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261366 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dimer%20%28chemistry%29 | Dimer (chemistry) | A dimer () (di-, "two" + -mer, "parts") is an oligomer consisting of two monomers joined by bonds that can be either strong or weak, covalent or intermolecular. The term homodimer is used when the two molecules are identical (e.g. A–A) and heterodimer when they are not (e.g. A–B). The reverse of dimerisation is often called dissociation. When two oppositely charged ions associate into dimers, they are referred to as Bjerrum pairs, after Niels Bjerrum.
Noncovalent dimers
Carboxylic acids form dimers by hydrogen bonding of the acidic hydrogen and the carbonyl oxygen when anhydrous. For example, acetic acid forms a dimer in the gas phase, where the monomer units are held together by hydrogen bonds. Under special conditions, most OH-containing molecules form dimers, e.g. the water dimer.
Borane ("BH3") occurs as the dimer diborane (B2H6), due to the high Lewis acidity of the boron center.
Excimers and exciplexes are excited structures with a short lifetime. For example, noble gases do not form stable dimers, but they (dimers) do form the excimers Ar2*, Kr2* and Xe2* under high pressure and electrical stimulation.
Covalent dimers
Molecular dimers are often formed by the reaction of two identical compounds e.g.: 2A → A-A. In this example, monomer "A" is said to dimerise to give the dimer "A-A". An example is a diaminocarbene, which dimerise to give a tetraaminoethylene:
2 C(NR2)2 → (R2N)2C=C(NR2)2
Carbenes are highly reactive and readily form bonds.
Dicyclopentadiene is an asymmetrical dimer of two cyclopentadiene molecules that have reacted in a Diels-Alder reaction to give the product. Upon heating, it "cracks" (undergoes a retro-Diels-Alder reaction) to give identical monomers:
C10H12 → 2 C5H6
Many nonmetallic elements occur as dimers: hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, the halogens, i.e. fluorine, chlorine, bromine and iodine. Noble gases can form dimers linked by van der Waals bonds, for example dihelium or diargon. Mercury occurs as a mercury(I) cation (Hg22+), formally a dimeric ion. Other metals may form a proportion of dimers in their vapour. Known metallic dimers include Li2, Na2, K2, Rb2 and Cs2.
Such elemental dimers are homonuclear diatomic molecules.
Many small organic molecules, most notably formaldehyde, easily form dimers. The dimer of formaldehyde (CH2O) is dioxetane (C2H4O2).
Polymer chemistry
In the context of polymers, "dimer" also refers to the degree of polymerization 2, regardless of the stoichiometry or condensation reactions.
This is applicable to disaccharides. For example, cellobiose is a dimer of glucose, even though the formation reaction produces water:
2C6H12O6 → C12H22O11 + H2O
Here, the dimer has a stoichiometry different from the pair of monomers.
Amino acids can also form dimers, which are called dipeptides. An example is glycylglycine, consisting of two glycine molecules joined by a peptide bond. Other examples are aspartame and carnosine.
Biochemical dimers
Pyrimidine dimers are formed by a photochemical reaction from pyrimidine DNA bases. This cross-linking causes DNA mutations, which can be carcinogenic, causing skin cancers.
See also
Monomer
Trimer
Polymer
Protein dimer
Oligomer
References
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261368 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mark%20Philippoussis | Mark Philippoussis | Mark Anthony “The Pou” Philippoussis ( ; born 7 November 1976) is an Australian retired tennis player of Greek and Italian descent. He turned professional in 1994. His greatest achievements are winning two Davis Cup titles with Australia in 1999 and 2003, winning the deciding rubber in the final of each. He also reached the finals of the 1998 US Open and the 2003 Wimbledon tournaments, losing to fellow countryman Pat Rafter and Switzerland’s Roger Federer respectively. He reached a career-high singles ranking of world No. 8.
He has had a minor career in modelling and starred in the American reality television dating show Age of Love. He is nicknamed 'the Scud', after the Scud missile. He is also known in Australia as “The Pou”.
Biography
Early career
Philippoussis was born in Melbourne to a Greek father, Nikolaos ("Nick"), and an Italian mother, Rossana; and was educated at Maribyrnong College and later at Wesley College. He is of the Catholic faith.
Coached by his father, Nick, the right-hander has played tennis since he was six years of age. He was an Australian Institute of Sport scholarship holder. He was briefly coached by former 1987 Wimbledon champion Pat Cash, which ended in an acrimonious split in 2000. In 1994, he finished third in singles ranking for juniors. Philippoussis also finished as junior doubles champion with Ben Ellwood in Australia, Wimbledon, and Italy. He turned professional in 1994.
In 1995, at the age of 19, he was the youngest player in the year-end top 50. In 1996, he reached the 4th round of the Australian Open upsetting Pete Sampras in the 3rd round and in doubles with Patrick Rafter. On 25 May 1997, he recorded a personal best 229.0 km/h (142.3 mph) serve in a game he lost to Albert Costa. During the height of his career, Philippoussis was known as having one of the fastest serves in the game.
Rise to top 10
At the 1998 US Open U.S. Open, Philippoussis reached his first Grand Slam final, losing to fellow Australian Patrick Rafter. In January 1999, Philippoussis and Jelena Dokić won the Hopman Cup for Australia, defeating Sweden's Åsa Carlsson and Jonas Björkman in the final tie. This was the first time that Australia won the Hopman Cup and the only time until Nick Kyrgios and Daria Gavrilova won in January 2016.
On 29 March 1999, Philippoussis entered the top 10 for the first time and stayed there for 10 weeks. He advanced to the quarter-finals at Wimbledon in 1999 for the second straight year, where he retired in the second set against Sampras after having won the first set. During that match, Philippoussis suffered a moderate cartilage tear in his left knee and underwent arthroscopic surgery four days later. Sampras later remarked that he " dodged a bullet out there". Philippoussis returned to professional tennis seven weeks later at the Indianapolis Tennis Championships and lost his second-round match after receiving a bye in the first round. He did not play again until October in Singapore, where he lost in the second round. He finished 1999 at No. 19.
2000 was the fourth consecutive year in which Philippoussis finished in the top 20, at No. 11. He reached the fourth round at the Australian Open, losing to eventual champion Andre Agassi. He defeated No. 2 Sampras 8–6 in the fifth set at the French Open in a first-round match, but lost in the fourth round to Juan Carlos Ferrero. For the third consecutive year, he made it to the quarterfinals at Wimbledon, losing again to Agassi. He appeared in his second Olympic Games in Sydney, losing in the third round to eventual gold medalist Yevgeny Kafelnikov.
Philippoussis finished 2002 in the top 100 (seventh time in eight years), despite not winning a title. He moved from Miami to the San Diego area in September 2002.
Davis Cup
Philippoussis has always claimed to be proud of representing his country in Davis Cup, but personal differences with John Newcombe and Tony Roche interfered with his commitment early in his career. Despite several highly publicised feuds, Philippoussis played a large part in giving Australia their 27th Davis Cup triumph—second only to the United States with 31—but it was their first since 1986. In 1999 he defeated Cédric Pioline, 6–3, 5–7, 6–1, 6–2, in Nice, France.
Injuries plagued Philippoussis's availability for Davis Cup and was the cause of a public rift between team-mates Patrick Rafter and Lleyton Hewitt. Rafter publicly accused Philippoussis of jerking the team around after he withdrew from a Davis Cup tie in late 2000. Philippoussis said Rafter was ill-informed and upset by the lack of support and understanding from his team-mates.
Knee surgeries forced Philippoussis out of Davis Cup until February 2003. By then, Pat Rafter had retired, and John Fitzgerald and Wally Masur were the new Davis Cup captain and coach. Philippoussis sealed victory for Australia in the Melbourne Final against Spain. Philippoussis beat Spain's Juan Carlos Ferrero in a 7–5, 6–3, 1–6, 2–6, 6–0 battle. Philippoussis suffered a pectoral tear at the end of the second set, which caused him to lose the third and fourth sets. He regrouped in the fifth set and beat Ferrero 6–0.
2003: Comeback
After three knee operations, Philippoussis embarked on a protracted comeback. He made himself available regularly for Davis Cup, hired a new physical trainer, and took up surfing as his new recreation. He made the 2003 Wimbledon final, finally losing to Roger Federer, 6–7(5), 2–6, 6–7(3).
During a 2003 Wimbledon tennis match against Andre Agassi (6–3, 2–6, 6–7 (4–7), 6–3, 6–4), he set a new Australian tennis record of 46 aces served in a match, three aces short of the overall ATP Tour record then held by Richard Krajicek.
Philippoussis broke a two-year singles-title drought by winning the Shanghai Open in 2003. On 30 November 2003, he defeated Juan Carlos Ferrero of Spain to win the fourth match of the Davis Cup final in Melbourne, securing the title for Australia. At the end of 2003, Philippoussis received the ATP Comeback Player of the Year award.
The honeymoon period with the Australian public, however, did not last. 2004 proved a disastrous year in terms of his tennis career and public profile. After shouldering most of the blame for losing Australia's Davis Cup tie with Sweden with an unexpected below-par performance, Philippoussis struggled through to the Wimbledon fourth round in June 2004. From Wimbledon in June until the end of the season in October, he failed to win a single ATP tennis match and finished with one of his lowest rankings since turning professional in 1994.
In October 2004, a much-publicised affair with Delta Goodrem had soured and seriously damaged his standing, after newspapers alleged that he had dated Paris Hilton while with Goodrem. In March 2005, he became engaged to actress and model Alexis Barbara. The Age reported the pair had split in July 2006, but Philippoussis denied this to Australian tabloid New Idea; they did split some time before he began filming Age of Love.
He confirmed to Sydney's Daily Telegraph on 23 August 2006, that he "parted ways with" his father as his coach and rehired Peter McNamara in an attempt to revive his career.
2006: Return
After some controversy over his wildcard selection after a disappointing 2006 Australian Open, Philippoussis made more headlines when he again earned entry into the 2006 Wimbledon. He was defeated in the second round.
Leading into the Campbell's Hall of Fame Championships as a wildcard, his record was a modest 6–7. He had a fantastic run in the tournament, getting to the final, where he defeated Justin Gimelstob in straight sets to claim his first title in almost three years.
Philippoussis, then ranked No. 114, lost to Rafael Nadal as a wildcard entry in the first round of the 2006 US Open. The Australian Davis Cup team lost against Argentina in an unpredictable 5–0. On 22 September, Philippoussis was defeated by David Nalbandian 4–6, 3–6, 3–6, in the first match of the series.
Philippoussis played in a series of Challenger tournaments after the Davis Cup semifinals. Philippoussis won the Calabasas tournament, defeating Amer Delic, 6–7(4–7), 7–6(7–4), 6–3, in the final.
2007
Philippoussis beat Russian Dmitry Tursunov, 6–4, 7–6, at the 2007 Hopman Cup. However, during his second match against Jérôme Haehnel, he was forced to retire after hyperextending his knee. An MRI showed that he had torn cartilage in his knee, forcing him to miss the rest of the season.
2008
Philippoussis acquired a protected ranking of No. 119 and was allowed to use that ranking for entry into eight tournaments. Tennis Australia, not being happy with his lack of matchplay and unwillingness to play the Australian Open wildcard playoff, told him that he would not be given any special treatment and would have to earn his wildcard. This forced him to use one of his protected ranking tournament entries.
In his first match of the Australian Open Wildcard playoff, he was drawn against reigning Australian Open juniors champion Brydan Klein and had a fiery contest. After a remark from Klein, Philippoussis was quoted as saying, "You say that to me again and you're in trouble; you're not playing juniors any more." He came out the victor in straight sets, 6–3, 7–5, and thus began his comeback in good form. Philippoussis then lost his second match to Sam Groth, 4–6, 3–6, but due to other players' injuries, he advanced to the quarterfinals, where he was to play Rameez Junaid. However, due to another knee injury requiring surgery, Philippoussis was unable to play.
2010
Philippousis appeared in a pro tour match for the first time since November 2006, when he lost to fifth seed Michael Yani, 4–6, 4–6, in the first round of the Challenger of Dallas. Philippousis also competed in some of the events on the Champions Series, winning two tournaments and topping the rankings for 2010.
2012
Philippoussis has played for the Philadelphia Freedoms of World Team Tennis this summer. The Freedoms used the No. 1 overall pick to draft Philippoussis, who previously played for the team in 2002. He was the team's marquee player on 25 July 2012 when they faced the Boston Lobsters and travelled with the team to their matches against the Sacramento Capitals and Orange County Breakers.
2015: Return to ATP World Tour
Philippoussis contested his first match on the ATP World Tour in nine years since winning the 2006 Newport title, after receiving a wild card into the qualifying rounds of the 2015 Hall of Fame Tennis Championships at 38 years of age.
He lost to Eric Quigley 6–7(1), 6–7(4). Philippoussis also played doubles in the tournament with Ryan Harrison, winning the first round to make it to the quarter-finals before losing to the second seeds Austin Krajicek and Rajeev Ram.
Afterwards, Philippousis said: "It was just about playing one event. There’s no talk about a comeback. Down the line if I see something, maybe close to California, I might do that. It’s one event and that’s it."
2017
Philippoussis won the 2017 RPIA Championships in Toronto, defeating Andy Roddick in the finals.
Equipment
In early 2000s, Philippoussis wore apparel manufactured by Fila on court, and used Dunlop 200G racquet.
Television
In 2020, Philippoussis competed as the 'Echidna' in the second season of The Masked Singer Australia and was the first contestant eliminated, placing 12th overall.
Age of Love
Philippoussis starred as the bachelor in the reality television dating show Age of Love on the NBC television network, in June 2007.
The show centred around women in or near their 40s and women in their 20s competing for his affection. At first Philippoussis, unaware of the special format of the show, was shocked at the ages of the "cougars" as the older women were called. He was shocked again after learning he would also be dating younger women ("kittens"). The final dates occurred in his hometown of Melbourne, Australia, including a date at Moonlit Sanctuary. In the end, Philippoussis chose Amanda Salinas (the 25-year-old Nashville Predators dancer) because it "wouldn't work out" with Jen, the 48-year-old assistant to Jerry Buss.
Personal life
In 2004, he began a nine-month relationship with Australian singer Delta Goodrem. Her "comeback" single, "Out of the Blue", was written about his support during her cancer battle. The couple's relationship ended in controversy when newspapers reported Philippoussis had been unfaithful.
In May 2009, Philippoussis declared that all his money was gone and that he would lose his home of residence. In a writ lodged with the Supreme Court on 15 May 2009, it was alleged Philippoussis took out a loan through his company Mergis Pty Ltd which he personally guaranteed. The writ claims Mergis – of which Philippoussis is the sole director, secretary and shareholder – defaulted less than a year later. The lender is seeking $1,313,351.96, plus interest, costs and possession of the house, or is threatening to go to trial. The Perpetual Trustee Company Ltd is listed in court documents as the plaintiff, but a company spokesman said her firm had provided funds to another company which was the one foreclosing. The other company is not detailed on the writ, but Philippoussis said it was Pepper Home Loans – a company that provides loans through mortgage brokers. Philippoussis took out a mortgage in February 2008. He said he was three months behind, adding that each monthly payment was more than $10,000. "I haven't played tennis since 2006, and tennis is one of those sports where if you don't play, you don't get paid", he said.
Later in 2009, while in the US attempting to restart his tennis career, he dated and was engaged to actress Jennifer Esposito but the engagement ended a year later.
Philippoussis' former stepmother is Yan Cui.
He married Romanian-born model Silvana Lovin in September 2013. Lovin gave birth to their first child, a boy, in 2014, and had their second child, a girl, in 2018.
Major finals
Grand Slam finals
Singles: 2 (2 runner-ups)
Masters Series finals
Singles: 2 (1 title, 1 runner-up)
Career finals
Singles: 22 (11 titles, 11 runner-ups)
Doubles: 6 (3 titles, 3 runner-ups)
Team competition: 3 (3 titles)
Performance timeline
Singles
1This event was held in Stockholm through 1994, Essen in 1995, and Stuttgart from 1996 through 2001.
Top 10 wins
References
Article - CNN
Article - The Australian
External links
AussieProfiles.com: Mark Philippoussis
TheAge.com.au – Feature article
Sport.Guardian.uk – Featuring biography of Mark Philippoussis
1976 births
Australian people of Greek descent
Australian people of Italian descent
Australian expatriate sportspeople in the United States
Australian male tennis players
Australian Roman Catholics
Australian Open (tennis) junior champions
Grand Slam (tennis) champions in boys' doubles
Olympic tennis players of Australia
Participants in American reality television series
Tennis players from Melbourne
Tennis players at the 1996 Summer Olympics
Tennis players at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Tennis players at the 2004 Summer Olympics
People educated at Wesley College (Victoria)
People from Williamstown, Victoria
Hopman Cup competitors
Wimbledon junior champions
Australian Institute of Sport tennis players
Living people
Tennis players of Greek origin | [
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261376 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tanager | Tanager | The tanagers (singular ) comprise the bird family Thraupidae, in the order Passeriformes. The family has a Neotropical distribution and is the second-largest family of birds. It represents about 4% of all avian species and 12% of the Neotropical birds.
Traditionally, the family contained around 240 species of mostly brightly colored fruit-eating birds. As more of these birds were studied using modern molecular techniques, it became apparent that the traditional families were not monophyletic. Euphonia and Chlorophonia, which were once considered part of the tanager family, are now treated as members of the Fringillidae, in their own subfamily (Euphoniinae). Likewise, the genera Piranga (which includes the scarlet tanager, summer tanager, and western tanager), Chlorothraupis, and Habia appear to be members of the cardinal family, and have been reassigned to that family by the American Ornithological Society.
Description
Tanagers are small to medium-sized birds. The shortest-bodied species, the white-eared conebill, is long and weighs , barely smaller than the short-billed honeycreeper. The longest, the magpie tanager is and weighs . The heaviest is the white-capped tanager, which weighs and measures about . Both sexes are usually the same size and weight.
Tanagers are often brightly colored, but some species are black and white. Males are typically more brightly colored than females and juveniles. Most tanagers have short, rounded wings. The shape of the bill seems to be linked to the species' foraging habits.
Distribution
Tanagers are restricted to the Western Hemisphere and mainly to the tropics. About 60% of tanagers live in South America, and 30% of these species live in the Andes. Most species are endemic to a relatively small area.
Behavior
Most tanagers live in pairs or in small groups of three to five individuals. These groups may consist simply of parents and their offspring. These birds may also be seen in single-species or mixed flocks. Many tanagers are thought to have dull songs, though some are elaborate.
Diet
Tanagers are omnivorous, and their diets vary by genus. They have been seen eating fruits, seeds, nectar, flower parts, and insects. Many pick insects off branches or from holes in the wood. Other species look for insects on the undersides of leaves. Yet others wait on branches until they see a flying insect and catch it in the air. Many of these particular species inhabit the same areas, but these specializations alleviate competition.
Breeding
The breeding season is March through June in temperate areas and in September through October in South America. Some species are territorial, while others build their nests closer together. Little information is available on tanager breeding behavior. Males show off their brightest feathers to potential mates and rival males. Some species' courtship rituals involve bowing and tail lifting.
Most tanagers build cup nests on branches in trees. Some nests are almost globular. Entrances are usually built on the side of the nest. The nests can be shallow or deep. The species of the tree in which they choose to build their nests and the nests' positions vary among genera. Most species nest in an area hidden by very dense vegetation. No information is yet known regarding the nests of some species.
The clutch size is three to five eggs. The female incubates the eggs and builds the nest, but the male may feed the female while she incubates. Both sexes feed the young. Five species have helpers assist in feeding the young. These helpers are thought to be the previous year's nestlings.
Taxonomy
The family Thraupidae was introduced (as the subfamily Thraupinae) in 1847 by German ornithologist Jean Cabanis. The type genus is Thraupis.
The family Thraupidae is a member of an assemblage of over 800 birds known as the New World, nine-primaried oscines. The traditional pre-molecular classification was largely based on the different feeding specializations. Nectar-feeders were placed in Coerebidae (honeycreepers), large-billed seed-eaters in Cardinalidae (cardinals and grosbeaks), smaller-billed seed-eaters in Emberizidae (New World finches and
sparrows), ground-foraging insect-eaters in Icteridae (blackbirds) and fruit-eaters
in Thraupidae. This classification was known to be problematic as analyses using other morphological characteristics often produced conflicting phylogenies. Beginning in the last decade of the 20th century, a series of molecular phylogenetic studies led to a complete reorganization of the tradition families. Thraupidae now includes large-billed seed eaters, thin-billed nectar feeders, foliage gleaners as well as fruit-eaters.
One consequence of redefining the family boundaries is that for many species their common names are no longer congruent with the families in which they are placed. As of July 2020 there are 39 species with "tanager" in the common name that are not placed in Thraupidae. These include the widely distributed scarlet tanager and western tanager which are both now placed in Cardinalidae. There are also 106 species within Thraupidae that have "finch" in their common name.
A molecular phylogenetic study published in 2014 revealed that many of the traditional genera were not monophyletic. In the resulting reorganization six new genera were introduced, eleven genera were resurrected and seven genera were abandoned.
As of July 2021 the family contains 386 species which are divided into 15 subfamilies and 106 genera. For a complete list, see the article List of tanager species.
List of genera
Catamblyrhynchinae
The plushcap has no close relatives and is now placed in its own subfamily. It was previously placed either in the subfamily Catamblyrhynchinae within the Emberizidae or in its own family Catamblyrhynchidae.
Catamblyrhynchus – plushcap
Charitospizinae
The coal-crested finch is endemic to the grasslands of Brazil and has no close relatives. It is unusual in that both sexes have a crest. It was formerly placed in Emberizidae.
Charitospiza – coal-crested finch
Orchesticinae
Two species with large thick bills. Parkerthraustes was formerly placed in Cardinalidae.
Orchesticus – brown tanager
Parkerthraustes – yellow-shouldered grosbeak
Nemosiinae
Brightly colored sexually dichromatic birds, most form single-species flocks
Nemosia – two species
Cyanicterus – blue-backed tanager
Sericossypha – white-capped tanager
Compsothraupis – scarlet-throated tanager
Emberizoidinae
Grassland dwelling birds that were formerly placed in Emberizidae.
Coryphaspiza – black-masked finch
Embernagra – two species
Emberizoides – three species
Porphyrospizinae
Yellow billed birds: The blue finch (Porphyrospiza caerulescens) was formerly placed in the Cardinalidae; the other species were formerly placed in Emberizidae.
Incaspiza – five species - Inca finches
Rhopospina – mourning sierra finch
Porphyrospiza – three species
Hemithraupinae
These species are sexually dichromatic and many have yellow and black plumage. Except for Heterospingus they have slender bills.
Chlorophanes – green honeycreeper
Iridophanes – golden-collared honeycreeper
Chrysothlypis – two species
Heterospingus – two species
Hemithraupis – three species
Dacninae
Sexually dichromatic species - males have blue plumage and females are green.
Tersina – swallow tanager
Cyanerpes – four species - honeycreepers
Dacnis – 10 species
Saltatorinae
Mainly arboreal with long tails and thick bills. Formerly placed in Cardinalidae.
Saltatricula – two species
Saltator – 14 species - saltators
Coerebinae
This subfamily includes Darwin's finches that are endemic to the Galápagos Islands and Cocos Island. Most of these species were formerly placed in the Emberizidae; the exceptions are the bananaquit that was placed in the Parulidae and the orangequit that was placed in the Thraupidae. These species build domed or covered nests with side entrances. They have evolved a variety of foraging techniques, including nectar-feeding (Coereba, Euneornis), seed-eating (Geospiza, Loxigilla, Tiaris), and insect gleaning (Certhidea).
Coereba – bananaquit
Tiaris – yellow-faced grassquit
Euneornis – orangequit
Melopyrrha – three species
Loxipasser – yellow-shouldered grassquit
Phonipara – Cuban grassquit
Loxigilla – two species
Melanospiza – two species
Asemospiza – two species
Darwin's finches:
Certhidea – two species
Platyspiza – vegetarian finch
Pinaroloxias – Cocos finch
Camarhynchus – five species
Geospiza – 9 species
Tachyphoninae
Most of these are lowland species. Many have ornamental features such as crests, and many have sexually dichromatic plumage.
Volatinia – blue-black grassquit
Conothraupis – two species
Creurgops – two species
Eucometis – grey-headed tanager
Trichothraupis – black-goggled tanager
Heliothraupis – Inti tanager
Loriotus – three species
Coryphospingus – two species
Tachyphonus – five species
Rhodospingus – crimson-breasted finch
Lanio – four species - shrike-tanagers
Ramphocelus – 9 species
Sporophilinae
These species were formerly placed in Emberizidae.
Sporophila – 41 species: seedeaters and seed finches (includes species previously assigned to Dolospingus and Oryzoborus)
Poospizinae
Some of these species were formerly placed in Emberizidae.
Piezorina – cinereous finch
Xenospingus – slender-billed finch
Cnemoscopus – grey-hooded bush tanager
Pseudospingus – two species - hemispingus
Poospiza – 10 species (includes species previously assigned to Hemispingus and Compsospiza)
Kleinothraupis – five species - hemispingus
Sphenopsis – four species
Thlypopsis – eight species (includes species previously assigned to Hemispingus and Pyrrhocoma)
Castanozoster – bay-chested warbling finch
Donacospiza – long-tailed reed finch
Cypsnagra – white-rumped tanager
Poospizopsis – two species
Urothraupis – black-backed bush tanager
Nephelornis – pardusco
Microspingus – eight species
Diglossinae
This is a morphologically diverse group that includes seed-eaters (Nesospiza, Sicalis, Catamenia, Haplospiza), arthropod feeders (Conirostrum), a bamboo specialist (Acanthidops), an aphid feeder (Xenodacnis), and boulder field specialists (Idiopsar). Many species live at high altitudes. Conirostrum was previously placed in Parulidae, Diglossa was placed in Thraupidae and the remaining genera were placed in Emberizidae.
Conirostrum – 11 species - conebills (includes giant conebill formerly assigned to Oreomanes)
Sicalis – 13 species
Phrygilus – four species - sierra finches
Nesospiza – three species
Rowettia – Gough finch
Melanodera – two species
Geospizopsis – two species: sierra finches
Haplospiza – two species
Acanthidops – peg-billed finch
Xenodacnis – tit-like dacnis
Idiopsar – four species
Catamenia – three species - seedeaters
Diglossa – 18 species - flowerpiecers
Thraupinae
Typical tanagers
Calochaetes – vermilion tanager
Iridosornis – five species
Rauenia – blue-and-yellow tanager
Pipraeidea – fawn-breasted tanager
Pseudosaltator – rufous-bellied mountain tanager
Dubusia – two species - mountain tangers (includes chestnut-bellied mountain tanager formerly assigned to Delothraupis)
Buthraupis – hooded mountain tanager
Sporathraupis – blue-capped tanager
Tephrophilus – masked mountain tanager
Chlorornis – grass-green tanager
Cnemathraupis – two species - mountain tangers
Anisognathus – five species - mountain tangers
Chlorochrysa – three species
Wetmorethraupis – orange-throated tanager
Bangsia – six species
Lophospingus – two species - crested finches
Neothraupis – shrike-like tanager
Diuca – diuca finch
Gubernatrix – yellow cardinal
Stephanophorus – diademed tanager
Cissopis – magpie tanager
Schistochlamys – two species
Paroaria – six species: cardinals
Ixothraupis – five species
Chalcothraupis – golden-naped tanager
Poecilostreptus – two species
Thraupis – seven species
Stilpnia – 14 species
Tangara – 27 species
Genera formerly placed in Thraupidae
Passerellidae – New World sparrows
Chlorospingus – eight species - bush-tanagers
Oreothraupis – tanager finch
Cardinalidae – cardinals
Piranga – 9 species - northern tanagers
Habia – five species - ant-tanagers or habias
Chlorothraupis – three species
Amaurospiza – four species
Fringillidae – subfamily Euphoniinae
Euphonia – 27 species
Chlorophonia – five species
Phaenicophilidae – Hispaniolan tanagers
Microligea – green-tailed warbler
Xenoligea – white-winged warbler
Phaenicophilus – two species
Mitrospingidae – Mitrospingid tanagers
Mitrospingus – two species
Orthogonys – olive-green tanager
Lamprospiza – red-billed pied tanager
Nesospingidae
Nesospingus – Puerto Rican tanager
Spindalidae
Spindalis – four species - spindalises
Calyptophilidae
Calyptophilus – two species - chat-tanagers
Rhodinocichlidae
Rhodinocichla – rosy thrush-tanager
References
Further reading
External links
Jungle-walk.com tanager pictures
Tanager videos, photos and sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Taxa named by Jean Cabanis | [
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] |
261381 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Iligan%20Bay | Iligan Bay | Iligan Bay is a bay in Mindanao Island in the Philippines. The bay is part of the Bohol Sea, and curves into the northern coast of Mindanao Island.
A branch of the bay, Panguil Bay, forms a natural isthmus with Illana Bay and geographic boundary between the Zamboanga Peninsula and the rest of Mindanao island.
The provinces covered along its coast are Misamis Occidental, Misamis Oriental, and Lanao del Norte.
Iligan City is the most important port on Iligan Bay. Other important ports are in Oroquieta City, Plaridel, Misamis Occidental and Lugait, Misamis Oriental. To protect Iligan Bay from destruction and biodiversity degradation, eight local government units and the provincial government of Misamis Occidental organized the Iligan Bay Alliance of Misamis Occidental.
References
Bays of the Philippines
Landforms of Lanao del Norte
Landforms of Misamis Occidental
Landforms of Misamis Oriental
Iligan
Misamis Occidental | [
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261382 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ione%20Skye | Ione Skye | Ione Skye Lee (; née Ione Skye Leitch; born September 4, 1970) is a British-born American actress, author, and painter. She made her film debut in the thriller River's Edge (1986) before gaining mainstream exposure for her starring role in Cameron Crowe's Say Anything... (1989). She continued to appear in films throughout the 1990s, with notable roles in Gas Food Lodging (1992), Wayne's World (1992) and One Night Stand (1997).
Other film credits include the comedy Fever Pitch (2005) and an uncredited role in Zodiac (2007). Skye also guest-starred on several television series, including The Twilight Zone (2002), Private Practice, and a recurring role on Arrested Development. She is also featured in the NBC series La Brea (2021).
In addition to acting, Skye also works as a painter, and has authored several children's books. In 2006, VH1 ranked her number 84 on its list of the 100 Greatest Teen Stars.
Early life
Skye was born Ione Skye Leitch in Hampstead, London, the daughter of folk singer-songwriter Donovan and model Enid Karl (née Stulberger). Her father is Scottish born with some Irish ancestry, and grew up in England. Her mother is an American who was raised in the Bronx, New York City, and is Jewish. Her second name comes from the Isle of Skye. She is the younger sister of Camp Freddy singer Donovan Leitch. Skye's parents were separated at the time of her birth, and she was raised by her mother, having little to no contact with her father.
Skye grew up primarily in Los Angeles and San Francisco, and also spent time in Connecticut. She attended Immaculate Heart High School and Hollywood High School in Los Angeles.
Career
Skye made her film debut with a supporting role in River's Edge in 1986, followed by a role as the title character in The Rachel Papers (1989). She played Diane Court, a withdrawn high school valedictorian, in the 1989 film Say Anything..., the feature film debut of director Cameron Crowe; the film attained a cult following and lent Skye international recognition.
In 1992, she played the role of Eleanor Grey on the short-lived television series Covington Cross, starred in Allison Anders's debut feature film Gas Food Lodging (which also featured Skye's brother Donovan Leitch), and had a supporting role in the Stephen La Rocque film Samantha. She subsequently had supporting roles as Elise in the comedy Wayne's World (1992) and the Mike Figgis-directed drama One Night Stand (1997).
She later appeared in the music video for the Harvey Danger song "Sad Sweetheart of the Rodeo." In 2007, Skye had a small, well-received part in the David Fincher film Zodiac.
In an interview with mondo-video.com in December 2010, Skye said she had not paid perfect attention to her career arc over the years, saying she "never struck when the iron was hot" when it came to going after big Hollywood roles in her 20s.
In 2013, she appeared in a supporting part in the independent horror film Haunt, with Jacki Weaver. In 2016, Skye directed the music video for the Against Me! single "333". The same year, she appeared in the short film Kitty, directed by Chloë Sevigny.
Other ventures
In addition to acting, Skye is also a painter, and sells her own works. She also wrote the children's book My Yiddish Vacation, published by Henry Holt and Company in May 2014. Skye has cited comic book artist Daniel Clowes as an inspiration for her painting and writing.
Personal life
For several years in the 1980s, Skye had a relationship with Anthony Kiedis, singer for the Red Hot Chili Peppers. Kiedis's 2004 book Scar Tissue contains a nude photo of the couple.
Skye married to Adam Horovitz, a member of the Beastie Boys. The couple married in 1992, separated in 1995, and divorced in 1999.
After her divorce, Skye dated model Jenny Shimizu.
Skye then had a relationship with furniture designer David Netto. They had a daughter, Kate, born December 2001. Skye's home in Hollywood, and Netto's apartment in New York City were featured in the February 2003 issue of Vogue. The two were engaged, but eventually separated.
In 2008, Skye became engaged to Australian musician Ben Lee. On December 29, 2008, Skye and Lee were married in a Hindu wedding ceremony in India. They have one daughter, Goldie Priya Lee, born September 24, 2009.
In an extensive 2015 interview, Skye discussed her struggle with addiction, including bouts with alcoholism and other drug use.
Filmography
Film
Television
Notes
References
External links
Ione Skye Paintings
1970 births
American film actresses
American television actresses
Jewish American actresses
Living people
Actresses from Hertfordshire
Jewish English actresses
English people of Scottish descent
British emigrants to the United States
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Alumni of Immaculate Heart High School, Los Angeles
Actresses from Los Angeles
Actresses from San Francisco
Actresses from Connecticut
20th-century English women
20th-century English people
21st-century English women
21st-century English people
21st-century American Jews | [
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261384 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rosamunde%20Pilcher | Rosamunde Pilcher | Rosamunde Pilcher, OBE (née Scott; 22 September 1924 – 6 February 2019) was a British writer of romance novels, mainstream fiction, and short stories, from 1949 until her retirement in 2000. Her novels sold over 60 million copies worldwide. Early in her career she was also published under the pen name Jane Fraser. In 2001, she received the Corine Literature Prize's Weltbild Readers' Prize for Winter Solstice.
Personal life
She was born Rosamunde Scott on 22 September 1924 in Lelant, Cornwall. Her parents were Helen (née Harvey) and Charles Scott, a British civil servant. Just before her birth her father was posted in Burma, while her mother remained in England. She attended the School of St. Clare in Penzance and Howell's School Llandaff before going on to Miss Kerr-Sanders' Secretarial College. She began writing when she was seven, and published her first short story when she was 15.
From 1943 until 1946, Pilcher served with the Women's Royal Naval Service. On 7 December 1946, she married Graham Hope Pilcher, a war hero and jute industry executive who died in March 2009. They moved to Dundee, Scotland. They had two daughters and two sons. Her son, Robin Pilcher, is also a novelist.
Pilcher died on 6 February 2019, at the age of 94, following a stroke.
Writing career
In 1949, Pilcher's first book, a romance novel, was published by Mills and Boon, under the pseudonym Jane Fraser. She published a further ten novels under that name. In 1955, she also began writing under her real name with Secret to Tell. By 1965 she had dropped the pseudonym and was signing her own name to all of her novels.
The breakthrough in Pilcher's career came in 1987, when she wrote the family saga The Shell Seekers, her fourteenth novel under her own name. It focuses on an elderly British woman, Penelope Keeling, who relives her life in flashbacks, and on her relationship with her adult children. Keeling's life was not extraordinary, but it spans "a time of huge importance and change in the world." The novel describes the everyday details of what life during World War II was like for some of those who lived in Britain. The Shell Seekers sold around ten million copies and was translated into more than forty languages. It was adapted for the stage by Terence Brady and Charlotte Bingham. Pilcher was said to be among the highest-earning women in Britain by the mid-1990s.
Her other major novels include September (1990), Coming Home (1995) and Winter Solstice (2000). Coming Home won the Romantic Novel of the Year Award by Romantic Novelists' Association in 1996. The president of the association in 2019, the romance writer Katie Fforde, considers Pilcher to be "groundbreaking as she was the first to bring family sagas to the wider public". Felicity Bryan, in her obituary for The Guardian, writes that Pilcher took the romance genre to "an altogether higher, wittier level"; she praises Pilcher's work for its "grittiness and fearless observation" and comments that it is often more prosaic than romantic.
Pilcher retired from writing in 2000. Two years later she was created an Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE).
TV adaptations
Her books are especially popular in Germany because the national television station ZDF (Zweites Deutsches Fernsehen) has produced more than a hundred of her stories as TV movies, starting with The Day of the Storm in 1993. A complete list can be found on the German Wikipedia: Rosamunde Pilcher (Filmreihe). These television films are some of the most popular programmes on ZDF. Pilcher was awarded the British Tourism Award in 2002 for the positive effect the books and the adaptations have had on Cornish tourism. Notable film locations include Prideaux Place, a 16th-century mansion near Padstow.
A television adaptation of The Shell Seekers (dir. Waris Hussein), starring Angela Lansbury, was made in 1989.
September (dir. Colin Bucksey, 1996), starring Jacqueline Bisset, Michael York, Edward Fox, Jenny Agutter and Mariel Hemingway
A two-part television adaptation of Coming Home (dir. Giles Foster), made by Yorkshire Television, was broadcast in 1998, starring Keira Knightley, Emily Mortimer, Peter O'Toole, Joanna Lumley, Penelope Keith, David McCallum, Paul Bettany, Patrick Ryecart and Susan Hampshire, among others.
Nancherrow (dir. Simon Langton, 1999), starring Joanna Lumley, Patrick Macnee and Senta Berger
Winter Solstice (dir. Martyn Friend, 2003), starring Sinéad Cusack, Peter Ustinov, Jean Simmons and Geraldine Chaplin
Summer Solstice (dir. Giles Foster, 2005), starring Jacqueline Bisset, Honor Blackman and Franco Nero
The Shell Seekers (dir. Piers Haggard, 2006), starring Vanessa Redgrave and Maximilian Schell
Four Seasons (dir. Giles Foster, 2008), starring Tom Conti, Senta Berger, Michael York, Franco Nero, Juliet Mills and Frank Finlay
Rosamunde Pilchers's Shades of Love (dir. Giles Foster, 2010), starring Charles Dance
The Other Wife (dir. Giles Foster, 2012), starring Rupert Everett
Unknown Heart (dir. Giles Foster, 2014), starring Greg Wise, James Fox, Jane Seymour and Julian Sands
Valentine's Kiss (dir. Sarah Harding, 2015), starring Rupert Graves and John Hannah
Partial bibliography
Novels
As Jane Fraser
Half-Way to the Moon (1949)
The Brown Fields (1951)
Dangerous Intruder (1951)
Young Bar (1952)
A Day Like Spring (1953)
Dear Tom (1954)
Bridge of Corvie (1956)
A Family Affair (1958)
A Long Way from Home (1963)
The Keeper's House (1963)
As Rosamunde Pilcher
A Secret to Tell (1955)
On My Own (1965)
Sleeping Tiger (1967)
Another View (1969)
The End of Summer (1971)
Snow in April (1972)
The Empty House (1973)
The Day of the Storm (1975)
Under Gemini (1977)
Wild Mountain Thyme (1979)
The Carousel (1982)
Voices in Summer (1984)
The Shell Seekers (1987)
September (1990)
Coming Home (1995)
Winter Solstice (2000)
Short-story collections
The Blue Bedroom and Other Stories (1985)
Flowers in the Rain: And Other Stories (1991)
The Key (1996)
A Place Like Home (2021)
References
External links
1924 births
2019 deaths
British romantic fiction writers
People from Lelant
Officers of the Order of the British Empire
Novelists from Cornwall
20th-century English novelists
20th-century English women writers
Women romantic fiction writers
English women novelists
Women's Royal Naval Service officers
Deaths from cerebrovascular disease | [
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261391 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Panguil%20Bay | Panguil Bay | Panguil Bay is an arm of Iligan Bay in Mindanao, Philippines. The bay forms the natural boundary separating the Zamboanga Peninsula from the rest of the island of Mindanao. It borders the provinces of Misamis Occidental, Zamboanga del Sur, and Lanao del Norte. Important cities and municipalities on its coast are Ozamiz and Tangub in Misamis Occidental, and Tubod, the capital of Lanao del Norte.
The entrance to the bay is marked by a lighthouse on the west side of Panguil Bay, located on a headland on the eastern side of Ozamiz harbor. The high concrete tower has a focal plane of with two red flashes every 10 seconds.
The Panguil Bay Bridge is a planned two-lane bridge connecting Tangub with Tubod, that are currently linked by a ferry service. The bridge will reduce the travel time between Tangub and Tubod from 2.5 hours to 7 minutes.
Geography
Panguil Bay is about long, and has an area of with a coastline of . At its narrowest point between Tangub and Tubod, the bay is wide, while it is wide at the bay's mouth. The bottom topography is irregular with an average depth of and a maximum depth of about .
There are 29 major and 46 minor river tributaries into the bay, originating from two mountain ranges. In total the bay has a catchment area of .
At the mouth of the bay, there are two coral reefs: the Hulaw-Hulaw Reef on Loculan Shoals near Clarin, Misamis Occidental, and the Maigo Reef near Maigo, Lanao del Norte. Both reefs experience high sedimentation rates and are in fair to poor condition.
History
In the 1750s, Fort Santiago in Ozamiz was built by the Spanish to guard the entrance to Panguil Bay. At that time Moro pirate raids were at their peak, and the bay was described as a "never ending source of Muslim pirates". In 1917, a lighthouse was built on the eastern bastion of the Spanish Fort Santiago.
Ecology
The bay was once a rich fishing ground, with the most abundant species being the gray mullet (Mugil cephalus), anchovy (Stolephorus commersonnii) and oil sardine (Sardinella longiceps). Other important species are penaeid shrimps and prawns, gobies, pony fishes, blue crabs, therapons, carangids, lantern fishes, and hairtails. In 1980, there were about 4,000 fishermen, increasing to over 9,800 in 1995.
Panguil Bay has suffered for decades from overfishing and destructive fishing practices. One of the biggest contributor of over-exploitation was the extensive use of filter nets, locally called sanggab. These nets trap all marine organisms, even macroplankton, depleting the food chain in the bay. Compared to 1984, the number of fish species dropped from 201 to 121 by the mid 1990s.
Further degradation resulted from destruction of natural habitats (such as mangroves turned into fishponds), pollution by poisonous chemicals, and increasing human development along the bay's shore. The sharp decline in fish catch prompted rehabilitation efforts that included the removal of illegal fishing structures such as the filter nets that numbered in the thousands in the 2010s.
References
Bays of the Philippines
Landforms of Misamis Occidental
Landforms of Lanao del Norte
Landforms of Zamboanga del Sur
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261392 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Together%20We%20Stand | Together We Stand | Together We Stand, also known as Nothing Is Easy, is an American sitcom that aired on the CBS network from 1986 to 1987. It was written by Stephen Sustarsic and directed by Andrew D. Weyman.
Together We Stand is about a married couple, David (Elliott Gould) and Lori Randall (Dee Wallace), and their array of adopted children from all walks of life. According to producer Sherwood Schwartz, the plot for this show was originally written as a spin-off from The Brady Bunch called Kelly's Kids. In the January 4, 1974 episode of The Brady Bunch, also titled "Kelly's Kids" (season 5, episode 14), which served as a backdoor pilot, the Bradys' neighbors plan to adopt one child but end up adopting three boys of different ethnicities.
Summary
David Randall (Elliott Gould) and his wife Lori (Dee Wallace) had two kids, adopted daughter Amy (Katie O'Neill) and biological son Jack (Scott Grimes). After seeing how well the Randall family did with an adopted child and a biological child, a pushy social worker (Edie McClurg) gives them two more children: an Asian-American boy named Sam (Ke Huy Quan) and a little African-American girl named Sally (Natasha Bobo). The story lines centered on the cultural differences and adjustments that had to be made by all: Sam and Sally having parents for the first time, and Jack and Amy competing with the new arrivals for their parents' time and affection. After six episodes, Gould's character was killed off, and the series focused on Lori's struggles as a single mother.
Cast
Elliott Gould as David Randall (in Together We Stand only)
Dee Wallace as Lori Randall
Scott Grimes as Jack Randall
Katie O'Neill as Amy Randall
Ke Huy Quan as Sam Randall
Natasha Bobo as Sally Randall
Julia Migenes as Marion Simmons (in Nothing Is Easy only)
Episodes
Together We Stand (1986)
Nothing Is Easy (1987)
Network run
Premiering on Monday, September 22, 1986 at 8:30 PM ET after Kate and Allie where its ratings were initially strong, Together We Stand moved to Wednesdays at 8:00 PM ET beginning on October 1 to make room for My Sister Sam, putting it up against ABC's Perfect Strangers and NBC's Highway to Heaven instead. When the show's ratings plunged, CBS pulled the series after six episodes had aired.
The show returned three months later with a new title – Nothing Is Easy – new opening credits, a new time slot (Sundays at 9:30 PM ET, after Designing Women and up against movies on the other two networks), a new theme song, and a new cast member – Julia Migenes as bitter divorced neighbor Marion Simmons. Elliott Gould did not appear in the revamped series – his character was killed off in an automobile accident, and Dee Wallace-Stone continued on as a single mother. After two weeks in that time slot, it went on hiatus again for a month only to resurface on Fridays at 8:00 PM beginning on March 27, competing with ABC's The Charmings and NBC's Roomies. The revamp lasted only for a total of seven episodes before CBS cancelled it for good. The remaining six unaired episodes are not known to have aired anywhere.
References
External links
Television Obscurities
TVGuide.com - Together We Stand
TV.com - Together We Stand
1986 American television series debuts
1987 American television series endings
1980s American sitcoms
CBS original programming
Television series about families
Television series by Universal Television
Television series created by Michael Jacobs
Television shows set in Portland, Oregon | [
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261395 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Anne%20Parillaud | Anne Parillaud | Anne Parillaud (; born 6 May 1960) is a French actress who has been active since 1977. She is best known internationally for playing the title character in Luc Besson's film La Femme Nikita.
Biography
Parillaud was born in Paris. While in school she studied ballet and her ambition was to become a lawyer, but a role during summer vacation – when she was only 16 – in Michel Lang's L'hôtel de la plage (1978) launched her into the world of film. She had a three-year relationship with actor Alain Delon and co-starred with him in his only two films as director, Pour la peau d'un flic (1981) and Le Battant (1983). She then met director Luc Besson and married him in 1986, but the couple separated shortly after he directed her in La Femme Nikita. La Femme Nikita was an especially intense experience for Parillaud:
After the international success of La Femme Nikita, Parillaud left France to star in three films abroad: Map of the Human Heart, Innocent Blood, and Frankie Starlight. She has said regarding the experience of playing a vampire in John Landis's Innocent Blood:
In 2010 she starred in the French psychological thriller In Their Sleep which was directed by Caroline du Potet and Eric du Potet.
Personal life
Parillaud's first husband was Luc Besson, with whom she has a daughter, Juliette Besson, born in 1987 and who became an actress. In 2005, Parillaud married Jean Michel Jarre. They divorced in 2010.
Selected filmography
Awards
César Award for Best Actress in 1991 for La Femme Nikita
David di Donatello Awards for Best Foreign Actress in 1991 for La Femme Nikita
Paris Film Festival for Best Actress in 2004 for Deadlines
Tokyo International Film Festival for Special Mention in 1993 for Map of the Human Heart
References
Bibliography
External links
1960 births
Living people
Actresses from Paris
French film actresses
French television actresses
Alumni of the Cours Florent
Best Actress César Award winners
David di Donatello winners | [
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261396 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Man%20in%20the%20Iron%20Mask | Man in the Iron Mask | The Man in the Iron Mask (French ; – 19 November 1703) was an unidentified prisoner who was arrested in 1669 or 1670 and subsequently held in a number of French prisons, including the Bastille and the Fortress of Pignerol (modern Pinerolo, Italy). Known for remaining unidentified due to the veil worn over his face throughout his time in prison, he was held in the custody of the same jailer, , for a period of 34 years. He died on 19 November 1703 under the name Marchioly, during the reign of King Louis XIV of France (1643–1715).
No one is known to have seen his face, as it was hidden by a mask of black velvet cloth, later misreported by Voltaire as an iron mask, and the true identity of the prisoner remains a mystery. His identity has been extensively debated by historians, and various theories have been expounded in numerous books and films.
Among the leading theories is one proposed by the writer and philosopher Voltaire, who claimed in the second edition of his (1771) that the prisoner wore a mask made of iron rather than of cloth, and that he was the older, illegitimate brother of Louis XIV. What little is known about the historical Man in the Iron Mask is based mainly on correspondence between and his superiors in Paris. Recent research suggests that his name was , a man who was involved in several political scandals of the late 17th century, but this assertion has not been proven.
The National Archives of France has made the original data available online relating to the inventories of the goods and papers of (one inventory, of 64 pages, was drawn up at the Bastille in 1708; the other, of 68 pages, at the citadel of Sainte-Marguerite in 1691). These documents had been sought in vain for more than a century and were thought to have been lost. They were discovered in 2015, among the 100 million documents of the . They show that some of the 800 documents in the possession of the jailer were analysed after his death. These documents confirm the reputed avarice of , who appears to have diverted the funds paid by the king for the prisoner. They also give a description of a cell occupied by the masked prisoner, which contained only a sleeping mat, but no luxuries, as was previously thought.
The Man in the Iron Mask has also appeared in many works of fiction, most prominently in the late 1840s by Alexandre Dumas. A section of his novel The Vicomte of Bragelonne: Ten Years Later, the final installment of his D'Artagnan saga, features the Man in the Iron Mask. In it, the prisoner is forced to wear an iron mask, and is portrayed as Louis XIV's identical twin. Dumas also presented a review of the popular theories about the prisoner extant in his time in the chapter in the sixth volume of his non-fiction .
Prisoner
Arrest and imprisonment
The earliest surviving records of the masked prisoner are from late July 1669, when Louis XIV's minister, the Marquis de Louvois, sent a letter to Bénigne Dauvergne de Saint-Mars, governor of the prison of Pignerol (which at the time was part of France). In his letter, Louvois informed Saint-Mars that a prisoner named "Eustache Dauger" was due to arrive in the next month or so.
Louis XIV instructed Saint-Mars to prepare a cell with multiple doors, one closing upon the other, which were to prevent anyone from the outside listening in. Saint-Mars was to see Dauger only once a day to provide food and whatever else he needed. Dauger was to be told that if he, Dauger, spoke of anything other than his immediate needs he would be killed, but, according to Louvois, the prisoner should not require much since he was "only a valet".
Historians have noted that the name Eustache Dauger was written in a handwriting different from that used in the rest of the letter's text, suggesting that a clerk wrote the letter under Louvois' dictation, while someone else, very likely Louvois, added the name afterward.
Dauger was arrested by Captain Alexandre de Vauroy, garrison commander of Dunkerque, and taken to Pignerol, where he arrived in late August. Evidence has been produced to suggest that the arrest was actually made in Calais and that not even the local governor was informed of the event – Vauroy's absence being explained away by his hunting for Spanish soldiers who had strayed into France via the Spanish Netherlands.
The first rumours of the prisoner's identity (specifically as a Marshal of France) began to circulate at this point.
Masked man serves as a valet
The prison at Pignerol, like the others at which Dauger was later held, was used for men who were considered an embarrassment to the state and usually held only a handful of prisoners at a time.
Saint-Mars' other prisoners at Pignerol included Count Ercole Antonio Mattioli, an Italian diplomat who had been kidnapped and jailed for double-crossing the French over the purchase of the important fortress town of Casale on the Italian border. There was Nicolas Fouquet, Marquis of Belle-Île, a former superintendent of finances who had been jailed by Louis XIV on the charge of embezzlement, and the Marquis de Lauzun, who had become engaged to the Duchess of Montpensier, a cousin of the king, without the king's consent. Fouquet's cell was above that of Lauzun.
In his letters to Louvois, Saint-Mars describes Dauger as a quiet man, giving no trouble, "disposed to the will of God and to the king", compared to his other prisoners, who were always complaining, constantly trying to escape, or simply mad.
Dauger was not always isolated from the other prisoners. Wealthy and important ones usually had manservants; Fouquet for instance was served by a man called La Rivière. These servants, however, would become as much prisoners as their masters and it was thus difficult to find people willing to volunteer for such an occupation. Because La Rivière was often ill, Saint-Mars applied for permission for Dauger to act as servant for Fouquet. In 1675, Louvois gave permission for such an arrangement on condition that he was to serve Fouquet only while La Rivière was unavailable and that he was not to meet anyone else; for instance, if Fouquet and Lauzun were to meet, Dauger was not to be present.
It is an important point that the man in the mask served as a valet. Fouquet was never expected to be released; thus, meeting Dauger was no great matter, but Lauzun was expected to be set free eventually, and it would have been important not to have him spread rumours of Dauger's existence or of secrets he might have known. Historians have also argued that 17th-century protocol made it unthinkable that a man of royal blood would serve as a manservant, casting some doubt on speculation that Dauger was in some way related to the king.
After Fouquet's death in 1680, Saint-Mars discovered a secret hole between Fouquet and Lauzun's cells. He was sure that they had communicated through this hole without detection by him or his guards and thus that Lauzun must have been made aware of Dauger's existence. Louvois instructed Saint-Mars to move Lauzun to Fouquet's cell and to tell him that Dauger and La Rivière had been released.
Other prisons
Lauzun was freed in 1681. Later that same year, Saint-Mars was appointed governor of the prison of the Exiles Fort (now Exilles in Italy). He went there, taking Dauger and La Rivière with him. La Rivière's death was reported in January 1687; in May, Saint-Mars and Dauger moved to Sainte-Marguerite, one of the Lérins Islands, half a mile offshore from Cannes.
It was during the journey to Sainte-Marguerite that rumours spread that the prisoner was wearing an iron mask. Again, he was placed in a cell with multiple doors.
On 18 September 1698, Saint-Mars took up his new post as governor of the Bastille prison in Paris, bringing Dauger with him. He was placed in a solitary cell in the prefurnished third chamber of the Bertaudière tower. The prison's second-in-command, de Rosarges, was to feed him. Lieutenant du Junca, another officer of the Bastille, noted that the prisoner wore "a mask of black velvet".
The masked prisoner died on 19 November 1703 and was buried the next day under the name of Marchioly.
In 1711, King Louis's sister-in-law, Elizabeth Charlotte, Princess Palatine, sent a letter to her aunt, Sophia, Electress of Hanover, stating that the prisoner had "two musketeers at his side to kill him if he removed his mask". She described him as very devout, and stated that he was well treated and received everything he desired. However, the prisoner had already been dead for eight years by that point and the Princess had not necessarily seen him for herself; rather, she was quite likely reporting rumours she had heard at court.
Popular interest
The fate of the mysterious prisoner – and the extent of the apparent precautions his jailers took – created significant interest in his story and gave birth to many legends. Many theories exist and several books have been written about the case. Some were presented after the existence of the letters was widely known. Still later commentators have presented their own theories, possibly based on embellished versions of the original tale.
Theories about his identity that were popular during his time included that he was a Marshal of France; the English Henry Cromwell, son of Oliver Cromwell; or François, Duke of Beaufort. Later, many people such as Voltaire and Alexandre Dumas suggested other theories about the man in the mask.
Candidates
King's relative
Voltaire claimed that the prisoner was a son of Anne of Austria and Cardinal Mazarin, and therefore an illegitimate half-brother of Louis XIV. However, the sincerity of this claim is uncertain.
King's twin brother
In a 1965 essay Le Masque de fer, French novelist Marcel Pagnol, supporting his hypothesis in particular on the circumstances of Louis XIV's birth, claims that the Man in the Iron Mask was indeed a twin but born second, and hence the younger, and would have been hidden in order to avoid any dispute over the throne holder. At the time there was a controversy over which one of twins was the elder: The one born first, or the one born second, who was then thought to have been conceived first.
The historians who reject this hypothesis (including Jean-Christian Petitfils), highlight the conditions of childbirth for the queen: It usually took place in the presence of multiple witnesses – the main court's figures. But according to Marcel Pagnol, immediately after the birth of the future Louis XIV, Louis XIII took his whole court to the Château de Saint-Germain's chapel to celebrate a Te Deum in great pomp, contrary to the common practice of celebrating it several days before childbirth.
Aligned with the hypothesis of Louis XIV having had a twin, a thorough examination of the French Kings' genealogy shows many twin births, in the Capetian dynasty, as well as in the House of Valois, the House of Bourbon, and the House of Orléans.
Alexandre Dumas explored a similar hypothesis in his book The Vicomte de Bragelonne, where the prisoner was instead an identical twin of Louis XIV. This book has served as the basis – even if loosely adapted – for many film versions of the story.
According to Marcel Pagnol's hypothesis, this twin was then born in 1638 and grew up on the Island of Jersey under the name James de la Cloche. He would supposedly later conspire with Roux de Marcilly against Louis XIV, and be arrested in Calais in 1669.
King's father
In 1955, Hugh Ross Williamson argued that the man in the iron mask was the natural father of Louis XIV. According to this theory, the "miraculous" birth of Louis XIV in 1638 would have come after Louis XIII had been estranged from his wife Anne of Austria for 14 years.
The theory then suggests that Cardinal Richelieu, the king's minister, had arranged for a substitute, probably an illegitimate son or grandson of Henry IV, to become intimate with the queen and father an heir in the king's stead. At the time, the heir presumptive was Louis XIII's brother Gaston, Duke of Orléans, who was Richelieu's enemy. If Gaston became king, Richelieu would quite likely have lost both his job as minister and his life, and so it was in his best interests to thwart Gaston's ambitions.
Supposedly, the substitute father then left for the Americas but in the 1660s returned to France with the aim of extorting money for keeping his secret, and was promptly imprisoned. This theory would explain the secrecy surrounding the prisoner, whose true identity would have destroyed the legitimacy of Louis XIV's claim to the throne had it been revealed.
This theory was notably disputed by British politician Hugh Cecil, 1st Baron Quickswood. He said the idea has no historical basis and is hypothetical. Williamson held that to say it is a guess with no solid historical basis is merely to say that it is like every other theory on the matter, although it makes more sense than any of the other theories. There is no known evidence that is incompatible with it, even the age of the prisoner, which Cecil had considered a weak point; and it explains every aspect of the mystery.
French general
In 1890, Louis Gendron, a French military historian, came across some coded letters and passed them on to Étienne Bazeries in the French Army's cryptographic department. After three years, Bazeries managed to read some messages in the Great Cipher of Louis XIV. One of them referred to a prisoner and identified him as General . One of the letters written by Louvois made specific reference to de Bulonde's crime.
At the Siege of Cuneo in 1691, Bulonde was concerned about enemy troops arriving from Austria and ordered a hasty withdrawal, leaving behind his munitions and wounded men. Louis XIV was furious and in another of the letters specifically ordered him "to be conducted to the fortress at Pignerol where he will be locked in a cell and under guard at night, and permitted to walk the battlements during the day with a 330 309." It has been suggested that the 330 stood for masque and the 309 for full stop. However, in 17th-century French avec un masque would mean "in a mask".
Some believe that the evidence of the letters means that there is now little need of an alternative explanation for the man in the mask. Other sources, however, claim that Bulonde's arrest was no secret and was actually published in a newspaper at the time and that he was released after just a few months. His death is also recorded as happening in 1709, six years after that of the man in the mask.
Valet
In 1801, revolutionary legislator Pierre Roux-Fazillac stated that the tale of the masked prisoner was an amalgamation of the fates of two separate prisoners, Ercole Antonio Mattioli (see below) and an imprisoned valet named "Eustache d'Auger".
Lang (1903) presented a theory that "Eustache d'Auger" was a prison pseudonym of a man called "Martin", valet of the Huguenot Roux de Marcilly. After his master's execution in 1669, the valet was taken to France, possibly by abduction. A letter from the French Foreign minister has been found rejecting an offer to arrest Martin: He was simply not important.
Noone (1988) pointed out that the minister was concerned Dauger should not communicate, rather than that his face should be concealed. Later, Saint-Mars elaborated upon instructions that the prisoner should not be seen during transportation. The idea of keeping d'Auger in a velvet mask was Saint-Mars' own, to increase his self-importance. What d'Auger had seen or done is still a mystery.
In 2016, the historian Paul Sonnino provided additional circumstantial evidence to support the idea that the valet Eustache d'Auger was the man in the mask.
Son of Charles II
Barnes (1908) presents James de la Cloche, the alleged illegitimate son of the reluctant Protestant Charles II of England, who would have been his father's secret intermediary with the Catholic court of France.
One of Charles's confirmed illegitimate sons, the Duke of Monmouth, has also been proposed as the man in the mask. A Protestant, he led a rebellion against his uncle, the Catholic King James II. The rebellion failed and Monmouth was executed in 1685. But in 1768, a writer named Saint-Foix claimed that another man was executed in his place and that Monmouth became the masked prisoner, it being in Louis XIV's interests to assist a fellow Catholic like James who would not necessarily want to kill his own nephew. Saint-Foix's case was based on unsubstantiated rumors and allegations that Monmouth's execution was faked.
Italian diplomat
Another candidate, much favored in the 1800s, was Fouquet's fellow prisoner Count Ercole Antonio Mattioli (or Matthioli). He was an Italian diplomat who acted on behalf of the debt-ridden Charles IV, Duke of Mantua in 1678, in selling Casale, a strategic fortified town near the border with France. A French occupation would be unpopular, so discretion was essential, but Mattioli leaked the details to France's Spanish enemies, after pocketing his commission once the sale had been concluded, and they made a bid of their own before the French forces could occupy the town. Mattioli was kidnapped by the French and thrown into nearby Pignerol in April 1679. The French took possession of Casale two years later.
George Agar Ellis reached the conclusion that Mattioli was the state prisoner commonly called The Iron Mask when he reviewed documents extracted from French archives in the 1820s. His book, published in English in 1826, was translated into French and published in 1830. German historian Wilhelm Broecking came to the same conclusion independently seventy years later. Robert Chambers' Book of Days supports the claim and places Matthioli in the Bastille for the last 13 years of his life.
Since that time, letters sent by Saint-Mars, which earlier historians missed, indicate that Mattioli was held only at Pignerol and Sainte-Marguerite and was not at Exilles or the Bastille and, therefore, it is argued that he can be discounted.
Eustache Dauger de Cavoye
In his letter to Saint-Mars announcing the imminent arrival of the prisoner who would become the "man in the iron mask," Louvois gave his name as "Eustache Dauger" and historians have found evidence that a "Eustache Dauger" was living in France at the time and was involved in scandalous and embarrassing events involving people in high places known as l'Affaire des Poisons. His full name was Eustache Dauger de Cavoye.
Early life
Records indicate that he was born on 30 August 1637, the son of François Dauger, a captain in Cardinal Richelieu's guards. François was married to Marie de Sérignan and they had 11 children, nine of whom survived into adulthood. When François and his two eldest sons were killed in battle, Eustache became the nominal head of the family.
Disgrace
In April 1659, Eustache and Guiche were invited to an Easter weekend party at the castle of Roissy-en-Brie. By all accounts, it was a debauched affair of merry-making, with the men involved in all sorts of sordid activities, including attacking a man who claimed to be Cardinal Mazarin's attorney. It was also claimed, among other things, that a black mass was enacted and that a pig was baptized as carp in order to allow them to eat pork on Good Friday.
When news of these events became public, an inquiry was held and the various perpetrators jailed or exiled. There is no record as to what happened to Dauger, but in 1665, near the Château de Saint-Germain-en-Laye, he allegedly killed a young page boy in a drunken brawl involving the Duc de Foix. The two men claimed that they had been provoked by the boy, who was drunk, but the fact that the killing took place near a castle where the king was staying meant that this was not a good enough explanation, and as a result, Dauger was forced to resign his commission.
Dauger's mother died shortly afterwards. In her will, written a year previously, she passed over her eldest surviving sons Eustache and Armand, leaving the bulk of the estate to their younger brother Louis. Eustache was restricted in the amount of money to which he had access, having built up considerable debts, and left with barely enough for "food and upkeep".
Affair of the Poisons
In the 1930s, historian Maurice Duvivier linked Eustache Dauger de Cavoye to the Affair of the Poisons, a notorious scandal of 1677–1682 in which people in high places were accused of being involved in black mass and poisonings. An investigation had been launched, but Louis XIV had instigated a cover-up when it appeared that his mistress Madame de Montespan was involved.
The records show that during the inquiry the investigators were told about a supplier of poisons, a surgeon named Auger, and Duvivier became convinced that Dauger de Cavoye, disinherited and short of money, had become Auger, the supplier of poisons, and subsequently Dauger, the man in the mask.
In a letter sent by Louvois to Saint-Mars shortly after Fouquet's death while in prison (with Dauger acting as his valet), the minister adds a note in his own handwriting, asking how Dauger performed certain acts that Saint-Mars had mentioned in a previous correspondence (now lost) and "how he got the drugs necessary to do so". Duvivier suggested that Dauger poisoned Fouquet as part of a complex power struggle between Louvois and his rival Colbert.
Dauger in prison
However, evidence has emerged that Dauger de Cavoye actually died in the Prison Saint-Lazare, an asylum run by monks which many families used in order to imprison their "black sheep". Documents have survived indicating that Dauger de Cavoye was held at Saint-Lazare in Paris at about the same time that Dauger, the man in the mask, was taken into custody in Pignerol, hundreds of miles away in the south.
These include a letter sent to Dauger de Cavoye's sister, the Marquise de Fabrègues, dated 20 June 1678, which is filled with self-pity as Eustache complains about his treatment in prison, where he has been held for 10 years, and how he was deceived by their brother Louis and Clérac, their brother-in-law and the manager of Louis' estate. A year later, he wrote a letter to the king, outlining the same complaints and making a similar request for freedom. The best the king would do, however, was to send a letter to the head of Saint-Lazare telling him that "M. de Cavoye should have communication with no one at all, not even with his sister, unless in your presence or in the presence of one of the priests of the mission". The letter was signed by the king and Colbert.
A poem written by Louis-Henri de Loménie de Brienne, an inmate at the time, indicates that Eustache Dauger de Cavoye died as a result of heavy drinking in the late 1680s. Historians consider all this proof enough that he was not involved in any way with the man in the mask.
In popular culture
Many films have been made around the mystery of the Man in the Iron Mask, most notably the 1998 film of the same name starring Leonardo DiCaprio, though others include The Iron Mask (1929) and The Man in the Iron Mask (1939).
In the manga Berserk, as well as the anime adaptation, Griffith the Captain of the Band of the Hawke is imprisoned by the king of Midland and forced to wear an iron mask for taking the princess's virginity.
The Man in the Iron Mask is portrayed as the Duc de Sullun (inversion of nullus (latin for 'no one')) in the first two episodes of the second season of the TV drama series Versailles. In the programme, he is visited in the Bastille by Philippe I, Duke of Orléans on his search to find men to send to the Americas.
See also
Ivan VI of Russia, a prisoner with a similar story
References
External links
The Mystery of the Iron Mask
Who was the "Man in the Iron Mask"? at the Straight Dope
17th-century births
1703 deaths
17th-century French people
18th-century French people
People of the Ancien Régime
Prisoners and detainees of France
Unidentified people
French folklore
Masked people by occupation
Affair of the Poisons | [
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261398 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Randall%20Wallace | Randall Wallace | Randall Wallace (born July 28, 1949) is an American screenwriter, film director, producer, and songwriter who came to prominence by writing the screenplay for the historical drama film Braveheart (1995). His work on the film earned him a nomination for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay and a Writers Guild of America Award in the same category. He has since directed films such as The Man in the Iron Mask (1998), We Were Soldiers (2002), Secretariat (2010) and Heaven Is for Real (2014).
Early life
Born in Jackson, Tennessee, he lived in Memphis and Henderson County, Tennessee before moving to Virginia. Wallace began writing stories at the age of seven. He graduated from E.C. Glass High School in Lynchburg, Virginia and attended Duke University, where he studied Russian, religion, and literature and was a member of Lambda Chi Alpha fraternity. He put himself through a graduate year of seminary by teaching martial arts. Wallace holds a black belt in karate.
Career
After managing an animal show at Nashville's Opryland, Wallace moved to Hollywood to pursue a career in singing and songwriting. He began writing short stories, novels and scripts for movies. Wallace was taken under the wing of leading television producer Stephen J. Cannell and spent several years writing for television in the late 1980s and early 1990s.
He gained recognition and commercial success by penning the screenplay for Braveheart (1995), which was inspired by a trip to Scotland to learn more about his Scottish roots. While there, he discovered the legend of the medieval Scottish patriot William Wallace; he is not, however, related to William Wallace in any way. Braveheart became Wallace's first screenplay to be produced, after drawing the interest of Mel Gibson, who went on to produce, direct and star in the film. It ended up as one of the most successful films of 1995, earning over $200 million. It was nominated for ten Academy Awards, including a Best Original Screenplay nomination for Wallace, and won five, including the Academy Awards for Best Picture and Best Director. Braveheart also won one Golden Globe Award and four BAFTA Awards.
Wallace made his directorial debut with his own screenplay in The Man in the Iron Mask (1998), starring Leonardo DiCaprio, John Malkovich, Gabriel Byrne, Jeremy Irons and Gérard Depardieu. Shortly after, he wrote the screenplay for Pearl Harbor (2001), directed by Michael Bay and starring Ben Affleck, Josh Hartnett and Kate Beckinsale.
This was followed by Wallace's second film as director We Were Soldiers (2002), on which Wallace re-teamed with Mel Gibson. It was about the Battle of Ia Drang (1965) during the Vietnam War, based on the memoir by Lieutenant General Hal Moore.
Wallace directed Disney’s Secretariat (2010), the true story of the racehorse that won the Triple Crown in 1973. The film chronicled the struggles and courage of owner Penny Chenery-Tweedy, portrayed by Academy Award-nominated actress Diane Lane. Wallace also wrote the end title song, It’s Who You Are, which was released with the Secretariat soundtrack.
Wallace's next directorial project was the religious drama Heaven Is for Real (2014), based on the story of the same name.
Other work
Wallace is the New York Times bestselling author of seven novels and the lyricist of the hymn "Mansions of the Lord", originally written for We Were Soldiers and performed as the recessional for President Ronald Reagan's national funeral.
In 2008, Wallace wrote several songs with singer/songwriter Richard Marx. One of those songs, "Flame In Your Fire", appears on Marx's album Emotional Remains.
In interviews he has acknowledged a deep commitment to Christianity, which he credits as an influence on his approach to filmmaking.
He appeared in the seventh season of HBO's comedy series Entourage as himself.
In addition to his work as a filmmaker, Wallace is the founder of Hollywood for Habitat for Humanity and the father of two sons. In 1999, he formed his own company, Wheelhouse Entertainment, which is focused on creating entertainment for worldwide audiences based on the classic values of love, courage and honor.
Wallace was the speaker at the Fellowship Foundation National Prayer Breakfast on February 3, 2011.
Wallace served as the commencement speaker at the Liberty University graduation ceremony on May 14, 2011.
Filmography
Television
References
External links
1949 births
Living people
Film producers from Tennessee
American male screenwriters
Duke University alumni
People from Jackson, Tennessee
Writers Guild of America Award winners
Film directors from Tennessee
Screenwriters from Tennessee | [
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261401 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vanga | Vanga | The family Vangidae (from vanga, Malagasy for the hook-billed vanga, Vanga curvirostris) comprises a group of often shrike-like medium-sized birds distributed from Asia to Africa, including the vangas of Madagascar to which the family owes its name. Many species in this family were previously classified elsewhere in other families. Recent molecular techniques made it possible to assign these species to Vangidae, thereby solving several taxonomic enigmas.
Taxonomy
In addition to the small set of Malagasy species traditionally called the vangas, Vangidae includes some Asian groups: the woodshrikes (Tephrodornis), flycatcher-shrikes (Hemipus) and philentomas.
Vangidae belongs to a clade of corvid birds that also includes bushshrikes (Malaconotidae), ioras (Aegithinidae) and the Australian butcherbirds, magpies and currawongs (Cracticidae) and woodswallows (Artamidae), which has been defined as the superfamily Malaconotoidea. They seem closely related to some enigmatic African groups: the helmetshrikes (Prionops) and the shrike-flycatchers (Bias and Megabyas).
