contestado (UnC) (University of Contestado) (Private);
Universidade do Oeste de Santa Catarina (Unoesc) (University of Western Santa Catarina) (Private);
Universidade do Planalto de Santa Catarina (Uniplac) (University of the Plateau of Santa Catarina) (Private);
Universidade do Extremo Sul Catarinense (Unesc) (University of Southernmost Santa Catarina) (Private);
Sociedade Educacional de Santa Catarina (SOCIESC) (Educational Society for Santa Catarina)(Private);
Infrastructure
International Airport
Florianópolis is served by Hercílio Luz International Airport for both domestic and international flights. The traffic has grown significantly and in October 2019, has opened a new airport able to serve 2.7 million passengers a year.
The architectural design of the new airport was chosen by a public competition held by Infraero in partnership with the Brazilian Architects Institute (IAB).
Among the over 150 original entries, the proposal of São Paulo architect Mário Bizelli was chosen. The construction work will be tendered in 2005 and should be finished in two years.
Tourism
Santa Catarina offers a number of sights and events throughout the year: rural tourism, thermal mineral resorts, ecological tourism and adventure sports, historic monuments and sights, religious tourism, Beto Carrero World and Unipraias parks in Balneário Camboriú, and beach resorts of Florianópolis, Laguna, Porto Belo and Itajaí.
Some of these sights can only be seen in the off-season, like the snow on the Catarinense Mountain Range – one of the places in Brazil where it snows every year.
Between July and November, southern right whales visit the state's coast. The municipality of Timbó is a center for adventure sports like rafting and canyoning.
The great festivities take place in October. The main Oktoberfest of Blumenau is Brazil's largest and the world's second largest (after Germany's Munich).
Joinville is the host city in July to the widely acclaimed "Joinville Dance Festival", the annual "Festival of Flowers" in November which showcases orchids produced in the region, and several business events in its Convention Center.
Florianópolis, the city/island State Capital attracts a large numbers of tourists during the summer months who visit its 42 beaches.
There are also many smaller resort towns, including the capital of the microlight aircraft tour flights Itapema, Piçarras, Barra Velha and Penha, home to the famous amusement park Beto Carrero World.
An interesting collaboration between men and Nature that can be watched has been developed in Laguna (birthplace of Anita Garibaldi, the wife and comrade-in-arms of Italian Unification revolutionary Giuseppe Garibaldi): a pod of bottlenose dolphins drive fish towards fishermen who stand at the beach in shallow waters. Then one dolphin rolls over, which the fishermen take as sign to throw out their nets. The dolphins feed on the escaping fish. The dolphins were not trained for this behavior; the collaboration has been going on at least since 1847. Southern right whales also can be seen in Laguna from shores during winter to spring seasons.
The Turvo State Park, created in 1947, is in the northwest of the state.
It contains the Yucumã Falls (, ), a dramatic waterfall on the Uruguay River on the border with Argentina.
Many tourists come to the park to see the falls, which are long and up to high.
Sports
Football
The major football clubs of Santa Catarina are:
Criciuma EC from Criciúma. Criciúma EC, also known as "Tigre" (Tiger) has the most important championship won by a Santa Catarina Team in a very long time, being champion from the Copa do Brasil (Brazilian Cup) in 1991. Criciúma is the only team from Santa Catarina that played Libertadores of America Cup, in 1992, when it was 5th. Criciúma also won the Brazilian 2002 second series, and 2006 C series. Criciuma is currently playing Campeonato Brasileiro Série B, the Brazilian national second division.
Figueirense FC black and white from Florianópolis. Its nickname is Figueira (Fig tree) and it is also known as O Furacão do Estreito (The Hurricane of Estreito). Its stadium is the Orlando Scarpelli, located in the Estreito neighborhood, in the continental part of the city. Figueirense is currently playing in the Campeonato Brasileiro Série B, the second division of Brazilian football.
Avaí FC, blue and white from Florianópolis. It is also known as O Leão da Ilha (The Lion of the Island). Its stadium is the Aderbal Ramos da Silva, popularly known as Ressacada, located in the Carianos neighborhood, in the south part of the island. Avaí is currently playing in Campeonato Brasileiro Série B, the second division of Brazilian football.
Joinville Esporte Clube from Joinville. It is also known as "Tricolor" or "JEC". Joinville is currently playing in the Campeonato Brasileiro Série A, the first division of Brazilian football. JEC won the Campeonato Brasileiro Série B, the second division of Brazilian football, in 2014, but currently plays in Campeonato Brasileiro Série C, the third division of Brazilian football, after two consecutive relegations.
Associação Chapecoense de Futebol from Chapecó. Chapecoense is playing in the Campeonato Brasileiro Série A, the first and major division of Brazilian football. The club is currently recovering from the loss of virtually all of its first team in a 2016 plane crash.
Surfing
The Island, Island of Santa Catarina, is generally considered to have the best and most consistent waves in Brazil, and in April of each year hosts what is currently South America's only ASP (Association of Surfing Professionals) World Championship Tour professional surfing competition. Brazil has played host to many an ASP tour event over the past 30 years. Former contest sites include Rio de Janeiro, Barra de Tijuca and Saquarema, but the past four years have seen the tour set up shop in Florianópolis. Previously held towards the end of the tour, the past few years have seen several ASP world champions crowned in Brazil. In 2004 it was Andy Irons, and in 2005 it was Kelly Slater (who had his 2006 ASP World Title already stitched up by Brazil).
Tennis
Florianópolis is the hometown of Brazilian former tennis player Gustavo Kuerten.
Minority languages
The minority languages of the state of Santa Catarina can be divided into two distinct groups:
Autoctone Languages or Indigenous Languages: Kaingang; Guaraní;
Extoctone Languages or Immigration Languages: German (Hunsrückisch, Dutch, East Pomeranian, Plautdietsch, Austro-Bavarian, including more specifically Southern Austro-Bavarian); Italian (Talian or Venetian), Slavic (Polish, Ukrainian, Russian) and others, including Scandinavian (Norwegian, Swedish and Danish), Lithuanian, Yiddish, English and Japanese minorities.
In some cities and villages, German or Talian are still the main spoken language and enjoy co-official status.
Conservationism
Santa Catarina is the one of the few Brazilian states with negative indexes of deforestation, meaning that forest coverage grows faster than it is chopped down. That happens due to the advance in the agricultural technology, allowing the productivity to grow while reducing the space needed.
See also
Hino do Estado de Santa Catarina
List of cities in Brazil (all cities and municipalities)
Notes
External links
Official State of Santa Catarina website
Santa Catarina on YouTube
Guia Catarina – Guia de informações sobre Santa Catarina
Informações sobre as Cidades de Santa Catarina, Eventos, e Diretório de empresas
Bela Santa Catarina
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256308 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Morton%20S.%20Wilkinson | Morton S. Wilkinson | Morton Smith Wilkinson (January 22, 1819February 4, 1894) was an American politician.
Born in Skaneateles, New York, he moved to Illinois in 1837 and was employed in railroad work for two years. Upon returning to Skaneateles in 1840, he studied law, was admitted to the bar in 1842, and commenced practice in Eaton Rapids, Michigan in 1843. He moved to Stillwater, Minnesota in 1847.
Wilkinson was elected to the first legislature of Minnesota Territory in 1849 and served as Register of Deeds of Ramsey County 1851 – 1853. After moving to Mankato, Minnesota in 1858, he served as a member of the board of commissioners to prepare a code of laws for the Territory of Minnesota in 1858.
He served in the United States Senate from March 4, 1859 to March 3, 1865, as a Republican from Minnesota, in the 36th, 37th and 38th congresses, but was an unsuccessful candidate for reelection. In the Senate, he was chairman of the Committee on Revolutionary Claims. He was a member of the United States House of Representatives from March 4, 1869 to March 3, 1871, but unsuccessful candidate for renomination in 1870.
Wilkinson moved to Wells, Minnesota, and was member of the Minnesota State Senate 1874 – 1877 as well as a prosecuting attorney of Faribault County 1880 – 1884. He died in Wells on February 4, 1894, and was interred in Glenwood Cemetery, Mankato, Blue Earth County, Minnesota.
References
Minnesota Legislators Past and Present
1819 births
1894 deaths
Members of the Minnesota Territorial Legislature
Members of the United States House of Representatives from Minnesota
Minnesota Republicans
Minnesota state senators
People from Skaneateles, New York
Republican Party United States senators
United States senators from Minnesota
Politicians from Mankato, Minnesota
Republican Party members of the United States House of Representatives
19th-century American politicians
People from Eaton Rapids, Michigan
People from Stillwater, Minnesota
People from Wells, Minnesota | [
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256309 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/De%20Materie | De Materie | De Materie (Matter) is a four-part vocal and orchestral work by Dutch composer Louis Andriessen, written over the period 1984 to 1988. Robert Wilson directed the first staging of the work on 1 June 1989 at the Muziektheater, Amsterdam, with James Doing, Wendy Hill, Beppie Blankert and Marjon Brandsma as the soloists at the premiere. In the US, Part II of the work, "Hadewijch", was performed at the Tanglewood Festival in 1994. The complete work received its first US performance in 2004 at Lincoln Center, New York City. "Hadewijch" received its UK premiere at the 1993 Huddersfield Contemporary Music Festival. The UK premiere of the full work was at the Meltdown Festival in 1994.
The work incorporates eclectic musical influences, ranging from Johann Sebastian Bach and Igor Stravinsky to the old Netherlands chanson "L'homme armé" and 20th-century boogie-woogie. The work opens with 144 iterations of the same chord played fortissimo (very loud) and features an extended solo for two large metal boxes played with hammers. The texts are both sung and spoken. The four sections of the work incorporate various texts, with the dates of composition of each section in parentheses:
Part I ("De Materie", 1986–1987): the 1581 Plakkaat van Verlatinge (Act of Abjuration), with a text on shipbuilding by Nicolaes Witsen and the Idea Physicæ of David van Goorle -
Part II ("Hadewijch", 1987–1988): Zevende Visioen (Seventh Vision) by Hadewijch -
Part III ("'De Stijl", 1984–1985): text from The Principles of Plastic Mathematics by M. H. J. Schoenmaekers, along with quotes by M. van Domselaer-Middelkoop about his friend, the Dutch painter Piet Mondrian -
Part IV (untitled): excerpts from two sonnets by Willem Kloos, along with a passage from the diary of Marie Curie and her Nobel Prize speech -
(Timings in minutes and seconds, from the Nonesuch CD listed below)
Recording
Nonesuch 7559-79367-2: Susan Narucki, James Doing, Cindy Oswin, Gertrude Thoma; Members of the Netherlands Chamber Choir; Schönberg Ensemble; Asko Ensemble; Reinbert de Leeuw, conductor
References
External links
Boosey & Hawkes publisher page on De Materie
Compositions by Louis Andriessen
Choral compositions
1988 compositions | [
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256310 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Tyndall | John Tyndall | John Tyndall FRS (; 2 August 1820 – 4 December 1893) was a prominent 19th-century Irish physicist. His initial scientific fame arose in the 1850s from his study of diamagnetism. Later he made discoveries in the realms of infrared radiation and the physical properties of air, proving the connection between atmospheric CO and what is now known as the greenhouse effect in 1859.
Tyndall also published more than a dozen science books which brought state-of-the-art 19th century experimental physics to a wide audience. From 1853 to 1887 he was professor of physics at the Royal Institution of Great Britain in London. He was elected as a member to the American Philosophical Society in 1868.
Early years and education
Tyndall was born in Leighlinbridge, County Carlow, Ireland. His father was a local police constable, descended from Gloucestershire emigrants who settled in southeast Ireland around 1670. Tyndall attended the local schools (Ballinabranna Primary School) in County Carlow until his late teens, and was probably an assistant teacher near the end of his time there. Subjects learned at school notably included technical drawing and mathematics with some applications of those subjects to land surveying. He was hired as a draftsman by the Ordnance Survey of Ireland in his late teens in 1839, and moved to work for the Ordnance Survey for Great Britain in 1842. In the decade of the 1840s, a railway-building boom was in progress, and Tyndall's land surveying experience was valuable and in demand by the railway companies. Between 1844 and 1847, he was lucratively employed in railway construction planning.
In 1847, Tyndall opted to become a mathematics and surveying teacher at Queenwood College, a boarding school in Hampshire. Recalling this decision later, he wrote: "the desire to grow intellectually did not forsake me; and, when railway work slackened, I accepted in 1847 a post as master in Queenwood College." Another recently arrived young teacher at Queenwood was Edward Frankland, who had previously worked as a chemical laboratory assistant for the British Geological Survey. Frankland and Tyndall became good friends. On the strength of Frankland's prior knowledge, they decided to go to Germany to further their education in science. Among other things, Frankland knew that certain German universities were ahead of any in Britain in experimental chemistry and physics. (British universities were still focused on classics and mathematics and not laboratory science.) The pair moved to Germany in summer 1848 and enrolled at the University of Marburg, attracted by the reputation of Robert Bunsen as a teacher. Tyndall studied under Bunsen for two years. Perhaps more influential for Tyndall at Marburg was Professor Hermann Knoblauch, with whom Tyndall maintained communications by letter for many years afterwards. Tyndall's Marburg dissertation was a mathematical analysis of screw surfaces in 1850 (under Friedrich Ludwig Stegmann). Tyndall stayed in Germany for a further year doing research on magnetism with Knoblauch, including some months' visit at the Berlin laboratory of Knoblauch's main teacher, Heinrich Gustav Magnus. It is clear today that Bunsen and Magnus were among the very best experimental science instructors of the era. Thus, when Tyndall returned to live in England in summer 1851, he probably had as good an education in experimental science as anyone in England.
Early scientific work
Tyndall's early original work in physics was his experiments on magnetism and diamagnetic polarity, on which he worked from 1850 to 1856. His two most influential reports were the first two, co-authored with Knoblauch. One of them was entitled "The magneto-optic properties of crystals, and the relation of magnetism and diamagnetism to molecular arrangement", dated May 1850. The two described an inspired experiment, with an inspired interpretation. These and other magnetic investigations very soon made Tyndall known among the leading scientists of the day. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1852. In his search for a suitable research appointment, he was able to ask the longtime editor of the leading German physics journal (Poggendorff) and other prominent men to write testimonials on his behalf. In 1853, he attained the prestigious appointment of Professor of Natural Philosophy (Physics) at the Royal Institution in London, due in no small part to the esteem his work had garnered from Michael Faraday, the leader of magnetic investigations at the Royal Institution. About a decade later Tyndall was appointed the successor to the positions held by Michael Faraday at the Royal Institution on Faraday's retirement.
Alpine mountaineering and glaciology
Tyndall visited the Alps mountains in 1856 for scientific reasons and ended up becoming a pioneering mountain climber. He visited the Alps almost every summer from 1856 onward, was a member of the very first mountain-climbing team to reach the top of the Weisshorn (1861), and led one of the early teams to reach the top of the Matterhorn (1868). His is one of the names associated with the "Golden age of alpinism" — the mid-Victorian years when the more difficult of the Alpine peaks were summited for the first time.
In the Alps, Tyndall studied glaciers, and especially glacier motion. His explanation of glacial flow brought him into dispute with others, particularly James David Forbes. Much of the early scientific work on glacier motion had been done by Forbes, but Forbes at that time did not know of the phenomenon of regelation, which was discovered a little later by Michael Faraday. Regelation played a key role in Tyndall's explanation. Forbes did not see regelation in the same way at all. Complicating their debate, a disagreement arose publicly over who deserved to get investigator credit for what. Articulate friends of Forbes, as well as Forbes himself, thought that Forbes should get the credit for most of the good science, whereas Tyndall thought the credit should be distributed more widely. Tyndall commented: "The idea of semi-fluid motion belongs entirely to Louis Rendu; the proof of the quicker central flow belongs in part to Rendu, but almost wholly to Louis Agassiz and Forbes; the proof of the retardation of the bed belongs to Forbes alone; while the discovery of the locus of the point of maximum motion belongs, I suppose, to me." When Forbes and Tyndall were in the grave, their disagreement was continued by their respective official biographers. Everyone tried to be reasonable, but agreement was not attained. More disappointingly, aspects of glacier motion remained not understood or not proved.
Tyndall Glacier located in Chile and Tyndall Glacier in Colorado were named after John Tyndall, as is Mount Tyndall in California and Mount Tyndall in Tasmania.
Main scientific work
Work on glaciers alerted Tyndall to the research of de Saussure into the heating effect of sunlight, and the concept of Fourier, developed by Pouillet and William Hopkins; that heat from the sun penetrates the atmosphere more easily than "obscure heat" (infrared) "terrestrial radiation" from the warmed Earth, causing what we now call the greenhouse effect. In the spring of 1859, Tyndall began research into how thermal radiation, both visible and obscure, affects different gases and aerosols. He developed differential absorption spectroscopy using the electro-magnetic thermopile devised by Melloni. Tyndall began intensive experiments on 9 May 1859, at first without significant results,
then improved the sensitivity of the apparatus and on 18 May wrote in his journal "Experimented all day; the subject is completely in my hands!" On 26 May he gave the Royal Society a note which described his methods, and stated "With the exception of the celebrated memoir of M. Pouillet on Solar Radiation through the atmosphere, nothing, so far as I am aware, has been published on the transmission of radiant heat through gaseous bodies. We know nothing of the effect even of air upon heat radiated from terrestrial sources."
On 10 June, he demonstrated the research in a Royal Society lecture, noting that coal gas and ether strongly absorbed (infrared) radiant heat, and his experimental confirmation of the (greenhouse effect) concept; that solar heat crosses an atmosphere, but "when the heat is absorbed by the planet, it is so changed in quality that the rays emanating from the planet cannot get with the same freedom back into space. Thus the atmosphere admits of the entrance of solar heat; but checks its exit, and the result is a tendency to accumulate heat at the surface of the planet."
Tyndall's studies of the action of radiant energy on the constituents of air led him onto several lines of inquiry, and his original research results included the following:
Tyndall explained the heat in the Earth's atmosphere in terms of the capacities of the various gases in the air to absorb radiant heat, in the form of infrared radiation. His measuring device, which used thermopile technology, is an early landmark in the history of absorption spectroscopy of gases. He was the first to correctly measure the relative infrared absorptive powers of the gases nitrogen, oxygen, water vapour, carbon dioxide, ozone, methane, and other trace gases and vapours. He concluded that water vapour is the strongest absorber of radiant heat in the atmosphere and is the principal gas controlling air temperature. Absorption by the other gases is not negligible but relatively small. Prior to Tyndall it was widely surmised that the Earth's atmosphere warms the surface in what was later called a greenhouse effect, but he was the first to prove it. The proof was that water vapour strongly absorbed infrared radiation. Three years earlier, in 1856, the American scientist Eunice Newton Foote had announced experiments demonstrating that water vapour and carbon dioxide absorb heat from solar radiation, but she did not differentiate the effects of infrared. Relatedly, Tyndall in 1860 was first to demonstrate and quantify that visually transparent gases are infrared emitters.
He devised demonstrations that advanced the question of how radiant heat is absorbed and emitted at the molecular level. He appears to be the first person to have demonstrated experimentally that emission of heat in chemical reactions has its physical origination within the newly created molecules (1864). He produced instructive demonstrations involving the incandescent conversion of infrared into visible light at the molecular level, which he called calorescence (1865), in which he used materials that are transparent to infrared and opaque to visible light or vice versa. He usually referred to infrared as "radiant heat", and sometimes as "ultra-red undulations", as the word "infrared" did not start coming into use until the 1880s. His main reports of the 1860s were republished as a 450-page collection in 1872 under the title Contributions to Molecular Physics in the Domain of Radiant Heat.
In the investigations on radiant heat in air it had been necessary to use air from which all traces of floating dust and other particulates had been removed. A very sensitive way to detect particulates is to bathe the air with intense light. The scattering of light by particulate impurities in air and other gases, and in liquids, is known today as the Tyndall Effect or Tyndall Scattering. In studying this scattering during the late 1860s Tyndall was a beneficiary of recent improvements in electric-powered lights. He also had the use of good light concentrators. He developed the nephelometer and similar instruments that show properties of aerosols and colloids through concentrated light beams against a dark background and are based on exploiting the Tyndall Effect. (When combined with microscopes, the result is the ultramicroscope, which was developed later by others).
He was the first to observe and report the phenomenon of thermophoresis in aerosols. He spotted it surrounding hot objects while investigating the Tyndall Effect with focused lightbeams in a dark room. He devised a better way to demonstrate it, and then simply reported it (1870), without investigating the physics of it in depth.
In radiant-heat experiments that called for much laboratory expertise in the early 1860s, he showed for a variety of readily vaporisable liquids that, molecule for molecule, the vapour form and the liquid form have essentially the same power to absorb radiant heat. (In modern experiments using narrow-band spectra, some small differences are found that Tyndall's equipment was unable to get at; see e.g. absorption spectrum of H2O).
He consolidated and enhanced the results of Desains, Forbes, Knoblauch and others demonstrating that the principal properties of visible light can be reproduced for radiant heat – namely reflection, refraction, diffraction, polarisation, depolarisation, double refraction, and rotation in a magnetic field.
Using his expertise about radiant heat absorption by gases, he invented a system for measuring the amount of carbon dioxide in a sample of exhaled human breath (1862, 1864). The basics of Tyndall's system is in daily use in hospitals today for monitoring patients under anaesthesia. (See capnometry.)
When studying the absorption of radiant heat by ozone, he came up with a demonstration that helped confirm or reaffirm that ozone is an oxygen cluster (1862).
In the lab he came up with the following simple way to obtain "optically pure" air, i.e. air that has no visible signs of particulate matter. He built a square wooden box with a couple of glass windows on it. Before closing the box, he coated the inside walls and floor of the box with glycerin, which is a sticky syrup. He found that after a few days' wait the air inside the box was entirely particulate-free when examined with strong light beams through the glass windows. The various floating-matter particulates had all ended up getting stuck to the walls or settling on the sticky floor. Now, in the optically pure air there were no signs of any "germs", i.e. no signs of floating micro-organisms. Tyndall sterilised some meat-broths by simply boiling them, and then compared what happened when he let these meat-broths sit in the optically pure air, and in ordinary air. The broths sitting in the optically pure air remained "sweet" (as he said) to smell and taste after many months of sitting, while the ones in ordinary air started to become putrid after a few days. This demonstration extended Louis Pasteur's earlier demonstrations that the presence of micro-organisms is a precondition for biomass decomposition. However, the next year (1876) Tyndall failed to consistently reproduce the result. Some of his supposedly heat-sterilized broths rotted in the optically pure air. From this Tyndall was led to find viable bacterial spores (endospores) in supposedly heat-sterilized broths. He discovered the broths had been contaminated with dry bacterial spores from hay in the lab. All bacteria are killed by simple boiling, except that bacteria have a spore form that can survive boiling, he correctly contended, citing research by Ferdinand Cohn. Tyndall found a way to eradicate the bacterial spores that came to be known as "Tyndallization". Tyndallization historically was the earliest known effective way to destroy bacterial spores. At the time, it affirmed the "germ theory" against a number of critics whose experimental results had been defective from the same cause. During the mid-1870s Pasteur and Tyndall were in frequent communication.
Invented a better fireman's respirator, a hood that filtered smoke and noxious gas from air (1871, 1874).
In the late 1860s and early 1870s he wrote an introductory book about sound propagation in air, and was a participant in a large-scale British project to develop a better foghorn. In laboratory demonstrations motivated by foghorn issues, Tyndall established that sound is partially reflected (i.e. partially bounced back like an echo) at the location where an air mass of one temperature meets another air mass of a different temperature; and more generally when a body of air contains two or more air masses of different densities or temperatures, the sound travels poorly because of reflections occurring at the interfaces between the air masses, and very poorly when many such interfaces are present. (He then argued, though inconclusively, that this is the usual main reason why the same distant sound, e.g. foghorn, can be heard stronger or fainter on different days or at different times of day.)
An index of 19th-century scientific research journals has John Tyndall as the author of more than 147 papers in science research journals, with practically all of them dated between 1850 and 1884, which is an average of more than four papers a year over that 35-year period.
In his lectures at the Royal Institution Tyndall put a great value on, and was talented at producing, lively, visible demonstrations of physics concepts. In one lecture, Tyndall demonstrated the propagation of light down through a stream of falling water via total internal reflection of the light. It was referred to as the "light fountain". It is historically significant today because it demonstrates the scientific foundation for modern fibre optic technology. During second half of the 20th century Tyndall was usually credited with being the first to make this demonstration. However, Jean-Daniel Colladon published a report of it in Comptes Rendus in 1842, and there's some suggestive evidence that Tyndall's knowledge of it came ultimately from Colladon and no evidence that Tyndall claimed to have originated it himself.
Molecular physics of radiant heat
Tyndall was an experimenter and laboratory apparatus builder, not an abstract model builder. But in his experiments on radiation and the heat-absorptive power of gases, he had an underlying agenda to understand the physics of molecules. Tyndall said in 1879: "During nine years of labour on the subject of radiation [in the 1860s], heat and light were handled throughout by me, not as ends, but as instruments by the aid of which the mind might perchance lay hold upon the ultimate particles of matter." This agenda is explicit in the title he picked for his 1872 book Contributions to Molecular Physics in the Domain of Radiant Heat. It is present less explicitly in the spirit of his widely read 1863 book Heat Considered as a Mode of Motion. Besides heat he also saw magnetism and sound propagation as reducible to molecular behaviours. Invisible molecular behaviours were the ultimate basis of all physical activity. With this mindset, and his experiments, he outlined an account whereby differing types of molecules have differing absorptions of infrared radiation because their molecular structures give them differing oscillating resonances. He'd gotten into the oscillating resonances idea because he'd seen that any one type of molecule has differing absorptions at differing radiant frequencies, and he was entirely persuaded that the only difference between one frequency and another is the frequency. He'd also seen that the absorption behaviour of molecules is quite different from that of the atoms composing the molecules. For example, the gas nitric oxide (NO) absorbed more than a thousand times more infrared radiation than either nitrogen (N2) or oxygen (O2). He'd also seen in several kinds of experiments that – no matter whether a gas is a weak absorber of broad-spectrum radiant heat – any gas will strongly absorb the radiant heat coming from a separate body of the same type of gas. That demonstrated a kinship between the molecular mechanisms of absorption and emission. Such a kinship was also in evidence in experiments by Balfour Stewart and others, cited and extended by Tyndall, that showed with respect to broad-spectrum radiant heat that molecules that are weak absorbers are weak emitters and strong absorbers are strong emitters. (For example, rock-salt is an exceptionally poor absorber of heat via radiation, and a good absorber of heat via conduction. When a plate of rock-salt is heated via conduction and let stand on an insulator, it takes an exceptionally long time to cool down; i.e., it's a poor emitter of infrared.) The kinship between absorption and emission was also consistent with some generic or abstract features of resonators. The chemical decomposition of molecules by lightwaves (photochemical effect) convinced Tyndall that the resonator could not be the molecule as a whole unit; it had to be some substructure, because otherwise the photochemical effect would be impossible. But he was without testable ideas as to the form of this substructure, and did not partake in speculation in print. His promotion of the molecular mindset, and his efforts to experimentally expose what molecules are, has been discussed by one historian under the title "John Tyndall, The Rhetorician of Molecularity".
Educator
Besides being a scientist, John Tyndall was a science teacher and evangelist for the cause of science. He spent a significant amount of his time disseminating science to the general public. He gave hundreds of public lectures to non-specialist audiences at the Royal Institution in London. When he went on a public lecture tour in the USA in 1872, large crowds of non-scientists paid fees to hear him lecture about the nature of light. A typical statement of Tyndall's reputation at the time is this from a London publication in 1878: "Following the precedent set by Faraday, Professor Tyndall has succeeded not only in original investigation and in teaching science soundly and accurately, but in making it attractive.... When he lectures at the Royal Institution the theatre is crowded." Tyndall said of the occupation of teacher "I do not know a higher, nobler, and more blessed calling." His greatest audience was gained ultimately through his books, most of which were not written for experts or specialists. He published more than a dozen science books. From the mid-1860s on, he was one of the world's most famous living physicists, due firstly to his skill and industry as a tutorialist. Most of his books were translated into German and French with his main tutorials staying in print in those languages for decades.
As an indicator of his teaching attitude, here are his concluding remarks to the reader at the end of a 200-page tutorial book for a "youthful audience", The Forms of Water (1872): "Here, my friend, our labours close. It has been a true pleasure to me to have you at my side so long. In the sweat of our brows we have often reached the heights where our work lay, but you have been steadfast and industrious throughout, using in all possible cases your own muscles instead of relying upon mine. Here and there I have stretched an arm and helped you to a ledge, but the work of climbing has been almost exclusively your own. It is thus that I should like to teach you all things; showing you the way to profitable exertion, but leaving the exertion to you.... Our task seems plain enough, but you and I know how often we have had to wrangle resolutely with the facts to bring out their meaning. The work, however, is now done, and you are master of a fragment of that sure and certain knowledge which is founded on the faithful study of nature.... Here then we part. And should we not meet again, the memory of these days will still unite us. Give me your hand. Good bye."
As another indicator, here is the opening paragraph of his 350-page tutorial entitled Sound (1867): "In the following pages I have tried to render the science of acoustics interesting to all intelligent persons, including those who do not possess any special scientific culture. The subject is treated experimentally throughout, and I have endeavoured so to place each experiment before the reader that he should realise it as an actual operation." In the preface to the 3rd edition of this book, he reports that earlier editions were translated into Chinese at the expense of the Chinese government and translated into German under the supervision of Hermann von Helmholtz (a big name in the science of acoustics). His first published tutorial, which was about glaciers (1860), similarly states: "The work is written with a desire to interest intelligent persons who may not possess any special scientific culture."
His most widely praised tutorial, and probably his biggest seller, was the 550-page "Heat: a Mode of Motion" (1863; updated editions until 1880). It was in print for at least 50 years, and is in print today. Its primary feature is, as James Clerk Maxwell said in 1871, "the doctrines of the science [of heat] are forcibly impressed on the mind by well-chosen illustrative experiments."
Tyndall's three longest tutorials, namely Heat (1863), Sound (1867), and Light (1873), represented state-of-the-art experimental physics at the time they were written. Much of their contents were recent major innovations in the understanding of their respective subjects, which Tyndall was the first writer to present to a wider audience. One caveat is called for about the meaning of "state of the art". The books were devoted to laboratory science and they avoided mathematics. In particular, they contain absolutely no infinitesimal calculus. Mathematical modelling using infinitesimal calculus, especially differential equations, was a component of the state-of-the-art understanding of heat, light and sound at the time.
Demarcation of science from religion
The majority of the progressive and innovative British physicists of Tyndall's generation were conservative and orthodox on matters of religion. That includes for example James Joule, Balfour Stewart, James Clerk Maxwell, George Gabriel Stokes and William Thomson – all names investigating heat or light contemporaneously with Tyndall. These conservatives believed, and sought to strengthen the basis for believing, that religion and science were consistent and harmonious with each other. Tyndall, however, was a member of a club that vocally supported Charles Darwin's theory of evolution and sought to strengthen the barrier, or separation, between religion and science. The most prominent member of this club was the anatomist Thomas Henry Huxley. Tyndall first met Huxley in 1851 and the two had a lifelong friendship. Chemist Edward Frankland and mathematician Thomas Archer Hirst, both of whom Tyndall had known since before going to university in Germany, were members too. Others included the social philosopher Herbert Spencer.
Though not nearly so prominent as Huxley in controversy over philosophical problems, Tyndall played his part in communicating to the educated public what he thought were the virtues of having a clear separation between science (knowledge & rationality) and religion (faith & spirituality). As the elected president of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1874, he gave a long keynote speech at the Association's annual meeting held that year in Belfast. The speech gave a favourable account of the history of evolutionary theories, mentioning Darwin's name favourably more than 20 times, and concluded by asserting that religious sentiment should not be permitted to "intrude on the region of knowledge, over which it holds no command". This was a hot topic. The newspapers carried the report of it on their front pages – in Britain, Ireland & North America, even the European Continent – and many critiques of it appeared soon after. The attention and scrutiny increased the friends of the evolutionists' philosophical position, and brought it closer to mainstream ascendancy.
In Rome in 1864, Pope Pius IX in his Syllabus of Errors decreed that it was an error that "reason is the ultimate standard by which man can and ought to arrive at knowledge" and an error that "divine revelation is imperfect" in the Bible – and anyone maintaining those errors was to be "anathematized" – and in 1888 decreed as follows: "The fundamental doctrine of rationalism is the supremacy of the human reason, which, refusing due submission to the divine and eternal reason, proclaims its own independence.... A doctrine of such character is most hurtful both to individuals and to the State.... It follows that it is quite unlawful to demand, to defend, or to grant, unconditional [or promiscuous] freedom of thought, speech, writing, or religion." Those principles and Tyndall's principles were profound enemies. Luckily for Tyndall he didn't need to get into a contest with them in Britain, nor in most other parts of the world. Even in Italy, Huxley and Darwin were awarded honorary medals and most of the Italian governing class was hostile to the papacy. But in Ireland during Tyndall's lifetime the majority of the population grew increasingly doctrinaire and vigorous in its Roman Catholicism and also grew stronger politically. Between 1886 and 1893, Tyndall was active in the debate in England about whether to give the Catholics of Ireland more freedom to go their own way. Like the great majority of Irish-born scientists of the 19th century he opposed the Irish Home Rule Movement. He had ardent views about it, which were published in newspapers and pamphlets. For example, in an opinion piece in The Times on 27 December 1890 he saw priests and Catholicism as "the heart and soul of this movement" and wrote that placing the non-Catholic minority under the dominion of "the priestly horde" would be "an unspeakable crime". He tried unsuccessfully to get the UK's premier scientific society to denounce the Irish Home Rule proposal as contrary to the interests of science.
In several essays included in his book Fragments of Science for Unscientific People, Tyndall attempted to dissuade people from believing in the potential effectiveness of prayers. At the same time, though, he was not broadly anti-religious.
Many of his readers interpret Tyndall to be a confirmed agnostic, though he never explicitly declared himself to be so. The following statement from Tyndall is an example of Tyndall's agnostic mindset, made in 1867, and reiterated in 1878: "The phenomena of matter and force come within our intellectual range... but behind, and above, and around us the real mystery of the universe lies unsolved, and, as far as we are concerned, is incapable of solution.... Let us lower our heads, and acknowledge our ignorance, priest and philosopher, one and all."
Private life
Tyndall did not marry until age 55. His bride, Louisa Hamilton, was the 30-year-old daughter of a member of parliament (Lord Claud Hamilton, M.P.). The following year, 1877, they built a summer chalet at Belalp in the Swiss Alps. Before getting married Tyndall had been living for many years in an upstairs apartment at the Royal Institution and continued living there after marriage until 1885 when a move was made to a house near Haslemere 45 miles southwest of London. The marriage was a happy one and without children. He retired from the Royal Institution at age 66 having complaints of ill health.
Tyndall became financially well-off from sales of his popular books and fees from his lectures (but there is no evidence that he owned commercial patents). For many years he got non-trivial payments for being a part-time scientific advisor to a couple of quasi-governmental agencies and partly donated the payments to charity. His successful lecture tour of the United States in 1872 netted him a substantial amount of dollars, all of which he promptly donated to a trustee for fostering science in America. Late in life his money donations went most visibly to the Irish Unionist political cause. When he died, his wealth was £22,122. For comparison's sake, the income of a police constable in London was about £80 per year at the time.
Death
In his last years Tyndall often took chloral hydrate to treat his insomnia. When bedridden and ailing, he died from an accidental overdose of this drug in 1893 at the age of 73, and was buried at Haslemere. The overdose was administered by his wife Louisa. “My darling,” said Tyndall when he realized what had happened, “you have killed your John.”