On Madagascar, vangas were traditionally believed to be a small family of shrike-like birds. Recent research suggests that several Madagascan taxa most similar in appearance and habits (and formerly considered to be) Old World warblers, Old World flycatchers or Old World babblers may be vangas. Yamagishi et al. found in 2001 that Newtonia appeared to belong with the vangas rather than the warblers and also that Tylas was a vanga and not a bulbul. It also appears that Ward's flycatcher and Crossley's babbler belong with the vangas.
Description
The vangas are an example of adaptive radiation, having evolved from a single founding population into a variety of forms adapted to various niches occupied by other bird families in other parts of the world.<ref name=Garbutt>Garbutt, Nick (2004) Different by design: the Vangas of Madagascar, in: Africa – Birds & Birding, 9: 28–34.</ref> They differ in size, colour and bill shape but are similar in skull shape and bony palate structure. They are small to medium-sized birds, varying from 12 to 32 cm in length. Many have strong, hooked bills similar to those of shrikes. The helmet vanga has a particularly large bill with a casque on top. Other species, such as the newtonias, have a small, thin bill. The sickle-billed vanga is notable for its long, curved bill used to probe into holes and cracks.
Most vangas are largely black, brown or grey above and white below. Exceptions include the blue and white blue vanga and the blue-grey nuthatch vanga. The helmet vanga is mostly black with a rufous back. Male Bernier's vangas are entirely black while the females are brown. It is one of several species with distinct male and female plumage while in other species the sexes are identical.
Most vangas have whistling calls.
Distribution and habitat
All vangas are endemic to Madagascar apart from the blue vanga, which also occurs in the Comoros on Mohéli island and, at least formerly, on Grande Comore. They are found throughout Madagascar, in a variety of forest and scrub habitats. Several species including Van Dam's vanga and sickle-billed vanga can be found in the dry deciduous forests in the west of the island. Some such as Crossley's babbler, helmet vanga and Bernier's vanga are restricted to rainforest in the east of the island. Lafresnaye's vanga and the recently discovered red-shouldered vanga occur in subarid thorn scrub in the south-west.
Behaviour
Their diet can include insects, earthworms, millipedes, lizards and amphibians. The blue vanga and chabert vanga occasionally eat fruit. Many species feed in small groups, often in mixed-species foraging flocks. The hook-billed vanga and Lafresnaye's vanga tend to forage alone. Vangas have a variety of different foraging strategies. Many species glean food as they move through the branches. The nuthatch vanga climbs up trunks and branches like a nuthatch but does not climb downwards as nuthatches do. Crossley's babbler forages by walking along the forest floor amongst the leaf litter. The chabert vanga and the tylas vanga often fly into the air to catch prey. The three Xenopirostris vangas use their laterally flattened bills to strip bark off trees to search for food underneath.
Most species nest in pairs, building cup-shaped nests using twigs, bark, roots and leaves. The sickle-billed vanga nests in groups and builds a large nest of sticks.
Status and conservation
Some species of vanga are common such as the chabert vanga which can survive in secondary woodland and plantations of introduced trees. Several other species are threatened by loss of their forest habitat. Pollen's vanga is classed as near-threatened by BirdLife International and the red-shouldered vanga, Bernier's vanga, helmet vanga and red-tailed newtonia are regarded as vulnerable. Van Dam's vanga is classed as endangered because it is restricted to a small area of north-west Madagascar where the forest is rapidly disappearing due to clearance for agriculture and uncontrolled bushfires.
Species list
FAMILY: VANGIDAE
Genus: Calicalicus
Red-tailed vanga, Calicalicus madagascariensis Red-shouldered vanga, Calicalicus rufocarpalis Genus: Schetba
Rufous vanga, Schetba rufa Genus: Vanga
Hook-billed vanga, Vanga curvirostris Genus: Xenopirostris
Lafresnaye's vanga, Xenopirostris xenopirostris Van Dam's vanga, Xenopirostris damii Pollen's vanga, Xenopirostris polleni Genus: Falculea
Sickle-billed vanga, Falculea palliata Genus: Artamella White-headed vanga, Artamella viridis
Genus: Leptopterus
Chabert vanga, Leptopterus chabert
Genus: Cyanolanius
Blue vanga, Cyanolanius madagascarinus
Comoro blue vanga, Cyanolanius (madagascarinus) comorensis.
Genus: Oriolia
Bernier's vanga, Oriolia bernieri Genus: Euryceros
Helmet vanga, Euryceros prevostii Genus: Tylas
Tylas vanga, Tylas eduardi Genus: Hypositta
Nuthatch vanga or coral-billed nuthatch vanga, Hypositta corallirostris Genus: Newtonia
Northern dark newtonia, Newtonia amphichroaSouthern dark newtonia, Newtonia lavarambo (sometimes considered a subspecies of N. amphicroa)
Common newtonia, Newtonia brunneicaudaArchbold's newtonia, Newtonia archboldiRed-tailed newtonia, Newtonia fanovanae Genus: Prionops
Yellow-crested helmetshrike, Prionops alberti Red-billed helmetshrike, Prionops caniceps Rufous-bellied helmetshrike, Prionops rufiventris Gabela helmetshrike, Prionops gabela White-crested helmetshrike, Prionops plumatus Grey-crested helmetshrike, Prionops poliolophus Retz's helmetshrike, Prionops retzii Chestnut-fronted helmetshrike, Prionops scopifrons Genus: Mystacornis
Crossley's babbler, Mystacornis crossleyi Genus: Bias
Black-and-white shrike-flycatcher, Bias musicus Genus: Megabyas
African shrike-flycatcher, Megabyas flammulatus Genus: Hemipus
Black-winged flycatcher-shrike, Hemipus hirundinaceus Bar-winged flycatcher-shrike, Hemipus picatus Genus: Tephrodornis
Large woodshrike, Tephrodornis gularis Malabar woodshrike, Tephrodornis sylvicola Common woodshrike, Tephrodornis pondicerianus Sri Lanka woodshrike, Tephrodornis affinis Genus: Philentoma
Rufous-winged philentoma, Philentoma pyrhoptera Maroon-breasted philentoma, Philentoma velata Genus: Pseudobias
Ward's flycatcher, Pseudobias wardi''
References
External links
Vanga videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Vangas, Bird Families of the World | [
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261402 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robin%20Hood%3A%20Prince%20of%20Thieves | Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves | Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves is a 1991 American action adventure film based on the English folk tale of Robin Hood that originated in the 12th century. It was directed by Kevin Reynolds and stars Kevin Costner as Robin Hood, Morgan Freeman as Azeem, Christian Slater as Will Scarlett, Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio as Marian, and Alan Rickman as the Sheriff of Nottingham. The screenplay was written by Pen Densham and John Watson.
The film received mixed reviews from critics, who praised Freeman's and Rickman's performances and the music, but criticized Costner's performance, the screenplay, and the overall execution. It was a box office success, grossing more than $390 million worldwide, making it the second-highest-grossing film of 1991. Rickman received the BAFTA Award for Best Actor in a Supporting Role for his performance as George, Sheriff of Nottingham. The theme song "(Everything I Do) I Do It for You" by Bryan Adams was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Song, and it won the Grammy Award for Best Song Written for Visual Media.
Plot
In 1194, at the end of the Third Crusade, Richard the Lionheart, King of England is visiting France. This leaves the cruel Sheriff of Nottingham—aided by his cousin Guy of Gisbourne, the evil witch Mortianna, and the corrupt Bishop of Hereford—to rule the land. The Lord of Locksley Castle is killed by the Sheriff's men for remaining loyal to King Richard and refusing to join their gang. His lost son, Robin of Locksley, had followed the king's Crusade and spent five years in an Ayyubid prison in Jerusalem.
Robin and his comrade, Peter Dubois, break out of prison, saving the life of a Moor named Azeem. Mortally wounded, Peter makes Robin swear to protect his sister, Marian, and distracts the pursuers so Robin can escape. Robin returns to England with Azeem, who has vowed to accompany him until his life-debt is repaid. After a run-in with Gisbourne, Robin goes home and finds his father's rotted corpse on display in the ruined castle. Duncan, an old family retainer blinded by Gisbourne, tells him how his father was falsely accused of devil worship. The Sheriff consults Mortianna, who foresees King Richard's return and panics that Robin and Azeem "will be our deaths".
Robin tells his childhood friend Marian of her brother Peter's death and his promise, but Marian sees little need for his protection and is determined to stay and look after the people on her demesne. They flee the Sheriff's forces to hide in Sherwood Forest, and encounter an outlaw band also in hiding. Their leader, Little John, challenges Robin to a duel which Robin wins after some difficulty. Will Scarlet, one of the bandits, holds a grudge against Robin and protests when Robin assumes command of the outlaws. Robin shapes the group into a formidable force against Nottingham. They rob rich folk passing through the forest and distribute the stolen wealth and food among the poor. Friar Tuck joins them once he understands their cause. Marian offers Robin any aid she can, and they begin to fall in love.
Robin's successes infuriate the Sheriff, who worsens his abuse of the public, but which increases their support for Robin. The Sheriff kills Gisbourne for failing to stop the outlaws, and hires vicious mercenary Celtic warriors. The Bishop betrays Marian after she gives him a message warning King Richard of Nottingham's plots, and she is taken prisoner. Duncan rides to Sherwood, but is followed. The Sheriff storms and burns the outlaws' hideout, capturing many with Robin presumed dead. To consolidate his power and claim the throne, the Sheriff proposes marriage to Marian (who is Richard's cousin), claiming that, if she accepts, he will spare the lives of the woodsmen and their families. Marian reluctantly agrees, but the captured bandits are to be hanged anyway as part of the wedding celebration.
Will bargains with the Sheriff that he will find out if Robin is alive and kill him. Will informs Robin, Azeem, John, and a few other survivors of the Sheriff's plans, but does not trust Robin. Here, Will reveals that the reason for his animosity toward Robin is because he is actually Robin's half-brother; after Robin's mother died, his father had taken comfort with Will's mother, a peasant woman. Robin's anger over what he saw as a betrayal of his mother's memory caused his father to leave Will's mother, leaving Will fatherless. Robin is overjoyed to learn that he has a brother, and they reconcile.
On the wedding day, Robin and his men infiltrate Nottingham Castle and free the prisoners. Azeem inspires the Nottingham peasants to revolt, forcing the Sheriff to retreat with Marian into his keep. The Bishop performs the marriage, and the Sheriff is about to consummate it when Robin bursts in and kills him in a fierce fight. Azeem kills Mortianna in defense of Robin, fulfilling his life-debt. Friar Tuck finds the Bishop fleeing with bags of gold, and burdens him with additional treasure before defenestrating him.
Robin and Marian profess their love for each other. Their wedding in Sherwood is paused by the return of King Richard, who gives the bride away and thanks Robin for saving his throne.
Cast
Production
Development
In August 1989, British writer-producer Pen Densham broke with the traditional account of Robin Hood as a devil-may-care adventurer, best embodied by Errol Flynn in The Adventures of Robin Hood in 1938. He instead reimagined Robin as a rich kid transformed into a socially conscious rebel by imprisonment in Jerusalem during the Crusades. He wrote a 92-page outline, which was then rewritten as a screenplay by his producing partner, John Watson. On February 14, 1990, Morgan Creek, the small production company of Young Guns (1988) and Major League (1989), saw "gold on the page" and immediately funded the film. Watson scouted filming locations in the United Kingdom, setting September 3 as the filming deadline in aggressive competition against other potential Robin Hood remakes from Twentieth Century Fox (Morgan Creek's former distribution partner) and Tri-Star Pictures.
Kevin Reynolds had directed Kevin Costner extensively in the past, including the challenging buffalo hunt scene of Dances with Wolves. Reynolds said: "I'd done two pictures that hadn't made a dime, so I kind of knew [the studio] wanted me [for Robin Hood] because of my connections with Kevin." Indeed, Costner had already rejected the script until hearing that Reynolds was directing: "I felt Kevin was such a good filmmaker I would do it".
Reynolds said, "what I did not want to do was Indiana Jones. That has been done already". Costner wanted an accent but Reynolds thought it would distract audiences, and their indecision resulted in a drastically uneven delivery between each scene. EW reported, "Even before it was finished, Costner was the subject of embarrassing rumors that his performance was too laid-back and his accent more LA than UK."
For the role of King Richard, comedian John Cleese was proposed but Sean Connery was selected at the passionate behest of Costner and Densham. Fearing that the sudden cameo of a notorious comedic icon would destroy the drama, Densham recalls, "I so wanted to not have the John Cleese that I said, 'Would you give me Sean Connery? We can't give him a credit because you can't have the audience waiting for the whole movie to see him — but he only has to work one day." His requested $1 million fee was negotiated down to $250,000 and paid to a hospital in Connery's native Scotland as charitable compromise for making film history with the already over-budget project.
In 2015, Alan Rickman admitted he had secretly asked his scriptwriter friends Ruby Wax and Peter Barnes to punch up the script: "Will you have a look at this script because it's terrible, and I need some good lines." Reynolds added their lines.
Filming
Costner's explosive career gave him only a few days between the long-term epic projects of Dances with Wolves, Robin Hood, and JFK. This project's timeframe was compressed by the cold seasons in England and by competition with other possible Robin Hood films, giving Reynolds only 10 weeks for preproduction and little time for planning, rehearsal, or revision. Costner said, "It's very dangerous to be [working] so fast. We are relying on the weather, and every time the weather turns against us we could get behind. When that happens there is always the feeling that certain people want to do something about it to shorten the filming time. That is not always the cure." Reynolds said, "Are things going as planned? Ha! You always start with a picture in your mind, and it is a compromise all the way from there. We have been struggling from Day One. We are trying to finish by Christmas, and the days are getting shorter. It's horrible." On the first day of filming, the suddenly changing weather caused jet traffic to be diverted from London's Heathrow Airport away, and roar over the filming location at the Burnham Beeches.
Principal exteriors were shot on location in the United Kingdom. A second unit filmed the medieval walls and towers of the Cité de Carcassonne in the town of Carcassonne in Aude, France, for the portrayal of Nottingham and its castle. Locksley Castle was Wardour Castle in Wiltshire—restored in an early shot using a matte painting. Marian's manor was filmed at Hulne Priory in Northumberland. Scenes set in Sherwood Forest were filmed at various locations in England: the outlaws' encampment was filmed at Burnham Beeches in Buckinghamshire, south of the real Sherwood Forest in Nottinghamshire; the fight scene between Robin and Little John was at Aysgarth Falls in North Yorkshire; and Marian sees Robin bathing at Hardraw Force, also in North Yorkshire. Sycamore Gap on Hadrian's Wall in Northumberland was used for the scene when Robin first confronts the sheriff's men. Chalk cliffs at Seven Sisters, Sussex were used as the locale for Robin's return to England from the Crusades.
Interior scenes were completed at Shepperton Studios in Surrey.
Post-production
Furious at the studio's repeated demands for yet another heavy editing session just to boost Costner's presence and prevent Rickman's performance from stealing the movieand at the studio locking his own editor out of the cutting roomReynolds walked out of the project weeks before theatrical debut. He did not attend the screening.
Extended cut
A 155-minute extended cut of the film was released on home media in 2009. It details the conspirators' plot to steal the throne from King Richard, and further explores the relationship between the Sheriff and Mortianna. In one scene, Mortianna explains that she killed the true George Nottingham as a baby and replaced him with her own infant son, revealing that she is in fact the Sheriff's real mother. Mortianna instructs Nottingham to remove the tongue of John Tordoff's scribe, forcing him to communicate via chalkboard in subsequent scenes. Nottingham only pretends he removed the tongue, and the Scribe later provides spoken directions to Robin and Azeem as they rescue Marian.
Music
The original music score was composed, orchestrated and conducted by Michael Kamen. In 2017, the specialty film music label Intrada Records released a two-disc CD album containing the complete score and alternates, though not the songs from Bryan Adams and Jeff Lynne. In 2020, Intrada issued a four-disc album, with the film score on the first 2 CDs; CD 3 has alternate takes and additional music, including the Morgan Creek Productions fanfare which was derived from this score; CD 4 features the assemblies used on the 1991 soundtrack album. The songs are again absent.
Certifications
Release
Classification
Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves was submitted for classification from the British Board of Film Classification, which required fourteen seconds to be cut from the film to obtain a PG rating.
Home media
The original theatrical cut of the film was released on VHS in the US on May 13, 1992, </ref> and on DVD on September 30, 1997. A 2-disc special-edition DVD was released in the US on June 10, 2003, containing a 155-minute-long extended version of the film. This alternate cut of the film was released on Blu-ray in the US on May 26, 2009.
Reception
Box office
The film grossed $25 million in its opening weekend and $18.3 million in its second. It eventually earned $390,493,908 at the global box office, making it the second-highest-grossing film of 1991, immediately behind Terminator 2: Judgment Day. It had the second-best opening to date for a non-sequel.
Critical response
On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating of 52% based on 56 reviews, with an average rating of 5.70/10. The critical consensus reads, "Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves brings a wonderfully villainous Alan Rickman to this oft-adapted tale, but he's robbed by big-budget bombast and a muddled screenplay." On Metacritic, the film has a weighted average score of 51 out of 100, based on 25 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews". Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A" on an A+ to F scale.
Chicago Sun-Times critic Roger Ebert praised the performances of Freeman and Rickman, but ultimately decried the film as a whole, giving it two stars and stating, "Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves is a murky, unfocused, violent, and depressing version of the classic story... The most depressing thing about the movie is that children will attend it expecting to have a good time." The New York Times gave the film a negative review, with Vincent Canby writing that the movie is "a mess, a big, long, joyless reconstruction of the Robin Hood legend that comes out firmly for civil rights, feminism, religious freedom, and economic opportunity for all." The Los Angeles Times also found the movie unsatisfactory, criticizing Costner for not attempting an English accent, mocking Robin's afternoon walk from the White Cliffs to Nottingham via Hadrian's Wall, which is actually .
Desson Thomson, writing for The Washington Post, gave a more positive review: "Fair damsels and noble sirs, you must free yourselves of these wearisome observations. This is a state-of-the-art retelling of a classic." Owen Gleiberman, of Entertainment Weekly also gave a positive review: "As a piece of escapism, this deluxe, action-heavy, 2-hour-and-21-minute Robin Hood gets the job done." Lanre Bakare, writing in The Guardian, calls Rickman's Sheriff, for which he won a BAFTA, a "genuinely great performance".
Prince of Thieves was nominated for two Golden Raspberry Awards: Kevin Costner won the Worst Actor award for his performance as Robin Hood, and Christian Slater received a nomination for Worst Supporting Actor for his performances in this film and in Mobsters, but lost to Dan Aykroyd for Nothing but Trouble.
In 2005, the American Film Institute nominated this film for AFI's 100 Years of Film Scores.
Other media
Two tie-in video games called Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves were released in 1991 for the Nintendo Entertainment System and Game Boy. Developed by Sculptured Software Inc. and Bits Studios, respectively, and published by Virgin Games, Inc., they are the cover feature for the July 1991 issue of Nintendo Power magazine.
Kenner released a toy line consisting of action figures and playsets. All but one of the figures were derived by slight modifications to Kenner's well-known Super Powers line, and Friar Tuck, the vehicles, and playsets were modified from Star Wars: Return of the Jedi toys.
See also
Princess of Thieves – 2001 television movie
Robin Hood: Men in Tights – 1993 parody film
Robin Hood – 1991 British film
Robin Hood – English folk tale
References
External links
"The Battle of Sherwood Forest" , a 1991 Entertainment Weekly cover story about the film's tumultuous production.
Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves Transcript
1990s action adventure films
1990s romantic drama films
1991 action films
1991 adventure films
1991 drama films
American action adventure films
American films
American romantic drama films
American vigilante films
Crusades films
Cultural depictions of Richard I of England
English-language films
Films about witchcraft
Films directed by Kevin Reynolds
Films scored by Michael Kamen
Films set in Cumbria
Films set in Jerusalem
Films set in Kent
Films shot at Shepperton Studios
Films shot in Buckinghamshire
Films shot in East Sussex
Films shot in England
Films shot in France
Films shot in Hampshire
Films shot in North Yorkshire
Films shot in Northumberland
Films shot in Wiltshire
Morgan Creek Productions films
Robin Hood films
Warner Bros. films
Warner Bros. Pictures franchises
Golden Raspberry Award winning films | [
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261405 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20Elizabeth%20Mastrantonio | Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio | Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio (born November 17, 1958) is an American actress and singer. She made her Broadway debut in the 1980 revival of West Side Story, and went on to appear in the 1983 film Scarface as Al Pacino's character's sister, Gina Montana. For her role as Carmen in the 1986 film The Color of Money, she was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress. Her other film roles include The Abyss (1989), Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991), and The Perfect Storm (2000). In 2003, she was nominated for the Tony Award for Best Actress in a Musical for the Broadway revival of Man of La Mancha.
Early life
Mastrantonio was born in the Chicago suburb of Lombard, Illinois, to Frank A. Mastrantonio and Mary Dominica (née Pagone), both of Italian descent. Her father operated a bronze foundry. She was raised in Oak Park, Illinois, and studied drama at the University of Illinois. She worked summers at the Opryland USA theme park to earn money for college.
Career
Film
Mastrantonio first appeared on screen in Brian De Palma's Scarface (1983) as Gina, sister of Al Pacino's Tony Montana. She achieved prominence for her Oscar and Golden Globe-nominated role in The Color of Money (1986) opposite Paul Newman and Tom Cruise.
Her other featured roles include Slam Dance (1987), with Tom Hulce, and The January Man (1989) with Kevin Kline. She also starred in writer/director James Cameron's science fiction The Abyss (1989) with Ed Harris. She played Maid Marian in the film Robin Hood: Prince of Thieves (1991) with Kevin Costner. She played the attorney daughter of Gene Hackman's character in Class Action, co-starred in the 1992 thriller Consenting Adults, and played a fishing boat captain in The Perfect Storm (2000).
Stage
Mastrantonio has appeared on Broadway in various musicals, including West Side Story, Copperfield, The Human Comedy, and the 2002 revival of Man of La Mancha, where she played Aldonza/Dulcinea opposite Brian Stokes Mitchell. She has appeared in New York Shakespeare Festival productions of Henry V, Measure for Measure, and Twelfth Night. Her New York City stage performances brought her a Tony Award nomination and two Drama Desk Award nominations.
She also starred in Grand Hotel at the Donmar Warehouse in London's West End. In 1984, she was featured in a benefit performance of A Christmas Carol with Helen Hayes, Raul Julia, Harold Scott, F. MacIntyre Dixon, and Len Cariou at the Symphony Space in New York. On stage, she starred most recently in A View from the Bridge as Beatrice, with Ken Stott and Allan Corduner at the Duke of York's Theatre, London.
Television
In 1991, Mastrantonio appeared as Yelena in a production of Uncle Vanya in the British anthology series Performance.
She had a recurring role during Seasons 4–5 (2005–2007) of the drama Without a Trace.
She played unit commander Capt. Zoe Callas in Season 9 (2010) of Law & Order: Criminal Intent.
Starting with the final episode of Season 1 (2012), she had a recurring role on Grimm, playing Kelly Burkhardt, mother of the show's protagonist.
In 2013, she guest-starred on Blue Bloods in the episode "Inside Jobs". She had a recurring role on the 2013–14 program Hostages, playing First Lady Mary Kincaid.
In 2015 she was cast in a leading role in Limitless on CBS, playing FBI Special Agent in Charge Nasreen "Naz" Pouran, which debuted on September 22, 2015.
In 2017 she guest-starred as Marion James, Deputy Director of the Central Intelligence Agency, in three episodes of Marvel's The Punisher on Netflix.
From 2018 to 2020, she starred as Madeline Burke on NBC's action drama Blindspot.
Personal life
Since 1990, Mastrantonio has been married to director Pat O'Connor, who directed The January Man; they have two sons.
Filmography
Film
Television
Stage
References
External links
Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio at the Internet Off-Broadway Database
Yahoo! Movies: Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio biography Retrieved 2012-08-28
The Sunday Herald, 10 May 2009: Interview with Mary Elizabeth Mastrantonio Retrieved 2012-08-28
1958 births
20th-century American actresses
21st-century American actresses
Actors from Oak Park, Illinois
Actresses from Illinois
American expatriates in England
American women singers
American film actresses
American musical theatre actresses
American people of Italian descent
American television actresses
Living people
Musicians from Oak Park, Illinois
People from Lombard, Illinois | [
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261406 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Battle%20of%20Ivry | Battle of Ivry | The Battle of Ivry was fought on 14 March 1590, during the French Wars of Religion. The battle was a decisive victory for Henry IV of France, leading Huguenot and English forces against the Catholic League by the Duc de Mayenne and Spanish forces under the Count of Egmont. Henry's forces were victorious and he went on to lay siege to Paris.
The battle occurred on the plain of Épieds, Eure near Ivry (later renamed Ivry-la-Bataille), Normandy. Ivry-la-Bataille is located on the river Eure and about thirty miles west of Paris, at the boundary between the Île-de-France and the Beauce regions.
Prelude
Henry IV had moved rapidly to besiege Dreux, a town controlled by the League. As Mayenne followed intending to raise the siege, Henry withdrew but stayed within sight. He deployed his army on the plain of Saint André between the towns of Nonancourt and Ivry. Henry had been reinforced by English troops sent in support by Queen Elizabeth I.
Henry had 12,000 foot soldiers (including English and Swiss) and 3,000 men on horseback.
The army of the Catholic League, led by the Duke of Mayenne, had 13,000 foot soldiers and 4,000 cavalry which consisted of citizens led by priests and rebellious nobles, assortment of German and Swiss mercenaries under Appenzell, and the troopers of the Guise family. Included in this force were 2,000 Spanish pikemen and cavalry brought over from Flanders under Philip, Count of Egmont,
The battle
At first light on 14 March 1590, the two armies engaged.
Before the battle, the king famously spurred his troops:
"Companions! If you today run at risk with me, I will also run at risk with you; I will be victorious or die. God is with us. Look at his and our enemies. Look at your king. Hold your ranks, I beg of you; and if the heat of battle makes you leave them, think also of rallying back: therein lies the key to victory. You will find it among those three trees that you can see over there on your right side. If you lose your ensigns, cornets or flags, do never lose sight of my panache; you will always find it on the road to honour and victory."
The action began with a few deadly cannon volleys from the six pieces of the royal artillery, which was under the command of the master, La Guiche. The cavalry of the two sides then clashed with a dreadful force. The Duke of Mayenne followed up with the mercenary troops of the Guelders and Almaine across the open field. The mercenaries, who were mostly sympathetic to the Protestant cause, fired in the air and put their spears in rest.
Mayenne charged with such a fury that after a terrible fusillade and a struggle of a full quarter of an hour which left the field covered with dead, following the defection of his mercenaries, the opposing left flank fled and the right was pierced and gave way.
Aumont soon overcame the League's light horse and their royalist counterparts retreated under the attack of a Walloon squadron backed up by two squadrons from the League. It was then the turn of the Jean VI d'Aumont, the Duc de Montpensier and the Baron de Biron to charge the foreign cavalry, forcing it into a retreat. Marshal de Biron, in command of the rear-guard with English and Swiss troops on both flanks, joined up with the king who, without stopping after his victory, had crossed the river Eure in pursuit of the enemy.
However, the decisive event took place elsewhere on the battlefield: the King charged the League's lancers, who were unable to get far enough back to use their weapons.
Mayenne was driven back, the Duke of Aumale forced to surrender, and the Count of Egmont killed. The Duke of Mayenne had lost the battle. Henry pursued the losers, many of whom surrendered for fear of falling into worse hands, their horses being in no condition to get them away from danger. The countryside was full of Leaguers and Spaniards in flight, with the king's victorious army pursuing and scattering the remnants of the larger groups that dispersed and re-gathered.
Aftermath
Henry defeated Mayenne at Ivry so that he would become the only credible claimant to the throne of France. However, he was unsuccessful in his subsequent siege of Paris. He would not be accepted into the city until 1594, following his conversion to Roman Catholicism the previous year. Henry was advised that the Parisians, as many of the French people, would not accept a Protestant king.
Thomas Babbington Macaulay wrote a famous poem about the battle, entitled "The Battle of Ivry." It begins:
Now glory to the Lord of Hosts, from whom all glories are!
And glory to our Sovereign Liege, King Henry of Navarre!
References
Notes
Bibliography
Arlette Jouanna and Jacqueline Boucher, Dominique Biloghi, Guy Thiec. Histoire et dictionnaire des Guerres de religion. Collection: Bouquins. Paris: Laffont, 1998.
1590 in France
Ivry 1590
Ivry 1590
Ivry 1590
History of Catholicism in France
Ivry
Conflicts in 1590
Military history of Normandy | [
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261407 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasma%20cosmology | Plasma cosmology | Plasma cosmology is a non-standard cosmology whose central postulate is that the dynamics of ionized gases and plasmas play important, if not dominant, roles in the physics of the universe beyond the Solar System. In contrast, the current observations and models of cosmologists and astrophysicists explain the formation, development, and evolution of astronomical bodies and large-scale structures in the universe as influenced by gravity (including its formulation in Albert Einstein's general theory of relativity) and baryonic physics.
Some theoretical concepts about plasma cosmology originated with Hannes Alfvén, who tentatively proposed the use of plasma scaling to extrapolate the results of laboratory experiments and plasma physics observations and scale them over many orders of magnitude up to the largest observable objects in the universe (see box).
Cosmologists and astrophysicists who have evaluated plasma cosmology reject it because it does not match the observations of astrophysical phenomena as well as current cosmological theory. Very few papers supporting plasma cosmology have appeared in the literature since the mid-1990s.
The term plasma universe is sometimes used as a synonym for plasma cosmology, as an alternative description of the plasma in the universe.
Alfvén–Klein cosmology
In the 1960s, the theory behind plasma cosmology was introduced by Alfvén, a plasma expert who won the 1970 Nobel Prize in Physics for his work on magnetohydrodynamics. In 1971, Oskar Klein, a Swedish theoretical physicist, extended the earlier proposals and developed the Alfvén–Klein model of the universe, or "metagalaxy", an earlier term used to refer to the empirically accessible part of the universe, rather than the entire universe including parts beyond our particle horizon. In this Alfvén–Klein cosmology, sometimes called Klein–Alfvén cosmology, the universe is made up of equal amounts of matter and antimatter with the boundaries between the regions of matter and antimatter being delineated by cosmic electromagnetic fields formed by double layers, thin regions comprising two parallel layers with opposite electrical charge. Interaction between these boundary regions would generate radiation, and this would form the plasma. Alfvén introduced the term ambiplasma for a plasma made up of matter and antimatter and the double layers are thus formed of ambiplasma. According to Alfvén, such an ambiplasma would be relatively long-lived as the component particles and antiparticles would be too hot and too low-density to annihilate each other rapidly. The double layers will act to repel clouds of opposite type, but combine clouds of the same type, creating ever-larger regions of matter and antimatter. The idea of ambiplasma was developed further into the forms of heavy ambiplasma (protons-antiprotons) and light ambiplasma (electrons-positrons).
Alfvén–Klein cosmology was proposed in part to explain the observed baryon asymmetry in the universe, starting from an initial condition of exact symmetry between matter and antimatter. According to Alfvén and Klein, ambiplasma would naturally form pockets of matter and pockets of antimatter that would expand outwards as annihilation between matter and antimatter occurred in the double layer at the boundaries. They concluded that we must just happen to live in one of the pockets that was mostly baryons rather than antibaryons, explaining the baryon asymmetry. The pockets, or bubbles, of matter or antimatter would expand because of annihilations at the boundaries, which Alfvén considered as a possible explanation for the observed expansion of the universe, which would be merely a local phase of a much larger history. Alfvén postulated that the universe has always existed due to causality arguments and the rejection of ex nihilo models, such as the Big Bang, as a stealth form of creationism. The exploding double layer was also suggested by Alfvén as a possible mechanism for the generation of cosmic rays,
X-ray bursts and gamma-ray bursts.
In 1993, theoretical cosmologist Jim Peebles criticized Alfvén–Klein cosmology, writing that "there is no way that the results can be consistent with the isotropy of the cosmic microwave background radiation and X-ray backgrounds". In his book he also showed that Alfvén's models do not predict Hubble's law, the abundance of light elements, or the existence of the cosmic microwave background. A further difficulty with the ambiplasma model is that matter–antimatter annihilation results in the production of high energy photons, which are not observed in the amounts predicted. While it is possible that the local "matter-dominated" cell is simply larger than the observable universe, this proposition does not lend itself to observational tests.
Plasma cosmology and the study of galaxies
Hannes Alfvén from the 1960s to 1980s argued that plasma played an important if not dominant role in the universe because electromagnetic forces are far more important than gravity when acting on interplanetary and interstellar charged particles. He further hypothesized that they might promote the contraction of interstellar clouds and may even constitute the main mechanism for contraction, initiating star formation. The current standard view is that magnetic fields can hinder collapse, that large-scale Birkeland currents have not been observed, and that the length scale for charge neutrality is predicted to be far smaller than the relevant cosmological scales.
In the 1980s and 1990s, Alfvén and Anthony Peratt, a plasma physicist at Los Alamos National Laboratory, outlined a program they called the "plasma universe". In plasma universe proposals, various plasma physics phenomena were associated with astrophysical observations and were used to explain contemporary mysteries and problems outstanding in astrophysics in the 1980s and 1990s. In various venues, Peratt profiled what he characterized as an alternative viewpoint to the mainstream models applied in astrophysics and cosmology.
For example, Peratt proposed that the mainstream approach to galactic dynamics which relied on gravitational modeling of stars and gas in galaxies with the addition of dark matter was overlooking a possibly major contribution from plasma physics. He mentions laboratory experiments of Winston H. Bostick in the 1950s that created plasma discharges that looked like galaxies. Perrat conducted computer simulations of colliding plasma clouds that he reported also mimicked the shape of galaxies. Peratt proposed that galaxies formed due to plasma filaments joining in a z-pinch, the filaments starting 300,000 light years apart and carrying Birkeland currents of 1018 amperes. Peratt also reported simulations he did showing emerging jets of material from the central buffer region that he compared to quasars and active galactic nuclei occurring without supermassive black holes. Peratt proposed a sequence for galaxy evolution: "the transition of double radio galaxies to radioquasars to radioquiet QSO's to peculiar and Seyfert galaxies, finally ending in spiral galaxies". He also reported that flat galaxy rotation curves were simulated without dark matter. At the same time Eric Lerner, an independent plasma researcher and supporter of Peratt's ideas, proposed a plasma model for quasars based on a dense plasma focus.
Comparison with mainstream astrophysics
Standard astronomical modeling and theories attempt to incorporate all known physics into descriptions and explanations of observed phenomena, with gravity playing a dominant role on the largest scales as well as in celestial mechanics and dynamics. To that end, both Keplerian orbits and Albert Einstein's General Theory of Relativity are generally used as the underlying frameworks for modeling astrophysical systems and structure formation, while high-energy astronomy and particle physics in cosmology additionally appeal to electromagnetic processes including plasma physics and radiative transfer to explain relatively small scale energetic processes observed in the x-rays and gamma rays. Due to overall charge neutrality, plasma physics does not provide for very long-range interactions in astrophysics even while much of the matter in the universe is plasma. (See astrophysical plasma for more.)
Proponents of plasma cosmology claim electrodynamics is as important as gravity in explaining the structure of the universe, and speculate that it provides an alternative explanation for the evolution of galaxies and the initial collapse of interstellar clouds. In particular plasma cosmology is claimed to provide an alternative explanation for the flat rotation curves of spiral galaxies and to do away with the need for dark matter in galaxies and with the need for supermassive black holes in galaxy centres to power quasars and active galactic nuclei. However, theoretical analysis shows that "many scenarios for the generation of seed magnetic fields, which rely on the survival and sustainability of currents at early times [of the universe are disfavored]", i.e. Birkeland currents of the magnitude needed (1018 amps over scales of megaparsecs) for galaxy formation do not exist. Additionally, many of the issues that were mysterious in the 1980s and 1990s, including discrepancies relating to the cosmic microwave background and the nature of quasars, have been solved with more evidence that, in detail, provides a distance and time scale for the universe.
Some of the places where plasma cosmology supporters are most at odds with standard explanations include the need for their models to have light element production without Big Bang nucleosynthesis, which, in the context of Alfvén–Klein cosmology, has been shown to produce excessive X-rays and gamma rays beyond that observed. Plasma cosmology proponents have made further proposals to explain light element abundances, but the attendant issues have not been fully addressed. In 1995 Eric Lerner published his alternative explanation for the cosmic microwave background radiation (CMBR). He argued that his model explained the fidelity of the CMB spectrum to that of a black body and the low level of anisotropies found, even while the level of isotropy at 1:105 is not accounted for to that precision by any alternative models. Additionally, the sensitivity and resolution of the measurement of the CMB anisotropies was greatly advanced by WMAP and the Planck satellite and the statistics of the signal were so in line with the predictions of the Big Bang model, that the CMB has been heralded as a major confirmation of the Big Bang model to the detriment of alternatives. The acoustic peaks in the early universe are fit with high accuracy by the predictions of the Big Bang model, and, to date, there has never been an attempt to explain the detailed spectrum of the anisotropies within the framework of plasma cosmology or any other alternative cosmological model.
References and notes
Further reading
Alfvén, Hannes:
"Cosmic Plasma" (Reidel, 1981)
"Cosmology in the plasma universe", Laser and Particle Beams (), vol. 6, August 1988, pp. 389–398 Full text
"Model of the plasma universe", IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science (), vol. PS-14, December 1986, pp. 629–638 Full text (PDF)
"The Plasma Universe", Physics Today (), vol. 39, issue 9, September 1986, pp. 22 – 27
Peratt, Anthony:
"Physics of the Plasma Universe", (Springer, 1992)
"Simulating spiral galaxies", Sky and Telescope (), vol. 68, August 1984, pp. 118–122
"Are Black Holes Necessary?", Sky and Telescope (), vol. 66, July 1983, pp. 19–22
"Evolution of the plasma universe. I – Double radio galaxies, quasars, and extragalactic jets", IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science (), vol. PS-14, December 1986, pp. 639–660 Full text (PDF)
"Evolution of the plasma universe. II – The formation of systems of galaxies", IEEE Transactions on Plasma Science (), vol. PS-14, December 1986, pp. 763–778 Full text (PDF)
"The role of particle beams and electrical currents in the plasma universe", Laser and Particle Beams (), vol. 6, August 1988, pp. 471–491 Full text (PDF)
IEEE journal Transactions on Plasma Science: special issues on Space and Cosmic Plasma 1986, 1989, 1990, 1992, 2000, 2003, and 2007
Cambridge University Press journal Laser and Particle Beams: Particle Beams and Basic Phenomena in the Plasma Universe, a Special Issue in Honor of the 80th Birthday of Hannes Alfvén, vol. 6, issue 3, August 1988
Various authors: "Introduction to Plasma Astrophysics and Cosmology", Astrophysics and Space Science, v. 227 (1995) p. 3–11. Proceedings of the Second IEEE International Workshop on Plasma Astrophysics and Cosmology, held from 10 to 12 May 1993 in Princeton, New Jersey
External links
Wright, E. L. "Errors in The Big Bang Never Happened". See also: Lerner, E. J. "Dr. Wright is Wrong", Lerner's reply to the above.
Physical cosmology
Space plasmas
Fringe physics | [
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261414 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Colleen%20Doran | Colleen Doran | Colleen Doran is an American writer-artist and cartoonist. She illustrated hundreds of comics, graphic novels, books and magazines, including the autobiographical graphic novel of Marvel Comics editor and writer Stan Lee entitled Amazing Fantastic Incredible Stan Lee, which became a New York Times bestseller. She adapted and did the art for the short story "Troll Bridge" by Neil Gaiman, which also became a New York Times bestseller. Her books have received Eisner, Harvey, Bram Stoker, and International Horror Guild Awards.
Her 2019 graphic novel adaptation of Neil Gaiman's short story Snow, Glass, Apples, won the Bram Stoker Award for Superior Achievement in a Graphic Novel. It won the 2020 Eisner Award for Best Adaptation from Another Medium, and Colleen Doran was also nominated for the Eisner for Best Penciller/Inker. Neil Gaiman's Snow, Glass, Apples was also nominated for the Reuben Award from the National Cartoonists Society for Best Graphic Novel. It won the 2020 Ringo Award for Best Graphic Novel with Doran nominated for Best Artist. It received an Honorable Mention at the Rondo Classic Horror Awards for Best Comic.
She also illustrated the works of Alan Moore, Warren Ellis, Joe R. Lansdale, Anne Rice, J. Michael Straczynski, Peter David and Tori Amos.
Notable credits include: The Sandman, Wonder Woman, Legion of Superheroes, Teen Titans, The Vampire Diaries comics, Walt Disney's Beauty and the Beast, and her space opera series, A Distant Soil.
Early work
At age five, Doran won an art contest sponsored by the Walt Disney Company. Doran created her comic book series, A Distant Soil, at age twelve.
Doran landed her first work for an advertising agency at age fifteen. She attended Christopher Newport University and the Art Institute of Pittsburgh and used her professional works for curriculum credit. Science fiction artist Frank Kelly Freas was her mentor, and she apprenticed with him in the early 1980s.
She broke into the comic book industry when still a teenager, scouted by Tom Long for his fanzine Graphic Showcase. Long hired Doran to draw a revival of the 1940s character Miss Fury. Underage Doran quit the assignment due to its adult content. She also contributed illustrations to the Hugo Award nominated fanzine Lan's Lantern.
A Distant Soil was published in fanzines as early as 1979, then scouted by The Donning Company Starblaze imprint before it was contracted by WaRP Graphics. Doran left the company after nine issues due to an acrimonious dispute with WaRP, which attempted to claim copyright and trademark on her work. The WaRP version of the story has never been reprinted despite its unusual all-pencil style, and Doran's ownership of the publishing rights.
Career
Doran discarded the 300 pages of work she did at Warp, and rewrote and redrew the entire A Distant Soil story from scratch, first with Donning, then as a self-publisher. A 1000-page long-form comics narrative, it has been published by Image Comics since 1996. It sold more than 700,000 copies in multiple printings. The production archives were destroyed by the printer, and an extensive restoration process brought the series back to publication in 2013.
Doran was scouted by Keith Giffen to work at DC Comics after he saw her work in the Legion of Superheroes fanzine Interlac. They went on to become frequent collaborators at DC on The Legion of Superheroes projects, Justice League 3001, and the series Reign of the Zodiac. Her art also appeared in Amethyst, Princess of Gemworld No. 12, multiple issues of Who's Who in the DC Universe and Who's Who in the Legion of Superheroes, Superman: Man of Steel Gallery, Christmas with the DC Superheroes, Captain Atom, Star Trek, and Hawkman Annual. She did art for several Teen Titans and Wonder Woman projects.
She illustrated portions of the "Dream Country" and "A Game of You" story arcs in Neil Gaiman's The Sandman series. The character Thessaly in Neil Gaiman's Sandman is based on Doran. Other Vertigo appearances include Shade, The Changing Man, Lucifer (DC Comics), Transmetropolitan and the original graphic novel Orbiter (comics) written by Warren Ellis.
Doran's premiere at Marvel Comics was in 1986, Swords of the Swashbucklers No. 9 and 11, with issue 11 having the dubious distinction of being one of the books confiscated in the 1986 Friendly Franks "obscene" comics raid that precipitated the formation of the Comic Book Legal Defense Fund. Swords of the Swashbucklers was eventually excluded from the prosecution proceedings.
Doran worked on other projects at Marvel including The Guardians of the Galaxy Annual No. 3, The Silver Surfer, Marvel Fanfare, Excalibur No. 28, Captain America: Drug Wars, Amazing Spider-Man, Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man, a Power Pack mini-series, Handbook of the Marvel Universe, Mutant X, X-Factor, Marvel Girl Comics, and X-Men Millennial Visions for which she wrote and drew an entry. She also worked in the Special Projects Department on promotional, educational, and greeting card art, sometimes working directly with Stan Lee.
At Marvel Comics' Epic division, she worked on Clive Barker's Nightbreed No. 21 and No. 22 as interior and cover artist, and Clive Barker's Hellraiser No. 5 and No. 14, as artist and colorist.
Doran was a web columnist for Wizard Magazine in the early 1990s, and illustrated Super Idol for Warren Ellis in 2001, an early webcomics format experiment at Artbomb.
Doran is featured in the films Ringers (a documentary about The Lord of the Rings fans), Scenes From the Small Press: Colleen Doran by Rich Henn, Sex, Lies and Superheroes, the documentary The Cartoonist about Bone creator Jeff Smith, and Captured Ghosts, a documentary about writer Warren Ellis. She was also featured in the December 12, 2011 episode of "Stalked: Someone's Watching," a Discovery ID television series that profiles stalking incidents, focusing on interviews with victims.
Doran worked as a creator rights activist and as a lobbyist in Washington D.C., and served on the advocacy committee of the Graphic Artists Guild. Lecture venues include the Smithsonian Institution, The Singapore Writers Festival, the Comics Masterclass in Sydney, Australia, and the Maryland Institute College of Art. She spoke at CREATE: Protecting Creativity from the Ground Up at the Newseum in Washington DC, with Congresswoman Marsha Blackburn, Rick Carnes President of the Songwriters Guild of America, musician Suzanne Vega, and other artists and technology policy specialists.
2010s
Doran illustrated young adult novelist Barry Lyga's first graphic novel for Houghton Mifflin, Mangaman in 2011.
Gone to Amerikay, a graphic novel drawn by Doran and written by Derek McCulloch, was released in 2012 from DC/Vertigo. It is a "multi-generational Irish saga." Gone to Amerikay themed cover art was featured in the St. Patrick's Day edition of the Irish Echo, which was then presented to President Barack Obama by Deputy First Minister Martin McGuinness of Northern Ireland. An excerpt from Gone to Amerikay was chosen for inclusion in The Best American Comics 2013.
Doran produced cover art for The Walking Dead No. 1 (2015, Image Comics), Red Sonja (Dynamite, 2014), Marvel's S.H.I.E.L.D. No. 4 (2015), and Squirrel Girl No. 7 (2016). For DC Comics, she wrote and drew stories for The Vampire Diaries (2014), based on the TV show, and art for Justice League 3001 No. 6, 9 and 10 (2015–2016). For IDW's Womanthology (2012), she contributed biographical essays about classic cartoonists Rose O'Neill and Ethel Hays.
In 2015, she illustrated the autobiography Amazing Fantastic Incredible Stan Lee, co-written by Lee and Peter David.
With Alan Moore, she did the art for Big Nemo, a dystopian sequel to Winsor McCay's Little Nemo in Slumberland, as a webcomic for the Electricomics app.
She did the art for an adaptation of Neil Gaiman's short story "Troll Bridge" as a graphic novel for Dark Horse, released in October 2016. She also worked on issues of Faith and X-O Manowar for Valiant Comics. She produced work for the adaptation of Neil Gaiman's American Gods. She was the artist for the series Finality with Warren Ellis at Line Webtoon.
In 2019, Dark Horse Comics published Doran's adaptation of Neil Gaiman's "Snow, Glass, Apples" which was described by The Comics Journal as a work which "...solidifies her place as one of the greatest cartoonists of her generation." The Horror Writers Association presented "Snow, Glass, Apples" with the Bram Stoker Superior Achievement in a Graphic Novel award for 2019. It also won the Eisner Award for Best Adaptation from Another Medium, and the Ringo Award for Best Graphic Novel.
2020s
In 2020, For "Wonder Woman 750" Doran and Gail Simone teamed up for a story featuring their "breakout" character Star-Blossom, whose first appearance was the Wonder Woman 75th Anniversary Special in 2016. Doran wrote and illustrated a short story for "Sensational Wonder Woman", and illustrated another Wonder Woman short story for "Wonder Woman Black: and Gold" in 2021. She also produced work for DC Comics' "Generations: Forged" and cover art for "Batman: Urban Legends".
Forbes Magazine announced another Neil Gaiman/Doran collaboration for the adaptation of the Gaiman prose short story "Chivalry" from Dark Horse Comics. Scheduled for release in 2022, Doran hand painted the work in watercolor, ink, and 18K gold after studying illuminated manuscript techniques.
In 2021 Doran produced art for the Z2 Comics graphic novel anthology The Doors: Morrison Hotel, an official graphic novel collection based on the music of the band The Doors. Her work was also used for limited edition prints and the bookplate.
Also from Z2 Comics in 2021, Doran wrote and illustrated work for Balmain: Dreams 10 OR a graphic novel dedicated to the French fashion house Balmain in celebration of the 10 year anniversary of creative director Olivier Rousteing.
Bibliography
Awards and honors
Eisner Award Best Adaptation from Another Medium Winner: Neil Gaiman's Snow, Glass, Apples, Eisner Awards 2020
Bram Stoker Award Superior Achievement in a Graphic Novel Winner: Neil Gaiman's Snow, Glass, Apples, Horror Writers Association 2019
Ringo Award Best Original Graphic Novel Winner: Neil Gaiman's Snow, Glass, Apples, Ringo Awards 2020
Eisner Award Best Penciller/Inker Nominee: Neil Gaiman's Snow, Glass, Apples, Eisner Awards 2020
Ringo Award Best Artist Nominee: Colleen Doran, Ringo Awards 2020
Reuben Award Best Graphic Novel Nominee: Neil Gaiman's Snow, Glass, Apples, National Cartoonists Society 2020
Tripwire Award Best Original Graphic Novel Nominee: Neil Gaiman's Snow, Glass, Apples, Tripwire Magazine 2020
Rondo Award Honorable Mention: Neil Gaiman's Snow, Glass, Apples, Rondo Hattan Classic Horror Awards 2019
Wizard World Hall of Legends 2017
Great Graphic Novels for Teens 2017 Nominee Non-Fiction: Amazing Fantastic Incredible Stan Lee, Stan Lee, Peter David, Colleen Doran, Young Adult Library Services Association 2017
The Best American Comics 2013: Gone to Amerikay excerpt, Derek McCulloch and Colleen Doran, Houghton Mifflin
Hugo Award Nominee: Chicks Dig Comics, Best Related Work 2013 (Group Nomination)
Great Graphic Novels for Teens Fiction: Mangaman 2012, Young Adult Library Services Association
Best Adult Books for Teens: Gone to Amerikay, Derek McCulloch and Colleen Doran, School Library Journal 2012
Eisner Award Winner: Tori Amos Comic Book Tattoo (anthology) 2009, Best Anthology (Group Award)
Harvey Award Winner: Tori Amos Comic Book Tattoo (anthology) 2009, Best Anthology (Group Award)
International Horror Guild Award: The Nightmare Factory (anthology) 2008, Best Illustrated Narrative (Group Award)
Eisner Award Winner: Best Archival Collection/Project Comic Books, Absolute Sandman ,Vol 1 (Group Award)
Women Cartoonist's Hall of Fame, 2007, Friends of Lulu
Artist in Residence, Smithsonian Institution May 6–14, 2006 "Capricious Comics", Freer/Sackler Galleries, The Smithsonian Museums of Asian Art
Comics Buyer's Guide Fan Award Top Ten Nominee: Favorite Penciler, Favorite Inker, Favorite Cover Artist, Favorite Comic Book A Distant Soil 2004
Chesley Award Nominee, Monochrome Work Unpublished 2002
American Library Association 2002 featured speaker
Gaylactic Spectrum Award Nominee, A Distant Soil, Best Other Work 2001
Guest of Honor, San Diego Comic Con 1998
3rd Annual Japan-US Manga Symposium, Tokyo 1996, Tezuka Productions
Eisner Award Nominee: Sandman, Best Serialized story 1993 (Group Nomination)
Eisner Award Winner: Sandman, Best Continuing Series 1993 (Group Award)
Eisner Award Winner: Sandman, Best Continuing Series 1992 (Group Award)
Eisner Award Nominee: Sandman: Dream Country, Best Graphic Album Reprint 1992 (Group Nomination)
Dori Seda Award Nominee: Most Promising New Female Cartoonist 1988
Notable works
With Neil Gaiman: Adaptations and Related Projects
American Gods: Volume I (2018) anthology (artist) Dark Horse Comics The Complete American Gods (2021) anthology (artist) Dark Horse Comics American Gods No. 4 (2017) (artist) Dark Horse Comics (ASIN:B0717B95ZN)
Chivalry (2022) Dark Horse Comics (graphic novel adaptation and artist
The Sandman
Sandman Volume III: Dream Country (1991)(2010) DC Comics/Vertigo Sandman Volume III: Dream Country 30th Anniversary Edition (2018) DC Comics Sandman No. 20 DC Comics/ Vertigo (artist)Sandman Volume V: A Game of You (1993) DC Comics/Veritgo Sandman No. 34 DC Comics/ Vertigo (artist)
The Absolute Sandman Volume I (2006) DC Comics/Vertigo
The Absolute Sandman Volume II (2007) DC Comics/Vertigo
Sandman Omnibus Volume 1 (2013) DC Comics/Vertigo
Sandman: A Gallery of Dreams (1994) DC Comics/Vertigo (ASIN: B002EAHJN0)
The Death Gallery (1996) DC Comics/Vertigo
Sandman 20th Anniversary Poster (2008)
Death: Deluxe Edition (2012) DC Comics/Vertigo
Absolute Death (2009) DC Comics/Vertigo
Snow, Glass, Apples (2019) Dark Horse Comics (graphic novel adaptation and artist)
Vertigo Visions: Ten Years on the Edge (2003) Watson Guptill
Lucifer No. 62 DC Comics/Vertigo (artist)
Lucifer: Volume 10: Morningstar (2006) DC Comics/Vertigo
Troll Bridge (2016) Dark Horse Comics (graphic novel adaptation and artist)
Troll Bridge (1998) Image Comics (short story adaptation and artist) (UNSPSC-Code: 55101500)
Graphic Novels: Original Works, Anthologies, and Compilations
A Distant Soil graphic novel editions (creator/artist/writer):
Late-1980s original color editions:
A Distant Soil: Immigrant Song Donning/Starblaze (1987)
A Distant Soil: Knights of the Angel Donning/Whitford Press (1989)
1990s and on black and white reprints:
A Distant Soil: The Gathering Image Comics (1997) compilation of comic issues 1–13
A Distant Soil: The Ascendant Image Comics (1998) compilation of comic issues 15–25
A Distant Soil: The Aria Image Comics (2001) compilation of comic issues 26–31
A Distant Soil: Coda Image Comics (2005) compilation of comic issues 32–38 hardcover, November 2005,
2013 and on Digital Remasters and new editions:
A Distant Soil: The Gathering TPB Volume I Image Comics/Shadowline (2013) digitally remastered compilation of issues 1–13 with new story content
A Distant Soil: The Ascendant TPB Volume II Image Comics/Shadowline (2014) digitally remastered compilation of issues 14–25 with new story content Amazing Fantastic Incredible Stan Lee (2015) Simon and Schuster graphic novel (artist)
Anne Rice’s The Master of Rampling Gate: A Graphic Tale of Unspeakable Horror (1991) Innovation graphic novel adaptation (artist) ASIN B00SB53P62Balmain Dreams: 10 OR (2021) Z2 Comics original graphic novel anthology (artist) Balmain Dreams: 10 OR (2021) VIP Tier Limited Edition (limited to 50 copies)Balmain Dreams: 10 OR (2021) Special Edition Tier (limited to 3 copies)
The Book of Lost Souls: Introductions All Around (2006) Marvel Comics graphic novel compilation (artist) The Book of Lost Souls (2005) Marvel Comics/Icon issue #1–6
Disney
Walt Disney's Beauty and the Beast: A Tale of Enchantment (1992) Disney Comics
Disney AdventuresDisney Cartoon Tales: Beauty and the Beast, a Tale of Enchantment (1991) W.D. Publications Disney's Beauty and the Beast Junior Graphic Novel (1992) Disney Princess Treasury Volume I (2015) Joe Books
A Princess Treasury (Step into Reading) (2010) Random House Gone to Amerikay (2012) DC Comics/Vertigo HC original graphic novel (artist)
Mangaman (2011) Houghton Mifflin original graphic novel (artist)
Morrison Hotel: Graphic Novel (2021) Z2 Comics anthology (artist) The Nightmare Factory (2007) Harper Paperbacks graphic novel adaptation anthology (artist) Orbiter original graphic novel (artist) (2003) DC Comics/Wildstorm HC Orbiter(2004) DC Comics/Vertigo TPB Ocean/Orbiter Deluxe Edition (2015) DC Comics/Vertigo HC
Power Pack Classic Omnibus Vol. 2 graphic novel compilation (artist) (2021) Marvel Comics
Marvel Fanfare No. 55, (artist) (1990)
Power Pack, Miniseries 1-4, (artist) (2000)
Spider-ManAmazing Spider-Man Epic Collection: Cosmic Adventures (2013) Amazing Spider-Man No. 326 (1989)Spider-Man: Died In Your Arms Tonight (2009) Amazing Spider-Man No. 600 (2009)Spider-Man: Back In Black hardcover (2007)
Spider-Man: Back in Black TPB (2008) Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man Annual No. 1 (2007)Spider-Man: Friendly Neighborhood Spider-Man, The Complete Collection (2017) Acts of Vengeance: Spider-Man and the X-Men (2021) Tori Amos: Comic Book Tattoo (2008) anthology (artist) Image Comics
The Vampire Diaries (2014) DC Comics graphic novel compilation, (writer/artist)
The Vampire Diaries #1,3 (writer) No. 6 (writer/artist) (2013) DC Comics
Wonder WomanWonder Woman by George Perez Vol. 4 (2020) DC Comics graphic novel compilation (artist) Wonder Woman No. 45 (1990) DC Comics (artist)Wonder Woman Annual No. 2 DC ComicsWonder Woman by George Perez Vol. 5 (2021) DC Comics graphic novel compilation (artist) Wonder Woman No. 49 (1990) DC Comics (artist)Wonder Woman: The Once and Future Story (1998) DC Comics original graphic novel Sensational Wonder Woman (2021) DC Comics graphic novel compilation (writer/artist) Sensational Wonder Woman No. 5 (2021) DC Comics (writer/artist)
Illustration
Dead in the West by Joe R. Lansdale (2005) Nightshade Books,
Star WarsArt of Star Wars Galaxy, Vol 2. (1994) Berkeley Publishing Group, Star Wars Galaxy Magazine No. 4
Star Wars Galaxy 4 Trading Cards
Star Wars Galactic Files 2 Trading Cards
Star Wars Clone Wars Trading CardsStar Wars: Dr Aphra Annual'' #3, cover artist
Exhibits
The Legend of Wonder Woman, 2021, Cartoon Art Museum, San Francisco, Ca
Women in Comics, 2021, Palazzo Merulana, Rome, Italy
Women in Comics: Looking Forward, Looking Back, 2020, Society of Illustrators, New York, NY
A Boy and His Tiger: A Tribute to Bill Watterson, 2020, Cartoon Art Museum, San Francisco, CA
Four Color Images Gallery, New York, NY
Kunstlerhaus, Stuttgart, Germany
Porto, Portugal
Secession Gallery, Vienna, Austria
Gijon Cultural Center, Gijon, Spain
San Francisco Cartoon Art Museum, San Francisco, CA
Museum of Cartoon Art, Rye Brook, New York
Gallery Nucleus: 20 Years of Sandman 2008
Gallery Nucleus: A Handful of Dust, 25 Years of Sandman
Krannert Art Museum; Out of Sequence: Underrepresented Voices in American Comics
Laboratory of Art and Ideas at Belmar; Out of Sequence
References
External links
American female comics artists
Female comics writers
Living people
Place of birth missing (living people)
Tolkien artists
American comics writers
20th-century American women writers
1964 births | [
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261415 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tatiana%20Grigorieva | Tatiana Grigorieva | Tatiana Vladimirovna Grigorieva (; born 8 October 1975 in Leningrad, Soviet Union) is a retired Australian pole vaulter. She retired from the sport in 2007 after a 10-year career that saw her win Olympic, Commonwealth and World Championship medals. She went on to star in series six of Dancing with the Stars and as Olympia on the 2008 revival of Gladiators.
Biography
As a former national level hurdler in Russia, Grigorieva took up pole vaulting when she migrated to Australia in 1997. Within 12 months of picking up a pole, she became one of the world's best, placing third in the 1998 Goodwill Games in New York. In her first appearance at the 1999 World Championships in Athletics, she won the bronze medal.
But it was at the 2000 Summer Olympics in Sydney when she stepped into the spotlight and became a household name. On a night when Cathy Freeman won gold, the Australian home audience had a real bonus in seeing Grigorieva jump a personal best and win silver. The ensuing fame saw Grigorieva take up a number of off-field commitments whilst still continuing to train and compete.
At the 2001 World Championships in Canada, competing against the odds due to an injury restricted campaign, Grigorieva equalled her personal best to claim fourth. In the final competition of the season, as she had done in the Olympics, she edged very close to the world record with a clearance of 4.56 m (a personal best jump) in Yokohama.
At her first Commonwealth Games in 2002, she went into the competition as the overwhelming favourite with enormous pressure on her. Grigorieva's goal was to win gold and set a new games record – she achieved both.
In 2003 and 2004, despite maintaining a high standard and a place amongst the world's best, injury, illness and the emotional strain of her marriage breakup, resulted in her missing opportunities to represent Australia in the World Championships and Olympics. In 2005, Grigorieva put all that behind her, changing her training regime, place of residence and focus in life. She had a successful season, making the finals of the World Championships and winning the Osaka Grand Prix to retain her Japanese record set in 2001.
In 2006 Grigorieva's focus was defending her title at the Commonwealth Games in front of her home crowd. The untimely, mysterious loss of her vaulting poles and a nagging hamstring injury days before the event saw her competing at a slight disadvantage. However, she walked away with a silver medal in a performance that was close to her very best. 2006 was clearly her best ever international season where she jumped over 4.5 m six times and recorded two new personal best heights within days of each other and regained a place in the top five.
Since 2000 Grigorieva has appeared in numerous television programs and ad campaigns and magazines and on a number of magazines covers including from Inside Sport and Black+White to GQ in Italy and Esquire in the UK.
Her practical experience and desire to help others is now backed by her continuing studies towards a Health Science degree at the Australian College of Natural Medicine. She also had completed qualifications in Reiki, Pilates and Yoga.
In November 2007, Grigorieva and her partner Plamen Milanov opened the "Caffe e Gelato Milany" on Racecourse Road in the Brisbane suburb of Hamilton.
In December 2008 Grigorieva was named international spokesperson for the fruit bar CheekyChewz manufactured by the Australian company Australian Food Innovators. Her first project has been arranging an initiative that will see 50 cents from every bar sold through Variety's website donated to that organisation.
Achievements
References
External links
1975 births
Living people
Olympic athletes of Australia
Olympic silver medalists for Australia
Australian female pole vaulters
Russian female pole vaulters
Russian female hurdlers
Athletes (track and field) at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Athletes (track and field) at the 2006 Commonwealth Games
Russian emigrants to Australia
Athletes from Saint Petersburg
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for Australia
Commonwealth Games medallists in athletics
World Athletics Championships medalists
Medalists at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Commonwealth Games silver medallists for Australia
Athletes (track and field) at the 2002 Commonwealth Games
Olympic silver medalists in athletics (track and field)
Goodwill Games medalists in athletics
Competitors at the 2001 Goodwill Games | [
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261417 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cabinet%20of%20Canada | Cabinet of Canada | The Cabinet of Canada () is a body of ministers of the Crown that, along with the Canadian monarch, and within the tenets of the Westminster system, forms the government of Canada. Chaired by the prime minister, the Cabinet is a committee of the Queen's Privy Council for Canada and the senior echelon of the Ministry, the membership of the Cabinet and ministry often being co-terminal; there are no members of the latter who are not also members of the former.
For practical reasons, the Cabinet is informally referred to either in relation to the prime minister in charge of it or the number of ministries since Confederation. The current cabinet is the Cabinet of Justin Trudeau, which is part of the 29th Ministry. The interchangeable use of the terms cabinet and ministry is a subtle inaccuracy that can cause confusion.
Composition
Queen-in-Council
The Government of Canada, formally referred to as Her Majesty's Government, is defined by the constitution as the Queen acting on the advice of her Privy Council; what is technically known as the Queen-in-Council, or sometimes the Governor-in-Council, referring to the governor general as the Queen's stand-in. However, the Privy Council—composed mostly of former members of parliament, current and former chief justices of Canada, and other elder statesmen—rarely meets in full; as the stipulations of responsible government require that those who directly advise the monarch and governor general on how to exercise the Royal Prerogative be accountable to the elected House of Commons of Canada, the day-to-day operation of government is guided only by a sub-group of the Privy Council made up of individuals who hold seats in parliament. This body of ministers of the Crown is the Cabinet, which has come to be the council in the phrase Queen-in-Council.
One of the main duties of the Crown is to appoint as prime minister the individual most likely to maintain the confidence of the House of Commons; this is usually the leader of the political party with a majority in that house, but when no party or coalition holds a majority (referred to as a hung parliament), or similar scenario, the governor general's judgment about the most suitable candidate for prime minister must be brought into play. The prime minister thereafter heads the Cabinet. The Queen is informed by her viceroy of the acceptance of the resignation of a prime minister and the swearing-in of a new ministry, and she remains fully briefed through regular communications from her Canadian ministers and holds audience with them whenever possible.
Selection and structure
The governor-general appoints to the Cabinet persons chosen by the prime minister—John A. Macdonald once half-jokingly listed his occupation as cabinet maker; while there are no legal qualifications of the potential ministers, there are a number of conventions that are expected be followed. For instance, there is typically a minister from each province in Canada, ministers from visible minority groups, female ministers and, while the majority of those chosen to serve as ministers of the Crown are Members of Parliament, a Cabinet sometimes includes a senator, especially as a representative of a province or region where the governing party won few or no ridings. Efforts are further made to indulge interest groups that support the incumbent government and the party's internal politics must be appeased, with Cabinet positions sometimes being a reward for loyal party members.
It is not legally necessary for Cabinet members to have a position in parliament although they are almost always selected from the House of Commons. From time to time, a senator may be included.
As with other Westminster derived governments, but unlike the United States Cabinet, the size and structure of the Canadian Cabinet is relatively malleable, the slate of Cabinet positions tending to be substantially restructured periodically, the last major period of realignment occurring between 1993 and 1996. Throughout the 20th century, Cabinets had been expanding in size until the Cabinet chaired by Brian Mulroney, with a population of 40 ministers. Mulroney's successor, Kim Campbell, reduced this number, and Jean Chrétien eliminated approximately 10 members of the ministry from the Cabinet, so that by 1994 there were a total of 23 persons in Cabinet. Under the chairmanship of Paul Martin, the number increased again to 39, in the vicinity of which it has remained; the Cabinet proper comprises 37 ministers.
Cabinet itself—or full Cabinet—is further divided into committees. The Treasury Board, overseeing the expenditure of the sovereign's state funds within every department, is one of the most important of these. The structure of Cabinet fluctuates between and within ministries. For example, the Priorities and Planning Committee, often referred to as the inner Cabinet, was the body that set the strategic directions for the government under Stephen Harper, approving key appointments and ratifying committee memberships. This committee ceased to exist under Justin Trudeau. Other Cabinet committees common across committee structures include Operations, Social Affairs, a committee focused on Economic Growth, Foreign Affairs and Security, the Environment, and Energy Security. Each committee is chaired by a senior minister whose own portfolio may intersect with the mandate of the committee he or she is chairing.
Ministers, secretaries, and deputies
Each minister of the Crown is responsible for the general administration of at least one government portfolio and heads a corresponding ministry or ministries, known in Canada as departments or agencies. The most important minister, following the first minister, is the Minister of Finance, while other high-profile ministries include foreign affairs, industry, justice, and health. The official order of precedence does not follow the same pattern, however, with ministers being listed in the order of their appointment to the Privy Councillor, if appointed to the Privy Council on the same day, in order of election or appointment to parliament.
Unique positions in Cabinet are those such as Leader of the Government in the House of Commons and President of the Queen's Privy Council, who have no corresponding department, and some ministers (such as the Minister for International Cooperation) head agencies under the umbrella of a department run by another minister. Further, the prime minister may recommend the governor-general appoint to Cabinet some ministers without portfolio, which was last done in 2021 when Prime Minister Trudeau appointed Jim Carr as Special Representative to the Prairies. Unlike in many other Westminster model governments, ministers of state in Canada are considered full members of Cabinet, rather than of the ministry outside it, which has the effect of making the Canadian Cabinet much larger than its foreign counterparts. These individuals are assigned specific, but temporary, responsibilities on a more ad hoc basis, fulfilling tasks created and dissolved to suit short-term government priorities from within a department under a full minister of the Crown. Ministers of state may also be named but not specified any particular responsibilities, thus giving them the effective appearance of ministers without portfolio, or be delegated problems or initiatives that cut across departmental boundaries, a situation usually described as having the [situation] file.
Members of the Cabinet receive assistance from both parliamentary secretaries—who will usually answer, on behalf of a minister, questions in the House of Commons—and deputy ministers—senior civil servants assigned to each ministry in order to tender non-partisan advice.
Responsibilities
Under the Constitution, all legislation involving the raising or spending of public revenue must originate from the Cabinet.
In the context of constitutional monarchy and responsible government, the ministerial advice tendered is typically binding, though it is important to note that formally the Royal Prerogative belongs to the Crown, not to any of the ministers, and the royal and viceregal figures may unilaterally use these powers in exceptional constitutional crisis situations. There are also a few duties which must be specifically performed by, or bills that require assent by, the Queen. Royal assent has never been denied to a law passed by Parliament.
As advisors to the sovereign, the Cabinet has significant power in the Canadian system and, as the governing party usually holds a majority of seats in the legislature, almost all bills proposed by the Cabinet are enacted. Combined with a comparatively small proportion of bills originating with individual Members of Parliament, this leads to Cabinet having almost total control over the legislative agenda of the House of Commons. Further, members of various executive agencies, heads of Crown corporations, and other officials are appointed by the Crown-in-Council, though some of these may be made only by the Governor General-in-Council specifically. Public inquiries and Royal Commissions are also called through a Royal Warrant issued by the Queen or Governor-in-Council. All Cabinet meetings are held behind closed doors and the minutes are kept confidential for thirty years, Cabinet members being forbidden from discussing what transpires. Decisions made must be unanimous, though this often occurs at the prime minister's direction, and once a decision has been reached, all Cabinet members must publicly support it. If any of these rules are violated, the offending minister is usually removed by the prime minister and, if the disagreement within the Cabinet is strong, a minister may resign, as did John Turner in 1975, over the subject of wage and price controls, and Michael Chong in 2006, over a parliamentary motion recognizing "the Québécois" as a nation within Canada.
However, the Cabinet's collective influence has been seen to be eclipsed by that of the prime minister alone. Former prime minister Pierre Trudeau is credited with consolidating power in the Office of the Prime Minister (PMO) and, at the end of the 20th century and into the 21st, analysts—such as Jeffrey Simpson, Donald Savoie, and John Gomery—argued that both parliament and the Cabinet had become eclipsed by prime ministerial power. Savoie quoted an anonymous minister from the Liberal Party as saying Cabinet had become "a kind of focus group for the Prime Minister," while Simpson called cabinet a "mini-sounding board". Coyne wrote in 2015: "Cabinet does not matter... It does not govern: that is the job of the prime minister, and of the group of political staff he has around him, and of the bureaucracy beyond them." John Robson criticised the use of the prime minister's name to identify the Cabinet, calling it a "bad habit" that "endorses while concealing the swollen pretension of the executive branch."
Shadow cabinets
Each party in Her Majesty's Loyal Opposition creates a shadow cabinet, with each member thereof observing and critiquing one or more actual Cabinet portfolios and offering alternative policies. The Official Opposition's shadow cabinet comprises members of the party not in government holding the largest number of seats and is appointed by the Leader of the Opposition; it is generally regarded as a "government in waiting". Its members are often, but not always, appointed to a Cabinet post should the leader of their party be called to form a government.
List of cabinets
Current cabinet
The Liberal Party of Canada won the federal election of October 19, 2015 with a majority of seats in the House of Commons. The Cabinet was sworn-in on November 4, with Justin Trudeau appointed as prime minister.
The swearing-in of the new Cabinet also marked the first gender-balanced cabinet in Canada's history, where an equal number of female and male Ministers were appointed. This was reflected in the fifteen women and fifteen men who were sworn into Cabinet on November 4, for a total of thirty-one members, including the Prime Minister himself. Trudeau has continued to maintain a gender-balanced cabinet throughout several cabinet shuffles in his mandate, and the addition of five new ministerial positions.
Initially, five members of Cabinet were appointed by orders-in-council on November 4 as ministers of state, but styled without the traditional of state in their titles. These were the Ministers of Science, Small Business and Tourism, Sport and Persons with Disabilities, Status of Women, and La Francophonie. (However, the new Minister of La Francophonie was, at the same time, appointed Minister of International Development.) Ministers of state had previously represented a second order within the Cabinet (determined by a lower salary as defined by the Salaries Act, despite the Ministries and Ministers of State Act giving them full authority for any government function delegated to them. However, after details of the aforementioned orders-in-council were published, the new cabinet stated its intent for there to "be no levels of cabinet members" and it would table in parliament amendments to the salary statutes, but also that the new ministers would continue to work with the existing departments rather than forming new ones.
On July 18, 2018 Trudeau reshuffled his cabinet. This included adding 5 new ministry positions expanding the previous size of cabinet from 30 to 35.
Following the September 2021 election, Trudeau shuffled his cabinet on October 26, 2021, increasing the size to 39 members.
Ministers are listed according to the Canadian order of precedence:
Notes
Former portfolios
Minister of Border Security and Organized Crime Reduction (2018–2019)
Secretary of State for the Provinces (1867–1873)
Minister of Public Works (1867–1996)
Postmaster General (1867–1981)
Minister of Customs (1867–1918)
Minister of Inland Revenue (1867–1918)
Secretary of State for Canada (1867–1996)
Minister of Marine and Fisheries (1867–1930)
Superintendent-General Indian Affairs (1868–1936)
Minister of the Interior (1873–1936)
Solicitor General (1892–2003)
Minister of Mines (1907–1936)
Secretary of State for External Affairs (1909–1993)
Minister of Immigration and Colonization (1917–1936)
Minister of Soldiers' Civil Re-establishment (1918–1928)
Minister of Customs and Inland Revenue (1918–1921)
Minister of Customs and Excise (1921–1927)
Minister of Pensions and National Health (1928–1944)
Minister of Fisheries (1930–1971)
Minister of Mines and Resources (1936–1950)
Minister of Mines and Technical Surveys (1950–1966)
Minister of Resources and Development (1950–1953)
Minister of Citizenship and Immigration (1950–1966)
Minister of Northern Affairs and National Resources (1953–1966)
Minister of Manpower and Immigration (1966–1977)
Minister of Energy, Mines and Resources (1966–1995)
Minister of Consumer and Corporate Affairs (1968–1995)
Leader of the Government in the Senate (list) (1969–2013)
Minister of Regional Economic Expansion (1969–1982)
Minister of Economic Communications (1969–1996)
Minister of Supply and Services (1969–1996)
Minister of Industry, Trade and Commerce (1969–1983)
Minister of Employment and Immigration (1977–1996)
Minister of Regional Industrial Expansion (1984–1990)
Minister of Forestry (1990–1995)
Minister of National Health and Welfare (1944–1996)
Minister of Industry, Science and Technology (1990–1995)
Minister responsible for Constitutional Affairs (1991–1993)
Minister of Multiculturalism and Citizenship (1991–1996)
Minister of Human Resources Development (1996–2003)
See also
Queen's Privy Council for Canada
Official Opposition Shadow Cabinet (Canada)
Structure of the Canadian federal government
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Reference to current cabinet ministers
Cabinet Minister responsibilities
Government of Canada
Canada
Westminster system | [
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261421 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sinti | Sinti | The Sinti (also Sinta or Sinte; masc. sing. Sinto; fem. sing. Sintesa) are a Romani people in Central Europe that number around 200,000 people. They were traditionally itinerant, but today only a small percentage of Sinti remain unsettled. In earlier times, they frequently lived on the outskirts of communities. The Sinti of Central Europe (mostly Germany) are closely related to the group known as Manouche in France. They speak the Sinti-Manouche variety of Romani, which exhibits strong German influence. While people from Sindh were mentioned in 1100 by the Arab chronicler Meidani, it is unclear if Sindhi people are the ancestors of modern-day Sinti. Sinti are an ethno-linguistic group that is one of the oldest Indian Subcontinent diasporas in Europe.
Name
The origin of the name is disputed. Scholar Jan Kochanowski, and many Sinti themselves, believed it derives from Sindhi, the name of a people of Sindh (a region now in southeast Pakistan). Scholar Yaron Matras argued that "Sinti" is a later term in use by the Sinti from only the 18th century on, and is likely a European loanword. A recent study by Estonian and Indian researchers found genetic similarities between European Romani men and Indian men in their sample. Linguist N.B.G. Kazi stated that all Romani people are from Sindh.
Some other possible locations, where the name Sinti derived from are the Sindh River or the Sind River or Kali Sindh River. Maybe also derived from Sind Valley or the Indus River in Sanskrit named Sindhu, or the village Sinthee. Other Sinti groups claim their ancestors are the Sindi people came to Europe much earlier and appear as Sintians in Sintice now Sintiki, where their language Sintitikes derived from.
History
The Sinti are a subgroup of Romani people mostly found in Germany. They arrived in Austria and Germany in the Late Middle Ages as part of the Romani emigration from the Indian Subcontinent, eventually splitting into two groups: Eftavagarja ("the Seven Caravans") and Estraxarja ("from Austria"). They arrived in Germany before 1540. The two groups expanded, the Eftavagarja into France, Portugal and Brazil, where they are called "Manouches", and the Estraxarja into Italy and Central Europe, mainly what are now Croatia, Slovenia, Hungary, Romania, the Czech Republic and Slovakia, eventually adopting various regional names. In Italy they are present mainly in Piedmont region (where in Piedmontese they are called Sinto, although the word for Romani people is sìngher, as the Italian zingari), with some communities in Veneto and Emilia Romagna as well.
The Holocaust
The Sinti migrated to Germany in the early 15th century. Despite their long presence, they were still generally regarded as beggars and thieves, and, by 1899, the police kept a central register on Sinti, Roma, and Yenish peoples. The Nazis considered them racially inferior (see Nazism and race), and persecuted them throughout Germany during the Nazi period—the Nuremberg Laws of 1935 often being interpreted to apply to them as well as the Jews.
Adolf Eichmann recommended that the Third Reich solve the "Gypsy Question" simultaneously with the Jewish Question, resulting in the deportation of the Sinti to clear room to build homes for ethnic Germans. Some were sent to Poland, or elsewhere (including some deported to Yugoslavia by the Hamburg Police in 1939) others were confined to designated areas, and many were eventually murdered in gas chambers. Many Sinti and Roma were taken to Auschwitz-Birkenau, where they were put in a special section, called the "gypsy camp". Dr. Josef Mengele often performed some of his infamous experiments on Sinti and Roma. On 2 August 1944 the "gypsy camp" was closed, and approximately 4,000 Sinti and Roma were gassed during the night of 2–3 August and burnt in the crematoria. 2 August is now commemorated as Roma and Sinti Holocaust Remembrance Day.
In the concentration camps, the Sinti were forced to wear either a black triangle, indicating their classification as "asocial", or a brown triangle, specifically reserved for Sinti, Roma, and Yenish peoples.
See also
History of the Romani people
Romani people by country
Sindhi diaspora
Sinte Romani (language)
Antiziganism
Romani people in Germany
References
Bibliography
Further reading
Walter Winter, Struan Robertson (translator). Winter Time: Memoirs of a German Who Survived Auschwitz. Hertfordshire Publications, (2004), .
Reviewed by Emma Brockes "We had the same pain" in The Guardian November 29, 2004.
Sinti and Roma: Gypsies in German-speaking Society and Literature
Sinti and Roma: Legal Status and Perspectives for a European Minority
Roma in Europe: The Politics of Collective Identity Formation
External links
Non-Jewish Victims of Persecution in Nazi Germany on the Yad Vashem website
Wege nach Ravensbrück (Ravensbrück concentration camp: Memories of surviving female Sinti)
F. N. Finck, Lehrbuch des Dialekts der deutschen Zigeuner (1903) on Internet Archive
https://www.amazon.com/Sinti-Roma-Gypsies-German-speaking-Literature/dp/1571819215
https://books.openedition.org/ceup/1417?lang=en
https://www.ushmm.org/m/pdfs/2000926-Roma-and-Sinti.pdf
https://www.ushmm.org/collections/bibliography/sinti-and-roma-gypsies
https://minorityrights.org/minorities/romasinti/
http://fcit.usf.edu/holocaust/people/ushmmrom.htm
Romani groups
Romani in Europe
Romani in Germany
Ethnic groups in Germany | [
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261422 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/San%20Pedro | San Pedro | San Pedro is the Spanish language form of Saint Peter. It can refer to:
Places
Argentina
San Pedro, Buenos Aires Province
San Pedro, Capayán, Catamarca
San Pedro, La Rioja
San Pedro, Misiones
San Pedro Partido, a partido located in the north of the Argentine province of Buenos Aires
San Pedro Department, Misiones, the largest and most sparsely populated department in the Misiones Province, Argentina
Belize
San Pedro Town, a town on the island of Ambergris Caye
Bolivia
San Pedro prison or El penal de San Pedro, the largest prison in La Paz, Bolivia
Chile
San Pedro de Atacama, a village in the Atacama desert of northern Chile
San Pedro de la Paz
San Pedro, Chile
San Pedro River (Chile)
San Pedro de Inacaliri River
San Pedro (Chile volcano)
Colombia
San Pedro, Valle del Cauca, a town and municipality
San Pedro de Cartago, a town and municipality in the Nariño Department
San Pedro, Sucre
Costa Rica
San Pedro, Costa Rica or San Pedro de Montes de Oca, a city in the canton of Montes de Oca, in San José province
San Pedro de Barva, a village and district in the canton of Barva in the province of Heredia
San Pedro de Poás, a city and district in the canton of Poás in the province of Alajuela
San Pedro de Santa Bárbara, a village and district in the canton of Santa Bárbara in the province of Heredia
Cuba
San Pedro River (Cuba), a river in Camagüey Province
Dominican Republic
San Pedro de Macorís Province, a province of the Dominican Republic, also the name of its capital city
San Pedro de Macorís, capital of that province
Guatemala
San Pedro Carchá (Alta Verapaz)
San Pedro Ayampuc (Guatemala dept.)
San Pedro Sacatepéquez, Guatemala (Guatemala dept.)
San Pedro Necta (Huehuetenango)
San Pedro Pinula (Jalapa)
San Pedro Jocopilas (Quiché)
San Pedro La Laguna (Sololá)
Volcán San Pedro
Honduras
San Pedro de Copán (Copán)
San Pedro Sula (Cortés)
San Pedro de Tutule (La Paz)
San Pedro Zacapa (Santa Bárbara)
A prison in Honduras
Ivory Coast
San Pédro, Ivory Coast
Mexico
San Pedro, Baja California Sur
San Pedro, Coahuila, a municipality
San Pedro Cholula (municipality), a municipality in the state of Puebla
San Pedro Garza García, in Nuevo León
San Pedro, Oaxaca (disambiguation), several places
San Pedro de la Cueva, in Sonora
San Pedro Ocotlán, in Zacatecas
Cerro de San Pedro, San Luis Potosí
Nicaragua
San Pedro de Lóvago
Paraguay
San Pedro Department, Paraguay, a department of Paraguay. The capital is the city of San Pedro de Ycuamandiyú
San Pedro de Ycuamandiyú, the capital of that department
San Pedro del Paraná
Peru
San Pedro de Lloc, city in La Libertad Region
San Pedro de Tacna, capital of Tacna Region
Philippines
San Pedro, Laguna, a city in Laguna, Philippines
San Pedro, Bagabag, a barangay in Nueva Vizcaya, Philippines
San Pedro Cutud, a barangay in San Fernando, Pampanga, Philippines
San Pedro Bay (Philippines), at the northwest end of Leyte Gulf
Fort San Pedro, a historic structure in Cebu, Philippines
Spain
San Pedro, Spain (disambiguation)
United States
San Pedro, Los Angeles, home to the Port of Los Angeles, located in San Pedro Bay
San Pedro, New Mexico, a former village across the Rio Grande from San Antonio, New Mexico
San Pedro Bay (California), an inlet on the Pacific Ocean coast of southern California, United States
San Pedro or Nacimiento Mountains, New Mexico
San Pedro River (Arizona), a northward-flowing stream originating about 10 miles (16 km) south of Sierra Vista, Arizona, near Cananea, Sonora, Mexico
San Pedro Valley (Arizona)
Other uses
Iglesia de San Pedro Mártir (Calatayud), a former church in Calatayud, Aragon, Spain
San Pedro (ship), a shipwreck off Bermuda
San Pedro cactus (Echinopsis pachanoi), native to South America
The San Pedro, a ship that was intentionally sunk off of Honolulu, Hawaii by the Atlantis Submarine Company for an artificial reef; the wreck lies alongside the YO-257
"San Pedro", a song from Mogwai's 2011 album Hardcore Will Never Die, But You Will
San Pedro, a fictional island mentioned in Madonna's 1986 song "La Isla Bonita"
See also
San Pedro Bay (disambiguation)
San Pedro Island (disambiguation)
San Pedro River (disambiguation) | [
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261424 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/David%20McReynolds | David McReynolds | David Ernest McReynolds (October 25, 1929 – August 17, 2018) was an American politician and social activist who was a prominent democratic socialist and pacifist activist. He described himself as "a peace movement bureaucrat" during his 40-year career with the War Resisters League. He was a resident of New York City. McReynolds was twice a candidate for President of the United States, running atop the ticket of the Socialist Party USA in 1980 and 2000. He was America's first openly gay presidential candidate.
Early life
McReynolds was born in Los Angeles, to Elizabeth Grace (Tallon), a nurse, and Lt. Col. Charles McReynolds, an Air Force intelligence officer. In 1951 he joined the Socialist Party of America (SPA) and in 1953 he graduated from UCLA with a degree in political science. Between 1957 and 1960, he worked for the editorial board of the left-wing magazine Liberation. He was openly gay and wrote his first article about living as a gay man in 1969.
War Resisters League
McReynolds was staunchly anti-war and a draft resister, and in 1960 joined the staff of the War Resisters League (WRL), where he remained until his retirement in 1999. In 1965 he lectured on "The Old Left and the New Left" at the newly founded Free University of New York.
On November 6, 1965, he was one of five men who publicly burned their draft cards at an anti-war demonstration at Union Square in New York. This was one of the first public draft-card burnings after U.S. law was changed on August 30, 1965 to make such actions a felony, punishable by up to five years' imprisonment. He was close friends with Bayard Rustin and other prominent peace activists, as well as literary figures such as Quentin Crisp.
In 1968, he signed the "Writers and Editors War Tax Protest" pledge, vowing to refuse tax payments in protest against the Vietnam War, and later became a sponsor of the War Tax Resistance project, which practiced and advocated tax resistance as a form of anti-war protest.
McReynolds was particularly active internationally, both in War Resisters' International, of which he was chairperson for the term 1986–88, and in the International Confederation for Disarmament and Peace, which eventually merged into the International Peace Bureau.
Socialist Party USA
The SPA was renamed the Social Democrats USA by a majority vote at the 1972 convention. Michael Harrington resigned and then formed the Democratic Socialist Organizing Committee (now the Democratic Socialists of America, DSA) with the purpose of "realignment" strengthening the role of labor unions and other progressive organizations in the Democratic Party to pull it to the left. The smallest and the most left wing faction of the SPA, known as the Debs Caucus, including McReynolds, formed the Socialist Party USA (SPUSA). McReynolds was long a member of both DSA and SPUSA.
McReynolds' primary theoretical contribution to socialism came from his blending of a pacifist world-view with a commitment to re-distributive socialist economics. Politically, he was a staunch anti-authoritarian and collaborated with a diverse set of political formations on the democratic left. His widely read pamphlet, The Philosophy of Nonviolence, provides a unique window into the mind of a lifelong activist wrestling with the contradictions and pitfalls which plagued the political left in the 20th century. He concludes that "...there is no living, vital philosophy which does not have 'holes' in it." Consequently, he mapped out a pluralistic approach which is, on the one hand, socialist, yet is entirely engaged with thought systems as seemingly contradictory as Hindu philosophy. He concluded that a brand of pacifist-socialism is best suited for future socialist experiments since it offers the greatest opportunity to prefigure the kinds of democratic relations necessary to create a functional and free society.
In his political career, McReynolds ran for Congress from Lower Manhattan twice and for President twice. In 1958, he ran as a write-in SPA candidate and then in 1968 as a Peace and Freedom Party candidate for Congress in the 19th district pulling in 4.7% of the vote (3,969 votes). In 1980, he ran for President of the United States as the SPUSA candidate, with Diane Drufenbrock as vice presidential candidate, receiving 6,994 votes (0.01%). He ran again for president as the SPUSA candidate in 2000 with Mary Cal Hollis as his running mate, receiving 5,602 votes. In both 1980 and 2000, McReynolds received the endorsement and ballot line of the Liberty Union Party in Vermont.
After the 2000 election, the Palm Beach Post speculated that the vast majority of the 2,908 voters who had voided their votes by punching the names of both McReynolds and Democratic candidate Al Gore on a "confusing butterfly ballot" (and also of the over 3,000 more who punched both Gore and Buchanan) had meant to vote for Gore and that mistaken voting on the Palm Beach County butterfly ballot had consequently cost Gore the state's crucial electoral votes, and therefore the election as a whole.
In January 2015, the Socialist Party USA's National Committee voted to censure McReynolds over alleged racist comments made on social media regarding the Charlie Hebdo shooting and shooting of Michael Brown. He resigned from the SPUSA shortly thereafter.
2004 Senate campaign
On July 10, 2004, McReynolds announced his candidacy running on the Green Party ticket for one of the New York seats in the Senate, running an anti-war campaign against Democratic incumbent Chuck Schumer, where he pulled in 36,942 votes for 0.5% of total.
Later life
McReynolds was active politically until just before his death, attending meetings, speaking in classrooms, being interviewed for films and research, and participating in peace, justice, antiwar, and antinuclear actions. His last arrest was at the U.S. Mission to the United Nations in 2015 at an action calling for immediate nuclear disarmament.
He was an avid photographer throughout his adult life and spent time during the last three years of his life sorting his collection of more than 50,000 photos.
In 2015, McReynolds endorsed U.S. Senator Bernie Sanders for President of the United States, praising him as a "serious candidate" and for not personally attacking his Democratic rival Hillary Clinton.
McReynolds died on August 17, 2018, aged 88, following a fall he sustained at his New York City home.
See also
List of peace activists
Footnotes
Works
We Have Been Invaded by the 21st Century. Praeger, 1970.
"Thinking About Retirement," Nonviolent Activist, March–April 1999.
"Queer Reflections," New Politics, Vol 12, no. 1 (2008).
"David McReynolds Photography"
Further reading
Paul Buhle, "David McReynolds:Socialist Peacemaker". Nonviolent Activist, March–April 1999.
Scott H. Bennett, "Conscience, Comrades, and the Cold War: The Korean War Draft Resistance Cases of Socialist Pacifists David McReynolds and Vern Davidson," Peace and Change, vol. 38, no. 1 (Jan. 2013), pp. 83–120.
Scott H. Bennett, Radical Pacifism: The War Resisters League and Gandhian Nonviolence in America, 1915–1963. Syracuse University Press, 2003.
Dan Vera, "Being Peaceful: An Interview with David McReynolds." White Crane, No. 57 (Summer 2003), pp. 4–10.
Keith Stern, Queers in History. Dallas, Texas: BenBella Books, 2009.
External links
Socialist Party USA
War Resisters League
The Philosophy of Nonviolence by David McReynolds
The Infinite Series by David McReynolds
His articles at MyTown
Paul Buhle, David McReynolds: Socialist Peacemaker.
Anthony Giacchino, Unclassified: Documentary of David McReynolds, Vimeo.
Collection of his papers at Bryn Mawr
Articles by David McReynolds at The Rag Blog
David McReynolds and Martin Duberman on Rag Radio, interviewed by Thorne Dreyer, March 25, 2011 (53:28)
1929 births
2018 deaths
American pacifists
American conscientious objectors
Nonviolence advocates
War Resisters League activists
American tax resisters
Activists from California
Activists from New York (state)
New York (state) Greens
Members of the Socialist Party of America
Socialist Party USA politicians from New York (state)
Socialist Party USA presidential nominees
Candidates in the 1980 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 2000 United States presidential election
Candidates in the 2004 United States elections
20th-century American politicians
Politicians from New York City
Gay politicians
LGBT politicians from the United States
LGBT people from California
LGBT people from New York (state)
American atheists
Marxist humanists
University of California, Los Angeles alumni
Accidental deaths in New York (state)
Deaths from falls | [
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261429 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vielle | Vielle | The vielle is a European bowed stringed instrument used in the medieval period, similar to a modern violin but with a somewhat longer and deeper body, three to five gut strings, and a leaf-shaped pegbox with frontal tuning pegs, sometimes with a figure-8 shaped body. Whatever external form they had, the box-soundchest consisted of back and belly joined by ribs, which experience has shown to be the construction for bowed instruments. The most common shape given to the earliest vielles in France was an oval, which with its modifications remained in favour until the Italian lira da braccio asserted itself as the better type, leading to the violin.
The instrument was also known as a fidel or a viuola, although the French name for the instrument, vielle, is generally used; the word comes from the same root as fiddle. It was one of the most popular instruments of the medieval period, and was used by troubadours and jongleurs from the 13th through the 15th centuries. The vielle possibly derived from the lira, a Byzantine bowed instrument closely related to the rebab, an Arab bowed instrument. There are many medieval illustrations of different types of vielles in manuscripts, sculptures and paintings.
Starting in the middle or end of the 15th century, the word vielle was used to refer to the hurdy-gurdy, as a shortened form of its name: ''vielle à roue ("vielle with a wheel").
Several modern groups of musicians have formed into bands to play early music (pre-Baroque), and they sometimes include vielles, or modern reproductions, in their ensembles, together with other instruments such as rebecs and saz.
Gallery
References
External links
Vielles (Polish folk musical instruments)
Vielles (Musiconis Database, Université Paris-Sorbonne)
Bowed string instruments
Necked lutes
Early musical instruments
Medieval musical instruments | [
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261433 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/GWR%20111%20The%20Great%20Bear | GWR 111 The Great Bear | The Great Bear, number 111, was a locomotive of the Great Western Railway. It was the first 4-6-2 (Pacific) locomotive used on a Great Britain railway, and the only one of its type built by the GWR.
Origins
There are differing views as to why Churchward and the GWR should have built a Pacific locomotive in 1908 when current and future locomotive practice for the railway was centred on the 4-6-0 wheel arrangement. One suggestion is that The Great Bear was built in 1908 to satisfy demands from the directors for the largest locomotive in Britain, and much was made of the locomotive by the GWR's publicity department. However, O. S. Nock was adamant that the design "was entirely due to Churchward, and not to outside influences that pressed the project upon him". Nock regarded the locomotive as "primarily an exercise in boiler design", with Churchward looking forward to a time when his Star Class locomotives could no longer cope with increasing loads.
Design
The front-end layout of the class was the same as that for the Star Class except that Churchward fitted diameter cylinders, the maximum possible without fouling the rear wheels of the front bogie. However, the design of the boiler was entirely new, and with a barrel of in length, which was exceptionally long both by contemporary and later standards. The main reason Churchward adopted the 4-6-2 wheel arrangement was to enable him to fit a wide firebox over the trailing wheels. With a firebox surface of this was a 17.5% increase in size compared to the Star Class. It was also built with a Swindon No. 1 superheater.
Power classification
With the introduction of Great Western Railway Power Classification in 1920, the power classification was "Special" (denoted by a black "+" on the red route availability disc,) although the tractive effort of fell within the range for "D".
Performance
In service, the performance of The Great Bear proved to be disappointing and not a significant improvement on existing classes. "The excessive tube and barrel length of 23 feet made for bulk rather than efficiency". Also, the axle boxes of the trailing wheels tended to become overheated due to their proximity to the firebox. Churchward attempted to improve the locomotive's performance by adding a Swindon No. 3 Superheater in 1913 and top-feed apparatus. However, the excellent performance of the Star Class and the advent of the First World War brought a stop to further experimentation without significant improvement.
Route availability
In addition to the disappointing performance, the locomotive had a highly restrictive route availability which limited its usefulness. The axle load restricted it to the Paddington to Bristol main line, although it was once recorded to have travelled as far west as Newton Abbot.
The GWR route availability colour code for The Great Bear was Red.
Publicity value
Although not a technical success, The Great Bear was considered the company's flagship locomotive from its introduction until Churchward's retirement in 1922. With the introduction of 4073 Caerphilly Castle in 1923 with a higher tractive effort, The Great Bear ceased to have any publicity value and became an embarrassment. It was due for heavy repairs in January 1924 and so was withdrawn from service by Churchward's successor Charles Collett. It had run 527,272 miles by this time. Its regular engine driver was Thomas Blackall, originally from Aston Tirrold, Oxfordshire.
Rebuilding
"The front portion of the original frames and the number plates were used again but probably little else". No. 111 emerged as a 4-6-0 in the Castle Class, given the name Viscount Churchill. Thereafter, the GWR did not use the Pacific wheel arrangement. No. 111 was withdrawn in July 1953 and scrapped later that year.
One of the original nameplates is in the Science Museum.
Assessment
According to Cecil J. Allen, "The Great Bear was one of the very few locomotive types that Swindon has produced, and in particular among the Churchward designs, to which the word 'failure' could be applied." Authorities differ as to Churchward's attitude to his locomotive. According to Le Fleming, "his dislike of 'The Bear' was well known", but Nock said that he had "a deep affection for the engine", although he came to regard it as "a white elephant" rather than a "Great Bear". He was disappointed to hear of The Great Bear's destruction, and, upon hearing of Nigel Gresley's plans to construct a Pacific for the Great Northern Railway, is said to have replied: "What did that young man want to build it for? We could have sold him ours!"
References
External links
0111
Individual locomotives of Great Britain
4-6-2 locomotives
Scrapped locomotives
Standard gauge steam locomotives of Great Britain
Railway locomotives introduced in 1908
2′C1′ h4 locomotives
Passenger locomotives
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261435 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/R%C3%A1koskereszt%C3%BAr | Rákoskeresztúr | Rákoskeresztúr () is a former town in Hungary now part of District XVII of Budapest. Rákoskeresztúr was united with Budapest on January 1, 1950.
Background
The first written mark (the name Pousarakusa, in modern Hungarian Pósarákosa) was a title-deed written in 1265. The name was given by the region's first occupant. In that title-deed the region was given to the Crusaders of Upper-Heviz. The village was almost destroyed in the Turkish assault. In 1662, only eight peasant- and 2 cotter families lived in it. From 1727 to 1950, it was counted as a town. In 1880, Rákoshegy and Rákosliget are cut off from Rákoskeresztúr. In 1950, Rákoskeresztúr, Rákoshegy, Rákosliget and the newly built Rákoskert were joined together as the XVII. district of Budapest.
Rákosmente
Neighbourhoods of Budapest
Former municipalities of Hungary
1265 establishments in Europe | [
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261440 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kemal%20Dervi%C5%9F | Kemal Derviş | Kemal Derviş (; born 10 January 1939) is a Turkish American economist and politician, and former head of the United Nations Development Programme. He was honored by the Emperor of Japan for having "contributed to mainstreaming Japan's development assistance policy through the United Nations". In 2005, he was ranked 67th in the Top 100 Public Intellectuals Poll conducted by Prospect and Foreign Policy magazines. He is Vice President and Director of the Global Economy and Development program at the Brookings Institution and part-time professor of international economics at the Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies in Geneva.
In March 2015, Derviş agreed to become the Deputy Prime Minister of Turkey responsible for the economy in a cabinet led by Republican People's Party (CHP) leader Kemal Kılıçdaroğlu should his party form the government after the general election to be held in June. He declined to become a Member of Parliament however, stating that he would prefer to participate in the cabinet from outside the Parliament.
Early life
Kemal Derviş was born on 10 January 1949 in Istanbul, Turkey, to a Turkish father and a German mother. From his father's side, he is a descendant of Ottoman Grand Vizier Halil Hamid Pasha (1736–1785); and of Ottoman military physician Asaf Derviş Pasha (1868–1928) who is regarded as the founder of modern gynaecology in Turkey.
Career
Derviş took office as Minister of State for Economic Affairs in Turkey on 13 March 2001, when Bülent Ecevit was Prime Minister. Derviş was the architect of Turkey's successful three-year economic recovery program launched in that year. Before being named to head the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP), he was a member of the Turkish parliament, and a member of the joint commission of the Turkish and European Parliaments. He used to be a member of the Convention on the Future of Europe.
A member of the Advisory Group at the Center for Global Development, member the Task Force on Global Public Goods and the Special Commission on the Balkans and associated with the Economics and Foreign Policy Forum in Istanbul, Derviş was instrumental in strengthening Turkey’s prospects of starting membership negotiations with the European Union.
Strobe Talbott announced that Derviş joined the Brookings Institution on 30 March 2009 as vice president and director of the Global Economy and Development program.
Derviş is married to his second wife, Catherine Derviş, an American citizen. He is the author of Recovery from the Crisis and Contemporary Social Democracy, which was published in 2006.
On June 10, 2020, he published a Project Syndicate article titled "Less Globalization, More Multilateralism." Derviş is also a regular contributor to Project Syndicate since 2003.
Studies and World Bank career
Kemal Derviş completed his early education in Deerfield Academy followed by Institut Le Rosey. He later earned his bachelor (1968) and master's degrees (1970) in economics from the London School of Economics. He received his Ph.D. in economics from Princeton University in 1973 after completing a doctoral dissertation titled "Substitution, employment and intertemporal equilibrium in a non-linear multi-sector planning model for Turkey." From 1973 to 1976, he was member of the economics faculty of the Middle East Technical University in Ankara, Turkey, and served also as an advisor to Bülent Ecevit during and after his Prime Ministerial duties. From 1976 to 1978, he was member of the faculty, Department of Economics at the Princeton University.
In 1977, he joined the World Bank, where he worked until he returned to Turkey in 2001. At the World Bank, he held various positions, including Division Chief for Industrial and Trade Strategy and Director for the Central Europe Department after the fall of the Berlin Wall. In 1996, he became Vice-President of the World Bank for the Middle East and North Africa Region, and in 2000, Vice-President for Poverty Reduction and Economic Management. In the first position, Kemal Derviş coordinated the World Bank’s support to the peace and reconstruction process in the Balkans (Bosnia) and the Middle East. In the second position, he was responsible for the World Bank’s global programmes and policies to fight poverty and the development of the Poverty Reduction Strategy Paper (PRSP) initiative that had just been launched. He was also responsible for the operational coordination with other institutions, including the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and United Nations institutions, on international institutional and policy issues.
Ministry of Economic Affairs
When Derviş became Turkey’s minister of economic affairs in March 2001, after a 22-year career at the World Bank, the country was facing its worst economic crisis in modern history and prospects for success were uncertain. Derviş used his independence from domestic vested interests and support of domestic reformers and civil society to push through a tough stabilization program with far-reaching structural changes and sweeping bank reforms that protected state banks from political use. Derviş also strengthened the independence of the central bank and pushed through deep structural reforms in agriculture, energy and the budget process. These reforms, and his reputation and top-level contacts in the U.S. and Europe, helped him to mobilize $20 billion in new loans from the International Monetary Fund and the World Bank. Rapid economic growth resumed in 2002 and inflation came down from an average of nearly 70 percent in the 1990s to 12 percent in 2003; interest rates fell and the exchange rate for the Turkish lira stabilized.
Derviş resigned from his ministerial position on 10 August 2003 and was elected to parliament on 3 November of that year as a member of the main opposition Republican People's Party.
United Nations Development Program
On 5 May 2005, the United Nations General Assembly, representing 191 countries, unanimously confirmed Kemal Derviş as the Administrator of the United Nations Development Program, which is also the chairperson of the United Nations Development Group. Derviş started his four-year term on 15 August 2005. The UNDP Administrator is the third-highest-ranking official in the United Nations, after the Secretary-General and the Deputy Secretary-General.
In 2006, United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan appointed Derviş to a High-level Panel on United Nations Systemwide Coherence, which was set up to explore how the United Nations system could work more coherently and effectively across the world in the areas of development, humanitarian assistance and the environment.
In 2009, Derviş decided not to seek a second term as Administrator of UNDP.
Personal life
Kemal Derviş speaks Turkish, German, English and French fluently. He is married to Catherine Derviş, an American citizen.
Honors
Order of the Rising Sun, Grand Cordon (Japan), 2009.
Order of Civil Merit, Grand Cross (Spain), 2011.
Selected works
Notes
References
Ministry of Foreign Affairs (Japan), "2009 Autumn Conferment of Decorations on Foreign Nationals," p. 1.
External links
Derviş's expert page at the Brookings Institution
Biography of Kemal Derviş, Administrator of UNDP
BBC profile of Kemal Derviş
|-
1949 births
Living people
Administrators of the United Nations Development Programme
Alumni of the London School of Economics
Alumni of the University of London
Princeton University alumni
Deputies of Istanbul
Graduate Institute of International and Development Studies faculty
Middle East Technical University faculty
Ministers of Economic Affairs of Turkey
People from Istanbul
Grand Cordons of the Order of the Rising Sun
Contemporary Republican People's Party (Turkey) politicians
Turkish economists
Turkish people of German descent
Turkish expatriates in Switzerland
Turkish expatriates in England
World Bank people
Members of the 22nd Parliament of Turkey
Members of the 57th government of Turkey
Ministers of State of Turkey
Center for Global Development
Turkish officials of the United Nations
Center on International Cooperation
Carnegie Council for Ethics in International Affairs | [
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261441 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yantai | Yantai | Yantai, formerly known as Chefoo, is a coastal prefecture-level city on the Shandong Peninsula in northeastern Shandong province of People's Republic of China. Lying on the southern coast of the Bohai Strait, Yantai borders Qingdao on the southwest and Weihai on the east, with sea access to both the Bohai Sea (via the Laizhou Bay and the Bohai Strait) and the Yellow Sea (from both north and south sides of the Shandong Peninsula). It is the largest fishing seaport in Shandong. Its population was 6,968,202 during the 2010 census, of whom 2,227,733 lived in the built-up area made up of the 4 urban districts of Zhifu, Muping, Fushan and Laishan.
Names
The name Yantai (."Smoke Tower") derives from the watchtowers constructed on in 1398 under the reign of the Hongwu Emperor of the Ming dynasty. The towers were used to light signal fires and send smoke signals, called langyan from their supposed use of wolf dung for fuel. At the time, the area was troubled by the Japanese pirates (Wokou), initially raiders from the warring states in Japan but later principally disaffected Chinese. It was also formerly romanized as Yen-tai.
The major district of Yantai is Zhifu, which used to be the largest independent city in the area. It was variously romanized as Chefoo, Che-foo, Chi-fu, and Chih-fou. Although this name was used for the city by foreigners prior to the Communist victory in the Chinese Civil War, the locals referred to the settlement as Yantai throughout.
History
During the Xia and Shang dynasties, the region was inhabited by indigenous people vaguely known to the Chinese as the "Eastern Barbarians" (Dongyi). Under the Zhou, they were colonized and sinicized as the state of Lai. Lai was annexed by Qi in Under the First Emperor (Shi Huangdi), the area was administered as the Qi Commandery. Under the Han, this was renamed as the Donglai Commandery (). Following the Three Kingdoms Period, the area was organized by the Jin as the Donglai Kingdom or Principality, later returning to prefecture status as a jùn and then zhōu. Under the Tang and during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms Period, it was known as Deng Prefecture and organized with the Henan Circuit. It was then organized as the Laizhou () and then, under the Qing, Dengzhou Prefecture ().
Up to the 19th century, however, the Zhifu area consisted of nothing but small unwalled fishing villages of little importance. Under the Ming, these were first troubled by the "Dwarf Pirates" and then by the overreacting "Sea Ban", which required coastal Chinese to give up trading and most fishing and relocate inland upon pain of death.
Following the Second Opium War, the Qing Empire was obliged to open more treaty ports by the unequal 1858 Treaty of Tianjin, including Tengchow (now Penglai). Its port being found inadequate, Zhifu—about away—was selected to act as the seat of the area's foreign commerce. The mooring was at considerable distance from shore, necessitating more time and expense in loading and unloading, but the harbor was deep and expansive and business grew rapidly. The harbor opened in May 1861, with its status as an international port affirmed on 22 August. The official decree was accompanied by the construction of the Donghai Customs House (). It quickly became the residence of a circuit intendant ("taotai"), customs house, and a considerable foreign settlement located between the old native town and the harbor. Britain and sixteen other nations established consulates in the town. The town was initially expanded with well-laid streets and well-built stone houses, even for the poorer classes, a Catholic and a Protestant church were erected, and a large hotel did business with foreigners who employed the town as a summer resort.
The principal traders were the British and Americans, followed by the Germans and Thais. In the 1870s, the principal imports were woolen and cotton goods, iron, and opium and the principal exports were tofu, soybean oil, peas, coarse vermicelli, vegetables, and dried fruit from Zhifu itself, raw silk and straw braid from Laizhou, and walnuts from Qingzhou. The town also traded Chinese liquors and sundries for the edible seaweed grown in the shallows of the Russian settlements around Port Arthur (now Dalian's Lüshunkou District). In 1875, the murder of the British diplomat Augustus Margary in Tengchong, Yunnan, led to a diplomatic crisis that was resolved in Zhifu by Thomas Wade and Li Hongzhang the next year. The resultant Chefoo Convention gave British subjects extraterritoriality throughout China and exempted the foreign merchants' enclaves from the likin tax on internal commerce. Its healthy situation and good anchorage made it a favorite coaling station for foreign fleets, giving it some importance in the conflicts over Korea, Port Arthur, and Weihaiwei.
Yantai received German economic activities and investments for about 20 years. In the run-up to the First World War, its trade continued to grow but was limited by the poor roads of the area's hinterland and the necessity of using pack animals for portage. The trade items remained largely the same as before. After the Germans were defeated by Allied forces in World War I, Qingdao and Yantai were occupied by the Japanese, who turned Yantai into a summer station for their Asian fleet. They also set up a trading establishment in the town. The different foreign influences that shaped this city are explored at the Yantai Museum, which used to be a guild hall. However, the city's colourful history has not left a distinctive architectural mark, there has never been a foreign concession, and though there are a few grand 19th-century European buildings, most of the town is of much more recent origin. After 1949, the town's name was changed from Chefoo to Yantai, and it was opened to the world as an ice-free trade port in 1984.
On 12 November 1911, the eastern division of Tongmeng Hui declared itself a part of the revolutionary movement. The next day, it established the Shandong Military Government () and, the day after that, renamed itself the Yantai Division of the Shandong Military Government (). In 1914, Jiaodong Circuit () was established with Yantai as the capital. Jiaodong Circuit was renamed Donghai Circuit () in 1925. On 19 January 1938, Yantai participated as part of an anti-Japanese revolutionary committee.
After the creation of the People's Republic of China, Yantai was officially awarded city status with the outlying towns of Laiyang and Wendeng tacked on as "Special Regions" () in 1950. Wendeng was merged into Laiyang six years later, and this larger Laiyang Special Region was combined with Yantai City to become Yantai Prefecture (). Yantai is of strategic importance to China's defense, as it and Dalian, directly across the Bohai Sea from it, are primary coastal guard points for Beijing. In November 1983, the prefecture became a prefecture-level city.
Geography
Yantai is located along the north coast of the Shandong Peninsula, south of the junction of Bohai Sea and Yellow Sea and parallel to the southern coast of Liaoning. The topographical breakdown consists of:
36.62% mountainous
39.7% hilly
50.23% plain
2.90% basin
About is urbanized. Only Qixia City is located entirely inland. All other county-level entities are coastal, with Changdao consisting entirely of islands. The total coastline of the prefecture is .
The summits in the hill country vary from ; the average peak in the mountainous region is , and the highest point of elevation is the summit of Mount Kunyu () at .
There are 121 rivers over in length, the largest being:
Wulong River ()
Dagu River ()
Dagujia River ()
Wang River ()
Jie River ()
Huangshui River ()
Xin'an River ()
The core of the old town of Zhifu was located above the mouth of the Yi (, Yí Hé).
Climate
Yantai has a monsoon-influenced climate which under the Köppen climate classification, Yantai falls within either a hot-summer humid continental climate (Dwa) if the isotherm is used or a humid subtropical climate (Cwa) if the isotherm is used. Summers are hot, humid, and rainy while winters are cold and dry.
Administration
The prefecture-level city of Yantai administers 12 county-level divisions, including 5 districts, 6 county-level cities, and one development zone. ()
Zhifu District （芝罘区）
Fushan District （福山区）
Muping District （牟平区）
Laishan District （莱山区）
Penglai District（蓬莱区）
Laiyang City （莱阳市）
Laizhou City （莱州市）
Zhaoyuan City （招远市）
Qixia City （栖霞市）
Haiyang City （海阳市）
Longkou City （龙口市）
Yantai Economic and Technological Development Zone
Yantai Hi-tech Industrial Development Zone
These are further divided into 148 township-level divisions, including 94 towns, six townships, and 48 subdistricts.
Economy
Yantai is currently the second largest industrial city in Shandong, next to Qingdao. However, the region's largest industry is agriculture. It is famous throughout China for a particular variety of apple and Laiyang pear, and is home to the country's largest and oldest grape winery, Changyu.
The county-level city of Longkou is well known throughout China for its production of cellophane noodles.
Power
Yantai derives most of its energy from a large coal power plant using bituminous coal, and fitted with coal gasification technology to minimize pollution. The plant is located close to Yantai port. An attempt to switch northern China from coal to natural gas resulted in shortages, and in 2017 the Chinese government implemented a new plan to convert half of northern China to clean energy for winter heating. Haiyang, a city under Yantai's prefecture, is anticipated to meet its total winter heating needs with nuclear power by 2021.
Industrial zones
Yantai Economic and Technological Development Area
Yantai Economic and Technological Development Area is one of the earliest approved state-level economic development zones in China. It now has a planned area of and a population of 115,000. It lies on the tip of the Shandong Peninsula facing the Yellow Sea. It adjoins downtown Yantai, merely 6 kilometers away from Yantai Port and 6 kilometers away from Yantai Railway Station (not to be confused with Yantai South Railway Station).
Yantai Export Processing Zone
Yantai Export Processing Zone (YTEPZ) is one of the first 15 export processing zones approved by the State Council. The total construction area of YTEPZ is , in which the initial zone covers . After developing for several years, YTEPZ is completely constructed. At present, the infrastructure has been completed, with standard workshops of and bonded warehouses of . Up to now, owing to an excellent investment environment, YTEPZ has attracted investors from foreign countries and regions such as Japan, Korea, Singapore, Hong Kong, Taiwan, Sweden, the United States, Canada, etc., as well as domestic investors, to operate in the zone.
Education
The following is a list of prominent Yantai higher education institutions.
Yantai University
Ludong University
Shandong Institute of Business and Technology
China Agricultural University and
Binzhou Medical College house campuses in Yantai.
It houses a Korean international school, Korean School in Yantai.
Chefoo School previously educated foreign children.
Transport
Yantai Penglai International Airport provides scheduled flights to major airports in China as well as Seoul, Osaka, and Hong Kong. The Lancun–Yantai railway ends at Yantai.
Tourism
Penglai City's Dan Cliffs () is said to be the departure point of the Eight Immortals on their trip to the Conference of the Magical Peach. It is important to note that Penglai is around 80 km from the city centre of Yantai.
Twin towns – sister cities
Notable people
Qiu Chuji (1148–1227), leading Quanzhen Taoist priest and founder of Dragon Gate Taoism
Qi Jiguang (1528–1588), Ming dynasty military general most remembered for defending coastal China against Japanese pirates
Wang Yirong (1845–1900), Qing dynasty official and historian who was first to recognize the oracle bone script
Henry Luce (1898–1967), founder of Time Magazine, Sports Illustrated, and owned many magazine publications such as Life Magazine
Peter Stursberg (1913–2014), Canadian writer and journalist
Chou Wen-chung (1923–2019), composer
Liu Zewen (b. 1943), artist
Lin Qingxia (b. 1954), actress
Dong Jun (b.1963), People's Liberation Army Navy commander
Huo Jianhua (b. 1979), actress
Wang Yaping (b. 1980), People's Liberation Army Astronaut Corps astronaut
Fan Bingbing (b. 1981), actress
Guanqun Yu (b. 1982), Opera singer
See also
Chefoo School
Notes
References
Citations
Sources
.
.
External links
Government website of Yantai (available in Chinese, English, German, French, Japanese and Korean)
Old photos of Yantai (Chefoo)
1912 historical map of Yantai
Cities in Shandong
Prefecture-level divisions of Shandong
Port cities and towns in China | [
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261444 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zhifu%20Island | Zhifu Island | Zhifu Island () or North Island (), is an islet with historical significance in Shandong Province, China. The name of the islet Chefoo was generalized to mean the entire Yantai region in older western literature.
Etymologies
Possibilities include:
"A Barrier in the Shape of a Magical Plant"
Zhi is a magical and powerful plant, which the island's shape resembles
Fu a barrier of ocean
A magical mountain name (significance unknown)
From Qin Dynasty's Zhifu (), officially changed to the present character in late Qing Dynasty.
Administration
Administratively, Zhifu Island is a part of Dàtuǎn Village (), Xingfu Sub-district, Zhifu District, Yantai City, Shandong Province. Dàtuǎn has a part on the mainland, where the offices and most residents are.
History
Archeological excavations have uncovered over 200 artifacts, including stone axes, and short axes (錛 : Bēn), pottery fragments, bone needles, and bone hairpins. These and Carbon-14 dating indicated that the island has been settled since the Neolithic period.
People were buried here during the Zhou Dynasty, including Duke Kang of Qi, who died on the island in 379 BC. The ruins of the cemetery still exist today. The Lord Yang Temple (陽主廟 Yángzhǔ Miào) was built during the early Zhou Dynasty by rulers of the State of Qí in honor of Lord Yang, the fifth deity of the Eight Divine Generals ().
Because of a legend of a Mountain of Immortality, China's first emperor Qin Shi Huang visited the island three times looking for the elixir. He left a couple of stone inscriptions that are still visible today:
During his second visit in 218 BC, he left the inscription: "Arrived at Fu, and carved the stone" (登之罘，刻石).
The last time he visited (210 BC) he wrote: "Came to Fu, saw an enormous stone, and shot one fish" (至之罘，見巨石，射殺一魚).
Today, there are places like Shihuang Avenue (始皇道 Shihuang Dao), and Fish-shooting Tower (射魚台 Sheyu Tai) named after the emperor. Having failed to discover the elixir, Qin Shihuang dispatched the court sorcerer Xu Fu from Yantai, to sail away and find the elixir of life with hundreds of men and women.
After performing a ceremony in the Yangzhu Temple, Emperor Wudi of the Han Dynasty also left an inscription in 94 BC: "Arrived at Zhifu, which floats on Great Ocean. Mountains call out 'Ten thousand years!" (登芝罘，浮大海，山稱萬歲).
Now, the island is mainly a tourist attraction where clams and abalones can be fished here in abundance.
Geography
Located in Bohai Sea, the island is 4 km from Downtown Zhifu and is 10 km x 1 km. Part of Public Road No. 26 connects the western end of the island and the north part of the mainland peninsula. Originally, the island was disconnected from the mainland, but for a period of millennium of years, the sand and soil in the ocean floor built up a 600-metre wide pathway. Thus the island is called the "Mainland-connecting Island" in Chinese (); it could even be considered a small peninsula.
The island's largest mountain is Laoye Mountain (老爺山 Lǎoyé Shān) at 294.1m. The Old Lady Stone (婆婆石 Pópó Shí) is on a cliff, at 43.49 metres above sea level, named because of its resemblance to a woman hugging the ocean waves. The southern part of the island is forested.
References
Islands of Shandong
Bohai Sea
Yantai | [
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261447 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/William%20Dunbar | William Dunbar | William Dunbar (born 1459 or 1460 – died by 1530) was a Scottish makar poet active in the late fifteenth century and the early sixteenth century. He was closely associated with the court of King James IV and produced a large body of work in Scots distinguished by its great variation in themes and literary styles. He was likely a native of East Lothian, as assumed from a satirical reference in The Flyting of Dumbar and Kennedie. His surname is also spelt Dumbar.
Biography
Dunbar first appears in the historical record in 1474 as a new student or determinant of the Faculty of Arts at the University of St Andrews. Since the customary age for entering a Scottish university at this time was fourteen, a birth-date of 1459 or 1460 has been assumed. At St Andrews, he obtained a bachelor's degree in 1477 and a master's degree in 1479. Details from his later life suggest that he was ordained as a priest at some point, but the date is unknown.
In 1491 and 1492, Dunbar accompanied an embassy to Denmark and France in an unknown capacity. In 1501 and 1502, he participated in an embassy to England in the staff of Andrew Forman, Bishop of Moray.
From 1500 the poet was employed at the court of King James in a role for which he received an annual pension. His duties are not recorded; he is referred to only as a or servant; but it is to this period that the bulk of his poetry can be dated.
Several of Dunbar's poems were included in the Chepman and Myllar prints of 1508, the first books to be printed in Scotland.
In 1510, his pension was set at the substantial annual sum of eighty pounds Scots. In comparison, Dunbar's contemporary Hector Boece received an annual salary of £26 13s for his role as Principal of King's College, Aberdeen.
The last reliable reference to Dunbar is in the Treasurer's Accounts for May 1513, where he is recorded receiving payment of his pension. James died at Flodden in September of the same year. In the dislocation that followed, the Treasurer's accounts cease for a period and, when resumed in 1515, Dunbar is no longer recorded as being employed by the crown.
A poem, Quhen the Governour Past in France, describing the departure of the Regent Albany for France in 1517, is attributed to Dunbar in the Maitland Manuscripts, suggesting that he was still active at the time. But in Sir David Lyndsay's work The Testament and Complaynt of the Papyngo of 1530, Dunbar is referred to as being deceased. The exact date of his death remains unknown.
Dunbar's poetry
William Dunbar's poetry contained a wide variety of subjects, moods and metres. He wrote many devout religious works and noble courtly pieces but he also produced comic pieces which often made use of scurrilous elements and uninhibited language.
Commemorative and occasional works
Some of Dunbar's poems were clearly commissioned to mark public events. His allegory The Thrissil and the Rois commemorated the marriage of Margaret of England to King James in 1503 while the Eulogy to Bernard Stewart, Lord of Aubigny welcomed the arrival of a distinguished Franco-Scottish soldier as the French ambassador in 1508. Local events were also marked such as the visit of Queen Margaret to the '' in 1511.
Religious and moral works
Dunbar was an ordained priest of the Roman Catholic Church in Scotland and several of his works have religious subject matter. Rorate Celi Desuper, Of the Passioun of Christ and Done is a Battell on the Dragon Blak deal with the Nativity, Passion and Resurrection respectively. Ane Ballat of Our Lady is a hymn in praise of the Blessed Virgin. The Table of Confession discusses sin and confession.
Poems with a secular moral theme also occur in his work such as Of Deming and the trilogy of short pieces Of Discretioun in Asking, Of Discretioun in Geving and Of Discretioun in Taking.
Dunbar's poems The Tabill Of Confessioun, Rorate Celi Desuper and Done Is A Battell On The Dragon Blak were included in the "Ballatis of Theologie" section of the Bannatyne Manuscript.
Court entertainment
Many of the poet's pieces appear to provide entertainment for the King, the Queen and his fellow courtiers with comic elements as a recurring theme. The well known Ane Dance in the Quenis Chalmer is a comic satire of court life. The notorious flyting with Kennedy was an exchange of outrageous poetic insults with his fellow makar Walter Kennedy while The Dance of the Seven Deadly Sins is a series of comic scenes set in Hell.
Poems in the tradition of courtly love are represented in Dunbar's work including a short lyric Sweit Rois of Vertew and the extended allegory The Goldyn Targe.
Other court entertainments were more personal. Of James Dog and its sequel He Is Na Dog, He Is a Lam describe the poet's dealings with the keeper of the Queen's wardrobe.
Satires and commentary on public life
A recurring theme in Dunbar's work is satire. He satirised colleagues of whom he disapproved such as in The Fenyeit Freir of Tungland and he urged the burgesses of Edinburgh to show greater civic pride in To the Merchantis of Edinburgh. Tydings Fra The Sessioun criticised corruption in the Court of Session. In The Treatise of Mr. Andro Kennedy, he directs satire at a member of the court of James IV.
Some of Dunbar's satirical poems are preserved in the Bannatyne Manuscript, including The Dregy of Dunbar, The Twa Cummeris, and The Flyting of Dumbar and Kennedie to name a few.
Petitions to the King and personal affairs
William Dunbar was willing to reveal his personal affairs in his poetry and a number of his works are petitioned to the King asking for personal advancement. He often requested to be appointed to an office in the church, which he refers to as a benefice. A typical example is Quone Mony Benefices Vakit. On other occasions, his requests were more modest. In The Petition of The Gray Horse, Auld Dunbar the poet asked the King for a new suit of clothes to mark Christmas. The poem Schir, Ye Have Mony Servitouris makes clear his comparative value to the king and country.
Elsewhere, Dunbar seemed to reveal other aspects of his private life. Lament for the Makaris is a reflection on mortality in which he remembers his fellow-poets now deceased. Meditatioun In Wyntir considers ageing and the poet's frustrated ambitions while On His Heid-Ake is apparently an attempt to excuse a lack of productivity by recounting a migraine.
Work and influence
Dunbar's reputation among his immediate successors was considerable. By later criticism, stimulated in some measure by Scott's eulogy that he is "unrivalled by any which Scotland has produced", he has held the highest place among the makars.
One hundred and one poems have been ascribed to Dunbar. Of these at least ninety are generally accepted as his; of the eleven attributed to him, it would be hard to say that they should not be considered authentic. Most doubt has clung to his verse tale The Freiris of Berwik, so much so that it seems unlikely that he was the author. The only copy manuscript of this text is in French, and although the style is very close to that of Dunbar's, it is unlikely that he was the author of this anonymous text.
Dunbar's chief allegorical poems are The Goldyn Targe and The Thrissil and the Rois. The motif of the former is the poet's futile endeavour, in a dream, to ward off Dame Beauty's arrows by Reason's "scheld of gold." When wounded and made prisoner, he discovers the true beauty of the lady: when she leaves him, he is handed over to Heaviness. The noise of the ship's guns, as the company sails off, wakes the poet to the real pleasures of a May morning. Dunbar works on the same theme in a shorter poem, known as Beauty and the Prisoner. The Thrissil and the Rois is a wikt:prothalamium in honour of King James and Queen Margaret.
The greater part of Dunbar's work is occasional—personal and social satire, complaints, orisons and pieces of a humorous character. His best-known orison, usually remembered as Timor mortis conturbat me which is repeated as the fourth line of each verse, is titled Lament for the Makaris and takes the form of prayer in memory of the medieval Scots poets.
The humorous works show Dunbar at his finest. The best specimen of this work, of which the outstanding characteristics are sheer whimsicality and topsy-turvy humour, is The Ballad of Kynd Kittok. This strain runs throughout many of the occasional poems, and is not wanting in odd passages in Dunbar's contemporaries; and it has the additional interest of showing a direct historical relationship with the work of later Scottish poets, and chiefly with that of Robert Burns. Dunbar's satire often becomes invective. Examples of this type are The Satire on Edinburgh, The General Satire, the Epitaph on Donald Owre, and the powerful vision of The Dance of the Sevin Deidlie Synnis. Two satirical ballads lampoon a colleague at court, the would-be aviator John Damian. In The Flyting of Dunbar and Kennedy, an outstanding specimen of a favourite northern form, analogous to the continental estrif, or tenzone, he and his rival reach a height of scurrility which is certainly without parallel in English literature. This poem has the additional interest of showing the antipathy between the Middle Scots-speakers in the Lothians and the Galwegian Gaelic-speaking population of Carrick, in the south of Ayrshire, where Walter Kennedy was from.
"Back to Dunbar"
For the Scottish Literary Renaissance in the mid-twentieth century, Dunbar was a touchstone. Many tried to imitate his style, and "high-brow" subject matter, such as Hugh MacDiarmid and Sydney Goodsir Smith. As MacDiarmid himself said, they had to go "back to Dunbar". To make Dunbar more accessible to the modern reader Selected Poems of William Dunbar: An Interlinear Translation was published by Lawrence Siegler in 2010.
Dunbar is commemorated in Makars' Court, outside The Writers' Museum, Lawnmarket, Edinburgh.
Resources
A collection of Dunbar's works at 'TEAMS Middle English Texts'
See also
Lament for the Makaris, in which Dunbar discusses his 'poetic facultie'
References
External links
Ode on the Nativity
1460s births
16th-century deaths
Scots Makars
Scottish Catholic poets
Lallans poets
People from East Lothian
Scottish clergy
Alumni of the University of St Andrews
Court of James IV of Scotland
15th-century Scottish people
16th-century Scottish writers
16th-century male writers
Scottish Renaissance writers
15th-century Scottish poets
16th-century Scottish poets
Middle Scots poets
Date of birth unknown
Place of birth missing
Date of death unknown
Place of death missing
Occasional poets | [
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261448 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An%20Alan%20Smithee%20Film%3A%20Burn%20Hollywood%20Burn | An Alan Smithee Film: Burn Hollywood Burn | An Alan Smithee Film: Burn Hollywood Burn (shown on-screen as just Burn Hollywood Burn) is a 1997 American mockumentary film directed by Arthur Hiller, written by Joe Eszterhas and starring Eric Idle as a director unfortunately named Alan Smithee, a traditional pseudonym used in Hollywood for directors disowning a project. The film follows Smithee as he steals the negatives to his latest film and goes on the run.
An Alan Smithee Film: Burn Hollywood Burn was universally panned by critics and tanked at the box office. It "won" five awards (including Worst Picture) at the 19th Golden Raspberry Awards. The film's creation set off a chain of events which led the Directors Guild of America to officially discontinue the Alan Smithee credit in 2000 after its use for decades when an American director disavowed a film. The plot, about a director attempting to disown a film, ironically described the film's own production; Hiller requested that his name be removed after witnessing the final cut, and he is credited as Alan Smithee. Burn Hollywood Burn was also the final production of Cinergi Pictures, which closed on the day of the film's American release.
Plot
Director Alan Smithee has been allowed to direct Trio, a big-budget action film starring Sylvester Stallone, Whoopi Goldberg and Jackie Chan. The studio recuts the film, and when Smithee sees the results (which he describes as being "worse than Showgirls"), he wants to disown the film. However, since his name is also the pseudonym used by Hollywood when someone does not want to have their name attached to a bad film, he steals the film and flees, threatening to destroy the film by burning it.
Cast
Cameos as themselves
Production
The film was written (and produced, though he was not credited for it) by Joe Eszterhas, who became the first person to win four Golden Raspberry awards for a single film: Worst Picture, Worst Screenplay and both Worst Supporting Actor and Worst New Star for a brief cameo appearance (he also received a co-nomination for the Worst Screen Couple award, since An Alan Smithee Film: Burn Hollywood Burn was nominated for "any two people appearing together onscreen"; although the movie did not "win" in this category). The released film credits the Alan Smithee pseudonym as director because Arthur Hiller, the film's real director, objected to the way Eszterhas recut the film, and as a result, had his name removed. In his autobiography, Hollywood Animal, Eszterhas claims that Hiller still sat in the editing room with him to make certain suggestions. In his entry on An Alan Smithee Film: Burn Hollywood Burn for his "My Year of Flops" column in The A.V. Club, pop culture critic Nathan Rabin sarcastically commented that Hiller's decision to use the Alan Smithee credit was "very transparently not a stupid, stupid gimmick to raise interest in a terrible film".
Reception
Box office
The film had an estimated budget of $10 million and grossed at least $52,850, as it was released in only 19 theaters.
Critical response
Film critic Roger Ebert, reviewing for the Chicago Sun-Times, gave An Alan Smithee Film: Burn Hollywood Burn a score of zero stars, his lowest possible rating. The film was not merely bad but "incompetent", Ebert wrote, and also seemingly represented a lapse of judgment for Eszterhas who "is sometimes a good writer".
The film holds an 8% rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on 40 reviews, with a average rating of 3.4/10. The site's critical consensus calls it "A witless Hollywood satire whose hammy, obvious jokes are neither funny nor insightful of the movie business."
Eric Idle himself said in various interviews meant to promote the film that "this is rather dreadful".
Accolades
References
External links
1997 films
American films
American mockumentary films
1990s English-language films
Films directed by Arthur Hiller
Films directed by Alan Smithee
Films about Hollywood
Films about film directors and producers
Films set in Kent
Films set in Los Angeles
Films shot in California
Films shot in Los Angeles
Incest in film
Cinergi Pictures films
Hollywood Pictures films
Films with screenplays by Joe Eszterhas
Golden Raspberry Award winning films
Films about filmmaking | [
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261450 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Platonic%20epistemology | Platonic epistemology | In philosophy, Plato's epistemology is a theory of knowledge developed by the Greek philosopher Plato and his followers.
Platonic epistemology holds that knowledge of Platonic Ideas is innate, so that learning is the development of ideas buried deep in the soul, often under the midwife-like guidance of an interrogator. In several dialogues by Plato, the character Socrates presents the view that each soul existed before birth with the Form of the Good and a perfect knowledge of Ideas. Thus, when an Idea is "learned" it is actually just "recalled".
Plato drew a sharp distinction between knowledge, which is certain, and mere true opinion, which is not certain. Opinions derive from the shifting world of sensation; knowledge derives from the world of timeless Forms, or essences. In The Republic, these concepts were illustrated using the metaphor of the sun, the analogy of the divided line, and the allegory of the cave.
Platonic doctrine of recollection
The Platonic doctrine of recollection or anamnesis, is the idea that we are born possessing all knowledge and our realization of that knowledge is contingent on our discovery of it. Whether the doctrine should be taken literally or not is a subject of debate. The soul is trapped in the body. The soul once lived in "Reality", but got trapped in the body. It once knew everything, but forgot it. The goal of Recollection is to get back to true Knowledge. To do this, one must overcome the body. This doctrine implies that nothing is ever learned, it is simply recalled or remembered. In short it says that all that we know already comes pre-loaded on birth and our senses enable us to identify and recognize the stratified information in our mind.
Metaphor of the sun
In the Republic (507b-509c) Plato's Socrates uses the sun as a metaphor for the source of "intellectual illumination," which he held to be The Form of the Good. The metaphor is about the nature of ultimate reality and how we come to know it. It starts with the eye, which Socrates says is unusual among the sense organs in that it needs a medium, namely light, in order to operate. The strongest and best source of light is the sun; with it, we can discern objects clearly. Analogously for intelligible objects The Form of the Good is necessary in order to understand any particular thing. Thus, if we attempt to understand why things are as they are, and what general categories can be used to understand various particulars around us, without reference to any forms (universals) we will fail completely. By contrast, "the domain where truth and reality shine resplendent" is none other than Plato's world of forms—illuminated by the highest of the forms, that of the Good.
The divided line
In Plato's Republic, Book VI, the divided line has two parts that represent the intelligible world and the smaller visible world. Each of those two parts is divided, the segments within the intelligible world represent higher and lower forms and the segments within the visible world represent ordinary visible objects and their shadows, reflections, and other representations. The line segments are unequal and their lengths represent "their comparative clearness and obscurity" and their comparative "reality and truth," as well as whether we have knowledge or instead mere opinion of the objects.
Allegory of the cave
In his best-known dialogue, The Republic, Plato drew an analogy between human sensation and the shadows that pass along the wall of a cave - an allegory known as Plato's allegory of the cave.
Charioteer myth
Along with these other allegories, Plato's charioteer myth (Phaedrus 245c-257b) certainly also deserves mention. The ascent of the mind to celestial and trans-celestial realms is likened to a charioteer and a chariot drawn by two winged horses, one dark and one white. Figuratively represented is the famous Platonic tripartite model of the soul: the charioteer represents reason, or intellect, the dark horse appetitive passions, and the white horse irascible nature. Only by taming and controlling the two horses can the charioteer ascend to the heavens and enjoy a banquet of divine knowledge. Key epistemological features of the charioteer myth are (1) an emphasis, as with the cave allegory, upon true knowledge as ascent, (2) and the need to tame one's passionate nature to obtain true knowledge.
An example: love and wisdom
A good example of how Plato presents the acquiring of knowledge is contained in the Ladder of Love. In Symposium (210a-211b), Plato's Socrates cites the priestess Diotima as defining a "lover" as someone who loves and love as a desire for something that one does not have. According to this ladder model of love, a lover progresses from rung to rung from the basest love to the pure form of love as follows:
A beautiful body - The lover begins here at the most obvious form of love.
All beautiful bodies - If the lover examines his love and does some investigating, he/she will find that the beauty contained in this beautiful body is not original, that it is shared by every beautiful body.
Beautiful souls - After most likely attempting to have every beautiful body, the lover should realize that if a single love does not satisfy, there is no reason to think that many ones will satisfy. Thus, the "lover of every body" must, in the words of Plato, "bring his passion for the one into due proportion by deeming it of little or of no importance." Instead, the passion is transferred to a more appropriate object: the soul.
The beauty of laws and institutions - The next logical step is for the lover to love all beautiful souls and then to transfer that love to that which is responsible for their existence: a moderate, harmonious and just social order.
The beauty of knowledge - Once proceeding down this path, the lover will naturally long for that which produces and makes intelligible good social institutions: knowledge.
Beauty itself - This is the platonic "form" of beauty itself. It is not a particular thing that is beautiful, but is instead the essence of beauty. Plato describes this level of love as a "wondrous vision," an "everlasting loveliness which neither comes nor ages, which neither flowers nor fades." It is eternal and isn't "anything that is of the flesh" nor "words" nor "knowledge" but consists "of itself and by itself in an eternal oneness, while every lovely thing partakes of it."
Knowledge concerning other things is similarly gained by progressing from a base reality (or shadow) of the thing sought (red, tall, thin, keen, etc.) to the eventual form of the thing sought, or the thing sought itself. Such steps follow the same pattern as Plato's metaphor of the sun, his allegory of the cave and his divided line; progress brings one closer and closer to reality as each step explains the relative reality of the past.
References
Epistemological theories
Platonism | [
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261452 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Colley | George Colley | George Colley (18 October 1925 – 17 September 1983) was an Irish Fianna Fáil politician who served as Tánaiste from 1977 to 1981, Minister for Energy from 1980 to 1981, Minister for Tourism and Transport from 1979 to 1980, Minister for the Public Service from 1977 to 1979, Minister for Finance from 1970 to 1973 and from 1977 to 1979, Minister for the Gaeltacht from 1969 to 1973, Minister for Industry and Commerce from 1966 to 1970, Minister for Education from 1965 to 1966 and Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Lands from 1964 to 1965. He served as a Teachta Dála (TD) from 1961 to 1983.
Early life
Colley was born in the Dublin suburb of Fairview, in 1925. He was the son of Harry and Christina Colley. His father was a veteran of the 1916 Easter Rising and a former adjutant in the Irish Republican Army (IRA), who was elected to Dáil Éireann in 1944, as a Fianna Fáil candidate.
He was educated at St. Joseph's Secondary C.B.S. in Fairview, where one of his classmates and closest friends was Charles Haughey, who later became his political arch rival. He studied law at University College Dublin and qualified as a solicitor in the mid-1940s. He remained friends with Haughey after leaving school and, ironically, encouraged him to become a member of Fianna Fáil in 1951. Haughey was elected to Dáil Éireann in the 1957 general election, ousting Colley's father in the process. This put some strain on the relationship between the two young men.
Political career
Colley was elected to the Dáil at the 1961 general election, reclaiming his father's old seat in the Dublin North-East constituency. Furthermore, he was elected in the same constituency as Haughey, thereby accentuating the rivalry. Thereafter, Colley progressed rapidly through the ranks of Fianna Fáil. He became a member of the Dáil at a time when a change from the older to the younger generation was taking place, a change facilitated by the Taoiseach Seán Lemass.
He was active in the Oireachtas as chairman of some of the Joint Labour Committees, which were set up under the Labour Court, to fix legally enforceable wages for groups of workers who had not been effectively organised in trade unions. He was also leader of the Irish parliamentary delegation to the Consultative Assembly of the Council of Europe. Colley's work as a backbencher was rewarded by his appointment as Parliamentary Secretary to the Minister for Lands in October 1964.
Minister for Education (1965–66)
Following the return of Lemass's government at the 1965 general election, Colley joined the cabinet as Minister for Education. He introduced a plan to establish comprehensive schools, set up an advisory council on post-primary school accommodation in Dublin, and introduced a school psychological service.
Minister for Industry and Commerce (1966–70)
He was promoted as Minister for Industry and Commerce, in a cabinet reshuffle in July 1966, and he continued the government policy of economic expansion that had prevailed since the late 1950s.
In November 1966, Seán Lemass resigned suddenly as Taoiseach. Colley and Charles Haughey both stood as candidates in the subsequent leadership election.
Colley's rise through politics was remarkable; after only five years in the Dáil, he was already in a position to contest the leadership of Fianna Fáil. He was the favoured candidate of party elders such as Seán MacEntee and Frank Aiken, the latter managing Colley's campaign and annoyed at Lemass's quick decision to retire before Colley had built up his support. Colley was considered to be in the same mould as the party founders, concerned with issues such as the peaceful re-unification of the country and the cause of the Irish language. A third candidate, Neil Blaney, also stated his interest in the leadership if a suitable candidate could not be found. However, both Haughey and Blaney withdrew when the Minister for Finance, Jack Lynch, announced his candidacy. Colley did not back down and the leadership issue went to a vote for the first time in the history of the Fianna Fáil party.
The leadership election took place on 9 November 1966, and Lynch beat Colley by 59 votes to 19. When the new Taoiseach announced his cabinet, no hard feelings were shown between the two men. Colley retained his Industry and Commerce portfolio in the following cabinet reshuffle.
Following Fianna Fáil's success at the 1969 general election, Colley held onto his existing cabinet post and also took charge of the Gaeltacht portfolio, an area where he had a personal interest. He used this dual position to direct industrial investment to Gaeltacht areas. He set about changing the traditional view of the Irish-speaking regions as backward and promoted their equal claim to the more sophisticated industries being established in Ireland by foreign investment.
Minister for Finance (1970–73)
In the wake of the Arms Crisis in 1970, a major reshuffle of the cabinet took place. Four Ministers, Charles Haughey, Neil Blaney, Kevin Boland and Mícheál Ó Móráin, were either removed, or resigned, or simply retired from the government due to the scandal that was about to unfold. Despite his defeat by Jack Lynch in the leadership contest four years earlier, Colley had remained loyal to the party leader and had become a close political ally. He was rewarded by his appointment as Minister for Finance, the second most important position in government, while retaining the Gaeltacht portfolio.
Colley was regarded as a predictable Minister and the ultimate safe man, as a highly orthodox Keynesian. His decision to introduce budget deficits in his first three budgets was even welcomed by the opposition. The most important event of his tenure as Minister was the decimalisation of the Irish currency in 1971. He also championed the introduction of RTÉ Raidió na Gaeltachta and argued the financial case for it in 1972, as the Minister with responsibility for the Gaeltacht.
In opposition (1973–77)
In 1973, Fianna Fáil were ousted after sixteen years in government when the national coalition of Fine Gael and the Labour Party came to power. Colley was appointed opposition Spokesman on Finance, in the new Fianna Fáil front bench. He came to be regarded as a hard-working spokesman and was a constant critic of what he viewed as the coalition government's restrictive economic policy and of the capital taxation which he believed discouraged investment.
As the 1977 general election approached, Colley and Martin O'Donoghue were the main architects of Fianna Fáil's election manifesto. The party's programme for government included a number of inducements, including the abolition of car tax and rates on houses, as it was believed that the coalition government would retain office.
Tánaiste and Minister (1977–81)
Fianna Fáil swept to power at the 1977 general election, with a 20-seat Dáil majority, contrary to opinion polls and political commentators. Colley was re-appointed as Minister for Finance and Minister for the Public Service, and was also appointed as Tánaiste (Deputy Prime Minister). The latter appointment established him firmly as the heir apparent to Taoiseach Jack Lynch.
During his second term as Finance Minister, Colley implemented controversial policies from the election manifesto. He immediately set about dismantling the previous government's capital taxation programme while also abolishing the wealth tax and diluting the capital gains and capital acquisitions taxes. His policy of low taxation and continued government investment resulted in massive foreign borrowing and a balance of payments deficit. In 1979, Fianna Fáil's economic policies were derailed due to strikes, higher wage demands, and the 1979 energy crisis. The introduction of a two percent levy on agricultural production angered some rural backbench TDs, and party tensions emerged.