Afterwards, Tyndall's wife took possession of his papers and assigned herself supervisor of an official biography of him. She procrastinated on the project, however, and it was still unfinished when she died in 1940 aged 95. The book eventually appeared in 1945, written by A. S. Eve and C. H. Creasey, whom Louisa Tyndall had authorised shortly before her death.
John Tyndall is commemorated by a memorial (the Tyndalldenkmal) erected at an elevation of on the mountain slopes above the village of Belalp, where he had his holiday home, and in sight of the Aletsch Glacier, which he had studied.
John Tyndall's books
Tyndall, J. (1860), The glaciers of the Alps, Being a narrative of excursions and ascents, an account of the origin and phenomena of glaciers and an exposition of the physical principles to which they are related, (1861 edition) Ticknor and Fields, Boston
Tyndall, J. (1862), Mountaineering in 1861. A vacation tour, Longman, Green, Longman, and Roberts, London
Tyndall, J. (1865), On Radiation: One Lecture (40 pages)
Tyndall, J. (1868), Heat : A mode of motion, (1869 edition) D. Appleton, New York
Tyndall, J. (1869), Natural Philosophy in Easy Lessons (180 pages) (a physics book intended for use in secondary schools)
Tyndall, J. (1870), Faraday as a discoverer, Longmans, Green, London
Tyndall, J. (1870), Three Scientific Addresses by Prof. John Tyndall (75 pages)
Tyndall, J. (1870), Notes of a Course of Nine Lectures on Light (80 pages)
Tyndall, J. (1870), Notes of a Course of Seven Lectures on Electrical Phenomena and Theories (50 pages)
Tyndall, J. (1870), Researches on diamagnetism and magne-crystallic action: including the question of diamagnetic polarity, (a compilation of 1850s research reports), Longmans, Green, London
Tyndall, J. (1871), Hours of exercise in the Alps, Longmans, Green, and Co., London
Tyndall, J. (1871), Fragments of Science: A Series of Detached Essays, Lectures, and Reviews, (1872 edition), Longmans, Green, London
Tyndall, J. (1872), Contributions to Molecular Physics in the Domain of Radiant Heat, (a compilation of 1860s research reports), (1873 edition), D. Appleton and Company, New York
Tyndall, J. (1873), The forms of water in clouds & rivers, ice & glaciers, H. S. King & Co., London
Tyndall, J. (1873), Six Lectures on Light (290 pages)
Tyndall, J. (1876), Lessons in Electricity at the Royal Institution (100 pages), (intended for secondary school students)
Tyndall, J. (1878), Sound; delivered in eight lectures, (1969 edition), Greenwood Press, New York
Tyndall, J. (1882), Essays on the floating matter of the air, in relation to putrefaction and infection, D. Appleton, New York
Tyndall, J. (1887), Light and electricity: notes of two courses of lectures before the Royal institution of Great Britain, D. Appleton and Company, New York
Tyndall, J. (1892), New Fragments (miscellaneous essays for a broad audience), D. Appleton, New York
See also
Ice sheet dynamics
Spontaneous generation
Greenhouse gas
John Tyndall's system for measuring radiant heat absorption in gases
Tyndall's bar breaker
Notes
Sources
Biographies of John Tyndall
430 pages. This is the "official" biography.
William Tulloch Jeans wrote a 100-page biography of Professor Tyndall in 1887 (the year Tyndall retired from the Royal Institution). Downloadable.
Louisa Charlotte Tyndall, his wife, wrote an 8-page biography of John Tyndall that was published in 1899 in Dictionary of National Biography (volume 57). It is readable online (and a 1903 republication of the same biography is also readable online).
Edward Frankland, a longtime friend, wrote a 16-page biography of John Tyndall as an obituary in 1894 in a scientific journal. It is readable online.
Gives an account of Tyndall's vocational development prior to 1853.
220 pages.
Arthur Whitmore Smith, a professor of physics, wrote a 10-page biography of John Tyndall in 1920 in a scientific monthly. Readable online.
John Walter Gregory, a naturalist, wrote a 9-page obituary of John Tyndall in 1894 in a natural science journal. Readable online.
An early, 8-page profile of John Tyndall appeared in 1864 in Portraits of Men of Eminence in Literature, Science and Art, Volume II, pages 25–32.
A brief profile of Tyndall based on information supplied by Tyndall himself appeared in 1874 in .
Claud Schuster, John Tyndall as a Mountaineer, 56-page essay included in Schuster's book Postscript to Adventure, year 1950 (New Alpine Library: Eyre & Spottiswoode, London).
.
The first major biography of Tyndall since 1945.
Further reading
External links
A blog maintained by a historian who is involved in transcribing Tyndall's letters.
The Tyndall Correspondence Project website
1820 births
1893 deaths
Atmospheric physicists
Experimental physicists
University of Marburg alumni
British scientific instrument makers
Irish physicists
Optical physicists
Glaciologists
Irish mountain climbers
People from County Carlow
Royal Medal winners
Fellows of the Royal Society
Drug-related deaths in England | [
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256313 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salvador%20Luria | Salvador Luria | Salvador Edward Luria (August 13, 1912 – February 6, 1991) was an Italian microbiologist, later a naturalized U.S. citizen. He won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1969, with Max Delbrück and Alfred Hershey, for their discoveries on the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses. Salvador Luria also showed that bacterial resistance to viruses (phages) is genetically inherited.
Biography
Luria was born Salvatore Edoardo Luria in Turin, Italy to an influential Italian Sephardi Jewish family. His parents were Davide and Ester (Sacerdote) Luria. He attended the medical school at the University of Turin studying with Giuseppe Levi. There, he met two other future Nobel laureates: Rita Levi-Montalcini and Renato Dulbecco. He graduated from the University of Turin in 1935 and never got a master's degree or a PhD as they were not contemplated by the Italian high educational system (which, on the other hand, was very selective). From 1936 to 1937, Luria served his required time in the Italian army as a medical officer. He then took classes in radiology at the University of Rome. Here, he was introduced to Max Delbrück's theories on the gene as a molecule and began to formulate methods for testing genetic theory with the bacteriophages, viruses that infect bacteria.
In 1938, he received a fellowship to study in the United States, where he intended to work with Delbrück. Soon after Luria received the award, Benito Mussolini's fascist regime banned Jews from academic research fellowships. Without funding sources for work in the U.S. or Italy, Luria left his home country for Paris, France in 1938. As the Nazi German armies invaded France in 1940, Luria fled on bicycle to Marseille where he received an immigration visa to the United States.
Phage research
Luria arrived in New York City on September 12, 1940, and soon changed his first and middle names. With the help of physicist Enrico Fermi, whom he knew from his time at the University of Rome, Luria received a Rockefeller Foundation fellowship at Columbia University. He soon met Delbrück and Hershey, and they collaborated on experiments at Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory and in Delbrück's lab at Vanderbilt University.
His famous experiment with Delbrück in 1943, known as the Luria–Delbrück experiment, demonstrated statistically that inheritance in bacteria must follow Darwinian rather than Lamarckian principles and that mutant bacteria occurring randomly can still bestow viral resistance without the virus being present. The idea that natural selection affects bacteria has profound consequences, for example, it explains how bacteria develop antibiotic resistance.
From 1943 to 1950, he worked at Indiana University. His first graduate student was James D. Watson, who went on to discover the structure of DNA with Francis Crick. In January 1947, Luria became a naturalized citizen of the United States.
In 1950, Luria moved to the University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign. In the early 1950s, Luria and Giuseppe Bertani discovered the phenomenon of host-controlled restriction and modification of a bacterial virus: a culture of E. coli can significantly reduce the production of phages grown in other strains; however, once the phage become established in that strain, they also become restricted in their ability to grow in other strains. It was later discovered by other researchers that bacteria produce enzymes that cut viral DNA at particular sequences but not the bacteria's own DNA, which is protected by methylation. These enzymes became known as restriction enzymes and developed into one of the main molecular tools in molecular biology.
Luria won the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1969, with Max Delbrück and Alfred Hershey, for their discoveries on the replication mechanism and the genetic structure of viruses.
Later work
In 1959, he became chair of Microbiology at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). At MIT, he switched his research focus from phages to cell membranes and bacteriocins. While on sabbatical in 1963 to study at the Institut Pasteur in Paris, he found that bacteriocins impair the function of cell membranes. Returning to MIT, his lab discovered that bacteriocins achieve this impairment by forming holes in the cell membrane, allowing ions to flow through and destroy the electrochemical gradient of cells. In 1972, he became chair of The Center for Cancer Research at MIT. The department he established included future Nobel Prize winners David Baltimore, Susumu Tonegawa, Phillip Allen Sharp and H. Robert Horvitz.
In addition to the Nobel Prize, Luria received a number of awards and recognitions. He was named a member of the National Academy of Sciences in 1960. From 1968 to 1969, he served as president of the American Society for Microbiology. In 1969, he was awarded the Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize from Columbia University together with Max Delbrück, co-winner with Luria of the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1969. In the U.S. he won the 1974 National Book Award in Science for his popular science book Life: the Unfinished Experiment
and received the National Medal of Science in 1991.
Political activism
Throughout his career, Luria was an outspoken political advocate. He joined with Linus Pauling in 1957 to protest against nuclear weapon testing. Luria was an opponent of the Vietnam War and a supporter of organized labor. In the 1970s, he was involved in debates over genetic engineering, advocating a compromise position of moderate oversight and regulation rather than the extremes of a complete ban or full scientific freedom. Due to his political involvement, he was blacklisted from receiving funding from the National Institutes of Health for a short time in 1969.
He was a friend of the noted linguist and political activist Noam Chomsky, and communicated with the Jewish American writer Elie Wiesel through a letter, in which he criticized Israel's involvement in the Guatemalan genocide and satirically Wiesel's silence on any issue concerning Israel's alleged terrorist activities worldwide. Chomsky would later describe it as such: "In the mid-1980s, Salvador Luria, a friend of mine who is a Nobel laureate in biology and politically active, knew about this [i.e., the genocide]. It wasn't a big secret. He asked me to collect articles from the Hebrew press which described Israel's participation in genocidal attacks in Guatemala – not just participation, it's a leadership role – because he wanted to send it to Elie Wiesel with a polite letter saying: as a fellow Nobel laureate, I would like to bring this to your attention. Could you use your influence – he didn't ask him to say anything, that's too much, but privately could you communicate to the people you know well at a high level in Israel and say it's not nice to take part in genocide. He never got a response."
Death
He died in Lexington, Massachusetts of a heart attack.
See also
List of Jewish Nobel laureates
Phage group
Luria–Delbrück experiment
References
External links
The Official Site of Louisa Gross Horwitz Prize
The Salvador E. Luria Papers - Profiles in Science, National Library of Medicine
1912 births
1991 deaths
Nobel laureates in Physiology or Medicine
Italian Nobel laureates
Italian Sephardi Jews
American Nobel laureates
American people of Italian-Jewish descent
American Sephardic Jews
American tax resisters
Columbia University faculty
History of genetics
Indiana University faculty
Italian emigrants to the United States
20th-century Italian Jews
Italian microbiologists
Jewish microbiologists
Jewish American scientists
Massachusetts Institute of Technology School of Science faculty
National Book Award winners
National Medal of Science laureates
Physicians from Turin
Phage workers
20th-century Sephardi Jews
University of Illinois at Urbana–Champaign faculty
University of Turin alumni
Members of the United States National Academy of Sciences
Naturalized citizens of the United States
Italian exiles
People from Turin | [
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256320 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1802%20in%20music | 1802 in music | This is a list of music-related events in 1802.
Events
January 9 – The Harmonic Society of Philadelphia is founded, with native composer Andrew Law as its president.
January 20 – Luigi Boccherini receives a pension from Joseph Bonaparte.
February 15 – Muzio Clementi publishes the second volume of his Practical Harmony.
March 19 – Composer François-Adrien Boieldieu marries dancer Clotilde Mafleuray.
April 30 – Louis Spohr begins his violin studies under Franz Eck.
May 5
Composer Giovanni Paisiello, recently arrived in Paris, meets his host, Napoleon, for the first time.
Composers Jan Ladislav Dussek and Louis Spohr are introduced by Herr Kiekhöver in Hamburg.
July 20 – The chapel created by Napoleon in the Tuileries is officially opened, with Giovanni Paisiello as its musical director.
August 15 – Luigi Cherubini, Étienne-Nicolas Méhul, François-Adrien Boieldieu, Rodolphe Kreutzer, Pierre Rode and Nicolò Isouard go into business as publishers of their own music.
October 6 – Ludwig van Beethoven writes to his brother Carl from Heiligenstadt, in despair over his increasing deafness.
Simon Mayr becomes maestro di cappella at Bergamo Cathedral.
Publications
Charles-Simon Catel – Traité d’harmonie (Paris: l'Imprimerie du Conservatoire de Musique)
Frédéric Duvernoy – Méthod pour le Cor (Mme Le Roi, Imprimerie du Conservatoire de Musique)
Johann Nikolaus Forkel – On Johann Sebastian Bach’s Life, Art, and Work: For Patriotic Admirers of True Musical Art (Leipzig: Hoffmeister und Kühnel)
John Gunn – An Essay Theoretical and Practical (London: Preston, for the author)
Christian Kalkbrenner – Histoire de la Musique (Paris: Amand Kœnig)
Heinrich Christoph Koch – Musikalisches Lexikon (Frankfurt am Main: August Hermann der Jüngere)
Jean-Xavier Lefèvre – Méthode de clarinette (Paris: Imprimerie du Conservatoire de Musique)
Georg Joseph Vogler – Handbuch zur Harmonielehre (Prague: K. Barth)
Classical music
Ludwig van Beethoven
Second Symphony
6 Ländler, WoO 15
Matthieu Frédéric Blasius – Clarinet Concerto No. 1
Giuseppe Maria Cambini – Wind Quintet Nos.1–3
Muzio Clementi – 3 Piano Sonatas, Op. 40
Jan Ladislav Dussek
Duo in F major, Op. 26
Piano Sonata No.17, Op. 43
Piano Sonatas Nos. 19–21, Op. 45
Piano Sonatas Nos. 22–23, Op. 47
Emanuel Aloys Förster – 3 String Quartets, Op. 21
Joseph Haydn – Harmoniemesse, his last major work
Johann Nepomuk Hummel – Piano Quintet for piano, violin, viola, cello and bass, Op. 87 (inspiration for Schubert's "Trout" quintet)
Franz Krommer
Flute Concerto No.1, Op. 30
Concerto for 2 Clarinets in E-flat major, Op. 35
Ignaz Pleyel – Symphonie concertante in F major, B.115
Johann Friedrich Reichardt – Das Zauberschloss (singspiel)
Louis Spohr - Violin Concerto No. 1, Op. 1
Anton Ferdinand Titz – 3 String Quartets
Samuel Wesley – Symphony in B-flat
Carl Friedrich Zelter – Sammlung kleiner Balladen und Lieder, Z.123
Opera
Charles-Simon Catel – Sémiramis
Michael Kelly – Urania
Etienne Nicolas Méhul – Le trésor supposé
William Reeve – Family Quarrels (comic opera)
Carl Maria Von Weber – Peter Schmoll und seine Nachbarn
Births
February 20 – Charles-Auguste de Bériot, composer and violinist (died 1870)
February 26 – Victor Hugo, librettist and poet (died 1885)
March 3 – Adolphe Nourrit, operatic tenor (died 1839)
March 5 – James Turle, editor and organist (died 1882)
May 31 – Cesare Pugni, Italian composer (died 1870)
July 3 – Joseph Labitzky, composer and conductor (died 1881)
July 12 – Charles-Louis-Joseph Hanssens, composer (died 1852)
July 15 – John Barnett, English composer (died 1890)
July 24 – Alexandre Dumas, librettist and writer (died 1870)
July 27 – Ida Henriette da Fonseca, alto, composer (died 1858)
August 13 – Nikolaus Lenau, lyricist and poet (died 1850)
August 23 – Manuel Inocêncio Liberato dos Santos, musician and composer (died 1887)
August 28 – Karl Joseph Simrock, librettist and poet (died 1876)
September 19 – Lajos Kossuth, dedicatee and politician (died 1894)
September 24 – Alexander James Edmund Cockburn, librettist and Lord Chief Justice (died 1880)
October 7 – Bernhard Molique, composer (died 1869)
October 10 – George Pope Morris, librettist and publisher (died 1864)
date unknown
George Alexander Lee, singer and composer (died 1851)
Marion Dix Sullivan, American composer (died 1860)
José Zapiola, conductor and composer (died 1885)
Deaths
January 27 – Johann Rudolf Zumsteeg, conductor and composer, 42
March 7 – Johann Georg Witthauer, composer, 51
April 10 – Charlotte Brent, operatic soprano, 66
April 18 – Erasmus Darwin, lyricist and physician (born 1731)
July 26 – Rose-Adélaïde Ducreux, painter and musician, 41 (yellow fever)
July 28 – Giuseppe Sarti, composer, 72
August 10 – Antonio Lolli, violinist and composer (born c. 1725)
August 23 – Corona Schröter, singer, 51
September 28 – Heinrich Harries, lyricist and pastor (born 1762)
October 2 – Giuseppe Millico, castrato singer, composer and music teacher, 65
October 22 – Samuel Arnold, composer and organist, 62
References
19th century in music
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256322 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peter%20Tait%20%28physicist%29 | Peter Tait (physicist) | Peter Guthrie Tait FRSE (28 April 1831 – 4 July 1901) was a Scottish mathematical physicist and early pioneer in thermodynamics. He is best known for the mathematical physics textbook Treatise on Natural Philosophy, which he co-wrote with Kelvin, and his early investigations into knot theory.
His work on knot theory contributed to the eventual formation of topology as a mathematical discipline. His name is known in graph theory mainly for Tait's conjecture. He is also one of the namesakes of the Tait–Kneser theorem on osculating circles.
Early life
Tait was born in Dalkeith on 28 April 1831 the only son of Mary Ronaldson and John Tait, secretary to the 5th Duke of Buccleuch.
He was educated at Dalkeith Grammar School then Edinburgh Academy. He then studied Maths and Physics at the University of Edinburgh, and then went to Peterhouse, Cambridge, graduating as senior wrangler and first Smith's prizeman in 1852. As a fellow and lecturer of his college he remained at the University for a further two years, before leaving to take up the professorship of mathematics at Queen's College, Belfast. There he made the acquaintance of Thomas Andrews, whom he joined in researches on the density of ozone and the action of the electric discharge on oxygen and other gases, and by whom he was introduced to Sir William Rowan Hamilton and quaternions.
Middle years
In 1860, Tait succeeded his old master, James D. Forbes, as professor of natural philosophy at the University of Edinburgh, and occupied the Chair until shortly before his death. The first scientific paper under Tait's name only was published in 1860. His earliest work dealt mainly with mathematical subjects, and especially with quaternions, of which he was the leading exponent after their originator, William Rowan Hamilton. He was the author of two text-books on them—one an Elementary Treatise on Quaternions (1867), written with the advice of Hamilton, though not published till after his death, and the other an Introduction to Quaternions (1873), in which he was aided by Philip Kelland (1808–1879), one of his teachers at the University of Edinburgh. Quaternions was also one of the themes of his address as president of the mathematical section of the British Association for the Advancement of Science in 1871.
He also produced original work in mathematical and experimental physics. In 1864, he published a short paper on thermodynamics, and from that time his contributions to that and kindred departments of science became frequent and important. In 1871, he emphasised the significance and future importance of the principle of the dissipation of energy (second law of thermodynamics). In 1873 he took thermoelectricity for the subject of his discourse as Rede lecturer at Cambridge, and in the same year he presented the first sketch of his well-known thermoelectric diagram before the Royal Society of Edinburgh.
Two years later, researches on "Charcoal Vacua" with James Dewar led him to see the true dynamical explanation of the Crookes radiometer in the large mean free path of the molecule of the highly rarefied air. From 1879 to 1888, he engaged in difficult experimental investigations. These began with an inquiry into what corrections were required for thermometers operating at great pressure. This was for the benefit of thermometers employed by the Challenger expedition for observing deep-sea temperatures, and were extended to include the compressibility of water, glass, and mercury. This work led to the first formulation of the Tait equation, which is widely used to fit liquid density to pressure. Between 1886 and 1892 he published a series of papers on the foundations of the kinetic theory of gases, the fourth of which contained what was, according to Lord Kelvin, the first proof ever given of the Waterston-Maxwell theorem (equipartition theorem) of the average equal partition of energy in a mixture of two gases. About the same time he carried out investigations into impact and its duration.
Many other inquiries conducted by him might be mentioned, and some idea may be gained of his scientific activity from the fact that a selection only from his papers, published by the Cambridge University Press, fills three large volumes. This mass of work was done in the time he could spare from his professorial teaching in the university. For example, in 1880 he worked on the Four color theorem and proved that it was true if and only if no snarks were planar.
Later years
In addition, he was the author of a number of books and articles. Of the former, the first, published in 1856, was on the dynamics of a particle; and afterwards there followed a number of concise treatises on thermodynamics, heat, light, properties of matter and dynamics, together with an admirably lucid volume of popular lectures on Recent Advances in Physical Science.
With Lord Kelvin, he collaborated in writing the well-known Treatise on Natural Philosophy. "Thomson and Tait," as it is familiarly called (" T and T' " was the authors' own formula), was planned soon after Lord Kelvin became acquainted with Tait, on the latter's appointment to his professorship in Edinburgh, and it was intended to be an all-comprehensive treatise on physical science, the foundations being laid in kinematics and dynamics, and the structure completed with the properties of matter, heat, light, electricity and magnetism. But the literary partnership ceased in about eighteen years, when only the first portion of the plan had been completed, because each of the members felt he could work to better advantage separately than jointly. The friendship, however, endured for the remaining twenty-three years of Tait's life.
Tait collaborated with Balfour Stewart in the Unseen Universe, which was followed by Paradoxical Philosophy. It was in his 1875 review of The Unseen Universe, that William James first put forth his Will to Believe Doctrine. Tait's articles include those he wrote for the ninth edition of the Encyclopædia Britannica on light, mechanics, quaternions, radiation, and thermodynamics, and the biographical notices of Hamilton and James Clerk Maxwell.
He died in Edinburgh on 4 July 1901. He is buried in the second terrace down from Princes Street in the burial ground of St John's Episcopal Church, Edinburgh.
Topology
The Tait conjectures are three conjectures made by Tait in his study of knots. The Tait conjectures involve concepts in knot theory such as alternating knots, chirality, and writhe. All of the Tait conjectures have been solved, the most recent being the Flyping conjecture, proved by Morwen Thistlethwaite and William Menasco in 1991.
Publications
Dynamics of a Particle (1856)
Treatise on Natural Philosophy (1867); v. 1 and v. 2 (PDF/DjVu at the Internet Archive).
An elementary treatise on quaternions (1867); PDF/DjVu Copy of the 1st ed. at the Internet Archive and PDF/DjVu Copy of the 3rd ed. at the Internet Archive.
Elements of Natural Philosophy (1872); (PDF/DjVu at the Internet Archive). A "non-mathematical portion of Treatise on Natural Philosophy".
Sketch of Thermodynamics (1877); PDF/DjVu Copy at the Internet Archive.
Recent Advances in Physical Science (1876); PDF/DjVu Copy at the Internet Archive.
Heat (1884); PDF/DjVu Copy at the Internet Archive.
Light (1884); PDF/DjVu Copy at the Internet Archive.
Properties of Matter (1885); PDF/DjVu Copy at the Internet Archive.
Dynamics (1895); PDF/DjVu Copy at the Internet Archive.
The Unseen Universe (1875; new edition, 1901)
Scientific papers vol. 1 (1898–1900) PDF/DjVu Copy at the Internet Archive.
Scientific papers vol. 2 (1898–1900) PDF/DjVu Copy at the Internet Archive.
Private life
Tait was married to Margaret Archer Porter (1839-1926), the sister of (1) William Archer Porter, a lawyer and educationist who served as the Principal of Government Arts College, Kumbakonam and tutor and secretary to the Maharaja of Mysore, (2) James Porter (Master of Peterhouse, Cambridge) and (3) Jane Bailie Porter, who married Alexander Crum Brown, the Scottish organic chemist.
Tait was an enthusiastic golfer and, of his seven children, two, Frederick Guthrie Tait (1870–1900) and John Guthrie Tait (1861–1945) went on to become gifted amateur golf champions. He was an all-round sportsman and represented Scotland at international level in rugby union. Tait himself had, in 1891, invoked the Magnus effect to explain the influence of spin on the flight of a golf ball. His daughter Edith Tait was married to Rev. Harry Reid, who later became Bishop of Edinburgh.
His son William Archer Porter Tait was a civil engineer.
Recognition
Tait was a lifelong friend of James Clerk Maxwell, and a portrait of Tait by Harrington Mann is held in the James Clerk Maxwell Foundation museum in Edinburgh.
There are several portraits of Tait by Sir George Reid. One, painted about 1883, is owned by the National Galleries of Scotland, to which it was given by the artist in 1902. Another portrait was unveiled at Peterhouse, Cambridge in October 1902, paid for by the Master and Fellows of Peterhouse, where Tait had been an Honorary Fellow.
One of the chairs in the Department of Physics at the University of Edinburgh is the Tait professorship.
Peter Guthrie Tait Road on Edinburgh University's King's Buildings complex is named in his honour.
See also
Dowker–Thistlethwaite notation
Four color theorem
Homoeoid
Medial graph
Nabla symbol
References
External links
Pritchard, Chris. "Provisional Bibliography of Peter Guthrie Tait". British Society for the History of Mathematics.
An Elementary Treatise on Quaternions, 1890, Cambridge University Press. Scanned PDF, HTML version (in progress)
"Knot Theory" Website of Andrew Ranicki in Edinburgh.
Scottish physicists
Scottish mathematicians
Scottish Episcopalians
Thermodynamicists
Fellows of the Royal Society of Edinburgh
Alumni of the University of Edinburgh
Alumni of Peterhouse, Cambridge
Fellows of Peterhouse, Cambridge
People educated at Edinburgh Academy
1831 births
1901 deaths
Royal Medal winners
Senior Wranglers
People from Dalkeith
Mathematical physicists
Academics of Queen's University Belfast
Academics of the University of Edinburgh
19th-century British mathematicians
20th-century British mathematicians | [
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256323 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Throne | Throne | A throne is the seat of state of a potentate or dignitary, especially the seat occupied by a sovereign on state occasions; or the seat occupied by a pope or bishop on ceremonial occasions. "Throne" in an abstract sense can also refer to the monarchy or the Crown itself, an instance of metonymy, and is also used in many expressions such as "the power behind the throne". The expression "ascend (mount) the throne" takes its meaning from the steps leading up to the dais or platform, on which the throne is placed, being formerly comprised in the word's significance.
When used in a political or governmental sense, throne typically refers to a civilization, nation, tribe, or other politically designated group that is organized or governed under an authoritarian system. Throughout much of human history societies have been governed under authoritarian systems, in particular dictatorial or autocratic systems, resulting in a wide variety of thrones that have been used by given heads of state. These have ranged from stools in places such as in Africa to ornate chairs and bench-like designs in Europe and Asia, respectively. Often, but not always, a throne is tied to a philosophical or religious ideology held by the nation or people in question, which serves a dual role in unifying the people under the reigning monarch and connecting the monarch upon the throne to his or her predecessors, who sat upon the throne previously. Accordingly, many thrones are typically held to have been constructed or fabricated out of rare or hard to find materials that may be valuable or important to the land in question. Depending on the size of the throne in question it may be large and ornately designed as an emplaced instrument of a nation's power, or it may be a symbolic chair with little or no precious materials incorporated into the design.
When used in a religious sense, throne can refer to one of two distinct uses. The first use derives from the practice in churches of having a bishop or higher-ranking religious official (archbishop, Pope, etc.) sit on a special chair which in church referred to by written sources as a "throne", or “Cathedra” (Latin for chair) and is intended to allow such high-ranking religious officials a place to sit in their place of worship. The other use for throne refers to a belief among many of the world's monotheistic and polytheistic religions that the deity or deities that they worship are seated on a throne. Such beliefs go back to ancient times, and can be seen in surviving artwork and texts which discuss the idea of ancient gods (such as the Twelve Olympians) seated on thrones. In the major Abrahamic religions of Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, the Throne of God is attested to in religious scriptures and teachings, although the origin, nature, and idea of the Throne of God in these religions differs according to the given religious ideology practiced.
In the west, a throne is most identified as the seat upon which a person holding the title King, Queen, Emperor, or Empress sits in a nation using a monarchy political system, although there are a few exceptions, notably with regards to religious officials such as the Pope and bishops of various sects of the Christian faith. Changing geo-political tides have resulted in the collapse of several dictatorial and autocratic governments, which in turn have left a number of throne chairs empty. Many of these thrones - such as China's Dragon Throne - survive today as historic examples of nation's previous government.
Antiquity
Thrones were found throughout the canon of ancient furniture. The depiction of monarchs and deities as seated on chairs is a common topos in the iconography of the Ancient Near East.
The word throne itself is from Greek θρόνος (thronos), "seat, chair", in origin a derivation from the PIE root "to support" (also in dharma "post, sacrificial pole").
Early Greek Διὸς θρόνους (Dios thronous) was a term for the "support of the heavens", i.e. the axis mundi, which term when Zeus became an anthropomorphic god was imagined as the "seat of Zeus". In Ancient Greek, a "thronos" was a specific but ordinary type of chair with a footstool, a high status object but not necessarily with any connotations of power. The Achaeans (according to Homer) were known to place additional, empty thrones in the royal palaces and temples so that the gods could be seated when they wished to be. The most famous of these thrones was the throne of Apollo in Amyclae.
The Romans also had two types of thrones- one for the Emperor and one for the goddess Roma whose statues were seated upon thrones, which became centers of worship.
Hebrew Bible
The word "throne" in English translations of the Bible renders Hebrew .
The Pharaoh of the Exodus is described as sitting on a throne (Exodus 11:5, 12:29), but mostly the term
refers to the throne of the kingdom of Israel, often called the "throne of David" or "throne of Solomon". The literal throne of Solomon is described in :
"Moreover the king made a great throne of ivory, and overlaid it with the best gold.. The throne had six steps, and the top of the throne was round behind: and there were stays on either side on the place of the seat, and two lions stood beside the stays.
And twelve lions stood there on the one side and on the other upon the six steps: there was not the like made in any kingdom."
In the Book of Esther (5:3), the same word refers to the throne of the king of Persia.
The God of Israel himself is frequently described as sitting on a throne, referred to outside of the Bible as the Throne of God, in the Psalms, and in a vision Isaiah (6:1), and notably in Isaiah 66:1, YHWH says of himself "The heaven is my throne, and the earth is my footstool" (this verse is alluded to by Matthew 5:34-35).
Christian
Biblical
In the New Testament, the angel Gabriel also refers to this throne in the Gospel of Luke ():
"He will be great, and will be called the Son of the Highest; and the Lord God will give Him the throne of His father David. And He will reign over the house of Jacob forever, and of His kingdom there will be no end."
Jesus promised his Apostles that they would sit upon "twelve thrones", judging the twelve tribes of Israel (). John's Revelation states: "And I saw a great white throne, and him that sat on it, from whose face the earth and the heaven fled away" ().
The Apostle Paul speaks of "thrones" in . Pseudo-Dionysius the Areopagite, in his work, De Coelesti Hierarchia (VI.7) interprets this as referring to one of the ranks of angels (corresponding to the Hebrew Arelim or Ophanim). This concept was expanded upon by Thomas Aquinas in his Summa Theologica (I.108), wherein the thrones are concerned with carrying out divine justice.
In Medieval times the "Throne of Solomon" was associated with the Virgin Mary, who was depicted as the throne upon which Jesus sat. The ivory in the biblical description of the Throne of Solomon was interpreted as representing purity, the gold representing divinity, and the six steps of the throne stood for the six virtues. was also interpreted as referring to the Virgin Mary, the entire Psalm describing a royal throne room.
Ecclesiastical
From ancient times, bishops of the Roman Catholic, Eastern Orthodox, Anglican and other churches where episcopal offices exist, have been formally seated on a throne, called a cathedra (). Traditionally located in the sanctuary, the cathedra symbolizes the bishop's authority to teach the faith (hence the expression "ex cathedra") and to govern his flock.
"Ex cathedra" refers to the explicative authority, notably the extremely rarely used procedure required for a papal declaration to be 'infallible' under Roman Catholic Canon law. In several languages the word deriving from cathedra is commonly used for an academic teaching mandate, the professorial chair.
From the presence of this cathedra (throne), which can be as elaborate and precious as fits a secular prince (even if the prelate is not a prince of the church in the secular sense), a bishop's primary church is called a cathedral. In the Roman Catholic Church, a basilica -from the Greek basilikos 'royal'-, now refers to the presence there of a papal canopy (ombrellino), part of his regalia, and applies mainly to many cathedrals and Catholic churches of similar importance and/or splendor. In Roman Antiquity a basilica was secular public hall. Thus, the term basilica may also refer to a church designed after the manner of the ancient Roman basilica. Many of the churches built by the emperor Constantine the Great and Justinian are of the basilica style.
Some other prelates besides bishops are permitted the use of thrones, such as abbots and abbesses. These are often simpler than the thrones used by bishops and there may be restrictions on the style and ornamentation used on them, according to the regulations and traditions of the particular denomination.
As a mark of distinction, Roman Catholic bishops and higher prelates have a right to a canopy above their thrones at certain ecclesiastical functions. It is sometimes granted by special privilege to prelates inferior to bishops, but always with limitations as to the days on which it may be used and the character of its ornamentation. The liturgical color of the canopy should correspond with that of the other vestments. When ruling monarchs attend services, they are also allowed to be seated on a throne that is covered by a canopy, but their seats must be outside the sanctuary.
In the Greek Orthodox Church, the bishop's throne will often combine features of the monastic choir stall (kathisma) with appurtenances inherited from the Byzantine court, such as a pair of lions seated at the foot of the throne.
The term "throne" is often used in reference to Patriarchs to designate their ecclesiastical authority; for instance, "the Ecumenical Throne" refers to the authority of the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople.
Western bishops may also use a faldstool to fulfill the liturgical purpose of the cathedra when not in their own cathedral.
Papal
In the Roman Catholic Church, the Pope is an elected monarch, both under canon law as supreme head of the church, and under international law as the head of state -styled "sovereign pontiff"- of the Vatican City State (the sovereign state within the city of Rome established by the 1929 Lateran Treaty). Until 1870, the Pope was the elected monarch of the Papal States, which for centuries constituted one of the largest political powers on the divided Italian peninsula. To this day, the Holy See maintains officially recognised diplomatic status, and papal nuncios and legates are deputed on diplomatic missions throughout the world.
The Pope's throne (Cathedra Romana), is located in the apse of the Archbasilica of St. John Lateran, his cathedral as Bishop of Rome.
In apse of Saint Peter's Basilica, above the "Altar of the Chair" lies the Cathedra Petri, a throne believed to have been used by St Peter himself and other earlier Popes; this relic is enclosed in a gilt bronze casting and forms part of a huge monument designed by Gian Lorenzo Bernini.
Unlike at his cathedral (Archbasilica of St. John Lateran), there is no permanent cathedra for the Pope in St Peter's Basilica, so a removable throne is placed in the Basilica for the Pope's use whenever he presides over a liturgical ceremony. Prior to the liturgical reforms that occurred in the wake of the Second Vatican Council, a huge removable canopied throne was placed above an equally removable dais in the choir side of the "Altar of the Confession" (the high altar above the tomb of St Peter and beneath the monumental bronze baldachin); this throne stood between the apse and the Altar of the Confession.