In December 1979, Jack Lynch resigned unexpectedly as Taoiseach and as Fianna Fáil leader. It is said that Colley and his supporters encouraged Lynch to retire one month earlier than planned because he felt he had the support to win a leadership contest and that the quick decision would catch Charles Haughey and his supporters off guard.
Support for both candidates was evenly matched throughout the leadership contest. Colley had the backing of the majority of the Cabinet and the party hierarchy, while Haughey relied on support from the first-time backbenchers. A secret ballot was taken on Friday, 7 December 1979. The Minister for Foreign Affairs, Michael O'Kennedy announced his support for Haughey on the eve of the election. This was believed to have swung the vote, and Haughey beat Colley by 44 votes to 38.
Colley remained as Tánaiste, but demanded and received a veto on Haughey's ministerial appointments to the departments of Justice and Defence. Colley was removed from his position as Minister for Finance and Minister for the Public Service. He declined the position of Minister for Foreign Affairs, preferring instead a domestic portfolio, which resulted in a demotion. He was temporarily appointed Minister for Transport and Tourism, before taking charge of the new Department of Energy. During his brief tenure, he blocked the Nuclear Energy Board's controversial plan to build a nuclear power plant at Carnsore Point in County Wexford.
Later career
Fianna Fáil lost power at the 1981 general election, when a short-lived Fine Gael-Labour Party coalition government took office. Haughey delayed naming a new opposition front bench, but Colley was still a key member of the Fianna Fáil hierarchy.
Fianna Fáil regained office at the February 1982 general election, but there was disquiet about Haughey's leadership and the failure to secure an overall majority. Colley demanded the same veto as before on Haughey's Defence and Justice appointments, but was refused. When it was revealed that Ray MacSharry would be appointed Tánaiste in his stead, he declined another ministerial position. This effectively brought his front bench political career to an end, but he remained a vocal critic of the party leadership from the backbenches.
When the Fianna Fáil government collapsed and were replaced by another coalition government after the November 1982 general election, a number of TDs and Senators expressed lack of confidence in Haughey's leadership once again. Several unsuccessful leadership challenges took place in late 1982 and early 1983, with Colley now supporting Desmond O'Malley and the Gang of 22 who opposed Haughey.
Death
Colley died suddenly on 17 September 1983, aged 57, while receiving treatment for a heart condition at Guy's Hospital, London. He was survived by his wife, three sons, and four daughters, one of whom, Anne Colley, became a TD as a member of the Progressive Democrats party.
See also
Families in the Oireachtas
References
1925 births
1983 deaths
Alumni of University College Dublin
George
Fianna Fáil TDs
Ministers for Finance (Ireland)
Members of the 17th Dáil
Members of the 18th Dáil
Members of the 19th Dáil
Members of the 20th Dáil
Members of the 21st Dáil
Members of the 22nd Dáil
Members of the 23rd Dáil
Members of the 24th Dáil
Ministers for Education (Ireland)
Ministers for Transport (Ireland)
Parliamentary Secretaries of the 17th Dáil
Politicians from County Dublin
Tánaistí
Ministers for Enterprise, Trade and Employment | [
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261455 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/George%20Saintsbury | George Saintsbury | George Edward Bateman Saintsbury, FBA (23 October 1845 – 28 January 1933), was an English writer, literary historian, critic, teacher and wine connoisseur. He is regarded as a highly influential critic of early 20th century.
Biography
Born in Lottery Hall, Southampton, he was educated at King's College School, London, and at Merton College, Oxford, where he achieved a first class BA degree in Classical Mods, (1865), and a second class in literae humaniores (1867). He left Oxford in 1868 having failed to obtain a fellowship, and briefly became a master at the Manchester Grammar School, before spending six years in Guernsey as senior classical master of Elizabeth College, where he began his literary career by submitting his first reviews to The Academy. From 1874 until he returned to London in 1876 he was headmaster of the Elgin Educational Institute, with a brief period in 1877 on The Manchester Guardian. For ten years he was actively engaged in journalism, becoming an important member of the staff of the Saturday Review. Some of the critical essays contributed to the literary journals were afterwards collected in his Essays in English Literature, 1780–1860 (2 vols., 1890–1895), Essays on French Novelists (1891), Miscellaneous Essays (1892), and Corrected Impressions (1895). In 1895 he became professor of rhetoric and English literature at the University of Edinburgh, a position he held until 1915. During his time in Edinburgh he was a member of the Scottish Arts Club. He retired to 1A Royal Crescent, Bath, Somerset and died there in 1933.
1A Royal Crescent was the subject of a restoration and renovation programme by the Bath Preservation Trust during 2012 to reincorporate it into 1 Royal Crescent, of which it was the original servants' quarters. It opened to visitors for the first time in 2013. An exhibition celebrating Saintsbury's life was mounted in the house in 2014.
Literary criticism
His first book, A Primer of French Literature (1880), and his Short History of French Literature (1882), were followed by a series of editions of French classics and of books and articles on the history of French literature, which made him the most prominent English authority on the subject. His studies in English literature were no less comprehensive, and included the valuable revision of Sir Walter Scott's edition of John Dryden's Works (Edinburgh, 18 vols., 1882–1893), Dryden (1881) in the "English Men of Letters" series, History of Elizabethan Literature (1887), History of Nineteenth Century Literature (1896), A Short History of English Literature (1898, 3rd ed. 1903 – and a book that continued to be reprinted at least into the 1960s), an edition of the Minor Poets of the Caroline Period (2 vols., 1905–1906, followed by a third volume in 1921), a collection of rare poems of great value, and editions of English classics. He coined the term "Janeite" for a fan of Jane Austen in his introduction to an 1894 edition of Pride and Prejudice.
He wrote numerous articles on literary subjects (including Pierre Corneille, Daniel Defoe, Clément Marot, Michel de Montaigne, Jean Racine, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Voltaire) for the ninth edition (1875–89) of the Encyclopædia Britannica.
In 1901 Saintsbury edited and introduced an English edition of Honoré de Balzac's novel series La Comédie humaine, translated by Ellen Marriage and published in 1895–98 by J. M. Dent.
He went on to edit the series of Periods of European Literature for the publisher William Blackwood and Sons, contributing volumes on The Flourishing of Romance and the Rise of Allegory (1897) and The Earlier Renaissance (1901).
Saintsbury subsequently produced some of his most important works: A History of Criticism (3 vols., 1900–1904), with the companion volume Loci Critici: Passages Illustrative of Critical Theory and Practice (Boston, Mass., and London, 1903), and A History of English Prosody from the 12th Century to the Present Day (i., 1906; ii., 1908; iii., 1910); also The Later Nineteenth Century (1909).
In 1925 he arranged for the publication of a lost recipe book by Anne Blencoe, which had been rediscovered in Weston Hall 200 years after her death. Saintsbury wrote a short introduction to the reissued book.
Wine
Although Saintsbury was best known during his lifetime as a scholar, he is also remembered today for his Notes on a Cellar-Book (1920), one of the great testimonials to drink and drinking in wine literature. When he was close to death, André Simon arranged a dinner in his honour. Although Saintsbury did not attend, this was the start of the Saintsbury Club, men of letters and members of the wine trade who continue to have dinners to this day.
Political views
Saintsbury espoused deeply conservative views in political and social matters. George Orwell calls him a ‘confessed reactionary’ in his 1937 book The Road to Wigan Pier and cites various extracts from the Scrapbooks which display Saintsbury's class-based disdain for the welfare state and paupers.
Partial list of works
Specimens of English Prose Style from Malory to Macaulay (1885) (alternative copy)
A History of Elizabethan Literature (1887) (alternative: Copy I and Copy II)
A Short History of English Literature (1898) (alternative copy)
A History of Criticism and Literary Taste in Europe from the Earliest Texts to the Present Day (in three volumes: 1900–04) Vol. I; Vol. II; Vol. III
A History of English Prosody from the Twelfth Century to the Present Day (in three volumes: 1906–10) Vol. I Vol. II; Vol. III (alternatives: Vol. I; Vol. II, Vol. III)
Historical Manual of English Prosody (1910) (alternatives: Copy I Copy II; Copy III)
History of English Prose Rhythm (1912)
The English Novel (1913) (alternative copy)
The Peace of The Augustans; A Survey of Eighteenth Century Literature as a Place of Rest and Refreshment (1916)
Notes on a Cellar-Book (1920)
Minor Poets of the Caroline Period (1921) in three volumes: Vol. I; Vol. II; Vol. III
References
Further reading
External links
Specimens of English Prose Style from Malory to Macaulay (alternative: another copy) at Internet Archive
A History of Elizabethan Literature (1887) at Project Gutenberg
A History of Elizabethan Literature (1887) (alternative: another copy at Internet Archive
A Short History of English Literature (1898) (alternative: another copy) at Internet Archive
A History of Criticism and Literary Taste in Europe from the Earliest Texts to the Present Day: Vol. I; Vol. II; Vol. III (alternatives: Vol. I; Vol. II, Vol. III) at Internet Archive
A History of English Prosody from the Twelfth Century to the Present Day: Vol. I; Vol. II; Vol. III at Internet Archive
Historical Manual of English Prosody at Project Gutenberg
Historical Manual of English Prosody (alternatives: Copy II; Copy III) at Internet Archive
History of English Prose Rhythm (alternatives: Copy II, Copy III) at Internet Archive
The English Novel at Project Gutenberg
The English Novel at Internet Archive
The Peace of The Augustans; A Survey of Eighteenth Century Literature as a Place of Rest and Refreshment at Internet Archive
Notes on a Cellar-Book at Internet Archive
Minor Poets of the Caroline Period: Vol. I; Vol. II; Vol. III (another copy of Vol. III) at Internet Archive
1845 births
1933 deaths
People educated at King's College School, London
English Anglo-Catholics
English literary critics
English editors
Wine critics
People from Southampton
Alumni of Merton College, Oxford
Fellows of the British Academy | [
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261456 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lime%20%28fruit%29 | Lime (fruit) | A lime (from French lime, from Arabic līma, from Persian līmū, "lemon") is a citrus fruit, which is typically round, green in color, in diameter, and contains acidic juice vesicles.
There are several species of citrus trees whose fruits are called limes, including the Key lime (Citrus aurantiifolia), Persian lime, Makrut lime, and desert lime. Limes are a rich source of vitamin C, are sour, and are often used to accent the flavours of foods and beverages. They are grown year-round. Plants with fruit called "limes" have diverse genetic origins; limes do not form a monophyletic group.
Plants known as "lime"
The difficulty in identifying exactly which species of fruit are called lime in different parts of the English-speaking world (and the same problem applies to synonyms in other European languages) is increased by the botanical complexity of the citrus genus itself, to which the majority of limes belong. Species of this genus hybridise readily, and it is only recently that genetic studies have started to shed light on the structure of the genus. The majority of cultivated species are in reality hybrids, produced from the citron (Citrus medica), the mandarin orange (Citrus reticulata), the pomelo (Citrus maxima) and in particular with many lime varieties, the micrantha (Citrus hystrix var. micrantha).
Australian limes (former Microcitrus and Eremocitrus)
Australian desert lime (Citrus glauca)
Australian finger lime (Citrus australasica)
Australian lime (Citrus australis)
Blood lime (red finger lime × (sweet orange × mandarin))
Makrut lime (Citrus hystrix); a papeda relative, is one of the three most widely produced limes globally.
Key lime (Citrus × aurantiifolia=Citrus micrantha × Citrus medica) is also one of the three most widely produced limes globally.
Philippine lime (Citrus × microcarpa), a kumquat × mandarin hybrid
Persian lime (Citrus × latifolia) a key lime × lemon hybrid, is the single most widely produced lime globally, with Mexico being the largest producer.
Rangpur lime (Mandarin lime, lemandarin, Citrus limonia), a mandarin orange × citron hybrid
Spanish lime (Melicoccus bijugatus); not a citrus
Sweet lime etc. (Citrus limetta, etc.); several distinct citrus hybrids
Wild lime (Adelia ricinella); not a citrus
Wild lime (Zanthoxylum fagara); not a citrus
Limequat (lime × kumquat)
Note that the tree species known in Britain as lime trees (Tilia sp.), called linden in other dialects of English, are broadleaf temperate plants unrelated to the citrus fruits.
History
Most species and hybrids of citrus plants called "limes" have varying origins within tropical Southeast Asia and South Asia. They were spread throughout the world via migration and trade. The makrut lime, in particular, was one of the earliest citrus fruits introduced to other parts of the world by humans. They were spread into Micronesia and Polynesia via the Austronesian expansion (c. 3000–1500 BCE). They were also later spread into Middle East, and the Mediterranean region via the spice trade and the incense trade routes from as early as ~1200 BCE.
To prevent scurvy during the 19th century, British sailors were issued a daily allowance of citrus, such as lemon, and later switched to lime. The use of citrus was initially a closely guarded military secret, as scurvy was a common scourge of various national navies, and the ability to remain at sea for lengthy periods without contracting the disorder was a huge benefit for the military. British sailors thus acquired the nickname "Limey" because of their use of limes.
Production
In 2018, world production of limes (combined with lemons for reporting) was 19.4 million tonnes. The top producers – India, Mexico, China, Argentina, Brazil, and Turkey – collectively accounted for 65% of global production (table).
Uses
Limes have higher contents of sugars and acids than lemons do. Lime juice may be squeezed from fresh limes, or purchased in bottles in both unsweetened and sweetened varieties. Lime juice is used to make limeade, and as an ingredient (typically as sour mix) in many cocktails.
Lime pickles are an integral part of Indian cuisine, especially in South India. In Kerala, the Onam Sadhya usually includes either lemon pickle or lime pickle. Other Indian preparations of limes include sweetened lime pickle, salted pickle, and lime chutney.
In cooking, lime is valued both for the acidity of its juice and the floral aroma of its zest. It is a common ingredient in authentic Mexican, Vietnamese and Thai dishes. Lime soup is a traditional dish from the Mexican state of Yucatan. It is also used for its pickling properties in ceviche. Some guacamole recipes call for lime juice.
The use of dried limes (called black lime or limoo) as a flavouring is typical of Persian cuisine, Iraqi cuisine, as well as in Eastern Arabian cuisine baharat (a spice mixture that is also called kabsa or kebsa).
Key lime gives the character flavoring to the American dessert known as Key lime pie. In Australia, desert lime is used for making marmalade.
Lime is an ingredient in several highball cocktails, often based on gin, such as gin and tonic, the gimlet and the Rickey. Freshly squeezed lime juice is also considered a key ingredient in margaritas, although sometimes lemon juice is substituted. It is also found in many rum cocktails such as the Daiquiri, and other tropical drinks.
Lime extracts and lime essential oils are frequently used in perfumes, cleaning products, and aromatherapy.
Nutrition and phytochemicals
Raw limes are 88% water, 10% carbohydrates and less than 1% each of fat and protein (table). Only vitamin C content at 35% of the Daily Value (DV) per 100 g serving is significant for nutrition, with other nutrients present in low DV amounts (table). Lime juice contains slightly less citric acid than lemon juice (about 47 g/l), nearly twice the citric acid of grapefruit juice, and about five times the amount of citric acid found in orange juice.
Lime pulp and peel contain diverse phytochemicals, including polyphenols and terpenes, many of which are under basic research for their potential properties in humans.
Toxicity
Contact with lime peel or lime juice followed by exposure to ultraviolet light may lead to phytophotodermatitis, which is sometimes called margarita photodermatitis or lime disease (not to be confused with Lyme disease). Bartenders handling limes and other citrus fruits while preparing cocktails may develop phytophotodermatitis.
A class of organic chemical compounds called furanocoumarins are reported to cause phytophotodermatitis in humans. Limes contain numerous furanocoumarin compounds, including limettin (also called citropten), bergapten, isopimpinellin, xanthotoxin (also called methoxsalen), and psoralen. Bergapten appears to be the primary furanocoumarin compound responsible for lime-induced phytophotodermatitis.
Lime peel contains higher concentrations of furanocoumarins than lime pulp (by one or two orders of magnitude), and so lime peels are considerably more phototoxic than lime pulp. Persian limes appear to be more phototoxic than Key limes.
See also
Lime production in Mexico
List of citrus fruits
List of culinary fruits varieties
References
External links
Citrus
Citrus hybrids
Cocktail garnishes
Crops
Sour fruits | [
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261460 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20Development%20Index | Human Development Index | The Human Development Index (HDI) is a statistic composite index of life expectancy, education (mean years of schooling completed and expected years of schooling upon entering the education system), and per capita income indicators, which are used to rank countries into four tiers of human development. A country scores a higher HDI when the lifespan is higher, the education level is higher, and the gross national income GNI (PPP) per capita is higher. It was developed by Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq and was further used to measure a country's development by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP)'s Human Development Report Office.
The 2010 Human Development Report introduced an Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI). While the simple HDI remains useful, it stated that "the IHDI is the actual level of human development (accounting for inequality), while the HDI can be viewed as an index of 'potential' human development (or the maximum level of HDI) that could be achieved if there were no inequality."
The index is based on the human development approach, developed by Mahbub ul Haq, anchored in Amartya Sen's work on human capabilities, often framed in terms of whether people are able to "be" and "do" desirable things in life. Examples include – being: well fed, sheltered, healthy; doing: work, education, voting, participating in community life. The freedom of choice is central – someone choosing to be hungry (as during a religious fast) is quite different from someone who is hungry because they cannot afford to buy food, or because the country is in a famine.
The index does not take into account several factors, such as the net wealth per capita or the relative quality of goods in a country. This situation tends to lower the ranking for some of the most advanced countries, such as the G7 members and others.
Origins
The origins of the HDI are found in the annual Human Development Reports produced by the Human Development Report Office of the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). These were devised and launched by Pakistani economist Mahbub ul Haq in 1990, and had the explicit purpose "to shift the focus of development economics from national income accounting to people-centered policies". Haq believed that a simple composite measure of human development was needed to convince the public, academics, and politicians that they can and should evaluate development not only by economic advances but also improvements in human well-being.
Dimensions and calculation
New method (2010 HDI onwards)
Published on 4 November 2010 (and updated on 10 June 2011), the 2010 Human Development Report calculated the HDI combining three dimensions:
A long and healthy life: Life expectancy at birth
Education index: Mean years of schooling and Expected years of schooling
A decent standard of living: GNI per capita (PPP international dollars)
In its 2010 Human Development Report, the UNDP began using a new method of calculating the HDI. The following three indices are used:
1. Life Expectancy Index (LEI)
LEI is 1 when Life expectancy at birth is 85 and 0 when Life expectancy at birth is 20.
2. Education Index (EI)
2.1 Mean Years of Schooling Index (MYSI)
Fifteen is the projected maximum of this indicator for 2025.
2.2 Expected Years of Schooling Index (EYSI)
Eighteen is equivalent to achieving a master's degree in most countries.
3. Income Index (II)
II is 1 when GNI per capita is $75,000 and 0 when GNI per capita is $100.
Finally, the HDI is the geometric mean of the previous three normalized indices:
LE: Life expectancy at birth
MYS: Mean years of schooling (i.e. years that a person aged 25 or older has spent in formal education)
EYS: Expected years of schooling (i.e. total expected years of schooling for children under 18 years of age)
GNIpc: Gross national income at purchasing power parity per capita
Old method (HDI before 2010)
The HDI combined three dimensions last used in its 2009 report:
Life expectancy at birth, as an index of population health and longevity to HDI
Knowledge and education, as measured by the adult literacy rate (with two-thirds weighting) and the combined primary, secondary, and tertiary gross enrollment ratio (with one-third weighting).
Standard of living, as indicated by the natural logarithm of gross domestic product per capita at purchasing power parity.
This methodology was used by the UNDP until their 2011 report.
The formula defining the HDI is promulgated by the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP). In general, to transform a raw variable, say , into a unit-free index between 0 and 1 (which allows different indices to be added together), the following formula is used:
where and are the lowest and highest values the variable can attain, respectively.
The Human Development Index (HDI) then represents the uniformly weighted sum with contributed by each of the following factor indices:
Life Expectancy Index =
Education Index =
Adult Literacy Index (ALI) =
Gross Enrollment Index (GEI) =
GDP =
2019 Human Development Index (2020 report)
The Human Development Report 2020 by the United Nations Development Programme was released on 15 December 2020, and calculates HDI values based on data collected in 2019. The list comprises countries and territories with very high human development:
= increase.
= steady.
= decrease.
Inequality-adjusted HDI (2020 report)
Following is a list of countries and territories with very high and high human development according to the IHDI:
Past top countries
The list below displays the top-ranked country from each year of the Human Development Index. Norway has been ranked the highest sixteen times, Canada eight times, and Japan and Iceland twice.
In each original HDI
The year represents the time period from which the statistics for the index were derived. In parentheses is the year when the report was published.
Geographical coverage
The HDI has extended its geographical coverage: David Hastings, of the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Asia and the Pacific, published a report geographically extending the HDI to 230+ economies, whereas the UNDP HDI for 2009 enumerates 182 economies and coverage for the 2010 HDI dropped to 169 countries.
Country/region specific HDI lists
African countries
Argentinean provinces
Australian states
Austrian states
Baltic Regions
Bolivian departments
Brazilian states
Canadian provinces and territories
Chilean regions
Chinese administrative divisions
Colombian departments
Danish regions
Dutch provinces
Ethiopian regions
European countries
German states
Greek regions
Indian states
Tamil Nadu districts
Indonesian provinces
Iranian provinces
Iraqi governorates
Italian regions
Japanese prefectures
Latin American countries
Mexican states
New Zealand regions
Nigerian states
Pakistani administrative units
Philippine provinces
Palestinian regions
Polish voivodeships
Russian federal subjects
South African provinces
Spanish communities
Swiss regions
UK countries and regions of England
U.S. states (American Human Development Report (AHDR))
Venezuelan states
Criticism
The Human Development Index has been criticized on a number of grounds, including alleged lack of consideration of technological development or contributions to the human civilization, focusing exclusively on national performance and ranking, lack of attention to development from a global perspective, measurement error of the underlying statistics, and on the UNDP's changes in formula which can lead to severe misclassification in the categorisation of "low", "medium", "high" or "very high" human development countries.
Sources of data error
Economists Hendrik Wolff, Howard Chong and Maximilian Auffhammer discuss the HDI from the perspective of data error in the underlying health, education and income statistics used to construct the HDI. They identified three sources of data error which are due to (i) data updating, (ii) formula revisions and (iii) thresholds to classify a country's development status and conclude that 11%, 21% and 34% of all countries can be interpreted as currently misclassified in the development bins due to the three sources of data error, respectively. The authors suggest that the United Nations should discontinue the practice of classifying countries into development bins because: the cut-off values seem arbitrary, can provide incentives for strategic behavior in reporting official statistics, and have the potential to misguide politicians, investors, charity donors and the public who use the HDI at large.
In 2010, the UNDP reacted to the criticism and updated the thresholds to classify nations as low, medium, and high human development countries. In a comment to The Economist in early January 2011, the Human Development Report Office responded to a 6 January 2011 article in the magazine which discusses the Wolff et al. paper. The Human Development Report Office states that they undertook a systematic revision of the methods used for the calculation of the HDI, and that the new methodology directly addresses the critique by Wolff et al. in that it generates a system for continuously updating the human-development categories whenever formula or data revisions take place.
In 2013, Salvatore Monni and Alessandro Spaventa emphasized that in the debate of GDP versus HDI, it is often forgotten that these are both external indicators that prioritize different benchmarks upon which the quantification of societal welfare can be predicated. The larger question is whether it is possible to shift the focus of policy from a battle between competing paradigms to a mechanism for eliciting information on well-being directly from the population.
See also
Indices
Bhutan GNH Index
Broad measures of economic progress
Corruption Perceptions Index
Democracy Index
Fragile States Index
Gender Inequality Index
Gender-related Development Index
Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI)
Global Peace Index (GPI)
Green gross domestic product (Green GDP)
Green national product
Gross domestic product
Gross National Well-being (GNW)
Happy Planet Index (HPI)
Human Poverty Index
Inequality-adjusted Human Development Index (IHDI)
Legatum Prosperity Index
List of countries by Human Development Index
Living planet index
Multidimensional Poverty Index
OECD Better Life Index (BLI)
Planetary pressures–adjusted Human Development Index (PHDI)
Rule of Law Index
Social Progress Index
Where-to-be-born Index
World Happiness Report
Other
Developing country
Economic development
Ethics of care
Happiness economics
Human Development and Capability Association
Humanistic economics
International development
List of countries by percentage of population living in poverty
List of countries by share of income of the richest one percent
Right to an adequate standard of living
Subjective life satisfaction
Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs)
Notes
References
External links
Human Development Index
Human Development Tools and Rankings
Development economics
Environmental economics
International rankings
Science and technology in India
Science and technology in Pakistan
American inventions
British inventions
Indian inventions
Pakistani inventions
1990 establishments
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261462 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Australian%20lime | Australian lime | Australian limes are species of the plant genus Citrus that are native to Australia and Papua New Guinea.
These species were formerly included in the genera Microcitrus and Eremocitrus. They have been used as a food source by indigenous Australians as well as early settlers and are used in modern Australian cuisine, including marmalade and sauces.
Species include:
{{clade| style=font-size:100%;line-height:100%
|label1=Australian limes
|1={{clade
|label1=former Eremocitrus
|1=Citrus glauca
|label2=former Microcitrus
|2={{clade
|1=Citrus warburgiana
|2={{clade
|1= |2=
|3=Citrus australis}} }} }} }}
Species from Australia
Natural speciesCitrus australasica (Finger lime), a species from rainforest regions of northern New South Wales and Southern Queensland with elongated yellow-green to purple fruits. Citrus australis (Round lime or Dooja), a species from south-eastern Australia with round, green fruitsCitrus glauca (Desert lime), from arid inland areas of inland Australia. Small round fruits are produced in summer.
Citrus garrawayi, (Mount White lime) is rare and endemic to the Cook District of Cape York Peninsula.
Citrus gracilis (Kakadu lime or Humpty Doo lime) grows in eucalypt woodland in the Northern Territory and was first described in the scientific literature in 1998.
Citrus inodora (Russell River lime or large-leaf Australian wild lime) is rare, and endemic to northern Queensland.
Citrus maideniana (Maiden's Australian wild lime) may be a subspecies of C. inodora.
Cultivars
A number of cultivars have been developed in recent years. These can be grafted on to standard citrus rootstocks. They may be grown as ornamental trees in the garden or in containers.
Grafted standards are available for some varieties. The cultivars include:
'Australian Outback' (or 'Australian Desert'), developed from several desert lime varieties
'Australian Red Centre' (or 'Australian Blood' or Blood Lime), a cross of finger lime and a mandarin-lemon or mandarin-sweet orange hybrid
'Australian Sunrise', a hybrid cross of finger lime and a calomondin which is pear shaped and orange inside
'Rainforest Pearl', a pink-fruited form of finger lime from Bangalow, New South Wales
'Sunrise Lime ', parentage unknown
'Outback Lime', a desert lime cultivar
Species from Papua New Guinea
Citrus warburgiana (Kakamadu or New Guinea wild lime) grows on the south coast of the Papuan Peninsula near Alatau (pictures).Citrus wakonai (also locally called kakamadu) has been reported from Goodenough Island.
Citrus wintersii, also known as Citrus papuana (Brown River finger lime) has, as the name suggests, a small, thin fruit, pointed at both ends (pictures, more pictures). It grows near Port Moresby.
Clymenia sp. are native to the Bismarck Archipelago but are cultivated in other areas. Clymenia is now often considered to belong within the citrus genus.Clymenia platypodaClymenia polyandra'' has a lemon-sized round fruit, pointed at one end (pictures).
Citrus species in Papua New Guinea have not been extensively studied, so the true number of species is unknown.
Identification
An identification key (p. 6 or 338) exists for the known Australian limes (not including species from Papua New Guinea). The leaves of some species broaden dramatically with age.
References
Bushfood
Limes (fruit)
Flora of Papua New Guinea
Sapindales of Australia
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261463 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tilia | Tilia | Tilia is a genus of about 30 species of trees or bushes, native throughout most of the temperate Northern Hemisphere. The tree is known as linden for the European species, and basswood for North American species. In Britain and Ireland they are commonly called lime trees, although they are not related to the citrus lime. The genus occurs in Europe and eastern North America, but the greatest species diversity is found in Asia. Under the Cronquist classification system, this genus was placed in the family Tiliaceae, but genetic research summarised by the Angiosperm Phylogeny Group has resulted in the incorporation of this genus, and of most of the previous family, into the Malvaceae.
Tilia species are mostly large, deciduous trees, reaching typically tall, with oblique-cordate (heart-shaped) leaves across. As with elms, the exact number of species is uncertain, as many of the species can hybridise readily, both in the wild and in cultivation. They are hermaphroditic, having perfect flowers with both male and female parts, pollinated by insects.
Tilia is the only known ectomycorrhizal genus in the family Malvaceae. Studies of ectomycorrhizal relations of Tilia species indicate a wide range of fungal symbionts and a preference toward Ascomycota fungal partners.
Name
The genus is generally called "lime" or "linden" in Britain and "linden", "lime", or "basswood" in North America.
"Lime" is an altered form of Middle English lind, in the 16th century also line, from Old English feminine lind or linde, Proto-Germanic *lindō, cognate to Latin lentus "flexible" and Sanskrit latā "liana". Within Germanic languages, English "lithe", German lind "lenient, yielding" are from the same root.
"Linden" was originally the adjective, "made from linwood or lime-wood" (equivalent to "wooden"); from the late 16th century, "linden" was also used as a noun, probably influenced by translations of German romance, as an adoption of Linden, the plural of German Linde.
Neither the name nor the tree is related to the citrus fruit called "lime" (Citrus aurantifolia, family Rutaceae). Another common name used in North America is basswood, derived from bast, the name for the inner bark (see Uses, below). Teil is an old name for the lime tree.
Latin tilia is cognate to Greek πτελέᾱ, ptelea, "elm tree", τιλίαι, tiliai, "black poplar" (Hes.), ultimately from a Proto-Indo-European word *ptel-ei̯ā with a meaning of "broad" (feminine); perhaps "broad-leaved" or similar.
Description
The Tilia sturdy trunk stands like a pillar and the branches divide and subdivide into numerous ramifications on which the twigs are fine and thick. In summer, these are profusely clothed with large leaves and the result is a dense head of abundant foliage.
The leaves of all the Tilia species are heart-shaped, and most are asymmetrical. The tiny, pea-like fruit hangs attached to a ribbon-like, greenish-yellow bract whose apparent purpose is to launch the ripened seed clusters just a little beyond the parent tree. The flowers of the European and American Tilia species are similar, except the American ones bear a petal-like scale among their stamens and the European varieties are devoid of these appendages. All of the Tilia species may be propagated by cuttings and grafting, as well as by seed. They grow rapidly in rich soil, but are subject to the attack of many insects. Tilia is notoriously difficult to propagate from seed unless collected fresh in fall. If allowed to dry, the seeds go into a deep dormancy and take 18 months to germinate.
In particular, aphids are attracted by the rich supply of sap, and are in turn often "farmed" by ants for the production of the sap, which the ants collect for their own use, and the result can often be a dripping of excess sap onto the lower branches and leaves, and anything else below. Cars left under the trees can quickly become coated with a film of the syrup ("honeydew") thus dropped from higher up. The ant/aphid "farming" process does not appear to cause any serious damage to the trees.
History
In Europe, some linden trees reached considerable ages. A coppice of T. cordata in Westonbirt Arboretum in Gloucestershire is estimated to be 2,000 years old. In the courtyard of the Imperial Castle at Nuremberg is a Tilia, which by tradition recounted in 1900, was planted by the Empress Cunigunde, the wife of Henry II of Germany circa 1000. The Tilia of Neuenstadt am Kocher in Baden-Württemberg, Germany, was estimated at 1000 years old when it fell. The Alte Linde tree of Naters, Switzerland, is mentioned in a document in 1357 and described by the writer at that time as already magnam (large). A plaque at its foot mentions that in 1155, a linden tree was already on this spot. The Najevnik linden tree (), a 700-year-old T. cordata, is the thickest tree in Slovenia.
The excellence of the honey of the far-famed Hyblaean Mountains was due to the linden trees that covered its sides and crowned its summit.
Lime fossils have been found in the Tertiary formations of Grinnell Land, Canada, at 82°N latitude, and in Svalbard, Norway. Sapporta believed he had found there the common ancestor of the Tilia species of Europe and America.
Uses
The linden is recommended as an ornamental tree when a mass of foliage or a deep shade is desired. It produces fragrant and nectar-producing flowers and is an important honey plant for beekeepers, giving rise to a pale but richly flavoured monofloral honey. In European and North American herbal medicine, the flowers are also used for herbal teas and tinctures.
In English landscape gardens, avenues of linden trees were fashionable, especially during the late 17th and early 18th centuries. Many country houses have a surviving "lime avenue" or "lime walk", the example at Hatfield House was planted between 1700 and 1730. The fashion was derived from the earlier practice of planting lindens in lines as shade trees in Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium and northern France. Most of the trees used in British gardens were cultivars propagated by layering in the Netherlands.
Wood
Linden trees produce soft and easily worked timber, which has very little grain and a density of 560 kg/m3. It was often used by Germanic tribes for constructing shields. It is a popular wood for model building and for intricate carving. Especially in Germany, it was the classic wood for sculpture from the Middle Ages onwards and is the material for the elaborate altarpieces of Veit Stoss, Tilman Riemenschneider, and many others. In England, it was the favoured medium of the sculptor Grinling Gibbons (1648–1721). The wood is used in marionette- and puppet-making and -carving. Having a fine, light grain and being comparatively light in weight, it has been used for centuries for this purpose; despite the availability of modern alternatives, it remains one of the main materials used .
Ease of working and good acoustic properties also make limewood popular for electric and bass guitar bodies and for wind instruments such as recorders. Percussion manufacturers sometimes use Tilia as a material for drum shells, both to enhance their sound and for their aesthetics.
Linden wood is also the material of choice for window blinds and shutters. Real-wood blinds are often made from this lightweight but strong and stable wood, which is well suited to natural and stained finishes.
Bark
Known in the trade as basswood, particularly in North America, its name originates from the inner fibrous bark of the tree, known as bast. A strong fibre is obtained from the tree by peeling off the bark and soaking it in water for a month, after which the inner fibres can be easily separated. Bast obtained from the inside of the bark of the Tilia japonica tree has been used by the Ainu people of Japan to weave their traditional clothing, the attus. Excavations in Britain have shown that lime tree fibre was preferred for clothing there during the Bronze Age. Similar fibres obtained from other plants are also called bast: see Bast fibre.
Herbalism
The dried flowers are mildly sweet and sticky, and the fruit is somewhat sweet and mucilaginous. Linden flower tea has a pleasing taste, due to the aromatic volatile oil found in the flowers. The flowers, leaves, wood, and charcoal (obtained from the wood) are used for medicinal purposes. Active ingredients in the Tilia flowers include flavonoids (which act as antioxidants) and volatile oils. The plant also contains tannins that can act as an astringent.
Linden flowers are used in herbalism for colds, cough, fever, infections, inflammation, high blood pressure, and headache (particularly migraine), and as a diuretic (increases urine production), antispasmodic (reduces smooth muscle spasm along the digestive tract), and sedative. In traditional Austrian medicine, Tilia flowers have been used internally as tea for treatment of disorders of the respiratory tract, fever, and flu. New evidence shows that the flowers may be hepatoprotective. The wood is used for liver and gallbladder disorders and cellulitis (inflammation of the skin and surrounding soft tissue). That wood burned to charcoal is ingested to treat intestinal disorders and used topically to treat edema or infection such as cellulitis or ulcers of the lower leg.
Other uses
Usually, the double-flowered species are used to make perfumes. The leaf buds and young leaves are also edible raw.
Tilia species are used as food plants by the larvae of some Lepidoptera; see List of Lepidoptera that feed on Tilia.
Classification
This list comprises the most widely accepted species, hybrids, and cultivars".
Species
Tilia americana L. – American basswood, American linden
Tilia amurensis – Amur lime, Amur linden
Tilia caroliniana – Carolina basswood
Tilia chinensis – Chinese linden
Tilia chingiana Hu & W.C.Cheng
Tilia cordata Mill. – Small-leaved lime, little-leaf linden or greenspire linden
Tilia dasystyla Steven
Tilia henryana Szyszyl. – Henry's lime, Henry's linden
Tilia hupehensis – Hubei lime
Tilia insularis
Tilia intonsa
Tilia japonica – Japanese lime, shina (when used as a laminate)
†Tilia johnsoni Wolfe & Wehr Eocene; Washington and British Columbia
Tilia kiusiana
Tilia mandshurica – Manchurian lime
Tilia maximowicziana
Tilia miqueliana
Tilia mongolica Maxim. – Mongolian lime, Mongolian linden
Tilia nasczokinii – Nasczokin's lime, Nasczokin's linden
Tilia nobilis
Tilia officinarum
Tilia oliveri – Oliver's lime
Tilia paucicostata
Tilia platyphyllos Scop. – large-leaved lime
Tilia rubra – Red stem lime (syn. T. platyphyllos var. rubra)
Tilia tomentosa Moench – silver lime, silver linden
Tilia tuan Szyszyl.
Hybrids and cultivars
Tilia × euchlora (T. dasystyla × T. cordata)
Tilia × europaea – Common lime (T. cordata × T. platyphyllos; syn. T. × vulgaris)
Tilia × petiolaris (T. tomentosa × T. ?)
Tilia 'Flavescens' – Glenleven linden (T. americana × T. cordata)
Tilia 'Moltkei' (T. americana × T. petiolaris)
Tilia 'Orbicularis' (hybrid, unknown origin)
Tilia 'Spectabilis' (hybrid, unknown origin)
Gallery
See also
International World War Peace Tree, a Tilia tree that stands as a sign of Germany's armistice with the United States
Lime tree in culture
Matryoshka doll, made from linden trees
St Lawrence Lime, a former lime tree in Canterbury, England
References
Bibliography
External links
Malvaceae genera
Medicinal plants
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | [
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] |
261465 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Giant%20Robot | Giant Robot | Giant Robot may refer to:
Giant Robot (magazine), magazine of Asian American popular culture
Mecha, a piloted or remote-controlled limbed vehicle
Giant Robot Week, week-long event that aired on Cartoon Network's Toonami in 2003
Music
Giant Robot (Buckethead album), 1994 solo album by Buckethead
Giant Robot, 1996 album by Buckethead with the band Giant Robot
See also
Giant Robo, a tokusatsu, anime and manga series
Robot (disambiguation) | [
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261466 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20companies%20of%20the%20Netherlands | List of companies of the Netherlands | The Netherlands is the main constituent country of the Kingdom of the Netherlands. It is a densely populated country located in Western Europe with three island territories in the Caribbean. The European part of the Netherlands borders Germany to the east, Belgium to the south, and the North Sea to the northwest, sharing maritime borders with Belgium, the United Kingdom, and Germany. The three largest cities in the Netherlands are Amsterdam, Rotterdam and The Hague. The port of Rotterdam is the world's largest port outside East-Asia, and by far the largest port in Europe.
The Netherlands has a market-based mixed economy, ranking 17th of 177 countries according to the Index of Economic Freedom. It had the thirteenth-highest per capita income in the world in 2013 according to the International Monetary Fund.
For further information on the types of business entities in this country and their abbreviations, see "Business entities in Netherlands".
Largest firms
This list shows firms in the Fortune Global 500, which ranks firms by total revenues reported before March 31, 2017. Only the top five firms (if available) are included as a sample.
Notable firms
This list includes notable companies with primary headquarters located in the country. The industry and sector follow the Industry Classification Benchmark taxonomy. Organizations which have ceased operations are included and noted as defunct.
See also
Dutch East India Company
Dutch West India Company
References
Netherlands
es:Anexo:Empresas de los Países Bajos#Empresas | [
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261471 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hector%20Hodler%20Library | Hector Hodler Library | The Hector Hodler Library is one of the largest Esperanto libraries, with approximately 30,000 books in addition to periodicals, manuscripts, photos, music, and other collections. It occupies three rooms in the central office of the Universal Esperanto Association (UEA) in Rotterdam, Netherlands.
The Swiss Esperanto Society opened the library in Switzerland in 1908. In 1912, the library came into the possession of Hector Hodler, the founder of UEA, and after Hodler's death in 1920 the library remained under the management of UEA in Switzerland. In 1947, the library was renamed the Hector Hodler Library, and when UEA headquarters relocated to Rotterdam, the library was moved there in 1960.
Other major collections of Esperanto books are at the International Esperanto Museum, the Montagu C. Butler Library, the Center for Documentation and Study about the International Language in Switzerland, and the German Esperanto Library.
See also
List of libraries in the Netherlands
References
External links
About the library
Libraries in the Netherlands
Esperanto libraries
Buildings and structures in Rotterdam
Education in South Holland
Esperanto in the Netherlands | [
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261472 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/%C4%B0skenderun | İskenderun | İskenderun (, "Little Alexandria"), historically known as Alexandretta and Scanderoon, is a city in Hatay Province on the Mediterranean coast of Turkey.
Names
The city was founded as Alexandria (Ἀλεξάνδρεια) to commemorate Alexander the Great’s victory over the Persian Darius III at Issus (Cilicia) in (333 BC).
Starting in the Middle Ages, Western pilgrims used the diminutive Romance form Alexandretta.
After the Muslim conquest of Syria, it was named al-ʼIskandarūn (Arabic الإسكندرون), the Arabic rendering of the original "Alexandrou"; this name was further turkified into Ottoman Turkish as İskenderūn (إسكندرون), which in turn was preserved in its current modern Turkish form as İskenderun.
Geography
İskenderun is located on the eastern Mediterranean coast on the Gulf of İskenderun, at the foot of the Nur Mountains (Amanos Mountains).
İskenderun is a busy commercial centre and is one of the largest cities in Hatay Province, similar in size to the provincial seat of Antakya. The city is one of Turkey's largest ports on the Mediterranean and an important industrial centre, home to the İsdemir steelworks, one of Turkey's largest. İskenderun has an active, modern life with good hotels, restaurants and cafes along the palm-lined sea front. There is a variety of accommodation for visitors. İskenderun is also an important naval training base.
Climate
İskenderun has hot, dry summers, and mild, moderately rainy winters (Köppen: Csa, Trewartha: Cs). At certain times of the year the town is swept by a strong wind called 'Yarıkkaya'. The countryside contains large areas of fruit groves. It is an important producer of oranges, tangerines and lemons, and even tropical fruits such as mangoes.
Cuisine
Distinctive İskenderun dishes include Künefe, a hot dessert with cheese. The main dishes include the Turkish staples such as döner and other kebabs served in the flat dürüm bread, lahmacun and also Antakya influenced cuisine including kibbeh, and sour pomegranate syrup used as a salad dressing. İskenderun in particular offers good quality fish and prawns.
History
Antiquity
İskenderun preserves the name, but probably not the exact site, of Alexandria ad Issum. The settlement was founded by Alexander the Great in 333 BC to supersede Myriandus as the key to the Syrian Gates, about 37 km (23 miles) south of the scene of his victory at the Battle of Issus against the Persian King Darius III. Alexander camped in the highlands of İskenderun, around Esentepe, and then ordered the city to be established and named Alexandria. İskenderun is one of many cities founded on Alexander's orders, including Alexandria, Egypt. A memorial, a monument and a bronze statue for the victory raised at the city, and Herodian writes that they were there even at his time.
The importance of the place comes from its relation to the Syrian Gates, the easiest approach to the open ground of Hatay Province and Aleppo.
Ecclesiastical history
The bishopric of Alexandria Minor was a suffragan of Anazarbus, the capital and so also the ecclesiastical metropolis of the Roman province of Cilicia Secunda. Greek menologia speak of Saint Helenus, and the martyr saints Aristio and Theodore as early bishops of the See. But the first documented one is Hesychius, who took part in the First Council of Nicaea in 325 and in a synod at Antioch in 341. Philomusus participated in the First Council of Constantinople in 381. Baranes is mentioned in connection with a synod at Antioch in 445. At the Council of Chalcedon in 451, Julianus was represented by his metropolitan, Cyrus of Anazarbus. Basilius was at the synod in Constantinople in 459 that condemned simoniacs. In 518, Paulus was deposed by the Byzantine Emperor Justinian for supporting the Jacobite Severus of Antioch.
No longer a residential diocese, Alexandria Minor is today listed by the Catholic Church as a titular see. In that list it was long named Cambysopolis, but the Annuario Pontificio now gives the correct ancient name.
Ottoman era
There was fighting here under the Ottoman Empire: in 1606 the army of General Kuyucu Murat Pasha suppressed the Jelali revolts. The Ottomans continued to fortify the city, and the remains of the early 17th-century Ottoman castle walls can still be seen where the Güzün stream crosses the Varyant road. The city was well described in 1675 by the English naval chaplain Henry Teonge in his diary. The next army to cross the Belen Pass and attack Anatolia through here were the Egyptians of Muhammad Ali in 1832.
However, in the later Ottoman period the city developed as the main port on the Mediterranean for the overland trade from Baghdad and India, which had great importance until the establishment of the Egyptian overland route. Iskenderun served as a base, first for Genoese and Venetian merchants, then Western and Northern European merchants. The British Levant Company maintained an agency and factory here for 200 years, until 1825, in spite of high mortality among its employees because of regional disease, some due to lack of sanitation systems. During the 19th century the port grew, and the road to Aleppo was improved. The railway was built in 1912.
At the outset of World War I, when Britain was contemplating the partition of the Ottoman Empire, Lord Kitchener considered the conquest of Alexandretta to be essential in providing Britain with a port and railhead from which to access Iraq. He proposed a new railway be built to the east from Alexandretta, which would greatly reduce the time for reaching India from the UK. The De Bunsen Committee (8 April - 30 June 1915), a British inter-departmental group which was set up to discuss the issue in greater detail, preferred Haifa for this purpose.
Ultimately the British decided not to attack the Ottoman Empire via Alexandretta. On 8 February 1915 the French foreign minister, Théophile Delcassé, protested to Britain's Foreign Secretary, Sir Edward Grey about such an attack, citing a commitment that Britain made in 1912 that it had no designs on Syria. The German field marshal, Hindenburg, subsequently said that
Perhaps not the whole course of the war, but certainly the fate of our Ottoman Ally, could have been settled out of hand, if England had secured a decision in that region, or even seriously attempted it. Possession of the country south of the Tauras [mountains] would have been lost to Turkey at a blow if the English had succeeded in landing at Alexandretta.Armenians, who have maintained a cultural and economic presence in Iskenderun for centuries, most notably due to trade, were wiped out in the Hamidian Massacres, Adana Massacres, and the Armenian genocide, after centuries of discrimination.
Republic of Hatay
Following the collapse of the Ottoman Empire at the end of the First World War, most of Hatay including İskenderun was occupied by French troops.
In July 1920 the San Remo conference assigned the Alexandretta sanjak to Turkey, although it connected to south Syria with its north-western corner. Between 1921 and 1937, the city was part of the autonomous Sanjak of Alexandretta within French-controlled Syria, under the League of Nations French Mandate of Syria and the Lebanon.
The Republic of Hatay was founded in 1938 and, in 1939, it joined the Republic of Turkey after a referendum. The referendum was, and still is, regarded as illegitimate by Syria, as the Turkish government moved supporters into the city and the Turkish Army "expelled most of the province's Alawite Arabs and Armenian majority" to decide the referendum result.
In the 2010s Syria still claimed against Turkey its sovereignty on the Alexandretta region.
Main sights
Yakacık (Payas) contains a splendid example of Ottoman architecture dating to the 16th century: the külliye of Sokollu Mehmet Pasha comprising a mosque, Turkish bath (hamam), Dervish lodge, bazaar, caravanserai, and madrasa (Muslim school).
The Cathedral of the Annunciation is the seat of the Roman Catholic Apostolic Vicariate of Anatolia.
Soğukoluk, a mountain resort on the way to Antakya, is a quiet retreat from the heat of the coast in the summer months.
Bakras (Bagras) Castle, which was built in antiquity and restored many times in later centuries (particularly during the Crusades, when it was a stronghold of the Knights Templar), served as a watchtower on the mountain road from İskenderun to Antakya (Antioch).
Arsuz (Uluçınar), a holiday resort town on the coast to the south of İskenderun, has beautiful sandy beaches, a very warm sea, and places of historical interest. The coast is lined with holiday homes and there is accommodation in hotels or guest houses.
Sport
The city has two association football clubs. One of them is Körfez İskenderunspor. The more successful İskenderunspor folded in 2006, although a phoenix club İskenderunspor 1967 was then founded in 2009.
The city's basketball team is called İskenderun Belediyesi Spor Kulübü.
Media
İskenderun is served by the Güney Gazetesi newspaper.
Film
İskenderun is featured in the film Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade as an important starting point for the Grail map. The State of Hatay is depicted as being ruled by a Sultan, although it was technically a transitional republic.
Notable natives
Nilüfer Çınar Çorlulu
Erol Erdinç
Cem Erman
Helenus of Alexandria (Cilicia)
Selçuk İnan
Yalçın Küçük
Yasin Özdenak
Sarkis Soghanalian
Jehan Barbur
Uğur Şahin
See also
Çukurova
Hatay Province
Names of Asian cities in different languages
Indiana Jones and the Last Crusade
List of cities founded by Alexander the Great
References
Sources
İskenderun Guide
External links
İskenderun
İskenderun pictures
İskenderun News
Information on İskenderun
Catholic Church of İskenderun
Çukurova
Ancient Greek archaeological sites in Turkey
Mediterranean port cities and towns in Turkey
History of Hatay Province
Populated coastal places in Turkey
Populated places in Hatay Province
Fishing communities in Turkey
Jewish communities in Turkey
Districts of Hatay Province
Catholic titular sees in Asia
Cities founded by Alexander the Great
330s BC establishments
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261473 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/States%20of%20the%20German%20Confederation | States of the German Confederation | The states of the German Confederation were member states of the German Confederation, from 20 June 1815 until 24 August 1866.
On the whole, its territory nearly coincided with that remaining in the Holy Roman Empire at the outbreak of the French Revolution, with the notable exception of Belgium. Except for the two rival major powers, Austria and Prussia, and the western left bank of the Rhine (which France had annexed, with tiny Katzenelnbogen), the other member states (or their precursors) had been within Napoleon's Confederation of the Rhine.
The Austrian Empire, excluding the Kingdom of Hungary, the Principality of Transylvania, and the Kingdom of Croatia (all of which became parts of the apostolic kingdom of Hungary within the Danubian Dual Monarchy), the Kingdom of Lombardy–Venetia (constituting parts lost to Italy in 1859- viz. 1866), the Duchy of Bukovina, and the kingdoms of Dalmatia and Galicia (but including, from 1818 till 1850, Duchy of Oświęcim and Duchy of Zator)
Archduchy of Austria (split into Upper Austria and Lower Austria in 1849)
Kingdom of Bohemia
Margraviate of Moravia
Grand Duchy of Salzburg
Duchy of Carinthia
Duchy of Carniola
Duchy of Upper and Lower Silesia
Duchy of Styria
Littoral (consisting of Gorizia and Gradisca, Istria and Trieste)
County of Tyrol
Vorarlberg
The Kingdom of Prussia (excluding Posen, East Prussia and West Prussia)
Brandenburg
Pomerania
Rhine Province (until 1822 the Grand Duchy of the Lower Rhine and the Province of Jülich-Cleves-Berg)
Saxony
Silesia
Westphalia
The Kingdom of Bavaria
Upper Bavaria
Upper Franconia
Swabia
Upper Palatinate
Middle Franconia
Lower Bavaria
Lower Franconia
Palatinate
The Kingdom of Hanover (in personal union with the United Kingdom until 1837)
The Kingdom of Saxony
The Kingdom of Württemberg
The Electorate of Hesse (also known as Hesse-Kassel)
The Grand Duchy of Baden
The Grand Duchy of Hesse (also known as Hesse-Darmstadt)
The Grand Duchy of Luxemburg (in personal union with the United Kingdom of the Netherlands; lost over half of its territory in the west to Belgium in the breakup of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands in 1839, thereby resulting in the Duchy of Limburg becoming a member.)
The Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Schwerin
The Grand Duchy of Mecklenburg-Strelitz
The Grand Duchy of Oldenburg
The Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach
The Duchy of Brunswick (prior Brunswick-Lunenburgian Principality of Wolfenbüttel)
The Duchy of Holstein (in personal union with the Kingdom of Denmark; not a former member of the Confederation of the Rhine)
The Duchy of Limburg (became a member in 1839 in personal union with the Netherlands as compensation for territorial losses in the Grand Duchy of Luxemburg that were caused by the breakup of the United Kingdom of the Netherlands.)
The Duchy of Nassau
The Duchy of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld (Saxe-Coburg and Gotha from 1826)
The Duchy of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg (Saxe-Altenburg from 1826)
The Duchy of Saxe-Hildburghausen (dissolved in 1826; territory merged with Saxe-Meiningen)
The Duchy of Saxe-Lauenburg (in personal union with the Kingdom of Denmark)
The Duchy of Saxe-Meiningen
The Duchy of Anhalt-Bernburg (merged with Anhalt-Dessau in 1863)
The Duchy of Anhalt-Dessau (Duchy of Anhalt-Dessau-Köthen from 1853; Duchy of Anhalt from 1863)
The Duchy of Anhalt-Köthen (merged with Anhalt-Dessau in 1853)
The Principality of Hohenzollern-Hechingen (merged with Kingdom of Prussia in 1850)
The Principality of Hohenzollern-Sigmaringen (merged with Kingdom of Prussia in 1850)
The Principality of Liechtenstein
The Principality of Lippe
The Principality of Reuss Junior Line
The Principality of Reuss Senior Line
The Principality of Schaumburg-Lippe
The Principality of Schwarzburg-Rudolstadt
The Principality of Schwarzburg-Sondershausen
The Principality of Waldeck and Pyrmont
The Landgraviate of Hesse-Homburg (became a member in 1817; merged with Grand Duchy of Hesse in 1866)
The Free Hanseatic City of Bremen (still a constitutive state of Germany)
The Free City of Frankfurt upon Main
The Free and Hanseatic City of Hamburg (still a constitutive state of Germany)
The Free and Hanseatic City of Lübeck
The four free cities were republics by constitution, while all the others were monarchies, some constitutional and some absolutist.
The Duchy of Schleswig was never a member state. But Schleswig was traditionally connected to the duchies of Holstein and Lauenburg, which were member states. In 1848-51 (during the First Schleswig War), it was treated by the German states and the short-lived German Empire as a kind of member. In 1864, the Danish king transferred the three duchies to Austria and Prussia (after the Second Schleswig War).
Sources and references
Westermann, Großer Atlas zur Weltgeschichte (in German, detailed maps)
WorldStatesmen
German Confederation
Lists of subdivisions of Germany
Germany history-related lists
Germany geography-related lists
Modern history of Germany | [
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261474 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John%20Rastell | John Rastell | John Rastell (or Rastall) (c. 1475 – 1536) was an English printer, author, member of parliament, and barrister.
Life
Born in Coventry, he is vaguely reported by Anthony à Wood to have been "educated for a time in grammaticals and philosophicals" at Oxford. He became a member of Middle Temple, and practised as a barrister, but established a printing business in London c.1512. He also devised pagaentries for the king. Amongst works he published, in a preface to Liber assisarum et placitorum corone (1514?) he announced the forthcoming publication of Sir Anthony Fitzherbert's Abbreviamentum librorum legum Anglorum, dated 1516. Among the works issued from the "sygne of the meremayd at Powlysgate," where he lived and worked from 1520 onwards, are The Mery Gestys of the Wydow Edyth (1525), and A Dyaloge of Syr Thomas More (1529). The last of his dated publications was Fabyl's Ghoste (1533), a poem. In 1529 he became M.P. (Member of Parliament) for Dunheved, Cornwall
In 1530 he wrote, in defence of the Catholic doctrine of Purgatory, A New Boke of Purgatory (1530), dialogues on the subject between "Comyngs and Almayn a Christen man, and one Gyngemyn a Turke." This was answered by John Frith in A Disputacion of Purgatorie. Rastell replied with an Apology against John Fryth, also answered by the latter. Rastell had married Elizabeth, sister of Sir Thomas More, with whose Catholic theology and political views he was initially in sympathy. More had begun the controversy with John Frith, and Rastell joined him in attacking the Protestant writer, who, says John Foxe (Actes and Monuments, ed. G Townsend, vol. v. p. 9), did so "overthrow and confound" his adversaries that he converted Rastell to his side.
Separated from his Catholic friends, Rastell does not seem to have been fully trusted by the opposite party, for in a letter to Thomas Cromwell, written probably in 1536, he says that he had spent his time in upholding the king's cause and opposing the pope, with the result that he had lost both his printing business and his legal practice, and was reduced to poverty. He was imprisoned in 1536, perhaps because he had written against the payment of tithes. He probably died in prison, and his will, of which Henry VIII had originally been appointed an executor, was proved on 18 July 1536. He left two sons: William Rastell and John Rastell the Younger, the latter of whom accompanied Richard Hore on his ill-fated expedition. The Jesuit, John Rastell (1532–77), who has been frequently confounded with him, was no relation.
Works
The Pastyme of People, 1529
Rastell's best-known work is The Pastyme of People, the Chronycles of dyvers Realmys and most specially of the Realme of England (1529), a chronicle dealing with English history from the earliest times to the reign of Richard III, edited by Thomas Frognall Dibdin in 1811. His Expositiones terminorum legum Angliae (in French, translated into English, 1527; reprinted 1629, 1636, 1641, &c., as Les Termes de la Ley), and The Abbreviacion of Statutis (1519), of which fifteen editions appeared before 1625, are the best known of his legal works.
The Four Elements, circa 1519
Rastell was also the author of a morality play, A new Interlude and a Mery of the Elements, or The Four Elements written about 1519, which is no doubt the "large and ingenious comedy" attributed to him by Wood.
The unique copy in the British Library is incomplete, and contains neither the date nor the name of the author, identified with John Rastell on the authority of John Bale, who catalogued Natura Naturata among his works, adding a Latin version of the first line of the piece. This interlude was printed in William Carew Hazlitt's edition of Dodsley's Old English Plays, by James Orchard Halliwell-Phillipps for the Percy Soc. (Early English Poetry, vol. 22, 1848), and by Julius Fischer. See also an article by Henry R. Plomer, who unearthed in the Record Office an account of a lawsuit (1534–35) in connection with Rastell's premises at the "Mermaid". For the books issued from his press see a catalogue by Robert Proctor, in Handlists of English Printers (Bibliographical Soc., 1896).
Printer of music
He was also the first English printer of polyphonic music, which he began issuing in the 1520s. The practice of printing music from a single impression i.e. using pieces of type that print staves, notes and text together, was apparently first practiced by Rastell in London about 1520. Two different broadside songsheets printed by him survive, dated to about 1523; two survivals of ephemeral unbound works from such an early date suggest that he may have printed a considerable amount of music. The texts are in English, suggesting they were for the local market, not export. After his death, the musical type were acquired by John Gough.
Notes
References
Devereux, E. J. (1999). A Bibliography of John Rastell. Montreal: McGill-Queen's University Press
Further reading
Geritz, Albert J. & Laine, Amos Lee (1983) John Rastell. Boston: Twayne
King, A. Hyatt (1971) "The significance of John Rastell in early music printing". In: The Library; Sept. 1971, pp. 198–214
External links
Literary Encyclopedia Entry on John Rastell
Attribution:
1470s births
1536 deaths
Writers from London
English printers
English religious writers
16th-century English poets
English non-fiction writers
Politicians from Cornwall
Members of the pre-1707 English Parliament for constituencies in Cornwall
English MPs 1529–1536
English people who died in prison custody
16th-century printers
English male poets | [
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261475 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernest%20John%20Moeran | Ernest John Moeran | Ernest John Smeed Moeran (31 December 1894 – 1 December 1950) was an English composer of part-Irish extraction, whose work was strongly influenced by English and Irish folk music of which he was an assiduous collector. His output includes orchestral pieces, concertos, chamber and keyboard works, and a number of choral and song cycles as well as individual songs.
The son of a clergyman, Moeran studied at the Royal College of Music under Charles Villiers Stanford before service in the army during the First World War, in which he was wounded. After the war he was a pupil of John Ireland, and quickly established a reputation as a composer of promise with a number of well-received works. From 1925 to 1928 he shared a cottage with the composer Peter Warlock; the bohemian lifestyle and heavy drinking during this period interrupted his creativity for a while, and sowed the seeds of the alcoholism that would blight his later life. He resumed composing in the 1930s, and re-established his reputation with a series of major works, including a symphony and a violin concerto. From 1934 onwards he spent much of his time in Ireland, mainly in the coastal town of Kenmare.
In 1945 Moeran married the cellist Peers Coetmore, and for her he composed several works for cello. The marriage was not destined to last, and Moeran's final years were lonely. He died at Kenmare on 1 December 1950, having fallen into the water after suffering a cerebral haemorrhage. A second symphony was left unfinished at the time of his death. Composer Anthony Payne declared that "Moeran occupied a minor place in the music of his time, but his meticulously polished and ready technique is unsurpassed among his British contemporaries. This craftsmanship is evident in the clarity of his textures and processes, and in the superb sonority of his orchestral writing".
Life
Early life
Moeran was born on 31 December 1894, at the Spring Grove vicarage, Heston, Middlesex, the second son of an Anglo-Irish clergyman, The Rev. Joseph William Wright Moeran, vicar of St Mary's, Spring Grove, and Ada Esther Smeed, née Whall, who came from Norfolk. Joseph subsequently served in several country parishes in southern and eastern England, including Salhouse in Norfolk, before his retirement on health grounds when Ernest was 13. The household was cultured; Ada was a talented pianist and singer, and Ernest began music lessons from the age of five or six. His initial education was under a governess at home, after which, in 1904, he attended Suffield Park preparatory school in Cromer. In 1908 he went to Uppingham School, where he studied music under Robert Sterndale Bennett, grandson of the composer William Sterndale Bennett. He became a proficient pianist, and learned the violin sufficiently to be able to perform in chamber groups; he also began to compose. In 1913 he entered the Royal College of Music (RCM), initially as a piano student, but switching to composition under Charles Villiers Stanford after his first year. He also became a member of the Oxford and Cambridge Musical Club, an important body whose members included Vaughan Williams, George Butterworth and Adrian Boult; Parry and Elgar were honorary members. A few sketches of piano compositions attempted in this prewar RCM period survive in manuscript form.
First World War
Moeran was 19 when his studies at the RCM were interrupted in August 1914 by the outbreak of the First World War. He enlisted as a motor cycle dispatch rider in the 6th (cyclist) battalion of the Norfolk Regiment, and the following year was commissioned second lieutenant. He did not altogether abandon his musical activities; on leaves in Norfolk, he began to collect folk music. In early 1917 his unit was sent to France, and on 3 May, during the Second Battle of Bullecourt, he received a wound in the head. According to several accounts, this wound required emergency surgery, including the insertion of a metal plate into the skull, and commentators have attributed
Moeran's later instabilities and erratic behaviour, and his eventual development of alcoholism, to the primitive surgery and after-effects of this wound. However, other evidence suggests that the wound was less severe, that no metal plate was necessary, and that he made a rapid recovery. He was reported, in August 1917, as performing a very demanding piano piece at a London concert, indicating that he was in a reasonable state of fitness at that time.
After a period of convalescence he returned to military duty, and saw out the rest of the war in Ireland, at Boyle, County Roscommon, attached to a transport section of the Royal Irish Constabulary. He used this period in Ireland to engage with his Irish roots, and spent time collecting folk songs. In London, just before his discharge from the army in January 1919, Moeran met the composer Arnold Bax, who described him at that time "as charming and as good-looking a young officer as one could hope to meet".
Emerging composer
Following demobilisation in January 1919, Moeran returned to England. Some accounts report that he was briefly employed as a music master at his old school, Uppingham, but there is no evidence from the school for this. He appears to have returned to Ireland for a while before resuming his studies at the RCM, under John Ireland. His association with the RCM did not last long, but he continued to receive tuition in composition from John Ireland in a private capacity. Moeran's biographer Geoffrey Self observes that from this point "the main influences to be heard in his music were now in place: his teacher, his Irish and East Anglian heritages, and his love of rural England."
An allowance from his mother relieved Moeran from the necessity of earning a living, and with this financial independence he was able to devote his time to study and composition. The Oxford & Cambridge Musical Club gave him the means by which his works could be performed. In five productive years following the end of the war, he established his reputation as a composer with a steady stream of works across a range of genres. According to the critic Herbert Foss, these early pieces display a fluency that was often absent in later years. They include numerous songs, a number of piano and chamber works and, on a larger canvas, his first attempts at orchestral writing, the symphonic In The Mountain Country and two Rhapsodies. These early orchestral pieces indicate the influences of Delius and Vaughan Williams, but also demonstrate the emergence of a distinct, individual voice.
During this period, Moeran collected many folk tunes from rural pubs in Norfolk. His contribution to this area of work was recognised in 1923, when he was elected to the committee of the Folksong Society. As his reputation grew, he formed important friendships with leading figures on the musical scene, among whom was Hamilton Harty, who conducted a performance of Moeran's second orchestral Rhapsody and afterwards commissioned a symphony from the young composer. Moeran struggled with this challenge, but at this stage in his career was unable to deliver to his own satisfaction, and the project was set aside for the time being. Another important friendship formed around this time was with the writer, critic and composer Philip Heseltine (better known by his pseudonym Peter Warlock), Moeran's exact contemporary and like him a prolific songwriter. Heseltine was a great admirer of Moeran; in a 1924 review of the latter's early work, he wrote: "[T]here is no British composer from whom we may more confidently expect work of sound and enduring quality in the next ten years than from Jack Moeran; there is certainly no one of his years who has as yet achieved so much".
Heseltine and Eynsford
The friendship between Moeran and Heseltine deepened, and in 1925 they rented a cottage at Eynsford in Kent, together with the artist Hal Collins. The cottage attracted many visitors from the musical and artistic worlds, and soon became notorious as a centre for wild parties and other extravagances, involving heavy drinking. The excessive alcoholic consumption seemed to have little effect on Heseltine, who continued to work productively, but the opposite was true of Moeran, whose creativity soon began to suffer. He found it difficult to cope with the distractions provided by the cottage; his compositional output tailed off and finally ceased altogether, and he dropped out of the London musical scene, no longer attending the Oxford and Cambridge Musical Club. Furthermore, he was falling into alcoholism, and was also under the spell of Heseltine's stronger personality. Moeran later admitted a loss of faith in his abilities, finding that the longer he delayed, the harder it was to resume work.
The few works completed during the Eynsford years (1925–1928) include his single collaboration with Heseltine, a drinking song called "Maltworms", written for performance at a drama festival at the nearby village of Shoreham. Heseltine wrote a tune for the first two lines, Moeran continued with the next lines, and so on. Parts were scored for the village brass band, but in the event the song was withdrawn from the festival and the band parts have been lost, but a piano-accompanied version survived and was performed in the village pub.
Moeran left the cottage in 1928, but the effects of his alcoholism remained. In August 1929 he was fined £10 by the Watford magistrates for being drunk in charge of a motor vehicle; that same year he went with Heseltine and others to France, ostensibly to meet Delius. The trip degenerated into a drunken binge, during which Moeran passed out in the street. When Heseltine died in December 1930, probably by his own hand, Moeran was devastated. He wrote to Heseltine's mother: "His loss will mean a terrible gap to me when I get back to normal life and find he is no longer there".
Re-establishment
After leaving Eynsford, Moeran returned to his parents' home and began to pick up the threads of his compositional career. He had not been entirely forgotten by the musical establishment; in January 1930, the critic Hubert Foss wrote a reappraisal of Moeran's earlier works, referring to the composer's "over-long silence", but saw hope for the future: "One hopes that out of this corpus of early works a symphonic mind may grow, one that with intensity of form as well as intensity of utterance, will give us real music on a big scale".
An accident early in 1930 led to a period of convalescence which provided an opportunity for Moeran to reconsider his style. Gradually, new works were forthcoming: the Sonata for two violins (1930), the String Trio (1931), two orchestral pieces – Wythorne's Shadow (1931), and Lonely Waters (1932). A choral work, Songs of Springtime, a setting of seven Elizabethan poems, followed in 1933. Wythorne's Shadow was written possibly as a memorial for Heseltine. Several songs, including a cycle of six Suffolk folksongs, indicated the continuing importance of folk music to Moeran, and in 1931 he rejoined the committee of the Folksong Society. He also wrote some sacred music, to which he attached little value – "this tripe for the church", he called it, adding that he only did it for the money.
Moeran led an itinerant life in the 1930s, staying at his parents' various homes or with friends. However, as the decade progressed, he became more interested in his Irish roots, and began to spend large parts of the year in a cottage in Kenmare, County Kerry, where he became a well known and popular figure; Arnold Bax recorded a local comment: "If ever there was a move to elect a mayor of this town, Jack Moeran would be everybody's first choice". The peace that he found in rural Ireland inspired him to return, in 1934, to the long-abandoned symphony project. In the midst of this burgeoning creativity, Moeran continued to experience problems with alcoholism. In January 1935 he was ordered to spend nine months in a nursing home, having been found guilty in Cambridge of being drunk in charge of a motor vehicle. This interrupted but did not derail his work on the symphony, which was finally completed in 1937 and received its premiere in January 1938 in the Queen's Hall, under Leslie Heward. Heward went on to make an acclaimed recording of the Symphony with the Halle Orchestra at the end of 1942.
The years following the performance of the symphony were fruitful, and produced a number of significant works. These included the Violin Concerto (1937–41), written largely in Ireland and reflecting strong Irish influences; the madrigal suite Phyllida and Corydon (1939), possibly influenced by the music of Bernard van Dieren; the Rhapsody in F ♯ for piano and orchestra (1943), written for the pianist Harriet Cohen; the short Overture for a Masque (1944), commissioned by the Entertainments National Service Association (ENSA); and the Sinfonietta (1944), inspired in part by the hills of the Welsh border country in Radnorshire, the latest location of the family home.
Final years
Possibly as early as 1930, Moeran had met the cellist (Kathleen) Peers Coetmore. In 1943 they renewed their acquaintance, and a relationship developed, which inspired two of Moeran's important late works: the Cello Concerto (1945), and the Sonata for Cello and Piano (1947). They were married on 26 July 1945. Although the marriage brought Moeran some initial happiness and stability, Coetmore's ambitions, and the demands for her services, meant that they were often apart, and the relationship became increasingly strained. Moeran was drinking heavily, which led to further estrangement. By 1949, when Coetmore departed for an extended tour of South Africa, Australia and New Zealand, the marriage was effectively over.
Moeran produced three further late works: the Fantasy Quartet for oboe and strings (1946), written for Leon Goossens; the orchestral Serenade in G (1948), and a final song collection, Songs from County Kerry (1950). Throughout these years he struggled to complete a second symphony, and although he composed a large part of this work, he was repeatedly dissatisfied with the results. In 1949 he was under further treatment for alcoholism; the first performance of the symphony had originally scheduled for the spring of 1949 but this was put back, first until 1950 and then for a further year. In March 1950 Moeran was in Ireland, writing to Coetmore of his hopes for finishing the symphony there. He settled first in a place near Dublin, but by June he was back in Kenmare. By now his mental state was poor, and he worried that he was losing his mind. There is no record of further work on the symphony project.
On 1 December 1950, during a heavy winter storm, Moeran left his cottage and walked along the Kenmare pier, where he was seen to fall into the water. His body was retrieved; at first it was thought that he had drowned, possibly in an act of suicide, but medical evidence indicated that he had suffered a cerebral haemorrhage and had died before entering the water. After a well-attended funeral he was buried in the churchyard at Kenmare.
Music
Moeran came late in the canon of last major British composers heavily influenced by folk-song and thus belongs to the lyrical tradition of such composers as Delius, Vaughan Williams and Ireland. The influence of the nature and landscapes of Norfolk and Ireland are also often evident in his music. Some of his larger-scale orchestral pieces were composed (or at least conceived) whilst Moeran walked the hills of western England, particularly in Herefordshire, and Ireland, where the grandness of the mountain ranges of Kerry inspired him greatly. Moeran was capable of conveying a wide range of emotions through his music and wasn't afraid of writing in a darker and harsher idiom when it suited him. His style is conservative but not derivative.
By Moeran's time, however, such a style was already seen as somewhat dated and he never made a big breakthrough as a composer despite the success of the sombre, Sibelian Symphony in G minor (1934–1937) that is generally regarded as his masterpiece. The Symphony stands along with the Symphony No. 1 of Sir William Walton as one of the two tightest and most controlled symphonies emanating from the British Isles of the inter-war era. The Moeran work demonstrates a robust sonata form in the first movement, along with a questioning harmonic structure, which, on first examination, may appear orthodox, but which on deeper analysis indicates the dichotomy of the interval of the fifth (which is European diatonic) with the interval of the fourth, which is both the completion of the European fifth, but also introduces the Irish dimension, in which the fourth can be the predominant interval.
Though he first received favourable critical attention for his chamber music and continued to compose significant works in this genre, his greatest achievements in general are to be found among his few large-scale orchestral works, including a Violin Concerto, Cello Concerto, Sinfonietta, and Serenade.
Moeran was very interested in "folk" music and used an extensive collection of songs that he had notated in Norfolk pubs as part of his creative material. He also made great use of Irish music. The Norfolk material can be sensed in the piano works of the early 1920s. The Irish influence is seen within the second movement of the Violin Concerto (Puck Fair at Killorglin?) and even more so in the second movement of the String Quartet in E-flat, as well as in the Cello Concerto, in which fragments of Irish music, in particular "The Star of County Down" (also used by Vaughan Williams in his Five Variants of Dives and Lazarus), are evident.
Another facet to the music of Moeran is the madrigal. He once stated to a friend that if he were ever arrested and thus forced to state his profession, he would have to say it was that of being a madrigalist. Moeran was capable of staggering harmonic invention whilst working within the madrigal form – in Spring the Sweet Spring the harmonies progress from those of the madrigal into harmonies of a jazz style reminiscent of Duke Ellington; full of contradictions and added-note chords. The Serenade, an orchestral work, evinces madrigalist harmony re-worked by Moeran into an astringent style in which acerbic tonal and harmonic patterns are grafted onto the madrigalist basis to produce music of outstanding freshness and originality that surely places Moeran into the genre of inventive twentieth-century music, rather than into the "English Pastoral School", which, in itself, is arguably a misnomer.
Although he was not by any means a prolific church composer, his Services in D and E-flat are still performed today.
Recently, there has been more interest in and many recordings of Moeran's works, but some of them, such as the songs to poems by A. E. Housman and James Joyce, still remain relatively unknown.
Over 40 of his manuscripts, including that of his unfinished Second Symphony in E-flat, were bequeathed by his widow Peers Coetmore to the Victorian College of the Arts, now part of the University of Melbourne.
Conductor Martin Yates has realised and completed the Symphony No. 2 from sketches. A recording of the work with Yates conducting the Royal Scottish National Orchestra was released in October 2011 on the Dutton Epoch label (together with the early Overture based on the G major Symphony, and Yates' own orchestration of Sarnia by John Ireland).
Selected works
Symphonic
In the Mountain Country, symphonic impression (1921)
Rhapsody No. 1 in F major (1922)
Rhapsody No. 2 in E major (1924; rev. 1941)
Two Pieces for Small Orchestra (1931):
Lonely Waters
Whythorne's Shadow
Farrago, suite for orchestra (1932)
Symphony in G minor (1934–37; dedicated to Sir Hamilton Harty)
Sinfonietta (1944; dedicated to Arthur Bliss)
Overture for a Masque (1944; dedicated to Walter Legge)
Serenade in G major (1948)
Symphony No. 2 in E-flat major – unfinished; completed by conductor Martin Yates, 2011
Concertos
Violin Concerto (1942; written for Arthur Catterall)
Rhapsody No. 3 in F-sharp major for piano and orchestra (1943)
Cello Concerto (1945; written for Peers Coetmore)
Vocal
Ludlow Town, song cycle (1920)
Songs of Springtime, for mixed chorus (1934)
Nocturne, for baritone, chorus and orchestra (1934; dedicated to the memory of Frederick Delius)
Phyllida and Corydon, for mixed chorus (1939)
Chamber
Piano Trio in D major (1920)
String Quartet in A minor (1921)
Violin Sonata in E minor (1923)
Sonata for 2 Violins in A major (1930)
Trio for violin, viola and cello in G major (1931)
Prelude for cello and piano (1943, published 1944, written for Peers Coetmore)
Fantasy Quartet, for oboe and strings (1946)
Cello Sonata in A minor (1947; written for Peers Coetmore)
String Quartet in E-flat (1949-50)
Piano
Three Pieces (The Lake Island, Autumn Woods, and At a Horse Fair) (1919)
Theme and Variations (1920)
On a May Morning (1921)
Stalham River (1921)
Toccata (1921)
Three Fancies (Windmills, Elegy, and Burlesque) (1922)
Two Legends (Rune, and A Folk Story) (1923)
Bank Holiday (1925)
Summer Valley (1925)
Two Irish Folk Songs (The White Mountain, and Irish Love Song) (1926, 1927)
Berceuse (1933)
Prelude in G minor (1933)
References
Sources
External links
Ernest John Moeran (1894–1950), Composer: Sitter in 6 portraits (National Portrait Gallery)
The Worldwide Moeran Database by Andrew Rose, including a more detailed biography and a complete list of works.
Moeran's Last Symphony (BBC Radio 4 dramatisation of his last days)
Moeran's Ghost (BBC Radio 3 programme)
At Ease with the Locals (BBC Radio 3 programme)
'Old Raspberry' Goes off the Rails (BBC Radio 3 programme)
Jack Reclaims His Irish Heritage (BBC Radio 3 programme)
A Mysterious Death (BBC Radio 3 programme)
1894 births
1950 deaths
20th-century British male musicians
20th-century classical composers
20th-century English composers
20th-century English musicians
Alumni of the Royal College of Music
British Army personnel of World War I
Composers for piano
English classical composers
English folk-song collectors
English male classical composers
English people of Irish descent
Irish classical composers
Irish male classical composers
People educated at Uppingham School
People from Heston
People from Kington, Herefordshire
People from North Norfolk (district)
Pupils of Charles Villiers Stanford
Royal Irish Constabulary officers
Royal Norfolk Regiment officers
People from Eynsford | [
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261479 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Quipu | Quipu | Quipu (also spelled khipu) are recording devices fashioned from strings historically used by a number of cultures in the region of Andean South America. Knotted strings for collecting data, government management and keeping records were also used by the ancient Chinese, Tibetans and Japanese, but such practices should not be confused with the quipu, which refers only to the Andean method.
A quipu usually consisted of cotton or camelid fiber strings. The Inca people used them for collecting data and keeping records, monitoring tax obligations, properly collecting census records, calendrical information, and for military organization. The cords stored numeric and other values encoded as knots, often in a base ten positional system. A quipu could have only a few or thousands of cords. The configuration of the quipus has been "compared to string mops." Archaeological evidence has also shown the use of finely carved wood as a supplemental, and perhaps sturdier, base to which the color-coded cords would be attached. A relatively small number have survived.
Objects that can be identified unambiguously as quipus first appear in the archaeological record in the first millennium AD (though debated quipus are much earlier). They subsequently played a key part in the administration of the Kingdom of Cusco and later Tawantinsuyu, the empire controlled by the Inca ethnic group, flourishing across the Andes from c. 1100 to 1532 AD. Some have argued that as the region was subsumed under the Spanish Empire, the quipus were actively destroyed, to be replaced by European writing and numeral systems; but the Spanish response to the quipu is much more complicated than this. While certainly some quipu were identified as idolatrous and destroyed, the Spaniards actually promoted the adaptation of the quipu recording system to the needs of the colonial administration; and priests advocated the use of quipus for ecclesiastical purposes. In several modern villages, quipus have continued to be important items for the local community, albeit for ritual rather than practical use. It is unclear as to where and how many intact quipus still exist, as many have been stored away in mausoleums.
Quipu is the Spanish spelling and the most common spelling in English. Khipu (pronounced , plural: khipukuna) is the word for "knot" in Cusco Quechua. In most Quechua varieties, the term is kipu.
Etymology
"Quipu" is a Quechua word meaning "knot" or "to knot". The terms "quipu" and "khipu" are simply spelling variations on the same word. "Quipu" is the traditional Spanish spelling, while "khipu" reflects the recent Quechuan and Aymaran spelling shift.
Purpose
Most information recorded on the quipus consists of numbers in a decimal system, such as "Indian chiefs ascertain[ing] which province had lost more than another and balanc[ing] the losses between them" after the Spanish invasion.
In the early years of the Spanish conquest of Peru, Spanish officials often relied on the quipus to settle disputes over local tribute payments or goods production. Quipucamayocs (Quechua khipu kamayuq "khipu specialist", plural: khipu kamayuqkuna) could be summoned to court, where their bookkeeping was recognised as valid documentation of past payments.
Some of the knots, as well as other features, such as color, are thought to represent non-numeric information, which has not been deciphered. It is generally thought that the system did not include phonetic symbols analogous to letters of the alphabet. However Gary Urton has suggested that the quipus used a binary system which could record phonological or logographic data. His student Manny Medrano has gone further to find quipus that decode to match census data.
The lack of a clear link between any indigenous Peruvian languages and the quipus has historically led to the supposition that quipus are not a glottographic writing system and have no phonetic referent. Frank Salomon at the University of Wisconsin has argued that quipus are actually a semasiographic language, a system of representative symbolssuch as music notation or numeralsthat relay information but are not directly related to the speech sounds of a particular language. The Khipu Database Project (KDP), begun by Gary Urton, may have already decoded the first word from a quipu–the name of a village, Puruchuco–which Urton believes was represented by a three-number sequence, similar to a ZIP code. If this conjecture is correct, quipus are the only known example of a complex language recorded in a 3-D system.
Most recently, Sabine Hyland has made the first phonetic decipherment of a quipu, challenging the assumption that quipus do not represent information phonetically. After being contacted by local woman Meche Moreyra Orozco, the head of the Association of Collatinos in Lima, Hyland was granted access to the epistolary quipus of San Juan de Collata. These quipus were exchanged during an 18th century rebellion against the Spanish government. A combination of color, fiber and ply direction leads to a total of 95 combinations in these quipus, which is within the range of a logosyllabic writing system. Exchanging information about the rebellion through quipus would have prevented the Spanish authorities from understanding the messages if they were intercepted, and the Collata quipus are non-numeric. With the help of local leaders, who described the quipu as "a language of animals", Hyland was able to translate the names of the two ayllus, or family lineages, who received and sent the quipu. The translation relied on phonetic references to the animal fibers and colors of the relevant quipu cords. Future research will attempt to determine whether Hyland's findings are applicable to quipus from the Inca period and earlier.
Numeral system
Marcia Ascher and Robert Ascher, after having analyzed several hundred quipus, have shown that most information on quipus is numeric, and these numbers can be read. Each cluster of knots is a digit, and there are three main types of knots: simple overhand knots; "long knots", consisting of an overhand knot with one or more additional turns; and figure-eight knots. In the Aschers’ system, a fourth type of knot—figure-eight knot with an extra twist—is referred to as "EE". A number is represented as a sequence of knot clusters in base 10.
Powers of ten are shown by position along the string, and this position is aligned between successive strands.
Digits in positions for 10 and higher powers are represented by clusters of simple knots (e.g., 40 is four simple knots in a row in the "tens" position).
Digits in the "ones" position are represented by long knots (e.g., 4 is a knot with four turns). Because of the way the knots are tied, the digit 1 cannot be shown this way and is represented in this position by a figure-eight knot.
Zero is represented by the absence of a knot in the appropriate position.
Because the ones digit is shown in a distinctive way, it is clear where a number ends. One strand on a quipu can therefore contain several numbers.
For example, if 4s represents four simple knots, 3L represents a long knot with three turns, E represents a figure-eight knot and X represents a space:
The number 731 would be represented by 7s, 3s, E.
The number 804 would be represented by 8s, X, 4L.
The number 107 followed by the number 51 would be represented by 1s, X, 7L, 5s, E.
This reading can be confirmed by a fortunate fact: quipus regularly contain sums in a systematic way. For instance, a cord may contain the sum of the next n cords, and this relationship is repeated throughout the quipu. Sometimes there are sums of sums as well. Such a relationship would be very improbable if the knots were incorrectly read.
Some data items are not numbers but what Ascher and Ascher call number labels. They are still composed of digits, but the resulting number seems to be used as a code, much as we use numbers to identify individuals, places, or things. Lacking the context for individual quipus, it is difficult to guess what any given code might mean. Other aspects of a quipu could have communicated information as well: color-coding, relative placement of cords, spacing, and the structure of cords and sub-cords.
Literary uses
Some have argued that far more than numeric information is present and that quipus are a writing system. This would be an especially important discovery as there is no surviving record of written Quechua predating the Spanish invasion. Possible reasons for this apparent absence of a written language include destruction by the Spanish of all written records, or the successful concealment by the Inca peoples of those records. Making the matter even more complex, the Inca 'kept separate "khipu" for each province, on which a pendant string recorded the number of people belonging to each category.' This creates yet another step in the process of decryption in addition to the Spanish attempts at eradicating the system. Historians Edward Hyams and George Ordish believe quipus were recording devices, similar to musical notation, in that the notes on the page present basic information, and the performer would then bring those details to life.
In 2003, while checking the geometric signs that appear on drawings of Inca dresses from the First New Chronicle and Good Government, written by Felipe Guaman Poma de Ayala in 1615, William Burns Glynn found a pattern that seems to decipher some words from quipus by matching knots to colors of strings.
The August 12, 2005, edition of the journal Science includes a report titled "Khipu Accounting in Ancient Peru" by anthropologist Gary Urton and mathematician Carrie J. Brezine. Their work may represent the first identification of a quipu element for a non-numeric concept, a sequence of three figure-eight knots at the start of a quipu that seems to be a unique signifier. It could be a toponym for the city of Puruchuco (near Lima), or the name of the quipu keeper who made it, or its subject matter, or even a time designator.
Beynon-Davies considers quipus as a sign system and develops an interpretation of their physical structure in terms of the concept of a data system.
Khipu kamayuqkuna (knot makers/keepers, i.e., the former Inca record keepers) supplied colonial administrators with a variety and quantity of information pertaining to censuses, tribute, ritual and calendrical organization, genealogies, and other such matters from Inka times. Performing a number of statistical tests for quipu sample VA 42527, one study led by Alberto Sáez-Rodríguez discovered that the distribution and patterning of S- and Z-knots can organize the information system from a real star map of the Pleiades cluster.
Laura Minelli, a professor of pre-Columbian studies at the University of Bologna, has discovered something which she believed to be a seventeenth-century Jesuit manuscript that describes literary quipus, titled . This manuscript consists of nine folios with Spanish, Latin, and ciphered Italian texts. Owned by the family of Neapolitan historian Clara Miccinelli, the manuscript also includes a wool quipu fragment. Miccinelli believes that the text was written by two Italian Jesuit missionaries, Joan Antonio Cumis and Giovanni Anello Oliva, around 1610–1638, and Blas Valera, a mestizo Jesuit sometime before 1618. Along with the details of reading literary quipus, the documents also discuss the events and people of the Spanish conquest of Peru. According to Cumis, since so many quipus were burned by the Spanish, very few remained for him to analyze. As related in the manuscript, the word Pacha Kamaq, the Inca deity of earth and time, was used many times in these quipus, where the syllables were represented by symbols formed in the knots. Following the analysis of the use of "Pacha Kamaq", the manuscript offers a list of many words present in quipus. However, both Bruce Mannheim, the director of the Center for Latin American Studies at the University of Michigan, and Colgate University's Gary Urton, question its origin and authenticity. These documents seem to be inspired freely by a 1751 writing of Raimondo di Sangro, Prince of Sansevero.
History
Tawantin Suyu
Quipucamayocs (Quechua khipu kamayuq, "khipu-authority"), the accountants of Tawantin Suyu, created and deciphered the quipu knots. Quipucamayocs could carry out basic arithmetic operations, such as addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division. They kept track of mita, a form of taxation. The quipucamayocs also tracked the type of labor being performed, maintained a record of economic output, and ran a census that counted everyone from infants to "old blind men over 80". The system was also used to keep track of the calendar. According to Guaman Poma, quipucamayocs could "read" the quipus with their eyes closed.
Quipucamayocs were from a class of people, "males, fifty to sixty", and were not the only members of Inca society to use quipus. Inca historians used quipus when telling the Spanish about Tawantin Suyu history (whether they only recorded important numbers or actually contained the story itself is unknown). Members of the ruling class were usually taught to read quipus in the Inca equivalent of a university, the yachay wasi (literally, "house of teaching"), in the third year of schooling, for the higher classes who would eventually become the bureaucracy.
Spanish invasion
In 1532, the Spanish Empire's conquest of the Andean region began, with several Spanish conquerors making note of the existence of quipus in their written records about the invasion. The earliest known example comes from Hernando Pizarro, the brother of the Spanish military leader Francisco Pizarro, who recorded an encounter that he and his men had in 1533 as they traveled along the royal road from the highlands to the central coast. It was during this journey that they encountered several quipu keepers, later relating that these keepers "untied some of the knots which they had in the deposits section [of the khipu], and they [re-]tied them in another section [of the khipu]."
The Spanish authorities quickly suppressed the use of quipus.
Christian officials of the Third Council of Lima banned and ordered the burning of all Quipus in 1583 because they were used to record offerings to non-Christian gods and were therefore considered idolatrous objects and an obstacle to religious conversion.
Contemporary social importance
The quipu system operated as both a method of calculation and social organization, regulating regional governance and land use. While evidence for the latter is still under the critical eye of scholars around the world, the very fact that they are kept to this day without any confirmed level of fluent literacy in the system is testament to its historical 'moral authority.' Today, "khipu" is regarded as a powerful symbol of heritage, only 'unfurled' and handled by 'pairs of [contemporary] dignitaries,' as the system and its 'construction embed' modern 'cultural knowledge.' Ceremonies in which they are 'curated, even though they can no longer be read,' is even further support for the case of societal honor and significance associated with the quipu. Even today, 'the knotted cords must be present and displayed when village officers leave or begin service, and draping the cords over the incoming office holders instantiates the moral and political authority of the past.' These examples are indicative of how the quipu system is not only fundamental mathematically or linguistically for the original Inca, but also for the cultural preservation of the original empire's descendants.
Anthropologists and archaeologists working in Peru have highlighted two known cases where quipus have continued to be used by contemporary communities, albeit as ritual items seen as "communal patrimony" rather than as devices for recording information. The khipu system, being the useful method of social management it was for the Inca, is also a link to the Cuzco census, as it was one of the primary methods of population calculation. This also has allowed historians and anthropologists to understand both the census and the "decimal hierarchy" system the Inca used, and that they were actually 'initiated together,' due to the fact that they were 'conceptually so closely linked.'
Tupicocha, Peru
In 1994, the American cultural anthropologist Frank Salomon conducted a study in the Peruvian village of Tupicocha, where quipus are still an important part of the social life of the village. As of 1994, this was the only village where quipus with a structure similar to pre-Columbian quipus were still used for official local government record-keeping and functions, although the villagers did not associate their quipus with Inca artifacts.
San Cristóbal de Rapaz, Peru
The villagers of San Cristóbal de Rapaz (known as Rapacinos), located in the Province of Oyón, keep a quipu in an old ceremonial building, the Kaha Wayi, that is itself surrounded by a walled architectural complex. Also within the complex is a disused communal storehouse, known as the Pasa Qullqa, which was formerly used to protect and redistribute the local crops, and some Rapacinos believe that the quipu was once a record of this process of collecting and redistributing food. The entire complex was important to the villagers, being "the seat of traditional control over land use, and the centre of communication with the deified mountains who control weather".
In 2004, the archaeologist Renata Peeters (of the UCL Institute of Archaeology in London) and the cultural anthropologist Frank Salomon (of the University of Wisconsin) undertook a project to conserve both the quipus in Rapaz and the building that it was in, due to their increasingly poor condition.
Archaeological investigation
In 1912 anthropologist Leslie Leland Locke published "The Ancient Quipu, A Peruvian Knot Record," American Anthropologist, New Series I4 (1912) 325-332. This was the first work to show how the Inca (Inka) Empire and its predecessor societies used the quipu (Khipu) for mathematical and accounting records in the decimal system.
The archaeologist Gary Urton noted in his 2003 book Signs of the Inka Khipu that he estimated "from my own studies and from the published works of other scholars that there are about 600 extant quipu in public and private collections around the world."
According to the Khipu Database Project undertaken by Harvard University professor Gary Urton and his colleague Carrie Brezine, 751 quipus have been reported to exist across the globe. Their whereabouts range from Europe to North and South America. Most are housed in museums outside of their native countries, but some reside in their native locations under the care of the descendants of those who made the knot records. A table of the largest collections is shown below.
While patrimonial quipu collections have not been accounted for in this database, their numbers are likely to be unknown. One prominent patrimonial collection held by the Rapazians of Rapaz, Peru, was recently researched by University of Wisconsin–Madison professor, Frank Salomon. The Anthropology/Archaeology department at the University of California at Santa Barbara also holds one quipu.
Preservation
Quipus are made of fibers, either spun and plied thread such as wool or hair from alpaca, llama, guanaco or vicuña, though are also commonly made of cellulose like cotton. The knotted strings of quipus were often made with an "elaborate system of knotted cords, dyed in various colors, the significance of which was known to the magistrates". Fading of color, natural or dyed, cannot be reversed, and may indicate further damage to the fibers. Colors can darken if attacked by dust or by certain dyes and mordants. Quipus have been found with adornments, such as animal shells, attached to the cords, and these non-textile materials may require additional preservation measures.
Quipus are now preserved using techniques that will minimise their future degradation. Museums, archives and special collections have adopted preservation guidelines from textile practices.
Environmental controls are used to monitor and control temperature, humidity and light exposure of storage areas. As with all textiles, cool, clean, dry and dark environments are most suitable. The heating, ventilating and air conditioning, or HVAC systems, of buildings that house quipu knot records are usually automatically regulated. Relative humidity should be 60% or lower, with low temperatures, as high temperatures can damage the fibres and make them brittle. Damp conditions and high humidity can damage protein-rich material. Textiles suffer damage from ultraviolet (UV) light, which can include fading and weakening of the fibrous material. When quipus are on display, their exposure to ambient conditions is usually minimized and closely monitored.
Damage can occur during storage. The more accessible the items are during storage, the greater the chance of early detection. Storing quipus horizontally on boards covered with a neutral pH paper (paper that is neither acid or alkaline) to prevent potential acid transfer is a preservation technique that extends the life of a collection. The fibers can be abraded by rubbing against each other or, for those attached to sticks or rods, by their own weight if held in an upright position. Extensive handling of quipus can also increase the risk of further damage.
Quipus are also closely monitored for mold, as well as insects and their larvae. As with all textiles, these are major problems. Fumigation may not be recommended for fiber textiles displaying mold or insect infestations, although it is common practice for ridding paper of mold and insects.
Conservators in the field of library science have the skills to handle a variety of situations. Even though some quipus have hundreds of cords, each cord should be assessed and treated individually. Quipu cords can be "mechanically cleaned with brushes, small tools and light vacuuming". Just as the application of fungicides is not recommended to rid quipus of mold, neither is the use of solvents to clean them.
Even when people have tried to preserve quipus, corrective care may still be required. If quipus are to be conserved close to their place of origin, local camelid or wool fibres in natural colors can be obtained and used to mend breaks and splits in the cords. Rosa Choque Gonzales and Rosalia Choque Gonzales, conservators from southern Peru, worked to conserve the Rapaz patrimonial quipus in the Andean village of Rapaz, Peru. These quipus had undergone repair in the past, so this conservator team used new local camelid and wool fibers to spin around the area under repair in a similar fashion to the earlier repairs found on the quipu.
When Gary Urton, professor of Anthropology at Harvard, was asked "Are they [quipus] fragile?", he answered, "some of them are, and you can't touch them – they would break or turn into dust. Many are quite well preserved, and you can actually study them without doing them any harm. Of course, any time you touch an ancient fabric like that, you're doing some damage, but these strings are generally quite durable."
Ruth Shady, a Peruvian archeologist, has discovered a quipu or perhaps proto-quipu believed to be around 5,000 years old in the coastal city of Caral. It was in quite good condition, with "brown cotton strings wound around thin sticks", along with "a series of offerings, including mysterious fiber balls of different sizes wrapped in 'nets' and pristine reed baskets. Piles of raw cotton – uncombed and containing seeds, though turned a dirty brown by the ages – and a ball of cotton thread" were also found preserved. The good condition of these articles can be attributed to the arid condition of Caral.
Fictional portrayals
The feature film Dora and the Lost City of Gold, which premiered in 2019, features a stone Quipu which the title character Dora "reads" by touching to provide the protagonists a clue to finding the treasure at the climax of the story.
The book The Wine-Dark Sea by Patrick O’Brian, chapter 9 features a message communicated using quipus.
The characters in tv series See are blind, and so use strings with knots in them as a way to send messages.
The book The Rise and Fall of D.O.D.O. by Neal Stephenson and Nicole Galland includes the use of quipus by witches as a means to navigate the complex algorithms of time travel.
The character Amelie prominently wears a quipu in the video game Death Stranding.
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Web access
Saez-Rodríguez, A. (2012). An Ethnomathematics Exercise for Analyzing a Khipu Sample from Pachacamac (Perú). Revista Latinoamericana de Etnomatemática. 5(1), 62–88.
Urton, Gary. 2017. Inka history in knots. Austin, TX: University of Texas Press.
External link
The Khipu Field Guide (Khipu Drawings and Investigations from the World's Largest Khipu Database)
Quipu: A Modern Mystery
Untangling the Mystery of the Inca
Science: Inka Accounting Practices
Open / Popular (Ad Hoc) Khipu Decipherment Project (now on FACEBOOK)
History of Counting-PlainMath.Net
High in the Andes, Keeping an Incan Mystery Alive (New York Times, August 16, 2010)
The Khipu of San Cristobal de Rapaz
“Making Sense of the Pre-Columbian,” Vistas: Visual Culture in Spanish America, 1520–1820.
The College Student Who Decoded the Data Hidden in Inca Knots by Katherine Davis-Young (Atlas Obscura, 2017-12-14)
Discovery of "Puruchuco" toponym
Experts 'decipher' Inca strings – BBC
– MSNBC
American Textile History Museum
American Institute for Conservation of Historic and Artistic Works
Archaeological artefact types
Inca mathematics
Knots
Mathematical notation
Numerals
Recording
Proto-writing
Textile arts of the Andes
Undeciphered writing systems
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261481 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20Frognall%20Dibdin | Thomas Frognall Dibdin | Thomas Frognall Dibdin (177618 November 1847) was an English bibliographer, born in Calcutta to Thomas Dibdin, the sailor brother of the composer Charles Dibdin.
Dibdin was orphaned at a young age. His father died in 1778 while returning to England, and his mother died one of the following two years, and an elderly maternal aunt eventually assumed responsibility for Dibdin. He was educated at St John's College, Oxford, and studied for a time at Lincoln's Inn. After an unsuccessful attempt to obtain practice as a provincial counsel at Worcester, he was ordained a clergyman at the close of 1804, being appointed to a curacy at Kensington. It was not until 1823 that he received the living of Exning in Sussex. Soon afterwards he was appointed by Lord Liverpool to the rectory of St Mary's, Bryanston Square, which he held until his death.
The first of his numerous bibliographical works was his Introduction to the Knowledge of Editions of the Classics (1802), which brought him under the notice of the second Earl Spencer, to whom he owed much important aid in his bibliographical pursuits. The rich library at Althorp was thrown open to him; he spent much of his time in it, and in 1814–1815 published his Bibliotheca Spenceriana. As the library was not open to the general public, the information given in the Bibliotheca was found very useful, but since its author was unable even to read the characters in which the books he described were written, the work was marred by the errors which more or less characterize all his productions. This fault of inaccuracy however was less obtrusive in his series of playful, discursive works in the form of dialogues on his favourite subject, the first of which, Bibliomania (1809), was republished with large additions in 1811, and was very popular, passing through numerous editions.
To the same class belonged the Bibliographical Decameron, a larger work, which appeared in 1817. In 1810 he began the publication of a new and much extended edition of Ames's Typographical Antiquities. The first volume was a great success, but the publication was checked by the failure of the fourth volume, and was never completed. In 1818 Dibdin was commissioned by Earl Spencer to purchase books for him on the continent, an expedition described in his sumptuous Bibliographical, Antiquarian and Picturesque Tour in France and Germany (1821).
In 1824 he made an ambitious venture in his Library Companion, or the Young Man's Guide and Old Man's Comfort in the Choice of a Library, intended to point out the best works in all departments of literature. His culture was not broad enough, however, to render him competent for the task, and the work was severely criticized. For some years Dibdin gave himself up chiefly to religious literature. He returned to bibliography in his Bibliophobia, or Remarks on the Present Depression in the State of Literature and the Book Trade (1832), and the same subject furnishes the main interest of his Reminiscences of a Literary Life (1836), and his Bibliographical, Antiquarian and Picturesque Tour in the Northern Counties of England and Scotland (1838).
Dibdin was the originator and vice-president—Earl Spencer being the president—of the Roxburghe Club, founded in 1812, the first "book club".
References
External links
Tommaso De Ocheda, Italian Librarian
1776 births
1847 deaths
Alumni of St John's College, Oxford
Date of birth unknown
English bibliographers
English non-fiction writers
Fellows of the Royal Society
Writers from Kolkata
People from Westminster
English male non-fiction writers
People of British India | [
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261483 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Joseph%20Ames%20%28author%29 | Joseph Ames (author) | Joseph Ames (23 January 1689 – 7 October 1759) was an English bibliographer and antiquary. He purportedly wrote an account of printing in England from 1471 to 1600 entitled Typographical Antiquities (1749). It is uncertain whether he was by occupation a ship's chandler, a pattern-maker, a plane iron maker or an ironmonger. Though never educated beyond grammar school, he prospered in trade and amassed valuable collections of rare books and antiquities.
Life
He was the eldest child of John Ames, a master in the merchant service and sixth son of Captain Joseph Ames, R.N. Joseph Ames was born at Yarmouth on 23 January 1689 and was educated at a small grammar school in Wapping. He lost his father at age 12 and three years later was apprenticed to a plane maker in King Street or Queen Street, near the Guildhall, City of London. He then moved to Wapping near the Hermitage, where his father had previously settled, and established a successful business there. In 1712 his mother died and was buried in Wapping church near her husband. Two years later Ames married Mary, daughter of William Wrayford, a merchant in Bow Lane. She died in 1734 after bearing six children, of whom only a daughter survived her.
Ames was elected a Fellow of the Society of Antiquaries in 1736 and was appointed secretary five years later; he held the position until his death, the Rev. William Norris being associated with him in 1754. He was elected a Fellow of the Royal Society in 1743, but his only contribution to the Society's Philosophical Transactions was a letter relating to a case of plica polonica in 1747.
After dining with his old friend Sir Peter Thompson, Ames was seized with an attack that brought about his death that evening, 7 October 1759, in the seventy-first year of his life. He was buried in the churchyard of St George-in-the-East.
Reputation
Ames made no pretence to literary merit, and his position in the Society of Antiquaries generated a degree of antagonism. Edward Rowe Mores described him as 'an arrant blunderer' and accused him, with justification, of tearing out the title-pages of rare books in his collection. Among the works he is thought to have thus mutilated is the British Library copy of William Tyndale's 1526 New Testament, one of only two textually complete copies known. Francis Grose said that the history of printing published under his name actually was written by John Ward of Gresham College, though the materials probably were collected by Ames. William Cole thought he wrote like an illiterate and said he was an Independent by profession, but a deist in conversation. William Oldys (British Librarian, p. 374) acknowledges obligations to Ames, whom he styles 'a worthy preserver of antiquities.'
Collector
Ames assembled a large collection of portraits, especially those of printers, although many were of doubtful authenticity. He also collected coins, 'natural curiosities,’ inscriptions, antiquities and rare English books and manuscripts. Many of the books were annotated by former owners, and the manuscripts included a number of valuable historical transcripts. The collection was sold in 1760 after his death by Abraham Langford.
Among the collection was an interleaved copy of the Typographical Antiquities in two volumes, with manuscript additions by the author. The lot, which included plates, blocks, and copyright, was purchased by Sir Peter Thompson and afterwards was sold by him to William Herbert, who made use of it for his own edition of the book (1785–1790). Another edition was by Thomas Frognall Dibdin (4 vols., 1810–1819).
Works
His works are:
'A Catalogue of English Printers, from the year 1471 to 1600, most of them at London, (without date or place), 4 pp.; the copy in the Society of Antiquaries Library is inscribed, 'Presented by Mr. Ames, 20 March 1739–40.'
'An Index to the Pembrokian Coins and Medals' (without date or place, ?1746), 8 pp., with device. The volume of engravings of the cabinet of coins belonging to the Earl of Pembroke, Numismata Antiqua, was brought out in 1746 without any text. Ames printed for private distribution an index of four leaves, a transcript of the names of the coins as shown upon the plates.
'A Catalogue of English Heads, or an account of about two thousand prints describing what is particular on each; as the name, title, or office of the person, the habit, posture, age or time when done, the name of the painter, graver, scraper, &c., and some remarkable particulars relating to their lives,’ London, 1748.
'Typographical Antiquities, being an historical account of printing in England, with some memoirs of our antient printers, and a register of the books printed by them, from the year 1471 to 1600, with an appendix concerning printing in Scotland and Ireland to the same time,’ London, 1749.
'Parentalia, or Memoirs of the Family of the Wrens, viz. of Matthew, bishop of Ely, Christopher, dean of Windsor, &c., but chiefly of Sir Christopher Wren, late surveyor-general of the royal buildings, P.R.S. &c., in which is contained, besides his works, a great number of original papers and records on religion, politics, anatomy, mathematics, architecture, antiquities, and most branches of polite literature, compiled by his son Christopher; now published by his grandson, Stephen Wren, Esq., with the care of Joseph Ames,’ London, 1750.
Ames owed his studious tastes to the Rev. John Russel of St John's, Wapping and the Rev. John Lewis. He also made the acquaintance, while attending lectures by John Theophilus Desaguliers, of Peter Thompson, a Hamburg merchant and Member of Parliament for St Albans. Lewis had made collections for a history of printing in England, and suggested to Ames that he should undertake the work. Notes sent to Ames include lists of printers and facsimiles of their marks, copies of title-pages, extracts, &c.
Samuel Palmer published a similar work; it appeared in 1732, but not to acclaim. In 1739–40 Ames circulated a preliminary list of English printers from 1471 to 1600, which included 215 names, most of them being those of London men, with the announcement: 'As the history and progress of printing in England, from 1474 to 1600, is in good forwardness for the press; if any gentleman please to send the publisher, Jos. Ames in Wappin, some account of these printers, or add others to them, or oblige him with what may be useful in this undertaking, the favour will be gratefully acknowledged.'
In 1748[7] he printed a 'Catalogue of English Heads,’ being an index to the collection of 2,000 prints, bound in ten volumes, belonging to John Nickolls, F.R.S., the Quaker antiquary of Ware, Hertfordshire. It formed the first attempt at a general description of English engraved portraits, a work resumed by James Granger twenty years later.
In 1749, the Typographical Antiquities appeared, a quarto of over 600 pages, dedicated to Lord Chancellor Hardwicke. The original proposals contemplated only 200 copies, but 301 were subscribed for, and the list shows that the book was supported by leading antiquaries and printers. Ames owed much to the investigations of others. A portion of his extensive bibliographical correspondence with Andrew Ducarel, John Anstis, Lewis, Bishop Lyttleton, Rawlinson and others is given by John Nichols. The libraries of Lord Orford, Sir Hans Sloane, Anstis, and other friends, were used for his researches. Ames earned the gratitude of subsequent bibliographers by disregarding printed lists and consulting the title pages of the books themselves.
Parentalia (1750) was a memoir of the Wrens, undertaken in conjunction with Sir Christopher Wren's grandson, Stephen Wren. Part of his correspondence in bibliography is included in Nichols's Literary Anecdotes and Illustrations.
Notes
References
Attribution
1689 births
1759 deaths
People from Great Yarmouth
Fellows of the Royal Society
English book editors
English bibliographers
English historians
English male non-fiction writers
English collectors | [
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261493 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Charles%20Dibdin | Charles Dibdin | Charles Dibdin (before 4 March 1745 – 25 July 1814) was an English composer, musician, dramatist, novelist, singer and actor. With over 600 songs to his name, for many of which he wrote both the lyrics and the music and performed them himself, he was in his time the most prolific English singer-songwriter. He is best known as the composer of "Tom Bowling", one of his many sea songs, which often features at the Last Night of the Proms. He also wrote about 30 dramatic pieces, including the operas The Waterman (1774) and The Quaker (1775), and several novels, memoirs and histories.
Life and career
Early life and early successes
The son of a silversmith, Dibdin was privately baptised on 4 March 1745 in Southampton and is often described as the youngest child of eighteen born to a 50-year-old mother. His parents, intending him for the clergy, sent Dibdin to Winchester College, but his love of music soon diverted his thoughts from the clerical profession. He possessed 'a remarkable good voice' at a young age and was in demand for concerts even as a boy. Anthems were composed for him by Mr Kent and his successor Mr Fussell, organists of Winchester Cathedral, where he was a chorister between 1756 and 1759. He went to London at the age of fifteen at his brother's invitation, and was first employed tuning harpsichords in a music warehouse in Cheapside. Through Mr. Berenger he was introduced to John Rich (of whom he became a favourite) and John Beard, and, growing addicted to theatre-going, he soon became a singing actor at Theatre Royal, Covent Garden. As his voice was not yet settled, Rich thought he would become a bass, and marked out the pantomime roles of Richard Leveridge for him. Dibdin held back from this path, but made the most of his introductions: when Rich died in 1761 and Beard succeeded him as manager and part-proprietor, fresh opportunities arose.
With Beard's encouragement Dibdin wrote his first work, both words and music of The Shepherd's Artifice, an operetta in two acts, which was produced as Dibdin's benefit at Covent Garden on 21 May 1762 and repeated in 1763. As an actor, Dibdin had constant opportunities to study Garrick's performances, and befriended his associates, notably his prompter, who could remember Cibber. He enjoyed two seasons touring at the Vauxhall in Birmingham, and another at Richmond. Beard exercised a benign and encouraging influence over Dibdin's early career, choosing him, in his first important appearance, for the part of Ralph, in the 1765 premiere of Samuel Arnold's opera The Maid of the Mill at Covent Garden. He gained so much success over a run of more than fifty nights, that 'Ralph' handkerchiefs were worn in compliment to him. He agreed to article himself, both as actor and musician, to Beard for three years at a salary rising from three to five pounds a week. However, his contract established a precedent by which actors were not paid in case of absence through sickness.
The script for The Maid of the Mill was by playwright Isaac Bickerstaffe, who had written the libretto for Love in a Village, the highly popular opera (called the first English comic opera) by Dr. Thomas Arne, produced in 1762. For Dibdin the next turning-point was in the 1767 premiere and short run of Bickerstaffe's Love in the City, in which he played Watty Cockney, and for which he produced a good deal of the music and airs. He had already confided to Beard that he disliked acting because of the jealousy and spite which his success brought upon him from other actors. Hence he had turned again to composition. But now some of the orchestra complained to Beard that his music was discreditable to the theatre: whereupon Dibdin obtained the direct intervention of Dr. Arne, who (according to Dibdin) pronounced that this was a scandalous attempt to ruin the reputation of a young man whom it was their duty to encourage and protect. Love in the City was abandoned, but Dibdin's music was successful and was transferred into a play called The Romp. The association with Bickerstaffe continued in Dibdin's music for the play Lionel and Clarissa at Covent Garden in 1767, the year of Beard's retirement.
Drury Lane with Garrick
By 1768, his articles completed, and receiving harsh treatment from his new manager George Colman, Dibdin was ready to part company with Covent Garden. Garrick, who had coached him a little at Richmond in the previous year, was eager to win over Bickerstaffe to Drury Lane: and as hopes for his new play The Padlock projected for the Haymarket Theatre faded, Garrick acquired it, and acquired Dibdin as composer, whose music for this work was, at Garrick's suggestion, given anonymously. Dibdin made only £40 from it while Bickerstaffe made a fortune. The Padlock was produced at Drury Lane under Garrick's management in 1768, Dibdin taking the part of Mungo (a blackface role) so as to cause "that degree of sensation in the public which is called a rage."
In 1769 for Garrick (who had placed him under some financial obligation) he also composed for Garrick's Shakespeare Jubilee at Stratford, but found that Garrick had quietly substituted commissions to Arne and to Boyce. Garrick, it seemed, wished to control both Bickerstaffe and Dibdin, in case their work should find other patrons, and busied them both, inducing Dibdin to revise and write new music for Cibber's Damon and Phillida. In addition he provided the score for Bickerstaffe's burletta The Recruiting Serjeant, and for his The Maid the Mistress, and The Ephesian Matron in that year, which were all produced in 1769 at Ranelagh Gardens under a two-year contract with the Ranelagh managers for £100 per annum for whatever music he should supply them with.
Dibdin set a text by Garrick for The Installation of the Garter in 1771. In February 1773 the comic opera The Wedding Ring based on an Italian opera Il filosofo di campagna was brought out, but was almost withdrawn on the first night owing to the rumour that it was written by Bickerstaffe, who had fled to France, utterly ruined by the accusation of an 'abominable (i.e. homosexual) attempt'. Dibdin was obliged to appear on stage and claim authorship of both words and music, while salacious tittle-tattle (and worse) sought to embroil both him and Garrick in Bickerstaffe's offence. In November 1773, in a production of the musical drama The Deserter which he had adapted from the French opera of 1769 by Michel-Jean Sedaine and Pierre-Alexandre Monsigny, he introduced the song 'There was a miller's daughter' and modified other songs without Garrick's knowledge or consent, but with great success. During the same year he worked closely with Garrick at Hampton to compose songs and music for Garrick's winter piece, The Christmas Tale. From this ordeal he acquired the technique of composing the music entire in his mind, writing down nothing until the finished manuscript was needed: to this method he afterwards adhered.
Meanwhile, from 1772 he was also engaged by Thomas King to write regularly for Sadler's Wells, and in that year produced songs for the Musical Dialogues The Palace of Mirth and Bickerstaffe's The Brickdustman. He followed that in 1773 with the interlude The Mischance, and the dialogues The Grenadier (text by Garrick), The Ladle, England against Italy, and None so blind as those who won't see: and furthermore in the same year he wrote songs for The Trip to Portsmouth (words by G. A. Stevens), performed by Charles Bannister at the Haymarket, for which the overture and dances were written by Thomas Arne.
Dibdin's most lasting opera, The Waterman, a comic opera, the music of which he sold for £30, was produced first at the Haymarket Theatre in 1774. His dialogues and songs for The Cobbler, or, A Wife of Ten Thousand (based on Sedaine's Blaise le savetier), were acted as a ballad opera at Drury Lane in 1774, and his famous short opera The Quaker was produced there on 3 May 1775, which Dibdin had sold to Brereton for £70, who sold it on to Garrick for a hundred. Charles Bannister was again prominent in the cast of all three operas. After being connected with Drury Lane both as composer and as actor for several years, a series of disagreements with Garrick, partly over Dibdin's desertion of his second partner Mrs Davenet and his children by her, led to the termination of his engagement.
Sadler's Wells, Haymarket and Covent Garden
Despite the rift with Garrick, Dibdin's output continued successfully. The dialogue The Imposter, or, All's not gold that glitters, was written for Sadler's Wells in 1776, and his comic opera The Metamorphosis modelled on Molière's Sicilian, but with songs and music his own, was performed at the Haymarket in the same year. His comic opera The Seraglio, incorporating the famous rondeau song 'Blow High, Blow Low' (written during a gale returning from Calais) was first acted at Covent Garden in November 1776. The productive season of 1777 included songs for The vineyard revels (a pantomime), She is mad for a husband, Yo, Yea, or, The friendly tars, The old woman of eighty and The razor grinder, all at Sadler's Wells. In 1778 the important burletta Poor Vulcan was produced at Covent Garden, but in Dibdin's absence in France many of the songs were altered by another hand. There also he wrote the libretto of The Gipsies, for which Thomas Arne wrote the music, first performed at the Haymarket in 1778.
On his return from France in 1778 Thomas Harris, the Theatre Manager, appointed him Musical Director at Covent Garden (to write exclusively for him) at the then huge salary of £10 () a week. Attempting to introduce a taste for the French variety theatre, he had adapted six short interludes, with his own music, with a view that one should be introduced between the play and the farce usually presented on the same evening. They included Rose and Colin, Wives revenged and Annette and Lubin; but Harris instead lumped them together as an after-piece and Dibdin's subtler intention was thwarted. In the following January his speaking pantomime The Touchstone (with songs) was produced, but Mr Pilon, Mr Cumberland, Mrs Cowley and Mr Lee Lewis were permitted to alter it so much that it became almost unrecognisable. However, Dibdin did accept two clever emendations suggested by Garrick, which resulted in a reconciliation between the two men: it is claimed that Garrick's very last step upon the stage was during a rehearsal for The Touchstone a night or two before the opening.
Covent Garden productions continued with The Chelsea pensioners, and The Mirror, or, Harlequin everywhere (a pantomime) (both 1779), and in 1780 the comic opera The Shepherdess of the Alps, and the three-act opera The Islanders, most of which was re-presented as a two-act farce called The Marriage Act in 1781. He also arranged, wrote and composed the 1780 Christmas pantomime, Harlequin freemason, for which Messink (Garrick's pantomime specialist) contributed the inventions. In 1781 Dibdin adapted John Dryden's play Amphytrion, or Juno and Alcmena into an opera. He attempted to rewrite it so as to avoid some of the impropriety of the original, and was at first encouraged by Harris, who later changed his mind. Dibdin was left with a difficult task and the result was not a popular success.
The Royal Circus and other ventures
There was then an argument between Dibdin and Harris over payment for the work, with the result that Dibdin instead embarked on a project to construct the Royal Circus, (afterwards known as the Surrey Theatre) for mixed entertainments of various kinds, he planning to form a combination of the stage and an equestrian ring or hippodrome. Several parties including the landowner advanced the funds and became proprietors, and Dibdin was appointed sole manager for life, to receive a quarter of the profits. Dibdin is credited with coining the term "circus".
Meanwhile, a dialogue, The Fortune Hunter, had appeared at Sadler's Wells in 1780, and at the Haymarket, Dibdin had contributed songs to an entertainment called Pasquin's Budget in which characters were represented by puppets, and their songs were performed by singers behind the scenes. It is said that in The Comic Mirror Dibdin had ridiculed prominent contemporary figures through the medium of a puppet show. Such things had been tried elsewhere, for instance at the Marylebone Gardens: but on the first night at the Haymarket 'the puppets were goosed off, and the manager made to apologise for the insult offered to the audience.' Nonetheless some of the songs, including Dibdin's 'Reasonable animals' and 'Pandora', became very popular, and Pandora was later acted at the Circus.
Between 1782 and 1783 he engaged some sixty children to act as dancers and singers for his various lively productions at the Circus, for which he supplied many airs, pantomimes, intermezzi and ballets, under such titles as Clump and Cudden, The benevolent tar, The saloon, The talisman, The graces, Long odds, Tom Thumb, The Passions, The Lancashire witches, The Barrier of Parnassus, The Milkmaid, The Refusal of Harlequin, The Land of Simplicity, The Statue, The regions of Accomplishment, and Cestus (a kind of mythological burlesque in which the Homeric gods discoursed in a low vernacular). His opera Liberty Hall, containing the successful songs "Jock Ratlin", "The Highmettled Racer" and "The Bells of Aberdovey", was produced at the Drury Lane theatre on 8 February 1784.
After three years at the circus, in which Dibdin fell out with his partners and became entangled in litigation; in 1785, he withdrew, and, instead, entered into a speculation to build a theatre at St. Pancras. However, while under construction this was blown down during a storm, and the project had to be abandoned. He then came to an arrangement to supply the manager of the Dublin theatre with music at a cost of £600, of which he received only £140; at the same time he began publishing a weekly magazine, called The Devil, which failed after 21 issues. His last opera of this period was Harvest Home, a two-act comic opera first performed at the Haymarket in 1787.
Monodramatic entertainments at King Street and Leicester Place
In 1788, having dissolved his connection with the existing theatres and in financial straits, Dibdin considered moving to India. His eldest brother, Captain Thomas Dibdin, had formerly invited him to visit, but had since died, prompting Dibdin to write his greatest song, "Tom Bowling". He now hoped to be received by his brother's old friends, and perhaps to collect certain debts owing to him. Therefore, he made a tour of England to raise money by giving entertainments of songs and recitations, and he sold the musical compositions he had available at very unfavourable rates to the greedy publishers. He set sail for the East Indies in summer 1788, but the vessel was forced to put in at Torbay because of bad weather.
Dibdin then changed his mind and returned to London, resolving to put himself before the public rather than applying again to the theatres. Instead, building on what he had done in his tour, he commenced a new kind of one-man-show, musical variety entertainments, in which he appeared in his own person on the stage seated at a harpsichord and played the accompaniments to his own songs, without attempting any theatrical personification of his characters. The Whim of the Moment was such an entertainment consisting of recitations and songs, and played from October 1788 until the following April, during the whole of which time Dibdin was a prisoner in the King's Bench. This was first given at the Lyceum Theatre in The Strand, and afterwards at Fisher's or Stevens' Auction Room in King Street, in Covent Garden. For several years he also repeated the entertainments in the daytime at the Paul's Head Assembly Rooms in Cateaton Street.
His monodramatic entertainments continued after 1795 at a theatre which he built, the Sans Souci Theatre in Leicester Place. Dibdin introduced very many songs which gained wide popularity, including "Poor Jack," "'Twas in the good ship 'Rover'," "Saturday Night at Sea," and "I sailed from the Downs in the 'Nancy.'" His songs, music and recitations here finally established his fame as a lyric poet. He continued this form of entertainment for nearly twenty years, usually between October and April, in which time he produced eighteen entirely original three-act or three-part productions, as well as several one-act pieces on contemporary themes, or in which to re-introduce some of his popular songs. At Christmas-time or during the spring he commonly cut short the main production to make room for a revival of some items brought out in previous years. Dibdin states that in all these entertainments, he had only the words before him, never having written down the music which was, however, fully composed in his mind.
The three-act novelties of each season, or Entertainments Sans-Souci, and their sequels, were as follows:
The Whim of the Moment, or, Nature in Little – Auction rooms, King Street, Covent Garden.
The Oddities (1789) – Lyceum.
The Wags, or, The Camp of Pleasure (1790) – Lyceum.
Private Theatricals, or Nature in Nubibus (1791) – Royal Polygraphic Rooms, The Strand; followed by The Coalition, a compilation from the preceding.
The Quizzes, or, A Trip to Elysium (1792); followed by a compilation from all the preceding.
Castles in the Air (1793)
Great News, or, A Trip to the Antipodes (1794) – followed by an Ode in honour of the royal marriage.
The Will o' the Wisp (1795) – followed by Christmas Gambols
The General Election (1796) – the first production at Dibdin's new Theatre Sans Souci; followed by Datchet mead, in honour of the marriage of the Princess Royal.
The Sphinx (1797); followed by a Christmas piece The Goose and the Gridiron.
The Tour to the Land's End (1798); followed by King and Queen (one act).
Tom Wilkins (1799).
The Cake-house (1800).
A Frisk (1801).
Most Votes (1802).
Britons, Strike Home (1803). This included a series of war-songs with military-band accompaniments.
In 1804 there was a one-act novelty Valentine's Day, and three compilations of older pieces, namely The Election (from Most Votes); The Frolic (from Britons, Strike Home); and, A trip to the Coast.
Heads and Tails (1805); followed by Cecilia, or the Progress of Industry.
Professional Volunteers (1808). (Given at the Lyceum during Lent, supported by professional assistants, though still, after 48 years before the public, playing his own accompaniments).
The Rent-day, or, The Yeoman's Friend (1808) – Sans-Pareil Theatre (later the Adelphi Theatre) in the Strand.
Commodore Pennant (1809) – the last of these entertainments, a slight piece, was given in a room in the author's shop in the Strand.
John Adolphus, writing of Dibdin's involvement in the entertainment Bannister's Budget, wrote: "Charles Dibdin, year after year... had been giving delight and, for a time, acquiring great emolument, by means of entertainments under different names, in which he not only pleased but instructed the public; advancing the cause of morals by natural and energetic sentiments, and raising the flame of patriotism and loyalty by songs and speeches, just in conception and illustration, and impressive on the memory and the judgement by vivid imagery and pointed expression. His sea-songs form a class by themselves: they are calculated alike to cheer solitude and to animate social assemblages, to raise the laugh and the tear, and to engrave on the heart benevolence, courage, and a trust in Providence." Charles's son Thomas Dibdin, a close associate of John Bannister, wrote that "Charles Bannister, and his exemplary son John, were two of [Dibdin's] most intimate friends."
An impression of Dibdin
The author of his memoir, who witnessed one of Dibdin's Entertainments Sans Souci when a lad, offers the following picture: 'Dibdin was then a handsome man, of middle size, with an open pleasing countenance, and a very gentlemanlike appearance and address. His costume was a blue coat, white waistcoat, and black silk breeches and stockings; and he wore his hair, in the fashion of the day, fully dressed and profusely powdered. His manner of speaking was easy and colloquial; and his air was more that of a person entertaining a party of friends in a private drawing-room, than of a performer exhibiting to a public audience. He was near-sighted; and, when seated at his instrument, he would bend his head close to his book for a few moments, and then, laying it down, throw himself back in his chair, and deliver his song without further reference to book or music. His voice was a baryton (a medium between the tenor and the bass) of no great power or compass, but of a sweet and mellow quality. He sang with simplicity, without any attempt at ambitious ornament, but with a great deal of taste and expression; and, being a poet as well as a musician, he was particularly attentive to a clear and emphatic utterance of the words... In singing, he accompanied himself with facility and neatness, on an instrument of a peculiar kind, combining the properties of the pianoforte and the chamber organ, and so constructed that the performer could produce the tones of either instrument separately, or of both in combination. To this instrument were attached a set of bells, a side drum, a tambourine, and a gong, which he could bring into play by various mechanical contrivances, so as to give a pleasing variety to his accompaniments.'
'His manner of coming upon the stage was in a happy style; he ran on sprightly and with nearly a laughing face, like a friend who enters hastily to impart to you some good news.'
War songs and later years
Dibdin's patriotic sea songs and their melodious refrains powerfully influenced the national spirit and were officially appropriated to the use of the British navy during the war with France. They were not shanties or working songs, but a form of distinctively English ballad combining the tonality of the hornpipe with vivid if sentimentalized depictions of the comradeship, the separations from love, the simple patriotism, loyalty and manly courage of Tom, England's Jack Tar. In 1803 he was induced by Pitt's government, with a pension of £200 a year (), to abandon provincial engagements to compose and sing 'War Songs' to keep up the ferment of popular feeling against France. This was withdrawn for a time under the administration of Lord Grenville, but afterwards partly restored.
Dibdin still provided texts for operas, including The Cabinet, which was presented at Covent Garden in February 1803 with John Braham, Nancy Storace and Charles Incledon, and in December The British Fleet in 1342. At least two further operas appeared: Broken Gold was a farce in two acts on the occasion of Lord Nelson's victory and death, produced at Drury Lane with John Bannister in 1806, which was 'damned on the first night, and never published'. His last production, The Round Robin, was first acted at the Haymarket in June 1811. This incorporated his highly successful song 'The standing toast,' which had been written some time before.
During this period, in 1805, he sold Sans Souci and opened a music shop in the Strand (opposite the Lyceum), but the venture was a failure and he was declared bankrupt. He retired from public life in 1805, disposing of his stock (including the copyright of 360 songs) to a firm in Oxford Street for £1,800, with £100 a year for the next three years in consideration of whatever songs he might write. He took up residence in Camden Town, where he suffered a paralytic stroke in 1813 after which the government granted him a pension of £200. In 1810 a subscription dinner and concert was held for his benefit. This raised £640, of which £560 was invested in long annuities for himself and his family. He died on 25 July 1814 in comparative poverty, and was buried in St Martin's churchyard there. His widow placed a stone over his grave inscribed with a quatrain from "Tom Bowling".
Dibdin's families and other writings
Dibdin had married early in life, but deserted his first wife and left her destitute. He then formed an illicit connection with Harriett Pitt (stage name Mrs. Davenet), a chorus-singer at Covent Garden Theatre, and had some children by her. In time he deserted Harriet Pitt in favour of Miss Ann Wyld, with whom he remained and had several further children during his wife's lifetime, and finally married Wyld when his first wife died. She and only one daughter of that union survived him. His two sons Charles and Thomas John Dibdin (sons of Harriet Pitt), whose works are often confused with those of their father, were also popular dramatists in their day. Thomas Frognall Dibdin was the son of Dibdin's brother, Thomas Dibdin.
Besides his Musical Tour through England (1788), his Professional Life, an autobiography published in 4 volumes in 1803, a Complete History of the British Stage (5 vols, 1795), Observations on a Tour through England and Scotland (2 vols, 1803) and several smaller works, he wrote upwards of 1400 songs and about thirty dramatic pieces. He also wrote the following novels: The Devil (2 vols, 1785); Hannah Hewitt (3 vols, 1792); The Younger Brother (3 vols, 1793) and Henry Hooka (3 vols, 1806). An edition of his songs by G. Hogarth (1843) contains a memoir of his life.
Allusions in music and literature
The tune of "Tom Bowling" forms part of Sir Henry Wood's 1905 Fantasia on British Sea Songs customarily played on the Last Night of the Proms. Verdant Green, eponymous hero of the novel by Cuthbert Bede, learns to row and 'feathers his oars with skill and dexterity' (Part II Chapter VI), borrowing a line from Dibdin's song "The Jolly Young Waterman." The great Victorian baritone Sir Charles Santley made his farewell performance at Covent Garden in 1911 in the role of Tom Tug in Dibdin's opera The Waterman. And in James Joyce's story "Eveline" (from Dubliners), Frank 'sang about the lass that loves a sailor' from the song of the same name (also called 'The standing toast') by Dibdin.
Just before his marriage, James Boswell wrote a song, "A Matrimonial Thought" which was given a tune "by the very ingenious Mr. Dibden."
In the blithe days of honey-moon,
With Kathe's allurements smitten,
I lov'd her late, I lov'd her soon
And I called her dearest kitten.
But now my kitten's grown a cat,
And cross like other wives,
O! by my soul, my honest Mat,
I fear she has nine lives.
Public memorials
Seven years after his death a subscription to raise a monument to Dibdin was set in train under the patronage of the Duke of Clarence and Admiral Sir George York. At a public dinner and concert a large sum was raised, but insufficient to complete the project. A second grand musical entertainment, The Feast of Neptune, raised a further £400 and the monument was eventually raised in the Veterans' Library at the Royal Hospital, Greenwich, which is now the Peacock Room, part of the Trinity Laban Conservatoire of Music and Dance.
British politician Michael Heseltine is a distant descendant of Dibdin, having 'Dibdin' as one of his middle names. He is a fan of Dibdin's works, and was responsible for the government's erection of a statue of Dibdin in Greenwich.
On the west face of the tower of Holyrood Church in Southampton is a memorial plaque to Dibdin, where he is described as a "native of Southampton, poet, dramatist and composer, author of Tom Bowling, Poor Jack and other sea songs".
In 1889 a Celtic cross memorial was erected, by public subscription, in St Martin's Gardens, Camden Town, after his original tomb collapsed. A verse from "Tom Bowling" is inscribed upon it:
His form was of the manliest beauty,
His heart was kind and soft,
Faithful, below, he did his duty;
But now he's gone aloft.
Also in Camden, in Joseph Grimaldi Park a grave-style musical memorial for Dibdin is placed next to one for Joseph Grimaldi.
Recordings
Three recent discs of Dibdin's music have been recorded and released by Retrospect Opera. The first, which appeared in 2017, comprises Christmas Gambols and The Musical Tour of Mr Dibdin. The second, released in 2019, includes Dibdin's The Jubilee, Queen Mab and Datchet Mead.
The third, "The Wags", was released in late 2021. All feature the singer Simon Butteriss and the keyboardist Stephen Higgins. The Jubilee also features the singers Soraya Mafi, Robert Murray and Heather Shipp.
A previous disc featuring Dibdin's The Ephesian Matron, The Brickdust Man and The Grenadier, conducted by Peter Holman, was released on the Hyperion label in 1992. There have also been many recordings of Dibdin’s most famous song, Tom Bowling.
Notes
References
Anon (Ed.), Memoir, in C. Dibdin, Sea Songs: A New Edition (London, H G Clarke & Hayward and Adam 1846), v–xi.
Charles Dibdin, The Musical Tour of Mr Dibdin; In Which, previous to his embarkation to India, he finished his career as a public character (For the author, by J. Gales, Sheffield 1788).
External links
Retrospect Opera: Christmas Gambols
Retrospect Opera: The Jubilee
performed by Helen Neeves, voice and Samantha Carrasco, piano
1745 births
1814 deaths
English composers
People from Southampton
English operatic baritones
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261502 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Thomas%20John%20Dibdin | Thomas John Dibdin | Thomas John Dibdin (21 March 1771 – 16 September 1841) was an English dramatist and songwriter.
Life
Dibdin was the son of Charles Dibdin, a songwriter and theatre manager, and of "Mrs Davenet", an actress whose real name was Harriett Pitt. He was introduced to the stage at five years old, in his godfather David Garrick’s pageant of ‘’Jubilee of Shakespeare’’. Mrs Siddons was The Venus and the Young Tom Cupid. He was apprenticed to his maternal uncle, a London upholsterer, and later to William Rawlins, afterwards sheriff of London. He summoned his second master unsuccessfully for rough treatment; and after a few years of service he ran away to join a company of country players. From 1789 to 1795 he played all sorts of parts; he worked as a scene painter at Liverpool in 1791; and during this period he composed more than 1,000 songs.
His first work as a dramatist was Something New, followed by The Mad Guardian in 1795. He returned to London in 1795, having married two years before; and in the winter of 1798-99 The Jew and the Doctor was produced at Theatre Royal, Covent Garden. From this time he contributed a very large number of comedies, operas, farces, etc., to the public entertainment, including (in 1802) the comic opera Family Quarrels. Some of these brought immense popularity to the writer and immense profits to the theatres. It is stated that the pantomime of Mother Goose (1807) produced more than £20,000 for the management at Covent Garden theatre, and the High-mettled Racer, adapted as a pantomime from his father's play, £18,000 at Astley's.
Dibdin was prompter and pantomime writer at Theatre Royal, Drury Lane until 1816, when he took over the Surrey Theatre. This venture proved disastrous, and he became bankrupt. After this, he was manager of the Haymarket Theatre, but without his old success, and his last years were passed in comparative poverty. In 1827 he published two volumes of Reminiscences; and at the time of his death he was preparing an edition of his father's sea songs, for which a small sum was allowed him weekly by the Lords of the Admiralty. Of his own songs, "The Oak Table" and "The Snug Little Island" were popular at the time. He died leaving a widow (second wife) and young family.
Charles Dickens quotes from Dibdin's patriotic song "The Snug Little Island" in Little Dorrit:
Daddy Neptune one day to Freedom did say,
"If ever I lived upon dry land.
The spot I should hit on would be little Britain!"
Says Freedom, "Why that's my own island!"
Oh, it's a snug little island!
A right little, tight little island,
Search the globe round, none can be found
So happy as this little island.
The song was published posthumously in 1841 in the Addenda (containing songs of T. Dibdin) to Songs of the Late Charles Dibdin, a collection arranged by Thomas Dibdin with sketches by George Cruikshank. A copy was found in Dickens's library after his death.
Selected works
Five Thousand a Year (1799), play
The Ninth Statue 1814
Zuma
The Lily of St. Leonards 1819
The Ruffian Boy, 1820 adapted from Mrs. Opie, and The Fate of Calas
References
Attribution
External links
1771 births
1841 deaths
English songwriters
English dramatists and playwrights | [
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261504 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Tody | Tody | The todies are a family, Todidae, of tiny Caribbean birds in the order Coraciiformes, which also includes the kingfishers, bee-eaters and rollers. The family has one living genus, Todus, and one genus known from the fossil record, Palaeotodus.
Taxonomy and systematics
The todies were originally placed in the kingfisher genus Alcedo before being placed in the genus Todus in 1760 by Mathurin Jacques Brisson. They have been linked to a large number of potential relatives since then, including nightjars, trogons, barbets, jacamars, puffbirds, kingfishers, motmots and even some passerine species such as broadbills, cotingas and flowerpeckers. The todies were placed in their own order, Todiformes, before being placed in the Coraciiformes.
Genetic analysis of the extant (living) species suggests that they diversified between 6-7 million years ago. The fossil record of the family is sparse, but three species of tody have been described from fossils found in North America, Germany and France, showing that the family was once more widespread than it is today. Species from the fossil genus, Palaeotodus, are larger than living species and may have been closer in size to the tody motmot.
Distribution and habitat
The todies are endemic to the islands of the Caribbean. These are small, near passerine species of forests of the Greater Antilles: Puerto Rico, Jamaica, and Cuba, with adjacent islands, have one species each, and Hispaniola has two: the broad-billed tody (Todus subulatus) in the lowlands (including Gonâve Island), and the narrow-billed tody (Todus angustirostris) in the highlands.
Description
Todies range in weight from 5 to 7 g and in length from 10 to 11.5 cm. They have colourful plumage, and resemble kingfishers in their general shape. They have green heads, backs and wings, red throats (absent in immature Puerto Rican, broad-billed, and narrow-billed todies) with a white and blue-grey stripe on each side, and yellow undertail coverts; the colour of the rest of the undersides is pale and varies according to species. The irises are pale grey. They have long, flattened bills (as do many flycatching birds) with serrated edges; the upper mandible is black and the lower is red with a little black. The legs, and especially the feet, are small. Todies are highly vocal, except that the Jamaican tody seldom calls in the non-breeding season (August to November); they give simple, unmusical buzzing notes, beeps, and guttural rattles, puffing their throats out with every call. Their wings produce a "strange, whirring rattle", though mostly when courting or defending territory in the Puerto Rican tody.
Behaviour and ecology
Diet
Todies eat small prey such as insects and lizards. Insects, from 50 families have been identified in their diet, particularly grasshoppers, crickets, beetles, bugs, butterflies, bees, wasps, and ants, form the greater part of the diet. Spiders and millipedes may also be taken, as is a small amount of fruit (2% of the diet).
Their preferred habitat for foraging in the forest understory. Todies typically sit on a low, small branch, singly or in pairs, keeping still or stepping or hopping sideways. When they see prey moving on the lower surface of a leaf, they fly a short distance (averaging 2.2 m in the broad-billed tody and 1.0 m in the Puerto Rican tody), diagonally upward to glean it. They may also take prey from the ground, occasionally chasing it with a few hops. Todies are generally sedentary; the longest single flight known for the broad-billed tody is 40 m. Their activity is greatest in the morning when sunny weather follows rain, and in March and September.
Todies are highly territorial but will join mixed-species foraging flocks composed of resident species and migrants from North America, when they pass through their territories.
Breeding
Like most of the Coraciiformes, todies nest in tunnels, which they dig with their beaks and feet in steep banks or rotten tree trunks. The tunnel is 30 cm long in the Cuban and narrow-billed todies, 30 to 60 cm in the broad-billed tody, and ends in a nest chamber, generally not reused. They lay about four round white eggs in the chamber. Both parents incubate but are surprisingly inattentive to the eggs. The young are altricial and stay in the nest until they can fly. Both parents also care for the nestlings, much more attentively; they may feed each chick up to 140 times per day, the highest rate known among birds.
Species list
Todus
Broad-billed tody, Todus subulatus
Cuban tody, Todus multicolor
Jamaican tody, Todus todus
Narrow-billed tody, Todus angustirostris
Puerto Rican tody, Todus mexicanus
†Palaeotodus
†Palaeotodus emryi
†Palaeotodus escampsiensis
†Palaeotodus itardiensis
References
External links
Tody videos on the Internet Bird Collection
Higher-level bird taxa restricted to the West Indies
Taxa named by Nicholas Aylward Vigors | [
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261509 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/James%20Halliwell-Phillipps | James Halliwell-Phillipps | James Orchard Halliwell-Phillipps (born James Orchard Halliwell; 21 June 1820 – 3 January 1889) was an English Shakespearean scholar, antiquarian, and a collector of English nursery rhymes and fairy tales.
Life
The son of Thomas Halliwell, he was born in London and was educated privately and at Jesus College, Cambridge. He devoted himself to antiquarian research, particularly of early English literature. Beginning at the age of 16, between 1836 and 1837, he contributed 47 articles to The Parthenon. A Weekly Journal of English and Foreign Literature, the Arts, and Sciences; in 1839 he edited Sir John Mandeville's Travels; in 1842 published an Account of the European manuscripts in the Chetham Library, besides a newly discovered metrical romance of the 15th century (Torrent of Portugal).
In 1841, while at Cambridge, Halliwell dedicated his book Reliquae Antiquae to Sir Thomas Phillipps, the noted bibliomaniac. Phillipps invited Halliwell to stay at his estate, Middle Hill. There Halliwell met Phillipps's daughter, Henrietta, to whom he soon proposed marriage. However, also around this time, Halliwell was accused of stealing manuscripts from Trinity College, Cambridge. Although never prosecuted, Phillipps's suspicions were aroused and he refused to consent to the marriage. This led to the couple's elopement in 1842. William A. Jackson (1905–1964), bibliographer and Harvard professor, also argues that Halliwell stole an exceedingly rare 1603 quarto Hamlet from Phillipps, removed the title page (bearing Phillipps's mark) and later sold it. Phillipps refused ever to see his daughter or Halliwell again.
In 1842, Halliwell published the first edition of Nursery Rhymes of England followed by Nursery Rhymes and Nursery Tales, containing the first printed version of the Three Little Pigs. and a version of the Christmas carol The Twelve Days of Christmas.
From 1845 Halliwell was excluded from the library of the British Museum on account of the suspicion concerning his possession of some manuscripts which had been removed from the library of Trinity College, Cambridge. He published privately an explanation of the matter in 1845. Halliwell also had a habit, detested by bibliophiles, of cutting up seventeenth-century books and pasting parts he liked into scrapbooks. During his life he destroyed 800 books and made 3,600 scraps.
In 1848 he published his Life of Shakespeare, illustrated by John Thomas Blight (1835–1911), which had several editions; in 1853–1865 a sumptuous edition, limited to 150 copies, of Shakespeare in folio, with full critical notes. After 1870 he entirely gave up textual criticism, and devoted his attention to elucidating the particulars of Shakespeare's life. He collated all the available facts and documents in relation to it, and exhausted the information to be found in local records in his Outlines of the Life of Shakespeare. He was instrumental in the purchase of New Place for the corporation of Stratford-on-Avon, and in the formation there of the Shakespeare museum.
He assumed the name of Phillipps in 1872, under the will of the grandfather of his first wife, Henrietta Phillipps. He took an active interest in the Camden Society, the Percy Society and the Shakespeare Society, for which he edited many early English and Elizabethan works. He died on 3 January 1889, and was buried in Patcham churchyard, near Hollingbury in East Sussex.
His house, Hollingbury Copse, near Brighton, was full of rare and curious works, and he generously gave many of them to Chetham's Library, Manchester, to the Morrab Library of Penzance, to the Smithsonian Institution, and to the library of the University of Edinburgh.
Works
His publications in all numbered more than sixty volumes, including:
(1841). Shakespeariana. J. R. Smith (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; )
(1842). Cambridge Jokes: From the Seventeenth to the Twentieth Century. Thomas Stevenson, Tilt and Bogue (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; )
(1846) A Dictionary of Archaic & Provincial Words, Obsolete Phrases, Proverbs & Ancient Customs, From the Fourteenth Century, Volume I A-I
(1847) A Dictionary of Archaic & Provincial Words, Obsolete Phrases, Proverbs & Ancient Customs, From the Fourteenth Century, Volume II J-Z
(1863) A Calendar of the Records at Stratford-on-Avon
(1864) An Historical Account of the New Place, Stratford-Upon-Avon, the Last Residence of Shakespeare
(1866). A Hand-Book Index to the Works of Shakespeare: Including References to the Phrases, Manners, Customs, Proverbs, Songs, Particles, &c., Which Are Used or Alluded to by the Great Dramatist. J.E. Adlard (reissued by Cambridge University Press, 2009; )
(1884). The Stratford Records and the Shakespeare Autotypes. A brief review of singular delusions that are current at Stratford-on-Avon
Notes
References
Further reading
Spevack, Martin, James Orchard Halliwell-Phillipps: The Life and Works (2001), Oak Knoll Press.