This practice has fallen out of use with the 1960s and 1970s reform of Papal liturgy and, whenever the Pope celebrates Mass in St. Peter's Basilica, a simpler portable throne is now placed on platform in front of the Altar of the Confession. Whenever Pope Benedict XVI celebrated the Liturgy of the Hours at St Peter's, a more elaborate removable throne was placed on a dais to the side of the Altar of the Chair. When the Pope celebrates Mass on the Basilica steps facing St. Peter's Square, portable thrones are also used.
In the past, the pope was also carried on occasions in a portable throne, called the sedia gestatoria. Originally, the sedia was used as part of the elaborate procession surrounding papal ceremonies that was believed to be the most direct heir of pharaonic splendor, and included a pair of flabella (fans made from ostrich feathers) to either side. Pope John Paul I at first abandoned the use of these implements, but later in his brief reign began to use the sedia so that he could be seen more easily by the crowds. The use of the sedia was abandoned by Pope John Paul II in favor of the so-called "popemobile" when outside. Near the end of his pontificate, Pope John Paul II had a specially constructed throne on wheels that could be used inside.
Prior to 1978, at the Papal conclave, each cardinal was seated on a throne in the Sistine Chapel during the balloting. Each throne had a canopy over it. After a successful election, once the new pope accepted election and decided by what name he would be known, the cardinals would all lower their canopies, leaving only the canopy over the newly elected pope. This was the new pope's first throne. This tradition was dramatically portrayed in the 1968 film, The Shoes of the Fisherman.
Medieval and Early Modern periods
In European feudal countries, monarchs often were seated on thrones, based in all likelihood on the Roman magisterial chair. These thrones were originally quite simple, especially when compared to their Asian counterparts. One of the grandest and most important was the Throne of Ivan "the Terrible". Dating from the mid-16th century, it is shaped as a high-backed chair with arm rests, and adorned with ivory and walrus bone plaques intricately carved with mythological, heraldic and life scenes. The plaques carved with scenes from the biblical account of King David’s life are of particular relevance, as David was seen as the ideal for Christian monarchs. In practice, any chair the monarch occupied in a formal setting served as a "throne", though there were often special chairs used only for this kept in places the monarch often went to. Thrones began to be made in pairs, for the king and queen, which remained common in later periods. Sometimes they are identical, or the queen's throne may be slightly less grand.
The throne of the Byzantine Empire (Magnaura) included elaborate automatons of singing birds. In the 'regency' (nominally an Ottoman province, de facto an independent realm) of the Bey of Tunis, the throne was called kursi.
Though medieval examples tended to be retained in the Early Modern period, having acquired the aura of tradition, when new thrones were made they either continued medieval styles or were just very grand and elaborate versions of contemporary chairs or armchairs.
South Asia
In the Indian subcontinent, the traditional Sanskrit name for the throne was siṃhāsana (lit., seat of a lion). In the Mughal times the throne was called Shāhī takht (). The term gaddi (, also called rājgaddī) referred to a seat with a cushion used as a throne by Indian princes. The term gaddi was usually used for the throne of a Hindu princely state's ruler, while among Muslim princes or Nawabs, save exceptions such as the Travancore State royal family, the term musnad (), also spelt as musnud, was more common, even though both seats were similar.
The Throne of Jahangir was built by Mughal emperor Jahangir in 1602 and is located at the Diwan-i-Khas (hall of private audience) at the Agra Fort.
The Peacock Throne was the seat of the Mughal emperors of India. It was commissioned in the early 17th century by emperor Shah Jahan and was located in the Red Fort of Delhi. The original throne was subsequently captured and taken as a war trophy in 1739 by the Persian king Nadir Shah, and has been lost ever since. A replacement throne based on the original was commissioned afterwards and existed until the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
Maharaja Ranjit Singh's throne was made by the goldsmith Hafez Muhammad Multani about 1820 to 1830. Made of Wood and resin core, covered with sheets of repoussé, chased and engraved gold.
The Golden Throne or Chinnada Simhasana or Ratna Simahasana in Kannada is the royal seat of the rulers of the Kingdom of Mysore. The Golden throne is kept at Mysore Palace.
Southeast Asia
In Burma, the traditional name for a throne is palin, from the Pali term pallaṅka, which means "couch" or "sofa." The Burmese palin in pre-colonial times was used to seat the sovereign and his main consort, and is today used to seat religious leaders such as sayadaws, and images of the Buddha. Royal thrones are called yazapalin (ရာဇပလ္လင်), while thrones seating images or statues of the Buddha are called gaw pallin (ဂေါ့ပလ္လင်) or samakhan (စမ္မခဏ်), from the Pali term sammakhaṇḍa.
East Asia
The Dragon Throne is the term used to identify the throne of the Emperor of China. As the dragon was the emblem of divine imperial power, the throne of the emperor, who was considered a living god, was known as the Dragon Throne. The term can refer to very specific seating, as in the special seating in various structures in the Forbidden City of Beijing or in the palaces of the Old Summer Palace. In an abstract sense, the "Dragon Throne" also refers rhetorically to the head of state and to the monarchy itself. The Daoguang Emperor is said to have referred to his throne as "the divine utensil."
The throne of the Emperors of Vietnam are often referred to as ngai vàng ("golden throne") or ngôi báu (大寳/寶座) literally "great precious" (seat/position). The throne are always adorned with the pattern and motif of the Vietnamese dragon, which is the exclusive and privileged symbol of the Vietnamese Emperors. The last existing imperial throne in Vietnam is the throne of Nguyễn Emperors placed in The Hall of Supreme Harmony, Imperial City of Huế. It is designated as a national treasure of Vietnam. In Vietnamese folk religion, the gods, deities and ancestral spirits are believed to seat figuratively on thrones at places of worship. Therefore, on Vietnamese altars, there are various types of liturgical "throne" often decorated with red paint and golden gilding.
The Phoenix Throne (어좌 eojwa) is the term used to identify the throne of the King of Korea. In an abstract sense, the Phoenix Throne also refers rhetorically to the head of state of the Joseon dynasty (1392–1897) and the Empire of Korea (1897–1910). The throne is located at Gyeongbok Palace in Seoul.
The is the term used to identify the throne of the Emperor of Japan. The term also can refer to very specific seating, such as the takamikura (高御座) throne in the Shishin-den at Kyoto Imperial Palace.
The throne of the Ryukyu Kingdom is located in Shuri Castle, Naha.
Modern period
During the Russian Empire, the throne in St. George's Hall (the "Greater Throne Room") in the Winter Palace was regarded as the throne of Russia. It sits atop a seven-stepped dais with a proscenium arch above and the symbol of the Imperial Family behind (the two-headed eagle). Peter I's Room (the "Smaller Throne Room") is modest in comparison to the former. The throne was made for Empress Anna Ivanovna in London. There is also a throne in the Grand Throne Room of the Peterhof Palace.
In some countries with a monarchy, thrones are still used and have important symbolic and ceremonial meaning. Among the most famous thrones still in usage are St Edward's Chair, on which the British monarch is crowned, and the thrones used by monarchs during the state opening of parliaments in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands, Canada, Australia, and Japan (see above) among others.
Some republics use distinctive throne-like chairs in some state ceremonial. The President of Ireland sits on a former viceregal throne during his or her inauguration ceremony while Lords Mayor and Lords Provost of many British and Irish cities often preside over local councils from throne-like chairs.
Due to its symbolic nature, a toilet is often jokingly referred to as "a throne".
List
The Throne of Solomon
Europe
The Throne of Apollo in Amyclae
St. Edward's Chair in Westminster Abbey, London, where British monarchs are crowned. It at one time contained the Stone of Scone (also called the Stone of Destiny) upon which the Kings of Scotland were crowned
Chairing of the Bard in Wales is an ancient ceremonial procedure which dates back to at least 1176, in which the winning poet is chaired Y Prifardd (The Chief Bard) at the National Eisteddfod
Chair of St Augustine in Canterbury Cathedral, where Archbishops of Canterbury are inaugurated
The Throne of Charlemagne in the cathedral at Aachen, Germany
The Imperial Throne of the medieval German kings and emperors in Goslar, Germany.
The Throne of the King of Aragon, Valencia, Majorca, Sardinia, Corsica and Sicilia and Count of Barcelona Martin I the Elder.
The Ivory Throne of Ivan the Terrible
The papal sedia gestatoria
Throne Chair of Denmark
The Silver Throne in Stockholm Palace, Sweden, on which Swedish monarchs were crowned.
Queen Lovisa Ulrikas throne at Stockholm palace, Sweden.
Africa
the Golden Throne of pharaoh Tutankhamun
the Golden Stool of the Ashanti Empire
the Throne of David of the Emperors of Ethiopia
the Chieftaincy Stools of Nigeria
Asia
Dragon Throne of the Emperors of China
Golden Throne of the Emperors of Vietnam
Chrysanthemum Throne of the Emperors of Japan (:ja:高御座)
the Phoenix Throne of the Kings of Korea
the Lion Throne of the Dalai Lama of Tibet
the Lion Throne of Sikkim
the Lion Throne of konbaung of Burma,(Myanmar)
the Lotus Throne of Konbaung of Burma
the Bumblebee Throne of Konbaung of Burma
the Hamsa Throne of Konbaung of Burma
the Deer Throne of Konbaung of Burma
the Elephant Throne of Konbaung of Burma
the Conch Throne of Konbaung of Burma
the Stone throne of King Kasyapa from Sri Lanka from the 5th century citadel of Sigiri
the Stone throne of King Nissankamalla from Sri Lanka from the 12th century Polonnaruwa kingdom
the Kandian Throne of the Kingdom of Kandy and the Dominion of Ceylon
the Peacock Throne of the Mughal Emperors of India
the Marble Throne and Sun Throne of the Persian Shahs
the Peacock Throne of Korea
the Peacock Throne at Montchobo, then at Ava, ancient capitals of Burma
the Saridhaleys "ivory throne" and the sighsana "lion throne" of the Maldives sultanate
the Sandalwood throne at Bikaner Fort
Maharaja Ranjit Singh's throne
The TUPOU THRONE of the Kingdom of Tonga (Polynesian island country)
the Golden Throne in Mysore India
In popular culture
A Song of Ice and Fire / Game of Thrones
The Iron Throne
The Salt Throne
Fantasy
Ember Throne of Vulcanius
Wave Throne of Great Waterton
Airean Throne of Skyreland
Warhammer 40,000
The Golden Throne
Skull Throne of Khorne (shared with Warhammer Fantasy and Warhammer Age of Sigmar)
Image gallery
See also
Al-Baqara 255
Enthronement
Speech from the throne
Throne room
List of chairs
Other uses
In music, the stool used to sit behind a drum kit is often called a throne.
In religion, a niche in an altar piece for displaying the Holy Sacrament is called a throne.
In slang, a common sit-down toilet is also called a throne, or more formally the 'porcelain throne'.
One of the Angel choirs is an order called Ophanim or 'Thrones', said to carry God's heavenly throne — other choir names expressing power in secular terms include Powers, Principalities, Dominions
Sources and references
Monarchy
Regalia | [
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256324 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Henry%20Brant | Henry Brant | Henry Dreyfuss Brant (September 15, 1913 – April 26, 2008) was a Canadian-born American composer. An expert orchestrator with a flair for experimentation, many of Brant's works featured spatialization techniques.
Biography
Brant was born in Montreal, to American parents (his father was a violinist), in 1913. Something of a child prodigy, he began composing at the age of eight, and studied first at the McGill Conservatorium (1926–29) and then in New York City (1929–34). He played violin, flute, tin whistle, piano, organ, and percussion at a professional level and was fluent with the playing techniques for all of the standard orchestral instruments.
As a 19-year-old, Brant was the youngest composer included in Henry Cowell's landmark book from 1933, American Composers on American Music; and Cowell realized that Brant had already demonstrated an early identification with the American experimental musical tradition. He was represented in Cowell's anthology by an essay on oblique harmony, an idea which presaged some of the techniques used in his mature spatial compositions.
Thereafter Brant composed, orchestrated, and conducted for radio, film, ballet, and jazz groups. The stylistic diversity of these early professional experiences would also eventually contribute to the manner of his mature output. Starting in the late 1940s, he taught at Columbia University, the Juilliard School and, for 24 years, Bennington College.
During the mid-1950s Brant came to the conclusion that (as he himself put it) "single-style music … could no longer evoke the new stresses, layered insanities, and multi-directional assaults of contemporary life on the spirit." In pursuit of an optimal framework for the presentation of a music which embraced such a simultaneity of musical textures and styles, Brant made a series of experiments and compositions exploring the potential for the physical position of sounds in space to be used as an essential compositional element.
As well as producing works for the concert hall, Brant worked as an orchestrator for many Hollywood productions, including the Elizabeth Taylor movie Cleopatra (1963), one of many collaborations with composer Alex North. Brant helped with the orchestration of North's score for 2001, and due to North's stress-induced muscle spasms, Brant had to conduct the recording session for the film score. Other composers whom he assisted as orchestrator included Virgil Thomson, Aaron Copland, George Antheil, Douglas Moore, and Gordon Parks. Brant's work as an orchestrator was not limited to film and stage: his long-term affinity for the music of Charles Ives — whose The Unanswered Question was an acknowledged inspiration for Brant's spatial music — was ultimately found in the premiere of Brant's arrangement of Ives' Second Piano Sonata, "Concord, Mass 1840–60" as A Concord Symphony in 1996. A Concord Symphony was recorded by the San Francisco Symphony on its SFS Media label.
From 1981, Brant made his home in Santa Barbara, California. There he died on April 26, 2008, at the age of 94.
Music
Beginning with the 1953 score Rural Antiphonies (predating Stockhausen's Gruppen of 1955–57 but coming thirty-five years after Charles Ives's Fourth Symphony of 1912–18 and Rued Langgaard's Music of the Spheres of 1916–18), Brant developed the concept of spatial music, in which the location of instruments and/or voices in physical space is a significant compositional element. He identified the origins of the concept in the antiphonal music of the late renaissance and early baroque, in the antiphonal use of four brass ensembles placed in the corners of the stage in the Requiem of Hector Berlioz and, most importantly, in works of Charles Ives, in particular The Unanswered Question. Henry Brant was America's foremost composer of acoustic spatial music. The planned positioning of performers throughout the hall, as well as on stage, was an essential factor in his composing scheme and a point of departure for a radically expanded range and intensity of musical expression. Brant's mastery of spatial composing technique enabled him to write textures of unprecedented polyphonic and/or polystylistic complexity while providing maximum resonance in the hall and increased clarity of musical detail for the listener. His catalogue comprises over 100 spatial works.
In keeping with Brant's belief that music can be as complex and contradictory as everyday life, his larger works often employ multiple, contrasting performing forces, as in Meteor Farm (1982) for symphony orchestra, large jazz band, two choruses, West African drum ensemble and chorus, South Indian soloists, large Javanese Gamelan ensemble, percussion orchestra and two Western solo sopranos. Brant's spatial experiments convinced him that space exerts specific influences on harmony, polyphony, texture and timbre. He regarded space as music's "fourth dimension," (after pitch, time and timbre). Brant experimented with new combinations of acoustic timbres, even creating entire works for instrumental family groups of a single timbre: Orbits for 80 trombones, organ and sopranino voice, Ghosts & Gargoyles for 9 flutes, and others for multiple trumpets and guitars. This predilection for ensembles of a single tone quality dates from Angels and Devils (1932) for an ensemble of 11 flutes. His experimentation was not always successful however. His 1972 piece Immortal Combat staged outside Lincoln Center was drowned out by traffic noise and a thunderstorm. With the exception of pieces composed for recorded media (in which he used over-dubbing or acoustical sound sources), Brant did not use electronic materials or permit amplification in his music.
He is perhaps best known for his compositions Verticals Ascending (conceptually based on the architecture of the Watts Towers in Los Angeles) and Horizontals Extending. A "spatial opera", The Grand Universal Circus (Libretto: Patricia Gorman Brant) was premiered in 1956. Brant won the Pulitzer Prize for Music in 2002 for his composition Ice Field. In addition to composing, he played the violin, flute, tin whistle, percussion, piano, and organ and frequently included soloistic parts in his large works for himself to play.
Later premieres included Wind, Water, Clouds & Fire, for 4 choirs and instrumentalists, commissioned by Present Music and premiered on November 19, 2004 at The Cathedral of St. John the Evangelist, Milwaukee, Wisconsin. Tremors, for 4 singers and 16 instrumentalists, commissioned by the Getty Research Institute, premiered on June 4, 2004, at the Getty Center in Los Angeles. Tremors was repeated in a Green Umbrella concert at LA's Walt Disney Concert Hall on November 1, 2004. Ghosts & Gargoyles, a concerto for flute solo with flute orchestra, for New Music Concerts, Toronto had its premiere on May 26, 2002. Ice Field, for large orchestral groups and organ, was commissioned by Other Minds for a December 2001 premiere by the San Francisco Symphony.
Brant's handbook for orchestration, Textures and Timbres, was published posthumously.
Orchestra/chamber orchestra
An Adventure
Ballad (The Half Songs)
Decision
Dedication in Memory of a Great Man
Downtown Suite
Symphony in B-flat (The Nineteen-Thirties)
Symphony No. 2 (Promised Land)
Variations on a Canadian Theme
Whoopee in D (1972)
Whoopee in D major: (Overture for a Fine Orchestra)
Solo instrument with orchestra/chamber orchestra
Concerto for Clarinet and Orchestra
Concerto for Saxophone and Orchestra
Fantasy and Caprice, for violin and orchestra
Concerto for Alto Sax and Orchestra (1941)
Concerto for Alto Saxophone Solo Or Trumpet Solo (1996)
String orchestra
Saraband
Two Choral Preludes
Two Lyric Interludes
Band/wind ensemble
Millennium I
Signs and Alarms
Street Music (Three Places in Montreal)
Whoopee in D major
Solo instrument with band/wind ensemble
Concerto for Alto Sax or Trumpet with Nine Instruments
Concerto for Clarinet and Dance (Jazz) Orchestra
Statesmen in Jazz: Three Portraits
Solo instrument with chamber ensemble
Violin Concerto with Lights
Vocal quartet with chamber ensemble
Four Skeleton Pieces
The Scientific Creation of the World
Chamber music
With soloist
Divinity, with solo harpsichord
Feuerwerk, with solo female speaker
Newsflash, with narrator
Piri
Two instruments
Ballad, for violin and piano
Duo, for cello and piano
Partita, for flute and piano
Two Rush Hours in Manhattan, for violin and piano
Three instruments
Ice Age, for clarinet, glockenspiel, and piano (1954)
Imaginary Ballet, for piccolo, cello, and piano
Music for a Five and Dime
Strength through Joy in Dresden: Introduction and Coda to a Theater Piece
Four instruments
Conversations in an Unknown Tongue
Four Mountains in the Amstel
Fourscore
From Bach's Menagerie
Funeral Music for the Mass Dead
Galaxy I
Handorgan Music (1933 Version)
Handorgan Music (1984 Version)
A Requiem in Summer
Variations on a Theme by Robert Schumann
Five to nine instruments
All Souls Carnival
American Commencement
Aria with Thirty Variations
Galaxy II
Hieroglyphics II
Kitchen Music
The Marx Brothers
A Requiem in Summer
Stresses
Percussion ensemble
Origins (Symphony for Percussion)
A cappella chorus
December Madrigal
Peace Music for U.N. Day
The Three-Way Canon Blues
Two pianos
Four Choral Preludes
Toccata on "Wachet Auf"
Solo instrument
The Big Haul, for cello
Confusion in the Salon, for piano
Country Tunes in Jazz, for piano
Four Traumatics, for piano
Mobiles 1, for flute
Oases, for cello
Two Conclusions, for piano
Spatial works
Orbits: A Spatial Symphonic Ritual (for 80 trombones, organ and sopranino voice) (1979)
Autumn Hurricanes, A Spatial Cantata for Widely Separated Vocal and Instrumental Groups (1986)
Orchestra/chamber orchestra
Antiphony I
Antiphony I (chamber version)
Antiphony One
Curriculum ll: Spatial Tone Poem
Desert Forests (2000)
Ice Field
On the Nature of Things (1956)
Plowshares and Swords
Prisons of the Mind
Trinity of Spheres
Awards
A member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters, Brant was awarded the 2002 Pulitzer Prize in Music for Ice Field (2001), commissioned by Other Minds and premiered by the San Francisco Symphony under the direction of Michael Tilson Thomas. He received two Guggenheim Fellowships and was the first American composer to win the Prix Italia. Among other honors were Ford Foundation, Fromm Foundation, National Endowment for the Arts and Koussevitzky awards and the American Music Center's Letter of Distinction. In conjunction with Brant's 85th birthday concert, Wesleyan University conferred upon him the honorary degree of Doctor of Fine Arts (1998). The Paul Sacher Foundation in Basel acquired Brant's complete archive of original manuscripts, including over 300 works, in 1998.
References
External links
Henry Brant's page at Carl Fischer
Henry Brant's Home Page
Henry Brant Tribute by Samara Rainey, WMJ Issue 3, Article 13
OtherMinds.org: Charles Amirkhanian Interviews Henry Brant
MusicMavericks.PublicRadio.org: An interview with Henry Brant by Alan Baker, Minnesota Public Radio, June 2002
Art of the States: Henry Brant two works by the composer
The Henry Brant Collection on innova
San Francisco Chronicle obituary for Brant
Obituary from the Washington Post
1913 births
2008 deaths
20th-century classical composers
21st-century classical composers
American experimental musicians
American male classical composers
American classical composers
Bennington College faculty
Canadian classical composers
Canadian experimental musicians
Juilliard School faculty
Members of the American Academy of Arts and Letters
Pulitzer Prize for Music winners
Pupils of George Antheil
Pupils of Wallingford Riegger
21st-century American composers
20th-century Canadian composers
20th-century American composers
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century American male musicians
Canadian emigrants to the United States | [
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256328 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ivor%20Gurney | Ivor Gurney | Ivor Bertie Gurney (28 August 1890 – 26 December 1937) was an English poet and composer, particularly of songs. He was born and raised in Gloucester. He suffered from manic depression through much of his life and spent his last 15 years in psychiatric hospitals. Critical evaluation of Gurney has been complicated by this, and also by the need to assess both his poetry and his music. Gurney himself thought of music as his true vocation: "The brighter visions brought music; the fainter verse".
Life
Ivor Gurney was born at 3 Queen Street, Gloucester, in 1890, as the second of four surviving children of David Gurney, a tailor, and his wife Florence, a seamstress.
He showed musical ability at an early age. He sang as a chorister at Gloucester Cathedral from 1900 to 1906, when he became an articled pupil of Dr Herbert Brewer at the cathedral. There he met a fellow composer, Herbert Howells, who became a lifelong friend. Alongside Gurney and Howells, Brewer's third pupil at this time was Ivor Novello, then known as Ivor Davies. He also enjoyed an enduring friendship with the poet F. W. Harvey, whom he met in 1908.
The adults of most significance in Gurney's early life were the Rev. Alfred H. Cheesman, and two sisters, Emily and Margaret Hunt, who nurtured Gurney's interests in music and literature. Gurney began composing music at the age of 14, and won a scholarship to the Royal College of Music in 1911. He studied there with Charles Villiers Stanford, who also taught Ralph Vaughan Williams, John Ireland, Marion Scott, Rebecca Clarke, Frank Bridge, Arthur Bliss, Herbert Howells and many others. Stanford told Howells that Gurney was potentially "the biggest of them all", but he was "unteachable".
Gurney possessed a dynamic personality, but he had been troubled by mood swings that became apparent during his teenage years. He had a difficult time focusing on his work at college and suffered his first breakdown in 1913. After taking a rest, he seemed to recover and returned to college.
Gurney's studies were interrupted by World War I, when he enlisted as a private soldier in the Gloucestershire Regiment in February 1915. At the front, he began writing poetry seriously, sending his efforts to his friend, the musicologist and critic Marion Scott, who worked with Gurney as his editor and business manager. He was in the midst of writing the poems for what would become his first book, Severn and Somme, when he was wounded in the shoulder in April 1917. He recovered and returned to battle, still working on his book and composing music, including the songs "In Flanders" and "By A Bierside". Sidgwick & Jackson accepted Severn and Somme in July, with publication set for the autumn. In the meantime, Gurney was gassed in September the same year and sent to the Edinburgh War Hospital, where he met and fell in love with a VAD nurse, Annie Nelson Drummond, but the relationship later broke down.
There remains some controversy about the possible effects of the gas on his mental health, even though Gurney had clearly shown signs and symptoms of a bipolar disorder since his teens. "Being gassed (mildly) [his parenthesis] with the new gas is no worse than catarrh or a bad cold," Gurney wrote in a letter to Marion Scott on 17 September 1917. After his release from hospital, he was posted to Seaton Delaval, a mining village in Northumberland, where he wrote poems, including "Lying Awake in the Ward". His volume Severn and Somme was published in November 1917.
Mental illness
In March 1918, Gurney suffered a serious mental breakdown, triggered at least in part by the sudden ending of his relationship with Drummond. He was hospitalised in the Gallery Ward at Brancepeth Castle, County Durham, where he wrote several songs, despite the piano sounding, he said, like "a boiler factory in full swing because of the stone walls". In June he threatened suicide, but he did not attempt it.
Gurney slowly regained some of his emotional stability and in October was honourably discharged from the army. Gurney received an unconventional diagnosis of nervous breakdown from "deferred" shell shock. The notion that Gurney's instability should primarily be attributed to "shell shock" was perpetuated by Marion Scott, who used this term in the initial press releases after Gurney's death, as well as in his entry for Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians.
Gurney seemed to thrive after the war and was regarded as one of the most promising men of his generation, but his mental distress continued to worsen. He studied for a brief time with Ralph Vaughan Williams upon returning to the Royal College of Music, but he withdrew from the college before completing his studies. His second volume of poetry, War's Embers, appeared in May 1919 to mixed reviews. He continued to compose, producing a large number of songs, instrumental pieces, chamber music, and two works for orchestra: War Elegy (1920) and A Gloucestershire Rhapsody (1919–1921). His music was being performed and published. However, by 1922, his condition had deteriorated to the point where his family had him declared insane.
It has been speculated that Gurney's mental problems may have resulted from syphilis, contracted either while he was a music student before the war, or perhaps while serving as a soldier in France. Blevins, Gurney's biographer, however, concludes that he did not suffer from syphilis. The issue has also been discussed, more recently, by Cambridge academic and broadcaster Kate Kennedy.
Gurney spent the last 15 years of his life in psychiatric hospitals, first for a short period at Barnwood House in Gloucester, and then at the City of London Mental Hospital, Dartford, where he was diagnosed as suffering from "delusional insanity (systematised)". Gurney wrote prolifically during the asylum years, producing some eight collections of verse. His output included two plays in Shakespearean style – "Gloucester Play (1926) and "The Tewkesbury Trial" (1926). During this time he appeared to believe himself to be Shakespeare in person. He continued also to compose music but to a far lesser degree. An examination of his archive suggests that up to two-thirds of his musical output remains unpublished and unrecorded.
By the 1930s Gurney wrote little of anything, although he was described by Scott as being "so sane in his insanity".
Death and legacy
Gurney died of tuberculosis while still a patient at the City of London Mental Hospital, shortly before dawn on 26 December 1937, aged 47. He was buried in Twigworth, near Gloucester. The service was conducted by his godfather, Rev. Alfred Cheesman. Gurney was "a lover and maker of beauty", it was stated on his gravestone. (The stone was replaced after it was damaged – the original is now stored inside Twigworth church.) Marion Scott preserved Gurney's manuscripts and letters and worked with composer Gerald Finzi to ensure that his legacy should not be forgotten.
On 11 November 1985, Gurney was among 16 Great War Poets commemorated on a slate stone unveiled in Westminster Abbey's Poet's Corner. The inscription on the stone was written by a fellow Great War poet, Wilfred Owen: "My subject is War, and the pity of War. The Poetry is in the pity."
In 2000, a stained-glass window was installed in St Mary de Lode Church, Gloucester and dedicated to the memory of Ivor Gurney. A memorial to Gurney was erected in 2009 Sint-Juliaan, near Ypres, close to the spot where he was the victim of a mustard gas attack in 1917.
A sculpture by Wolfgang Buttress entitled The Candle was unveiled in 2011 in Victoria Dock, Gloucester Docks; it is inscribed with lines from the Gurney's poem "Requiem" around the base. There is also a blue plaque memorial to Gurney in Eastgate Street, Gloucester.
In April 2014, BBC Four broadcast a documentary about Gurney, entitled The Poet Who Loved the War, presented by Tim Kendall, which focused on how the First World War had in some ways helped Gurney through the periods of depression he suffered and helped him become one of the war's foremost poets.
In June and July 2014 Gurney was the subject of BBC Radio 3's Composer of the Week, based on Dr Kate Kennedy's biography, Ivor Gurney: Dweller in Shadows, as part of the station's Music in the Great War series. The programmes included a number of Gurney's pieces, especially recorded by the BBC.
Works
Compositions
Gurney wrote hundreds of poems and more than 300 songs but only set a handful of his own poems to music, the best-known being "Severn Meadows". His well-known compositions include his Five Elizabethan Songs (or 'The Elizas' as he called them), written in 1913-14 while he was still a student at the Royal College of Music. The song cycles Ludlow and Teme (published 1923) and The Western Playland, (published 1926), both settings of poetry by A. E. Housman, were prepared for publication with the help of admirers and friends, including Gerald Finzi and his wife Joy, Howard Ferguson and Marion Scott. Oxford University Press issued two sets of ten songs in 1938, a year after his death, selected and edited by Finzi and Ferguson. Three further sets of ten songs came out in 1952, 1959 and 1979.
Gurney set to music many of the poems of his contemporaries, including at least nineteen poems written by Edward Thomas, six of them collected in the orchestral song cycle Lights Out published in 1926, and at least seven by W. H. Davies. All of Gurney's settings from the Canadian poet Bliss Carman's Sappho: One Hundred Lyrics (1904) were gathered together in a new collection, Seven Sappho Songs by Richard Carder in 1998.
It has been suggested that there is something of Schubert and Schumann, but considerably less of the prevailing folk idiom of the time, in the intensity of Gurney's musical language. He had a preference for setting dark ballads, as Schubert, Loewe and Brahms had before him, and "knew his Brahms and Schumann backwards, as his piano pieces testify". But where he does lean towards folksong, as in his setting of Belloc's "Ha’nacker Mill", it is often hard to tell whether the melody is original or traditional.
His Five Preludes for piano were written in 1919-20 and published the following year. He also wrote as many as 20 string quartets, although most of these are lost. The String Quartet in D minor, composed in 1924, received its premiere recording in 2020.
War poet/local poet
Edmund Blunden, at the urging of Gerald Finzi, assembled the first collection of Gurney's poetry which was published in 1954. This was followed by P. J. Kavanagh's Collected Poems, first published in 1982 and reissued in 2004. It remains the most comprehensive edition of Gurney's poetry. Gurney is regarded as one of the great World War I poets, and like others of them, such as Edward Thomas, whom he admired, he often contrasted the horrors of the front line with the beauty and tranquillity of his native English landscape – these themes were explored in the 2012 musical play A Soldier and a Maker.
Deliberately unrhetorical in his poetic tone, and writing as a ranker, not an officer, Gurney offered a complex, wry, unheroic view of the soldierly world of the Western Front: presenting not a large statement (for or against war), but an individual experience. Without diminishing the horrors of the front line, Gurney's poems often emphasise the moments of relief. "On Rest" was above all what he called "the relief of knowing mere being". By detailing the "small trifles" of trench life – moments of comradeship, letters from home, singsongs, bread and Fray Bentos corned beef, wine, chocolate and café-au-lait Gurney was able (in Blunden's words) to "express part of the Western Front secret... with distinctive, intimate and imaginative quickness." In so far as he had a "manifesto", it was to present "the protest of the physical against the exalted spiritual; of the cumulative weight of small facts against the one large".
At the same time, Gurney was something of a local poet, rooted in Gloucester and its surroundings, which remained a touchstone of reality for him, in the front line and later in the asylum. In the preface to his first book, he wrote of "my county, Gloucester, that whether I live or die stays always with me." His tribute poem "Crickley Hill" was described by Edna Longley as "perhaps Gurney's most rapturous expression of local patriotism".
Posthumous collections of poetry and letters
Severn & Somme and War's Embers, ed. R. K. R. Thornton. Carcanet Press, 1997
80 Poems or So, ed. George Walter and R. K. R. Thornton. Carcanet Press, 1997
Rewards of Wonder: Poems of London, Cotswold and France, ed. George Walter. Carcanet Press, 2000
Best Poems and The Book of Five Makings, ed. R.K.R. Thornton. Carcanet Press, 1995
Collected Poems, ed. P.J. Kavanagh. Fyfield Books (Carcanet Press), 2004
Stars in a Dark Night: The Letters from Ivor Gurney to the Chapman Family. Anthony Boden (ed.), The History Press, 2004 (2nd edition)
Five Elizabethan songs
"Orpheus" (John Fletcher)
"Sleep" (John Fletcher)
"Spring" (Thomas Nashe)
"Tears" (anon.)
"Under the Greenwood Tree" (William Shakespeare)
Other songs
collections: A First Volume of Ten Songs (FV); A Second Volume of Ten Songs (SV); Five Songs (FS); Lights Out (LO); Ludlow and Teme (LT); Seven Sappho Songs (SS); The Western Playland (WP)
Selected poems
The following poems provide an introduction to his work:
"Strange Hells" – The effect of war on soldiers' psyches
"The Ballad of Three Spectres" – A soldier's vision
"Maisemore" – A soldier thinks of home
"The Estaminet" – Comradeship
"Purple and Black" – The politics of death
"To the Poet before Battle" – A soldier poet prepares for the fight
"To His Love" – A soldier writes to a dead comrade's lover of his death
"The Silent One" – An account of a moment of terror during a battle
See also
George Butterworth
References
Sources
Kate Kennedy, ed. 'Ivor Gurney: Poet, Composer', Ivor Gurney Society Journal 2007
Pamela Blevins, "Ivor Gurney and Marion Scott: Song of Pain and Beauty", The Boydell Press, 2008
Pamela Blevins, "New Perspectives on Ivor Gurney's Mental Illness", The Ivor Gurney Society Journal, Vol. 6, 2000, pp. 29–58
Pamela Blevins, "One Last Chance: Dr. Randolph Davis and Ivor Gurney", The Ivor Gurney Society Journal, Vol. 9, 2003, pp. 91–99
External links
The Ivor Gurney Trust
The Ivor Gurney Society (UK based site)
The Ivor Gurney Society (US based site)
Gurney Literary Archive and profile, Oxford University
1890 births
1937 deaths
20th-century classical composers
Alumni of the Royal College of Music
British Army personnel of World War I
English classical composers
English male classical composers
English World War I poets
20th-century male writers
20th-century deaths from tuberculosis
Gloucestershire Regiment soldiers
History of mental health in the United Kingdom
People with mental disorders
People from Gloucester
People educated at the King's School, Gloucester
Pupils of Charles Villiers Stanford
20th-century English composers
20th-century British male musicians
Tuberculosis deaths in England
Deaths in mental institutions
Military personnel from Gloucestershire | [
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256329 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/1990%20Oregon%20Ballot%20Measure%205 | 1990 Oregon Ballot Measure 5 | Ballot Measure 5 was a landmark piece of direct legislation in the U.S. state of Oregon in 1990. Measure 5, an amendment to the Oregon Constitution (Article XI, Section 11), established limits on Oregon's property taxes on real estate. Its primary champion and spokesman was Don McIntire, a politically-active Gresham health club owner who would go on to lead the Taxpayers Association of Oregon.
Property taxes dedicated for school funding were capped at $15 per $1,000 of real market value per year and gradually lowered to $5 per $1,000 per year. Property taxes for other purposes were capped at $10 per $1,000 per year. Thus, the total property tax rate would be 1.5% at the end of the five-year phase in period. The measure transferred the responsibility for school funding from local government to the state, to equalize funding.
The measure was passed in the November 6, 1990 general election with 574,833 votes in favor, 522,022 votes against. It was one of the most contentious measures in Oregon election history.
Historical significance
Although measure numbers are reused, the effect of this measure on the state was significant enough that when Oregonians speak of Measure 5, they are usually referring to the specific measure passed in 1990. Measure 5 is often seen as the beginning of the Oregon tax revolt. One effect of the measure was that funding for local schools was shifted from primarily local property tax funds to state funds. With this, it led to a general equalization of funding between districts as funds are now given to districts based on the number of students in each district. Schools with higher value property in their districts previously could fund local schools at a higher rate than more economically depressed areas.
Passage of the measure and the limits led to some discussion of eliminating county services in Multnomah County by combining them with Portland city services or Metro, as well as talks of combining Multnomah, Washington, and Clackamas counties into one large urban county for the Portland metro area.
Lasting effects and subsequent legislation
The measure has remained controversial since its passage. Oregon remains one of only five states without a sales tax, the others being Alaska, Delaware, Montana, and New Hampshire. Furthermore, the measure is blamed for cuts in school programs, the budget crises of 2002 and 2003 and cuts to statewide public safety programs, including deep cuts to the Oregon State Police which never fully recovered from 50% staffing reductions. Many critics say that then-Governor Barbara Roberts' warning that Measure 5's passage would lead to massive chaos has been borne out. Supporters defend the measure as necessary to curb government spending excesses.
Measure 5 was followed up with Measure 47 in 1996 and Measure 50 in 1997. Measure 47 limited the growth of a property's assessed value to 3% maximum per year to combat local governments' raising assessed values to make up the difference in the rate they could charge. Measure 50 clarified that measure.
References
External links
Oregon Initiatives, Referenda and Recalls, 1988-1995
The Oregon Constitution
Oregon Taxpayers Union
Initiatives in the United States
1990 Oregon ballot measures | [
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256332 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Achillea | Achillea | Achillea is a group of flowering plants in the family Asteraceae, known colloquially as yarrows. They were described as a genus by Linnaeus in 1753. The genus was named after the Greek mythological character Achilles. According to legend, Achilles' soldiers used yarrow to treat their wounds, hence some of its common names such as allheal and bloodwort.
The genus is native primarily to Europe, temperate areas of Asia, and North America. The common name "yarrow" is usually applied to Achillea millefolium, but may also be used for other species within the genus.
Description
These plants typically have frilly, hairy, aromatic leaves. The plants show large, flat clusters of small flowers at the top of the stem. The flowers can be white, yellow, orange, pink or red and are generally visited by many insects, and are thus characterised by a generalised pollination system.
Ecology
Achillea species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera species - see list of Lepidoptera that feed on Achillea.
Cultivation
Achillea species and cultivars are popular garden plants. The following are recipients of the Royal Horticultural Society's Award of Garden Merit:
Achillea ageratifolia
Achillea 'Coronation Gold'
Achillea 'Credo'
Achillea filipendulina 'Cloth of Gold'
Achillea filipendulina 'Gold Plate'
Achillea 'Heidi'
Achillea 'Hella Glashoff'
Achillea 'Lachsschönheit' (Galaxy Series)
Achillea × lewisii 'King Edward'
Achillea 'Lucky Break'
Achillea 'Martina'
Achillea millefolium 'Lansdorferglut'
Achillea 'Mondpagode'
Achillea 'Moonshine'
Achillea 'Summerwine'
List of species
Nearly 1,000 names have been published within the genus Achillea, at or below the level of species. Sources differ widely as to which of these should be recognized as species, which ones merit subspecies or variety status, and which ones are merely synonyms of better-established names. For convenience, The Plant List maintained by the Kew Botanic Gardens in London is followed.
Gallery
References
Asteraceae genera
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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256337 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charlie%27s%20Angels%3A%20Full%20Throttle | Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle | Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle is a 2003 American action comedy film directed by McG and written by John August, and Cormac and Marianne Wibberley. It is the sequel to 2000's Charlie's Angels and the second installment in the Charlie's Angels film series, which is a continuation of the story that began with the television series of the same name by Ivan Goff and Ben Roberts.
In an ensemble cast, Cameron Diaz, Drew Barrymore and Lucy Liu reprise their roles as the three women working for the Townsend Agency. Crispin Glover, Matt LeBlanc and Luke Wilson also reprise their roles from the first film. It also features Justin Theroux, Demi Moore and Bernie Mac as John Bosley's adoptive brother while Robert Patrick, Shia LaBeouf, John Cleese and Ja'net DuBois appear in supporting roles. Jaclyn Smith reprised her role as Kelly Garrett from the original series for a cameo appearance. John Forsythe also reprised his role as Charlie's voice from the series and previous film for the last time. It was his final film role before his retirement in 2006 and his death in 2010.
It was released in the United States on June 27, 2003 by Sony Pictures Releasing under its Columbia Pictures label and was number one at the box office for that weekend, also making a worldwide total of $259.2million. The film received mixed reviews from critics, with praise for the performances of Diaz, Barrymore and Liu, but criticism aimed at the "bland plot and lack of sense".
Plot
After rescuing U.S. Marshal Ray Carter in Mongolia, the Angels: Natalie Cook, Dylan Sanders, and Alex Munday together with John Bosley's adoptive brother Jimmy Bosley are sent to recover titanium rings stolen from the United States Department of Justice that can display the people listed in the witness protection program. DOJ official William Rose Bailey and a protected witness, Alan Caulfield are among those killed. At Caulfield's house in San Bernardino, the Angels track his assassin Randy Emmers to a beach where they meet former Angel Madison Lee. During the Coal Bowl motorcycle race, Emmers targets another witness named Max Petroni, but is killed by the Thin Man because he was protecting Max. Inside Emmers' pocket, the Angels discover the photos of Caulfield, Max, and, surprisingly, Dylan, under her birth name, Helen Zaas.
Dylan reveals that she is a protected witness after sending her former boyfriend, Irish mob leader Seamus O'Grady to prison. O'Grady has since targeted those who wronged him; including Dylan and Max, whose parents O'Grady killed. Max is sent to the home of Bosley's mother for his protection. At a monastery, the Angels learn about the Thin Man's past from the Mother Superior, who reveals his name, Anthony. Afterwards, the Angels track O'Grady's mob at San Pedro and manage to get the rings, but O'Grady threatens Dylan with the murder of everyone she loves. Natalie attends her boyfriend, Pete Kominsky's high school reunion at Hermosa Beach, where she overhears his friends implying he might propose, which she feels is too fast since they just moved in together. Alex returns home while Dylan leaves the Angels and heads to Mexico. When Natalie, Bosley, and Alex notice the letter she left for them, they realize that Dylan fled to protect them. Natalie asks Charlie how O'Grady got out of jail, and Charlie reveals someone had him released on good behaviour. While hiding out in Mexico, Dylan is convinced to return after seeing an apparition of former Angel Kelly Garrett.
Natalie and Alex deduce that Carter is the one who let O'Grady out of prison after seeing him return Bosley's keys without any pain, despite claiming to have broken his ribs beforehand. Following him, the two witness him killed by Madison, the true mastermind. Though Dylan arrives to back the group, the Angels are shot by Madison, who takes the rings; though they survived via Kevlar vests. Back at the base, Charlie reprimands Madison for what she's done and confronts her for endangering her former teammates' lives. Madison responds by shooting the speaker and blowing him off. The Angels realize that Madison is going to sell the rings to the O'Grady Crime Family, the Antonioni Mafia, the Tanaka Yakuza, and the Diablo Cartel at the Hollywood Walk of Fame, where Jason's film premiere is about to commence.
The Angels arrange for the buyers to be arrested by the FBI while they confront Madison and O'Grady. The O'Gradys enter the melee, having avoided arrest when Seamus realized the Angels' plan. The Thin Man comes to the Angels' aid, helping Alex and rescuing Dylan when she is being attacked by O'Grady - he begins to fight O'Grady and kicks him off the roof. The Thin Man grabs Dylan and chokes her at first, but they ended up sharing a kiss and he pulls some of Dylan's hair out. Just as he is about to say something, O'Grady stabs him and he falls off the roof. O'Grady nearly succeeds in killing Dylan as well, but she blinds him; causing him to lose his footing and fall to his death. (In the unrated cut, O'Grady is still alive and attempts to get back up but is stopped by The Thin Man, who also survived. Dylan accidentally knocks over the "E" sign and it falls on O'Grady, possibly The Thin Man as well.) The Angels fight Madison all the way to an abandoned theatre, where they kick her into a chamber filled with gas and she fires her gun, inadvertently blowing herself up.
The Angels attend the premiere, where they learn that Mama Bosley is adopting Max. Peter surprises Natalie by asking her to get a puppy (the big question he was planning on asking her) and Alex terminates her "time out" with Jason. The Angels celebrate their victory together with Bosley.
Cast
Cameron Diaz as Natalie Cook
Drew Barrymore as Dylan Sanders / Helen Zaas
Lucy Liu as Alex Munday
Demi Moore as Madison Lee, a former Angel turned independent operative
Bernie Mac as Jimmy Bosley, successor and adoptive brother of John Bosley
Justin Theroux as Seamus O'Grady, Dylan's ex-boyfriend and head of the O'Grady Irish Mob
Crispin Glover as the Thin Man / Anthony, a mysterious assassin
Rodrigo Santoro as Randy Emmers, a surfer assassin hired by Madison
Robert Patrick as Ray Carter, Director of the U.S. Marshals Service
John Forsythe as the voice of Charles 'Charlie' Townsend, the owner of the Townsend agency
Matt LeBlanc as Jason Gibbons, Alex's boyfriend
Luke Wilson as Pete Komisky, Natalie's boyfriend
John Cleese as Mr. Munday, Alex's father
Shia LaBeouf as Max Petroni, an orphaned teenager targeted by the mob after his testimony
Ja'net DuBois as Momma Bosley, Jimmy's mother and John Bosley's adoptive mother
Cameos
Jaclyn Smith as Kelly Garrett, one of the original Angels
Bruce Willis as William Rose Bailey, Justice Department official murdered by Emmers
Carrie Fisher as Mother Superior
Robert Forster as Roger Wixon, director of the FBI
Pink as the Coal Bowl M.C.
Mary-Kate and Ashley Olsen and Eve as the future Angels from Dylan's imagination
Ed Robertson as the sheriff
Wayne Federman and Steve Hytner as high school reunion buddies in the bathroom
Melissa McCarthy as a woman at crime scene. McCarthy previously appeared in the first film as a different character, Doris.
Big Boy and Anthony Griffith as Jimmy Bosley's cousins
Eric Bogosian as Alan Caulfield, victim murdered by Emmers
Chris Pontius and Bam Margera as the Irish dock workers
Tommy Flanagan, Chris Pontius, Jonas Barnes, and Luke Massy as Irish henchmen
Michael Guarnera as the boss of Antonioni Mafia
Andrew Wilson as crime scene police officer in charge
The Pussycat Dolls as Themselves, dancing to a vamped-up "The Pink Panther Theme"
Bill Murray, who played John Bosley in the first installment, also appears in archival footage.
Production
Charlie's Angels: Animated Adventures, an animated prequel series explain how the Angels got there and their mission, concluded by the very introduction of the film.
The Seamus O'Grady prison introduction scene is a direct reference to Robert De Niro's prison-set introduction in Cape Fear. Whenever O'Grady (Justin Theroux) appears, he is accompanied by Bernard Hermann's theme from Cape Fear.
The scene where the Angels go to investigate the body of Agent Caufield dressed as crime-scene professionals is a homage/parody of CSI: Crime Scene Investigation, complete with the theme "Who Are You" by The Who.
The song "Feel Good Time" is the film's main track, and is performed by Pink.
The Thin Man character perhaps pays homage to the Thin Man in 1927 German Expressionist film Metropolis, directed by Fritz Lang. In the film, Thin Man is ordered by Joh Frederson, master of Metropolis, to spy on his son Freder.
Reception
Box office
The film had a production budget of $120million. It grossed $100,830,111 at the United States box office and had to depend on earnings from the international box office to make profit. By the end of its run, the film had grossed $259,175,788 worldwide, underperforming its predecessor by $5 million.
Critical response
Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle received mixed reviews and earned a rating of 42% on Rotten Tomatoes based on 187 reviews, with an average rating of 5.10/10. The site's critical consensus reads: "Eye candy for those who don't require a movie to have a plot or for it to make sense." On Metacritic the film has weighted average score of 48 out of 100, based on reviews from 38 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B+" on an A+ to F scale.
Roger Ebert gave the film stars out of 4, a higher score than the half star he gave to the first film. Ebert explained "I realized I did not hate or despise the movie, and [...] I decided that I sort of liked it because of the high spirits of the women involved."
Amy Dawes of Variety magazine wrote: "Bigger, sleeker and better than the first, sequel Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle is a joyride of a movie that takes the winning elements of the year 2000 hit to the next level."
Accolades
The film received seven nominations at the 24th Golden Raspberry Awards including Worst Picture, Worst Actress for both Drew Barrymore and Cameron Diaz, Worst Screenplay, and Worst Excuse for an Actual Movie (All Concept/No Content), winning two trophies for Worst Remake or Sequel and Worst Supporting Actress for Demi Moore. The film also received seven nominations at the 2003 Stinkers Bad Movie Awards: Worst Director (McG), Worst Actress (Barrymore), Worst Screenplay for a Film Grossing More Than $100 Million Worldwide Using Hollywood Math, Most Intrusive Musical Score, Worst Sequel, Least "Special" Special Effects, and Worst On-Screen Group (the Angels). It won for Worst Director and Most Intrusive Musical Score.
Demi Moore was nominated for the MTV Movie Award for Best Villain, but lost against co-star Lucy Liu for her role as O-Ren Ishii in Quentin Tarantino's Kill Bill: Volume 1.
Home media
Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle was released on both VHS and DVD on October 21, 2003.
Soundtrack
Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle is the soundtrack album from the 2003 film Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle. The album was released on June 24, 2003 by Columbia Records.
Certifications
Other songs are not included in the soundtrack
"Who Are You" by The Who
"Thunder Kiss '65" by White Zombie
"Firestarter" and "Breathe" by The Prodigy
"Block Rockin' Beats" by The Chemical Brothers
"Misirlou" by Dick Dale
"Wild Thing" by Tone Lōc
"Nuthin' but a 'G' Thang" by Dr. Dre featuring Snoop Dogg
"Flashdance... What a Feeling" by Irene Cara
"The Pink Panther Theme" by Henry Mancini
"The Lonely Goatherd" by Rodgers and Hammerstein
"Sleep Now in the Fire" by Rage Against the Machine
"Mickey" by Toni Basil
"Planet Claire" by The B-52s
Sequel
Following the release of Full Throttle, the franchise was confirmed for a third and fourth film, but in 2004 the idea was cancelled. A fictional sequel titled Charlie's Angels III: The Legend of Charlie's Gold (2007) was presented within the 2001 Futurama episode "I Dated a Robot", with Lucy Liu reprising her role; the film follows the Angels dealing with an outbreak of vampires.
On September 15, 2015, The Hollywood Reporter reported that Sony was rebooting the film with Elizabeth Banks and her husband Max Handelman producing and that Sony was in negotiations with Banks to direct the film. On April 13, 2016, Sony confirmed that Banks would direct the reboot. It was later revealed that the new movie wouldn't be a reboot or a remake of the franchise, but rather a continuation that will incorporate the events of the original TV series and the McG-directed 2000s films.
The third installment stars Kristen Stewart, Naomi Scott and Ella Balinska as the new generation of Angels. Banks and Djimon Hounsou also star as Charlie's assistants, known as Bosleys, while Patrick Stewart replaced Bill Murray in the role of John Bosley and Jaclyn Smith reprised her role as Kelly Garrett for the second time for a cameo appearance. It is also the first installment to feature Robert Clotworthy as the voice of Charlie; replacing John Forsythe, following his death in 2010.
References
External links
2003 films
2003 comedy films
2003 action comedy films
2000s buddy comedy films
2000s English-language films
2000s female buddy films
American films
American action comedy films
American buddy comedy films
American female buddy films
American sequel films
Charlie's Angels (franchise)
Class reunions in popular culture
Columbia Pictures films
Films about witness protection
Films based on television series
Films directed by McG
Films produced by Drew Barrymore
Films scored by Edward Shearmur
Films set in 1995
Films set in 2003
Films set in Inner Mongolia
Films set in Los Angeles
Films shot in Los Angeles
Films with screenplays by John August
Flower Films films
Golden Raspberry Award winning films
Wonderland Sound and Vision films | [
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256339 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mercury%20%28automobile%29 | Mercury (automobile) | Mercury is a defunct division of the American automobile manufacturer Ford Motor Company. Created in 1938 by Edsel Ford, Mercury was marketed as a middle priced brand for nearly its entire existence, bridging the price gap between the Ford and Lincoln model lines. Competing against Oldsmobile within General Motors, Mercury also competed most directly against Chrysler's DeSoto, Hudson and Studebaker.
From 1945 to its closure, Mercury was half of the Lincoln-Mercury Division of Ford, forming a combined sales network distinct from Ford. Through the use of platform sharing and manufacturing commonality, Mercury vehicles shared components and engineering with Ford or Lincoln (or both concurrently), serving as counterparts for vehicles from both divisions. Lincoln-Mercury also served as the sales network for Continental (1956–1960), Edsel (1958–1960) and Merkur (1985–1989).
In 2010, Ford Motor Company announced the closure of the Mercury brand in an effort to focus on the Ford and Lincoln brands, ending production at the end of 2010. The final Mercury automobile, a 2011 Mercury Grand Marquis, rolled off the assembly line on January 4, 2011. Mercury remains an active, registered trademark of Ford.
History
During the mid-1930s, Ford Motor Company discovered that it need to expand its brand footprint to match its largest competitors. In 1935, Ford offered only its namesake brand and the cars of its Lincoln Motor Company division. In contrast to the comprehensive line of brands from General Motors (seven) and Chrysler Corporation (four), Ford offered its Ford Standard/DeLuxe V8 range and the Lincoln Model K. In contrast to the Ford V8, the Model K was among the most expensive vehicles built and sold in the United States, rivaled in price by the Cadillac V-12 (and V-16), Duesenberg Model J, and the flagship lines of Mercedes-Benz and Rolls-Royce.
To address the gap between Ford and Lincoln, Ford Motor Company launched its own version of the late 1920s General Motors Companion Make Program, leading the company to expand from two nameplates to five by the end of the decade. For 1936, Lincoln-Zephyr was introduced as a sub-marque of Lincoln, giving the line a V12 car competing against the LaSalle and Buick, the Chrysler Airstream and Airflow, and the Packard One-Twenty. For 1938, De Luxe Ford became a sub-marque of Ford, offering a higher-price V8 car with a model-specific interior and exterior trim.
In 1937, Edsel Ford began work on Mercury; in contrast with Lincoln-Zephyr and DeLuxe Ford, Mercury was developed as a completely new brand. Selected personally by Edsel Ford from over 100 potential model and marque names, the Roman god name had seen previous use in the automotive industry. Along with its use by Chevrolet during 1933 (Chevrolet Mercury), Mercury was the name of seven separate companies from 1903 to 1923 (each failing within two years of opening), including a manufacturer of steam-powered cars in San Francisco, California, and the Mercury Cyclecar Company, a 1913-1914 cyclecar manufacturer at 807 South Scotten Street in Detroit.
In November 1938, Edsel Ford introduced four body styles of the Mercury Eight at the New York Auto Show. Along with a two-door sedan and a four-door sedan, the Mercury was also introduced as a two-door convertible and a two-door trunked sedan; the body design was overseen by E.T. 'Bob' Gregorie. While similar in concept to the modestly restyled De Luxe Ford, the V8-powered Mercury was an all-new car sized between the V8 Ford and the V12 Lincoln-Zephyr.
1939–1940s
For 1939, the Mercury was launched at a starting price of US$916 ($ in dollars); over 65,800 vehicles were sold in the inaugural model year. In response to the popularity of the model line, Ford revised its branding structure after 1940; De Luxe Ford was discontinued as a sub-marque (returning to its previous use as a Ford trim line), and all Lincolns became derived from the Lincoln-Zephyr (including the Continental) as Lincoln retired the Model K.
For 1941, the Mercury underwent its first redesign; in another change, the model line adopted the Mercury Eight nameplate used in sales literature. To consolidate development and production, the Mercury Eight shared much of its bodyshell with Ford, distinguished by its longer wheelbase. To further separate the two model lines, the Eight was given a model-specific grille, exterior and interior trim, and taillamps. For the first time, a wood-bodied station wagon was offered by the brand.
For 1942, Mercury implemented several changes to the Eight. As part of an interior redesign, the Eight received a dashboard configured similar to the Lincoln Zephyr. For the first time, the Flathead V8 was offered with in standard form. To compete with Fluid Drive (Chrysler) and Hydramatic (General Motors), the 1942 Mercury offered Liquamatic, the first semi-automatic transmission offered by Ford Motor Company. Shared with Lincoln, Liquamatic proved complex and unreliable, with many systems replaced by conventional manual transmissions. As production was suspended following the outbreak of World War II, Ford produced only 24,704 1942 Mercury vehicles.
Following the rise of Henry Ford II as Ford Motor Company in September 1945, the divisional structure of the company underwent further change. On October 22, 1945, Ford merged Mercury with Lincoln Motor Company, creating the combined Lincoln-Mercury division. While functioning as a single entity, Lincoln-Mercury would continue to market both namesake model line. The Lincoln-Zephyr reentered production following the war, dropping the Zephyr nameplate; the Continental (and the V12 engine) ended production after 1948.
On November 1, 1945, the first 1946 Mercury vehicles rolled off the assembly line. In line with Lincoln and Ford (and virtually all American-manufactured vehicles), 1946 production was functionally unchanged from 1942. The Eight underwent several minor revisions, including the return of vertically-oriented grille trim. As few were installed before the 1942 suspension of production, Mercury did not return the Liquamatic transmission option. Alongside the wood-paneled station wagon, Mercury introduced a wood-bodied Sportsman convertible. For 1947 and 1948, few major changes were made. The rare Sportsman convertible was dropped for 1947 and the hubcaps were restyled; 1948 Mercurys were effectively carryover.
In 1949, Ford Motor Company launched its first all-new post-war designs for all three of its model lines. In contrast to the 1941-1948 Mercury, the 1949 redesign placed Mercury and Lincoln within a common bodyshell. Largely distinguished by headlight and grille designs, Mercury and Lincoln would also feature separately-trimmed interiors. Mechanically, Ford, Lincoln, and Mercury each offered a separate version of the Ford Flathead V8.
For many years after its production, the 1949–1951 Mercury Eight (most commonly in two-door form) would develop a following as a street rod, making an appearance in several films.
1950s
The 1949 redesign of the Mercury model line proved successful, with the division increasing its sales six-fold over 1948, becoming the sixth-most popular brand in the United States. In contrast to competing medium-price brands from Chrysler and General Motors (and independents including Nash, Hudson, or Packard), Mercury continued to offer the Eight as its sole model line.
For 1950, the Monterey name made its first appearance, denoting a special edition of two-door coupes (alongside the Lincoln Lido and Ford Crestliner). Intended to compete against the hardtop coupes from General Motors, the Monterey simulated the appearance of a convertible through the use of a canvas or vinyl roof (though with a pillared roofline). During the year, the one-millionth Mercury vehicle was produced. In 1951, Mercury regained an automatic transmission option (for the first time since the 1942 Liquamatic), with the "Merc-O-Matic" 3-speed automatic (a rebranding of Ford Cruise-O-Matic).
For 1952, Mercury redesigned its model line, with two nameplates replacing the Eight. The Monterey returned as a distinct model line, slotted above the base-trim Custom; both shared bodies with Lincoln. In 1953, the expansion of the model line proved successful; after emerging from a war-depressed market, Mercury nearly doubled in sales, ranking eighth. While Mercury would have subsequently higher yearly sales, at 5%, this is the largest market share ever held by the division. For 1954, Ford replaced the long-running Flathead V8 (dating from 1932) with an overhead-valve Y-block V8, with Ford and Mercury receiving their own versions of the engine. As a submodel of the standard Monterey hardtop, the Monterey Sun Valley was introduced, featuring a fixed-panel acrylic glass sunroof. While offering an open-air interior, the Sun Valley was difficult to market in warm-weather climates (as the glass panel warmed the interior to uncomfortable temperatures).
In 1955, Mercury underwent a redesign of its model line. While again sharing much of its bodyshell with Lincoln, the division adopted the three-model range of Ford. As its premium model range, the Montclair was introduced above the Monterey (including the Sun Valley glass-top hardtop, for its final year). The revision proved successful, as Mercury reached its then-highest sales. The divisional structure of Ford was revised; Lincoln-Mercury was split (largely to accommodate the formation of the Continental division) In 1956, Mercury renamed the Custom the Medalist (to avoid confusion with the Ford Custom).
For 1957, Mercury redesigned its model range, with a wheelbase sized between Ford and Lincoln. In a move upmarket, the slow-selling Medalist was discontinued, with the Monterey becoming the standard Mercury line. Previewed by the 1956 XM-800 concept car, the Turnpike Cruiser (the pace car of the 1957 Indianapolis 500) was slotted above the Montclair, distinguished by its quad headlamps and retractable rear window. In line with Ford, Mercury station wagons became a distinct model line, with the Commuter, Voyager, and Colony Park; all Mercury station wagons were hardtops.
In 1958, to accommodate the introduction of Edsel, Ford revised its divisional structure, with Mercury, Edsel, and Lincoln forming a combined division (M-E-L). The Edsel Citation and Edsel Corsair shared their chassis (and roofline) with Mercury, with the entire division overlapping Mercury in price (a key reason behind its failure). The Park Lane was introduced as a flagship model line on a wheelbase (with the Turnpike Cruiser becoming part of the Montclair line). Shared with Lincoln (and the Ford Thunderbird), Mercury introduced a "Marauder" V8; optional on all Mercurys, a "Super Marauder" version became the first mass-produced engine to be rated at .
For 1959, Mercury underwent a revision of its body, expanding to a wheelbase. Coinciding with the discontinuation of the Edsel Corsair and Citation, Mercury produced its own body and chassis (for the first time since 1940). The division pared several slow-selling model lines, including the Turnpike Cruiser and Voyager; the two-door Commuter was in its final year. Mercury was one of the first American full size cars to adopt parallel-action windshield wipers.
As with many medium-price brands, the Mercury brand was hit hard by the economy of the late 1950s. While remaining eighth in sales from 1957 to the end of the decade, Mercury saw a 60 percent drop in sales in 1958, outranked by Rambler in sales. While outselling the heavily-marketed Edsel by over a two-to-one margin; it would take nearly 1958 and 1959 combined to match the 1957 sales total.
1960s
While affecting the American automotive industry as a whole, the economic recession of the late 1950s had the harshest impact upon medium-priced brands. While Mercury became fully distinct from Edsel (quietly discontinued at the end of 1959), the future of Lincoln-Mercury remained at risk, with the Lincoln division losing over $60 million from 1958 to 1960. In response, several Ford executives (led by Ford President Robert McNamara), proposed ending the losses by streamlining Ford Motor Company down to its namesake division. McNamara (prior to leaving Ford to become Secretary of Defense) allowed the division to remain, under several conditions. Lincoln reduced its model line down to the Lincoln Continental (with a much smaller exterior footprint); to establish model continuity, the division shifted to a nine-year model cycle (the longest for an American brand). To downsize its body and lower production costs, Mercury was to adopt the Ford body (on its own wheelbase). In place of the five divisional bodies produced in 1958 (Ford, Lincoln/Continental, Mercury, large Edsel, small Edsel), Ford trimmed its full-size range to two for 1961 (Ford/Mercury, Lincoln).
For 1960, Mercury entered the compact car segment (a year before Buick, Oldsmobile, and Pontiac) with the introduction of the Mercury Comet. Originally developed for Edsel, the Comet was sold without Mercury divisional badging until 1962 (similar to the original Valiant from Plymouth). The Mercury counterpart of the Ford Falcon (stretched to a wheelbase), the Comet was given four headlights instead of two; the standard engine was a inline-6 (becoming the first Mercury ever sold without a V8 engine).
For 1961, Mercury introduced all-new full-size cars, shifting from a division-exclusive chassis to a wheelbase version of the Ford Galaxie. The Montclair and Park Lane were withdrawn in favor of the Monterey, Commuter, and Colony Park. The Mercury Meteor was introduced as an entry-level full-size range; as with the Comet, the Meteor was originally developed as an Edsel before its closure.
For 1962, Mercury revised its model line, matching it closer to Ford. To eliminate overlap with the Monterey, the Meteor nameplate was adopted for an intermediate, giving Mercury a counterpart of the Ford Fairlane. For non-station wagons, Mercury introduced "S" sub-models to market sportier content; along with higher performance powertrains, the option packages included full-length consoles, floor shifters, and bucket seats with the S-22 (Comet), S-33 (Meteor), and S-55 (Monterey).
For 1963, two different rooflines were introduced on the Monterey as an option. Similar to the Turnpike Cruiser and 1958–1960 Continental, Mercury offered a "breezeway" reverse-slant rear window. In stark contrast to the breezeway roofline, Mercury offered the "Marauder" fastback roofline (shared with the Ford Galaxie 500XL); its aerodynamics helped Mercury gain ground in stock-car racing.
By the middle of the decade, the Mercury division had secured its future. No longer entangled with the failure of the Edsel brand, the brand competed closely against Buick, Oldsmobile, the middle of the Chrysler range, and the top of American Motors range. For 1964, the full-size range underwent a revision; the Montclair and Park Lane were reintroduced above the Monterey, with the Meteor and S-models withdrawn. For 1965, the full-size models underwent a redesign; while still sharing the underpinnings of the Ford Galaxie, many styling elements were adopted from Lincoln, with advertising marketing them as "built in the Lincoln tradition".
For 1966, the Comet shifted into the intermediate segment, effectively replacing the Meteor. For full-size Mercurys, multiple rooflines were gradually phased out, with the fastback Marauder roofline discontinued in 1966 and the Breezeway roofline discontinued in 1967. After a two-year hiatus, the S-55 returned for 1966.
In 1967, Mercury introduced its two most successful nameplates, the Cougar and Marquis. Introduced as a counterpart of the Ford Mustang, the Cougar was intended to bridge the gap between the Mustang and Ford Thunderbird; the Cougar would go on to become the counterpart of the Thunderbird for 20 years. The counterpart of the Ford LTD, the Marquis was developed as a competitor of the Chrysler New Yorker, the Oldsmobile Ninety Eight, and Buick Electra. In various forms, the Marquis nameplate would survive until the closure of Mercury in 2011. For 1967 it was available as a formal-roof 2 door hardtop. Mercury's most luxurious 4 door model for 1967 was the Brougham, equipped like the Marquis, and available as a sedan or a hardtop. It featured a "Breezeway" rear window that could be lowered 2 inches, and effectively replaced the blocky Breezeway roofline used on earlier Mercurys.
For 1968, the Mercury model range underwent several revisions. The Mercury Montego replaced the Comet as the intermediate model range (based on the Ford Torino). Introduced in 1964 as a performance-oriented submodel of the Comet, the Mercury Cyclone became a standalone model range slotted above the Cougar; the aerodynamically-optimized Cyclone Spoiler II was homologated as the 1969 Mercury entry for NASCAR.
For 1969, the full-size Mercury line was given an all-new body and chassis. While again shared with Ford, the Mercury model line underwent a major revision, with the Marquis expanded to a full model range (alongside the Ford LTD) and the Colony Park no longer marketed as a separate series; the Park Lane and Montclair were discontinued. Serving as a replacement for the S-55, the Marauder became a standalone full-size model, competing against the Oldsmobile Toronado and Buick Riviera, powered with an available V8. To differentiate the Marquis from the Ford LTD, Mercury introduced hidden headlights for the model line. While still based on the Ford Mustang, the Cougar was available as a pony car or a muscle car, with an "Eliminator" performance package with an available 428 Cobra Jet V8.
1970s
During the 1970s, the product line of the Mercury division was influenced by several factors that affected all American nameplates. While sporty cars would not disappear from the division, Mercury refocused itself further on building high-content vehicles.
1970 marked the entry of Mercury into the subcompact segment. In place of selling its own version of the Ford Pinto, the division commenced captive imports of the Capri (European Ford Capri) from Cologne, Germany. Slightly larger than the Pinto, the Capri was marketed as a compact sports car rather than an economy car, becoming the first Ford Motor Company car in North America sold with a V6 engine. While sold through Lincoln-Mercury, Capris sold in North America from 1970 to 1978 had no divisional identification.
For 1971, Mercury gradually distanced itself away from performance vehicles. The Marauder and Marquis convertible were discontinued, with the Brougham name making its return. Restyled along with the Mustang, the Cougar was repackaged as a competitor of the A-body coupes (Chevrolet Monte Carlo, Oldsmobile Cutlass Supreme, Pontiac Grand Prix) of General Motors. Slotted below the Montego, the Comet made its return as a counterpart of the Ford Maverick (sharing much of its chassis underpinnings with the 1960 Comet).
At the other end of the performance spectrum from the Capri, Lincoln-Mercury began imports of the De Tomaso Pantera in 1971. Assembled in Modena, Italy, the Pantera was a two-door, mid-engine coupe powered by a Ford V8.
For 1972, the intermediate Montego line (based on the Ford Gran Torino) was redesigned with a body-on-frame chassis, creeping into full-size dimensions. After years of losing market share to the Cougar, the Cyclone was quietly discontinued.
The 1973 model year brought major functional changes to the Mercury line, the fuel crisis notwithstanding; in various forms, all Mercury cars were given 5-mph bumpers. The Marquis and Monterey were given an exterior update, adopting a "pillared hardtop" roofline (frameless door glass supported by a thin B-pillar). As American manufacturers shifted away from convertibles, the final convertible produced by Ford Motor Company during the 1970s was a 1973 Mercury Cougar.
1974 marked several significant changes throughout the Mercury model range, transitioning towards higher-content model lines. The Cougar underwent a redesign, shifting from the Mustang chassis to the Torino/Montego chassis, becoming the counterpart of the Ford Elite; in what would later set the design precedent for the model line for over two decades, the Cougar was styled as a Mercury version of the Ford Thunderbird. The Montego saw a revision to its model range, as its fastback body style was discontinued.
For 1975, the Mercury model range underwent a series of transitions. Following the discontinuation of the long-running Monterey, the Marquis became the sole full-size Mercury nameplate; to expand the model range, a new Grand Marquis was slotted between the Marquis Brougham and the Lincoln Continental. Intended as the successor for the Comet, the Monarch led to a completely new market segment: the luxury compact car. The model line was met with success, with examples used as personal cars among Ford executives (including Henry Ford II). Following the 1974 discontinuation of its engine, Lincoln-Mercury ended its sales of the DeTomaso Pantera.
1976 saw the expansion of the smallest end of the Mercury model line. Introduced in Canada in 1975, the Bobcat was the Mercury counterpart of the Ford Pinto, sharing its coupe, hatchback, and station wagon body styles. The Capri was restyled with a hatchback and was renamed the Capri II. The Capri II (devoid of any divisional branding) became the second most-imported car in the United States (behind the Volkswagen Beetle).