Justin Winsor (1881) Halliwelliana: A Bibliography of the Publications of James Orchard Halliwell-Phillipps, Harvard University Press (Google eBook)
External links
Full texts by James Halliwell-Phillipps
Letters of the kings of England, now first collected from royal archives Cornell University Library Historical Monographs Collection. {Reprinted by} Cornell University Library Digital Collections
1820 births
1889 deaths
Antiquarians from London
Alumni of Jesus College, Cambridge
Shakespearean scholars
Fellows of the Royal Society
Collectors of fairy tales | [
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261511 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Firm%20%28album%29 | The Firm (album) | The Firm is the first studio album by British rock band the Firm, released by Atlantic Records on 11 February 1985. Its tracks range from the epic "Midnight Moonlight", based on a previously unreleased song by Led Zeppelin called "Swan Song" – first tinkered with during the Physical Graffiti sessions – to the commercially successful "Radioactive". "Closer" employs a horn section to subtle effect. The album also includes a version of the Righteous Brothers' hit "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'".
The Firm peaked at No. 17 on the Billboard 200 chart, and reached No. 15 on the UK Albums Chart. The song "Radioactive" topped Billboard's Top Rock Tracks chart for one week.
Track listing
Personnel
The Firm
Paul Rodgers – lead vocals, acoustic and electric guitars, production
Jimmy Page – acoustic and electric guitars, production
Tony Franklin – fretless bass, keyboards, synthesizer, backing vocals
Chris Slade – drums and percussion
Additional musicians
Steve Dawson – trumpet on "Closer"
Paul "Shilts" Weimar – baritone saxophone on "Closer"
Willie Garnett – tenor saxophone on "Closer"
Don Weller – tenor saxophone solo on "Closer"
Sam Brown, Helen Chappelle & Joy Yates – backing vocals on "You've Lost That Lovin' Feeling" & "Midnight Moonlight"
Production personnel
Stuart Epps – engineering
Gordon Vicary – mastering
Steve Maher – cover artwork
Steve Privett – tape operation; supplier of tea, gin and tonics
Accolades
Charts
Album
Singles
Certifications
References
The Firm (rock band) albums
1985 debut albums
Albums produced by Jimmy Page
Atlantic Records albums | [
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261516 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rapid%20City%20%28disambiguation%29 | Rapid City (disambiguation) | Rapid City is a city in South Dakota
Rapid City may refer to the following places:
Canada
Rapid City, Manitoba
United States
Rapids City, Illinois
Rapid City, Michigan, an unincorporated community of Clearwater Township, Michigan | [
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261519 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stevensville | Stevensville | Stevensville, the name of several places, may refer to:
Australia
Stevensville, Victoria
Canada
Stevensville, Ontario
United States
Stevensville, Maryland
Stevensville, Michigan
Stevensville, Montana
Stevensville, Pennsylvania
Stevensville, Vermont
Stevensville, Virginia | [
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261520 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ernst%20Heinkel | Ernst Heinkel | Dr. Ernst Heinkel (24 January 1888 – 30 January 1958) was a German aircraft designer, manufacturer, Wehrwirtschaftsführer in the Third Reich, and member of the Nazi party. His company Heinkel Flugzeugwerke produced the Heinkel He 178, the world's first turbojet aircraft and jet plane, and the Heinkel He 176, the first rocket aircraft.
Early life
He was born in Grunbach, today a part of Remshalden. As a young man he became an apprentice machinist at a foundry. Heinkel studied at the Technical Academy of Stuttgart, where he initially became interested in aviation through a fascination with Zeppelins, and in 1909 attended an international airshow in Frankfurt am Main. He determined flight was the future of transportation, and the following year, he built his first aircraft, working from a set of plans by Henri Farman. Heinkel crashed the plane in 1911 and suffered severe injuries.
Albatros Flugzeugwerke
Soon afterwards, he gained employment at Luft-Verkehrs Gesellschaft (LVG), who were building Farman aircraft. From there, he went to Albatros. Heinkel claimed post-war to have designed the Albatros B.II, a successful reconnaissance and trainer aircraft used during the early stages of the First World War, but its main designer was in fact Robert Thelen. His planes were used by the Austro-Hungarian army and Germany's Kaiserliche Marine during the war. After leaving Albatros, Heinkel designed several land- and seaplanes for the Hansa-Brandenburg company starting in 1914.
Heinkel-Flugzeugwerke
In 1921, Heinkel was appointed head designer of the recently re-established Caspar-Werke, but soon left after a dispute over ownership of a design. In 1922 he established the Heinkel-Flugzeugwerke company at Warnemünde. Due to the restrictions placed on German aircraft manufacturing by the Treaty of Versailles, Heinkel looked overseas for contracts, with some seaplane designs being licence-built in Sweden and working on catapult-launched seaplanes for the Imperial Japanese Navy. He installed a similar catapult on the ocean liner Bremen for launching mail planes.
Versailles Treaty violations
Between 1921-1924, the Japanese government placed several orders with Heinkel's company, and helped him skirt the Versailles Treaty, which banned the construction of military aircraft in Germany, by informing the company of facility inspections by allied commissions in advance. Japan was part of the inspection commission. Heinkel hid his aircraft in dunes behind his plant and they were never discovered during inspections. Heinkel noted in his memoirs that his company's relationship with Japan in the 1920s led to decades of cooperation.
1933-1945
After Adolf Hitler came to power, designs by Heinkel's firm formed a vital part of the Luftwaffe's growing strength in the years leading up to the Second World War. This included the Heinkel He 59, the Heinkel He 115 and the Heinkel He 111. He was designated a Wehrwirtschaftführer (~ defence industry leader) by the German government for his commitment to rearmament.
Heinkel was passionate about high-speed flight, and was keen on exploring alternative forms of aircraft propulsion. He donated aircraft to Wernher von Braun who was investigating rocket propulsion for aircraft, as well as sponsoring the research of Hans von Ohain into turbojet engines, leading to the flight of the Heinkel He 178, the first aircraft to fly solely under turbojet power by Erich Warsitz on August 27, 1939.
Heinkel had been a critic of Hitler's regime concerning being forced to fire Jewish designers and staff in 1933, however, he was a member of the Nazi party, and he was awarded the German National Prize for Art and Science in 1938, one of the rarest honors of the German government. Heinkel Flugzeugwerke used forced Jewish labor, starting in 1941.
In 1942 the government "nationalised" the Heinkel works. In practice, this meant that Heinkel was detained until he sold his controlling interest in his factories to Hermann Göring. Heinkel moved to Vienna and started a new design bureau and corporate offices in Vienna's Schwechat suburb, establishing manufacturing facilities in Zwölfaxing and Floridsdorf as the Heinkel-Sud complex for his firm, the original Rostock-"Marienehe" plant (today's Rostock-Schmarl neighborhood) becoming the Heinkel-Nord facility. It was at the Heinkel-Sud offices that Dr. Heinkel worked on the Heinkel He 274 four-engined high-altitude heavy bomber design - as one of the trio of proposals for aircraft designs to succeed his firm's failed Heinkel He 177A heavy bomber — including an unbuilt Amerikabomber design - until the war's end concluded the production of the firm's Spatz single-seat jet fighter.
Post-war
In July, 1945, Heinkel was captured by American troops and held for possible exploitation and/or possible trial under Operation Dustbin, and was held for a time at Kransberg Castle, near Frankfurt.
With Germany forbidden from manufacturing aircraft by the Allies, Heinkel used his company's facilities to build private transportation. In 1953 Heinkel began production of the Tourist scooter, followed by the Perle moped in 1954. In 1956 he introduced the Heinkel Kabine bubble car. Bubble car and moped production ceased shortly after the restriction on aircraft manufacture was lifted, but scooter production continued until 1965. In 1959, Heinkel's company was sued by Edmund Bartl for being enriched by slave labor during World War II, however, the German Supreme Court dismissed his claims for filing too late and ordered Bartl to pay court costs and attorney's fees.
Death and legacy
Ernst Heinkel died in 1958 in Stuttgart. His autobiography, Stürmisches Leben, was published in 1956 and translated into English as He1000 in its British edition and Stormy Life: Memoirs of a Pioneer of the Air Age in its US edition.
In 1981, Heinkel was inducted into the International Air & Space Hall of Fame at the San Diego Air & Space Museum.
References
Sources
English Edition
External links
Audio commentary by Erich Warsitz (world's first jet pilot) about Ernst Heinkel, Switzerland, August 2, 1979
Aircraft designers
Engineers from Baden-Württemberg
German aerospace engineers
German company founders
German people of World War II
Heinkel
Nazi Party members
People from Rems-Murr-Kreis
People from the Kingdom of Württemberg
Research and development in Nazi Germany
1888 births
1958 deaths
20th-century German businesspeople | [
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261525 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plachutta | Plachutta | The Plachutta is a device found in chess problems: a white piece sacrifices itself on a square where it could be captured by one of two similarly moving black pieces (for example, a bishop and a queen moving along a diagonal, or two rooks) moving along a different line; whichever black piece captures, it interferes with the other. It is named after Joseph Plachutta (1827–1883).
The Plachutta is related to a number of other problem themes: it can be regarded as a Würzburg–Plachutta brought about by a white sacrifice on the critical square (a Würzburg-Plachutta itself being a pair of Holzhausen interferences); or it can be thought of as a Novotny with similarly moving (rather than differently moving) black pieces involved (a Novotny itself being a Grimshaw brought about by a white sacrifice on the critical square). It can also be compared to the anti-Bristol, in which two similarly moving black pieces interfere with each other along the same line.
Examples
1.
The problem to the right is a relatively simple example by William Shinkman, published in White Rooks, 1910. It is a mate in three (white moves first and must checkmate black in three moves against any defence). The (first move of the solution) is 1.d5. Examining the initial position reveals why this works: white would like to play either 1.Ra8 or 1.Rg8, but the former is prevented by black's bishop and the latter is prevented by black's queen. 1.d5 blocks the paths of both black pieces to these squares, and whichever black piece takes the pawn interferes with the other and has to defend against both threats itself (to use chess jargon, it becomes overloaded). So, if 1...Qxd5 white can play 2.Ra8+ Qxa8, when the queen is deflected from her defence of g8, allowing 3.Rg8#, while if 1...Bxd5 white can play 2.Rg8+ Bxg8, deflecting the bishop from defence of a8, allowing 3.Ra8#.
2.
To the right is another relatively simple example, but this time it is two rooks, rather than bishop and queen, involved in the interferences. The problem, by D. J. Densmore, published in the Gazette-Times, 1916, is another mate in three. The key is 1.Nb7, which interferes with both rooks and so threatens both 2.Rh7# and 2.Rb1#. Black can defend with Raxb7, but this overloads the capturing rook, so white can play 2.Rb1+ Rxb1 3.Rh7#. The other capture is similar: 1...Rbxb7 2.Rh7+ Rxh7 3.Rb1#. Whichever rook captures, it interferes with the other and becomes overloaded, having to defend against two threats on its own.
3.
A more sophisticated modern example is the award-winning mate in four problem to the right, by Aleksandr N. Pankrat'ev and Josip Varga, which was published in Sahovski Glasnik in 1991 and won 1st Prize. White begins with 1.e3, adding protection to d4 and threatening 2.Rc5#. Black's two main defenses are the two captures on e3, but each one allows a different Plachutta interference by White on move 2. If 1...Rxe3, White plays 2.f4!, a Plachutta interference with the queen and bishop: 2...Qxf4 allows 3.Nxe3+ Qxe3 4.Nxe5# and 2...Bxf4 allows 3.Nxe5+ Bxe5 4.Nxe3#. If 1...Bxe3, White plays 2.Bb3+!, a Plachutta interference with the two black rooks: 2...Rbxb3 allows 3.Nxe3+ Rxe3 4.Nb6# and 2...Raxb3 allows 3.Nb6+ Rxb6 4.Nxe3#.
1.e3 anything-else 2. Rc5#
1.e3 Rxe3 2.f4 Qxf4 allows 3.Nxe3+ Qxe3 4.Nxe5#.
1.e3 Rxe3 2.f4 Bxf4 allows 3.Nxe5+ Bxe5 4.Nxe3#.
1.e3 Bxe3 2.Bb3+ Rbxb3 allows 3.Nxe3+ Rxe3 4.Nb6#.
1.e3 Bxe3 2.Bb3+ Raxb3 allows 3.Nb6+ Rxb6 4.Nxe3#
4.
Although the term Plachutta is confined to the world of chess problems, not being used in a wider chess context, the underlying Plachutta pattern does occasionally (though rarely) appear in an actual game. One example is to the right, a position which occurred in a 1914 game between Siegbert Tarrasch (with white) and a team of opponents consisting of Davide Marotti (who became the champion of Italy in 1921), E. Napoli, de Simone, and del Giudice. In the diagrammed position, the black queen defends against Qb7 and the rook on c8 defends against Rxc5. Tarrasch played 31.Bc7!, a Plachutta interference after which black cannot maintain control over both b7 and c5 (black actually resigned after this move). If 31...Rxc7 the rook is overloaded, having to look after both the key squares: 32.Qb7+ Rxb7 and the rook is deflected from defence of c5, allowing 33.Rxc5#. If instead 31...Qxc7 it is the queen which is overloaded: 32.Rxc5+ Qxc5 deflects the queen from defence of b7, allowing 33.Qb7+ Kxa5 34.Ra1#.
References
External links
A few Plachutta problems at Chess Composition Microweb
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] |
261528 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Corvallis | Corvallis | Corvallis may refer to:
Places
Corvallis, Montana, USA
Corvallis, Oregon, USA
Education
Corvallis High School (California)
Corvallis High School (Montana)
Corvallis High School (Oregon)
Others
Cessna 350 Corvalis light aircraft
Cessna 400 Corvalis light aircraft
Corvallis Gazette-Times
Corvallis Knights, baseball team
Corvallis Municipal Airport
Corvallis Pride, women's football team | [
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261532 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alphabet%20Synthesis%20Machine | Alphabet Synthesis Machine | The Alphabet Synthesis Machine (2002) is a work of interactive art which makes use of genetic algorithms to "evolve" a set of glyphs similar in appearance to a real-world alphabet. Users create initial glyphs and the program takes over. As the creators of the project put it, their goal was "to bring about the specific feeling of semi-sense one experiences when one recognizes—- but cannot read—- the unfamiliar writing of another culture." The project was developed by Golan Levin, a new-media artist, in collaboration with Cassidy Curtis and Jonathan Feinberg.
Notes
References
https://www.pbs.org/art21/series/seasonone/online.html (PBS and Art21 commissioned the work)
http://www.flong.com/storage/pdf/reports/alphabet_report.pdf (White paper by artists that describes the work in detail)
https://web.archive.org/web/20071027165630/http://www.ciac.ca/magazine/archives/no_19/en/entrevue.htm (Interview with Golan Levin by CIAC's Electronic Magazine)
External links
http://www.alphabetsynthesis.com/ (and a project page composed by Golan Levin)(link does not work)
https://web.archive.org/web/20080513044335/http://www.alphabetsynthesis.com/ (Archived version of previous link)
http://www.users.globalnet.co.uk/~ngo/font0000.htm (examples of fonts produced by the Machine)
http://www.tug.org/TUGboat/Articles/tb26-1/tb82beet.pdf (brief mention in TUGboat)
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261534 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Jymie%20Merritt | Jymie Merritt | Jymie Merritt (May 3, 1926 – April 10, 2020) was an American jazz double-bassist, electric-bass pioneer, band leader and composer. Merritt was a member of Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers group from 1957 until 1962. The same year he left Blakey's band, Merritt formed his own group, The Forerunners, which he led sporadically until his death in 2020. Merritt also worked as a sideman for blues and jazz musicians such as Bull Moose Jackson, B.B. King, Chet Baker, Max Roach, Dizzy Gillespie, and Lee Morgan.
Early life
Raised in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, Jymie, born James Raleigh Merritt, is the son of Agnes Merritt (née Robinson), a choral director, voice and piano teacher, and Raleigh Howard "RH" Merritt, a businessman and author. After serving in the U.S. Army during WWII from 1944 to 1946 Jymie returned home to work for a short time in his father's real estate business, and after a brief flirtation with the clarinet he was inspired by a Duke Ellington recording featuring bassist Jimmy Blanton. Encouraged by his mother he studied with Carl Torello, double bassist for the Philadelphia Orchestra, and at the Ornstein School of Music in Philadelphia.
Career highlights
Jymie Merritt worked in jazz, R&B, and blues. In the early 1950s he toured with rock and roll musicians Bullmoose Jackson and Chris Powell moving on to work with bluesman BB King from 1955 to 1957.
In 1957, Merritt moved to Manhattan, New York, to work with Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers. The Messenger ensemble Merritt joined featured his friend Benny Golson as well as Bobby Timmons and Lee Morgan. Merritt's touring and recording with Blakey extended until 1962, when an unknown ailment forced him to stop touring.
By 1964, Merritt was back, working with the trumpeter and vocalist Chet Baker, and is featured prominently in Baker's unfinished autobiography published under the title As Though I Had Wings: The Lost Memoir.
From 1965 to 1968, Merritt worked with the drummer, composer and activist Max Roach, not only in the rhythm section but as a composer, recording "Nommo" on Roach's Atlantic album Drums Unlimited (1966). "Nommo" would earn Merritt a nomination for Best Jazz Composer in DownBeat magazine's Critics Poll.
Merritt left Max Roach in the late 1960s to work with trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie, appearing with Gillespie's band on The Dick Cavett Show.
One of Jymie Merritt's most productive showcases as a composer was when he reunited with his former Jazz Messenger colleague gifted trumpeter Lee Morgan. Morgan's Blue Note album Live at the Lighthouse (1970) featuring Merritt's composition "Absolutions" (recorded earlier by Max Roach).
In 1962, Jymie Merritt formed and fronted the Forerunners in Philadelphia. The band, which evolved into a music cooperative exploring Merritt's own system of chord inversions, harmonics, and unique approaches to composition and rehearsals, produced a lexicon of its own known as the Forerunner system or concept. The Forerunner concept in its early days culminated in Merritt's expansive composition "Visions of the Ghost Dance".
Among the original members of the Forerunner band were Odean Pope, Kenny Lowe, Donald Bailey, and September Wrice. This group performed regularly in and around Philadelphia for five years, until Merritt joined Max Roach’s band. Pope also joined Roach’s band, playing with him into the 1970s. Forerunner was on and off periodically from the 1960s through the 1980s, depending on what band Merritt was playing with at the time as well as how his health was. Saxophonist Bobby Zankel was a member of the second incarnation of the band when he joined in 1982, which also included Alan Nelson, Odean Pope, Julian Pressley, Colmore Duncan, and Warren McLendon. Zankel is primarily known as an alto player, but played baritone sax with the band, and described the role of the sax section over solos as taking on an accompanying role, where they would always play under the soloist, comparing it to the typical role of the bassist but in the sax section." Approaching his 90th birthday Merritt continued to rehearse and perform with the current incarnation of The Forerunners, many of whom have been with the ensemble from its inception.
Pioneer of the electric bass
Merritt joined the Bull Moose Jackson band in 1949, and was an early adopter of the Ampeg bass (a hybrid acoustic-electric instrument).
Merritt recalls when he first bought a Fender bass:
"Now all this time, I had been playing electric bass, from about the first year of service with the Bull Moose band. We were out in Oklahoma somewhere, when Benny Golson saw this Western band, what you call a hillbilly band, with a fellow
playing what looked like a guitar and sounded like a bass. Benny got me over to hear this and we later saw one in a music store. Benny went in for some reeds or something, so I tried a Fender electric bass and that night I took it to work. The
owner let me take it and I tried it out working and nobody raised any objection. I had been having trouble with my own bass, one of the assembly line types, so I was in the market for a new bass. Anyway, I got curious and bought the thing and
played it for the next seven years or so. I guess at the time I was the only one in jazz playing an electric bass. Certainly, I’m pretty sure Monk Montgomery wasn’t playing one because we used to see him in Minneapolis and he was always
interested to see the instrument."
Awards and honors
In November 2013, along with friend and fellow bassist Reggie Workman, Jymie Merritt received the Clef Club of Philadelphia's Living Legend, Jazz Award.
At the 2009 Philadelphia Jazz Fair, produced by musician and professor Don Glanden, Philadelphia's University of the Arts and the Jazz Heritage Project honored Jymie Merritt and the jazz organist Trudy Pitts with the Jazz Heritage Award. Merritt's award was presented to him by another great Philadelphia bassist, the late Charles Fambrough.
In addition, Jymie Merritt was honored with the Don Redman Heritage Award in June 2008 at a ceremony and concert in Harper's Ferry, West Virginia at the annual event sponsored by the Harpers Ferry Historical Association and the Jefferson County NAACP in cooperation with the Don Redman Heritage Society of Piedmont, West Virginia.
Personal life
Merritt's marriage to Dorothy Viola Small (d. 2008) produced five children: Mharlyn Merritt, a writer and vocalist who received a National Endowment for the Arts Fellowship for Jazz Performance in 1988; Marlon Merritt, an accomplished guitarist and retired career Army veteran of the Iraqi War; Martyn Merritt (deceased), world traveler, bon vivant and classical pianist who studied with internationally acclaimed pianist Leon Bates; Marvon Merritt, percussionist and drummer, and Mike Merritt, a renowned bassist in his own right who has performed and recorded with Levon Helm, Phoebe Snow, Johnny Copeland, BB King and many other world-class musicians. Mike is best known as the bassist for the Basic Cable Band on Conan O'Brien's TBS talk-show. Continuing the family's musical heritage in 2005 Mike co-produced along with his sister Mharlyn an independent CD on the EMerrittus label featuring brother Marlon on guitar, Uri Caine, Al Kooper, Lew Soloff and the Vivino Brothers entitled "Alone Together".
Merritt had a younger brother, LeRoy Merritt, an amateur artist and arts and crafts enthusiast who lived in West Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Merritt lived in Center City, Philadelphia, with his wife Ave and his cat Jazzie. He died on April 10, 2020 of liver cancer in Philadelphia, aged 93.
Discography
As sideman
With Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers
Moanin' (Blue Note, 1958)
1958 - Paris Olympia (Fontana, 1958)
Des Femmes Disparaissent (Soundtrack) (Fontana, 1958)
At the Jazz Corner of the World (Blue Note, 1959)
Just Coolin (Blue Note, 1959)
Les Liaisons Dangereuses 1960 (Fontana, 1959) - Original Soundtrack with Barney Wilen
Africaine (Blue Note, 1959)
Paris Jam Session (1959)
The Big Beat (Blue Note, 1960)
Like Someone in Love (Blue Note, 1960)
A Night In Tunisia (Blue Note, 1960)
Mosaic (Blue Note, 1961)
A Day with Art Blakey and the Jazz Messengers (1961)
Pisces (1961)
The Freedom Rider (1961)
Roots & Herbs (1961)
Three Blind Mice (1962)
Buhaina's Delight (1963)
With Chet Baker
The Most Important Jazz Album of 1964/65 (Colpix, 1964)
With Sonny Clark
Standards (Blue Note, 1959)
With Curtis Fuller
South American Cookin' (Epic, 1961)
Soul Trombone (Impulse!, 1961)
With Benny Golson
The Other Side of Benny Golson (Riverside, 1958)
With Lee Morgan
Live at the Lighthouse (Blue Note, 1969)
The Last Session (Blue Note, 1972)
With Max Roach
Drums Unlimited (Atlantic, 1965)
Members, Don't Git Weary (Atlantic, 1968)
With Jimmy Witherspoon
The Blues Is Now (1967)
With Wayne Shorter
Wayning Moments (1962)
References
External links
1926 births
2020 deaths
American jazz double-bassists
Male double-bassists
Hard bop double-bassists
The Jazz Messengers members
Military personnel from Philadelphia
Musicians from Philadelphia
Jazz musicians from Pennsylvania
21st-century double-bassists
American male jazz musicians | [
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261538 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Winch | Winch | A winch is a mechanical device that is used to pull in (wind up) or let out (wind out) or otherwise adjust the tension of a rope or wire rope (also called "cable" or "wire cable").
In its simplest form, it consists of a spool (or drum) attached to a hand crank. Traditionally, winches on ships accumulated wire or rope on the drum; those that do not accumulate, and instead pass on the wire/rope (see yacht photo above), are called capstans. Despite this, sailboat capstans are most often referred to as winches. Winches are the basis of such machines as tow trucks, steam shovels and elevators. More complex designs have gear assemblies and can be powered by electric, hydraulic, pneumatic or internal combustion drives. It might include a solenoid brake and/or a mechanical brake or ratchet and pawl which prevents it unwinding unless the pawl is retracted. The rope may be stored on the winch. When trimming a line on a sailboat, the crew member turns the winch handle with one hand, while tailing (pulling on the loose tail end) with the other to maintain tension on the turns. Some winches have a "stripper" or cleat to maintain tension. These are known as "self-tailing" winches.
History
The earliest literary reference to a winch can be found in the account of Herodotus of Halicarnassus on the Persian Wars (Histories 7.36), where he describes how wooden winches were used to tighten the cables for a pontoon bridge across the Hellespont in 480 BC. Winches may have been employed even earlier in Assyria. By the 4th century BC, winch and pulley hoists were regarded by Aristotle as common for architectural use (Mech. 18; 853b10-13).
The yacht Reliance, American defender of the 1903 America's Cup, was the first racing boat to be fitted with modern winches below decks. The Reliance's competitors relied on muscle power using topside mounted capstans and windlasses, which would soon be replaced in most applications by winches, including on fishing boats, where they are used to bring in the fishing nets.
Other applications
Vehicle recovery
The main feature that legally distinguishes a tow truck from a conventional truck in many jurisdictions is the presence of a winch, which is used to either extract disabled or immobilized vehicles, or to load them onto flatbed/tilt and load type tow trucks. These may be electrically or hydraulically powered from a power take-off, and is wound with a wire cable and equipped with a hook. Snatch blocks may be used to change direction or increase the pulling power and a variety of specialized hooks may be attached to the main hook, including hooks which attach to specific parts of the car. J-hooks, which look somewhat like blunt meat hooks are used to hook around axles. Mini-J hooks can be used if there is a tow loop provided, and R and T hooks are designed to hook into slots cut by the manufacturer in the underside of the frame on many cars. Axle straps may also be used, when there are few other places to attach.
Off-road vehicles
Off-road vehicles may be equipped with recovery tools such as winches on the front and back bumpers, normally dead-bolted to the frame of the vehicle. The snubbing winch is used to pull vehicles out of mud, snow, sand, rocks, and water, and to pull vehicles through or over obstaclese. The winch is made of cable made up of a braided synthetic rope, or a steel cable wrapped around a motorized drum. Each is controlled electronically, allowing the operator to control the winch speed.
Aircraft use
Gliders are often launched using a winch mounted on a trailer or heavy vehicle. This method is widely used at many European gliding clubs, as an inexpensive alternative to aerotowing. The engine is usually a gas/petrol, LPG or diesel, though hydraulic fluid engines and electrical motors are also used. The winch pulls in of high-tensile steel wire or a synthetic fibre cable, attached at the other end to the glider. The cable is released at a height of about after a short, steep climb.
Search and Rescue helicopters are often equipped with winches to avoid having to get the helicopter dangerously close to obstacles, or into ocean troughs, allowing rescue teams to be lowered and evacuees to be extricated while the helicopter hovers overhead. Helicopter winches are also used for heli-logging and for airlifting oversized cargo, such as vehicles and other aircraft, although the winch in these cases is only used to reduce the hazards to flying with an loose cable hanging below the helicopter.
Stationary balloons, such as the barrage balloons used during the Second World War to discourage marauding aircraft, and the Kite balloons used during the First World War for artillery spotting are usually tethered with a winch, which can be used to lower the balloon, either to relocate it, or to bring it down quickly to prevent it being shot down by enemy aircraft. Larger man carrying kites often used winches to raise and lower them.
Towed gunnery targets, used to train anti-aircraft gunners, and both fighter pilots and aircraft gunners, are run out behind the target tug aircraft for practice, and winched in for take-off and landing.
Before advances were made in antennas in the 1950s, radio aerials were quite long, and needed to be winched out for use, and winched back in for landing. Failure to do so would then damage the aerial, as happened to Amelia Earhart on one of the legs of her last flight.
Theatre
Winches are frequently used as elements of backstage mechanics to move scenery in large theatrical productions. They are often embedded in the stage floor and used to move large set pieces on and off.
Wakeskate winch
Wakeskate winching is a sport where a person on a waterski or snowboard is propelled across the water with a winch. The winch consists of a gas-powered engine, spool, rope, frame, and sometimes a simple transmission. The person being towed walks (or swims) away from the winch, while extending the rope. When the winch is engaged, it pulls the boarder in at a speed ranging from . The winch may be mounted to a vehicle, set into the ground by stakes, or tied to a tree. The cable may also be run through pulleys mounted offshore so that it pulls the person away from where the winch is located, and multiple pulleys may be used to multiply the force applied by a small but high revving motor instead of using a transmission.
Winch types
Lever winch
Lever winches are winches that use self-gripping jaws instead of spools to move rope or wire through the winch. Powered by moving a handle back and forth, they allow one person to move objects several tons in weight.
Snubbing winch
This is a vertical spool with a ratchet mechanism similar to a conventional winch, but with no crank handle or other form of drive. The line is wrapped around the spool and can be tightened or reeled in by pulling the tail line. The winch takes the load once the pull is stopped with little operator tension needed to hold it. These also allow controlled release of the tension by the operator using the friction of the line around the ratcheted spool. They are used on small sailing boats and dinghies to control sheets and other lines, and in larger applications to supplement and relieve tension on the primary winches.
Air winch
An air winch, sometimes known as an air hoist or air tugger, is an air-powered version of a winch. It is commonly used for the lifting and the suspension of materials. In the oil and gas, construction, and maritime industries, air winches are frequently preferred to electric, diesel, and hydraulic winches because of their durability, versatility, and safety.
See also
Block and tackle
Capstan equation
Come-along
Harness
Hoist (device)
Hoist (mining)
Parasailing
Portsmouth Block Mills
Pulley
Steam donkey
Wire rope spooling technology
References
External links
Mechanisms (engineering)
Sailing ship components | [
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261539 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gaspare%20Spontini | Gaspare Spontini | Gaspare Luigi Pacifico Spontini (14 November 177424 January 1851) was an Italian opera composer and conductor.
Biography
Born in Maiolati, Papal State (now Maiolati Spontini, Province of Ancona), he spent most of his career in Paris and Berlin, but returned to his place of birth at the end of his life. During the first two decades of the 19th century, Spontini was an important figure in French opera. In his more than twenty operas, Spontini strove to adapt Gluck's classical tragédie lyrique to the contemporary taste for melodrama, for grander spectacle (in Fernand Cortez for example), for enriched orchestral timbre, and for melodic invention allied to idiomatic expressiveness of words.
As a youth, Spontini studied at the Conservatorio della Pietà de' Turchini, one of four active music conservatories of Naples. Working his way from Italian city to city, he got his first break in Rome, with his successful comedy Li Puntigli delle Donne (Carnival 1793). In 1803, he went to Paris, where, on 11 February 1804, debuted his comic opera La Finta Filosofa, his Neapolitan success of 1799. In part on the recommendation of the comte de Rémusat and his literary countess, a dame du palais, Spontini circulated in the Imperial court, was made a member of the Académie Impériale de Musique and gained a court position as compositeur particulier de la chambre of the Empress in 1805.
Though Spontini's earlier successes were comedies, with the encouragement of Empress Joséphine in 1807, Spontini wrote his greatest success, the tragédie lyrique La Vestale, which has remained his best known work. Its premiere at the Opéra in Paris established Spontini as one of the greatest Italian composers of his age. His contemporaries Cherubini Beethoven and Meyerbeer considered it a masterpiece, and later composers such as Berlioz and Wagner admired it.
During the Peninsular War, Napoleon promoted works such as Gasparo Spontini's Fernand Cortez (1809), which concerned the Spanish conquest of Mexico under the reign of Charles V. In 1811, Spontini married Celeste Érard, the niece of the Parisian maker of pianos and harps Sébastien Érard; it was a happy marriage, though childless. He was made a chevalier of Napoleon's Legion of Honor; its Maltese cross hangs round his neck in the portrait by Nicolas-Eustache Maurin (illustration).
Under the changed political climate of the Bourbon Restoration, Spontini, closely identified with the former Empire, saw his opera Olimpie (1819, revised 1821, 1826) meet with indifference, leading him to leave Paris for Berlin, where his operas had already achieved success. There he became Kapellmeister and chief conductor at the Königliches Opernhaus, and in this period he composed the Prussian National Anthem "Borussia". There he also met the young Mendelssohn, but deprecated the 17-year old's opera Die Hochzeit des Camacho.
In 1842, a disillusioned Spontini, chagrined at the success of Giacomo Meyerbeer and others in Germany, returned to Italy, where he died in 1851.
Bibliography
(French) Gaspare Spontini by Patrick Barbier, bleu nuit éditeur, 2017, 176 p. ()
Compositions
For the opera
Li puntigli delle donne (1796)
(1798)
Teseo riconosciuto (1798)
La fuga in maschera (1800)
Le metamorfosi di Pasquale (1802)
Milton (1804)
Julie, ou Le pot de fleurs (1805)
La vestale (1807)
Fernand Cortez (1809)
Olimpie (1819)
Nurmahal, oder das Rosenfest von Caschmir (1822)
Agnes von Hohenstaufen (1829)
Other compositions
L'eccelsa gara – Cantata, on a text by Luigi Balocchi (1806)
Tout le monde a tort – Vaudeville (1806)
, for Antonio Salieri's Les Danaïdes (1817)
– Prussian anthem, on a text by (1818)
(1820)
Lalla Rûkh – Festspiel, on a text by S. H. Spicker, after Thomas Moore (1821)
Modern revivals
During the 20th century, Spontini's operas were only rarely performed, although several had their first revivals in years. Perhaps the most famous modern production was the revival of La vestale with Maria Callas at La Scala at the opening of the 1954 season, to mark the 180th anniversary of the composer's birth. The stage director was famed cinema director Luchino Visconti. That production was also the La Scala debut of tenor Franco Corelli. Callas recorded the arias "Tu che invoco" and "O Nume tutelar" from La vestale in 1955 (as did Rosa Ponselle in 1926). In 1969, conductor Fernando Previtali revived the opera, with soprano Leyla Gencer and baritone Renato Bruson. (An unofficial recording is in circulation.) In 1993, conductor Riccardo Muti recorded it in the original French language with Karen Huffstodt, Denyce Graves, Anthony Michaels-Moore and Dimitri Kavrakos.
Other revivals of Spontini include Agnes von Hohenstaufen in Italian as Agnese di Hohenstaufen at the Maggio Musicale festival in Florence in 1954, starring Franco Corelli and conducted by Vittorio Gui, and in Rome in 1970, with Montserrat Caballé and Antonietta Stella, conducted by Riccardo Muti, both recorded live. Fernand Cortez was revived in 1951, with a young Renata Tebaldi, at the San Carlo in Naples, conducted by Gabriele Santini. The premiere of the integral version of the work took place at the Erfurt (Germany) opera house (2006, Jean-Paul Penin, conductor).
Li puntigli delle donne was performed at the Putbus Festival 1998, conducted by Wilhelm Keitel (recording Arte Nova 74321591982).
References
Sources
Gerhard, Anselm (n.d.). "Spontini, Gaspare", in Grove Music Online, , accessed 13 September 2014.
Silke Leopold (2006), "The Idea of National Opera, c. 1800" in Unity and Diversity in European Culture c. 1800, (Ed.) Tim Blanning and Hagen Schulze New York: Oxford University Press.
Todd, R. Larry (2003), Mendelssohn, A Life in Music. Oxford: Oxford University Press. .
Gaspare Spontini (French) [archive] by Patrick Barbier, bleu nuit éditeur, 2017, 176 p. ()
External links
Fondazione Pergolesi Spontini of Jesi
1774 births
1851 deaths
18th-century German composers
18th-century Italian male musicians
19th-century classical composers
19th-century German composers
19th-century Italian composers
19th-century Italian male musicians
Composers awarded knighthoods
Conductors (music) awarded knighthoods
General directors of the Berlin State Opera
German conductors (music)
German male classical composers
German male conductors (music)
German opera composers
Italian conductors (music)
Italian male classical composers
Italian male conductors (music)
Italian opera composers
Male opera composers
Music directors of the Berlin State Opera
People from the Province of Ancona
Recipients of the Pour le Mérite (civil class)
18th-century Italian composers | [
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261543 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mitchellville | Mitchellville | Mitchellville is the name of several places:
Places
Australia
Mitchellville, South Australia, a locality in the District Council of Franklin Harbour
United States
Mitchellville, Arkansas
Mitchellsville, Illinois
Mitchellville, Iowa
Mitchellville, Maryland
Mitchellville, Missouri
Mitchellville, Tennessee
See also
Mitchelville | [
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261545 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saarburg | Saarburg | Saarburg (, ) is a city of the Trier-Saarburg district, in the state of Rhineland-Palatinate, Germany, on the banks of the river Saar in the hilly country a few kilometers upstream from the Saar's junction with the Moselle. Now known as a tourist attraction, the river Leuk flows into the town center and makes a spectacular drop of some 60 feet before joining the larger Saar that bisects the town. The waterfall is the result of a 13th-century project to redirect the Leuk through the city center.
Saarburg is the seat of the Verbandsgemeinde ("collective municipality") Saarburg-Kell. The area around Saarburg is noted for the cultivation of Riesling grapes.
History
The history of the city begins with the construction of the now-ruined castle by Graf Siegfried of Luxembourg in 964. It received its town charter in 1291. The city has a bell foundry, the Glockengießerei Mabilion, which has been in operation since the 1770s, and the only one in Germany that makes bronze bells.
From 1945 to 1948 Saarburg was occupied by troops from Luxembourg. From 18 July 1946 to 6 June 1947 Onsdorf, in its then municipal boundary, formed part of the Saar Protectorate. French troops complemented the occupation until 1955.
Saarburg has a proud history with bells, being the producers of bells for many German cathedrals.
Gallery
Twin towns — sister cities
Saarburg is twinned with:
Sarrebourg, France (1952)
Soulac-sur-Mer, France (1972)
Born in Saarburg
Erwin Menny (1893-1949), lieutenant general in the Second World War
Marianne Baum (1912-1942), resistance fighter against Nazism
References
External links
Saarburg homepage
Account of a Saarburg visit, with much detail
Websites in Saarburg
964 establishments
Towns in Rhineland-Palatinate
Trier-Saarburg
10th-century establishments in Germany | [
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261546 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Billy%20Eckstine | Billy Eckstine | William Clarence Eckstine (July 8, 1914 – March 8, 1993) was an American jazz and pop singer and a bandleader during the swing era. He was noted for his rich, almost operatic bass-baritone voice. In 2019, Eckstine was awarded the Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award "for performers who, during their lifetimes, have made creative contributions of outstanding artistic significance to the field of recording." His recording of "I Apologize" (MGM, 1948) was given the Grammy Hall of Fame Award in 1999. The New York Times described him as an "influential band leader" whose "suave bass-baritone" and "full-throated, sugary approach to popular songs inspired singers like Earl Coleman, Johnny Hartman, Joe Williams, Arthur Prysock and Lou Rawls."
Early life and education
Eckstine was born in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States, the son of William Eckstein, a chauffeur, and Charlotte Eckstein, a seamstress. Eckstine's paternal grandparents were William F. Eckstein and Nannie Eckstein, a mixed-race, married couple who lived in Washington, D.C.; both were born in 1863. William was born in Prussia, and Nannie in Virginia. Billy's sister, Maxine, was a high school teacher.
Eckstine attended Peabody High School before moving to Washington, D.C. He attended Armstrong High School, St. Paul Normal and Industrial School, and Howard University. He left Howard in 1933 after winning first place in an amateur talent contest.
A State Historical Marker is placed at 5913 Bryant Street in Pittsburgh's Highland Park neighborhood to mark the house where Eckstine grew up.
Career
Heading to Chicago, Illinois, Eckstine joined Earl Hines' Grand Terrace Orchestra in 1939, staying with the band as vocalist and trumpeter until 1943. By that time, Eckstine had begun to make a name for himself through the Hines band's juke-box hits, such as "Stormy Monday Blues", and his own "Jelly Jelly".
In 1944, Eckstine formed his own big band, and it became the finishing school for adventurous young musicians who would shape the future of jazz. Included in this group were Dizzy Gillespie, Dexter Gordon, Miles Davis, Art Blakey, Charlie Parker, and Fats Navarro, as well as vocalist Sarah Vaughan. Tadd Dameron, Gil Fuller and Jerry Valentine were among the band's arrangers. The Billy Eckstine Orchestra is considered to be the first bop big-band, and had Top Ten chart entries that included "A Cottage for Sale" and "Prisoner of Love". Both were awarded a gold disc by the RIAA.
Dizzy Gillespie, in reflecting on the band in his 1979 autobiography To Be or Not to Bop, gives this perspective: "There was no band that sounded like Billy Eckstine's. Our attack was strong, and we were playing bebop, the modern style. No other band like this one existed in the world." In 1946 Eckstine starred as the hero in the musical film Rhythm in a Riff, which also starred Ann Baker and Lucky Millinder.
Eckstine became a solo performer in 1947, with records featuring lush sophisticated orchestrations. Even before folding his band, Eckstine had recorded solo to support it, scoring two million-sellers in 1945 with "Cottage for Sale" and a revival of "Prisoner of Love". Far more successful than his band recordings, these prefigured Eckstine's future career. Eckstine would go on to record over a dozen hits during the late 1940s. He signed with the newly established MGM Records, and had immediate hits with revivals of "Everything I Have Is Yours" (1947), Rodgers and Hart's "Blue Moon" (1948), and Juan Tizol's "Caravan" (1949).
Eckstine had further success in 1950 with Victor Young's theme song to "My Foolish Heart," and the next year with a revival of the 1931 Bing Crosby hit, "I Apologize".
His 1950 appearance at the Paramount Theatre in New York City, drew a larger audience than Frank Sinatra at his Paramount performance.
In 1951, Eckstine performed at the seventh famed Cavalcade of Jazz concert held at Wrigley Field in Los Angeles which was produced by Leon Hefflin, Sr. on July 8. Also featured were Lionel Hampton and his Revue, Percy Mayfield, Jimmy Witherspoon, Joe Liggins' Honeydrippers and Roy Brown.
Eckstine was the subject of a three-page profile in the 25 April 1950 issue of LIFE magazine, in which the photographer Martha Holmes accompanied Eckstine and his entourage during a week in New York City. One photograph taken by Holmes and published in LIFE showed Eckstine with a group of white female admirers, one of whom had her hand on his shoulder and her head on his chest while she laughed. Eckstine's biographer Cary Ginell, wrote of the image that Holmes "...captured a moment of shared exuberance, joy, and affection, unblemished by racial tension". Holmes would later describe the photograph as the favorite of the many she had taken in her career as it "...told just what the world should be like". The photograph was considered so controversial that an editor at LIFE sought personal approval from Henry Luce, the magazine's publisher, who said it should be published. The publication of the image caused letters of protest to be written to the magazine, and singer Harry Belafonte subsequently said of the publication that "When that photo hit, in this national publication, it was if a barrier had been broken". The controversy that resulted from the photograph had a seminal effect on the trajectory of Eckstine's career. Tony Bennett would recall that "It changed everything...Before that, he had a tremendous following...and it just offended the white community", a sentiment shared by pianist Billy Taylor who said that the "coverage and that picture just slammed the door shut for him".
Among Eckstine's recordings of the 1950s was a 1957 duet with Sarah Vaughan, "Passing Strangers", a minor hit in 1957, but an initial No. 22 success in the UK Singles Chart.
The 1960 Las Vegas live album, No Cover, No Minimum, featured Eckstine taking a few trumpet solos and showcased his nightclub act. He recorded albums for Mercury and Roulette in the early 1960s, and appeared on Motown albums during the mid to late 1960s. After recording sparingly during the 1970s for Al Bell's Stax/Enterprise imprint, the international touring Eckstine made his last recording, the Grammy-nominated Billy Eckstine Sings with Benny Carter in 1986.
Eckstine made numerous appearances on television variety shows, including on The Ed Sullivan Show, The Nat King Cole Show, The Tonight Show with Steve Allen, Jack Paar, and Johnny Carson, The Merv Griffin Show, The Art Linkletter Show, The Joey Bishop Show, The Dean Martin Show, The Flip Wilson Show, and Playboy After Dark. He also performed as an actor in the TV sitcom Sanford and Son, and in such films as Skirts Ahoy, Let's Do It Again, and Jo Jo Dancer. He performed The Star-Spangled Banner prior to Game 4 of the 1979 World Series at Three Rivers Stadium in his native Pittsburgh.
Culturally Eckstine was a fashion icon. He was famous for his "Mr. B. Collar" – a high roll collar that formed a "B" over a Windsor-knotted tie (or without a tie at all). The collars were worn by many a hipster in the late 1940s and early 1950s.
In 1984, Eckstine recorded his penultimate album, I Am a Singer, arranged and conducted by Angelo DiPippo and featuring Toots Thielemans on harmonica. In November 1986, Eckstine recorded with saxophonist Benny Carter for his 1987 album Billy Eckstine Sings with Benny Carter. Eckstine made his final recordings for Motorcity Records, a label for ex-Motown artists founded by Ian Levine.
Personal life
He married his first wife, June, in 1942. After their divorce in 1952, he remarried shortly after to actress and model Carolle Drake in 1953, and they remained married until his death. He was the father of four children by his second marriage including Ed Eckstine, a president of Mercury Records; Guy Eckstine, a Columbia and Verve Records A&R executive and record producer; and singer Gina Eckstine.
Illness and death
Eckstine suffered a stroke while performing in Salina, Kansas, in April 1992, and never performed again. Though his speech improved in the hospital, Eckstine had a heart attack, and he died a few months later on March 8, 1993, aged 78. Eckstine's final word was "Basie".
Tributes
His friend Duke Ellington recalled Eckstine's artistry in his 1973 autobiography Music is My Mistress:
Eckstine-style love songs opened new lines of communication for the man in the man-woman merry-go-round, and blues a la B were the essence of cool. When he made a recording of "Caravan", I was happy and honored to watch one of our tunes help take him into the stratosphere of universal acclaim. And, of course, he hasn't looked back since. A remarkable artist, the sonorous B. ... His style and technique have been extensively copied by some of the neocommercial singers, but despite their efforts he remains out front to show how and what should have been done.
Sammy Davis, Jr. made several live appearances and impersonated Eckstine. Eckstine was a pallbearer at Davis' funeral in 1990.
Quincy Jones stated in Billboard:
I looked up to Mr. B as an idol. I wanted to dress like him, talk like him, pattern my whole life as a musician and as a complete person in the image of dignity that he projected.... As a black man, Eckstine was not immune to the prejudice that characterized the 1950s.
Jones is quoted in The Pleasures of Jazz as also saying of Eckstine:
If he'd been white, the sky would have been the limit. As it was, he didn't have his own radio or TV show, much less a movie career. He had to fight the system, so things never quite fell into place."
Lionel Hampton:
He was one of the greatest singers of all time.... We were proud of him because he was the first Black popular singer singing popular songs in our race. We, the whole music profession, were so happy to see him achieve what he was doing. He was one of the greatest singers of that era... He was our singer."
Discography
10" LP releases
1940: Earl Hines – Billy Eckstine [Record 1: Stormy Monday Blues // Water Boy; Record 2: I Got It Bad (And That Ain't Good) // Somehow; Record 3: Jelly, Jelly // Skylark] (RCA Victor) 3x78rpm album set
1949 Billy Eckstine Sings (National) - recorded 1945–1947
1950 Songs By Billy Eckstine (MGM)
1951 Billy Eckstine Favorites (MGM)
1952 Love Songs By Rodgers and Hammerstein (MGM)
1953 Billy Eckstine Sings Tenderly (MGM)
1953 Earl Hines – Billy Eckstine: A Treasury Of Immortal Performances (RCA Victor) - recorded 1940–1942
1953 The Great Mr. B: Billy Eckstine and His All-Star Band (DeLuxe/King) - recorded 1944
1954 I Let a Song Go Out of My Heart: Billy Eckstine Sings 8 Great Duke Ellington Songs (MGM)
1954 Blues For Sale (EmArcy)
1954 The Love Songs of Mr. B (EmArcy)
12" LP releases
1955 I Surrender, Dear (EmArcy)
1955 Mr. B With a Beat (MGM) - with George Shearing Quintet, Woody Herman Orchestra, and The Metronome All Stars.
1955 Rendezvous (MGM)
1955 That Old Feeling (MGM)
1957 Prisoner of Love (Regent)
1957 The Duke, The Blues and Me! (Regent)
1957 My Deep Blue Dream (Regent)
1958 You Call It Madness (Regent)
1958 Billy Eckstine's Imagination (EmArcy)
1958 Billy Eckstine & Sarah Vaughan Sing Irving Berlin (Mercury)
1958 Billy's Best! (Mercury)
1959 Basie and Eckstine, Inc. with Count Basie Orchestra (Roulette)
1960 No Cover, No Minimum (Roulette)
1960 Once More With Feeling (Roulette)
1961 Mr. B In Paris (Felsted/Decca [UK]; Barclay [France]) rec. 1957–1958; all 12 songs sung in French
1961 Broadway, Bongos and Mr. B (Mercury)
1962 At Basin St. East with Quincy Jones (Mercury)
1962 Don't Worry 'Bout Me (Mercury)
1963 The Golden Hits of Billy Eckstine (Mercury) - compilation
1963 Now Singing In 12 Great Movies (Mercury)
1964 The Modern Sound of Mr. B (Mercury)
1965 The Prime of My Life (Motown)
1966 My Way (Motown)
1969 For Love of Ivy [also released as Gentle On My Mind] (Motown)
1971 Stormy (Enterprise/Stax)
1971 Feel the Warm (Enterprise/Stax)
1971 Moment (Capitol)
1972 Senior Soul (Enterprise/Stax)
1974 If She Walked Into My Life (Enterprise/Stax)
1979 Momento Brasiliero (Portuguese import release on Som Livre label)
1984 I Am a Singer (Kimbo)
1986 Billy Eckstine Sings with Benny Carter with special guest: Helen Merrill (Verve)
LP/CD compilations of note
1960 Mr. B: The Great Billy Eckstine and His Orchestra (Audio Lab) - 12" LP reissue of The Great Mr. B from DeLuxe/King.
1963 Billy & Sarah with Sarah Vaughan (Lion) - compilation
1971 Billy Eckstine Together (Spotlite) - 1945 live "radio broadcast" recordings
1979 Billy Eckstine Sings (Savoy Jazz) - compilation
1986 Mister B. and the Band: The Savoy Sessions (Savoy Jazz) - compilation
1986 I Want To Talk About You (Xanadu) - this compilation features Eckstine's earliest recordings, 13 selections taken from his 1940–1942 Bluebird sides with the Earl Hines Orchestra; album is rounded out by 3 ballads taken from a 1945 live "radio broadcast" with his own big band.
1991 Everything I Have Is Yours: The Best Of The MGM Years (Verve) - 2CD anthology with 42 tracks (note: the original 2-LP set was issued in 1985 with just 30 tracks)
1991 Compact Jazz: Billy Eckstine (Verve) - compilation
1994 Jazz 'Round Midnight: Billy Eckstine (Verve) - compilation
1994 Verve Jazz Masters (Volume 22): Billy Eckstine (Verve) - compilation
1996 Air Mail Special (Drive Archive) - reissue of the 1945 live "radio broadcast" recordings.
1996 The Magnificent Mr. B (Flapper/Pearl) - anthology/compilation of material recorded with Earl Hines (for the Bluebird label), and Eckstine's recordings with his orchestra (for the DeLuxe and National labels).
1997 The Chronological Billy Eckstine and His Orchestra 1944–1945 (Classics) - anthology/compilation
1999 The Chronological Billy Eckstine and His Orchestra 1946–1947 (Classics) - anthology/compilation
2001 Mr. B (ASV/Living Era) - anthology/compilation
2002 Timeless Billy Eckstine (Savoy Jazz) - compilation
2002 The Legendary Big Band 1943–1947 (Savoy Jazz) - 2CD anthology (all of Eckstine's recordings for the DeLuxe and National labels).
2003 Kiss of Fire (Sepia) - compilation (contains 25 tracks recorded 1947–1952 for the MGM label).
2003 The Motown Years (Motown/UMe) - 2CD anthology
2004 Love Songs (Savoy Jazz) - compilation
2004 A Proper Introduction To Billy Eckstine: Ballads, Blues and Bebop (Proper) - anthology/compilation
2005 Jukebox Hits 1943–1953 (Acrobat) - anthology/compilation
2005 Early Mr. B: 1940–1953 (Jazz Legends) - anthology/compilation of material recorded with Earl Hines (for the Bluebird label), and Eckstine's recordings with his orchestra (for the DeLuxe, National and MGM labels).
2006 Prisoner of Love: The Romantic Billy Eckstine (Savoy Jazz) - this is a reissue of Timeless Billy Eckstine.
2008 All of My Life (Jasmine) - 2CD anthology (contains 35 tracks recorded for the MGM label; also includes all 10 of his 1956 RCA recordings; and 10 of his 1957–1958 Mercury recordings).
References
Bibliography
External links
1914 births
1993 deaths
20th-century American singers
Activists for African-American civil rights
20th-century African-American male singers
American crooners
American jazz bandleaders
American jazz singers
American jazz trombonists
Male trombonists
American jazz trumpeters
American male trumpeters
Big band bandleaders
MGM Records artists
Motown artists
Musicians from Pittsburgh
Mercury Records artists
RCA Victor artists
Singers from Pennsylvania
Traditional pop music singers
American bass-baritones
20th-century American guitarists
20th-century trumpeters
20th-century trombonists
Guitarists from Pennsylvania
American male guitarists
Jazz musicians from Pennsylvania
20th-century American male singers
American male jazz musicians
Grammy Lifetime Achievement Award winners
American people of Prussian descent | [
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261547 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hoddesdon | Hoddesdon | Hoddesdon () is a town in the Borough of Broxbourne, Hertfordshire, lying entirely within the London Metropolitan Area and Greater London Urban Area. The area is on the River Lea and the Lee Navigation along with the New River.
Hoddesdon is the second most populated town in Broxbourne with a population of 42,253 according to the United Kingdom's 2011 census.
It borders Ware to the North, Nazeing in Essex to the East, and Broxbourne to the South. The Prime Meridian passes just to the east of Hoddesdon. The town is served by Rye House railway station and nearby Broxbourne railway station.
History
Early history
The name "Hoddesdon" is believed to be derived from a Saxon or Danish personal name combined with the Old English suffix "don", meaning a down or hill. The earliest historical reference to the name is in the Domesday Book within the hundred of Hertford.
Hoddesdon was situated about north of London on the main road to Cambridge and to the north. The road forked in the centre of the town, with the present High Street dividing into Amwell Street and Burford Street, both leading north to Ware. From an early date there were a large number of inns lining the streets to serve the needs of travellers. A market charter was granted to Robert Boxe, lord of the manor, in 1253. By the 14th century the Hospital of St Laud and St Anthony had been established in the south of Hoddesdon. The institution survived the dissolution of the monasteries, but had ceased to exist by the mid 16th century, although it is commemorated in the name of Spital Brook which divides Hoddesdon from Broxbourne.
In 1336 William de la Marche was licensed to build a chapel of ease in the town. The building, known as St Katharine's Chapel, survived until the 17th century, when it was demolished. The tower survived until 1836. The chapel was used by pilgrims to the shrine at Walsingham.
The town was considerably enlarged in the reign of Elizabeth I, and a number of inns in the High Street date from this time. The monarch granted a royal charter in 1559/60, placing the town government under a bailiff, warden and eight assistants. The charter also established a free grammar school based on the site of the former hospital, and this was placed under the care of the corporation. Neither the borough nor the school flourished, however, and both had ceased to exist by the end of the century. In 1567 Sir William Cecil acquired the manor of Hoddesdonsbury and two years later Elizabeth granted him the neighbouring manor of Baas. From that date the Cecils maintained a connection with the town which is recorded by the naming of The Salisbury Arms (anciently the Black Lion Inn) : the title Marquess of Salisbury was granted to James Cecil in 1789.
In 1622 Sir Marmaduke Rawdon built Rawdon House, a red-brick mansion which still survives. Rawdon also provided the town with its first public water supply, flowing from a statue known as the "Samaritan Woman".
In 1683 there was an alleged Whig conspiracy to assassinate or mount an insurrection against Charles II of England because of his pro-Roman Catholic policies. This plot was known as the Rye House Plot, named from Rye House at Hoddesdon, near which ran a narrow road where Charles was supposed to be killed as he travelled from a horse meeting at Newmarket. By chance, according to the official narrative, the king's unexpectedly early departure in March foiled the plot. Ten weeks later, on 1 June, an informer's allegations prompted a government investigation.
The subsequent history of Rye House has been considerably less dramatic. In 1870 the current owner, William Henry Teale, opened a pleasure garden, displaying the Great Bed of Ware, which he had recently acquired. It was such a popular destination for excursions from London that an extra station was built on the Liverpool Street to Hertford East line to serve it.
By the early 20th century, however, the tourist trade had fallen off, and Rye House was demolished, apart from the Gatehouse; the Great Bed was moved to the Victoria & Albert Museum.
Rye House Gatehouse still stands today, and is now a Grade 1 listed building, with high-quality diaper brickwork and a "barley sugar twist" chimney. It is open to the public at weekends and bank holidays during the summer, featuring displays about the Plot and the early history of brick-building. The rest of the grass-covered site has the floor-plan of the house marked out.
A new chapel of ease, dedicated to St Paul, was built in 1732. This was subsequently enlarged, and in 1844 become the parish church when Hoddesdon was created a separate ecclesiastical parish. Previously the town had been divided between the two parishes of Broxbourne and Great Amwell. The boundary between the two parishes ran through an archway in the town's High Street. When this building was demolished in the 1960s, a specially inscribed stone was set into the pavement marking the historic boundary. In place of St Katharine's Chapel a new clock house was built.
Brewing was first established in the town in about 1700. In 1803, William Christie established a brewery in the town, and it became a major employer and one of the largest breweries in England. The brewery continued in operation until 1928. Most of the brewery buildings was demolished in 1930, although part was converted into a cinema itself since demolished. Some remnants of the establishment remain in Brewery Road.
By the mid-19th century the town still consisted principally of one street, and had a population of 1,743. Malt was being produced and transported to London via the River Lea. There were also a number of flour mills. Trade in Hoddesdon was centred on the hops market each Thursday. As time went on, more and more hops were carried on the river rather than the roads and the Wednesday meat market took predominance. The Wednesday market has survived and a Friday market was added in the late 20th century.
After the Second World War
After the Second World War Hoddesdon increasingly became a dormitory town, forming part of the London commuter belt. Much of the town centre was demolished in the 1960s and 1970s, with the construction of the Tower Centre and Fawkon Walk shopping centres. The opening of a bypass in 1974 changed the nature of the town, with through traffic curtailed.
Hoddesdon has a sizeable Italian community. Many Sicilian families emigrated to the Lea Valley in the 1950s and 60s to work in the nearby garden nurseries, and they and many of their descendants still live in the area. Since the 18th century the Lea Valley has had a reputation for fine produce from its market gardens and green houses. The owners and growers of the majority of the Lea Valley's cucumber farms come primarily from two villages in Sicily: Cianciana and Mussomeli. The Lee Valley Growers Association estimates that more than 70% of the 100 or so nurseries in the Lea Valley are now owned by Sicilian descendants, producing 75% of UK-grown cucumbers and 50% of its peppers in their glasshouses.
Part of a wave of immigration to the UK after the Second World War, the Italian community has grown to become part of the fabric of the area, with migrants and their descendants still celebrating their rich Italian heritage. The Festival of San Antonio is celebrated in June with a street procession, although nowadays it is a low-key festival since many of the participants are elderly. An Italian consul is resident at Broxbourne Council. The Italian influx to the Hoddesdon area brought with it many Italian cuisines.
Recent changes
In 2007 Rye House Kart Raceway was taken over by two local family businessmen. It was recently described as the "Silverstone of Karting" by David Coulthard. The Book It Now diary based calendar system was developed here in 2013.
In 2014 JD Wetherspoon's first pub in Hoddesdon opened at the former Salisbury Arms on the High Street. During renovations at the re-named Star, a series of important 16th century wall paintings was uncovered. They are located on the north wall of the bar, with some additional detail found on one of the beams supporting the ceiling. The paintings depict half-figures and biblical verses. Roof beams dating to the mid-1400s have also been revealed, suggesting that The Star is older than previously thought.
Governance
Hoddesdon has two tiers of local government, at district (borough) and county level: Broxbourne Borough Council and Hertfordshire County Council. There is no parish or town council for Hoddesddon, which has been an unparished area since 1974.
Hoddesdon was formerly classed as a hamlet within the parish of Broxbourne. A separate ecclesiastical parish of Hoddesdon was created in 1844, but for civil purposes the town continued to straddle Broxbourne and Great Amwell parishes. The hamlet of Hoddesdon had its own overseers of the poor and from 1835 appointed its own guardians to the Ware Poor Law Union. As such, the hamlet of Hoddesdon became a civil parish on 10 August 1866 with the passing of the Poor Law Amendment Act 1866.
Hoddesdon was included in the Ware Rural Sanitary District from 1872. Under the Local Government Act 1894 rural sanitary districts were converted into rural districts, but before that Act came into force an order was made to convert Hoddesdon into an urban district. A new parish called "Hoddesdon Urban" was created from most of the old Hoddesdon parish and part of Great Amwell, whilst the sparsely populated western part of Hoddesdon became a separate parish called Hoddesdon Rural, which became part of Ware Rural District. Hoddesdon Urban District Council came into being on 31 December 1894.
On 1 April 1935 a County Review Order enlarged the urban district. The neighbouring parishes of Broxbourne, Hoddesdon Rural, and Wormley were all abolished, with most of their territory being absorbed into the parish and urban district of Hoddesdon. Parts of the parishes of Great Amwell and Stanstead Abbotts were transferred into Hoddesdon at the same time. Much of the western boundary of the urban district then coincided with the track of the Roman Ermine Street.
In its early years, Hoddesdon Urban District Council met at the Coffee Tavern Hall on Lord Street. In 1936 the council built itself a new building called Council Offices at the southern end of the High Street. The Council Offices were formally opened on 21 December 1936, and remained the headquarters of the council until its abolition.
Hoddesdon Urban District was abolished under the Local Government Act 1972, merging with Cheshunt Urban District on 1 April 1974 to become the Borough of Broxbourne. No successor parish was created for the town, and so it became an unparished area. Hoddesdon Urban District Council's former offices were converted to residential use in 1988 and renamed Belvedere Court.
Education
The John Warner School is a community, foundation comprehensive for 11- to 18-year-olds.
Sheredes School served the area from 1969. In 2012 Sheredes received the artsmark gold award in recognition of the outstanding work in the arts and was one of only a handful of schools nationally to have been awarded this for a fourth time. In 2016 Sheredes became Robert Barclay Academy, a comprehensive school for 11- to 18-year-olds. John Warner has specialist status in science and sport and Sheredes was well regarded in the arts.
In 2007 the John Warner School received congratulations from Mr Jim Knight, Minister of State for Education for being placed 24th in the '100 most improved schools in the country'. This award is a combination of eight years continuous improvement in examination results.
Sport and leisure
As well as the array of shops in and around Hoddesdon, there are a number of leisure activities in the local area, including a gym in the town centre and the John Warner sports centre, a leisure centre on the outskirts of the town containing a swimming pool and children's activity centre.
There is also a Non-League football club Hoddesdon Town F.C., which plays at Lowfield, and a large go-kart track located in nearby Rye park. Around a mile north of the town is Rye House Stadium, home until recently of the Rye House rockets speedway team.
Transport
Bus
310,341,410 and 641 accept the Intalink explorer ticket.
A Wednesday only service is run by Epping Forest Community Transport to Dobbs Weir via Broxbourne.
Railway Services
The nearest railway stations are Broxbourne Station and Rye House Station which offer frequent services to London.
Roads
Hoddesdon contains a small part of Ringway 4, part of the 1960s London Ringways scheme and the only part built north of London further east than Watford.
Linking the town to the A10, the A1170 Dinant Link Road has an overly large junction between the link road and the A10, and was built with space available to continue the road westward over the A10 as originally planned.
Notable people
Harriet Auber (1773—1862), poet, hymnist
Arthur James Balfour, 1st Earl of Balfour (1848–1930), Conservative politician and prime minister of the United Kingdom 1902 – 1905. Attended the Grange Preparatory School, Hoddesdon.
Francis Maitland Balfour (1851–1882), comparative embryologist and morphologist, younger brother of the above, also attended Grange School.
William Ellis (1794–1872), missionary and author. Lived in the town from 1844, and served as a minister to an Independent congregation. Died at his residence on 9 June 1872.
William Christie Gosse (1842–1881), explorer and surveyor, was born in Hoddesdon, emigrated to Australia in 1850. In 1859 he entered the Government service of South Australia.
John Hoole (1727–1803), translator, attended school in Hoddesdon.
William Josiah Irons (1812–1883), Church of England clergyman and theological writer. Born in Hoddesdon 12 September 1812.
John Loudon McAdam (1756–1836), engineer and roadbuilder lived in the town from 1827.
Hugh Paddick (1915–2000), comedy actor, born in Hoddesdon.
Colin Pratt (1938-2021), former motorcycle speedway rider.
Richard Rumbold (c 1622–1685), Cromwellian soldier and conspirator in the Rye House Plot.
Lena Zavaroni (1963–1999), popular singer and entertainer spent some of her final years in Hoddesdon and is buried in Hoddesdon Cemetery.
Erik Thorstvedt (1962), Norwegian footballer, played for Tottenham Hotspur between 1989 and 1996. Lived in Hoddesdon during his time at Tottenham.
David Tree (1915–2009), English stage and screen actor, and nationally prominent commercial grower in Hoddesdon for over sixty years.
Gino D'Acampo (1976), Italian-British celebrity chef, currently lives in Hoddesdon.
See also
Rye House Power Station
Hoddesdon Cemetery
Barclay Park
References
External links
Towns in Hertfordshire
Unparished areas in Hertfordshire
Borough of Broxbourne | [
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261550 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Halyard | Halyard | In sailing, a halyard or halliard is a line (rope) that is used to hoist a ladder, sail, flag or yard. The term halyard comes from the phrase "to haul yards". Halyards, like most other parts of the running rigging, were classically made of natural fibre like manila or hemp.
Sail types
A square rig sail with a halyard is mounted on a lifting yard that is free to slide on a short section of the mast. The halyard is used to raise (hail or hal) the yard when setting the sail.
A gaff rigged sail has two; a throat halyard to lift the end of the gaff nearer the mast, and a peak halyard to lift the outer end.
A more modern triangular (Bermuda or "Marconi") sail has only one halyard which is attached at its uppermost point (the head).
Fastenings
Halyards can be attached a number of ways to the head of a triangular sail. The most common methods are as follows:
A shackle through a headboard on the sail.
A bowline through a hole in the head.
A half hitch with a figure-eight knot, preferred over a bowline because it allows the sail to get closer to the top of the mast.
The other end of the halyard is usually attached to the mast at its foot by way of a cleat. It is convention in some places to fasten the main halyard (for the mainsail) on the starboard side of the mast and the jib halyard to the port side. This allows quicker access to the lines in a time-critical situation.
Jumping/sweating the halyard
"Jumping the halyard" is a technique used to raise a large sail quickly by employing a few crew members to work simultaneously on the halyard. The person jumping stands next to the mast and manually grabs the halyard as high as they can (sometimes this necessitates jumping) and pulling it down as fast and far as possible. While this crew member reaches for the next heave, a second crew member 'tails' or takes up the slack created by the jumper, on a winch. When the person jumping can no longer pull up the sail simply by hanging on the halyard, he must "sweat" the line.
To "sweat" the halyard is to take as much slack out of it as possible. This may be done with a winch, or manually. To manually sweat a halyard, the sweater grasps the line and, in a fluid motion, hauls it laterally towards himself, then down toward the deck, letting the tailer take up the new slack.
References
External links
Sailing rigs and rigging | [
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261551 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mean%20Business | Mean Business | Mean Business is the second and final studio album by The Firm, released by Atlantic Records on 3 February 1986. Repeating the same bluesy formula as on the first album, The Firm (1985), Mean Business did not achieve the same commercial success.
One of the album's tracks, "Live in Peace", was first recorded on Paul Rodgers' first solo album in 1983, Cut Loose. The versions differ in that Chris Slade played the drums slower than on the original version, apart from the ending, and Jimmy Page added a bluesy guitar solo at the end of the song. Paul Rodgers has recently played a new version on his new compilation album Live in Peace.
The album's title was intended to have a double meaning: that the music business is a hard one, and that the band was serious about its music ("The Firm mean business"). However, perhaps due to the lukewarm-at-best critical and financial success which the band met, Page and Rodgers decided to disband The Firm within months of this album's release.
The album peaked at #22 on the Billboard 200 albums chart. and at #46 on the UK Albums Chart. The single "All the King's Horses" spent four weeks at the top of Billboards Mainstream Rock Tracks chart.
"Fortune Hunter" was originally co-written by Page and Chris Squire for the aborted XYZ project in 1981. Squire was not credited on The Firm's version.
Track listing
Personnel
Band
Paul Rodgers – vocals, acoustic and electric guitars, piano, producer
Jimmy Page – acoustic and electric guitars, producer
Tony Franklin – fretless bass, keyboards, synthesizer, rhythm guitar on Dreaming, back vocals
Chris Slade – drums and percussion
Other
Julian Mendelsohn – producer
Aubrey Powell Productions – cover design
Barry Diament – mastering
Charts
Album
Singles
References
The Firm (rock band) albums
1986 albums
Albums produced by Jimmy Page
Atlantic Records albums
Albums produced by Julian Mendelsohn | [
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261553 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Silver%20Spring | Silver Spring | Silver Spring or Silver Springs may refer to:
Places
Canada
Silver Springs, Calgary, a neighborhood of Calgary, Alberta, Canada
Silver Springs Public School, a school in Toronto, Ontario, Canada
Silver Spring, Conception Harbour, Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada
Silverspring, Saskatoon, a neighborhood in Saskatoon, Saskatchewan
United States
Florida
Silver Springs (attraction), a group of artesian springs in Marion County
Silver Springs, Florida, an unincorporated community in Marion County
Silver Springs Shores, Florida, a census-designated place in Marion County
Silver Springs State Park, a Florida State Park including the attraction
Maryland
Silver Spring, Maryland
Nevada
Silver Springs, Nevada
Silver Springs Airport, a public use airport southwest of Silver Springs
Other
Silver Springs, Alaska
Silver Springs, Missouri
Silver Springs, New York
Silver Spring, Pennsylvania
Silver Springs State Fish and Wildlife Area, a park in Illinois
Companies
Silver Spring Mineral Water Company Limited
Silver Spring Networks
Transportation
Silver Spring station (Maryland), a subway and commuter rail station in Silver Spring, Maryland
Silver Spring station (Baltimore and Ohio Railroad), a historic train station in Silver Spring, Maryland
Other uses
Silver Spring, composition by William Mason (composer)
"Silver Springs" (song), a song by Fleetwood Mac
Silver Spring monkeys
See also
Sandy Springs | [
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261556 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary%20Lou%20Williams | Mary Lou Williams | Mary Lou Williams (born Mary Elfrieda Scruggs; May 8, 1910 – May 28, 1981) was an American jazz pianist, arranger, and composer. She wrote hundreds of compositions and arrangements and recorded more than one hundred records (in 78, 45, and LP versions). Williams wrote and arranged for Duke Ellington and Benny Goodman, and she was friend, mentor, and teacher to Thelonious Monk, Charlie Parker, Miles Davis, Tadd Dameron, Bud Powell, and Dizzy Gillespie.
Early years
The second of eleven children, Williams was born in Atlanta, Georgia, and grew up in the East Liberty neighborhood of Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania. A musical prodigy, at the age of three, she taught herself to play the piano. Mary Lou Williams played piano out of necessity at a very young age; her white neighbors were throwing bricks into her house until Williams began playing the piano in their homes. At the age of six, she supported her ten half-brothers and sisters by playing at parties. She began performing publicly at the age of seven when she became known admiringly in Pittsburgh as "The Little Piano Girl". She became a professional musician at the age of 15, citing Lovie Austin as her greatest influence. She married jazz saxophonist John Williams in November 1926.
Career
In 1922, at the age of 12, she went on the Orpheum Circuit of theaters. During the following year she played with Duke Ellington and his early small band, the Washingtonians. One morning at three o'clock, she was playing with McKinney's Cotton Pickers at Harlem's Rhythm Club. Louis Armstrong entered the room and paused to listen to her. Williams shyly told what happened: "Louis picked me up and kissed me."