For 1977, Mercury made significant revisions to improve sales to its intermediate model range (its slowest-selling models). While technically a mid-cycle model update, the Montego was replaced by the Cougar, with the latter offering sedan and station wagon body styles for the first time. The Cougar base coupe, sedan, and wagon were counterparts of the Ford LTD II, with the Cougar XR-7 hardtop becoming a counterpart of the Ford Thunderbird. The revision was well-received, as Cougar sales nearly tripled. In contrast to the downsized model ranges introduced by General Motors, the long Marquis/Grand Marquis was powered by a V8 (the second-largest displacement engine used in an American automobile).
1978 commenced the modernization of the Mercury model range, marked by the introduction of the Zephyr compact, replacing the Comet. The counterpart of the Ford Fairmont, the Zephyr marked the introduction of the Fox platform, a rear-wheel drive chassis architecture that underpinned some compact and mid-size Ford and Lincoln-Mercury vehicles from the 1970s into the early 2000s. After ending the importation of the Capri II in late 1977, leftover examples were sold through the 1978 model year. Of the 580,000 vehicles sold; nearly four out of every ten 1978 Mercurys were Cougars.
For 1979, Mercury continued its modernization; as the division shifted away from performance vehicles at the beginning of the decade, the fuel crises of 1973 and 1979 sparked the decline of the landyacht. Two years after General Motors downsized its full-size model lines, Mercury introduced a downsized Marquis; while nearly matching the Cougar sedan in exterior footprint, the 1979 Marquis gained interior space over its 1978 predecessor. The Capri made its return, shifting from German-produced captive import to counterpart of the Ford Mustang; for the first time, the Capri adopted Mercury divisional branding. Bolstered by the redesign of the Marquis and the popularity of Cougar XR7, the Mercury brand reached its all-time sales peak, with nearly 670,000 vehicles sold.
1980s
As Lincoln-Mercury entered the 1980s, Mercury continued the modernization of its model line, redesigning its entire lineup between 1978 and 1982. Since the early 1960s, the use of platform sharing had left Ford and Mercury model lines styled virtually the same, differing only by grilles, wheels, badging, and minor trim. Through the decade, designers sought to give Mercury its own brand identity while maximizing production resources. Initially associated with full-size sedans and personal luxury cars, Mercury also diversified its model range.
For 1980, Mercury ended the model overlap between the Marquis and Cougar, as the latter was downsized into the mid-size segment. In another change, the Cougar model range was pared down to the XR7 coupe. A longer-wheelbase version of the Zephyr, the Cougar XR7 was a direct counterpart of the Ford Thunderbird. Poorly received by critics and buyers, sales of the model line collapsed (to less than one-third of 1979 levels). Struggling to compete against newer designs, the aging Bobcat and Monarch were in their final years of production.
1981 saw Mercury revise its model line to combat falling sales. A standard trim of the Cougar replaced the Monarch; a counterpart of the Ford Granada, the Cougar was largely a Zephyr with a formal roofline and Marquis-influenced fascias. As in 1977, the expansion of the model line nearly doubled Cougar sales (though far below its previous rate). Replacing the Bobcat, the Mercury Lynx was introduced as the counterpart of the Ford Escort. The first front-wheel drive vehicle of the brand, the Lynx (as an option) offered the first diesel engine for a Mercury; three and five-door hatchbacks were offered along with a five-door station wagon. For the first time, Mercury used the GS and LS trim nomenclature; in various forms, it would be used through the 2011 model year.
In 1982, Mercury introduced its first two-seat vehicle; the Mercury LN7 was marketed as a counterpart of the Ford EXP. To distinguish the LN7, the rear hatchback was fitted with a compound-curve rear window. For the first time since 1977, the Cougar was offered as a station wagon (replacing the otherwise identical Zephyr wagon, as Mercury shifted the model line upward in price). While struggling against the Mustang GT in sales, the Capri RS also was given the 5.0L V8.
1983 saw a major model revision within Ford and Mercury, involving full-size and mid-size model lines. Within the context of Mercury, most revisions were centered around the Cougar model range. Reverting to its traditional role of a two-door coupe, the Cougar XR7 underwent a complete exterior redesign; adopting a far more aerodynamic body than its predecessor, the Cougar was styled with a notchback roofline (the Thunderbird, a fastback). Under a mid-cycle model revision (to improve its aerodynamics), the Cougar sedan and wagon took on the Marquis nameplate (Ford renaming the Granada the LTD). As the most popular full-size Mercury since 1979, the Grand Marquis became a distinct model line (alongside the Ford LTD Crown Victoria). The Zephyr was discontinued after 1983 and replaced by the front-wheel drive 1984 Topaz. Selling far under sales projections (less than 5,000 were sold for 1983), the two-seat LN7 was withdrawn in favor of its Ford counterpart. Buoyed by Cougar sales, Mercury was the fifth-highest selling brand in the United States (the highest it would ever finish).
For 1984, the introduction of the front-wheel drive Mercury Topaz further ended model overlap within Mercury. The counterpart of the Ford Tempo, the Topaz replaced the Zephyr while offering a sedan counterpart of the Lynx (in a similar context to the Volkswagen Jetta and Golf). Along with advancing the use of aerodynamic exterior design, the 1984 Topaz became the first Lincoln-Mercury vehicle to offer a driver-side airbag (as an option). The Topaz also marked the first appearance of the Mercury "stacked angle" brand emblem, used through the 2011 model year. The introduction proved successful, with the entire division selling nearly 500,000 vehicles.
1985 saw few revisions to the Mercury model line, largely in preparation for 1986. For the first time since 1980, the Cougar received a complete redesign of its interior, including an (optional) electronic instrument panel. As a 1985½ model, the Lynx underwent a mid-cycle update, adopting flush headlamps and a black-painted grille (in line with the Topaz). Intending to repeat the success of the 1970s Capri, Lincoln-Mercury began sales of the Merkur (see below), a captive import from West Germany aimed at European entry-level luxury cars.
In 1986, Mercury made a substantial change to its mid-size line as the Mercury Sable was introduced to replace the Marquis. Along with a transition to front-wheel drive, the conservative design of the Marquis was to be replaced by one of the most aerodynamic sedans in the world (at the time). While sharing most of its body with the Taurus (including its doors, roof, hood, and front fenders), the two sedans were externally distinguished by differently-styled C-pillars, taillamps, and the introduction of a low-wattage "lightbar" grille, which would become adopted by several Mercury car lines in the late 1980s. To match the Sable, the Topaz underwent a minor exterior update, receiving composite headlamps and a lightbar grille. Lincoln-Mercury continued sales of the Marquis alongside its successor through the end of the model year (retiring the Brougham trim).
1987 saw Mercury revise its model lines in a move upmarket. The Cougar underwent an extensive mid-cycle revision (sharing only the doors with the 1986 body). To distinguish itself from the Ford Thunderbird Turbo Coupe, the Cougar XR7 adopted a 5.0L V8 engine. More popular than the Cougar in 1980, the Capri was discontinued for 1987 (after being outsold nearly 10 to one by the Mustang). For the last time, Mercury offered the Lynx and the Grand Marquis two-door sedan.
For 1988, Mercury underwent multiple product revisions and updates. For the first time since 1979, the Grand Marquis underwent an externally substantial update (to slightly improve its aerodynamics); the rarely-produced two-door sedan was withdrawn. The Topaz sedan was redesigned, adopting a more "notchback" rear roofline than the Tempo; a grille (initially) replaced the lightbar. Taking the role of the Lynx, the Mercury Tracer was the first Mercury car since 1960 with no US-market Ford equivalent. The first Mercury assembled outside of North America, the Tracer was derived from the Mazda-designed Ford Laser (derived from the Mazda 323); American production was sourced from Japan and Mexico while Canadian production was imported from Taiwan.
1989 saw the 50th anniversary of the Mercury division, producing various commemorative editions of the Cougar, Sable, and Grand Marquis. For the third time since 1980, the Cougar underwent a ground-up redesign, adopting a completely new chassis alongside the Thunderbird (keeping its notchback roofline). Growing significantly in wheelbase (to improve interior room and handling), the Cougar was benchmarked in design against European premium luxury coupes. For the first time, the Sable saw an exterior update (a revision to the lightbar to aid grille ventilation). Far under sales projections, Lincoln-Mercury ended sales of the Merkur brand (see below).
During the 1980s, Mercury had largely succeeded in modernizing its model line and gradually separating its brand identity between Ford and Lincoln. While Mercury was among the last brands to downsize and would have disastrous results downsizing its mid-size model lines (with the 1980-1982 Cougar), Mercury was among the first brands to integrate aerodynamic body design into its model lines and downsized its compact model lines (replacing the Zephyr with the Topaz). In contrast to other American automobile manufacturers, as the 1980s progressed, elements of Mercury design shifted further from divisional (Ford) counterparts. Originally intended for replacement, the Grand Marquis (the most profitable model line) saw little change in contrast to its smaller counterparts.
Merkur
For the 1985 model year, Ford chose to revisit the success of the 1970s Mercury Capri, with participating Lincoln-Mercury dealers launching the Merkur brand. Drawing its name from the German word for Mercury, Merkur sold German-produced captive imports designed by Ford of Europe, competing against European executive cars sold in North America from Audi, BMW, Mercedes-Benz, Saab, and Volvo (along with the launch of Acura).
At its launch, Merkur introduced the Merkur XR4Ti sports coupe, a federalized version of the Ford Sierra XR4i (renamed in deference to General Motors that had sold the GMC Sierra pickup truck in North America that was not sold in Europe). For the 1988 model year, the Merkur Scorpio was introduced, bringing the Ford Scorpio flagship sedan of Ford of Europe to North America.
Following the 1989 model year, Merkur was discontinued as a result of several factors. The combined model line fell below sales projections, partially due to an unstable exchange rate between the US dollar and the West German mark; at US$25,000 (approximately $ in current dollars), the Scorpio rivaled the Town Car in price, yet bore a close resemblance to the Taurus and Sable. Merkur remains one of the shortest-lived brands in the modern American automotive industry.
1990s
As Ford ended the Merkur division in 1989, the Mercury division itself began a major transition during the 1990s. As distinguishing itself from counterpart Ford (and Lincoln) models was a key factor, renewing the model line was imperative. During the 1990s, the division would see major redesigns of its best-selling model lines and would diversify its product line by introducing its first minivan and SUV product lines.
While remaining a counterpart of the Ford Thunderbird, the Cougar underwent a complete redesign for 1989. While remaining the only rear-wheel drive vehicle in its segment (alongside the Thunderbird), its all-new chassis was benchmarked against premium European luxury coupes, allowing for major upgrades to its handling; a much longer wheelbase increased its interior room (inside a slightly smaller body). For the first time, no V8 engine was offered for the Cougar (returning for 1991). At the other end of the size scale, the Mercury Capri was revived (for the second time) as an imported four-seat convertible produced by Ford of Australia. Developed as a competitor to the Mazda MX-5, the Capri was mechanically derived from the Mazda 323 (although the Capri and MX-5 were unrelated to each other).
After a two-year hiatus, the Mercury Tracer returned for 1991 as the smallest Mercury model line. A successor to the previous generation, the Tracer was now a clone of the Ford Escort, as both model lines became near-twins of the Mazda Protegé. The hatchbacks were discontinued, now offered only as a four-door sedan and a five-door station wagon. After 12 years nearly unchanged, the Colony Park wood-trim station wagon was discontinued after a short 1991 model year, losing ground to minivans, full-size vans, and large SUVs.
For 1992, the Mercury model line would undergo an extensive update, introducing new generations of its best-selling model lines. While adopting the style of the successful previous generation (and its chassis), the Sable carried over only its doors and roof. After 12 years nearly unchanged, the Grand Marquis underwent a larger-scale redesign, sharing no body commonality with the previous generation. While the chassis was carried over, it underwent major handling upgrades, marking the introduction of the first overhead-cam V8 engine in an American-brand car. Far more aerodynamic than its predecessor, the exterior of the Grand Marquis was better-received by the marketplace than that of the Chevrolet Caprice and Buick Roadmaster (and the Ford Crown Victoria); sales of the model line doubled from 1991 to 1992, leading it to become the best-selling Mercury sedan through much of the 1990s.
The product of a joint venture with Nissan, the Mercury Villager was launched as a 1993 model as the first Lincoln-Mercury minivan (Mercury never marketed the Ford Aerostar). Deriving its name from Mercury wood-trim station wagons, the Villager was produced by Ford alongside Nissan Quest; both vehicles shared a chassis and engine with the Nissan Maxima. Intended as a competitor to the Chrysler Town & Country and Oldsmobile Silhouette, the Villager was sized between the two sizes of Chrysler minivans. Mercury sales rebounded in 1993 to over 480,000, their highest level since the 1978 all-time high. In the mid-1990s the brand received some free advertising when country music star Alan Jackson scored a hit with a 1993 cover of K. C. Douglas' "Mercury Blues", a song which heaped praise on their vehicles. Ford later used a different version of the song in its truck advertising. It was also this year that television star Kate Jackson came on board as a regional spokeswoman for the Lincoln-Mercury sales division, promoting the Mercury models through the 1997 model year.
As the 1990s progressed, several product changes were less well-received by buyers. Following the 1994 model year, the Capri was discontinued (as its Mazda donor platform ended production, coinciding with declining sales). For 1995, the Topaz was replaced by the Mystique, offered only as a four-door sedan. Derived from the Ford Mondeo "world car", the compact Mystique was developed as a mid-size car outside of North America but was criticized for the small interiors (in comparison to competitive vehicles). For 1996, the Sable underwent a second redesign, with Ford stylists further distinguishing the Sable and Taurus from one another. The redesign was poorly received by critics and buyers, leading to sales to fall by one-third from 1996 to 2000. For 1997, the Tracer was redesigned alongside the Ford Escort; in contrast to the redesign of the Sable, the Tracer differed from the Escort in its grille and badging.
Following the introduction of the Oldsmobile Bravada and the Acura SLX, Mercury introduced the Mercury Mountaineer for 1997, entering the mid-size luxury SUV segment. Derived from the Ford Explorer (itself derived from the Ford Ranger at the time), the Mountaineer differed from the Explorer in its fitment all-wheel drive (rather than four-wheel drive); a V8 engine was standard (initially). The Mountaineer introduced the silver "waterfall grille", a styling theme adopted on nearly all succeeding Mercury vehicles. After overall market demand shifted away from large two-door coupes, 1997 was the final model year for the Mercury Cougar (alongside the Ford Thunderbird).
The discontinuation of the full-size Buick Roadmaster and Chevrolet Caprice by General Motors after 1996 led to an increase in sales of the Grand Marquis, rising nearly 20 percent from 1996 to 1997. For 1998, the model line underwent a mid-cycle redesign; in a more visible update, to appeal to retail buyers, the Ford Crown Victoria adopted the more formal roofline of the Grand Marquis.
1999 marked multiple changes to the Mercury line. After skipping the 1998 model year, the Cougar made its return, becoming its own model line. A second generation of the Villager was introduced; alongside the Nissan Quest, the model line adopted a driver-side sliding door. The sedan line was faced with reduction, as both the Tracer and Mystique were in their final model year.
2000–2011
By the beginning of the 2000s, the Mercury division began to struggle in efforts to modernize its brand image. While sales of the Grand Marquis were highly profitable (then its best-selling model line), the mid-60s average buyers' age was nearly two decades higher than what Lincoln-Mercury dealers sought to attract into showrooms. Through the 2000s, multiple efforts were made to attract younger buyers to the brand, involving product changes and replacements.
Following the withdrawal of the Tracer and Mystique after the end of 1999, Mercury was left with the Sable and Grand Marquis. For 1999, the Cougar made its return under a completely new model identity, becoming a compact sports coupe. Beginning life as the third-generation Ford Probe, the new Cougar adopted the chassis of the Mystique (becoming front-wheel drive for the first time). In a first for the nameplate, the Cougar was marketed with no Ford equivalent (though badged as a Ford Cougar in export markets). After meeting with initial success (outselling its previous-generation namesake for 1999 and 2000), sales declined; the Cougar was discontinued a final time after 2002 (as Ford shifted to a new generation of the Mondeo).
After the discontinuation of the Cougar, Mercury began a series of model introductions to further expand its model line. After a hiatus of over three decades, the Mercury Marauder made its return, developed as a 2000s competitor to the 1994–1996 Chevrolet Impala SS. Derived from the Grand Marquis, the Marauder was designed with higher-performance suspension and powertrain upgrades (sharing its engine with the Ford Mustang Mach 1). As with the Impala SS, the Marauder was styled with a nearly monochromatic exterior (with most examples produced in black). Due to lack of marketing, the Marauder was discontinued after 2004.
After 2002, Ford ended its joint venture with Nissan to produce the Villager, leaving the division out of the minivan segment. For 2004, the Villager was replaced by a revived Mercury Monterey; a direct counterpart of the Ford Freestar. Introduced as a direct counterpart of the Chrysler Town & Country, the Monterey struggled to establish market sales as the minivan segment in North America declined as a whole; after 2007, the Monterey was discontinued alongside the Freestar.
During 2005 and 2006, three new vehicles were added to the Mercury model line. To bring Lincoln-Mercury its first compact SUV, the Mercury Mariner was introduced as a counterpart of the Ford Escape/Mazda Tribute. The sedan line underwent a major revision, as Mercury replaced the Sable with two different vehicles. The larger sedan, the 2005 Mercury Montego, was a full-size sedan (a counterpart of the Ford Five Hundred); while close in exterior footprint to the Sable, the interior packaging of the Montego more closely matched the Grand Marquis. The smaller sedan, the Mercury Milan (a counterpart of the Ford Fusion) was sized closely to the first-generation 1986 Sable.
Following the discontinuation of the Lincoln Aviator, many of its features were adopted by the Mountaineer SUV as part of its 2006 redesign to further distinguish it from the Ford Explorer.
While the introduction of "F" nameplates by Ford was met with controversy in the mid-2000s, the reaction to "M" nameplates by Mercury for its product range was much less extreme. Before the 1980s, the division had used the practice for many of its product lines; several recognized nameplates were revived by the brand (Marauder, Montego, Monterey). While the Milan was outsold by its Ford Fusion counterpart (by a significant margin), the product line met with relative success, overtaking the Grand Marquis as the best-selling Mercury sedan in 2008. The Montego struggled to gain market share against competitive sedans, partly due to model overlap with the Grand Marquis (in contrast, Ford had long ended marketing for the Crown Victoria and ended retail of the model line after 2007).
In 2008, Ford introduced an advertising campaign starring actress Jill Wagner that focused exclusively on attracting female drivers to the Mercury brand in hopes of making it more relevant and profitable (standing in stark contrast to its late 1960s "The Man's Car" ad slogan). The campaign was a failure, narrowing the brand image and buyer appeal of the division even deeper, and sales continued to fall. Outsold by the Grand Marquis by nearly five-to-one for 2007, the Montego was renamed the Sable for 2008. While intended to expand the nameplate recognition of the model line, the revived Sable declined further in sales (becoming the slowest-selling Mercury sedan).
Discontinuation
While not a complete redesign, the 2008 Sable would become the final model introduction for the Mercury model line. Through the mid-2000s, Ford began to pare down the Mercury model line, ending the development of direct counterparts of new Ford model lines. Alongside the lack of a Mercury version of the Ford Focus in 2000, no version of the Ford Edge, Freestyle/Taurus X, or Flex entered production (the Edge and Flex were offered by Lincoln as the MKX and MKT, respectively). Except for the Grand Marquis (which had overtaken and replaced the Ford Crown Victoria in retail sales), following the Cougar, each Mercury sedan and SUV was produced with a direct Ford divisional counterpart.
On June 2, 2010, Ford announced the closure of the Mercury line, effective at the end of the year as the company concentrated its marketing and engineering efforts on the Ford and Lincoln model lines. In terms of overall sales in North America, the Mercury brand held a 1 percent share (compared to the 16 percent share of Ford). After selling under 93,000 vehicles for 2009, Mercury had sold fewer vehicles than either Oldsmobile or Plymouth prior to their discontinuation. At the time, Mercury vehicles were sold in the United States, Canada, Mexico, Puerto Rico, U.S. Virgin Islands, and the Middle East. For 2010, 93,165 Mercury vehicles were sold, nearly 265,000 fewer than in 2000.
For its two slowest-selling model lines, Mercury ended the Sable and the Mountaineer after the 2009 and 2010 model years; the two vehicles completed their model cycles without replacement. The Mariner, Milan, and Grand Marquis were produced through the end of 2010 for a shortened 2011 model year. On January 4, 2011, the final Grand Marquis was produced by Ford of Canada as the final Mercury-brand vehicle. As Ford announced the closure of the Mercury brand, signage related to the brand began to disappear from Lincoln-Mercury dealers. To reflect the change completely, the Lincoln division renamed the Lincoln Motor Company (its name before World War II) in December 2012.
Sales figures
Mercury in Canada
During the middle of the 20th century, the small dealership network of Ford Motor Company in Canada necessitated some branding changes to attract buyers into showrooms. This was especially the case in smaller, rural communities in need of trucks, as these areas were served by either a Ford or a Lincoln-Mercury dealer, but rarely both. Mirroring General Motors in Canada, Monarch competed against Oldsmobile while Meteor competed against Pontiac; Mercury trucks competed against GMC.
Following the demise of Edsel and its effects on the Lincoln-Mercury division as well as the Canada–United States Automotive Products Agreement, Ford largely integrated its model lines across the United States and Canada by the end of the 1960s.
Monarch
From 1946 to 1957, to attract buyers of medium-price vehicles, Ford of Canada marketed the Monarch brand in their dealership network. Using much of the body and trim of the Mercury, Monarch was a three-model line with the Richelieu, Lucerne and Sceptre matching the Mercury Monterey, Montclair, and Park Lane, respectively. It was sold at Ford dealerships, offering an upgraded car from the standard Ford line.
Ford of Canada replaced Monarch with the Edsel brand for 1958; a poor reception to Edsel in Canada led to the return of Monarch for 1959. The same year, the Ford Galaxie was introduced, shifting the Ford brand upward in price and content; fearing brand overlap with the Galaxie, Ford of Canada ended the Monarch brand after the 1961 model year.
In 1975, the Monarch nameplate would again become associated with Mercury (in both the United States and Canada), becoming the counterpart of the Ford Granada.
Meteor
From 1949 to 1976, Lincoln-Mercury of Canada marketed the Meteor nameplate as its lowest-price brand to compete in lower-price markets (most closely against Pontiac). In contrast to the Mercury and the Monarch of the 1950s, which derived their bodies from Lincoln, the Meteor combined a Ford body with a Mercury grille and trim. The brand was marketed as a four-model counterpart of the Ford line (Meteor, Niagara, and Rideau; the Montcalm was added in 1959 to match the Galaxie).
For 1962 and 1963, Lincoln-Mercury of Canada dropped the Meteor brand, coinciding with the introduction of the namesake Mercury product line and as Mercury distanced itself from Lincoln in price at the beginning of the 1960s. In 1964, Meteor was revived in Canada (replacing the Mercury Monterey in the same market). In 1965, Meteor returned the Rideau and Montcalm names, using a Ford Galaxie body with a Mercury grille. For 1967, its equivalent of the LTD was named the Montego, renamed the LeMoyne for 1968 (as Mercury themselves adopted the Montego name).
In 1968, Lincoln-Mercury of Canada added Mercury badging to Meteor vehicles, gradually beginning to integrate Meteor into its model line. After 1976, the Rideau and Montcalm were discontinued, combined as a base Meteor trim level for the Mercury Marquis in Canada; Lincoln-Mercury of Canada dropped the Marquis Meteor after the 1981 model year.
Trucks
To increase the availability of its truck lineup in Canada, Ford introduced Mercury-badged trucks in Lincoln-Mercury dealerships in 1946. Initially rebadging the Ford F-Series light trucks as the Mercury M-series, the product range was expanded to include Mercury-badged versions of the medium-duty Ford F-series (and its school bus chassis variant), the C-Series COE truck, and a Mercury version of the Econoline. Sharing nearly identical bodywork with Ford trucks, Mercury-badged trucks were largely distinguished by a division-specific grille and exterior trim and badging.
Sold only in Canada, Ford ended sales of Mercury-badged trucks after 1968 (sales of the Mercury version of the C-Series COE continued through 1972); during the 1960s, the M-series shifted closer in appearance to its Ford counterpart. Following the withdrawal of the M-series, Mercury permanently ended pickup truck production, not marketing another light truck until the 1993 Villager minivan.
Brand identity
Logo
The first logo of the Mercury brand was its namesake, the Roman god Mercury. Towards the early years of the brand, Mercury used its Roman namesake in a silhouette profile (with signature bowl hat with wings, as shown in the image). This logo was briefly revived for 2003–2004, used in the alloy wheel centers of the Mercury Marauder.
In the mid-1950s, Mercury introduced "The Big M", the namesake letter with horizontal extensions at its bottom; at the time, Mercury was a prime sponsor of The Ed Sullivan Show. After 1959, the "Big M" was replaced by a crest emblem. In various forms, Mercury would use a crest emblem on its vehicles through the end of the 1980s. While upper-trim models (such as the Grand Monarch Ghia or Marquis) would feature a crest on the hood or grille, lower-trim models (such as the Monterey or Montego) featured a crest in places such as the wheels. For a time, the Marquis (later Grand Marquis) used a modified version of the Lincoln star emblem.
Following the 1967 introduction of the Mercury Cougar, the branding of Mercury vehicles changed; similar to the Ford Mustang pony emblem, the Cougar adopted its own "prowling cat" logo. During the 1970s, the Cougar became the most popular Mercury vehicle, with a "Sign of the Cat" advertising campaign launched by the division. For 1977, the Cougar logo was revised from a "prowling cat" to a "cat-head" emblem, later adapted by the Mercury Lynx, Mercury LN7 and the Mercury Capri.
In 1984, Mercury introduced what would become its final brand emblem (pictured in the article information box). Centered in the grille, the silver Mercury emblem is a set of three stacked obtuse angles (also in silver). Introduced with the Mercury Topaz, the emblem was adopted by the Lynx and Sable, with the Grand Marquis/Colony Park adopting it in 1988 (on hood ornaments and wheels). In 1999, the emblem saw a minor revision, with the word "Mercury" added to the top half of the emblem. The emblem became the final design featured for a hood ornament of an American-brand automobile, offered as an option for the Grand Marquis for 2005 (for a single year).
Grille design
The Mercury styling of the brand is most commonly associated with a waterfall-style grille. First making an appearance in the 1946 Mercury Eight, the design was revived in the 1961–1964 Monterey/Colony Park. The design would reappear in the debut of the Mercury Cougar, as designers sought to differentiate the model from the Ford Mustang. During the 1970s, the vertical waterfall grille design was adapted by nearly all Mercury vehicles (except for the Capri and Comet).
In 1986, as part of the introduction of the Mercury Sable and a revision of the Mercury Topaz, the division introduced a "lightbar" front grille. Using low-power light bulbs, the grille between the headlights was illuminated. By 1992, the feature was adapted by all Mercury vehicles (except for the Cougar and Grand Marquis).
In 1997, as part of the introduction of the Mercury Mountaineer SUV, Mercury reintroduced the chrome vertical "waterfall" grille. In place of the radiator-style grille of Lincoln, several grille shapes were initially used, before the division adapted a rectangular grille opening in the mid-2000s.
"Breezeway" roof
In 1957, Mercury introduced the Mercury Turnpike Cruiser, featuring a roofline with a retractable rear window. From 1958 to 1960, the feature made its return on the Continental Mark-series line, with a reverse-slant rear window (on both hardtops and convertibles). For 1963, Mercury reintroduced the feature as an option for the Monterey; to streamline production, elements of the window design were shared with Ford station wagons. From 1963 to 1966, the optional reverse-slant roofline with retracting rear window was unique to Mercury, featured by no other American brand.
Branding
Following the replacement of the Mercury Eight by the Mercury Monterey in 1952, the division adopted a nameplate nomenclature for its model lines. For the next six decades, the later Montclair, Medalist, Meteor, Marauder, Montego, (Grand) Marquis, Monarch, Mystique, Mountaineer, Milan, and Mariner all used nameplates starting with "M". Beginning the 1967 debut of the Mercury Cougar, several nameplates were derived from big cats, including the Bobcat and Lynx (with the Sable also adopting an animal name).
Mercury woodgrain-trim station wagons used the Villager nameplate, in line with the Ford Squire name. Reviving a nameplate used by Edsel wagons, Mercury used the nameplate for all station wagons from the 1960s to the 1980s (except for the Colony Park). After becoming dormant in the early 1980s, the Villager name returned in 1993 (as the Mercury Villager minivan).
From the 1980s to the 2000s, Mercury adopted a common trim nomenclature across its model lines, with GS standing for a base-trim model and LS as a high-trim version. For performance-oriented trims, XR was used (Cougar XR7, Topaz XR5, and Capri XR3). From the mid to late-2000s, Mercury shifted its trim nomenclature in line with Lincoln, with full words replacing letter-based designations.
See also
List of automobile manufacturers
List of Mercury vehicles
References
External links
Car manufacturers of the United States
Ford Motor Company
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of the United States
Motor vehicle manufacturers based in Michigan
Premier Automotive Group
1938 establishments in Michigan
American companies established in 1938
2011 disestablishments in the United States
Vehicle manufacturing companies established in 1938
Vehicle manufacturing companies disestablished in 2011
American brands
Ford Motor Company Marques
Luxury motor vehicle manufacturers | [
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256340 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Callistephus | Callistephus | Callistephus is a monotypic genus of flowering plants in the aster family, Asteraceae, containing the single species Callistephus chinensis. Its common names include China aster and annual aster. It is native to China and Korea. and it is cultivated worldwide as an ornamental plant in cottage gardens and as a cut flower.
Description
This is an annual or biennial plant with one erect, mostly unbranched stem growing tall. The alternately arranged leaves vary in shape or size. The basal leaves usually fall away before flowering. Leaves around the middle of the stem are a few centimeters long and are borne on winged petioles. The blades have serrated edges. Leaves toward the top may have smooth edges. The large solitary flower head grows at the top of the stem and sometimes on branches. The head is lined with layers of phyllaries, those in the outer layer large and leaflike, measuring up to 3 centimeters long. The inner layer can be purple-tinged. The head contains one or two rings of ray florets, most often in shades of reddish purple. The flowering period is from August to October in the northern hemisphere.
Cultivation
This species has been grown and bred extensively in cultivation. Cultivars are available with flowers of many colors, varying heights, and single and double heads. In the wild, they are purple in color. There are several cultivars with flowers of different colors. Cultivars with flowers of other colors were obtained in particular by hybridization. Cultivated varieties can have ray florets in most any color, including red, pink, blue, purple, and white. They are up to 3.5 centimeters long. There are many yellow disc florets in the center. The fruit is a rough-textured, glandular, purple-mottled cypsela that turns gray with age. It has a pappus composed of one outer layer of reddish scales and two inner layers of white bristles.
It has been in cultivation in Europe since 1728 at the latest. In China, it has been cultivated for 2000 years.
Distribution
This plant is a naturalized species in some areas outside of its native range (Indochina, Europe, North America, Australia, New Zealand, etc.) and can be found on the edges of deciduous forests. It grows at altitudes from 300 to 2700 above mean sea level. As ornamental plant it thrives on fresh, nutrient-rich, easy-humus rich soils in warm humid air conditioning.
Pests and diseases
The plants are susceptible to fusarium wilt, a fungal disease. Some cultivars are more resistant to this than others. Pest insects can include leafhoppers, aphids, blister beetles, and the tarnished plant bug. The plant is also susceptible to mites.
Gallery
References
Astereae
Monotypic Asteraceae genera
Flora of China | [
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256343 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/On-to-Ottawa%20Trek | On-to-Ottawa Trek | The On-to-Ottawa Trek was a result of the unrest of unemployed single men in federal relief camps. Federal relief camps were brought in under Prime Minister R. B. Bennett’s government as a result of the Great Depression. The Great Depression crippled the Canadian economy and left one in nine citizens on relief. The relief, however, did not come free; the Bennett Government ordered the Department of National Defence to organize work camps where single unemployed men were used to construct roads and other public works at a rate of twenty cents per day. The men in the relief camps were living in poor conditions with very low wages. The men decided to unite and in 1933, and led by Arthur "Slim" Evans the men created Workers' Unity League (WUL). The Workers' Unity League helped the men organize the Relief Camp Workers' Union.
A strike was held in December 1934 with the men leaving the various camps and protesting in Vancouver, British Columbia. After a two-month protest, they returned to the camps after a promise of a government commission to look into their complaints. When a commission was not appointed a second strike was approved by the members and a walkout was called on April 4, 1935.
About 1,000 strikers headed for Ottawa. The strikers' demands were: wages of 50 cents an hour for unskilled work, union wages for skilled, at least 120 hours of work a month, the provision of adequate first aid equipment in the camps, the extension of the Workmen's Compensation Act to include camp workers, recognition of democratically elected workers' committees, that workers in camps be granted the right to vote in elections, and the camps be removed from the purview of the Department of National Defence. Public support for the men was enormous, but the municipal, provincial and federal governments passed responsibility between themselves. They then decided to take their grievances to the federal government. On June 3, 1935, hundreds of men began boarding boxcars headed east in what became known as the "On-to-Ottawa Trek".
Meeting in Ottawa
The protesters reached Regina, Saskatchewan, on June 14. Three days later, on June 17, the protesters met with two federal cabinet ministers in the government of Prime Minister R. B. Bennett, Robert Manion and Robert Weir. Robert Manion and Robert Weir invited eight elected representatives of the protest (with Arthur "Slim" Evans as their leader) to Ottawa to meet Bennett on the condition the rest of the protesters stay in Regina, where a large contingent of the Royal Canadian Mounted Police was located. The remaining trekkers continued remain in the stadium located on Regina Exhibition Grounds, "with food and shelter supplied by townspeople and the Saskatchewan government."
The June 22nd Ottawa meeting turned into a shouting match, with Bennett accusing Trek leader Arthur "Slim" Evans of being an "embezzler." Evans, in turn, called the Prime Minister "a liar" before the delegation was finally escorted out of the building and on to the street.
Regina Riot
The eight delegates arrived back in Regina on June 26. Attempts of the Trekkers to travel east by car or truck or train were thwarted by RCMP. A public meeting was called for July 1, 1935, in Market Square in Germantown (now the site of the Regina City Police station) to update the public on the progress of the movement. It was attended by 1,500 to 2,000 people, of whom only 300 were Trekkers. Most Trekkers decided to stay at the exhibition grounds.
Three large moving trucks were parked on three sides of the square concealing RCMP riot squads. Regina police were in the garage of the police station which was in Market Square. At 8:17 p.m. a whistle was blown, and the police charged the crowd with batons from all four sides. The attack caught the people off guard before their anger took over. They fought back with sticks, stones, and anything at hand. Mounted RCMP officers then started to use tear gas and fired guns. Driven from the Square, and with the RCMP blocking the roadway back to the Stadium grounds, the battle continued in the surrounding streets for six hours.
Police fired revolvers above and into groups of people. Tear gas bombs were thrown at any groups that gathered together. Plate glass windows in stores and offices were smashed, but with one exception, these stores were not looted, they were burned. People covered their faces with wet handkerchiefs to counter the effects of the tear gas and barricaded streets with cars. Finally, the Trekkers who had attended the meeting made their way individually or in small groups back to the exhibition stadium where the main body of Trekkers were quartered.