In 1927, Williams married saxophonist John Overton Williams. She met him at a performance in Cleveland where he was leading his group, the Syncopators, and moved with him to Memphis, Tennessee. He assembled a band in Memphis, which included Williams on piano. In 1929, 19-year-old Williams assumed leadership of the Memphis band when her husband accepted an invitation to join Andy Kirk's band in Oklahoma City. Williams joined her husband in Oklahoma City but did not play with the band. The group, Andy Kirk's Twelve Clouds of Joy, moved to Tulsa, Oklahoma, where Williams, when she wasn't working as a musician, was employed transporting bodies for an undertaker. When the Clouds of Joy accepted a longstanding engagement in Kansas City, Missouri, Williams joined her husband and began sitting in with the band, as well as serving as its arranger and composer. She provided Kirk with such songs as "Froggy Bottom", "Walkin' and Swingin, "Little Joe from Chicago", "Roll 'Em", and "Mary's Idea".
Williams was the arranger and pianist for recordings in Kansas City (1929) Chicago (1930), and New York City (1930). During a trip to Chicago, she recorded "Drag 'Em" and "Night Life" as piano solos. She used the name "Mary Lou" at the suggestion of Jack Kapp at Brunswick Records. The records sold briskly, raising Williams to national prominence. Soon after the recording session she became Kirk's permanent second pianist, playing solo gigs and working as a freelance arranger for Earl Hines, Benny Goodman, and Tommy Dorsey. In 1937, she produced In the Groove (Brunswick), a collaboration with Dick Wilson, and Benny Goodman asked her to write a blues song for his band. The result was "Roll 'Em", a boogie-woogie piece based on the blues, which followed her successful "Camel Hop", named for Goodman's radio show sponsor, Camel cigarettes. Goodman tried to put Williams under contract to write for him exclusively, but she refused, preferring to freelance instead.
In 1942, Williams, who had divorced her husband, left the Twelve Clouds of Joy, returning again to Pittsburgh. She was joined there by bandmate Harold "Shorty" Baker, with whom she formed a six-piece ensemble that included Art Blakey on drums. After an engagement in Cleveland, Baker left to join Duke Ellington's orchestra. Williams joined the band in New York City, then traveled to Baltimore, where she and Baker were married. She traveled with Ellington and arranged several tunes for him, including "Trumpet No End" (1946), her version of "Blue Skies" by Irving Berlin. She also sold Ellington on performing "Walkin' and Swingin'". Within a year she had left Baker and the group and returned to New York.
Williams accepted a job at the Café Society Downtown, started a weekly radio show called Mary Lou Williams's Piano Workshop on WNEW and began mentoring and collaborating with younger bebop musicians such as Dizzy Gillespie and Thelonious Monk. In 1945, she composed the bebop hit "In the Land of Oo-Bla-Dee" for Gillespie. "During this period Monk and the kids would come to my apartment every morning around four or pick me up at the Café after I'd finished my last show, and we'd play and swap ideas until noon or later", Williams recalled in Melody Maker.
In 1945, she composed the classical-influenced Zodiac Suite, in which each of the twelve parts corresponded to a sign of the zodiac, and were accordingly dedicated to several of her musical colleagues, including Billie Holiday, and Art Tatum. She recorded the suite with Jack Parker and Al Lucas and performed it December 31, 1945 at Town Hall in New York City with an orchestra and tenor saxophonist Ben Webster.
In 1952, Williams accepted an offer to perform in England and ended up staying in Europe for two years. By this time, music had taken over her life, and not in a good way; Williams was mentally and physically drained.
Conversion to Catholicism
A three-year hiatus from performing began when she suddenly backed away from the piano during a performance in Paris in 1954. She returned to the United States, converting in 1954 to Catholicism alongside Dizzy Gillespie's wife Lorraine. In addition to spending several hours at Mass, her energies were then devoted mainly to the Bel Canto Foundation, an effort she initiated using her savings as well as help from friends to turn her apartment in Hamilton Heights into a halfway house for the poor as well as musicians who were grappling with addiction; she also made money over a longer period of time for the halfway house by way of a thrift store in Harlem.
Her hiatus may have been triggered by the death of her long-time friend and student Charlie Parker in 1955 who also struggled with addiction for the majority of his life. Father John Crowley and Father Anthony aided in persuading Williams to go back to playing music. They told her that she could continue to serve God and the Catholic Church by utilizing her exceptional gift of creating music. Moreover, Dizzy convinced her to return to playing, which she did at the 1957 Newport Jazz Festival with Dizzy's band.
Father Peter O'Brien, a Catholic priest, became her close friend and manager in the 1960s. Dizzy also introduced her to Pittsburgh's Bishop John Wright. O'Brien helped her found new venues for jazz performance at a time when no more than two clubs in Manhattan offered jazz full-time. In addition to club work, she played colleges, formed her own record label and publishing companies, founded the Pittsburgh Jazz Festival (with the bishop's help), and made television appearances. Bishop Wright let her teach at Seton High School on the city's North Side. It was there that she wrote her first Mass, called “The Pittsburgh Mass.” Williams eventually became the first jazz composer commissioned by the church to compose liturgical music in the jazz idiom.Throughout the 1960s, her composing concentrated on sacred music, hymns, and masses. One of the masses, Music for Peace, was choreographed by Alvin Ailey and performed by the Alvin Ailey Dance Theater as Mary Lou's Mass in 1971. About the work, Ailey commented, "If there can be a Bernstein Mass, a Mozart Mass, a Bach Mass, why can't there be Mary Lou's Mass?" Williams performed the revision of Mary Lou's Mass, her most acclaimed work, on The Dick Cavett Show in 1971.
Following her hiatus, her first piece was a Mass that she wrote and performed was named Black Christ of the Andes (1963), a hymn in honor of the Peruvian saint St. Martin de Porres; two short works, Anima Christi and Praise the Lord. Williams put much effort into working with youth choirs to perform her works, including "Mary Lou's Mass" at St. Patrick's Cathedral in New York City in April 1975 before a gathering of over three thousand. It marked the first time a jazz musician had played at the church. She set up a charitable organization and opened thrift stores in Harlem, directing the proceeds, along with ten percent of her own earnings, to musicians in need. As a 1964 Time article explained, "Mary Lou thinks of herself as a 'soul' player — a way of saying that she never strays far from melody and the blues, but deals sparingly in gospel harmony and rhythm. 'I am praying through my fingers when I play,' she says. 'I get that good "soul sound", and I try to touch people's spirits.'" She performed at the Monterey Jazz Festival in 1965, with a jazz festival group.
Throughout the 1970s, her career flourished, including numerous albums, including as solo pianist and commentator on the recorded The History of Jazz. She returned to the Monterey Jazz Festival in 1971. She could also be seen playing nightly in Greenwich Village at The Cookery, a new club run by her old boss from her Café Society days, Barney Josephson. That engagement too, was recorded.
She had a two-piano performance with avant-garde pianist Cecil Taylor at Carnegie Hall on April 17, 1977. Despite onstage tensions between Williams and Taylor, their performance was released on an live album titled Embraced.
Williams instructed school children on jazz. She then accepted an appointment at Duke University as artist-in-residence (from 1977 to 1981), teaching the History of Jazz with Father O'Brien and directing the Duke Jazz Ensemble. With a light teaching schedule, she also did many concert and festival appearances, conducted clinics with youth, and in 1978 performed at the White House for President Jimmy Carter and his guests. She participated in Benny Goodman's 40th-anniversary Carnegie Hall concert in 1978.
Later years
Her final recording, Solo Recital (Montreux Jazz Festival, 1978), three years before her death, had a medley encompassing spirituals, ragtime, blues and swing. Other highlights include Williams's reworkings of "Tea for Two", "Honeysuckle Rose", and her two compositions "Little Joe from Chicago", and "What's Your Story Morning Glory". Other tracks include "Medley: The Lord Is Heavy", "Old Fashion Blues", "Over the Rainbow", "Offertory Meditation", "Concerto Alone at Montreux", and "The Man I Love".
In 1981, Mary Lou Williams died of bladder cancer in Durham, North Carolina at the age of 71. Dizzy Gillespie, Benny Goodman, and Andy Kirk attended her funeral at the Church of St. Ignatius Loyola. She was buried in the Calvary Catholic Cemetery in Pittsburgh. Looking back at the end of her life, Mary Lou Williams said: "I did it, didn't I? Through muck and mud." She was known as "the first lady of the jazz keyboard". Williams was one of the first women to be successful in jazz.
Awards and honors
Guggenheim Fellowships, 1972 and 1977.
Nominee 1971 Grammy Awards, Best Jazz Performance – Group, for the album Giants, Dizzy Gillespie, Bobby Hackett, Mary Lou Williams
Honorary degree from Fordham University in New York in 1973
In 1980 Williams founded the Mary Lou Williams Foundation
Honorary degree from Rockhurst College in Kansas City in 1980.
Received the 1981 Duke University's Trinity Award for service to the university, an award voted on by Duke University students.
Legacy
In 1983, Duke University established the Mary Lou Williams Center for Black Culture
Since 1996, The Kennedy Center in Washington, D.C. has an annual Mary Lou Williams Women in Jazz Festival.
Since 2000, her archives are preserved at Rutgers University's Institute of Jazz Studies in Newark.
A Pennsylvania State Historic Marker is placed at 328 Lincoln Avenue, Lincoln Elementary School, Pittsburgh, PA, noting her accomplishments and the location of the school she attended.
In 2000, trumpeter Dave Douglas released the album Soul on Soul as a tribute to her, featuring original arrangements of her music and new pieces inspired by her work.
The 2000 album Impressions of Mary Lou by pianist John Hicks featured eight of her compositions.
The Dutch Jazz Orchestra researched and played rediscovered works of Williams on their 2005 album Lady Who Swings the Band.
In 2006, Geri Allen's Mary Lou Williams Collective released their album Zodiac Suite: Revisited.
A YA historical novel based on Mary Lou Williams and her early life, entitled Jazz Girl, by Sarah Bruce Kelly, was published in 2010.
A children's book based on Mary Lou Williams, entitled The Little Piano Girl, by Ann Ingalls and Maryann MacDonald with illustrations by Giselle Potter, was published in 2010.
A poetry book by Yona Harvey entitled Hemming the Water was published in 2013, inspired by Williams and featuring the poem "Communion with Mary Lou Williams".
In 2013, the American Musicological Society published Mary Lou Williams' Selected Works for Big Band, a compilation of 11 of her big band scores.
In 2015, an award-winning documentary film entitled, Mary Lou Williams: The Lady Who Swings the Band, produced and directed by Carol Bash, premiered on American Public Television and was screened at various domestic and international film festivals.
In 2018 What'sHerName women's history podcast aired the episode "THE MUSICIAN Mary Lou Williams", with guest expert 'Mary Lou Williams: The Lady Who Swings the Band,' producer and director Carol Bash.
In 2021, the Umlaut Big Band released Mary's Ideas (Umlaut Records), a double-cd featuring rare and newly discovered works by Mary Lou Williams, based on research from her manuscripts. It includes arrangements and compositions for Duke Ellington, Benny Goodman, excerpts from the Zodiac Suite in its 1945 orchestral arrangement, and excerpts from History of Jazz for Wind Symphony, Mary Lou Williams' ultimate and unfinished composition.
Mary Lou Williams Lane, a street near 10th and Paseo in Kansas City, Missouri, was named after the renowned jazz artist.
She is one of three women who appear in the famous photograph of jazz greats, A Great Day in Harlem.
Discography
As leader
As featured artist
With Dizzy Gillespie
Dizzy Gillespie at Newport (Verve, 1957)
Giants (Perception, 1971) with Bobby Hackett
With Buddy Tate
Buddy Tate and His Buddies (Chiaroscuro, 1973)
References
Further reading
Buehrer, Theodore E., ed. (2013). Mary's Ideas: Mary Lou Williams's Development as a Big Band Leader. Music of the United States of America (MUSA) vol. 25. Madison, Wisconsin: A-R Editions.
Kernodle, Tammy L. (2020) [2004]. Soul on Soul: The Life and Music of Mary Lou Williams. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. OCLC 1142759993.
'Drag 'Em': How Movement Shaped The Music of Mary Lou Williams
Soul on Soul: Allison Miller and Derrick Hodge on Honoring Mary Lou Williams
How Mary Lou Williams Shaped the Sound of the Big-Band Era
The World of Mary Lou Williams: A Turning the Tables Playlist
Mary Lou Williams on Piano Jazz
Mary Lou Williams: 'Mary Lou Williams: 1927–1940'
Mary Lou Williams, 'Perpetually Contemporary'
External links
Mary Lou Williams Collection, Institute of Jazz Studies, Dana Library, Rutgers University, Newark, NJ
Mary Lou Williams concert for children, Vancouver 1977 (includes 60-minute audio recording)
Mary Lou Williams: The Lady Who Swings the Band (2015 film).
The Legacy of Mary Lou Williams (2010 video presentation by Tammy Kernodle, Associate Professor of Musicology, Miami University, Ohio)
Jazz at Lincoln Center: Family Concert: Who is Mary Lou Williams?
"Nice & Rough": Unapologetically Black, Beautiful, and Bold: A Conversation with Sheila Jackson on Black Women's Participation in Cultural Production in the 1970s" Jstor
Mary Lou Williams recordings at the Discography of American Historical Recordings.
KC Black History Website
1910 births
1981 deaths
Musicians from Atlanta
African-American Catholics
African-American pianists
American women composers
American jazz composers
Women jazz composers
American jazz pianists
Deaths from cancer in North Carolina
Deaths from bladder cancer
Mainstream jazz pianists
American women pianists
Stride pianists
Swing pianists
Women jazz pianists
Converts to Roman Catholicism
Atlantic Records artists
Decca Records artists
King Records artists
Sue Records artists
Musicians from Pittsburgh
Jazz musicians from Pennsylvania
20th-century American women pianists
20th-century American pianists
20th-century jazz composers
20th-century women composers
HighNote Records artists
African-American women musicians
20th-century African-American women | [
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261559 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Scottsville | Scottsville | Scottsville may refer to several places in the United States of America:
Scottsville, California
Scottsville, Indiana
Scottsville, Kansas
Scottsville, Kentucky
Scottsville, New York
Scottsville, Texas
Scottsville, Virginia
See also:
Scottville (disambiguation) | [
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261561 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Springdale | Springdale | Springdale may refer to:
Australia
Springdale, New South Wales
Springdale, Queensland, a locality in the Southern Downs Region
Canada
Springdale Caldera
Springdale, Alberta
Springdale, Brampton
Springdale, Newfoundland and Labrador
Springdale Airport
United States
Springdale, Arkansas
Springdale Public Schools
Springdale High School
Springdale (Stamford), Connecticut
Springdale (Metro-North station)
Springdale, Idaho
Springdale, Iowa
Springdale, Kansas
Springdale, Louisville, Kentucky
Springdale, Maryland
Springdale, Holyoke, Massachusetts
Springdale, Mississippi
Springdale, Montana
Springdale, New Jersey
Springdale, Sussex County, New Jersey
Springdale, North Carolina
Springdale, Ohio
Springdale, Oregon
Springdale, Pennsylvania
Springdale, Lancaster County, South Carolina
Springdale, Lexington County, South Carolina
Springdale, Utah
Springdale, Washington
Springdale, Wisconsin, a town
Springdale, Buffalo County, Wisconsin, a ghost town
Springdale Township, Michigan
Springdale Township, Redwood County, Minnesota
Springdale Township, Valley County, Nebraska
Springdale Township, Allegheny County, Pennsylvania
Springdale Lake, a lake in Georgia
Springdale Mall, in Mobile, Alabama
Spring Dale, West Virginia
On the National Register of Historic Places
Old Springdale High School, in Springdale, Arkansas
Springdale (Princeton), New Jersey, official residence of the president of the Princeton Theological Seminary, in the Princeton Historic District
Springdale (Tiffin, Ohio), listed on the National Register of Historic Places in Seneca County, Ohio
Springdale (Crozier, Virginia), a home in Goochland County
Spring Dale (Dublin, Virginia), also known as Springdale, a house
Springdale (Frederick County, Virginia), a farm property
Springdale (Lexington, Virginia), a house
Springdale (Mathews, Virginia), a plantation house
John Hite House, also known as Springdale, near Bartonsville, Frederick County, Virginia
Springdale Cemetery, a cemetery in Peoria, Illinois
Springdale Historic District (disambiguation), two NRHP-listed areas in Pennsylvania
Springdale Mill Complex, near Bartonsville, Frederick County, Virginia
Springdale Mills, a grist mill in Washington Township, Franklin County, Pennsylvania
Springdale School, in Springdale, Oregon
Other
Springdale, code name of several Intel Pentium 4 chipsets
See also
Springdale Farm (disambiguation)
Springdale Township (disambiguation) | [
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261563 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ely | Ely | Ely or ELY may refer to:
Places
Ireland
Éile, a medieval kingdom commonly anglicised Ely
Ely Place, Dublin, a street
United Kingdom
Ely, Cambridgeshire, a cathedral city in Cambridgeshire, England
Ely Cathedral
Ely Rural District, a former district surrounding Ely, Cambridgeshire on the west and north
Isle of Ely, a historic region and former county around the city of Ely
Diocese of Ely, a Church of England diocese in the Province of Canterbury
Ely Place, a road in London
Ely, Cardiff, a suburb of west Cardiff, Wales
Ely (Cardiff electoral ward)
River Ely, a river in Wales that flows through Cardiff
United States
Ely, Iowa, a city
Ely, Minnesota, a city
Ely, Missouri, an unincorporated community
Ely, Nevada, a city and county seat
Ely, New Jersey, an unincorporated community
Ely, Virginia, an unincorporated community
Ely Township, Michigan
Norton, Yolo County, California, formerly Ely
Ely, a village belonging to Fairlee, Vermont
Ely Range, a mountain range in Nevada
Codes
El Al, an airline with ICAO airline designator ELY
Ely Airport, also known as Yelland Field, IATA code ELY
Ely railway station, an English railway station that has National Rail code ELY
Elyria (Amtrak station), an Ohio rail station, which has Amtrak station code ELY
Callaway Golf, a company that has New York Stock Exchange code ELY
In education
Ely Professor of Divinity, a professorship at the University of Cambridge
Ely College, Ely, Cambridgeshire, United Kingdom
Ely Theological College, Ely, Cambridgeshire
Ely High School for Girls, Ely, Cambridgeshire
Ely Hall, Vassar College, Poughkeepsie, New York, United States
Ely Memorial High School, Ely, Minnesota, United States
People
Ely (surname), a list of people
Ely (given name), a list of people
Other uses
, the name of more than one United States Navy ship
Marquess of Ely, an extant title in the Peerage of Ireland
Earl of Ely, three extinct titles in the Peerage of Ireland
Ely House (disambiguation)
Ely Racecourse, a racecourse in Cardiff, Wales
See also
Liber Eliensis (sometimes titled Book of Ely), a 12th-century English chronicle and history
Eli (disambiguation)
Elie
Eley (disambiguation)
Ili (disambiguation) | [
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261568 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pityriasis%20lichenoides%20et%20varioliformis%20acuta | Pityriasis lichenoides et varioliformis acuta | Pityriasis lichenoides et varioliformis acuta is a disease of the immune system. It is the more severe version of pityriasis lichenoides chronica. The disease is characterized by rashes and small lesions on the skin. The disease is more common in males and usually occurs in young adulthood, although it has been seen in every age group and every race. It is possible for the disease to go into remission for short periods of time or forever.
Causes
There is no known cause of this disease; There is some evidence associating it with Parvovirus B19.
Diagnosis
It is commonly misdiagnosed as chickenpox or rosacea, or misidentified as a form of Staph infection. The most accurate way to diagnose it is by biopsy. This disease has not been known to be life-threatening. However, there may be mutations of the disease that can cause ulcers on the exterior.
Treatment
It is not contagious and currently there is no cure for the disease, although the lesions can be treated with phototherapy as well as antibiotics, including erythromycin, azithromycin and tetracycline. Treatment often involves multiple therapies that address the immune system and bacterial, viral, or dermatological causes.
Eponym
Pityriasis lichenoides et varioliformis acuta is also known as Mucha–Habermann disease. It is named for Rudolf Habermann (1884–1941), a German dermatologist, and Viktor Mucha, an Austrian dermatologist.
See also
Cutaneous T-cell lymphoma
Pityriasis lichenoides
Parapsoriasis
List of cutaneous conditions
References
External links
Immune system disorders
Lymphoid-related cutaneous conditions | [
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261575 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minister%20of%20Finance%20%28Canada%29 | Minister of Finance (Canada) | The minister of finance () is the minister of the Crown in the Canadian Cabinet who is responsible for overseeing the Department of Finance and presenting the federal government's budget each year. It is one of the most important positions in the Cabinet.
Chrystia Freeland serves as the 40th and current finance minister, assuming the role in August 2020 following the resignation of Bill Morneau. She concurrently serves as the deputy prime minister of Canada.
Because of the prominence and responsibility of this cabinet position, it is not uncommon for former ministers of finance to later become prime minister. Charles Tupper, R. B. Bennett, John Turner, Jean Chrétien, and Paul Martin all became prime minister after previously serving as minister of finance.
Responsibilities
In addition to being the head of the Department of Finance, the minister of finance is also the minister responsible for:
Bank of Canada
Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation
Canada Development Investment Corporation
Canada Pension Plan Investment Board
Canadian International Trade Tribunal
Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions
Financial Transactions and Reports Analysis Centre of Canada
Mission to the International Monetary Fund (serving as "Governor" voter)
Serving as a permanent member of the Treasury Board of Canada
List of ministers
Key:
References
External links
Department of Finance Canada
Finance
Department of Finance (Canada) | [
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261576 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Royal%20Conservatory%20of%20The%20Hague | Royal Conservatory of The Hague | The Royal Conservatoire (, KC) is a conservatoire in The Hague, providing higher education in music and dance. The conservatoire was founded by King William I in 1826, making it the oldest conservatoire in the Netherlands.
Education
The Bachelor Music course offers a range of study options. The starting point is an individual curriculum in the fields of Classical Music, Early Music, Singing/Vocal, Jazz, Composition, Sonology, Art of Sound and Music Education. The Master Music course at the Royal Conservatoire covers a spectrum from performing musicians (Classical, Early and Jazz), creative and researching musicians (Composition, Sonology, ArtScience). The three Master programmes at the Royal Conservatoire are Master of Music, Master of Sonology and Master of Opera. The Master in Opera is offered by the Dutch National Opera Academy, in association with the Conservatory of Amsterdam. In 1990 the Royal Conservatory of The Hague merged with the Royal Academy of Art of The Hague, into the “School of Visual Arts, Music and Dance”. In 2010 the Dutch government elevated the joint institution to “University of the Arts in The Hague”. The two do also still go by their original names as well, to underline their individual identities.
Research
Alongside education and production, research is one of the pillars of the Royal Conservatoire. The focus of research within the educational programmes is directed towards the artistic-musical and intellectual development of the students. In the Bachelor this involves the learning of basic research skills which a musician will require in their later music practice. These have relevance to the articulated ability to reflect on the musician’s own speciality. Research in the Master course is more specifically directed towards the conducting of a research project where the student specialises in their own field. Types of research in the Master can range widely, for instance the making of instruments, experimentation, historical interpretation (e.g. in function of performance practice), creative (artistic) research, cultural/critical reflection and/or research in the field of didactics or pedagogy. The topics are usually directly related to the main subject, and are of importance both for artistic and intellectual development of the student as for the development of the field of study.
After the Master course students can apply for participation in the doctoral programme for musicians and composers which is facilitated by the Academy of Creative and Performing Art at Leiden University. A research training programme is offered by DocARTES, the collaboration of the Royal Conservatoire, the Conservatory of Amsterdam, the universities of Leiden, Leuven and Antwerp, and the Orpheus Institute in Ghent. The final PhD defense takes place at Leiden University through the Academy of Creative and Performing Arts. Just like with the Master course, the student’s own artistic practice is the central element in the PhD course.
Alumni and faculty
The Royal Conservatoire has some notable alumni, including Michel van der Aa, Susanne Abbuehl, Hendrik Andriessen, Richard Ayres, Gerard Beljon, Rudi Martinus van Dijk, Barbara Hannigan, Rozalie Hirs, Geoffrey Lancaster, Vanessa Lann, Douglas Mews, Susanne Regel, Lawrence Renes, Paul Steenhuisen, Ananda Sukarlan, Victor Varela, Henry Vega, Rodney Waschka II, Eva-Maria Westbroek, Clara Wildschut and Kristoffer Zegers.
Notable faculty includes Louis Andriessen, Bob van Asperen, Michael Chance, Peter Kooy, Robin Blaze, Pascal Bertin, Dorothee Mields,
Jill Feldman, Dina Appeldoorn, Clarence Barlow, Richard Barrett, Konrad Boehmer, Frans Brüggen, Wim Henderickx, Ton Koopman, Yannis Kyriakides, Reinbert de Leeuw, Kenneth Montgomery, Ryo Terakado, Kathryn Cok, Eric Vloeimans, Luis Otavio Santos and Dorothea Winter.
References
External links
Effects of the Bologna Declaration on Professional Music Training in Europe
European Association of Conservatoires (AEC)
Image and Sound/ArtScience department website
Music schools in the Netherlands
Performing arts education in the Netherlands
Educational institutions established in 1826
1826 establishments in the Netherlands | [
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] |
261577 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garland%20%28disambiguation%29 | Garland (disambiguation) | A garland is a class of decoration, of which there are many types.
Garland may also refer to:
Places
In the United States
Garland, Arkansas, a town in Miller County
Garland County, Arkansas
Garland, Kansas, a town in Bourbon County
Garland, Maine, a town in Penobscot County
Garland, Missouri, an unincorporated community
Garland, Nebraska, a village in Seward County
Garland, North Carolina, a town in Sampson County
Garland, Ohio, an unincorporated community
Garland, Texas, a suburb of Dallas
Garland Independent School District
Garland, Utah, a city in Box Elder County
Garland, Wyoming, a village in Park County
People
Garland (surname), a surname
Garland Gregory (1919–2011), American football player
Garland Jean-Batiste, American football player
Garland Kirkpatrick (born 1960), American designer, educator, and curator
Fiction
Garland, the first boss and the main antagonist of Final Fantasy I
Garland, an antagonist in Final Fantasy IX
Garland, a character in 8-Bit Theater
Garland Siebald, a character from Beyblade
Garland SF-01, SF-02 and SF-03, race cars in Future GPX Cyber Formula
Other uses
Garlands (album), an album by the Cocteau Twins
Garlands, Cumbria, a location in England
Garland Publishing, a scholarly publisher, now part of Taylor & Francis Group
Garland Encyclopedia of World Music 10 vols. 1989-1994
HMS Garland, the name of fifteen vessels in the Royal Navy | [
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261580 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gauge | Gauge | Gauge (US: , UK: or ) may refer to:
Measurement
Gauge (instrument), any of a variety of measuring instruments
Gauge (firearms)
Wire gauge, a measure of the size of a wire
American wire gauge, a common measure of nonferrous wire diameter, especially electrical
Birmingham gauge, a measure of ferrous wire and hypodermic needle diameter
Jewelry wire gauge, the size of wire used in jewelry making
Sheet metal gauge, thickness of metal in sheet form
Film gauge, a physical property of film stock which defines its size
The size of objects used in stretching (body piercing), especially earrings
Gauge block, a metal or ceramic block of precisely known dimension, used in measuring
Sight glass, also known as a water gauge, for measuring liquid level heights in storage tanks and pressure vessels
Boost gauge, a gauge used in conjunction with turbo-super-chargers
Pressure gauge or vacuum gauge, see pressure measurement
Stream gauge, for measuring height and discharge of a river or stream
Air core gauge, a type of rotary actuator often used in automotive instruments
Gauger, one who gauges or measures, typically dutiable commodities, such as wine, landed from ships at docks
Sizes
Railway practice
Track gauge, the distance between the two rails forming a railway track
Loading gauge, the maximum width and height of vehicles (engines, loaded wagons, etc.).
Structure gauge, the minimum size of bridges, tunnels, platforms, etc.
Axle load, the weight that an axle exerts on track
Variable gauge, system to allow railway vehicles to travel across a break of gauge
Medicine
Birmingham gauge, for metal wire and tube products
French gauge, mainly for catheters
Mathematics and physics
Gauge theory
Gauge integral
Gauge fixing
Gauge boson
Gauge (Minkowski functional)
Other uses
Gauge (knitting), the number of stitches in a given length
Gauge (actress), American pornographic actress
Gauge (band), post-hardcore band from Chicago, Illinois, USA
Gauge, Inc., a manufacturer of microphones and audio accessories
Change of gauge (aviation), when an aircraft type changes at a stopping point of a direct flight
Gauge (software), cross-platform test automation tool
See also
Gage (disambiguation)
Gaige (disambiguation) | [
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261581 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sonology | Sonology | Sonology is a neologism used to describe the study of sound in a variety of disciplines.
In medicine, the term is used in the field of [imaging] to describe the practice of medical ultrasonography. According to some scholars, sonology may represent a more advanced application of clinical sonography, chiefly due to the requirement for the use of critical application of both cognitive and radiographic skills in making the diagnostic determination at the time of bedside application of focused ultrasound.
The term is also used to describe interdisciplinary research in the field of electronic music and computer music, drawing upon disciplines such as acoustics, electronics, informatics, composition and psychoacoustics. This sense of the term is widely associated with the Institute of Sonology, which was established by composer Gottfried Michael Koenig at the University of Utrecht in 1967 and later moved to the Royal Conservatory of The Hague in 1986. The term has also been adopted to describe the study of electronic music at other institutions, including the Center for Computational Sonology (now "Sound and Music Computing") at the University of Padua, Kunitachi College of Music in Tokyo, at the Catalonia College of Music in Barcelona and the Federal University of Minas Gerais in Brazil.
The term has been less commonly used to describe the use of sound for therapeutic and religious purposes.
References
Sound
Electronic music
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261584 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Department%20of%20Finance%20Canada | Department of Finance Canada | The Department of Finance Canada () is a central agency of the Government of Canada. The department assists the minister of finance in developing the government's fiscal framework and advises the government on economic and financial issues. A principal role of the department is assisting the government in the development of its annual budget.
The department is responsible to Parliament through the minister of finance (Chrystia Freeland since August 2020, concurrently serving as the deputy prime minister of Canada) and the associate minister of finance (Randy Boissonnault since October 2021, concurrently serving as the minister of tourism). The day-to-day operations of the department are directed by the deputy minister of finance (a public servant), presently Michael Sabia.
The department is headquartered in the James Michael Flaherty Building in downtown Ottawa at the corner of Elgin and Albert.
Branches and sub-agencies
The department is divided into several branches:
Economic and Fiscal Policy Branch
Economic Development and Corporate Finance Branch
Federal-Provincial Relations and Social Policy Branch
Financial Sector Policy Branch
International Trade and Finance Branch
Tax Policy Branch
Law Branch
Corporate Services Branch
Consultations and Communications Branch
Some of the sub-agencies under the Department include:
Bank of Canada
CPP Investment Board
Office of the Superintendent of Financial Institutions
Financial Consumer Agency of Canada
Financial Transactions and Reports Analysis Centre of Canada
Canada Deposit Insurance Corporation
Canada Development Investment Corporation
Royal Canadian Mint
PPP Canada
Related legislation
Acts and legislations under the Department:
Income Tax Act
Federal-Provincial Fiscal Arrangements Act
Customs Act
Customs Tariff Act
Excise Act
Excise Tax Act
Proceeds of Crime (Money Laundering) Act
Income Tax Conventions Interpretation Act
Payment Clearing and Settlement Act
Financial Administration Act
Special Import Measures Act
Bretton Woods and Related Agreements Act
European Bank for Reconstruction and Development Agreement Act
References
External links
Department of Finance Canada
Federal departments and agencies of Canada
Canada
Ministries established in 1867
1867 establishments in Canada | [
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] |
261586 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Constitutional%20amendment | Constitutional amendment | A constitutional amendment is a modification of the constitution of a polity, organization or other type of entity. Amendments are often interwoven into the relevant sections of an existing constitution, directly altering the text. Conversely, they can be appended to the constitution as supplemental additions (codicils), thus changing the frame of government without altering the existing text of the document.
Most constitutions require that amendments cannot be enacted unless they have passed a special procedure that is more stringent than that required of ordinary legislation. Examples of such special procedures include supermajorities in the legislature, or direct approval by the electorate in a referendum, or even a combination of two or more different special procedures. A referendum to amend the constitution may also be triggered in some jurisdictions by popular initiative.
Australia and Ireland provide examples of constitutions requiring that all amendments are first passed by the legislature before being submitted to the people; in the case of Ireland, a simple majority of those voting at the electorate is all that is required, whereas a more complex set of criteria must be met in Australia (a majority of voters in a majority of states is also necessary). Switzerland has procedure similar to that of Australia.
The special procedures for the amendment of some constitutions have proven to be so exacting, that of proposed amendments either few (eight Amendments out of 44 proposed in Australia), or none (as in Japan) have been passed over a period of several decades. In contrast, the constitution of the U.S. state of Alabama has been amended 948 times since its adoption in 1901.
Form of changes to the text
There are a number of formal differences, from one jurisdiction to another, in the manner in which constitutional amendments are both originally drafted and written down once they become law. In some jurisdictions, such as Ireland, Estonia, and Australia, constitutional amendments originate as bills and become laws in the form of acts of parliament. This may be the case notwithstanding the fact that a special procedure is required to bring an amendment into force. Thus, for example, in Ireland and Australia although amendments are drafted in the form of Acts of Parliament they cannot become law until they have been approved in a referendum. By contrast, in the United States a proposed amendment originates as a special joint resolution of Congress that does not require the President to sign and that the President can not veto.
The manner in which constitutional amendments are finally recorded takes two main forms. In most jurisdictions, amendments to a constitution take the form of revisions to the previous text. Thus, once an amendment has become law, portions of the original text may be deleted or new articles may be inserted among existing ones. The second, less common method, is for amendments to be appended to the end of the main text in the form of special articles of amendment, leaving the body of the original text intact. Although the wording of the original text is not altered, the doctrine of implied repeal applies. In other words, in the event of conflict, an article of amendment will usually take precedence over the provisions of the original text, or of an earlier amendment. Nonetheless, there may still be ambiguity whether an amendment is intended to supersede or to supplement an existing article in the text.
An article of amendment may, however, explicitly express itself as having the effect of repealing a specific existing article. The use of appended articles of amendment is most famous as a feature of the United States Constitution, but it is also the method of amendment in a number of other jurisdictions, such as Venezuela.
Under the 1919 German Weimar Constitution, the prevailing legal theory was that any law reaching the necessary supermajorities in both chambers of parliament was free to deviate from the terms of the constitution, without itself becoming part of the constitution. This very wide conception of "amendment" eased the rise of Adolf Hitler to power; it was consequently explicitly ruled out in the postwar 1949 constitution, which allows amendments only by explicitly changing the constitution's text.
Summary of Methods
{| class="wikitable sortable mw-collapsible"
|+Table of amendment procedures
!Constitution
!Proposed by
!Approval by
!Referendum Requirement
!Majority needed
!Entrenched clauses?
|-
|Afghanistan
|President
|Legislature
|No
|2/3
|Yes
|-
|Albania
|1/5 of Parliament
|Legislature
|Yes
|2/3 + >50%
|No
|-
|Algeria
|President
|Both houses of legislature + referendum (or Constitutional council + both houses of legislature)
|
|>50% (or 3/4)
|Yes
|-
|Andorra
|Co-princes or 1/3 of legislature
|Legislature
|Yes
|2/3 + >50%
|No
|-
|Angola
|President or 1/3 of National Assembly
|Legislature
|
|2/3
|Yes
|-
|Antigua and Barbuda
|
|Both houses of legislature
|Yes
|2/3 (>50% in upper house) + 2/3
|No
|-
|Argentina
|2/3 of Congress
|Constitutional convention
|No
|
|No
|-
|Armenia
|1/3 of Parliament, the Government, or 200,000 voters for certain amendments; 1/4 of Parliament, the Government, or 150,000 voters for others. Additional 300,000 voters overrides need for Parliament.
|Legislature
|Sometimes
|2/3 (+ >50%).
|Yes
|-
|Australia
|Any member of either house of legislature
|Both houses of legislature
|Yes
|>50% + >50% in majority of states
|No
|-
|Austria
|
|Lower house (+ upper house in certain cases)
|No
|2/3 + (2/3)
|No
|-
|Bahrain
|15 members of legislature
|Both houses of legislature (or joint session)
|Yes
|2/3 (or 2/3)
|Yes
|-
|Bangladesh
|
|Legislature
|Yes
|2/3
|Yes
|-
|Belgium
|Either house of legislature
|Legislature (before and after an election)
|No
|2/3
|Yes (during a regency)
|-
|Brazil
|President, 1/3 of either house of legislature, or >50% of sub-national legislatures
|Both houses of legislature
|Yes
|3/5
|Yes
|-
|Bulgaria
|President, or 1/4 of legislature
|Legislature (or constitutional convention for certain amendments)
|
|3/4 or 2/3 in two sittings (2/3 for constitutional convention)
|No
|-
|Cambodia
|King, Prime Minister, or 1/4 of legislature
|Legislature
|No
|2/3
|Yes
|-
|Canada
|
|Both houses of legislature + 2/3 of provincial legislatures representing majority of population
|No
|>50% + >50%
|No
|-
|China, People's Republic of
|Standing Committee of the legislature or 1/5 of legislature
|Legislature
|No
|2/3
|No
|-
|China, Republic of
|1/4 of legislature
|Legislature
|Yes
|3/4 + >50% of total electorate
|No
|-
|Czech Republic
|
|Both houses of legislature
|No
|3/5
|Yes
|-
|Denmark
|
|Legislature (before and after an election)
|Yes
|>50% + >50% (representing >40% of electorate)
|No
|-
|Djibouti
|President or 1/3 of legislature
|Legislature (or legislature + referendum)
|Yes
|2/3 (or >50% + >50%)
|Yes
|-
|Ecuador
|President, 1/3 of legislature, or 1% of electorate
|Legislature (or Legislature + referendum)
|
|2/3 (or >50% + >50%
|Yes
|-
|Estonia
|President, or 1/5 of legislature
|Legislature with or without an election (or referendum)
|
|>50% + 3/5 after an election or 4/5 without an election (or >50%)
|No
|-
|Ethiopia
|2/3 of either house of legislature, or 1/3 of sub-national legislatures
|Legislature in joint session + sub-national legislatures (or each house of legislature + sub-national legislature for certain sections)
|
|2/3 + 2/3 (or 2/3 + 100%)
|No
|-
|Egypt
|President or 1/5 of lower house
|Lower house
|Yes
|2/3 + >50%
|Yes
|-
|Fiji
|
|Legislature
|Yes
|3/4 + 3/4
|Yes
|-
|France
|President or legislators
|Both houses of legislature (or legislature in joint session)
|Yes
|>50% + >50% (or 3/5)
|No
|-
|Gabon
|President, government, or 1/3 of either house of legislature.
|Both houses of legislature + joint session (or referendum)
|Sometimes
|>50% + 2/3 (or >50%)
|Yes
|-
|Germany
|
|Both houses of legislature
|
|2/3
|Yes
|-
|Greece
|50 legislators
|Legislature before and after an election
|
|3/5 + >50% or >50% + 3/5
|Yes
|-
|Haiti
|Either house of legislature or the executive
|Both houses of legislature + joint session after an election
|
|2/3 + 2/3
|Yes
|-
|Honduras
|
|Legislature
|
|2/3
|Yes
|-
|Hungary
|President, government or 1/5 of the legislature
|Legislature
|
|2/3
|No
|-
|Iceland
|
|Legislature before and after an election
|Sometimes
(referendum if on status of the Church)
|>50% (+ >50%)
|No
|-
|India
|
|Both houses of legislature (+ sub-national legislatures in some cases)
|
|2/3 (+ 50%)
|No
|-
|Indonesia
|1/3 of the legislature
|Joint session of legislature
|
|>50%+1
|Yes
|-
|Ireland
|
|Both houses of legislature
|Yes
|>50% + >50%
|No
|-
|Italy
|
|Both houses of legislature (or both houses of legislature + referendum)
|
|2/3 (or >50% + >50%)
|Yes
|-
|Japan
|2/3 of legislature
|Both houses of legislature
|Yes
|2/3 + >50%
|No
|-
|Jordan
|
|Both houses of legislature
|
|2/3
|Yes
|-
|Kazakhstan
|President
|Both houses of legislature (or referendum)
|
|3/4 + >50% representing voters in 2/3 of the oblasts, major cities and the capital.
|Yes
|-
|Laos
|
|Legislature
|
|2/3
|No
|-
|Libya
|
|Legislature
|
|2/3
|No
|-
|Madagascar
|President or 2/3 legislature
|Both houses of legislature
|Yes
|3/4 + >50%
|Yes
|-
|Malawi
|
|Legislature (or referendum)
|
|2/3 (or >50%)
|No
|-
|Mexico
|
|Legislature + sub-national legislatures
|
|2/3 + >50%
|No
|-
|Namibia
|
|Both houses of legislature (or lower house + referendum)
|
|2/3 (or 2/3 + 2/3)
|Yes
|-
|The Netherlands
|Lower house
|Both houses of legislature (before and after election)
|
|50% before election, 2/3 after
|No
|-
|North Korea
|
|Legislature
|
|2/3
|No
|-
|North Macedonia
|President, government, 30 legislators, or 150,000 citizens
|Legislature
|
|2/3
|No
|-
|Pakistan
|Either house of legislature
|Both houses of legislature
|
|2/3
|No
|-
|Palau
|Referendum, 25% of electorate, or 3/4 of both houses of legislature
|Referendum
|Yes
|>50% in 3/4 of states
|No
|-
|Palestine
|
|Legislature
|
|2/3
|No
|-
|Philippines
|2/3 of legislature, or constitutional convention, or 12% of voters representing at least 3% of every electoral district
|Either of legislature or referendum.
|
|>50%
|No
|-
|Poland
|President, or 1/5 of legislature
|Both houses of legislature
|Sometimes (certain amendments)
|2/3 in lower house and >50% in upper house (+ >50%)
|No
|-
|Portugal
|Legislators
|Legislature
|
|2/3
|Yes
|-
|Qatar
|Prince or 1/3 of Advisory Council.
|Advisory Council
|
|2/3
|Yes
|-
|Romania
|President, 1/4 of legislators in either house, or 500,000 voters.
|Both houses of legislature (or joint session)
|Yes
|2/3 (or 3/4) + >50%
|Yes
|-
|Russia
|President, government, 1/5 legislators in either house, or sub-national legislatures.
|Sub-national legislatures (or, in some cases, legislature in joint session + constitutional convention or referendum)
|
|2/3 (or 3/5 + 2/3 or >50%)
|No
|-
|Samoa
|
|Legislature
|
|2/3
|
|-
|Sao Tome and Principe
|Legislators
|Legislature
|
|2/3
|Yes
|-
|Senegal
|President or legislature
|Legislature (or referendum)
|
|3/5 (or >50%)
|Yes
|-
|Serbia
|President, government, 1/3 of legislature, or 150,000 voters.
|Legislature
|Sometimes
|2/3 (+ >50%)
|No
|-
|Seychelles
|
|Legislature + referendum
|Yes
|2/3 + >60%
|No
|-
|Sierra Leone
|
|Legislature
|Sometimes
|2/3 + 2/3 representing >50% of electorate
|No
|-
|Singapore
|
|Legislature
|
|2/3
|No
|-
|Slovakia
|
|Legislature
|
|3/5
|No
|-
|Slovenia
|Government, 20 legislators, or 30,000 voters.
|Legislature
|Sometimes (referendum if demanded by 30 legislators)
|2/3 (+ >50% out of >50% of electorate)
|No
|-
|Solomon Islands
|
|Legislature
|
|2/3 (3/4 in certain cases)
|No
|-
|Somalia
|Government, members of government, legislators, or 40,000 citizens.
|Both houses of legislature
|
|2/3
|Yes
|-
|Spain
|Government or members of parliament.
|Both houses of legislature
|Sometimes
(referendum if demanded by 10% of either house of legislature)
|3/5 (or >50% of upper house + 2/3 of lower house)
|Yes
|-
|Sweden
|
|Legislature before and after an election
|Sometimes
(referendum if demanded by 1/3 of legislature)
|>50% + >50%
|No
|-
|Tajikistan
|President or 2/3 of legislature
|Referendum
|Yes
|>50%
|Yes
|-
|Tunisia
|President or 1/3 of legislature
|Legislature
|Yes
|2/3 + >50%
|Yes
|-
|Turkey
|1/3 of legislature
|Legislature
|Yes
|3/5 + >50%
|Yes
|-
|Turkmenistan
|
|Legislature (or referendum)
|
|2/3 (or >50%)
|Yes
|-
|Tuvalu
|
|Legislature
|
|2/3
|No
|-
|Uganda
|
|Legislature
|Yes
|2/3 + >50%
|No
|-
|Ukraine
|President or 1/3 of legislature
|Legislature before an election + after an election
|Sometimes
|>50% + 2/3 (+ >50%)
|Yes
|-
|United Arab Emirates
|Supreme Council
|Legislature
|
|2/3
|No
|-
|United Kingdom
|Any member of either house
|Legislature
|No
|Majority votes in House of Commons and House of Lords (or Commons only if Parliament Act invoked)
|No
|-
|United States
|2/3 of both houses of legislature or 2/3 of state legislatures
|State legislatures or constitutional conventions
|
|3/4
|Yes
|-
|Uzbekistan
|
|Both houses of legislature in joint session (or referendum)
|
|2/3 (or >50%)
|No
|-
|Vanuatu
|Prime Minister or any Member of Parliament
|Legislature
|
|2/3
|No
|-
|Venezuela
|President, 39% of legislature, or 15% of voters.
|Legislature
|Yes
|>50% + >50%
|No
|-
|Vietnam
|President, Standing Committee of legislature, or 2/3 of deputies.
|Legislature
|
|2/3
|No
|-
|Yemen
|Prime Minister or 1/3 of House of Representatives
|Legislature
|Somestimes
|2/3 (+ >50%)
|No
|-
|Zambia
|
|Legislature
|Yes
|2/3 + >50% of total electorate
|No
|-
|Zimbabwe
|
|Both houses of legislature
|Sometimes
|2/3 (+ >50%)
|No
|}
Africa
Ethiopia
The Constitution of Ethiopia can only be modified by a two-thirds majority of the country's regions, and a two-thirds majority of a joint session of the Federal Parliamentary Assembly in accordance with Article 105. The constitution's Chapter Three (describing both Human and democratic rights) and the constitution's Articles 104 and 105 are almost unamendable since they require the total consensus of the federal regional states and two-thirds of each house of Parliament. In Ethiopia's federal experience, each regional state is equal and has the right to veto amendments to the aforementioned articles.
South Africa
The Constitution of South Africa can be amended by an Act of Parliament, but special procedures and requirements apply to the passage of constitutional amendments. A bill amending the Constitution must be introduced in the National Assembly, and cannot contain any provisions other than constitutional amendments and directly related matters.
At least 30 days before a constitutional amendment bill is introduced in the National Assembly, the person or committee introducing the amendment must publish it for public comment, submit it to the provincial legislatures, and, if it does not have to be passed by the National Council of Provinces (NCOP), submit it to the NCOP for debate. When the bill is introduced, the comments received must be tabled in the National Assembly, and in the NCOP when appropriate.
All amendments must be passed by an absolute two-thirds supermajority in the National Assembly (the lower house); as the Assembly has 400 members this requires 267 members to vote for the amendment. Most amendments do not have to be considered by the NCOP (the upper house). Amendments of the Bill of Rights, and amendments affecting the role of the NCOP, the "boundaries, powers, functions or institutions" of the provinces or provisions "dealing specifically with provincial matters" must also be passed by the NCOP with a supermajority of at least six of the nine provinces. If an amendment affects a specific province, it must also be approved by the legislature of the province concerned. Section 1, which defines South Africa as "one, sovereign, democratic state" and lists its founding values, is a specially entrenched clause and can only be amended by an absolute three-quarters supermajority in the National Assembly and six of the provinces in the NCOP.
Once an Act is passed by the National Assembly, and by the NCOP if necessary, it must be signed and assented to by the President. As with any other Act of Parliament, by default an amendment comes into effect when it is published in the Government Gazette, but the text of the amendment may specify some other date of commencement, or allow the President to specify one by notice in the Gazette.
Americas
Brazil
The Constitution of Brazil states various terms on how it can be amended. Article 60 lies within "Section VIII: The Legislative Process, Subsection 2: Amendments to the Constitution". The following is detailed therein:
Article 60 is the only article prescribed under Subsection 2 of Section 8 in the Brazilian constitution.
United States
Federal constitution
Article Five of the United States Constitution describes the process whereby the federal Constitution may be altered. Twenty-seven amendments have been added (appended as codicils) to the Constitution.
Amendment proposals may be adopted and sent to the states for ratification by either:
A two-thirds (supermajority) vote of members present—if a quorum exists—in both the Senate and the House of Representatives of the United States Congress; or
A majority vote of state delegations at a national convention called by Congress at the request of the legislatures of at least two-thirds (at present 34) of the states. (This method has never been used.)
All 33 amendment proposals that have been sent to the states for ratification since the establishment of the Constitution have come into being via the Congress. State legislatures have however, at various times, used their power to apply for a national convention in order to pressure Congress into proposing a desired amendment. For example, the movement to amend the Constitution to provide for the direct election of senators began to see such proposals regularly pass the House of Representatives only to die in the Senate from the early 1890s onward. As time went by, more and more state legislatures adopted resolutions demanding that a convention be called, thus pressuring the Senate to finally relent and approve what later became the Seventeenth Amendment for fear that such a convention—if permitted to assemble—might stray to include issues above and beyond just the direct election of senators.
To become an operative part of the Constitution, an amendment, whether proposed by Congress or a national constitutional convention, must be ratified by either:
The legislatures of three-fourths (at present 38) of the states; or
State ratifying conventions in three-fourths (at present 38) of the states.
Congress has specified the state legislature ratification method for all but one amendment. The ratifying convention method was used for the Twenty-first Amendment, which became part of the Constitution in 1933.
Since the turn of the 20th century, amendment proposals sent to the states for ratification have generally contained a seven-year ratification deadline, either in the body of the amendment or in the resolving clause of the joint resolution proposing it. The Constitution does not expressly provide for a deadline on the state legislatures' or state ratifying conventions' consideration of proposed amendments. In Dillon v. Gloss (1921), the Supreme Court affirmed that Congress—if it so desires—could provide a deadline for ratification. An amendment with an attached deadline that is not ratified by the required number of states within the set time period is considered inoperative and rendered moot.
A proposed amendment becomes an official Article of the Constitution immediately once it is ratified by three-fourths of the States. The Article usually goes into force at this time too, though it may self-impose a delay before that happens, as was the case of the Eighteenth Amendment. Every ratified Amendment has been certified or proclaimed by an official of the federal government, starting with the Secretary of State, then the Administrator of General Services, and now the Archivist of the United States, with the Archivist currently being responsible for certification under . The certification document usually contains a list of the States that ratified the Amendment. This certification is just used by the federal government to keep an official record and archive of the Amendment for its own purposes, and doesn't actually have any legal effect on the Amendment.
State constitutions
State constitutions in the U.S. are amended on a regular basis. In 19 states, the state constitutions have been amended at least 100 times.
Amendments are often necessary because of the length of state constitutions, which are, on average, three times longer than the federal constitution, and because state constitutions typically contain extensive detail. In addition, state constitutions are often easier to amend than the federal constitution.
Individual states differ in the difficulty of constitutional amendments. Some states allow for initiating the amendment process through the action of the state legislature or by popular initiative.
California
There are three methods for proposing an amendment to the California State Constitution: by the legislature, by constitutional convention, or by voter initiative. A proposed amendment must be approved by a majority of voters.
With the legislative method, a proposed amendment must be approved by an absolute supermajority of two-thirds of the membership of each house.
With the convention method, the legislature may, by a two-thirds absolute supermajority, submit to the voters at a general election the question whether to call a convention to revise the Constitution. If the majority of the voters vote yes on that question, within six months the Legislature shall provide for the convention. Delegates to a constitutional convention shall be voters elected from districts as nearly equal in population as may be practicable. The constitution does not provide any rules for the operation of the constitutional convention.
With the initiative method, an amendment is proposed by a petition signed by voters equal in number to 8% of the votes for all candidates for governor at the last gubernatorial election. The proposed amendment is then submitted to the voters at a general or special election.
New York
There are two methods of proposing amendments to the New York Constitution. All proposed amendments must be approved by a majority of voters in a referendum.
With the legislative method, an amendment proposal must be published for three months, then approved by an absolute majority of the members of each of the two houses, and approved again in a succeeding term of the houses, with an election intervening. Finally, the amendment proposal must be submitted to the people, and for ratification must be approved by a simple majority.
With the convention method, a constitutional convention must be convened by a majority vote of voters in a general election (referendum) on the question.
Tennessee
There are two methods for proposing amendments to the Tennessee State Constitution: through the legislature and by constitutional convention. Proposed amendments must be approved by a majority of voters in a referendum.
With the legislative method, the Tennessee General Assembly passes a resolution calling for an amendment and stating its wording. This must pass in three separate readings on three separate days, with an absolute majority on all readings. It does not require the governor's approval. It must then be published at least six months before the next legislative election in newspapers of wide and general circulation. (This is done by precedent but is not required by law.) After the election, the proposed amendment must go through the same procedure (absolute majority on three separate readings). Then it is put on the ballot as a referendum in the next gubernatorial election. To be ratified it must again achieve an absolute majority of those voting in the gubernatorial election.
With the convention method, the legislature can put on any ballot the question of whether to call a constitutional convention. It must be stated whether the convention is limited or unlimited—that is, whether it can only amend the current constitution or totally abolish it and write a new one. If limited, the call must state which provisions of the current constitution are to be subject to amendment, and the subsequent convention, if approved, is limited to considering only amendments to the provisions specified in the call. The proposed amendments must then be submitted to the electorate and approved by a majority of those voting in the election. A constitutional convention cannot be held more frequently than once every six years.
Texas
The only method for proposing an amendment to the Texas State Constitution is through the legislature, either in regular or special session. The governor may call a special session, and specify the agenda for the session. To become part of the constitution, proposed amendments must be approved by a majority of voters in a referendum. Texas has had six different constitutions and the current constitution, adopted in 1876, has been amended 474 times.
A proposed amendment must be approved by an absolute supermajority of two-thirds of the elected membership of each house of the legislature. It is submitted to the voters in an election specified by the legislature. The wording of an explanatory statement that will appear on the ballot must be approved by the Texas Attorney General and printed in newspapers. The full text of the amendment must be posted by all county clerks for 30 days before the election.
Washington
The only method for proposing an amendment to the Washington State Constitution is through the legislature and can originate in either branch. The proposal must be approved by a two-thirds majority of the legislature. The proposed amendment is placed on the ballot at the next general election and must be approved by a majority of the voters.
Asia and Oceania
Australia
The procedure for amending the Constitution of Australia is detailed in section 128 of the Constitution. Firstly, a bill amending the Constitution must be passed by both houses of the Parliament of Australia by an absolute majority (at least 76 of the 151 members of the House of Representatives and at least 39 of the 76 members of the Senate). If one house passes the bill while the other refuses, it may attempt to pass the bill again. If the second house again refuses to pass it, the Governor-General (presumably on the advice of the Prime Minister) may still submit the proposed change for referendum.
Following this, Australians then vote on the proposal. For a referendum to succeed both of the following must be achieved
A majority of states (New South Wales, Victoria, Queensland, Western Australia, South Australia and Tasmania) must agree to the proposal.
A majority of the combined votes of all of Australia must agree to the proposal.
The double majority is a major factor in why since 1906 out of 44 referendums only 8 have been successful.
Constitutional recognition of Indigenous Australians has been campaigned for since 1910, including having an Indigenous voice to parliament enshrined in the Constitution.
China
Article 174 of the Constitution of the Republic of China is codified with the law:
This was changed beginning in the 1990s and Article 12 of the constitutional amendments must be approved by the Legislative Yuan and referendums voted by the citizens residing in the ROC free area.
Similarly, in the Communist-ruled mainland China, the Constitution of the People's Republic of China states how to be amended under Article 64 of "Chapter III: The Structure of the State". It says the following:
India
The Indian constitution can be amended in 3 ways:
By Simple Majority of the Parliament
This method is used to amend those parts of the constitution outside the purview of Article 368 of the constitution.
It is used in amending the following provisions:
Formation of new states, alteration of boundaries of states, changing names of states and alteration of areas of states
Creation/Abolition of Legislative Councils in states
Changing salaries and allowances of judges of Supreme Court and High Court
Laws regarding citizenship
Through procedure mentioned in Article 368 of the Constitution
This again is done in 2 ways -
By Special Majority of the Parliament
Special majority implies :
A majority of the 'total membership' of the Parliament (ie., each houses separately) and
A majority of 2/3rd of members present and voting
By Special Majority of the Parliament and consent of states
This requires
Special majority in each house of the Parliament and
Consent of half of the state legislatures
This method is used for amending those provisions affecting states' interests. eg: Representation of states in Parliament, distribution of legislative powers between Union and states etc
Since its commencement in 1950, Indian constitution has been amended 104 times, as of May 2020. Supreme Court in Kesavananda Bharti Case held that parliament's power to amend is not unlimited, and it can't amend the basic structure of the constitution. The ‘basic structure’ includes the supremacy of the Constitution, the rule of law, Independence of the judiciary, doctrine of separation of powers, federalism, secularism, sovereign democratic republic, the parliamentary system of government, the principle of free and fair elections, welfare state, etc.
Indonesia
The Constitution of Indonesia states that it can be amended corresponding to Article 37 of "Chapter XVI: Constitutional Amendments" within the document. Proposal to amend the constitution must submitted by one-thirds members of the People's Consultative Assembly. Two-thirds of the members of the People's Consultative Assembly must be present: any proposed amendment requires a simple majority of the entire People's Consultative Assembly membership. The form of the unitary state cannot be changed.
Japan
The Constitution of Japan states that it can be amended corresponding to Article 96 of "Chapter IX: Amendments" within the document. It says the following:
Japan has used this Constitution since Saturday, 3 May 1947. It was adopted and implemented as the most quintessential doctrine of Japanese governance following the Second World War and the Sino-Japanese war. As a result, in order to ensure that Japan would not be a source of future aggression, a special portion was written into the document in the form of "Article 9: Renunciation of War". It describes as follows:
Even though these two paragraphs are not expressly protected by an eternity clause, many Japanese people argue that it needs to be interpreted as being irrevocable due to the significant and precise nature of the article.
Philippines
Under the common interpretation of the Constitution, amendments can be proposed by one of three methods: a People's Initiative, a Constituent Assembly or a Constitutional Convention.
Turkey
The Constitution of Turkey details, through Provisional Article 175 under "I. Amending the Constitution, participation in elections and referenda" of "Part Seven: Final Provisions"
The Turkish constitution was adopted and implemented in 1982. , it had been amended 21 times. Every amendment which has been approved into the document was passed by the people through a constitutional referendum that occurred in 2017. This means that all twenty-one amendments were added at the same time. Due to the contents that it would exponentially extend presidential tenure as well as controversies about electoral misconduct, the referendum was intensely controversial. Global attention was drawn to it both before and after the results were finalized for the same reasons.
Europe
European Union
The Treaties of the European Union are a set of international treaties between member states that describe the constitutional basis of the European Union. Prior to the Treaty of Lisbon’s entry into force in 2009, there was only one procedure for the revision of the treaties on which the EU is based: the convening of an intergovernmental conference. Since 2009, Article 48 of the Treaty on European Union has laid down two procedures for the revision of the treaties.
Ordinary revision: this relates to key changes in relation to the competences of the EU and requires the convening of an intergovernmental conference to adopt proposals for amendments by consensus. All EU countries have to ratify the treaty amendments for them to enter into force.
Simplified revision: where the proposed amendments relate to the EU's policies and its internal actions, the European Council unanimously adopts a decision on the amendments having consulted the Commission, the Parliament and the European Central Bank (if the amendment concerns monetary matters). The new treaty provisions only enter into force following their ratification by all EU countries according to their own constitutional procedures.
Albania
The Constitution of Albania states its terms for being amending under Article 177 within "Part 17: Amending The Constitution".
Article 177 is the only article under this part of the Albanian constitution.
Austria
The Constitution of Austria is unusually liberal in terms of constitutional amendments. Any piece of parliamentary legislation can be designated as "constitutional law", i.e., as a part of the constitution if the required supermajority and other formalities for an amendment are met. An amendment may take the form of a change of the Bundes-Verfassungsgesetz, the centerpiece of the constitution, a change to another constitutional act, a new constitutional act, or of a section of constitutional law in a non-constitutional act. Furthermore, international treaties can be enacted as constitutional law, as happened in the case of the European Convention of Human Rights. Over the decades, frequent amendments and, in some cases, the intention to immunize pieces of legislation from judicial review, have led to much "constitutional garbage" consisting of hundreds of constitutional provisions spread all over the legal system. This has led to calls for reform.
A majority of two-thirds in the National Council is all that is required for an amendment to take effect. Only in the case of a fundamental change (Gesamtänderung) of the constitution a confirmation by referendum is required. Since 1945, this has only happened once when Austria's accession to the European Union was approved by popular vote.
If a constitutional amendment limits the powers of the states, a two-thirds majority in the Federal Council of Austria is required as well. Depending on the matter on hand, two-thirds of the Federal Councilors present (attendance of one-half of all Councilors is required), or two-thirds of all Federal Councilors must approve. If the amendment would change articles 34 or 35, the majority of councilors of at least four of the nine states is an additional requirement.
Belgium
The Constitution of Belgium can be amended by the federal legislative power, which consists of the King (in practice, the Federal Government) and the Federal Parliament. In order to amend the Constitution, the federal legislative power must declare the reasons to revise the Constitution in accordance with Article 195. This is done by means of two so-called Declarations of Revision of the Constitution, one adopted by the Chamber of Representatives and the Senate, and one signed by the King and the Federal Government.
Following this declaration, the Federal Parliament is automatically dissolved and a new federal election must take place. This makes it impossible to amend the Constitution unless an election has intervened. Following the election, the new Federal Parliament can amend those articles that have been declared revisable. Neither Chamber can consider amendments to the Constitution unless at least two-thirds of its members are present and the Constitution can only be amended if at least two-thirds of the votes cast are in favour of the amendment.
Bosnia and Herzegovina
In the Article X, defining the amendment procedure, the Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina states that it can be amended by a decision of the Parliamentary Assembly, including a two-thirds majority of those present and voting in the House of Representatives. The Constitution does not say who has the right, and under what rules, to present the amendments to the Parliamentary Assembly. Also, in the paragraph 2 of the Article X, the Constitution states that the rights and freedoms, as seen in the Article II, cannot be derogated, as well as the paragraph 2 itself.
The Constitution of Bosnia and Herzegovina was amended once, in 2009, to include the outcome of the Brcko District final award. Several constitutional reforms were attempted between 2006 and 2014, to ensure it compliance with the case law of the European Convention on Human Rights in the Sejdić and Finci v. Bosnia and Herzegovina and following cases (Zornic, Pilav) regarding ethnic- and residence-based discrimination in passive electoral rights for the Presidency and House of Peoples.
Bulgaria
Under the current Constitution of Bulgaria (1991), there are two procedures for amendment, depending on the part of the constitution to be amended:
Normal amendment procedure (Articles 153–156): the Parliament can amend the Constitution for minor issues with a three-quarters majority, or two-thirds majority upon reintroduction in parliament after two months. This shall be done in three successive readings.
Special amendment procedure (Articles 157–163): this procedure is the only way to revise the international borders of Bulgaria; change the form of government in the country; change the form in which the Constitution and international treaties are applied in Bulgaria (Article 5) or suspend citizens' rights. When such amendment is needed, the Constitution envisages an election for Great National Assembly, which consists of 400 deputies, with 200 elected by proportional vote and 200 elected by the first-past-the-post method. Then the amendments to the Constitution are passed by two-thirds majority in three successive readings.
Czech Republic
Passage of a constitutional act in the Czech Republic can only be accomplished through the agreement of three-fifths of all Deputies and Senators present at the time the proposed act is laid before each house of Parliament. It is the only type of legislation that does not require the signature of the President to become law. Furthermore, it is the only type of legislation the President cannot veto.
Denmark
The Constitution of Denmark provides an example of multiple special procedures that must be followed. After an amendment has been approved by parliament, a general election must be held; the new parliament must then approve the amendment again before it is finally submitted to a referendum. There is also a requirement that at least forty percent of eligible voters must vote at the referendum in order for an amendment to be validly passed.
Estonia
The Constitution of Estonia can only be modified by three-fifths majority in two successive complements of Parliament, and a referendum for certain chapters.
France
Amendments to the Constitution of France must first be passed by both houses with identical terms, and then need approval either by a simple majority in a referendum or by a three-fifths majority of the two houses of the French parliament jointly convened in Congress.
Germany
The Federal Republic of Germany uses a basic law as its constitution. The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany states its terms for amending under Article 79 of the document.
The third paragraph was made by its framers to protect the country against a future totalitarian regime such as that of Nazi Germany. This is an example of the eternity clause in constitutional designing.
Greece
The Constitution of Greece is amendable through the terms which mentioned under Article 110 beneath "Section II: Revision of the Constitution" of "Part Four: Special, Final, and Transitional Provisions".
Ireland
The Constitution of Ireland can only be modified by referendum, following proposal approved by the lower and upper houses of the Oireachtas, amongst citizens entitled to vote for the President. The amendment succeeds by simple majority, and no quorum is required.
Italy
Article 138 of the Constitution provides for the special procedure through which the Parliament can adopt constitutional laws (including laws to amend the Constitution of Italy). Constitutional laws start by following the ordinary legislative procedure, which requires both houses of parliament to approve the law in the same text, with a simple majority (i.e. the majority of votes cast). However, after having been approved for the first time, they need to be voted for by both houses a second time, which can happen no sooner than three months after the first. In this second reading, no new amendments to the bill may be proposed: the bill must be either approved or rejected in its entirety.
The constitutional law needs to be approved by at least a majority of MPs in each house (absolute majority) in its second reading. Depending on the results of this second vote, the constitutional law may then follow two different paths.
If the bill is approved by a qualified majority of two-thirds of members in each house, it can be immediately promulgated by the President of the Republic and become law.
If the bill is approved by a majority of members in each house, but not enough to reach the qualified majority of two-thirds, it does not immediately become law. Instead, it must be first be published in the Official Gazette (the official journal where all Italian laws are published). Within three months after its publication, a constitutional referendum may be requested by either 500,000 voters, five regional councils, or one-fifth of the members of a house of parliament. If no constitutional referendum has been requested after the three months have elapsed, the bill can be promulgated and becomes law. If a constitutional referendum is requested, in order to become law the bill must be approved by a majority of votes cast by the whole electorate. No quorum is required, meaning that the referendum turnout has no effect on its validity (unlike in other forms of referendums in Italy).
The form of republic may not be revised (art. 139 of the Constitution).
Only four constitutional referendums have ever been held in Italy: in 2001 and 2020 (in which the constitutional laws were approved), and in 2006 and 2016 (in which they were rejected).
The Netherlands
To change the Constitution of the Netherlands the legislature must pass a law by simple majority proposing to change the constitution (voorstelwet, lit. proposed law). The lower house must then be dissolved and after elections the proposal is considered again. To actually change the constitution the change must be passed by 2/3 majority in both houses of parliament.
Poland
The Constitution of Poland says the following under Article 235 of "Chapter XII: Amending the Constitution" within it:
Portugal
The Constitution is amendable through the terms prescribed under "Title II: Revision of the Constitution" of "Part IX: Guaranteeing and Revision of the Constitution" between Articles 284 and 289.
Romania
The Constitution of Romania mentions and outlines the terms by which it can be amended in "Article 150: Amendment Initiative", "Article 151: Amendment Procedure", and "Article 152: Limits to Constitutional Amendments". All three articles are written under "Title VII: Amendment of the Constitution" of the document.
Russia
The Constitution of Russia was created by the Russian Federation in 1993. It can be amended in correspondence with Articles 134 through 137 of "Chapter 9: Constitutional Amendments and Revision of the Constitution" under the document. In 2008, certain amendments were proposed which extended the terms of the President of the Russian Federation and State Duma members from four to six years and four to five years in duration respectively. These constitutional amendments are the first truly substantial amendments to the country's constitution added into the Russian constitution fifteen years prior to its adoption and implementation fifteen years earlier.
Serbia
The Constitution of Serbia states its terms for being amended between Articles 203 to 205 under "Part 9: Amending The Constitution" within the document. Even though the Serbian constitution can be amended, this has never happened even once ever since the document was adopted and implemented in 2006 when Montenegro declared its independence from Serbia after an independence referendum was won. This brought the state of Serbia-Montenegro to an end.
Spain
The Constitution of Spain can be amended through the procedures detailed between Articles 166 to 169 under "Part X: Constitutional Amendment" of the document. Additional details are provided between Sections 71 to 76 within the document as well.
Sweden
The Swedish Constitution consists of four fundamental laws: the Instrument of Government, the Act of Succession, the Freedom of the Press Act, and the Fundamental Law on Freedom of Expression.
The Instrument of Government, under "Chapter 8. Acts of law and other provisions", articles 14 to 17, states that in order to amend the fundamental laws, the Riksdag must take two identical decisions, and that these decisions must be separated by a general election. At least nine months shall elapse between the first submission of the amendment proposal and the date of the election, unless an exception is granted by the Committee on the Constitution with a majority of five sixths of its members.
One third of members of the Riksdag can also call for a binding referendum on a draft constitutional measure which already passed the first vote.
United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom, devoid of a written constitution and exercising pure parliamentary sovereignty, the final authority on all quasi-constitutional matters is ultimately the parliament itself (the legislature), by a simple majority. This means that when the legislature wishes to make changes to constitutional matters (i.e. relating to the machinery of government), there can be no entrenchment clause or special procedure which can stand in its way. Although consideration must be given to the Human Rights Act which supersedes all legislation, the act can itself be abolished or amended by a simple majority of Parliament. Despite clauses such as those in the Scotland Act 2016, which proclaims that Scotland's devolved government cannot be abolished except by a referendum, legal commentators have noted that the Parliament of the United Kingdom may set aside such a requirement by a simple majority. Such purported entrenchment clauses are thus little more than expressions of hope and sentiment on the part of a parliament. A similar situation can be found in the Fixed-term Parliaments Act 2011, which purports to restrict the ability of a Prime Minister on a whim to dissolve Parliament and hold a general election, as was formerly the case; in 2019, this requirement was annulled by simple majority through the passing of the Early Parliamentary General Election Act 2019, allowing a snap election to be held. This power of Parliament may be seen by some as a weakness of entrenchment clauses in the British system, but others contend it represents an unbridled democratic power of the electorate to effect rapid and dramatic change. Thus in the British system no parliament can bind its successor, it cannot pass an effective entrenchment clause seeking to tie the hand of future governments.
Inadmissible amendments
Some constitutions use entrenched clauses to restrict the kind of amendment to which they may be subject. This is usually to protect characteristics of the state considered sacrosanct, such as the democratic form of government or the protection of human rights. Amendments are often totally forbidden during a state of emergency or martial law.
Under Article 79 (3) of the German Basic Law, modification of the federal nature of the country, or abolition or alteration of Article 1 (human dignity, human rights, immediate applicability of fundamental rights as law) or Article 20 (democracy, republicanism, rule of law, social nature of the state) is forbidden. This is in order to prevent a recurrence of events like such as the Nazi Gleichschaltung, when Hitler used formally legal constitutional law to de facto abolish the constitution.
Articles 139 of the Constitution of Italy states that "the republican form cannot be subject to constitutional revision".
Article 4 of the Constitution of Turkey states that the "provision of Article 1 of the Constitution establishing the form of the state as a Republic, the provisions in Article 2 on the characteristics of the Republic, and the provision of Article 3 shall not be amended, nor shall their amendment be proposed".
Article Five of the United States Constitution, ratified in 1788, prohibited any amendments before 1808 which would affect the foreign slave trade, the tax on the slave trade, or the direct taxation provisions of the constitution. The foreign slave trade was outlawed by an act of Congress rather than by a constitutional amendment shortly after this clause expired in 1808. Also, any amendment affecting the equal representation of states in the Senate must be approved by every State. If the Corwin Amendment had passed, any future amendment to the Constitution "interfering with the domestic institutions of the state" (i.e., slavery) would have been banned.