When it was over, 140 Trekkers and citizens had been arrested. Charles Miller, a plainclothes policeman, died, and Nick Schaack, a Trekker, later died in the hospital from injuries sustained in the riot. There were hundreds of injured residents and Trekkers were taken to hospitals or private homes. Those taken to a hospital were also arrested. Property damage was considerable. The police claimed 39 injuries in addition to the dead police officer, but denied that any protesters had been killed in the melee; the hospital records were subsequently altered to conceal the actual cause of death.
Trekkers Arthur Evans and George Black who were on the speakers' platform were arrested by plainclothes police at the beginning of the melee.
The city's exhibition grounds were surrounded by constables armed with revolvers as well as automatic fire-arms. The next day a barbed wire stockade was erected around the area. News of the police-instigated riot was front-page news across Canada. About midnight one of the Trek leaders telephoned Saskatchewan Premier Gardiner, who agreed to meet their delegation the next morning. The RCMP were livid when they heard of this and apprehended the delegates for interrogation but eventually released them in time to see the premier.
Premier Gardiner sent a wire to the Prime Minister, accusing the police of "precipitating a riot" while he had been negotiating a settlement with the Trekkers. He also told the prime minister the "men should be fed where they are and sent back to camp and homes as they request" and stated his government was prepared to "undertake this work of disbanding the men." An agreement to this effect was subsequently negotiated. Bennett was satisfied that he had smashed what he believed was a communist revolt and Gardiner was glad to rid his province of the strikers.
The Federal Minister of Justice Hugh Guthrie made the false statement in the House of Commons on July 2 that "shots were fired by the strikers, and the fire was replied to with shots from the city police." During the lengthy trials that followed, no evidence was ever produced to show that strikers fired shots during the riot. For his part, Bennett characterized the On-to-Ottawa Trek as "not a mere uprising against law and order but a definite revolutionary effort on the part of a group of men to usurp authority and destroy government."
Effects
The Bennett government swiftly came into action regarding "the prosecution of the trek leaders and those who had been charged with rioting and assault." The events helped to discredit Bennett's Conservative government, and in the 1935 federal election, his party went from holding 135 seats to just 39. After the Trek, the Saskatchewan government provided free transportation as a peace sign back to the west. The camps were soon dismantled and replaced by seasonal relief camps run by the provinces, and that paid the men slightly more for their labor than the earlier camps. Although the Trek did not reach Ottawa, its reverberations certainly did. Several demands of the Trekkers were eventually met, and the public support that galvanized behind the Trek set the tone for the social and welfare provisions of the postwar era.
See also
Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years
Great Depression in Canada
Canadian Cities in the Great Depression
History of Regina, Saskatchewan
Bonus Army
Estevan Riot
List of riots and civil unrest in Calgary
References
External links
On-to-Ottawa Trek - video dramatization (narrated by Trek participants, with historical footage)
The On-to-Ottawa Trek
On to Ottawa Historical Society
Records of Robert Jackson are held by Simon Fraser University's Special Collections and Rare Books
1935 labor disputes and strikes
1935 riots
1935 in Canada
Canada in the World Wars and Interwar Years
Great Depression in Canada
History of Regina, Saskatchewan
Labour disputes in Canada
Protest marches in Canada
Riots and civil disorder in Canada
Communism in Canada
1935 in Saskatchewan
1935 in Ontario
1935 protests | [
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256344 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Trevor%20McDonald | Trevor McDonald | Sir Trevor McDonald (born George McDonald; 16 August 1939) is a Trinidadian-British newsreader and journalist, best known for his career as a news presenter with ITN.
McDonald was knighted in 1999 for his services to journalism.
Career
Early career
Trevor McDonald was born on 16 August 1939 in San Fernando, Trinidad and Tobago, to Josephine and Lawson McDonald. McDonald is of Dougla heritage, his mother being of African descent and his father being of Indian descent.
After working as a print and broadcast journalist in Trinidad during the 1960s, in 1969, McDonald was employed by BBC Radio as a producer, based in London but still broadcasting to the Caribbean. In 1973, he began his long association with Independent Television News, first as a general reporter, later as a sports correspondent, but ultimately concentrating on international politics. In the 1980s, he spent some time with the ITN-produced Channel 4 News, but returned to ITV in 1989, presenting the early-evening news.
News at Ten
McDonald was promoted in 1992 as the sole presenter of News at Ten and became a well-known face on British television screens. McDonald stayed with ITN when News at Ten was axed in 1999, moving to present the new ITV Evening News. News at Ten was briefly relaunched on 22 January 2001, to which McDonald returned as a presenter. He presented the ITV News at 10.30 following News at Tens second axing.
Tonight
From 1999 to 2007, McDonald hosted ITV's flagship current affairs programme Tonight with Trevor McDonald. The show was revived in 2010 with presenter Julie Etchingham.
First retirement
McDonald presented his last ITV News bulletin on 15 December 2005. He stepped down from his role as anchor after more than 30 years at ITN, but said he had no plans to retire completely from television. McDonald told his ITN colleagues that he wanted a low-key departure after having observed the departures of Tom Brokaw and Dan Rather in the United States. At the end of the final programme, he signed off with the words:
Over the closing titles of the last bulletin that McDonald presented, the November 1992 to March 1999 ITV News at Ten theme was played as a tribute to him.
Return to News at Ten
On 31 October 2007, ITV announced that, early in 2008, McDonald would come out of retirement to present the relaunched News at Ten together with Julie Etchingham.
Second retirement
It was announced on 30 October 2008 that McDonald would step down from News at Ten once the 2008 US presidential election was over, to be replaced by Mark Austin. His last bulletin was on 20 November 2008. It was reported at the time that he would continue to present links for The Tonight Programme.
Documentaries
In 2009, McDonald travelled to the Caribbean and hosted the three-part series The Secret Caribbean with Trevor McDonald for ITV.
In 2011, McDonald travelled around the Mediterranean and hosted the four-part series The Secret Mediterranean with Trevor McDonald for ITV.
In 2012, McDonald travelled along the route of the Mississippi River and hosted the three-part series The Mighty Mississippi with Trevor McDonald.
In 2013, McDonald visited death row inmates in Indiana and hosted the two-part series Inside Death Row.
In early 2015, McDonald travelled to New York City and hosted the two-part series The Mafia with Trevor McDonald.
In late 2015, McDonald presented Las Vegas with Trevor McDonald, a two-part series for ITV.
In September 2016, McDonald presented a two-part series called Inside Scotland Yard With Trevor McDonald for ITV.
In February 2017, McDonald presented two-part documentary Mafia Women with Trevor McDonald for ITV.
In late 2017, McDonald presented a documentary called An Hour to Catch a Killer for ITV.
In February 2018, McDonald presented Death Row 2018 with Trevor McDonald for ITV.
In February 2018, McDonald presented James Bulger: A Mother's Story with Trevor McDonald for ITV.
In September 2018, McDonald presented To Catch a Serial Killer with Trevor McDonald for ITV.
In February 2019, McDonald presented Fred & Rose West: The Real Story with Trevor McDonald for ITV.
In January 2021, McDonald presented a two-part documentary called And Finally… with Trevor McDonald for ITV.
In May 2021, McDonald co-presented a documentary called Trevor McDonald & Charlene White: Has George Floyd Changed Britain? for ITV.
McDonald will present the upcoming ITV documentary The Killing of PC Harper: A Wife’s Story
Other work and media appearances
In 1996, McDonald presented the "Hogmanay at the Palace"
McDonald presented the TV series Undercover Customs, which created reconstructions of major HM Customs and Excise investigations in the UK.
On 21 April 2006, McDonald presented an episode of Have I Got News for You; he delivered a number of autocue jokes, some of which were extremely risqué, in his usual somber newscaster manner, the juxtaposition of which prompted team captain Paul Merton, who usually maintains a straight face on the show, to laugh heartily in disbelief on numerous occasions. It was McDonald's first appearance in any capacity on the show since 1992.
McDonald was formerly Chancellor of London South Bank University. He also has intimate ties with King's College School in Wimbledon, a London day school, where he is now a governor.
McDonald is the author of biographies of the cricketers Viv Richards and Clive Lloyd.
McDonald has worked as an editor of poetry anthologies, and his autobiography Fortunate Circumstances was published in 1993.
Lenny Henry's comic character Trevor McDoughnut is a parody of McDonald. McDonald once surprised Henry during a performance of "McDoughnut" on Tiswas by walking into the studio to sit with Henry. McDonald returned to Tiswas on two further occasions. First, a number of weeks after his original surprise appearance, he cropped up during a spoof edition of This Is Your Life to "reminisce" with Lenny Henry about the earlier event. The other appearance occurred during the Tiswas Reunited show (a reunion programme broadcast in June 2007) where McDonald joined Lenny on the sofa once again to look back at the old clips and comment on Henry's impersonation.
McDonald performed live in Hyde Park in summer 1996 with the Who, as the newsreader in the group's staging of their Quadrophenia.
In June 2007, McDonald hosted the new ITV version of This Is Your Life, Simon Cowell being the programme's "victim".
In August 2010, McDonald conducted a live on-stage interview with Archbishop Desmond Tutu at Fairfield Halls in Croydon at an event entitled An Audience with Desmond Tutu.
In 2014, McDonald presented a media training course entitled "Deal with the Media with Sir Trevor McDonald".
McDonald presented a special edition of Countdown in September 2021 as part of Channel 4's Black To Front Day.
In 2021, McDonald appeared as the titular character in E4's revival of GamesMaster
Awards
McDonald holds honorary degrees from the University of Plymouth and Liverpool John Moores University. He was appointed Knight Bachelor in the Queen's 1999 Birthday Honours for his services to broadcasting and journalism. He was awarded with "Special Recognition" at the National Television Awards in 2003 and with a BAFTA fellowship at the 2011 British Academy Television Awards.
References
External links
Vision Aid Overseas
Sir Trevor reads final bulletin BBC News, 15 December 2005
Newsworthy career of Sir Trevor BBC News, 15 December 2005
"Sir Trevor McDonald Reveals The Stand Out Moment in His Career | This Morning". YouTube, 23 October 2019.
1939 births
Knights Bachelor
BAFTA fellows
ITN newsreaders and journalists
ITV people
Living people
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
People associated with London South Bank University
British reporters and correspondents
Trinidad and Tobago television personalities
Trinidad and Tobago journalists
Trinidad and Tobago emigrants to the United Kingdom
Trinidad and Tobago knights
Black British television personalities
Trinidad and Tobago people of Grenadian descent
Trinidad and Tobago people of Indian descent
Trinidad and Tobago people of Dougla descent
Presidents of Surrey County Cricket Club
Black British journalists | [
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256349 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/We | We | In Modern English, we is a plural, first-person pronoun.
Morphology
In Standard Modern English, we has six distinct shapes for five word forms:
we: the nominative (subjective) form
us and 's: the accusative (objective; also called the 'oblique'.) form
our: the dependent genitive (possessive) form
ours: the independent genitive (possessive) form
ourselves: the reflexive form
There is also a distinct determiner we as in we humans aren't perfect, which some people consider to be just an extended use of the pronoun.
History
We has been part of English since Old English, having come from Proto-Germanic *wejes, from PIE *we-. Similarly, us was used in Old English as the accusative and dative plural of we, from PIE *nes-. The following table shows the old English first-person plural and dual pronouns:
By late Middle English the dual form was lost and the dative and accusative had merged. The ours genitive can be seen as early as the 12th century. Ourselves replaced original construction we selfe, us selfum in the 15th century, so that, by century's end, the Middle English forms of we had solidified into those we use today.
Gender
We is not generally seen as participating in the system of gender. In Old English, it certainly didn't. Only third-person pronouns had distinct masculine, feminine, and neutre gender forms. But by the 17th century, that old gender system, which also marked gender on common nouns and adjectives, had disappeared, leaving only pronoun marking. At the same time, a new relative pronoun system was developing that eventually split between personal relative who and impersonal relative which. This is seen as a new personal / non-personal (or impersonal) gender system. As a result,
Syntax
Functions
We can appear as a subject, object, determiner or predicative complement. The reflexive form also appears as an adjunct.
Subject: We're there; us being there; our being there; we planned for ourselves to be there.
Object: They saw us; She pointed them to us; We though about ourselves.
Predicative complement: They have become us; We eventually felt we had become ourselves.
Dependent determiner: We reached our goals; We humans aren't perfect; Give it to us students.
Independent determiner: This is ours.
Adjunct: We did it ourselves.
The contracted object form 's is only possible after the special let of let's do that.
Dependents
Pronouns rarely take dependents, but it is possible for we to have many of the same kind of dependents as other noun phrases.
Relative clause modifier: we who arrived late
Determiner: Not a lot of people know the real us.
Adjective phrase modifier: Not a lot of people know the real us.
Adverb phrase external modifier: not even us
Semantics
We's referents generally must include the speaker, along with other persons. A few exceptional cases, which include nosism, are presented below. We is always definite and specific.
Royal We
The royal we, or majestic plural (pluralis majestatis), is sometimes used by a person of high office, such as a monarch, earl, or pope. It has singular semantics.
Editorial we
The editorial we is a similar phenomenon, in which an editorial columnist in a newspaper or a similar commentator in another medium refers to themselves as we when giving their opinion. Here, the writer casts themselves in the role of spokesperson: either for the media institution who employs them, or on behalf of the party or body of citizens who agree with the commentary. The reference is not explicit, but is generally consistent with first-person plural.
Author's we
The author's we, or pluralis modestiae, is a practice referring to a generic third person as we (instead of one or the informal you):
By adding four and five, we obtain nine.
We are therefore led also to a definition of "time" in physics. — Albert Einstein
We in this sense often refers to "the reader and the author" because the author often assumes that the reader knows and agrees with certain principles or previous theorems for the sake of brevity (or, if not, the reader is prompted to look them up). This practice is discouraged by some academic style guides because it fails to distinguish between sole authorship and co-authorship. Again, the reference is not explicit, but is generally consistent with first-person plural.
Inclusive and exclusive we
Some languages distinguish between inclusive we, which includes both the speaker and the addressee(s), and exclusive we, which excludes the addressee(s). English does not make this distinction grammatically, though we can have both inclusive and exclusive semantics.
Imperative let's or let us allows imperatives to be inclusive. Compare:
Take this outside. (exclusive, 2nd person)
Let's take this outside. (inclusive, 1st person)
Second-person we
We is used sometimes in place of you to address a second party: A doctor may ask a patient: "And how are we feeling today?". A waiter may ask a client: "What are we in the mood for?"
Pronunciation
According to the OED, the following pronunciations are used:
References
Middle English personal pronouns
Modern English personal pronouns
Old English personal pronouns | [
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256350 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2003%20Oregon%20Ballot%20Measure%2028 | 2003 Oregon Ballot Measure 28 | Measure 28 was a ballot measure, referred by the legislature of the U.S. state of Oregon in 2003. It would have created a temporary one-percent increase in Oregon's income tax. The tax was proposed as a way to overcome deficits to the state budget. The measure was defeated in the January 28, 2003 special election with 575,846 votes in favor, 676,312 votes against.
Budget problems, caused by minorities, high unemployment, and problems with Oregon's public pension system, dominated Oregon's 2002–2003 biennium. To make up for lost revenue, the legislature approved a mixture of budget cuts and referred Measure 28 to a vote of the people. The referral was marred by controversy as Democratic Governor John Kitzhaber objected to the Republican-controlled legislature's omission of the cuts that would result from the measure's failure in the ballot title (the summary of the measure provided to voters). Supporters of the measure blamed the ballot title omission for the defeat of the measure.
Proponents of the measure felt it was the only way to avoid proposed spending cuts to programs such as education and help for the elderly and mentally ill. Opponents, many part of the Oregon tax revolt, felt that increasing taxes would prolong the recession, and that the state should live within its means.
Cuts in the wake of Measure 28's defeat seemed to vindicate proponents' arguments. The day after Measure 28's defeat, Multnomah County released 144 inmates from the county jail and laid off 175 Sheriff's deputies. Some fiscal conservatives felt that wasteful spending was more to blame than the tax defeat.
Nonetheless, the high percentage of "yes" votes in the Portland metro area inspired local governments in that region to bring their own temporary tax increases to the ballot.
A year later, voters defeated a similar measure, Measure 30.
See also
List of Oregon ballot measures
References
External links
Oregon Voters' Pamphlet Measure 28 from Oregon State Library Digital Collection—includes ballot title, text of the measure, and arguments for and against
2003 28 | [
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256354 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/IBM%20System/34 | IBM System/34 | The IBM System/34 was an IBM midrange computer introduced in 1977. It was withdrawn from marketing in February 1985. It was a multi-user, multi-tasking successor to the single-user System/32. It included two processors, one based on the System/32 and the second based on the System/3. Like the System/32 and the System/3, the System/34 was primarily programmed in the RPG II language.
Hardware
The 5340 System Unit contained the processing unit, the disk storage and the diskette drive. It had several access doors on both sides. Inside, were swing-out assemblies where the circuit boards and memory cards were mounted. It weighed and used 220V power. The IBM 5250 series of terminals were the primary interface to the System/34.
Processors
S/34s had two processors, the Control Storage Processor (CSP), and the Main Storage Processor (MSP). The MSP was the workhorse, based on System/3 architecture; it performed the instructions in the computer programs. The CSP was the governor, a different processor with different RISC-like instruction set, based on System/32 architecture; it performed system functions in the background. The CSP also executed the optional Scientific Macroinstructions, which were a set of emulated instructions used by the System/34 Fortran compiler and optionally in assembly code. The clock speed of the CPUs inside a System/34 was fixed at 1 MHz for the MSP and 4 MHz for the CSP. Special utility programs were able to make direct calls to the CSP to perform certain functions; these are usually system programs like $CNFIG which was used to configure the computer system.
Memory and storage
The smallest S/34 had 48K of RAM and an 8.6 MB hard drive. The largest configured S/34 could support 256K of RAM and 256MB of disk space. S/34 hard drives contained a feature called "the extra cylinder," so that bad spots on the drive were detected and dynamically mapped out to good spots on the extra cylinder. Disk space on the System/34 was organized by blocks of 2560 bytes.
The System/34 supported memory paging, referring to as swapping. The System/34 could either swap out entire programs, or individual segments of a program in order to free up memory for other programs to run.
One of the machine's most distinctive features was an off-line storage mechanism that utilized "" - boxes of 8-inch floppies that the machine could load and eject in a nonsequential fashion.
Software
Operating System
The System Support Program (SSP) was the only operating system of the S/34. It contained support for multiprogramming, multiple processors, 36 devices, job queues, printer queues, security, indexed file support. Fully installed, it was about 5 MB. The Operational Control Language (OCL) was the control language of SSP.
Programming
The System/34's initial programming languages were limited to RPG II and Basic Assembler when introduced in 1977. FORTRAN was fully available six months after the 34's introduction, and COBOL was available as a PRPQ. BASIC was introduced later.
Successor systems
The IBM System/38 was intended to be the successor of the System/34 and the earlier System/3x systems. However, due to the delays in the development of the System/38 and the high cost of the hardware once complete, IBM developed the simpler and cheaper System/36 platform which was more widely adopted than the System/38. The System/36 was an evolution of the System/34 design, but the two machines were not object-code compatible. Instead, the System/36 offered source code compatibility, allowing System/34 applications to be recompiled on a System/36 with little to no changes. Some System/34 hardware was incompatible with the System/36.
A third party product from California Software Products, Inc. named BABY/34 allowed System/34 applications to be ported to IBM PC compatible hardware running MS-DOS.
References
Further reading
External links
IBM Archives: System/34
Bitsavers Archive of System/34 Documentation
System 34
Computer-related introductions in 1977
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256355 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crusader%20states | Crusader states | The Crusader States, also known as Outremer, were four Roman Catholic realms in the Middle East that lasted from 1098 to 1291. These feudal polities were created by the Latin Catholic leaders of the First Crusade through conquest and political intrigue. The four states were the County of Edessa (10981150), the Principality of Antioch (10981287), the County of Tripoli (11021289), and the Kingdom of Jerusalem (10991291). The kingdom of Jerusalem covered what is now Israel and Palestine, the West Bank, the Gaza Strip, and adjacent areas. The other northern states covered what are now Syria, south-eastern Turkey, and Lebanon. The description "Crusader states" can be misleading, as from 1130 very few of the Frankish population were crusaders. The term Outremer, used by medieval and modern writers as a synonym, is derived from the French for overseas.
In 1098, the armed pilgrimage to Jerusalem passed through Syria. The crusader Baldwin of Boulogne replaced the Greek Orthodox ruler of Edessa after a coup d'état, and Bohemond of Taranto remained as the ruling prince in the captured city of Antioch. In 1099, Jerusalem was taken after a siege. Territorial consolidation followed, including the taking of Tripoli. At the states' largest extent, their territory covered the coastal areas of southern modern Turkey, Syria, Lebanon, Israel, and Palestine. Edessa fell to a Turkish warlord in 1144, but the other realms endured into the 13thcentury before falling to the Mamluk Sultanate of Egypt. Antioch was captured in 1268 and Tripoli in 1289. When Acre, the capital of the kingdom of Jerusalem, fell in 1291, the last territories were quickly lost, with the survivors fleeing to the Kingdom of Cyprus (established after the Third Crusade).
The study of the crusader states in their own right, as opposed to being a sub-topic of the Crusades, began in 19th-century France as an analogy to the French colonial experience in the Levant. 20th-century historians rejected this. Their consensus view was that the Franks, as the western Europeans were known, lived as a minority society that was largely urban, isolated from the indigenous peoples, with separate legal and religious systems. The indigenous peoples were from Christian and Islamic traditions speaking Arabic, Greek, and Syriac.
Outremer
The terms Crusader states and Outremer () describe the four feudal states established after the First Crusade in the Levant in around 1100: (from north to south) the county of Edessa, the principality of Antioch, the county of Tripoli, and the kingdom of Jerusalem. The term Outremer is of medieval origin, whilst modern historians use Crusader states, and the term Franks for the European incomers. However, relatively few of the incoming Europeans took a crusader oath. The Latin chronicles of the First Crusade, written in the early 11th century, called the Western Christians who came from Europe irrespective of their ethnicity. Byzantine Greek sources use and Arabic . Alternatively, the chronicles used , or Latins. These medieval ethnonyms reflect that the settlers could be differentiated from the indigenous population by language and faith. The Franks were mainly French-speaking Roman Catholics, while the natives were mostly Arabic- or Greek-speaking Muslims, Christians of other denominations, and Jews.
The kingdom of Jerusalem extended over historical Palestine and at its greatest extent included some territory east of the Jordan River. The northern states covered what is now part of Syria, south-eastern Turkey, and Lebanon. These areas were historically called Syria (known to the Arabs as al-Sham) and Upper Mesopotamia. Edessa extended east beyond the Euphrates. In the Middle Ages the Crusader States were also called or . From around 1115, the ruler of Jerusalem was styled 'king of the Latins in Jerusalem'. Historian Hans Eberhard Mayer believes this reflected that only Latins held complete political and legal rights in the kingdom, and that the major division in the society was not between the nobility and the common people but between the Franks and the indigenous peoples. Despite sometimes receiving homage from, and acting as regent for, the rulers of the other states, the king held no formalised overlord status, and those states remained legally outside the kingdom.
Jews, Christians, and Muslims respected Palestine, known as the Holy Land, as an exceptionally sacred place. They all associated the region with the lives of the prophets of the Old Testament. The New Testament presented Palestine as the venue of the acts of Jesus and his Apostles. Islamic tradition described the region's principal city, Jerusalem, as the site of Muhammad's miraculous night travel and ascension to Heaven. Places associated with holy people developed into shrines, visited by pilgrims coming from faraway lands, often as an act of penance. The Church of the Holy Sepulchre was built to commemorate Christ's crucifixion and resurrection in Jerusalem. The Church of the Nativity was thought to enclose his birthplace in Bethlehem. The Dome of the Rock and the Al-Aqsa Mosque commemorated Muhammad's night journey. Although the most sacred places of devotion were in Palestine, neighbouring Syria was also studded with popular shrines. As a borderland of the Muslim world, Syria was an important theatre of jihad, or Islamic holy war, though enthusiasm for pursuing it had faded by the end of the 11thcentury. In contrast, the Roman Catholic ideology of holy wars quickly developed, culminating in the idea of crusades for lands claimed for Christianity.
Background
Catholic Europe
Most Crusaders came from what had been the Carolingian Empire around 800. The empire had disintegrated, and two loosely unified successor states had taken its place: the Holy Roman Empire, which encompassed Germany, northern Italy, and the neighbouring lands; and France. Germany was divided into duchies, such as Lower Lorraine and Saxony, and their dukes did not always obey the emperors. The western successor state, France, was even less united. The French kings only controlled a small central region directly. Counts and dukes ruled other regions, and some of them were remarkably wealthy and powerful—in particular, the dukes of Aquitaine and Normandy, and the counts of Anjou, Champagne, Flanders, and Toulouse. Germany and France were surrounded by independent realms, each ruled by a king, among them the most centralised western European monarchy, England.
Western Christians and Muslims interacted mainly through warring or commerce. During the 8th and 9th centuries, the Muslims were on the offensive, and commercial contacts primarily enriched the Islamic world. Europe was rural and underdeveloped, offering little more than raw materials and slaves in return for spices, cloth, and other luxuries from the Middle East. Climate change during the Medieval Warm Period affected the Middle East and western Europe differently. In the east, it caused droughts, while in the west, it improved conditions for agriculture. Higher agricultural yields led to population growth and the expansion of commerce, and to the development of prosperous new military and mercantile elites.
In Catholic Europe, state and society were organised along feudal lines. Landed estates were customarily granted in fief—that is, in return for services that the grantee, or vassal, was to perform for the grantor, or lord. A vassal owed fealty to the lord and was expected to provide military aid and advice to him. Violence was endemic, and a new class of mounted warriors, the knights, emerged. Many built castles, and their feuds brought much suffering to the unarmed population. The development of the knightly class coincided with the subjection of the formerly free peasantry into serfdom, but the connection between the two processes is unclear. As feudal lordships could be established by the acquiring land, western aristocrats willingly launched offensive military campaigns, even against faraway territories. Catholic Europe's expansion in the Mediterranean began in the second half of the 11th century. Norman warlords conquered southern Italy from the Byzantines and ousted the Muslim rulers from Sicily; French aristocrats hastened to the Iberian peninsula to fight the Moors of Al-Andalus; and Italian fleets launched pillaging raids against the north African ports. This shift of power especially benefited merchants from the Italian city-states of Amalfi, Genoa, Pisa, and Venice. They replaced the Muslim and Jewish middlemen in the lucrative trans-Mediterranean commerce, and their fleets became the dominant naval forces in the region.
On the eve of the Crusades, after a thousand years of reputedly uninterrupted succession of popes, the Papacy was Catholic Europe's oldest institution. The popes were seen as the Apostle Saint Peter's successors, and their prestige was high. In the west, the Gregorian Reform reduced lay influence on church life and strengthened papal authority over the clergy. Eastern Christians continued to consider the popes as no more than one of the five highest ranking church leaders, titled patriarchs, and rejected the idea of papal supremacy. This opposition, together with differences in theology and liturgy, caused acrimonious disputes which escalated when a papal legate excommunicated the Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople in 1054. The patriarchs of Alexandria, Antioch, and Jerusalem sided with the Ecumenical Patriarch against the Papacy, but the East–West Schism was not yet inevitable, and the Catholic and Orthodox Churches remained in full communion. The Gregorian Reform enhanced the popes' influence on secular matters. To achieve political goals, popes excommunicated their opponents, placed entire realms under interdict and promised spiritual rewards to those who took up arms for their cause. In 1074 Pope Gregory VII even considered leading a military campaign against the Turks who had attacked Byzantine territories in Anatolia.
Levant
Turkic migration permeated the Middle East from the 9thcentury. Muslim border raiders captured unconverted Turkic nomads in the Central Asian borderlands and sold them to Islamic leaders who used them as slave soldiers. These were known as or and were emancipated when converted to Islam. were valued primarily because the link of their prospects to a single master generated extreme loyalty. In the context of Middle Eastern politics this made them more trustworthy than relatives. Eventually, some descendants climbed the Muslim hierarchy to become king makers or even dynastic founders.
In the mid-11thcentury, a minor clan of Oghuz Turks named Seljuks, after the warlord Saljūq from Transoxiana, had expanded through Khurasan, Iran, and on to Baghdad. There, Saljūq's grandson Tughril was granted the title —'power' in Arabic—by the Abbasid Caliph. The caliphs kept their legitimacy and prestige, but the held political power. Seljuk success was achieved by extreme violence. It brought disruptive nomadism to the sedentary society of the Levant, and set a pattern followed by other nomadic Turkic clans such as the Danishmendids and the Artuqids. The Great Seljuk Empire was decentralised, polyglot, and multi-national. A junior Seljuk ruling a province as an appanage was titled , Arabic for king.
military commanders acting as tutors and guardians for young Seljuk princes held the position of ('father-commander'). If his ward held a province in appanage, the ruled it as regent for the underage . On occasion, the kept power after his ward reached the age of majority or died. The Seljuks adopted and strengthened the traditional system of the administration of state revenues. This system secured the payment of military commanders through granting them the right to collect the land tax in a well-defined territory, but it exposed the taxpayers to an absent lord's greed and to his officials' arbitrary actions. Although the Seljuk state worked when family ties and personal loyalty overlapped the leaders' personal ambitions, the lavish grants combined with rivalries between , , and military commanders could lead to disintegration in critical moments.
The region's ethnic and religious diversity led to alienation among the ruled populations. In Syria, the Seljuk Sunnis ruled indigenous Shias. In Cilicia and northern Syria, the Byzantines, Arabs, and Turks squeezed populations of Armenians. The Seljuks contested control of southern Palestine with Egypt, where Shia rulers ruled a majority Sunni populace through powerful viziers who were mainly Turkic or Armenian, rather than Egyptian or Arab. The Seljuks and the Fatimid Caliphate of Egypt hated each other, as the Seljuk saw themselves as defenders of the Sunni Abbasid Caliphate and Fatimid Egypt was the chief Shi'ite power in Islam. The root of this was beyond cultural and racial conflict but originated in the splits within Islam following Muhammad's death. Sunnis supported a caliphal succession that began with one of his associates, Abu Bakr, while Shi'ites supported an alternative succession from his cousin and son-in-law, Ali.
Islamic law granted the status of , or protected peoples, to the People of the Book, like Christians and Jews. The were second-class citizens, obliged to pay a special poll tax, the , but they could practise their religion and maintain their own law courts. Theological, liturgical, and cultural differences had given rise to the development of competing Christian denominations in the Levant before the 7th-century Muslim conquest. The Greek Orthodox natives, or Melkites, remained in full communion with the Byzantine imperial church, and their religious leaders often came from the Byzantine capital, Constantinople. In the 5thcentury, the Nestorians, and the Monophysite Jacobites, Armenians, and Copts, broke with the Byzantine state church. The Maronites' separate church organisation emerged under Muslim rule.
During the late 10th and early 11thcenturies, the Byzantine Empire had been on the offensive, recapturing Antioch in 969, after three centuries of Arab rule, and invading Syria. Turkic brigands and their Byzantine, also often ethnically Turkic, counterparts called indulged in cross-border raiding. In 1071, while securing his northern borders during a break in his campaigns against the Fatimid Caliphate, Sultan Alp Arslan defeated Byzantine Emperor Romanos IV Diogenes at Manzikert. Romanos' capture and Byzantine factionalism that followed broke Byzantine border control. This enabled large numbers of Turkic warbands and nomadic herders to enter Anatolia. Alp Arslan's cousin Suleiman ibn Qutulmish seized Cilicia and entered Antioch in 1084. Two years later, he was killed in a conflict with the Great Seljuk Empire. Between 1092 and 1094, Nizam al-Mulk, the Sultan Malik-Shah, the Fatimid Caliph, Al-Mustansir Billah and the vizier Badr al-Jamali all died. Malik-Shah's brother Tutush and the of Aleppo and Edessa were killed in the succession conflict, and Suleiman's son Kilij Arslan I revived his father's Sultanate of Rum in Anatolia. The Egyptian succession resulted in a split in the Ismā'īlist branch of Shia Islam. The Persian missionary Hassan-i Sabbah led a breakaway group, creating the Nizari branch of Isma'ilism. This was known as the New Preaching in Syria and the Order of Assassins in western historiography. The Order used targeted murder to compensate for their lack of military power.
The Seljuk invasions, the subsequent eclipse of the Byzantines and Fatimids, and the disintegration of the Seljuk Empire revived the old Levantine system of city-states. The region had always been highly urbanised, and the local societies were organised into networks of interdependent settlements, each centred around a city or a major town. These networks developed into autonomous lordships under the rule of a Turkic, Arab or Armenian warlord or town magistrate in the late 11thcentury. The local took control of Tyre and Tripoli, the Arab Banu Munqidh seized Shaizar, and Tutush's sons Duqaq and Ridwan succeeded in Damascus and Aleppo respectively, but their , Janah ad-Dawla and Toghtekin were in control. Ridwan's retainer Sokman ben Artuq held Jerusalem; Ridwan's father-in-law, Yağısıyan, ruled Antioch; and a warlord representing Byzantine interests, called Thoros, seized Edessa. During this period the old Islamic conflict between Sunni and Shia made the Muslim peoples more likely to wage war on each other than on Christians.
History
Foundation
The Byzantines augmented their armies with mercenaries from the Turks and Europe. This compensated for a shortfall caused by lost territory, especially in Anatolia. In 1095 at the Council of Piacenza, Emperor Alexios I Komnenos requested support from Pope Urban II against the Seljuk threat. What the Emperor probably had in mind was a relatively modest force, and Urban far exceeded his expectations by calling for the First Crusade at the later Council of Clermont. He developed a doctrine of bellum sacrum (Christian holy war) and, based mainly on Old Testament passages in which God leads the Hebrews to victory in war, reconciled this with Church teachings. Urban's call for an armed pilgrimage for the liberation of the Eastern Christians and the recovery of the Holy Land aroused unprecedented enthusiasm in Catholic Europe. Within a year, tens of thousands of people, both commoners and aristocrats, departed for the military campaign. Individual crusaders' motivations to join the crusade varied, but some of them probably left Europe to make a new permanent home in the Levant.
Alexios cautiously welcomed the feudal armies commanded by western nobles. By dazzling them with wealth and charming them with flattery, Alexios extracted oaths of fealty from most of the Crusader commanders. As his vassals, Godfrey of Bouillon, nominally duke of Lower Lorraine; the Italo-Norman Bohemond of Taranto; Bohemond's nephew Tancred of Hauteville; and Godfrey's brother Baldwin of Bologne all swore that any territory gained which the Roman Empire had previously held, would be handed to Alexios' Byzantine representatives. Only Raymond IV, Count of Toulouse refused this oath, instead promising non-aggression towards Alexios.
The Byzantine Tatikios guided the crusade on the arduous three-month march to besiege Antioch, during which the Franks made alliances with local Armenians. Before reaching Antioch, Baldwin and his men left the main army and headed to the Euphrates river, engaging in local politics and seizing the fortifications of Turbessel and Rawandan, where the Armenian populace welcomed him. Thoros, then ruler of this territory, could barely control or defend Edessa, so he tried to hire the Franks as mercenaries. Later, he went further and adopted Baldwin as his son in a power-share arrangement. In March 1098, a month after Baldwin's arrival, a Christian mob killed Thoros and acclaimed Baldwin as , the Byzantine title Thoros had used. Baldwin's position was personal rather than institutional, and the Armenian governance of the city remained in place. Baldwin's nascent County of Edessa consisted of pockets separated from his other holdings of Turbessel, Rawandan and Samosata by the territory of Turkic and Armenian warlords and the Euphrates.
As the crusaders marched towards Antioch, Syrian Muslims asked Sultan Barkiyaruq for help, but he was engaged in a power struggle with his brother Muhammad Tapar. At Antioch, Bohemond persuaded the other leaders the city should be his if he could capture it, and Alexios did not come to claim it. Alexios withdrew, rather than join the siege, after Stephen, Count of Blois (who was deserting) told him defeat was imminent. In June 1098, Bohemond persuaded a renegade Armenian tower commander to let the crusaders into the city. They slaughtered the Muslim inhabitants and, by mistake, some local Christians. The crusade leaders decided to return Antioch to Alexios as they had sworn to at Constantinople, but when they learnt of Alexios' withdrawal, Bohemond claimed the city for himself. The other leaders agreed, apart from Raymond, who supported the Byzantine alliance.
This dispute resulted in the march stalling in north Syria. The crusaders were becoming aware of the chaotic state of Muslim politics through frequent diplomatic relations with the Muslim powers. Raymond indulged in a small expedition. He bypassed Shaizar and laid siege to Arqa to enforce the payment of a tribute. In Raymond's absence, Bohemond expelled Raymond's last troops from Antioch and consolidated his rule in the developing Principality of Antioch.
Under pressure from the poorer Franks, Godfrey and Robert II, Count of Flanders reluctantly joined the eventually unsuccessful siege of Arqa. Alexios asked the crusade to delay the march to Jerusalem, so the Byzantines could assist. Raymond's support for this strategy increased division among the crusade leaders and damaged his reputation among ordinary crusaders.
The crusaders marched along the Mediterranean coast to Jerusalem. On 15 July 1099, crusaders took the city after a siege lasting barely longer than a month. Thousands of Muslims and Jews were killed, and the survivors sold into slavery. Proposals to govern the city as an ecclesiastical state were rejected. Raymond refused the royal title, claiming only Christ could wear a crown in Jerusalem. This may have been to dissuade the more popular Godfrey from assuming the throne, but Godfrey adopted the title ('Defender of the Holy Sepulchre') when he was proclaimed the first Frankish ruler of Jerusalem. In Western Europe an was a layman responsible for the protection and administration of church estates.
The foundation of these three crusader states did not change the political situation in the Levant profoundly. Frankish rulers replaced local warlords in the cities, but large-scale colonisation did not follow, and the new conquerors did not change the traditional organisation of settlements and property in the countryside. The Muslim leaders were massacred or forced into exile, and the natives, accustomed to the rule of well-organised warbands, offered little resistance to their new lords. Western Christianity's canon law recognised that peace treaties and armistices between Christians and Muslims were valid. The Frankish knights regarded the Turkic mounted warlords as their peers with familiar moral values, and this familiarity facilitated their negotiations with the Muslim leaders. The conquest of a city was often accompanied by a treaty with the neighbouring Muslim rulers who were customarily forced to pay a tribute for the peace. The crusader states had a special position in Western Christianity's consciousness: many Catholic aristocrats were ready to fight for the Holy Land, although in the decades following the destruction of the large Crusade of 1101 in Anatolia, only smaller groups of armed pilgrims departed for Outremer.
Consolidation (1099 to 1130)
The Fatimids' feud with the Seljuks hindered Muslim actions for more than a decade. Outnumbered by their enemies, the Franks remained in a vulnerable position, but they could forge temporary alliances with their Armenian, Arab, and Turkic neighbours. Each crusader state had its own strategic purpose during the first years of its existence. Jerusalem needed undisturbed access to the Mediterranean; Antioch wanted to seize Cilicia and the territory along the upper course of the Orontes River; and Edessa aspired to control the Upper Euphrates valley. The most powerful Syrian Muslim ruler, Toghtekin of Damascus, took a practical approach to dealing with the Franks. His treaties establishing Damascene–Jerusalemite condominiums (shared rule) in debated territories created precedents for other Muslim leaders.
In August 1099, Godfrey defeated the Fatimid vizier, Al-Afdal Shahanshah at Ascalon. When Daimbert of Pisa, the papal legate, arrived in the Levant with 120 Pisan ships, Godfrey gained much-needed naval support by backing him for the Patriarchate of Jerusalem, as well as granting him parts of Jerusalem and the Pisans a section of the port of Jaffa. Daimbert revived the idea of creating an ecclesiastic principality and extracted oaths of fealty from Godfrey and Bohemond.
When Godfrey died in 1100, his retainers occupied the Tower of David to secure his inheritance for his brother Baldwin. Daimbert and Tancred sought Bohemond's help against the Lotharingians, but the Danishmends captured Bohemond under Gazi Gümüshtigin while securing Antioch's northern marches. Before departing for Jerusalem, Baldwin ceded Edessa to his cousin, Baldwin of Bourcq. His arrival thwarted Daimbert, who crowned Baldwin as Jerusalem's first Latin king on Christmas Day 1100. By performing the ceremony, the Patriarch abandoned his claim to rule the Holy Land.
Tancred remained defiant to Baldwin until an Antiochene delegation offered him the regency in March 1101. He ceded his Principality of Galilee to the king, but reserved the right to reclaim it as a fief if he returned from Antioch within fifteen months. For the next two years, Tancred ruled Antioch. He conquered Byzantine Cilicia and parts of Syria. The Fatimid Caliphate attacked Jerusalem in 1101, 1102 and 1105, on the last occasion in alliance with Toghtekin. BaldwinI repulsed these attacks and with Genoese, Venetian, and Norwegian fleets conquered all the towns on the Palestinian coast except Tyre and Ascalon.
Raymond laid the foundations of the fourth crusader state, the County of Tripoli. He captured Tartus and Gibelet and besieged Tripoli. His cousin William II Jordan continued the siege after Raymond's death in 1105. It was completed in 1109 when Raymond's son Bertrand arrived. Baldwin brokered a deal, sharing the territory between them, until William Jordan's death united the county. Bertrand acknowledged Baldwin's suzerainty, although William Jordan had been Tancred's vassal.
When Bohemond was released for a ransom in 1103, he compensated Tancred with lands and gifts. Baldwin of Bourcq and his cousin and vassal, Joscelin of Courtenay, were captured while attacking Ridwan of Aleppo at Harran with Bohemond. Tancred assumed the regency of Edessa. The Byzantines took the opportunity to reconquer Cilicia. They took the port but not the citadel of Laodikeia.
Bohemond returned to Italy to recruit allies and gather supplies. Tancred assumed leadership in Antioch, and his cousin Richard of Salerno did the same in Edessa. In 1107, Bohemond crossed the Adriatic Sea and failed in besieging Dyrrachion in the Balkan Peninsula. The resulting Treaty of Devol forced Bohemond to restore Laodikeia and Cilicia to Alexios, become his vassal and reinstate the Greek patriarch of Antioch. Bohemond never returned. He died, leaving an underage son Bohemond II. Tancred continued as regent of Antioch and ignored the treaty. Richard's son, Roger of Salerno, succeeded as regent on Tancred's death in 1112.
The fall of Tripoli prompted Sultan Muhammad Tapar to appoint the of Mosul, Mawdud, to wage jihad against the Franks. Between 1110 and 1113, Mawdud mounted four campaigns in Mesopotamia and Syria, but rivalry among his heterogeneous armies' commanders forced him to abandon the offensive on each occasion. As Edessa was Mosul's chief rival, Mawdud directed two campaigns against the city. They caused havoc, and the county's eastern region could never recover. The Syrian Muslim rulers saw the Sultan's intervention as a threat to their autonomy and collaborated with the Franks. After an assassin, likely a Nizari, murdered Mawdud, Muhammad Tapar dispatched two armies to Syria, but both campaigns failed.
As Aleppo remained vulnerable to Frankish attacks, the city leaders sought external protection. They allied with the adventurous Artuqid princes, Ilghazi and Balak, who inflicted crucial defeats on the Franks between 1119 and 1124, but could rarely prevent Frankish counter-invasions.
In 1118 Baldwin of Bourcq succeeded BaldwinI as King of Jerusalem, naming Joscelin his successor in Edessa. After Roger was killed at ('Field of Blood'), BaldwinII assumed the regency of Antioch for the absent BohemondII. Public opinion attributed a series of disasters affecting the Outremer—defeats by enemy forces and plagues of locusts—as punishments for the Franks' sins. To improve moral standards, the Jerusalemite ecclesiastic and secular leaders assembled a council at Nablus and issued decrees against adultery, sodomy, bigamy, and sexual relations between Catholics and Muslims.
A proposal by a group of pious knights about a monastic order for deeply religious warriors was likely first discussed at the council of Nablus. Church leaders quickly espoused the idea of armed monks, and within a decade, two military orders, the Knights Templar and Hospitaller, were formed. As the Fatimid Caliphate no longer posed a major threat to Jerusalem, but Antioch and Edessa were vulnerable to invasion, the defence of the northern crusader states took much of BaldwinII's time. His absence, its impact on government, and his placement of relatives and their vassals in positions of power created opposition in Jerusalem. Baldwin's sixteen-month captivity led to a failed deposition attempt by some of the nobility, with the Flemish count, Charles the Good, considered as a possible replacement. Charles declined the offer.
Baldwin had four daughters. In 1126, Bohemond reached the age of majority and married the second-oldest, Alice, in Antioch. Aleppo had plunged into anarchy, but Bohemond II could not exploit this because of a conflict with Joscelin. The new of Mosul Imad al-Din Zengi seized Aleppo in 1128. The two major Muslim centres' union was especially dangerous for the neighbouring Edessa, but it also worried Damascus's new ruler, Taj al-Muluk Buri. Baldwin's eldest daughter Melisende was his heir. He married her to Fulk of Anjou, who had widespread western connections useful to the kingdom. After Fulk's arrival, Baldwin raised a large force for an attack on Damascus. This force included the leaders of the other crusader states, and a significant Angevin contingent provided by Fulk. The campaign was abandoned when the Franks' foraging parties were destroyed, and bad weather made the roads impassable. In 1130 Bohemond II was killed raiding in Cilicia, leaving Alice with their infant daughter, Constance. Baldwin II denied Alice control, instead resuming the regency until his death in 1131.
Muslim revival (1131 to 1174)
On his deathbed Baldwin named Fulk, Melisende, and their infant son BaldwinIII joint heirs. Fulk intended to revoke the arrangement, but his favouritism toward his compatriots roused strong discontent in the kingdom. In 1134, he repressed a revolt by Hugh II of Jaffa, a relative of Melisende, but was still compelled to accept the shared inheritance. He also thwarted frequent attempts by his sister-in-law Alice to assume the regency in Antioch, including alliances with Pons of Tripoli and JoscelinII of Edessa. Taking advantage of Antioch's weakened position, Leo, a Cilician Armenian ruler, seized the Cilician plain. In 1133, the Antiochene nobility asked Fulk to propose a husband for Constance, and he selected Raymond of Poitiers, a younger son of William IX of Aquitaine. Raymond finally arrived in Antioch three years later and married Constance. He reconquered parts of Cilicia from the Armenians. In 1137, Pons was killed battling the Damascenes, and Zengi invaded Tripoli. Fulk intervened, but Zengi's troops captured Pons' successor RaymondII, and besieged Fulk in the border castle of Montferrand. Fulk surrendered the castle and paid Zengi 50,000dinars for his and Raymond's freedom. Emperor Alexios' son and successor, John II Komnenos, reasserted Byzantine claims to Cilicia and Antioch. His military campaign compelled Raymond of Poitiers to give homage and agree that he would surrender Antioch by way of compensation if the Byzantines ever captured Aleppo, Homs, and Shaizar for him. The following year the Byzantines and Franks jointly besieged Aleppo and Shaizar but could not take the towns. Zengi soon seized Homs from the Damascenes, but a Damascene–Jerusalemite coalition prevented his southward expansion.
Joscelin made an alliance with the Artuqid Kara Arslan, who was Zengi's principal Muslim rival in Upper Mesopotamia. While Joscelin was staying west of the Euphrates at Turbessel, Zengi invaded the Frankish lands east of the river in late 1144. Before the end of the year, he captured the region, including the city of Edessa. Losing Edessa strategically threatened Antioch and limited opportunities for a Jerusalemite expansion in the south. In September 1146, Zengi was assassinated, possibly on orders from Damascus. His empire was divided between his two sons, with the younger Nur ad-Din succeeding him in Aleppo. A power vacuum in Edessa allowed Joscelin to return to the city, but he was unable to take the citadel. When Nur ad-Din arrived, the Franks were trapped, Joscelin fled and the subsequent sack left the city deserted.
The fall of Edessa shocked Western opinion, prompting the largest military response since the First Crusade. The new crusade consisted of two great armies led overland by Louis VII of France and Conrad III of Germany, arriving in Acre in 1148. The arduous march had greatly reduced the two rulers' forces. At a leadership conference, including the widowed Melisende and her son BaldwinIII, they agreed to attack Damascus rather than attempt to recover distant Edessa. The attack on Damascus ended in a humiliating defeat and retreat. Scapegoating followed the unexpected failure, with many westerners blaming the Franks. Fewer crusaders came from Europe to fight for the Holy Land in the next decades. Raymond of Poitiers joined forces with the Nizari and Joscelin with the Rum Seljuks against Aleppo. Nur ad-Din invaded Antioch and Raymond was defeated and killed at Inab in 1149. The next year Joscelin was captured and tortured and later died. Beatrice of Saone, his wife, sold the remains of the County of Edessa to the Byzantines with Baldwin's consent. Already 21 and eager to rule alone, Baldwin forced Melisende's retirement in 1152. In Antioch, Constance resisted pressure to remarry until 1153 when she chose the French nobleman Raynald of Châtillon as her second husband.
From 1149, all Fatimid caliphs were children, and military commanders were competing for power. Ascalon, the Fatimids' last Palestinian bridgehead, hindered Frankish raids against Egypt, but Baldwin captured the town in 1153. The Damascenes feared further Frankish expansion, and Nur ad-Din seized the city with ease a year later. He continued to remit the tribute that Damascus' former rulers had offered to the Jerusalemite kings. Baldwin extracted tribute from the Egyptians as well. Raynald lacked financial resources. He tortured the Latin Patriarch of Antioch, Aimery of Limoges, to appropriate his wealth and attacked the Byzantine's Cilician Armenians. When Emperor Manuel I Komnenos delayed the payment he had been promised, Raynald pillaged Byzantine Cyprus. Thierry, Count of Flanders, brought military strength from the West for campaigning. Thierry, Baldwin, Raynald and Raymond III of Tripoli attacked Shaizar. Baldwin offered the city to Thierry, who refused Raynald's demands he become his vassal, and the siege was abandoned. After Nur ad-Din seized Shaizar in 1157, the Nizari remained the last independent Muslim power in Syria. As prospects for a new crusade from the West were poor, the Franks of Jerusalem sought a marriage alliance with the Byzantines. Baldwin married Manuel's niece, Theodora, and received a significant dowry. With his consent, Manuel forced Raynald into accepting Byzantine overlordship.
The childless BaldwinIII died in 1163. His younger brother Amalric had to repudiate his wife Agnes of Courtenay on grounds of consanguinity before his coronation, but the right of their two children, Baldwin IV and Sibylla, to inherit the kingdom was confirmed. The Fatimid Caliphate had rival viziers, Shawar and Dirgham, both eager to seek external support. This gave Amalric and Nur ad-Din the opportunity to intervene. Amalric launched five invasions of Egypt between 1163 and 1169, on the last occasion cooperating with a Byzantine fleet, but he could not establish a bridgehead. Nur ad-Din appointed his Kurdish general Shirkuh to direct the military operations in Egypt. Weeks before Shirkuh died in 1169, the Fatimid caliph Al-Adid made him vizier. His nephew Saladin, who ended the Shi'ite caliphate when Al-Adid died in September 1171, succeeded Shirkuh. In March 1171, Amalric undertook a visit to Manuel in Constantinople to get Byzantine military support for yet another attack on Egypt. To this end, he swore fealty to the Emperor before his return to Jerusalem, but conflicts with Venice and Sicily prevented the Byzantines from campaigning in the Levant. In theory, Saladin was Nur ad-Din's lieutenant, but mutual distrust hindered their cooperation against the crusader states. As Saladin remitted suspiciously small revenue payments to him, Nur ad-Din began gathering troops for an attack on Egypt, but he died in May 1174. He left an 11-year-old son, As-Salih Ismail al-Malik. Within two months, Amalric died. His son and successor, BaldwinIV, was 13 and a leper.
Decline and survival (1174 to 1188)
The accession of underage rulers led to disunity both in Jerusalem and in Muslim Syria. In Jerusalem, the seneschal Miles of Plancy took control, but unknown assailants murdered him on the streets of Acre. With the baronage's consent, Amalric's cousin, RaymondIII of Tripoli, assumed the regency for BaldwinIV as . He became the most powerful baron by marrying Eschiva of Bures, the richest heiress of the kingdom, and gaining Galilee. Nur ad-Din's empire quickly disintegrated. His eunuch confidant Gümüshtekin took As-Salih from Damascus to Aleppo. Gümüshtekin's rival, Ibn al-Muqaddam, seized Damascus but soon surrendered it to Saladin. By 1176, Saladin reunited much of Muslim Syria through warring against Gümüshtekin and As-Salih's relatives, the Zengids. That same year, Emperor Manuel invaded the Sultanate of Rum to reopen the Anatolian pilgrimage route towards the Holy Land. His defeat at Myriokephalon weakened the Byzantines' hold on Cilicia.
Upholding the balance of power in Syria was apparently Raymond's main concern during his regency. When Saladin besieged Aleppo in 1174, Raymond led a relief army to the city; next year, when a united Zengid army invaded Saladin's realm, he signed a truce with Saladin. Gümüshtekin released Raynald of Châtillon and Baldwin's maternal uncle, Joscelin III of Courtenay, for a large ransom. They hastened to Jerusalem, and Raynald seized Oultrejourdain by marrying Stephanie of Milly. As Baldwin, a leper, was not expected to father children, his sister's marriage was to be arranged before his inevitable premature death from the disease. His regent, Raymond, chose William of Montferrat for Sybilla's husband. William was the cousin of both Holy Roman Emperor Frederick Barbarossa and LouisVII of France. In 1176, Baldwin reached the age of 15 and majority, ending Raymond's regency. He revisited plans for an invasion of Egypt and renewed his father's pact with the Byzantines. Manuel dispatched a fleet of 70 galleys plus support ships to Outremer. As William had died, and Baldwin's health was deteriorating, the Franks offered the regency and the Egyptian invasion's command to Baldwin's crusader cousin Philip I, Count of Flanders. He wanted to be free to return to Flanders and rejected both offers. The plan for the invasion was abandoned, and the Byzantine fleet sailed for Constantinople.
Baldwin negotiated a marriage between Hugh III, Duke of Burgundy, and Sibylla, but the succession crisis in France prevented him from sailing. Tension between Baldwin's maternal and paternal relatives grew. When Raymond and Bohemond, both related to him on his father's side, came to Jerusalem unexpectedly before Easter in 1180, Baldwin panicked, fearing they had arrived to depose him and elevate Sibylla to the throne under their control. To thwart their coup, he sanctioned her marriage to Guy of Lusignan, a young aristocrat from Poitou. Guy's brother Aimery held the office of constable of Jerusalem, and their family had close links to the House of Plantagenet. Baldwin's mother and her clique marginalised Raymond, Bohemond and the influential Ibelin family. To prepare for a military campaign against the Seljuks of Rum, Saladin concluded a two-year truce with Baldwin and, after launching a short but devastating campaign along the coast of Tripoli, with Raymond. For the first time in the history of Frankish–Muslim relations, the Franks could not set conditions for the peace. Between 1180 and 1183, Saladin asserted his suzerainty over the Artuqids, concluded a peace treaty with the Rum Seljuks, seized Aleppo from the Zengids and re-established the Egyptian navy. Meanwhile, after the truce expired in 1182, Saladin demonstrated the strategic advantage he had by holding both Cairo and Damascus. While he faced Baldwin in Oultrejordain, his troops from Syria pillaged Galilee. The Franks adopted a defensive tactic and strengthened their fortresses. In February 1183, a Jerusalemite assembly levied an extraordinary tax for defence funding. Raynald was the sole Frankish ruler to pursue an offensive policy. He attacked an Egyptian caravan and built a fleet for a naval raid into the Red Sea.
Byzantine influence declined after Manuel died in 1180. Bohemond repulsed his Byzantine wife Theodora and married Sybil, an Antiochene noblewoman with a bad reputation. Patriarch Aimery excommunicated him and the Antiochene nobles who opposed the marriage fled to the Cilician Armenian prince, RubenIII. Saladin granted a truce to Bohemond and made preparations for an invasion of Jerusalem where Guy took command of the defence. When Saladin invaded Galilee, the Franks responded with what William of Tyre described in his contemporaneous chronicle as their largest army in living memory but avoided fighting a battle. After days of fierce skirmishing, Saladin withdrew towards Damascus. Baldwin dismissed Guy from his position as , apparently because Guy had proved unable to overcome factionalism in the army. In November 1183, Baldwin made Guy's five-year-old stepson, also called Baldwin, co-ruler, and had him crowned king while attempting to annul the marriage of Guy and Sibylla. Guy and Sibylla fled to Ascalon, and his supporters vainly intervened on their behalf at a general council. An embassy to Europe was met with offers of money but not of military support. Already dying, BaldwinIV appointed Raymond for 10years, but charged Joscelin with the ailing BaldwinV's guardianship. As there was no consensus on what should happen if the boy king died, it would be for the pope, the Holy Roman Emperor, the kings of France and England to decide whether his mother Sibylla or her half-sister Isabella had stronger claim to the throne. Bohemond was staying at Acre around this time, allegedly because BaldwinIV wanted to secure Bohemond's support for his decisions on the succession. Back in Antioch, Bohemond kidnapped Ruben of Cilicia and forced him into becoming his vassal.
Saladin signed a four-year truce with Jerusalem and attacked Mosul. He could not capture the city but extracted an oath of fealty from Mosul's Zengid ruler, Izz al-Din Mas'ud, in March 1186. A few months later, BaldwinV died, and a power struggle began in Jerusalem. Raymond summoned the barons to Nablus to a general council. In his absence, Sybilla's supporters, led by Joscelin and Raynald, took full control of Jerusalem, Acre and Beirut. Patriarch Heraclius of Jerusalem crowned her queen and appointed Guy her co-ruler. The barons assembling at Nablus offered the crown to Isabella's husband Humphrey IV of Toron, but he submitted to Sybilla to avoid a civil war. After his desertion, all the barons but Baldwin of Ibelin and Raymond swore fealty to the royal couple. Baldwin went into exile, and Raymond forged an alliance with Saladin. Raynald seized another caravan, which violated the truce and prompted Saladin to assemble his forces for the jihād. Raymond allowed Muslim troops to pass through Galilee to raid around Acre. His shock at the Frankish defeat in the resulting Battle of Cresson brought him to reconciliation with Guy.
Guy now gathered a large force, committing all of his kingdom's available resources. The leadership divided on tactics. Raynald urged an offensive, while Raymond proposed defensive caution, although Saladin was besieging his castle at Tiberias. Guy decided to deal with the siege. The march towards Tiberias was arduous, and Saladin's troops overwhelmed the exhausted Frankish army at the Horns of Hattin on 4July 1187. Hattin was a massive defeat for the Franks. Nearly all the major Frankish leaders were taken prisoner, but only Raynald and the armed monks of the military orders were executed. Raymond was among the few Frankish leaders who escaped captivity. He fell seriously ill after reaching Tripoli. Within months after Hattin, Saladin conquered almost the entire kingdom. The city of Jerusalem surrendered on 2October 1187. There were no massacres following the conquest, but tens of thousands of Franks were enslaved. Those who could negotiate a free passage or were ransomed swarmed to Tyre, Tripoli, or Antioch. Conrad of Montferrat commanded the defences of Tyre. He was William's brother and arrived only days after Hattin. The childless Raymond died, and Bohemond's younger son, also called Bohemond, assumed power in Tripoli. After news of the Franks' devastating defeat at Hattin reached Italy, Pope Gregory VIII called for a new crusade. Passionate sermons raised religious fervour, and it is likely that more people took the crusader oath than during recruitment for the previous crusades.
Bad weather and growing discontent among his troops forced Saladin to abandon the siege of Tyre and allow his men to return to Iraq, Syria, and Egypt early in 1188. In May, Saladin turned his attention to Tripoli and Antioch. The arrival of William II of Sicily's fleet saved Tripoli. Saladin released Guy on the condition that he go overseas and never bear arms against him. Historian Thomas Asbridge proposes that Saladin likely anticipated that a power struggle between Guy and Conrad was inevitable and it could weaken the Franks. Indeed, Guy failed to depart for Europe. In October, Bohemond asked Saladin for a seven-month truce, offering to surrender the city of Antioch if help did not arrive. Saladin's biographer Ali ibn al-Athir wrote, after the Frankish castles were starved into submission, that "the Muslims acquired everything from as far as Ayla to the furthest districts of Beirut with only the interruption of Tyre and also all the dependencies of Antioch, apart from al-Qusayr".
Recovery and civil war (1189 to 1243)
Guy of Lusignan, his brother Aimery, and Gerard de Ridefort, grand master of the Templars, gathered about 600 knights in Antioch. They approached Tyre, but Conrad of Montferrat refused them entry, convinced Guy had forfeited his claim to rule when Saladin conquered his kingdom. Guy and his comrades knew western crusaders would arrive soon and risked a token move on Acre in August 1189. Crusader groups from many parts of Europe joined them. Their tactic surprised Saladin and prevented him from resuming the invasion of Antioch. Three major crusader armies departed for the Holy Land in 1189–1190. Frederick Barbarossa's crusade ended abruptly in June 1190 when he drowned in the Saleph River in Anatolia. Only fragments of his army reached Outremer. Philip II of France landed at Acre in April 1191, and Richard I of England arrived in May. During his voyage, Richard had seized Cyprus from the island's self-declared emperor Isaac Komnenos. Guy and Conrad had reconciled, but their conflict returned when Sybilla of Jerusalem and her two daughters by Guy died. Conrad married the reluctant Isabella, Sybilla's half-sister and heir, despite her marriage to Humphrey of Toron, and gossip about his two living wives.
After an attritional siege, the Muslim garrison surrendered Acre, and Philip and most of the French army returned to Europe. Richard led the crusade to victory at Arsuf, capturing Jaffa, Ascalon and Darum. Internal dissension forced Richard to abandon Guy and accept Conrad's kingship. Guy was compensated with possession of Cyprus. In April 1192, Conrad was assassinated in Tyre. Within a week, the widowed Isabella was married to Henry, Count of Champagne. Saladin did not risk a defeat in a pitched battle, and Richard feared the exhausting march across arid lands towards Jerusalem. As he fell ill and needed to return home to attend to his affairs, a three-year truce was agreed in September 1192. The Franks kept land between Tyre and Jaffa, but dismantled Ascalon; Christian pilgrimages to Jerusalem were allowed. Frankish confidence in the truce was not high. In April 1193, Geoffroy de Donjon, head of the Knights Hospitaller, wrote in a letter, 'We know for certain that since the loss of the land the inheritance of Christ cannot easily be regained. The land held by the Christians during the truces remains virtually uninhabited.' The Franks' strategic position was not necessarily detrimental: they kept the coastal towns and their frontiers shortened. Their enclaves represented a minor threat to the Ayyubids' empire in comparison with the Artuqids, Zengids, Seljuks of Rum, Cilician Armenians or Georgians in the north. After Saladin died in March 1193, none of his sons could assume authority over his Ayyubid relatives, and the dynastic feud lasted for almost a decade. The Ayyubids agreed near-constant truces with the Franks and offered territorial concessions to keep the peace.
BohemondIII of Antioch did not include his recalcitrant Cilician Armenian vassal Leo in his truce with Saladin in 1192. Leo was RubenIII's brother. When Ruben died, Leo replaced his daughter and heir, Alice. In 1191, Saladin abandoned a three-year occupation of the northern Syrian castle of Bagras, and Leo seized it, ignoring claims of the Templars and Bohemond. In 1194, Bohemond accepted Leo's invitation to discuss Bagras' return, but Leo imprisoned him, demanding Antioch for his release. The Greek population and the Italian community rejected the Armenians, and formed a commune under Bohemond's eldest son, Raymond. Bohemond was released when he abandoned his claims on Cilicia, forfeiting Bagras and marrying Raymond to Alice. Any male heir of this marriage was expected to be the heir to both Antioch and Armenia. When Raymond died in 1197, Bohemond sent Alice and Raymond's posthumous son Raymond-Roupen to Cilicia. Raymond's younger brother BohemondIV came to Antioch, and the commune recognised him as their father's heir. In September 1197, Henry of Champagne died after falling out a palace window in the kingdom's new capital Acre. The widowed Isabella married Aimery of Lusignan who had succeeded Guy in Cyprus. Saladin's ambitious brother Al-Adil I, reunited Egypt and Damascus under his rule by 1200. He expanded the truces with the Franks and enhanced commercial contacts with Venice and Pisa. Bohemond III died in 1201. The commune of Antioch renewed its allegiance to BohemondIV, although several nobles felt compelled to support Raymond-Roupen and joined him in Cilicia. Leo of Cilicia launched a series of military campaigns to assert Raymond-Roupen's claim to Antioch. Bohemond made alliances with Saladin's son, Az-Zahir Ghazi of Aleppo, and with SuleimanII, the Sultan of Rum. As neither Bohemond nor Leo could muster enough troops to defend their Tripolitan or Cilician hinterland against enemy invasions or rebellious aristocrats and to garrison Antioch simultaneously, the War of the Antiochene Succession lasted for more than a decade.
The Franks knew they could not regain the Holy Land without conquering Egypt. The leaders of the Fourth Crusade planned an invasion of Egypt but sacked Constantinople instead. Aimery and Isabella died in 1205. Isabella's daughter by Conrad, Maria of Montferrat, succeeded, and Isabella's half-brother, John of Ibelin, became regent. The regency ended with Maria's marriage in 1210 to John of Brienne, a French aristocrat and experienced soldier. After her death two years later, John ruled as regent for their infant daughter, IsabellaII. He participated in a military campaign against Cilicia, but it did not damage Leo's power. Leo and Raymond-Roupen had exhausted Antioch with destructive raids and occupied the city in 1216. Raymond-Roupen was installed as prince and Leo restored Bagras to the Templars. Raymond-Roupen could not pay for the aristocrats' loyalty in his impoverished principality and Bohemond regained Antioch with local support in 1219. The personal union between Antioch and Tripoli proved lasting, but in fact both crusader states disintegrated into small city-states. Raymond-Roupen fled to Cilicia, seeking Leo's support, and when Leo died in May, attempted to gain the throne against Leo's infant daughter Isabella.
John of Brienne was leader of a gathering crusade but FrederickII, the ruler of Germany and Sicily, was expected to assume control on his arrival; the papal legate, Cardinal Pelagius, controlled the finances from the west. The crusaders invaded Egypt and captured Damietta in November 1219. The new sultan of Egypt Al-Kamil repeatedly offered the return of Jerusalem and the Holy Land in exchange for the crusaders' withdrawal. His ability to implement his truce proposals was questionable for his brother Al-Mu'azzam Isa ruled the Holy Land. The crusaders knew that their hold on the territory would not be secure as long as the castles in Oultrejourdain remained in Muslim hands. Prophecies about their inevitable victory spread in their camp, and Al-Adil's offer was rejected. After twenty-one months of stalemate, the crusaders marched on Cairo before being trapped between the Nile floods and the Egyptian army. The crusaders surrendered Damietta in return for safe conduct, ending the crusade. While staying in Damietta, Cardinal Pelagius sent reinforcements to Raymond-Roupen in Cilicia, but Constantine of Baberon, who was regent for the Cilician queen, acted quickly. He captured Raymond-Roupen, who died in prison. The queen was married to Bohemond's son, Philip to cement an alliance between Cilicia and Antioch. A feud between the two nations broke out again after neglected Armenian aristocrats murdered Philip in late 1224. An alliance between the Armenians and his former Ayyubid allies in Aleppo foiled Bohemond's attempts at revenge.
Frederick renewed his crusader oath on his imperial coronation in Rome in 1220. He did not join the Egyptian crusade but reopened the negotiations with Al-Adil over the city of Jerusalem. In 1225, Frederick married IsabellaII and assumed the title of king of Jerusalem. Two years later, Al-Adil promised to abandon all lands conquered by Saladin in return for Frankish support against Al-Mu'azzam. An epidemic prevented Frederick's departure for a crusade, and Pope Gregory IX excommunicated him for repeatedly breaking his oath. In April 1228, Isabella died after giving birth to Conrad. Without seeking a reconciliation with the Pope, Frederick sailed for the crusade. His attempts to confiscate baronial fiefs brought him into conflict with the Frankish aristocrats. As Al-Mua'zzam had died, Frederick made the most of his diplomatic skills to achieve the partial implementation of Al-Adil's previous promise. They signed a truce for ten years, ten months, and ten days (the maximum period for a peace treaty between Muslims and Christians, according to Muslim custom). It restored Jerusalem, Bethlehem, Nazareth and Sidon to the Franks while granting Temple Mount to the Muslims. The native Franks were unenthusiastic about the treaty because it was questionable whether it could be defended. Frederick left for Italy in May 1229, and never returned. He sent Richard Filangieri, with an army, to rule the kingdom of Jerusalem as his . The Ibelins denied Frederick's right to appoint his lieutenant without consulting the barons, and Outremer plunged into a civil war, known as the War of the Lombards. Filangieri occupied Beirut and Tyre, but the Ibelins and their allies firmly kept Acre and established a commune to protect their interest. Pope Gregory IX called for a new crusade in preparation for the expiry of the truce. Between 1239 and 1241, wealthy French and English nobles like Theobald I of Navarre and Richard of Cornwall led separate military campaigns to the Holy Land. They followed Frederick's tactics of forceful diplomacy and played rival factions off against each other in the succession disputes that followed Al-Kamil's death. Richard's treaty with Al-Kamil's son, As-Salih Ayyub, restored most land west of the Jordan River to the Franks. Conrad reached the age of majority in 1243 but failed to visit Outremer. Arguing that Conrad's heir presumptive was entitled to rule in his absence, the Jerusalemite barons elected his mother's maternal aunt, Alice of Champagne, as regent. The same year, they captured Tyre, the last centre of Frederick's authority in the kingdom.
Destruction by the Mamluks (1244 to 1291)
The Mongol Empire's westward expansion reached the Middle East when the Mongols conquered the Khwarazmian Empire in Central Asia in 1227. Part of the Khwarazmian army fled to eastern Anatolia and these masterless Turkic soldiers offered their services to the neighbouring rulers for pay. Western Christians regarded the Mongols as potential allies against the Muslims because some Mongol tribes adhered to Nestorian Christianity. In fact, most Mongols were pagans with a strong belief in their Great Khan's divine right to universal rule, and they demanded unconditional submission from both Christians and Muslims. As-Salih Ayyub hired the Khwarazmians and garrisoned new troops in Egypt, alarming his uncle As-Salih Ismail, Emir of Damascus. Ismail bought the Franks' alliance by a promise to restore 'all the lands that Saladin had reconquered'. Catholic priests took possession of the Dome of the Rock, but in July 1244 Khwarazmians marching towards Egypt sacked Jerusalem unexpectedly. The Franks gathered all available troops and joined Ismail near Gaza, but the Khwarazmians and Egyptians defeated the Frankish and Damascene coalition at La Forbie on 18 October. Few Franks escaped from the battlefield. As-Salah captured most of the crusaders' mainland territory, restricting the Franks to a few coastal towns. Louis IX of France launched a failed crusade against Egypt in 1249. He was captured near Damietta with the remnants of his army, and ransomed days after the Bahri Mamluks assumed power in Egypt through murdering As-Salih's son Al-Muazzam Turanshah in May 1250. Louis spent four more years in Outremer. As the kingdom's effective ruler, he conducted negotiations with both the Syrian Ayyubids and the Egyptian Mamluks and refortified the coastal towns. He sent an embassy from Acre to the Great Khan Güyük, offering an anti-Muslim alliance to the Mongols.
Feuds between rival candidates to the regency and commercial conflicts between Venice and Genoa resulted in a new civil war in 1256 known as the War of Saint Sabas. The pro-Venetian Bohemond VI's conflict with his Genoese vassals the Embriaci brought the war to Tripoli and Antioch. In 1258, the Hulagu, younger brother of the Great Khan Möngke, sacked Baghdad and ended the Abbasid Caliphate. Two years later, Hethum I of Cilicia and Bohemond VI joined forces with the Mongols in the sack of Aleppo, when Bohemond set fire to its mosque, and in the conquest of northern Syria. The Mongols emancipated the Christians from their status, and the local Christian population cooperated with the conquerors. Jerusalem remained neutral when the Mamluks of Egypt moved to confront the Mongols after Hulagu, and much of his force moved east on the death of Möngke to address the Mongol succession. The Mamluks defeated the greatly reduced Mongol army at Ain Jalut. On their return, the Mamluk sultan Qutuz was assassinated and replaced by the general Baibars. Baibars revived Saladin's empire by uniting Egypt and Syria and held Hulagu in check through an alliance with the Mongols of the Golden Horde. He reformed governance in Egypt, giving power to the elite . The Franks did not have the military capability to resist this new threat. A Mongol garrison was stationed at Antioch, and individual Frankish barons concluded separate truces with Baibars. Determined to conquer the crusader states, he captured Caesarea and Arsuf in 1265 and Safed in 1266, and sacked Antioch in 1268. Jaffa surrendered and Baibers weakened the military orders by capturing the castles of Krak des Chevaliers and Montfort before returning his attention to the Mongols of the Ilkhanate for the rest of his life. Massacres of the Franks and native Christians regularly followed a Mamluk conquest.
In 1268, the new Sicilian king Charles I of Anjou executed Conradin, the titular king of Jerusalem, in Naples after his victory at Tagliacozzo. Isabella I's great grandson Hugh III of Cyprus and her granddaughter Maria of Antioch disputed the succession. The barons preferred Hugh, but in 1277 Maria sold her claim to Charles. He sent Roger of San Severino to act as . With the support of the Templars, he blocked Hugh's access to Acre, forcing him to retreat to Cyprus, again leaving the kingdom without a resident monarch. The Mongols of the Ilkhanate sent embassies to Europe proposing anti-Mamluk alliances, but the major western rulers were reluctant to launch a new crusade for the Holy Land. The War of the Sicilian Vespers weakened Charles's position in the west. After his death in 1285, Henry II of Cyprus was acknowledged as Jerusalem's nominal king, but the rump kingdom was in fact a mosaic of autonomous lordships, some under Mamluk suzerainty. In 1285, the death of the warlike Abaqa, combined with the Pisan and Venetian wars with the Genoese, finally gave the Mamluk sultan, Al-Mansur Qalawun, the opportunity to expel the Franks. In 1289 he destroyed Genoese-held Tripoli, enslaving or killing its residents. In 1290, Italian crusaders broke his truce with Jerusalem by killing Muslim traders in Acre. Qalawun's death did not hinder the successful Mamluk siege of the city in 1291. Those who could fled to Cyprus, while those who could not were slaughtered or sold into slavery. Without hope of support from the West, Tyre, Beirut, and Sidon all surrendered without a fight. The Mamluk policy was to destroy all physical evidence of the Franks; the destruction of the ports and fortified towns ruptured the history of a coastal city civilisation rooted in antiquity.
Government and institutions
Modern historiography has focused on the kingdom of Jerusalem. Possibly this is related to it being the objective of the First Crusade, as well as the perception of the city being the centre and chief city of medieval Christendom. However, research into the kingdom does not provide a comprehensive common template for the development of the other Latin settlements. Jerusalem's royal administration was based in the city until it was lost, and then in Acre. It featured the typical household officers of most Western rulers: a cleric-led chancery, constable, marshal, chamberlain, chancellor, seneschal and butler. Royal territory was directly administered by Viscounts. All tangible evidence of the written law was lost in 1187 when the Franks lost the city of Jerusalem to the Muslims. The courts of the princes of Antioch were similar and created the Italo-Norman laws that were also later adopted by Cilician Armenia, known as the Assizes of Antioch. These have survived in 13th-century Armenian translations. Relationships among Antioch's various Frankish, Syrian, Greek, Jewish, Armenian, and Muslim inhabitants were generally good. The brief existence of the uniquely-landlocked Edessa means it is the least studied, but its history is traceable to Armenian and Syriac chronicles in addition to Latin sources. Like Jerusalem the political institutions appear to have reflected the northern French roots of the founders, although the membership of city councils included indigenous Christians. The population was diverse, including Armenian Orthodox, Greeks known as Melkites, Syrian Orthodox known as Jacobites, and Muslims. In Tripoli, the fourth Frankish state, Raymond of Saint-Gilles and his successors ruled directly over several towns, granting the rest as fiefs to lords originating in Languedoc and Provence, and Gibelet was given to the Genoese in return for naval support. In the 12thcentury this system provided a total of 300 knights, a much smaller army than Antioch or Jerusalem. Architectural and artistic activity in Lebanese churches provide evidence that the indigenous populations prospered under Frankish rule, in part due to its remoteness from the worst impacts of Saladin’s conquests in 1187–1188. These were Arabic-speaking Melkites, Monophysites, Nestorians, Syrians, and large numbers of Syriac-speaking Maronites with their own clerical hierarchies. The Greek Orthodox Church was restricted, as in Jerusalem. There were similar self-governing Muslim communities of Druze and Alawites, including Isma’ili, in the frontier areas to the north. The multi-ethnic structure may well have been more pronounced in Tripoli and in the 12thcentury there may have been a southern French culture, although this characteristic faded over time.
The king of Jerusalem's foremost role was as leader of the feudal host during the near-constant warfare in the early decades of the 12thcentury. The kings rarely awarded land or lordships, and those they did frequently became vacant and reverted to the crown because of the high mortality rate. Their followers' loyalty was rewarded with city incomes. Through this, the domain of the first five rulers was larger than the combined holdings of the nobility. These kings of Jerusalem had greater internal power than comparative western monarchs, but they lacked the personnel and administrative systems necessary to govern such a large realm.
In the second quarter of the century, magnates like Raynald of Châtillon, Lord of Oultrejordain, and Raymond III, Count of Tripoli, Prince of Galilee, established baronial dynasties and often acted as autonomous rulers. Royal powers were done away with, and governance was undertaken within the feudatories. The remaining central control was exercised at the High Court or , which was also known in Latin as and , or in vernacular French as . These meetings were between king and tenants in chief. The duty of the vassal to give counsel developed into a privilege and then the monarch's legitimacy depended on the court's agreement. The High Court was the great barons' and the king's direct vassals. It had a quorum of the king and three tenants-in-chief. In 1162, the (roughly, 'Assize on liege-homage') expanded the court's membership to all 600 or more fief-holders. Those paying direct homage to the king became members of the . By the end of the 12thcentury, they were joined by the leaders of the military orders and in the 13thcentury the Italian communes. The leaders of the Third Crusade ignored the monarchy. The kings of England and France agreed on the division of future conquests, as if there was no need to consider the local nobility. Prawer felt the weakness of the crown of Jerusalem was demonstrated by the rapid offering of the throne to Conrad of Montferrat in 1190 and then Henry II, Count of Champagne, in 1192 although this was given legal effect by Baldwin IV's will stipulating if Baldwin V died a minor, the pope, the kings of England and France, and the Holy Roman Emperor would decide the succession.
Prior to the 1187 defeat at Hattin, laws developed by the court were recorded as in Letters of the Holy Sepulchre. All written law was lost in the fall of Jerusalem. The legal system was now largely based on custom and the memory of the lost legislation. The renowned jurist Philip of Novara lamented, 'We know [the laws] rather poorly, for they are known by hearsay and usage...and we think an assize is something we have seen as an assize...in the kingdom of Jerusalem [the barons] made much better use of the laws and acted on them more surely before the land was lost.' An idyllic view of the early 12thcentury legal system was created. The barons reinterpreted the —which Almalric I intended to strengthen the crown—to constrain the monarch instead, particularly regarding the monarch's right to confiscate feudal fiefs without trial. The loss of the vast majority of rural fiefs led the baronage to evolve into an urban mercantile class where knowledge of the law was a valuable, well-regarded skill and a career path to higher status.
After Hattin, the Franks lost their cities, lands, and churches. Barons fled to Cyprus and intermarried with leading new emigres from the Lusignan, Montbéliard, Brienne and Montfort families. This created a separate class—the remnants of the old nobility with a limited understanding of the Latin East. This included the king-consorts Guy, Conrad, Henry, Aimery, John, and the absent Hohenstaufen dynasty that followed. The barons of Jerusalem in the 13thcentury have been poorly regarded by both contemporary and modern commentators: their superficial rhetoric disgusted Jacques de Vitry; Riley-Smith writes of their pedantry and the use of spurious legal justification for political action. The barons valued this ability to articulate the law. This is evidenced by the elaborate and impressive treatises of the baronial jurists from the second half of the 13thcentury.
From May 1229, when Frederick II left the Holy Land to defend his Italian and German lands, monarchs were absent. Conrad was titular king from 1225 until 1254, and his son Conradin until 1268 when Charles of Anjou executed him. The monarchy of Jerusalem had limited power in comparison with the West, where rulers developed bureaucratic machinery for administration, jurisdiction, and legislation through which they exercised control. In 1242 the Barons prevailed and appointed a succession of Ibelin and Cypriot regents. Centralised government collapsed in the face of independence exercised by the nobility, military orders, and Italian communes. The three Cypriot Lusignan kings who succeeded lacked the resources to recover the lost territory. One claimant sold the title of king to Charles of Anjou. He gained power for a short while but never visited the kingdom.
Military
Size and recruitment
All estimates of the size of Frankish and Muslim armies are uncertain; existing accounts indicate that it is probable that the Franks of Outremer raised the largest armies in the Catholic world. As early as 1111, the four crusader states fielded 16,000 troops to launch a joint military campaign against Shaizar. Edessa and Tripoli raised armies numbering 1,000–3,000 troops, Antioch and Jerusalem deployed 4,000–6,000 soldiers. In comparison, William the Conqueror commanded 5,000–7,000 troops at Hastings and 12,000 crusaders fought against the Moors at Las Navas de Tolosa in Iberia. Among the Franks' early enemies, the Fatimids possessed 10,000–12,000 troops, the rulers of Aleppo had 7,000–8,000 soldiers, and the Damascene commanded 2,000–5,000 troops. The Artuqids could hire as many as 30,000 Turks, but these nomadic warriors were unfit for lengthy sieges. After uniting Egypt, Syria, and much of Iraq, Saladin raised armies around 20,000 strong. In response, the Franks quickly increased their military force up to around 18,000 troops, but not without implementing austerity measures. In the 13th century, the control of Acre's lucrative commerce provided the resources to maintain sizeable armies. At La Forbie, 16,000 Frankish warriors perished in the battlefield, but this was the last occasion when a united Jerusalemite army fought a pitched battle. During the 1291 siege of Acre, about 15,000 Frankish troops defended the city against more than 60,000 Mamluk warriors.
The crusader states' military power depended mainly on four major categories of soldiery: vassals, mercenaries, visitors from the west, and troops provided by the military orders. Vassals were expected to perform their military duties in person as fully armed knights, or more lightly armoured . Unmarried female fief holders had to hire mercenaries; their wards represented underage vassals. Disabled men and men over sixty were required to cede their horses and arms to their lords. Vassals who owed the service of more than one soldier had to mobilise their own vassals or employ mercenaries. A feudal lord's army could be sizeable. For example, 60 cavalrymen and 100 footmen accompanied Richard of Salerno, then lord of Marash, during a joint Antiochene–Edessene campaign against Mawdud in 1111. Complaints about Frankish rulers' difficulties in paying off their troops abound, showing the importance of mercenary troops in Levantine warfare. Mercenaries were hired regularly for military campaigns, for garrisoning forts and particularly in Antioch, for serving in the prince's armed retinue. The crusader states could have hardly survived without constant support from the west. Armed pilgrims arriving at moments of crisis could save the day, like those who landed just after Baldwin I's defeat at Ramla in 1102. Westerners were unwilling to accept the Frankish leaders' authority.
Military orders
The military orders emerged as a new form of religious organisation in response to the unstable conditions at western Christendom's borderlands. The first of them, the Knights Templar, developed from a knightly brotherhood attached to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. Around 1119, the knights took the monastic vows of chastity, poverty, and obedience and committed themselves to the armed protection of pilgrims visiting Jerusalem. This unusual combination of monastic and knightly ideas did not meet with general approval, but the Templars found an influential protector in the prominent Cistercian abbot Bernard of Clairvaux. Their monastic rule was confirmed at the Council of Troyes in France in 1129. The name derives from Solomon's Temple, the Frankish name for the Al-Aqsa Mosque where they established their first headquarters. The Templars' commitment to the defence of fellow Christians proved an attractive idea, stimulating the establishment of new military orders, in Outremer always by the militarisation of charitable organisations. The Hospitallers represents the earliest example. Originally a nursing confraternity at a Jerusalemite hospital founded by merchants from Amalfi, they assumed military functions in the 1130s. Three further military orders followed in the Levant: the Order of Saint Lazarus mainly for leper knights in the 1130s, the German Order of Teutonic Knights in 1198, and the English Order of St Thomas of Acre in 1228.
As frequent beneficiaries of pious donations across Europe and the Levant, the Hospitallers, Templars, and to a lesser extent the Teutonic Knights accumulated considerable wealth. They administered their scattered estates through an extensive network of branch houses, each required to transfer a part—generally one-third—of its revenues to the Jerusalemite headquarters. As the regular transfer of goods and money required the development of complex logistical and financial systems, the three orders operated as early forms of supranational trading houses and credit institutions. Their networks facilitated international money transfers, because funds deposited in a branch could be paid out in another, and loans granted in one country could be repaid in another. The Hospitallers never abandoned charitable work. In Jerusalem, their hospital served hundreds of patients of all religions and genders. Pilgrims, pregnant women, abandoned children, and impoverished people could also enlist their aid. However, waging war against infidels remained the military orders' prime obligation. As an early example of a standing army, they had a pivotal role in the crusader states' defence. The knight-brothers and their armed servants were professional soldiers under monastic vows. They wore a habit, always with a cross on it, and showing its wearer's rank. As lay rulers and aristocrats seldom had the funds to cover all costs of border defence, they eagerly ceded their border forts to the military orders. The earliest examples include Beth Gibelin in Jerusalem, and Krak des Chevaliers in Tripoli, both seized by the Hospitallers.
Combat arms and tactics
Companies of highly trained mounted knights made up the central element of Frankish armies. Their military expertise and outstanding unit cohesion distinguished them from the Byzantine and Muslim heavy cavalry. Frankish foot soldiers were disciplined to cooperate closely with the knights and to defend them against attacks by the Turkic light cavalry. The Frankish armies' distinctive feature was the extensive deployment of foot soldiers equipped with crossbows; Muslim commanders employed crossbowmen almost exclusively in a siege situation. Native Christians and converted Turks along with some Franks served as lightly armoured cavalrymen, called turcopoles. They were positioned to fight against the Turkic light cavalry and were well suited for raids.
The Frankish knights fought in close order formation and applied tactics to enhance the impact of a cavalry charge. Examples include surprise attacks at dawn and chasing herds of cattle towards an enemy camp. During a Frankish cavalry charge, the Muslim troops attempted to avoid a direct clash until the knights were separated from the infantry and their horses became exhausted. Frankish foot soldiers could create a 'shield-roof' against the rain of Turkish arrows. Feigned retreat was a tactic used by both Muslim and Frankish troops, although Christian chroniclers considered it shameful. In a siege situation, the Franks avoided direct assaults. Instead, they imposed a blockade on the besieged town and starved the defenders into submission. By contrast, Muslim commanders preferred direct attacks as they could easily muster new troops to replace those who had perished. Both sides employed similar siege engines, including wooden siege towers, battering rams, mangonels, and from the 1150s large trebuchets. The extensive use of carrier pigeons and signal fires was an important element of Muslim warfare. As Muslim commanders were informed of the Franks' movements in time, they could intercept Frankish invaders unexpectedly. In comparison with contemporaneous Europe, battles were not uncommon in Outremer. The Franks fought battles mainly in defensive situations. They adopted delaying tactics only when they obviously had no chance to defeat a large invading force, like during Saladin's invasion of Antioch in 1187 and Mamluk attacks against Outremer in the 1260s. While on the offensive, the Franks typically risked pitched battles if they could gain substantial territory and a local faction supported their campaign.
Weakness and decline
As the Franks were unable to absorb casualties as effectively as their enemies, a defeat in a major battle could put the very existence of a crusader state at risk. Examples include the shrinking of Antiochene territory after the defeat of an Antiochene–Edessene coalition at the Battle of Harran in 1104 and the territorial consequences of Saladin's triumph at Hattin. From the 1150s, observers like the chroniclers Michael the Syrian and Ali ibn al-Athir concluded that the Franks' military skills had weakened. In fact, the Franks could still launch long-distance campaigns against Egypt and resist enemy attacks without adequate provisions for days. Consequently, as historian Nicholas Morton proposes, their defeats could more likely be attributed to their enemies' flexibility. The Muslims had learnt how to solve their own shortcomings and take advantage of the Franks' weaknesses. Muslim rulers intensified jihād propaganda to curb ethnic tensions, while disputes between Frankish and western commanders prevented their effective cooperation. The Muslim commanders adopted new tactics against the heavily armoured knights, like the sudden division of their ranks during a cavalry charge. In contrast, the Franks could not compete with their enemies' swiftness. In a siege situation, they insisted on the deployment of siege towers, although a tower's construction lasted for four to six weeks, and during this period, relief forces could reach the besieged town or fortress. By contrast, the Muslims preferred quick mining operations like digging under ramparts or burning walls.
Demography
Without solid documentary basis modern calculations about the size of the crusader states' population are only guesswork. Medieval chronicles contain demographic data, but they mostly present exaggerated numbers, without differentiating Franks and native Christians. Calculations about the population of a town are based on reports of a siege when refugees from nearby villages had multiplied it. Estimations of the number of Franks in Outremer range between 120,000 and 300,000. If these numbers are credible, Franks made up at least 15% of the crusader states' total population. In context, Josiah Russell estimates the population of what he calls 'Islamic territory' as roughly 12.5 million in 1000—Anatolia 8 million, Syria 2 million, Egypt 1.5 million and North Africa 1 million—with the European areas that provided crusaders having a population of 23.7 million. He estimates that by 1200 these figures had risen to 13.7 million in Islamic territory—Anatolia 7 million, Syria 2.7 million, Egypt 2.5 million and North Africa 1.5 million—while the crusaders' home countries' population was 35.6 million. Russell acknowledges that much of Anatolia was Christian or under the Byzantines and that some purportedly Islamic areas such as Mosul and Baghdad had significant Christian populations.
Immigration from Catholic Europe was continuous till the end of the crusader states. Although most colonists settled in the coastal cities, the Franks' presence is documented in more than 200 villages (about 15% of all rural settlements) in the Kingdom of Jerusalem. Some Frankish rural settlements were planned villages, established to encourage settlers from the West; some were shared with native Christians. The native population lived in casalia, or rural settlements of about three to fifty families. From the late 12th century refugees from territories lost to the Muslims increased the Christian population of the coastal cities, but emigration to Cyprus or Frankish Greece can also be detected. The expansion of the urban population is most obvious at Acre where a new suburb developed following the Third Crusade. Emigration from Outremer intensified from the 1240s as prospects of the crusader states' survival darkened. In this period, a massive influx of Frankish and native Christian refugees to Cyprus is well documented. Franks who did not flee could survive the Mamluk conquest as slaves or renegades: a Franciscan friar met with Frankish prisoners of war and converts to Islam at Acre more than a decade after the fall of the city.
Society
Modern research indicates that Muslims and indigenous Christian populations were less integrated than previously thought. Christians lived around Jerusalem and in an arc stretching from Jericho and the Jordan River to Hebron in the south. Comparisons of archaeological evidence of Byzantine churches built prior to the Muslim conquest and 16thcentury Ottoman census records shows some Greek Orthodox communities disappeared before the crusades, but most continued during and for centuries after. Maronites were concentrated in Tripoli; Jacobites in Antioch and Edessa. Armenians were concentrated in the north, but communities existed in all major towns. Central areas had a predominantly Sunni Muslim population, but Shi'ite communities existed in Galilee. Muslim Druze lived in the mountains of Tripoli. Jews lived in coastal towns and some Galilean villages. Little research has been done on Islamic conversion, but the available evidence led Ellenblum to believe that around Nablus and Jerusalem Christians remained a majority.
Most of the indigenous population were peasants living off the land. Charters from the early 12thcentury show evidence of the donation of local villeins (free serfs) to nobles and religious institutions. This may have been a method of denoting the revenues from these villeins or land where the boundaries were unclear. These are described as , for Christians or for Muslims. The term was reserved for the many urban domestic slaves the Franks held. The use of is thought to reflect the higher status that villagers or serfs held in the near East; indigenous men were considered to have servile land tenures rather than lacking personal freedom. Villeins' status differed from Western serfs as they could marry outside their lords' domain, were not obliged to perform unpaid labour, could hold land and inherit property. However, Franks needed to maintain productivity, so the villagers were tied to the land. Charters show landholders agreeing to return any villeins from other landholders they found on their property. Peasants were required to pay the lord one quarter to a half of crop yields. The Muslim pilgrim Ibn Jubayr reported there was a poll tax of one dinar and five qirat per head and a tax on produce from trees. 13thcentury charters indicate this increased after the loss of the first kingdom to redress the Franks' lost income. Historian Christopher MacEvitt cites these as reasons that the term indentured peasant is a more accurate description for the villagers in the Latin East than serf.
Linguistic differences remained a key differentiator between the Franks' lords and the local population. The Franks typically spoke Old French and wrote in Latin. While some learnt Arabic, Greek, Armenian, Syriac and Hebrew, this was unusual. Society was politically and legally stratified. Ethnically based communities were self-governing with relations between communities controlled by the Franks. Research has focused on the role of the , Arabic for leader, chief or mayor. Riley-Smith divided these into the urban freemen and rural workers tied to the land; ruʾasāʾ administered the Frankish estates, governed the native communities, and were often respected local landowners. If communities were segregated, as indicated by the written evidence and identified by Riley-Smith and Prawer, inter-communal conflict was avoided and interaction between the landed and the peasants limited. McEvitt identifies possible tension between competing groups. According to the 13thcentury jurists, in the towns the presided over the Cour des Syriens and there is other evidence they led local troops occasionally. The courts of the indigenous communities administered civil disputes and minor criminality. The Frankish —courts of the burgesses, which is the name given to non-noble Franks, dealt with more serious offences and cases involving Franks. The level of assimilation is difficult to identify, as there is little material evidence. The archaeology is culturally exclusive and written evidence indicates deep religious divisions. Some historians assume the states' heterogeneity eroded formal apartheid. The key differentiator in status and economic position was between urban and rural dwellers. Indigenous Christians could gain higher status and acquire wealth through commerce and industry in towns, but few Muslims lived in urban areas except those in servitude.
Frankish royalty reflected the region's diversity. Queen Melisende was part Armenian and married Fulk from Anjou. Their son Amalric married a Frank from the Levant before marrying a Byzantine Greek. The nobility's use of Jewish, Syrian, and Muslim physicians appalled William of Tyre. Antioch became a centre of cultural interchange through Greek- and Arabic-speaking Christians. The indigenous peoples showed the Frankish nobility traditional deference and in return Franks adopted their dress, food, housing, and military techniques. However, Frankish society was not a cultural melting pot. Inter-communal relations were shallow, identities separate, and the other communities considered alien.
Economy
The crusader states were economic centres obstructing Muslim trade by sea with the west, and by land with Mesopotamia, Syria and the urban economies of the Nile. Commerce continued with the coastal cities providing maritime outlets for the Islamic hinterland, and unprecedented volumes of eastern wares were exported to Europe. Byzantine-Muslim mercantile growth may well have occurred in the 12thand13thcenturies, but it is likely that the Crusades hastened this. Western European populations and economies were booming, creating a growing social class that wanted artisanal products and eastern imports. European fleets expanded with better ships, navigation improved, and fare-paying pilgrims subsidised voyages. Largely indigenous agricultural production flourished before the fall of the First Kingdom in 1187 but was negligible afterwards. Franks, Muslims, Jews and indigenous Christians traded crafts in the souks--teeming oriental bazaars of the cities.
Olives, grapes, wheat, and barley were the important agricultural products before Saladin's conquests. Glass making and soap production were major industries in towns. Italians, Provençals, and Catalans monopolised shipping, imports, exports, transportation, and banking. Taxes on trade, markets, pilgrims, and industry combined with estate revenue to provide the Frankish nobles and church with income. Seigniorial monopolies, or bans, compelled the use of landowners' mills, ovens and other facilities. The presence of hand-mills in most households is evidence of the serfs' circumvention of some monopolies. The centres of production were Antioch, Tripoli, Tyre, and Beirut. Textiles, with silk particularly prized, glass, dyestuffs, olives, wine, sesame oil, and sugar were exported.
The Franks provided an import market for clothing and finished goods. They adopted the more monetised indigenous economic system using a hybrid coinage of northern Italian and southern French silver European coins; Frankish copper coins minted in Arabic and Byzantine styles; and silver and gold dirhams and dinars. After 1124, the Franks copied Egyptian dinars, creating Jerusalem's gold bezant. Following the collapse of the first kingdom of Jerusalem in 1187, trade replaced agriculture in the economy, and the circulation of western coins predominated. Although Tyre, Sidon and Beirut minted silver pennies and copper coins, there is little evidence of systematic attempts to create a unified currency.
The Italian maritime republics of Pisa, Venice, and Genoa were enthusiastic crusaders whose commercial wealth provided the Franks with financial foundations and naval resources. In return, these cities and others, like Amalfi, Barcelona, and Marseilles, received commercial rights and access to Eastern markets. Over time, this developed into colonial communities with property and jurisdiction. Largely located in the ports of Acre, Tyre, Tripoli, and Sidon, communes of Italians, Provençals, and Catalans had distinct cultures and exerted autonomous political power separate from the Franks. They remained intricately linked to their towns of origin, giving them monopolies over foreign trade, banking, and shipping. Opportunities to extend trade privileges were taken. In 1124, for example, the Venetians received one-third of Tyre and its territories with exemption from taxes in return for Venetian participation in the siege. These ports were unable to replace Alexandria and Constantinople as the major commercial centres of commerce but competed with monarchs and each other to maintain economic advantage. The number of communes never reached more than the hundreds. Their power derived from the support of home cities. By the mid-13thcentury, the rulers of the communes barely recognised the authority of the Franks and divided Acre into several fortified miniature republics.
Art and architecture
Prawer argued no major Western cultural figure settled in the states, but that others were encouraged East by the expression of imagery in western poetry. Historians believe that military architecture demonstrates a synthesis of the European, Byzantine and Muslim traditions providing the original and impressive artistic achievement of the crusades. Castles were a symbol of the dominance of the Frankish minority over a hostile majority population that acted as administrative centres. Modern historiography rejects the 19th-century consensus that Westerners learnt the basis of military architecture from the Near East. Europe had already experienced growth in defensive technology. Contact with Arab fortifications originally constructed by the Byzantines influenced developments in the east, but there is little evidence for differentiation between design cultures and the constraints of situation. Castles included oriental design features like large water reservoirs and they excluded occidental features like moats. Church design was in the French Romanesque style seen in the 12th-century rebuilding of the Holy Sepulchre. The Franks retained earlier Byzantine detail, but added northern French, Aquitanian, and Provençal style arches and chapels. The column capitals of the south facade follow classical Syrian patterns, but there is little evidence of indigenous influence in sculpture.
Visual culture shows the assimilated nature of the society. The decoration of shrines, painting, and the production of manuscripts demonstrated the influence of indigenous artists. Frankish practitioners borrowed methods from Byzantine and indigenous artists in iconographical practice. Monumental and panel painting, mosaics and illuminations in manuscripts adopted an indigenous style, leading to a cultural synthesis shown in the Church of the Nativity. Wall mosaics were unknown in the west but widespread in the crusader states. It is unknown whether the mosaic work was done by indigenous craftsmen or learnt by Frankish ones, but it shows the evolution of a distinctive and original artistic style. Workshops housed Italian, French, English, and indigenous craftsmen producing illustrated manuscripts showing a cross-fertilisation of ideas and techniques. One example is the Melisende Psalter. This style either reflected or influenced the taste of patrons of the arts in increasingly stylised Byzantine-influenced content. Icons were previously unknown to the Franks. This continued, occasionally in a Frankish style, and of western saints leading to Italian panel painting. It is difficult to track illustration and castle design to their sources. It is simpler for textual sources where translations made in Antioch are notable but of secondary importance to the works from Muslim Spain and the hybrid culture of Sicily.
Religion
There is no written evidence that the Franks or local Christians recognised significant religious differences until the 13thcentury when the jurists used phrases like men not of the rule of Rome. The crusaders filled Greek Orthodox ecclesiastical positions that became vacant, such as on the death of Simeon II when the Frank Arnulf of Chocques succeeded him as patriarch of Jerusalem. The appointment of Latin bishops had little effect on the Arabic-speaking Orthodox Christians. The previous bishops were foreign Byzantine Greeks. Greeks were used as coadjutor bishops to administer indigenous populations without clergy and in Latin, and Orthodox Christians often shared churches. In Antioch, Greeks occasionally replaced Latin patriarchs. Toleration continued, but there was an interventionist papist response from Jacques de Vitry, Bishop of Acre. Armenians, Copts, Jacobites, Nestorians and Maronites had greater religious autonomy independently appointing bishops, as they were considered outside the Catholic Church. The Franks had discriminatory laws against Jews and Muslims that prevented assimilation. They were prevented from inhabiting Jerusalem, and the de jure punishment for sexual relations between Muslims and Christians was mutilation. Mosques were converted into Christian churches, but there was no forced conversion of Muslims as this would end peasants' servile status.
Legacy
The Franks' habitual following of the customs of their Western European homeland meant that they made few lasting innovations. Three notable exceptions were the military orders, in warfare and fortifications. No major European poet, theologian, scholar, or historian settled in the region though new imagery and ideas in western poetry can be traced to some who visited as pilgrims. Although they did not migrate east themselves, their output often encouraged others to journey there on pilgrimage. Historians believe the crusader military architecture demonstrates a synthesis of the European, Byzantine, and Muslim traditions and that it is the most impressive artistic achievement of the crusades.
After Acre fell, the Hospitallers relocated first to Cyprus, then conquered and ruled Rhodes (13091522) and Malta (15301798). The Sovereign Military Order of Malta survives to the present-day. Philip IV of France probably had financial and political reasons to oppose the Knights Templar. He exerted pressure on Pope Clement V, who responded in 1312 by dissolving the order on probably false grounds of sodomy, magic, and heresy. The raising, transportation, and supply of armies led to flourishing trade between Europe and the crusader states. The Italian city-states of Genoa and Venice flourished through profitable trading communes. Many historians argue that the interaction between western Christian and Islamic cultures was a significant and ultimately positive influence on the development of European civilisation and the Renaissance. Relations between Europeans and the Islamic world stretched across the length of the Mediterranean Sea, making it difficult for historians to identify what proportion of cultural cross-fertilisation originated in the crusader states, Sicily and Spain.
Historiography
In the 19thcentury the crusader states became a subject of study, distinct from the crusades, particularly in France. Joseph François Michaud's influential narratives concentrated on topics of war, conquest, and settlement while France's colonial ambitions in the Levant were linked explicitly. Emmanuel Rey's described Frankish settlements in the Levant as colonies where the offspring of mixed marriages adopted local traditions. The first American crusade historian, Dana Carleton Munro, described the care the Franks took to ‘’win the goodwill of the natives’’. Historians rejected this approach in the 20thcentury. R. C. Smail argued it identified an integrated society which did not exist to justify French colonialism. The new consensus was the society was segregated with limited social and cultural interchange. Focusing on evidence of social, legal, and political frameworks in Jerusalem, Joshua Prawer and Jonathan Riley-Smith presented the widely accepted view of a society that was predominantly urban, isolated from the indigenous peoples, with separate legal and religious systems. Prawer's 1972 work, The Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem: European Colonialism in the Middle Ages, extended this analysis: the lack of integration was based on economics with the Franks' position depending on a subjugated, disenfranchised local population. The Franks' primary motivations were economic. Islamic historian Carole Hillenbrand argued that the Islamic population responded with resentment, suspicion, and rejection of the Franks. Recently this has been challenged by historians such as Ronnie Ellenblum using archaeological research, but no alternative model has been accepted. Christopher Tyerman points out this is not a return to older theories as the same sources are used and the archaeology is unprovable. Specialist Denys Pringle notes that it does not contradict the earlier view. Hans Eberhard Mayer had already advised that the number of Franks living in rural settlements should not be underestimated. These theories support the idea that the crusader states formed part of the wider expansion of Western Europe: driven by religious reform and growing papal power. However, historians argue there was no vigorous church reform in the East or resulting persecution of Jews and heretics. Some consider regulations from the 1120 Council of Nablus as exceptional and Benjamin Z. Kedar believed they followed Byzantine, rather than western reformist, precedent. The debate has led historians like Claude Cahen, Jean Richard, and Christopher MacEvitt to argue the history of the crusader states is distinct from the crusades, allowing the application of other analytical techniques that place the crusader states in the context of Near Eastern politics. These ideas are still in the process of articulation by modern historians.
See also
Frankokratia
Terra Mariana, the crusader states in Medieval Livonia
References
Footnotes
Sources
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Christian terminology
Historical regions
Christian states | [
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256361 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/2002%20Oregon%20Ballot%20Measure%2027 | 2002 Oregon Ballot Measure 27 | Ballot Measure 27 of 2002 would have required the mandatory labelling of all genetically modified food sold in the U.S. state of Oregon. The measure was defeated in the November 5, 2002 general election with 371,851 votes in favor, 886,806 votes against. The measure was placed on the ballot as a result of initiative petition.
Proponents of the measure argued that "Oregonians should have the right to know what they are eating." They repeated the belief of some activists that genetic engineering of food poses a potential threat to health and safety. (See genetically modified food.) Proponents also ridiculed the cost estimates of the law brought by the measure's opponents. Proponents hoped that an Oregon labeling law would spark debate about the use of genetically modified organisms (GMOs) in food and eventually a nationwide labelling system.
Opponents argued that Oregon's agricultural industry would be burdened by excessive costs if the measure were to pass, given the lack of such a requirement throughout the rest of the United States. In addition, opponents claimed there was little evidence that GMO foods posed a danger to human health. Monsanto Company, an agricultural company whose products account for 70% of the GMO market, donated $1.5 million to the effort against the measure. Overall, opponents spent $5.5 million, tying an Oregon spending record.
See also
List of Oregon ballot measures
California Proposition 37 (2012)
References
External links
Oregon Voters' Pamphlet – Measure 27 page 116 – includes ballot title, text of the measure, and arguments for and against
Letter from Consumers' Union supporting Measure 27
2002 Oregon ballot measures
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