Chapter 6, Article 120, section c of the Constitution of Bahrain prohibits "an amendment to Article 2 [State Religion, Shari'a, Official Language] of this Constitution, and it is not permissible under any circumstances to propose the amendment of the constitutional monarchy and the principle of inherited rule in Bahrain, as well as the bicameral system and the principles of freedom and equality established in this Constitution".
Article 121 of the Constitution of Norway provides that amendments must not "contradict the principles embodied in this Constitution, but solely relate to modifications of particular provisions which do not alter the spirit of the Constitution".
Section 284 of Article 18 of the Alabama State Constitution states that legislative representation is based on population: any amendments are precluded from changing that.
Part 4, Section, Article 288 of the Constitution of Portugal contains a list of 15 items that amendments "must respect".
The Supreme Court of India in the Kesavananda Bharati case held that no constitutional amendment can destroy the basic structure of the Constitution of India.
Article 60 of the current 1988 Constitution of Brazil forbids amendments that intend to abolish individual rights or to alter the fundamental framework of the State: the Separation of Powers and the Federal Republic.
Article 152 of the Constitution of Romania on the "limits of revision" prohibits amendments regarding the independence and territorial integrity of Romania, the independence of justice, the republican form of government, political pluralism, and the official language. It also forbids amendments which restrict civil rights and liberties.
Under Article 175 of the Constitution of Morocco as promulgated after a referendum in 2011, no revision may apply to the provisions concerning the Muslim religion, the monarchical form of the State, the democratic choice of the Nation or the established fundamental rights and liberties written in the present Constitution. In particular no change may be brought to the articles naming Islam the state religion or to those detailing the functions of the King as Amir al-Mu'minin (Commander of the Faithful).
Chapter XVI, Article 37(5) of the Indonesian Constitution states that the form of the unitary state cannot be changed.
See also
Amend (motion)
List of national constitutions
List of proposed amendments to the United States Constitution
Unconstitutional constitutional amendment
References
Further reading
"Amendment", by Peter Suber. From Philosophy of Law: An Encyclopedia, edited by Christopher Berry Gray, Garland Pub. Co., 1999, vol. I, pp. 31–32.
The Paradox of Self-Amendment: A Study of Logic, Law, Omnipotence, and Change, by Peter Suber. Full-text of the book, now out of print. Peter Lang Publishing, 1990. For an essay-length synopsis, see "The Paradox of Self-Amendment in American Constitutional Law", Stanford Literature Review, 7, 1–2 (Spring–Fall 1990) 53–78.
"Population Changes and Constitutional Amendments: Federalism versus Democracy", by Peter Suber. University of Michigan Journal of Law Reform, 20, 2 (Winter 1987) 409–490.
"Unamendments", by Jason Mazzone, Iowa Law Review, Vol. 90, p. 1747–1855, 2005.
"The Structure of Constitutional Amendment Rules", Richard Albert, "Wake Forest Law Review", Vol. 49, 2014.
"The Expressive Function of Constitutional Amendment Rules", Richard Albert, "McGill Law Journal", Vol. 59, 2013
External links
Report on Constitutional Amendment, Venice Commission (2009)
Government Archives - Constitutional Amendment
Constitute Project | [
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261590 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Minnesota%20Farmer%E2%80%93Labor%20Party | Minnesota Farmer–Labor Party | The Minnesota Farmer–Labor Party (FL) was a left-wing American political party in Minnesota between 1918 and 1944. Largely dominating Minnesota politics during the Great Depression, it was one of the most successful statewide third party movements in United States history and the longest-lasting affiliate of the national Farmer–Labor movement. At its height in the 1920s and 1930s, party members included three Minnesota governors, four United States senators, eight United States representatives and a majority in the Minnesota legislature.
In 1944, Hubert H. Humphrey and Elmer Benson worked to merge the party with the state's Democratic Party, forming the contemporary Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party.
History
The Minnesota Farmer–Labor Party emerged from the Nonpartisan League in North Dakota and the Union Labor Party in Duluth, Minnesota, on a platform of farmer and labor union protection, government ownership of certain industries, and social security laws. One of the primary obstacles of the party, besides constant vilification on the pages of local and state newspapers, was the difficulty of uniting the party's divergent base and maintaining political union between rural farmers and urban laborers who often had little in common other than the populist perception that they were an oppressed class of hardworking producers exploited by a small elite.
According to political scientist George Mayer: The farmer approached problems as a proprietor or petty capitalist. Relief to him meant a mitigation of conditions that interfered with successful farming. It involved such things as tax reduction, easier access to credit, and a floor under farm prices. His individualist psychology did not create scruples against government aid, but he welcomed it only as long as it improved agricultural conditions. When official paternalism took the form of public works or the dole, he openly opposed it because assistance on such terms forced him to abandon his chosen profession, to submerge his individuality in the labor crew, and to suffer the humiliation of the bread line. Besides, a public works program required increased revenue, and since the state relied heavily on the property tax, the cost of the program seemed likely to fall primarily on him. At the opposite end of the seesaw sat the city worker, who sought relief from the hunger, exposure, and disease that followed the wake of unemployment. Dependent on an impersonal industrial machine, he had sloughed off the frontier tradition of individualism for the more serviceable doctrine of cooperation through trade unionism. Unlike the depressed farmer, the unemployed worker often had no property or economic stake to protect. He was largely immune to taxation and had nothing to lose by backing proposals to dilute property rights or redistribute the wealth. Driven by the primitive instinct to survive, the worker demanded financial relief measures from the state.
The Minnesota Democratic Party, led by Hubert Humphrey, was able to merge with the Farmer–Labor Party on April 15, 1944. Since 1944, the two parties together make up the Minnesota Democratic–Farmer–Labor Party.
Notable members
Notable politicians elected
Governors of Minnesota who were Farmer–Labor:
Floyd B. Olson (1931–1936)
Hjalmar Petersen (1936–1937)
Elmer Austin Benson (1937–1939)
United States senators from Minnesota who were Farmer–Labor
Henrik Shipstead (1923–1941); later became a Republican
Magnus Johnson (1923–1925)
Elmer Austin Benson (1935–1937)
Ernest Lundeen (1937–1940)
United States representatives from Minnesota who were Farmer–Labor:
William Leighton Carss (1919–1921, 1925–1929)
Ole J. Kvale (1923–1929)
Knud Wefald (1923–1927)
Paul John Kvale (1929–1939)
Henry M. Arens (1933–1935)
Magnus Johnson (1933–1935)
Ernest Lundeen (1933–1937); had previously served as a Republican Representative (1915–1917), also served in the Senate
Francis Shoemaker (1933–1935)
John T. Bernard (1937-1939)
Gubernatorial candidate performance
References
Further reading
Benson, Elmer A. "Politics in My Lifetime." Minnesota History 47 (1980): 154-60. online
Garlid, George W. "The Antiwar Dilemma of the Farmer-Labor Party." Minnesota History (1967): 365-374. in JSTOR
Gieske, Millard L. Minnesota Farmer-Laborism: The Third-Party Alternative (1979) 389pp
Haynes, John Earl. Dubious alliance: the making of Minnesota's DFL Party (U of Minnesota Press, 1984)
Haynes, John Earl. "Farm Coops and the Election of Hubert Humphrey to the Senate." Agricultural History (1983): 201-211. in JSTOR
Haynes, John Earl. "The new history of the communist party in state politics: The implications for mainstream political history." Labor History (1986) 27#4 pp: 549-563.
Hyman, Colette A. "Culture as Strategy: Popular Front Politics and the Minneapolis Theatre Union, 1935-39." Minnesota History (1991): 294-306. in JSTOR
Lovin, Hugh T. "The Fall of Farmer-Labor Parties, 1936-1938." Pacific Northwest Quarterly (1971): 16-26. in JSTOR
McCoy, Donald R. Angry voices: Left-of-center politics in the New Deal era (1958; reprint 2012)
Mayer, George H. The Political Career of Floyd B. Olson (1987)
Mitau, G. Theodore. "The Democratic-Farmer-Labor Party Schism of 1948." Minnesota History (1955): 187-194. in JSTOR
Sofchalk, Donald G. "Union and Ethnic Group Influence in the 1938 Election on the Minnesota Iron Ranges." Journal of the West (2003) 42#3 pp: 66-74.
Valelly, Richard M. Radicalism in the States: The Minnesota Farmer-Labor Party and the American Political Economy (University of Chicago Press, 1989)
External links
Article on the Minnesota Farmer–Labor party from The Progressive Populist
Minnesota Farmer–Labor
Farmer–Labor information page
The Farmer Labor Party 1918–1924 Organizational history of attempts to form a national Farmer–Labor Party. Marxist Internet Archive. Retrieved May 26, 2006.
TOWARD THE COOPERATIVE COMMONWEALTH: AN INTRODUCTORY HISTORY OF THE FARMER–LABOR MOVEMENT IN MINNESOTA (1917–1948). 232 page online copy of Thomas Gerald O'Connell's 1979 Phd thesis from The Union Institute.
Luoma, Everett E.: The Farmer Takes A Holiday. Exposition Press, 1967.
Agrarian parties in the United States
Defunct progressive parties in the United States
History of Minnesota
Labor parties in the United States
Political parties established in 1918
Political parties disestablished in 1944
Political parties in Minnesota
1918 establishments in Minnesota
Minnesota | [
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261596 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Prana | Prana | In yoga, Indian medicine and Indian martial arts, prana (, ; the Sanskrit word for breath, "life force", or "vital principle") permeates reality on all levels including inanimate objects. In Hindu literature, prāṇa is sometimes described as originating from the Sun and connecting the elements.
Five types of prāṇa, collectively known as the five vāyus ("winds"), are described in Hindu texts. Ayurveda, tantra and Tibetan medicine all describe prāṇa vāyu as the basic vāyu from which the other vāyus arise.
Prana is divided into ten main functions: The five Pranas – Prana, Apana, Udana, Vyana and Samana – and the five Upa-Pranas – Naga, Kurma, Devadatta, Krikala and Dhananjaya.
Pranayama, one of the eight limbs of yoga, is intended to expand prana.
Etymology
V. S. Apte provides fourteen different meanings for the Sanskrit word () including breath or respiration; the breath of life, vital air, principle of life (usually plural in this sense, there being five such vital airs generally assumed, but three, six, seven, nine, and even ten are also spoken of); energy or vigour; the spirit or soul.
Of these meanings, the concept of "vital air" is used by Bhattacharyya to describe the concept as used in Sanskrit texts dealing with pranayama, the manipulation of the breath. Thomas McEvilley translates prāṇa as "spirit-energy". The breath is understood to be its most subtle material form, but is also believed to be present in the blood, and most concentrated in men's semen and women's vaginal fluid.
Early references
The ancient concept of prāṇa is described in many Hindu texts, including Upanishads and Vedas. One of the earliest references to prāṇa is from the 3,000-year-old Chandogya Upanishad, but many other Upanishads use the concept, including the Katha, Mundaka and Prasna Upanishads. The concept is elaborated upon in great detail in the literature of haṭha yoga, tantra, and Ayurveda.
The Bhagavad Gita 4.27 describes the yoga of self-control as the sacrifice of the actions of the senses and of prāṇa in the fire kindled by knowledge. More generally, the conquest of the senses, the mind, and prāṇa is seen as an essential step on the yogin's path to samadhi, or indeed as the goal of yoga. Thus for example the Malinivijayottaratantra 12.5–7 directs the seeker "who has conquered posture, the mind, prāṇa, the senses, sleep, anger, fear, and anxiety" to practise yoga in a beautiful undisturbed cave.
Prāṇa is typically divided into constituent parts, particularly when concerned with the human body. While not all early sources agree on the names or number of these divisions, the most common list from the Mahabharata, the Upanishads, Ayurvedic and Yogic sources includes five classifications, often subdivided. This list includes prāṇa (inward moving energy), apāna (outward moving energy), vyāna (circulation of energy), udāna (energy of the head and throat), and samāna (digestion and assimilation).
Early mention of specific prāṇas often emphasized prāṇa, apāna and vyāna as "the three breaths". This can be seen in the proto-yogic traditions of the Vratyas among others. Texts like the Vaikānasasmārta utilized the five prāṇas as an internalization of the five sacrificial fires of a panchāgni homa ceremony.
The Atharva Veda describes prāṇa: 'When they had been watered by Prana, the plants spake in concert: 'thou hast, forsooth, prolonged our life, thou hast made us all fragrant.' (11.4–6) 'The holy (âtharvana) plants, the magic (ângirasa) plants, the divine plants, and those produced by men, spring forth, when thou, O Prâna, quickenest them (11.4–16). 'When Prâna has watered the great earth with rain, then the plants spring forth, and also every sort of herb.' (11.4–17) 'O Prâna, be not turned away from me, thou shall not be other than myself! As the embryo of the waters (fire), thee, O Prâna, do bind to me, that I may live.' (11.4)
Similar concepts
Similar concepts exist in various cultures, including the Latin anima ("breath", "vital force", "animating principle"), Islamic and Sufic ruh, the Greek pneuma, the Chinese qi, the Polynesian mana, the Amerindian orenda, the German od, and the Hebrew ruah. Prāṇa is also described as subtle energy or life force.
Vāyus
One way of categorizing prāṇa is by means of vāyus. Vāyu means "wind" or "air" in Sanskrit, and the term is used in a variety of contexts in Hindu philosophy. Prāṇa is considered the basic vāyu from which the other vāyus arise, as well as one of the five major vāyus. Prāṇa is thus the generic name for all the breaths, including the five major vāyus of prāṇa, apāna, uḍāna, samāna, and vyāna. The Nisvasattvasamhita Nayasutra describes five minor winds, naming three of these as nāga, dhanamjaya, and kurma; the other two are named in the Skandapurana (181.46) and Sivapurana Vayaviyasamhita (37.36) as devadatta and krtaka.
Nadis
Indian philosophy describes prana flowing in nadis (channels), though the details vary. The Brhadaranyaka Upanishad (2.I.19) mentions 72,000 nadis in the human body, running out from the heart, whereas the Katha Upanishad (6.16) says that 101 channels radiate from the heart. The Vinashikhatantra (140–146) explains the most common model, namely that the three most important nadis are the Ida on the left, the Pingala on the right, and the Sushumna in the centre connecting the base chakra to the crown chakra, enabling prana to flow throughout the subtle body.
When the mind is agitated due to our interactions with the world at large, the physical body also follows in its wake. These agitations cause violent fluctuations in the flow of prana in the nadis.
Pranayama
Prāṇāyāma is a common term for various techniques for accumulating, expanding and working with prana. Pranayama is one of the eight limbs of yoga and is a practice of specific and often intricate breath control techniques. The dynamics and laws of Prana were understood through systematic practice of Pranayama to gain mastery over Prana.
Many pranayama techniques are designed to cleanse the nadis, allowing for greater movement of prana. Other techniques may be utilized to arrest the breath for samadhi or to bring awareness to specific areas in the practitioner's subtle or physical body. In Tibetan Buddhism, it is utilized to generate inner heat in the practice of tummo.
In Ayurveda and therapeutic yoga, pranayama is utilized for many tasks, including to affect mood and aid in digestion. A. G. Mohan stated that the physical goals of pranayama may be to recover from illness or the maintenance of health, while its mental goals are: "to remove mental disturbances and make the mind focused for meditation".
According to the scholar-practitioner of yoga Theos Bernard, the ultimate aim of pranayama is the suspension of breathing, "causing the mind to swoon".
Swami Yogananda writes, "The real meaning of Pranayama, according to Patanjali, the founder of Yoga philosophy, is the gradual cessation of breathing, the discontinuance of inhalation and exhalation".
See also
Chaitanya (consciousness)
Chakra
Scientific skepticism
Qi Men Dun Jia
Vijñāna
Yoga Sutra
References
Sources
External links
Prana - A Overview as per vedic scriptures along with a hymn to Prana from Atharva Veda
Prana – overview
Prana – Amazing Secret To Health and Wellbeing as per Yogic Science
Hindu philosophical concepts
Vitalism
Yoga concepts | [
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261599 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%20122 | New Jersey Route 122 | Route 122 is a short, state highway in Warren County, New Jersey. The route runs from Warren County Route 678 and Pursel Street in Phillipsburg to an intersection with U.S. Route 22 (US 22) in Pohatcong Township. The route is a former alignment of U.S. Route 22, designated in 1926, however, until 1993, the route was designated U.S. Route 22 Alternate. After 1993, the route was decommissioned and replaced by County Route 678 (CR 648) and Route 122.
Route description
Route 122 begins at an intersection with Pursel Street as a county-maintained continuation of Warren County Route 678 in Phillipsburg. The highway progresses eastward as South Main Street, heading through residential homes along the Delaware River. At an intersection with Kent Street, it makes a gradual bend to the east, passing under Norfolk Southern's Lehigh Line, and then intersecting with Warren County Route 642 (Carpentersville Road).
Continuing eastward along South Main Street, it enters Pohatcong Township where state maintenance begins. At first, the road passes residential homes; continuing eastward, the highway enters a large residential district, with homes surrounding the highway for several blocks. At the intersection with County Route 519 (Saint James Avenue), the two routes head along a wrong-way concurrency, running along New Brunswick Avenue, passing the residential district and several schools. At that point, the residential district becomes more commercial, with County Route 519 heading to the south along Third Avenue. The route continues eastward along New Brunswick Avenue, returning to the residential portions of Pohatcong Township. The route continues eastward, interchanging partially with U.S. Route 22, where the highway terminates. I-78 is located south of where the route ends. New Brunswick Avenue continues ahead without a designation. New Brunswick Avenue continues named Dumont Avenue, it continues until it reaches County Road 519.
History
Route 122 originated as an alignment of U.S. Route 22, and a remnant of New Jersey State Route 28, which was designated in 1926 as part of the highway system as the Phillipsburg–Easton Bridge. The route continued as U.S. Route 22 until the completion of the bypass in 1938 around Phillipsburg, which US 22 was transferred to the bypass. The former alignment became U.S. Route 22 Alternate, lasting through the 1953 state highway renumbering. The route continued to run from the Phillipsburg–Easton Bridge to US 22, until 1993, when US 22 Alternate was decommissioned and replaced by Route 122 and County Route 678. The route was first named Chester Avenue, it was then named Route 29. In 1915, the New Jersey established its first highway department, thus, giving funding to localities to improve their roads. Later, it was renamed Route 22.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
U.S. Route 22 Alternate on Alps Roads
122
Transportation in Warren County, New Jersey
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261600 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%20124 | New Jersey Route 124 | Route 124 is a state highway in the northern part of New Jersey in the United States that is long. It is the eastern section of what used to be Route 24 before that road was realigned to its current freeway alignment. The western end is at an intersection with U.S. Route 202 (US 202) and County Route 510 (CR 510) in Morristown, Morris County; the eastern end continues as CR 603 on Springfield Avenue at the border between Maplewood and Irvington in Essex County. The route runs through suburban areas of Morris County, passing through Madison and Chatham. It interchanges with Route 24 on the border of Millburn, Essex County and Summit, Union County and serves as a frontage road for that route. Upon splitting from Route 24, Route 124 continues east through Springfield Township, Union Township, and Maplewood to its eastern terminus.
The alignment of today's Route 124 was first designated as a part of pre-1927 Route 5 in 1916, a route that was to run from Delaware, Warren County to Newark. In 1927, this portion of the route became a part of Route 24, a route that was to run from Phillipsburg to Newark. A freeway, which is the current alignment of Route 24, was proposed for this portion of the route in the 1950s that was approved in 1960. Route 24 was moved to the new freeway between the John F. Kennedy Parkway on the Millburn/Summit border and Interstate 78 (I-78) in 1972, with Route 124 being designated along the former alignment of Route 24 east of this point. In 1992, the Route 24 freeway was completed between I-287 in Hanover Township and the John F. Kennedy Parkway. As a result, Route 124 was extended west along the former Route 24 to U.S. Route 202 in Morristown.
Route description
Morris County
Route 124 begins at the intersection of US 202 and CR 510 at the Park Place square in the downtown of Morristown, Morris County. From here, it heads to the southeast as South Street, a two-lane undivided road that passes businesses. At the intersection with CR 663, the road widens to four lanes. A short distance later, CR 601 continues southeast on South Street and Route 124 bears left to head east on Madison Avenue, coming to an interchange with Interstate 287. Past this interchange, the road passes Morristown Memorial Hospital and continues through mainly commercial areas with some homes. At the intersection with Normandy Parkway, the route turns to the southeast and enters Morris Township, where it narrows to two lanes again, with NJ Transit’s Morristown Line running a short distance to the northeast of the route near the Morris County Golf Club. Route 124 continues into more residential areas and crosses into Madison.
Here, the route passes near some business parks before intersecting CR 636, where it is briefly a four-lane road. Past this intersection, the road passes between residential neighborhoods to the northeast and Drew University to the southwest. Route 124 crosses over the Morristown Line near James Park and becomes Main Street, heading southeast through the commercial downtown of Madison. Here, the road intersects CR 647 and CR 608. Past the Rosedale Avenue intersection, the route heads into a mix of residential and business areas. Route 124 enters Chatham at the intersection with Brooklake Road/Division Avenue. In the center of the town, the route intersects CR 638 and CR 607 before continuing east.
Essex and Union counties
Route 124 crosses the Passaic River and runs along the border of Millburn, Essex County to the north and Summit, Union County, coming to a large interchange with the Route 24 freeway and CR 649 (John F. Kennedy Parkway). Here, the route becomes a frontage road for the Route 24 freeway that has two lanes in each direction. The road passes to the south of The Mall at Short Hills before running through the Canoe Brook Country Club. It heads southeast into wooded residential neighborhoods and intersects Union CR 657, where the Route 124 frontage road has ramps to Route 24. A short distance later, the route passes an overpass to nowhere that crosses over Route 24 at Brantwood Drive which was closed and walled off. The Route 124 frontage road has since eliminated the intersection at Brantwood Drive. In 2013, City of Summit vacated the 50-foot public right of way of the old road section from Route 124 into the current Brantwood Drive. In a short distance, Route 124 intersects CR 608, at which point the route has an eastbound ramp to eastbound Route 24 and a westbound ramp from westbound Route 24. Past this intersection, the Route 124 frontage road along Route 24 ends and the route becomes a two-lane undivided road called South Service Road that closely parallels the north side of Route 24, passing under the Morristown Line. The route heads past businesses and forms the border of Millburn to the north and Springfield Township, Union County to the south, coming to an intersection with CR 512 near an interchange with Route 24. There is a direct ramp from westbound Route 124 to Route 24 a short distance to the northwest of this intersection.
From here, the route passes more commercial establishments as a four-lane road, heading farther from Route 24, before crossing CR 527. At this intersection, Route 124 entirely enters Springfield Township and becomes Morris Avenue, passing a mix of residences and businesses. The route passes under I-78 without an interchange and becomes a two-lane road that passes through the downtown of Springfield, eventually widening to four lanes again. In this area, it intersects CR 635. Route 124 comes to a circular junction with Route 82 and CR 577. Here, Route 82 continues southeast on Morris Avenue, CR 509 Spur heads south, and CR 577 heads north. Route 124, meanwhile, briefly splits into a one-way pair here. The eastbound direction heads south on Meisel Avenue before turning north along Maple Avenue while the westbound direction follows Springfield Avenue. The two directions of Route 124 rejoin and follow four-lane divided Springfield Avenue northeast to a crossing of the Rahway River and a partial interchange with I-78. Here, there are ramps from the local lanes of eastbound I-78 to both directions of Route 124, to the local lanes of westbound I-78 and Route 24 from both directions of Route 124, and to the express lanes of westbound Interstate 78 from westbound Route 124.
Past this interchange, the route enters Union Township and continues east through developed areas, intersecting CR 638 before narrowing into a two-lane undivided road and intersecting CR 630. It continues through more urban commercial areas before intersecting CR 630 again. At this point, Route 124 crosses into Maplewood, Essex County and becomes a three-lane road with a center left-turn lane that is locally maintained. This road heads east through the downtown of Maplewood, coming to an intersection with CR 601. A short distance later, the Route 124 designation ends at the border of Maplewood and Irvington, with Springfield Avenue continuing east into Irvington as CR 603 toward Newark.
History
What is modern-day Route 124 was created as part of two turnpikes; the Morris Turnpike, running from Elizabeth to Newton, and the Springfield and Newark Turnpike, from Springfield to Newark. The road was later incorporated into the William Penn Highway, which ran from Jersey City to Pittsburgh, before being designated as a part of pre-1927 Route 5, a route that was legislated in 1916 to run from Delaware in Warren County east to Newark. In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering, this portion of pre-1927 Route 5 became a part of Route 24, a road that was to run from Phillipsburg to Newark. In the 1950s, plans were made to bypass this portion of Route 24 with a freeway running from Interstate 287 in Hanover Township to Interstate 78 in Springfield Township; this was approved of in 1960. This freeway was completed between Interstate 78 and the John F. Kennedy Parkway in 1972. The Route 24 designation was moved to the new freeway and Route 124 was designated along the former alignment of Route 24 east of this point, which included frontage roads built where the new freeway ran along the old alignment of the road. Following the completion of the Route 24 freeway to Interstate 287 in 1992, Route 124 was extended west along the former alignment of Route 24 between the John F. Kennedy Parkway and U.S. Route 202 in Morristown. In 2002, maintenance of the portion of Route 124 in Maplewood was transferred to the municipality from the New Jersey Department of Transportation.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
An expanded view of road jurisdiction near the confluence of US 202 and NJ 124
New Jersey Roads: Route 124
New Jersey Highway Ends: 124
124
Transportation in Essex County, New Jersey
Transportation in Morris County, New Jersey
Transportation in Union County, New Jersey | [
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261602 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%20139 | New Jersey Route 139 | Route 139 is a state highway in Jersey City, New Jersey in the United States that heads east from the Pulaski Skyway over Tonnele Circle to the state line with New Jersey and New York in the Holland Tunnel, which is under the Hudson River, to New York City. The western portion of the route is a two level highway that is charted by the New Jersey Department of Transportation as two separate roadways: The lower roadway (Route 139) between U.S. Route 1/9 (US 1/9) over Tonnele Circle and Interstate 78 (I-78) at Jersey Avenue, and the upper roadway (Route 139U or Hoboken Avenue) running from County Route 501 (John F. Kennedy Boulevard) and ending where it joins the lower highway as part of the 12th Street Viaduct, which ends at Jersey Avenue. The lower roadway is listed on the federal and NJ state registers of historic places since 2005. The eastern of the route includes the Holland Tunnel approach that runs concurrent with Interstate 78 on the one-way pair of 12th Street eastbound and 14th Street westbound. Including the concurrency, the total length of Route 139 is .
What is now Route 139 was originally the northernmost part of the Route 1 Extension. Route 25 replaced Route 1 in the 1927 renumbering. In 1953 renumbering, Route 25 was changed back to U.S. Route 1, which had been previously rerouted to cross the Hudson River when the George Washington Bridge opened in 1931. Route 25 from the Pulaski Skyway over Tonnele Circle to the Holland Tunnel became U.S. Route 1/9 Business. By the 1990s, U.S. Route 1/9 Business was replaced by Route 139.
The New Jersey Department of Transportation (NJDOT) began a rehabilitation program for the lower and upper levels of the highway in 2005. The renovation work for the 12th Street and 14th Street viaducts was completed in 2010. Renovation of the upper roadway, including the Hoboken Avenue Viaduct, and Conrail Viaduct on the lower roadway was expected to be completed by 2016.
Route description
Route 139 is essentially three distinct, but connected highways: the upper level, the lower level, and the Holland Tunnel approach (the Interstate 78 concurrency). NJDOT officially charts the lower and upper levels as independent highways, with the lower level considered Route 139 with a notation that the highway then coincides with I-78, and the upper level considered Route 139U.
Lower level
The lower level of Route 139 is a four-lane freeway with its western end at U.S. Route 1/9 a continuation of the Pulaski Skyway over Tonnele Circle. A direct ramp, known as the Tonnele Circle Viaduct, passes over the circle, to connect westbound traffic with southbound U.S. Route 1/9 Truck, which quickly connects to Route 7 that leads to Interstate 280. Northbound U.S. Route 1/9 Truck connects through the circle to eastbound traffic. The skyway soon ends with eastbound and westbound ramps at a cut in Bergen Hill and the four-lane highway passes under John F. Kennedy Boulevard. The road turns to the southeast as Conrail's National Docks Branch and Long Dock Tunnel crosses over the Bergen Arches, an abandoned Erie Railroad right-of-way. The highway then enters an enclosed open cut, running under the upper level of Route 139 as it passes through the Hudson Palisades; this section is known as the Depressed Highway. The covered roadway is naturally ventilated, with wide openings on the south side of the eastbound lanes (facing the parallel Bergen Arches right-of-way to the south), and ventilation bays over the westbound lanes. The road re-emerges under Palisade Avenue and splits into two viaducts, one eastbound and one westbound, which merge with Interstate 78 just west of Jersey Avenue at the Holland Tunnel approach.
Upper level
The upper level of Route 139 (also known as State Highway and Hoboken Avenue Viaduct) begins at an intersection with County Route 501 (Kennedy Boulevard), which connects to Bayonne and Union City. The road heads to the southeast through urban residential and commercial areas as a four-lane undivided road, coming to an intersection with Collard Street. Just past this, the route becomes a four-lane divided road, which is separated by ventilation bays from the lower roadway, with the eastbound lanes running above the lower level of Route 139. It continues between the Heights district to the north and the Journal Square district to the south. It crosses several streets, including County Route 646 (St. Pauls Avenue), County Route 617 (Summit Avenue), County Route 663 (Central Avenue), and County Route 644 (Oakland Street). The road meets Concord Street, where there is an eastbound left lane exit and a westbound intersection. After the intersection with Palisade Avenue, the upper level of Route 139 splits and merges with the lower level with a westbound ramp, which has a westbound entrance from the local Hoboken Avenue, and an eastbound ramp.
Viaducts
The four-lane 12th Street and 14th Street viaducts, completed in 1927 and 1951 respectively, carry Route 139 between Jersey Avenue at Boyle Plaza and the cut into Bergen Hill under Palisade Avenue. Ramps from western end of 12th Street Viaduct connect to the upper level roadway at the top of Bergen Hill at the Palisade Avenue intersection. Westbound ramp on north side is separated from the main highway by a reinforced concrete retaining wall; the eastbound ramp on south side is supported by reinforced concrete deck arch spans. The western end of 12th Street Viaduct transitions from two-way to one-way, four-lane eastbound traffic just east of the connection with the westbound 14th Street Viaduct. The New Jersey Department of Transportation undertook a $92 million project to renew the viaducts. The reason for this project was that the viaducts were structurally deficient. The steel beams on the viaducts had deteriorated and the concrete was just extra weight. The project included replacement of the concrete deck, retrofitting for earthquakes, repair of the substructure and superstructure, and construction of a shoulder on westbound 14th Street Viaduct. The rehabilitated viaducts were to also feature ornamental designs to recall the historical significance of the two viaducts. This project was completed in 2010.
I-78 concurrency
The elevated westbound Interstate 78 diverges from 14th Street Viaduct of Route 139 one block west of Jersey Avenue. A viaduct for eastbound Interstate 78 runs along south side of eastern section of the 12th Street Viaduct. The highway merges with Route 139 at eastern terminus of 12th Street Viaduct. From here, Route 139 continues east concurrent with that route and passes through business areas as a one-way pair that follows six-lane 12th Street eastbound and six-lane 14th Street westbound. This segment of the route is under the jurisdiction of the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey and this area is also known as Boyle Plaza. The first intersection is with Jersey Avenue, which heads to Downtown Jersey City and Hoboken. It intersects with the one-way northbound County Route 633 (Erie Street) next before crossing one-way southbound County Route 635 (Grove Street). After Grove Street, the road crosses County Route 637 (Luis Muñoz Marín Boulevard) near the Newport Centre Mall just to the south. Past this intersection, the eastbound traffic comes to the toll plaza for the Holland Tunnel. From here, the concurrency enters the Holland Tunnel under the Hudson River, which carries two lanes in each direction. Route 139 ends at the New Jersey and New York state line within the tunnel and Interstate 78 continues into New York City.
History
Early years and route numbering
What is now the lower level of Route 139 was originally designated as the northernmost part of Route 1 Extension, which was authorized by the New Jersey Legislature in 1922, a route that was to extend the existing Route 1 from Elizabeth to the Holland Tunnel in Jersey City. When the U.S. Highway System was established in 1926, this road was also designated as part of U.S. Route 1. In the 1927 New Jersey state highway renumbering, this highway became part of Route 25, a route that was to run from the Ben Franklin Bridge in Camden to the Holland Tunnel.
In the 1953 state highway renumbering, Route 25 designation was changed to U.S. Route 1/9 Business from the Pulaski Skyway over Tonnele Circle to the Holland Tunnel. By the 1990s, U.S. Route 1/9 Business was renumbered to NJ Route 139. Along with the Pulaski Skyway, most of the Route 139 lower level became a contributing property to the Route 1 Extension historic district listed with the state and federal registers of historic places in 2005.
Newark Bay Extension of the New Jersey Turnpike for Interstate 78 was opened in 1956 to provide access from the New Jersey Turnpike to the Holland Tunnel. Route 139 and I-78 were designated as concurrent where the roads joined at the Holland Tunnel approach near Jersey Avenue all the way to the New York state line in the Holland Tunnel.
Holland Tunnel and Pulaski Skyway connections
As part of the Holland Tunnel project, the New Jersey Interstate Bridge and Tunnel Commission and the New York State Bridge and Tunnel Commission widened the four blocks of 12th and 14th Streets in Jersey City from Jersey Avenue to Provost Street. 12th Street was widened west of Grove Street to , with the remaining block, at the toll plaza, being wide. 14th Street, and the two blocks of Jersey Avenue carrying westbound traffic to the 12th Street Viaduct, were widened to .
The two-way, 12th Street Viaduct from Jersey Avenue to the top of Bergen Hill was opened July 4, 1927. The four-lane, westbound, , 14th Street Viaduct, which was connected to the 12th Street Viaduct, was opened on February 13, 1951. The Port of New York Authority, which superseded the two state tunnel commissions and took over authority for the Holland Tunnel in 1930, built the 14th Street Viaduct in order to avoid the turns to and from Jersey Avenue, but turned over authority over the viaduct to the New Jersey State Highway Commission. The western end of 12th Street Viaduct was transitioned from two-way traffic to one-way, four-lane, eastbound traffic just east of the connection with the westbound 14th Street Viaduct. It was widened on the southern side between span nos. 1-24 on the eastern end to accommodate the merge in 1956 with the eastbound New Jersey Turnpike extension, I-78.
In 1928, the completed lower level portion of the highway, along with Route 1 Extension on the eastern side of the Passaic River, was opened as the first part of the eventual high-speed connection between the Holland Tunnel and Newark. The upper level of Route 139 (Hoboken Avenue Viaduct), which provided a multi-lane thoroughfare from Palisades Avenue to John F. Kennedy Boulevard, was also opened.
The high-speed freeway connection was completed with the opening of the Pulaski Skyway in 1932. The Pulaski Skyway ramp at its eastern terminus was eventually replaced with two long outside ramps that were dedicated for eastbound and westbound traffic from the cut in Bergen Hill just west of John F. Kennedy Boulevard. On September 14, 1938, a direct ramp, known as the Tonnele Circle Viaduct, opened over Tonnele Circle to connect westbound traffic with southbound U.S. Route 1/9 Truck, which quickly connects to Route 7 that leads to Interstate 280.
Later years
The Bergen Arches Expressway was proposed in 1989 by Governor Thomas Kean to connect the Jersey City waterfront with a new railroad line, which would provide access to the Meadowlands Sports Complex. This four-lane road was to follow an abandoned railroad line known as the Bergen Arches. This proposed highway was strongly supported by Jersey City Mayor Bret Schundler, who felt that the road could bring further development, as well as provide traffic relief to the four-lane Route 139. In 1998, this project was allocated $26 million in the federal Transportation Equity Act for the 21st Century. Both Jersey City mayor candidates in 2001 supported a transit line instead of a highway along the Bergen Arches. Plans for a highway along the Bergen Arches were dropped in 2002 as leaders of Jersey City, including Mayor Glenn Dale Cunningham, favored mass transit.
In a controversial move in 2011, Governor Chris Christie directed the Port Authority of New York and New Jersey to divert money originally earmarked for the Access to the Region's Core rail project to highway projects. The agency agreed to pay $1.8 billion to partially fund rehabilitation to the Pulaski Skyway and Route 139, and other projects that it considers part of the larger distribution network in the Port of New York and New Jersey.
The Route 139 project rehabilitated the eastbound side of Hoboken Avenue Viaduct and resurfaced the westbound roadway. There were operational improvements at several intersections on the upper roadway, replacing all overpasses. It also replaced the deck and rehabilitated the superstructure of the Conrail Viaduct. The total project cost was estimated at $180–200 million and was expected to be completed by 2016, then later pushed back to 2019. The Pulaski Skyway reopened in mid-2018, and the lower level of Route 139 was temporarily restored to four lanes in December 2018, but was partially closed again in early 2019. Improvements added to Route 139's lower level in 2019 included new lighting and new pavement markings.
Major intersections
Mainline
Hoboken Avenue (Upper Level)
See also
Route 1A and Route 9A, which once continued US 1-9 Business back to its parents in New York City
References
External links
New Jersey Roads: NJ 139 and I-78 at Alps Roads
New Jersey Highway Ends: 139 at NJ Roads
NJ 139 Freeway at NYCRoads
Speed Limits for State Roads: Route 139 at NJDOT
Historic American Engineering Record (HAER) documentation, filed under Jersey City, Hudson County, NJ:
Buildings and structures in Jersey City, New Jersey
Transportation in Hudson County, New Jersey
139
Lincoln Highway
Limited-access roads in New Jersey
Historic American Engineering Record in New Jersey
Historic district contributing properties in New Jersey
New Jersey Register of Historic Places
National Register of Historic Places in Hudson County, New Jersey
Roads on the National Register of Historic Places in New Jersey
U.S. Route 1
U.S. Route 9
Holland Tunnel | [
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261604 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%20140 | New Jersey Route 140 | Route 140 is a state highway in Carneys Point Township, Salem County, New Jersey, United States. It is a short east–west connector in Deepwater between U.S. Route 130 (US 130; Shell Road) and both the New Jersey Turnpike and U.S. Route 40 (Wiley Road) in Carneys Point near the Delaware Memorial Bridge. It is completely concurrent with County Route 540 (CR 540). Because of its close proximity to these major arteries (as well as Interstate 295 or I-295), there are numerous truck stops, motels, and diners along this highway, despite its short length. Also, the main entrance to the DuPont Chamber Works facility is located at the end on US Route 130.
Route description
Route 140 begins at U.S. Route 130 in the community of Deepwater, New Jersey. The route heads eastward as Hawks Bridge Road, passing through forestry east of the DuPont riverside factory. The large portion of forestry breaks up into a large clearing. In this large clearing, Route 140 passes between two truck stops. The route continues, intersecting with the on-ramps to Interstate 295. Route 140 then crosses over the interstate and settles back on land. From there, Route 140 crosses to the north of another truck stop and intersects with County Route 551 (South Pennsville-Auburn Road). Intersecting with local off-ramps, the route crosses by some businesses before interchanging with the New Jersey Turnpike and U.S. Route 40. The route continues a short distance after the interchange, terminating at Wiley Road, where it continues as County Route 540.
History
Route 140 was first legislated by the New Jersey State Legislature in 1973 as a state highway from U.S. Route 130 to U.S. Route 40. The eastern two-thirds was state-maintained because of the Interstate 295 and the New Jersey Turnpike interchanges. The route remained unnumbered however. In 1977, the western third (U.S. Route 130 to Interstate 295) was taken over by the state and the route was designated Route 140 and has remained the same since the legislation.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
Speed Limits for State Roads: Route 140
140
Transportation in Salem County, New Jersey
State highways in the United States shorter than one mile | [
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261613 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stomach%20cancer | Stomach cancer | Stomach cancer, also known as gastric cancer, is a cancer that develops from the lining of the stomach. Most cases of stomach cancers are gastric carcinomas, which can be divided into a number of subtypes, including gastric adenocarcinomas. Lymphomas and mesenchymal tumors may also develop in the stomach. Early symptoms may include heartburn, upper abdominal pain, nausea, and loss of appetite. Later signs and symptoms may include weight loss, yellowing of the skin and whites of the eyes, vomiting, difficulty swallowing, and blood in the stool, among others. The cancer may spread from the stomach to other parts of the body, particularly the liver, lungs, bones, lining of the abdomen, and lymph nodes.
The most common cause is infection by the bacterium Helicobacter pylori, which accounts for more than 60% of cases. Certain types of H. pylori have greater risks than others. Smoking, dietary factors such as pickled vegetables and obesity are other risk factors. About 10% of cases run in families, and between 1% and 3% of cases are due to genetic syndromes inherited from a person's parents such as hereditary diffuse gastric cancer. Most of the time, stomach cancer develops in stages over years. Diagnosis is usually by biopsy done during endoscopy. This is followed by medical imaging to determine if the disease has spread to other parts of the body. Japan and South Korea, two countries that have high rates of the disease, screen for stomach cancer.
A Mediterranean diet lowers the risk of stomach cancer, as does the stopping of smoking. Tentative evidence indicates that treating H. pylori decreases the future risk. If stomach cancer is treated early, it can be cured. Treatments may include some combination of surgery, chemotherapy, radiation therapy, and targeted therapy. For certain subtypes of gastric cancer, cancer immunotherapy is an option as well. If treated late, palliative care may be advised. Some types of lymphoma can be cured by eliminating H. pylori. Outcomes are often poor, with a less than 10% five-year survival rate in the Western world for advanced cases. This is largely because most people with the condition present with advanced disease. In the United States, five-year survival is 31.5%, while in South Korea it is over 65% and Japan over 70%, partly due to screening efforts.
Globally, stomach cancer is the fifth-leading type of cancer and the third-leading cause of death from cancer, making up 7% of cases and 9% of deaths. In 2018, it newly occurred in 1.03 million people and caused 783,000 deaths. Before the 1930s, in much of the world, including most Western developed countries, it was the most common cause of death from cancer. Rates of death have been decreasing in many areas of the world since then. This is believed to be due to the eating of less salted and pickled foods as a result of the development of refrigeration as a method of storing food. Stomach cancer occurs most commonly in East Asia and Eastern Europe. It occurs twice as often in males as in females.
Signs and symptoms
Stomach cancer is often either asymptomatic (producing no noticeable symptoms) or it may cause only nonspecific symptoms (which may also be present in other related or unrelated disorders) in its early stages. By the time symptoms are recognized, the cancer has often reached an advanced stage (see below) and may have metastasized (spread to other, perhaps distant, parts of the body), which is one of the main reasons for its relatively poor prognosis. Stomach cancer can cause the following signs and symptoms:
Early cancers may be associated with indigestion or a burning sensation (heartburn). However, fewer than one in every 50 people referred for endoscopy due to indigestion has cancer. Abdominal discomfort and loss of appetite, especially for meat, can occur.
Gastric cancers that have enlarged and invaded normal tissue can cause weakness, fatigue, bloating of the stomach after meals, abdominal pain in the upper abdomen, nausea and occasional vomiting. Further enlargement may cause weight loss or bleeding with vomiting blood or having blood in the stool, the latter apparent as black discolouration (melena) and sometimes leading to anemia. Dysphagia suggests a tumour in the cardia or extension of the gastric tumour into the esophagus.
These can be symptoms of other problems such as a stomach virus, gastric ulcer, or tropical sprue.
Risk factors
Gastric cancer can occur as a result of many factors. It occurs twice as commonly in males as females. Estrogen may protect women against the development of this form of cancer.
Infections
Helicobacter pylori infection is an essential risk factor in 65–80% of gastric cancers, but only 2% of people with H. pylori infections develop stomach cancer. The mechanism by which H. pylori induces stomach cancer potentially involves chronic inflammation, or the action of H. pylori virulence factors such as CagA. It was estimated that Epstein–Barr virus is responsible for 84,000 cases per year. AIDS is also associated with elevated risk.
Smoking
Smoking increases the risk of developing gastric cancer significantly, from 40% increased risk for current smokers to 82% increase for heavy smokers. Gastric cancers due to smoking mostly occur in the upper part of the stomach near the esophagus. Some studies show increased risk with alcohol consumption as well.
Diet
Dietary factors are not proven causes, and the association between stomach cancer and various foods and beverages is weak. Some foods including smoked foods, salt and salt-rich foods, red meat, processed meat, pickled vegetables, and brackens are associated with a higher risk of stomach cancer. Nitrates and nitrites in cured meats can be converted by certain bacteria, including H. pylori, into compounds that have been found to cause stomach cancer in animals.
Fresh fruit and vegetable intake, citrus fruit intake, and antioxidant intake are associated with a lower risk of stomach cancer. A Mediterranean diet is associated with lower rates of stomach cancer, as is regular aspirin use.
Obesity is a physical risk factor that has been found to increase the risk of gastric adenocarcinoma by contributing to the development of gastroesophageal reflux disease (GERD). The exact mechanism by which obesity causes GERD is not completely known. Studies hypothesize that increased dietary fat leading to increased pressure on the stomach and the lower esophageal sphincter, due to excess adipose tissue, could play a role, yet no statistically significant data have been collected. However, the risk of gastric cardia adenocarcinoma, with GERD present, has been found to increase more than 2 times for an obese person. There is a correlation between iodine deficiency and gastric cancer.
Genetics
About 10% of cases run in families, and between 1 and 3% of cases are due to genetic syndromes inherited from a person's parents such as hereditary diffuse gastric cancer.
A genetic risk factor for gastric cancer is a genetic defect of the CDH1 gene known as hereditary diffuse gastric cancer (HDGC). The CDH1 gene, which codes for E-cadherin, lies on the 16th chromosome. When the gene experiences a particular mutation, gastric cancer develops through a mechanism that is not fully understood. This mutation is considered autosomal dominant, meaning that half of a carrier's children will likely experience the same mutation. Diagnosis of hereditary diffuse gastric cancer usually takes place when at least two cases involving a family member, such as a parent or grandparent, are diagnosed, with at least one diagnosed before the age of 50. The diagnosis can also be made if at least three cases occur in the family, in which case age is not considered.
The International Cancer Genome Consortium is leading efforts to identify genomic changes involved in stomach cancer. A very small percentage of diffuse-type gastric cancers (see Histopathology below) arise from an inherited abnormal CDH1 gene. Genetic testing and treatment options are available for families at risk.
Other
Other risk factors include diabetes, pernicious anemia, chronic atrophic gastritis, Menetrier's disease (hyperplastic, hypersecretory gastropathy), and intestinal metaplasia.
In addition, Foxp3 polymorphism (rs3761548) might contribute to gastric cancer development through influencing Treg cell activity.
Diagnosis
To find the cause of symptoms, the doctor asks about the patient's medical history, does a physical examination, and may order laboratory studies.
The patient may also have one or all of these exams:
Gastroscopic exam is the diagnostic method of choice. This involves insertion of a fibre optic camera into the stomach to visualise it.
Upper GI series (may be called barium roentgenogram)
Computed tomography or CT scanning of the abdomen may reveal gastric cancer. It is more useful to determine invasion into adjacent tissues or the presence of spread to local lymph nodes. Wall thickening of more than 1 cm that is focal, eccentric, and enhancing favours malignancy.
In 2013, Chinese and Israeli scientists reported a successful pilot study of a breathalyzer-style breath test intended to diagnose stomach cancer by analyzing exhaled chemicals without the need for an intrusive endoscopy. A larger-scale clinical trial of this technology was completed in 2014.
Abnormal tissue seen in a gastroscope examination is biopsied by the surgeon or gastroenterologist. This tissue is then sent to a pathologist for histological examination under a microscope to check for the presence of cancerous cells. A biopsy, with subsequent histological analysis, is the only sure way to confirm the presence of cancer cells.
Various gastroscopic modalities have been developed to increase yield of detected mucosa with a dye that accentuates the cell structure and can identify areas of dysplasia. Endocytoscopy involves ultra-high magnification to visualise cellular structure to better determine areas of dysplasia. Other gastroscopic modalities such as optical coherence tomography are being tested investigationally for similar applications.
A number of cutaneous conditions are associated with gastric cancer. A condition of darkened hyperplasia of the skin, frequently of the axilla and groin, known as acanthosis nigricans, is associated with intra-abdominal cancers such as gastric cancer. Other cutaneous manifestations of gastric cancer include "tripe palms" (a similar darkening hyperplasia of the skin of the palms) and the Leser-Trelat sign, which is the rapid development of skin lesions known as seborrheic keratoses.
Various blood tests may be done, including a complete blood count to check for anaemia, and a fecal occult blood test to check for blood in the stool.
Histopathology
Gastric adenocarcinoma is a malignant epithelial tumour, originating from glandular epithelium of the gastric mucosa. Stomach cancers are about 90% adenocarcinomas. Histologically, there are two major types of gastric adenocarcinoma (Lauren classification): intestinal type or diffuse type. Adenocarcinomas tend to aggressively invade the gastric wall, infiltrating the muscularis mucosae, the submucosa and then the muscularis propria. Intestinal type adenocarcinoma tumour cells describe irregular tubular structures, harbouring pluristratification, multiple lumens, reduced stroma ("back to back" aspect). Often, it associates intestinal metaplasia in neighbouring mucosa. Depending on glandular architecture, cellular pleomorphism and mucosecretion, adenocarcinoma may present 3 degrees of differentiation: well, moderate and poorly differentiated. Diffuse type adenocarcinoma (mucinous, colloid, linitis plastica or leather-bottle stomach) tumour cells are discohesive and secrete mucus, which is delivered in the interstitium, producing large pools of mucus/colloid (optically "empty" spaces). It is poorly differentiated. In signet-ring cell carcinomas, the mucus remains inside the tumour cell and pushes the nucleus to the periphery, giving rise to signet-ring cells.
Around 5% of gastric cancers are lymphomas. These may include extranodal marginal zone B-cell lymphomas (MALT type)<ref name=Bur2017>{{cite journal | vauthors = Burkitt MD, Duckworth CA, Williams JM, Pritchard DM | title = Helicobacter pylori'-induced gastric pathology: insights from in vivo and ex vivo models | journal = Disease Models & Mechanisms | volume = 10 | issue = 2 | pages = 89–104 | date = February 2017 | pmid = 28151409 | pmc = 5312008 | doi = 10.1242/dmm.027649 }}</ref> and to a lesser extent diffuse large B-cell lymphomas. MALT type make up about half of stomach lymphomas.
Carcinoid and stromal tumors may occur.
Staging
If cancer cells are found in the tissue sample, the next step is to stage, or find out the extent of the disease. Various tests determine whether the cancer has spread, and if so, what parts of the body are affected. Because stomach cancer can spread to the liver, pancreas, and other organs near the stomach, as well as to the lungs, the doctor may order a CT scan, a PET scan, an endoscopic ultrasound exam, or other tests to check these areas. Blood tests for tumor markers, such as carcinoembryonic antigen and carbohydrate antigen may be ordered, as their levels correlate to extent of metastasis, especially to the liver, and the cure rate.
Staging may not be complete until after surgery. The surgeon removes nearby lymph nodes and possibly samples of tissue from other areas in the abdomen for examination by a pathologist.
The clinical stages of stomach cancer are:
Stage 0 – Limited to the inner lining of the stomach, it is treatable by endoscopic mucosal resection when found very early (in routine screenings), or otherwise by gastrectomy and lymphadenectomy without need for chemotherapy or radiation.
Stage I – Penetration to the second or third layers of the stomach (stage 1A) or to the second layer and nearby lymph nodes (stage 1B): Stage 1A is treated by surgery, including removal of the omentum. Stage 1B may be treated with chemotherapy (5-fluorouracil) and radiation therapy.
Stage II – Penetration to the second layer and more distant lymph nodes, or the third layer and only nearby lymph nodes, or all four layers but not the lymph nodes, it is treated as for stage I, sometimes with additional neoadjuvant chemotherapy.
Stage III – Penetration to the third layer and more distant lymph nodes, or penetration to the fourth layer and either nearby tissues or nearby or more distant lymph nodes, it is treated as for stage II; a cure is still possible in some cases.
Stage IV – Cancer has spread to nearby tissues and more distant lymph nodes, or has metastasized to other organs. A cure is very rarely possible at this stage. Some other techniques to prolong life or improve symptoms are used, including laser treatment, surgery, and/or stents to keep the digestive tract open, and chemotherapy by drugs such as 5-fluorouracil, cisplatin, epirubicin, etoposide, docetaxel, oxaliplatin, capecitabine, or irinotecan.
The TNM staging system is also used.
In a study of open-access endoscopy in Scotland, patients were diagnosed 7% in stage I 17% in stage II, and 28% in stage III. A Minnesota population was diagnosed 10% in stage I, 13% in stage II, and 18% in stage III. However, in a high-risk population in the Valdivia Province of southern Chile, only 5% of patients were diagnosed in the first two stages and 10% in stage III.
Prevention
Getting rid of H. pylori in those who are infected decreases the risk of stomach cancer, at least in those who are Asian. A 2014 meta-analysis of observational studies found that a diet high in fruits, mushrooms, garlic, soybeans, and green onions was associated with a lower risk of stomach cancer in the Korean population. Low doses of vitamins, especially from a healthy diet, decrease the risk of stomach cancer. A previous review of antioxidant supplementation did not find supporting evidence and possibly worse outcomes.
Management
Cancer of the stomach is difficult to cure unless it is found at an early stage (before it has begun to spread). Unfortunately, because early stomach cancer causes few symptoms, the disease is usually advanced when the diagnosis is made.
Treatment for stomach cancer may include surgery, chemotherapy, or radiation therapy. New treatment approaches such as immunotherapy or gene therapy and improved ways of using current methods are being studied in clinical trials.
Surgery
Surgery remains the only curative therapy for stomach cancer. Of the different surgical techniques, endoscopic mucosal resection (EMR) is a treatment for early gastric cancer (tumor only involves the mucosa) that was pioneered in Japan and is available in the United States at some centers. In EMR, the tumor, together with the inner lining of stomach (mucosa), is removed from the wall of the stomach using an electrical wire loop through the endoscope. The advantage is that it is a much smaller operation than removing the stomach. Endoscopic submucosal dissection is a similar technique pioneered in Japan, used to resect a large area of mucosa in one piece. If the pathologic examination of the resected specimen shows incomplete resection or deep invasion by tumor, the patient would need a formal stomach resection. A 2016 Cochrane review found low-quality evidence of no difference in short-term mortality between laparoscopic and open gastrectomy (removal of stomach), and that benefits or harms of laparoscopic gastrectomy cannot be ruled out. Post-operatively, up to 70% of people undergoing total gastrectomy develop complications such as dumping syndrome and reflux esophagitis. Construction of a "pouch", which serves as a "stomach substitute", reduced the incidence of dumping syndrome and reflux esophagitis by 73% and 63% respectively, and led to improvements in quality-of-life, nutritional outcomes, and body mass index.
Those with metastatic disease at the time of presentation may receive palliative surgery, and while it remains controversial, due to the possibility of complications from the surgery itself and because it may delay chemotherapy, the data so far are mostly positive, with improved survival rates being seen in those treated with this approach.
Chemotherapy
The use of chemotherapy to treat stomach cancer has no firmly established standard of care. Unfortunately, stomach cancer has not been particularly sensitive to these drugs, and chemotherapy, if used, has usually served to palliatively reduce the size of the tumor, relieve symptoms of the disease, and increase survival time. Some drugs used in stomach cancer treatment have included: fluorouracil or its analog capecitabine, BCNU (carmustine), methyl-CCNU (semustine) and doxorubicin (Adriamycin), as well as mitomycin C, and more recently cisplatin and taxotere, often using drugs in various combinations. The relative benefits of these different drugs, alone and in combination, are unclear. Clinical researchers are exploring the benefits of giving chemotherapy before surgery to shrink the tumor, or as adjuvant therapy after surgery to destroy remaining cancer cells.
Targeted therapy
Recently, treatment with human epidermal growth factor receptor 2 (HER2) inhibitor, trastuzumab, has been demonstrated to increase overall survival in inoperable locally advanced or metastatic gastric carcinoma over-expressing the HER2/neu gene. In particular, HER2 is overexpressed in 13–22% of patients with gastric cancer. Of note, HER2 overexpression in gastric neoplasia is heterogeneous and comprises a minority of tumor cells (less than 10% of gastric cancers overexpress HER2 in more than 5% of tumor cells). Hence, this heterogeneous expression should be taken into account for HER2 testing, particularly in small samples such as biopsies, requiring the evaluation of more than one bioptic sample.
Radiation
Radiation therapy (also called radiotherapy) may be used to treat stomach cancer, often as an adjuvant to chemotherapy and/or surgery.
Lymphoma
Lymphoma of the MALT type can often be fully treated by treating an underlying H. pylori infection. This results in remission in about 80% of cases.
Prognosis
The prognosis of stomach cancer is generally poor, because the tumor has often metastasized by the time of discovery, and most people with the condition are elderly (median age is between 70 and 75 years) at presentation. The average life expectancy after being diagnosed is around 24 months, and the five-year survival rate for stomach cancer is less than 10%.
Almost 300 genes are related to outcomes in stomach cancer, with both unfavorable genes where high expression is related to poor survival and favorable genes where high expression is associated with longer survival times. Examples of poor prognosis genes include ITGAV, DUSP1 and P2RX7.
Epidemiology
Worldwide, stomach cancer is the fifth most-common cancer with 952,000 cases diagnosed in 2012. It is more common both in men and in developing countries. In 2012, it represented 8.5% of cancer cases in men, making it the fourth-most common cancer in men. Also in 2012, the number of deaths was 700,000, having decreased slightly from 774,000 in 1990, making it the third-leading cause of cancer-related death (after lung cancer and liver cancer).
Less than 5% of stomach cancers occur in people under 40 years of age, with 81.1% of that 5% in the age-group of 30 to 39 and 18.9% in the age-group of 20 to 29.
In 2014, stomach cancer resulted in 0.61% of deaths (13,303 cases) in the U.S. In China, stomach cancer accounted for 3.56% of all deaths (324,439 cases). The highest rate of stomach cancer was in Mongolia, at 28 cases per 100,000 people.
In the United Kingdom, stomach cancer is the 15th-most common cancer (around 7,100 people were diagnosed with stomach cancer in 2011), and it is the 10th-most common cause of cancer-related deaths (around 4,800 people died in 2012).
Incidence and mortality rates of gastric cancer vary greatly in Africa. The GLOBOCAN system is currently the most widely used method to compare these rates between countries, but African incidence and mortality rates are seen to differ among countries, possibly due to the lack of universal access to a registry system for all countries. Variation as drastic as estimated rates from 0.3/100000 in Botswana to 20.3/100000 in Mali have been observed. In Uganda, the incidence of gastric cancer has increased from the 1960s measurement of 0.8/100000 to 5.6/100000. Gastric cancer, though present, is relatively low when compared to countries with high incidence like Japan and China. One suspected cause of the variation within Africa and between other countries is due to different strains of the H. pylori bacteria. The trend commonly seen is that H. pylori ''infection increases the risk for gastric cancer, but this is not the case in Africa, giving this phenomenon the name the "African enigma". Although this bacterial species is found in Africa, evidence has supported that different strains with mutations in the bacterial genotype may contribute to the difference in cancer development between African countries and others outside the continent. Increasing access to health care and treatment measures have been commonly associated with the rising incidence, though, particularly in Uganda.
Other animals
The stomach is a muscular organ of the gastrointestinal tract that holds food and begins the digestive process by secreting gastric juice. The most common cancers of the stomach are adenocarcinomas, but other histological types have been reported. Signs vary, but may include vomiting (especially if blood is present), weight loss, anemia, and lack of appetite. Bowel movements may be dark and tarry in nature. To determine whether cancer is present in the stomach, special X-rays and/or abdominal ultrasounds may be performed. Gastroscopy, a test using an endoscope to examine the stomach, is a useful diagnostic tool that can also take samples of the suspected mass for histopathological analysis to confirm or rule out cancer. The most definitive method of cancer diagnosis is through open surgical biopsy. Most stomach tumors are malignant with evidence of spread to lymph nodes or liver, making treatment difficult. Except for lymphoma, surgery is the most frequent treatment option for stomach cancers but it is associated with significant risks.
References
External links
National Cancer Institute Gastric cancer treatment guidelines
Abdomen
Epstein–Barr virus-associated diseases
Infectious causes of cancer
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261614 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nervii | Nervii | The Nervii were one of the most powerful Belgic tribes of northern Gaul at the time of its conquest by Rome. Their territory corresponds to the central part of modern Belgium, including Brussels, and stretched southwards into French Hainault. During their first century BC Roman military campaign, Julius Caesar's contacts among the Remi stated that the Nervii were the most warlike of the Belgae. In times of war, they were known to trek long distances to take part in battles. Being one of the distant northern Belgic tribes, with the Menapii to the west, and the Eburones to their east, they were considered by Caesar to be relatively uncorrupted by civilization.
Name
They are mentioned as Nervii by Caesar (mid-1st c. BC) and Orosius (early fifth c. AD), Neroúioi (Νερούιοι) by Strabo (early first c. AD), Nerui by Pliny (1st c. AD) and the Notitia Dignitatum (5th c. AD), Nervios by Tacitus (early second c. AD), and as Neroúsioi (Νερούσιοι) by Ptolemy (2nd c. AD).
The ethnonym Nervii probably stems from the Western Indo-European root *ner-, meaning 'man' (cf. Middle Welsh ner 'lord, chief'). It appears to be cognate with the Latin personal name Nerva.
Territory
According to Xavier Deru, the core region of the Nervii was equivalent to the medieval pagus of Hainaut, the region of the Haine river, the upper Sambre, and greater and lesser Helpe rivers. To the north of the Haine, it also included what would become the medieval pagus of Brabant, making its northwestern border on the Scheldt (French Escaut, Dutch Schelde) river. A large population occupied the southern territories, near the river Sambre with the biggest being at Avesnelles, near Avesnes-sur-Helpe.
An oppidum found near Asse may have belonged to them but it was isolated and near to the territory of the Menapii. In the south the Nervians stretched no further than the forests of Arrouaise and Thiérache South of them were the Viromandui, south of Cambrai, and the Remi. Deru proposes that the region or pagus of Cambrai in the southwest was relatively undeveloped until Roman times.
To the east, based upon medieval boundaries it is likely that the Nervii's territories stretched to the Dyle and the Eau d'Heure. Some of this territory especially in the north may have been added to the district during Roman times according to Deru. The civitas of the Nervii did not include Louvain or Namur.
Caesar also mentions smaller tribes who were expected to contribute troops to Nervian forces; Levaci, Pleumoxii, Geidumni, Ceutrones, and Grudii. None of these can be convincingly located.
In the Middle Ages, Hainaut was sometimes still referred to as the county of the Nervians (comitatus nerviensis) in medieval Latin, and when this came to be politically united with mainly Dutch speaking Brabant again, the counties were still distinguished in the official Latin titles (comitatus Nerviensis atque Bracbatensis).
Today, Hainaut is divided between France and Belgium. To its north, parts of the modern Belgian provinces of Antwerp, East Flanders, Flemish Brabant and French-speaking Walloon Brabant include the rest of the old Nervian territory.
Language
Although it is often assumed that the Nervii spoke a Celtic language, the evidence regarding their linguistic affiliation is inconclusive. The same applies to other Belgian tribes, like the Menapii and Morini, to the west of the Nervii on the English channel, and the Germani cisrhenani to the east of the Nervii, stretching to the Rhine.
Caesar writes that the Belgae generally had received immigration from Germanic people from east of the Rhine. The Romanized Greek Strabo wrote that the Nervii were of Germanic origin. Tacitus, in his book Germania, says that in his time the Nervii and Treveri both claimed Germanic ancestry, similar to that of their mutual neighbours the Tungri, in order to distinguish them from the weaknesses of the Gauls.
The Romans were not precise in their ethnography of northern barbarians: by "Germanic" Caesar may simply have meant "originating east of the Rhine" with no distinction of language intended. During Caesar's lifetime, Germanic languages east of the Rhine may have been no closer than the river Elbe. It has instead been argued based on place name studies that the older language of the area, though apparently Indo-European, was also not Celtic (see Nordwestblock) and that Celtic, though influential amongst the elite, might never have been the main language of the part of the Belgic area north of the Ardennes. On the other hand, these same studies of placenames such as those of Maurits Gysseling, have also shown evidence of Germanic languages entering the Belgic area north of the Ardennes, before the Roman conquest, while strong evidence for old Celtic place names is found in the Ardennes and to the south of them. Luc van Durme summarizes competing evidence of Celtic and Germanic influence at the time of Caesar by saying that "one has to accept the rather remarkable conclusion that Caesar must have witnessed a situation opposing Celtic and Germanic in Belgium, in a territory slightly more to the south than the early medieval Romance–Germanic language border", but van Durme also accepts that "second century BC Germanisation did not block the celtisation coming from the south . . . but that both phenomena were simultaneous and interfering instead".
The Notitia Dignitatum reports that the Nervii were a Gaulish tribe.
Culture
Julius Caesar considered the Nervii to be the most warlike of the Belgic tribes, and that the Belgic tribes were the bravest in Gaul. He says that their culture was a Spartan one: they would not partake of alcoholic beverages or any other such luxury, feeling that the mind must remain clear to be brave. He also says they disliked foreign trade and neither had a merchant class nor would permit merchants within their territory.
Archaeologists have sought to define the territories of the northern Belgic tribes by looking at the coins they used. The Nervii are associated with a stater type that uses a Greek epsilon.
Remarkably, given the archaeological evidence of a Celtic La Tène culture having been present in the pre-Roman past, Caesar reports that the Nervii had no cavalry. In fact they established hedges throughout their lands in order to make them difficult for cavalry.
The Frasnes hoard, accidentally unearthed by foresters in 1864 near Frasnes-lez-Buissenal in Hainaut, along with coins associated with the Morini and the Nervii, also contained characteristically Gallic gold torques, one of which was in Alastair Bradley Martin's Guennol collection.
Gallic Wars
The Nervii were part of the Belgic alliance that resisted Julius Caesar in 57 BC. After the alliance broke up and some tribes surrendered, the Nervii, under the command of Boduognatus and aided by the Atrebates and Viromandui, came very close to defeating Caesar (the Atuatuci had also agreed to join them but did not arrive in time). In 57 BC at the battle of the Sabis (now identified as the river Selle, near modern Saulzoir; previously identified as the Sambre), they concealed themselves in the forests and attacked the approaching Roman column at the river. Their attack was so quick and unexpected that some of the Romans didn't have time to take the covers off their shields or even put on their helmets. The element of surprise briefly left the Romans exposed. However Caesar grabbed a shield, made his way to the front line, and quickly organised his forces; at the same time, the commander of the tenth legion, Titus Labienus, attacked the Nervian camp. The two legions who had been guarding the baggage train at the rear arrived and helped to turn the tide of the battle. Caesar says the Nervii were almost annihilated in the battle and is effusive in his tribute to their bravery, calling them "heroes".
When Ambiorix and the Eburones rebelled in 53 BC, the remaining Nervii joined the uprising and besieged Quintus Tullius Cicero – brother of the orator – and his legion in their winter camp until they were relieved by Caesar in person. They were able to rapidly build a rampart around the Roman fortification, using only swords to dig, "in less than three hours they completed a fortification of ten miles in circumference; and during the rest of the days they began to prepare and construct towers of the height of the ramparts, and grappling irons, and mantelets". Caesar reported that this technique was learned from the Romans, and under the advisor of captured Roman soldiers.
On the seventh day of the attack, a very high wind having sprung up, they began to discharge by their slings hot balls made of burned or hardened clay, and heated javelins, upon the huts, which, after the Gallic custom, were thatched with straw. These quickly took fire, and by the violence of the wind, scattered their flames in every part of the camp.
The situation was recovered when a Nervian in the Roman camp was able to send a slave with a message, who managed to remain inconspicuous and get it to Caesar. Caesar was able to amass forces and defeat some of the Nervians.
The Nervii and their allies, the Aduatuci, Eburones, Treveri and Menapii continued to prepare for war with the Romans, and sought assistance from the Germanic peoples east of the Rhine. The Roman struck a significant blow when they killed the Treveran king Indutiomarus. Soon after:
Accordingly, while the winter was not yet ended, having concentrated the four nearest legions, he marched unexpectedly into the territories of the Nervii, and before they could either assemble or retreat, after capturing a large number of cattle and of men, and wasting their lands and giving up that booty to the soldiers, compelled them to enter into a surrender and give him hostages.
In the final phase of Caesar's war in Gaul, the Nervii were called upon to contribute to the large allied force of Vercingetorix which amassed at Alesia, but these were defeated in the Battle of Alesia.
Roman period
During the Roman era, the original chief city of the Nervian civitas was at Bagacum, (Gaulish: Bāgācon, from bagos 'beech'). The city was founded to the south of the traditional Nervian territory and is now known as Bavay, a town in France near the Belgian border. The forum has been excavated. The town was founded in c.30 BC and rapidly became a centre of Roman civilization. Towns belonging to the Nervian territory were Fanum Martis (Famars), and Geminiacum (Liberchies).
The Nervians were well known for the export of grain; an interesting tombstone of a frumentarius was excavated as far away as Nijmegen. They also produced ceramics (terra nigra).
Inscriptions found on artifacts recovered at Rough Castle Fort along the Antonine Wall across the Central Belt of Scotland indicate that in the second century the fort was the base for 500 men of the Sixth Cohort of Nervii, an infantry unit. According to Tacitus, the Nervians also served in cohorts based along the Rhine border. Altars found at the Roman fort of Whitley Castle in Northumberland, also known as Epiacum, bear inscriptions showing that the Second Nervians were garrisoned at the fort.
At some point probably after the disastrous attacks by the Franks in 260-275 AD, a new chief city was designated at Camaracum (Cambrai), further south than Bavay, and Bavay itself, and the main road it was on, became part of a new secondary fortified border zone. The northern part of Nervian territory, was eventually settled by Germanic groups, while the southern part, the southern part of medieval Brabant, and medieval Hainaut, remained more Romanized. By 432 it seems the Franks had penetrated into the country of the Romanized Nervians and had been taken over by the Franks. Their king Childeric I was buried in Tournai. The medieval Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cambrai continued to cover the same approximate area as the Roman civitas until 1559.
One likely difference between the Roman and medieval boundaries is that the north-eastern part of the archdiocese, the deanery of Antwerp east of the river Rupel may have been a medieval attachment.
In popular culture
The Nervii and their western neighbours the Menapii are the main subjects of the comic book Asterix in Belgium. In it, a competition between the Belgians and the Gauls from Armorica takes place to decide who was the bravest, under the unlikely adjudication of Julius Caesar.
The Nervii are featured in the video game Total War: Rome II.
Museums
Musée Archéologique de Bavay (France)
Musée Royal de Mariemont, Morlanwelz (Belgium)
Provinciaal Archeocentrum Velzeke (Belgium) www.pam-ov.be/velzeke
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Battle of the Sabis
Bavay: cité gallo-romaine
See also
List of Celtic tribes
Tribes of pre-Roman Gaul
Tribes involved in the Gallic Wars
Belgae
Early Germanic peoples
Gauls
Auxiliary infantry units of ancient Rome | [
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261615 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20Jersey%20Route%20143 | New Jersey Route 143 | Route 143 is a state highway in Camden County, New Jersey, United States. It is a short route in Winslow Township, Camden County, running along Spring Garden Road between Cedarbrook Road and White Horse Pike (U.S. Route 30 or US 30). The route's southern terminus is at an intersection with County Route 561 (CR 561) and Camden County Route 726 in Winslow Township. The route heads along the old alignment of New Jersey Route 43, intersecting with U.S. Route 30 and ending a short distance afterward, where it continues as Camden County Route 716.
The use of this route number reflects the former designation of the White Horse Pike as Route 43. Route 43 itself, dates back to the original state highway system in New Jersey, which it was designated as State Highway Route 3. The route was renumbered 43 in the 1927 state highway renumbering, using most of U.S. Route 30 for its alignment. The route remained intact until 1953, when another renumbering occurred, decommissioning Route 43 entirely. The highway was revived in a short portion in 1955, receiving a designation in 1989.
Route description
Route 143 begins at CR 561 and CR 726 in Winslow Township. Known as Spring Garden Road, it proceeds north-northeast through wooded residential areas. The route crosses Conrail Shared Assets Operations' Beesleys Point Secondary railroad line before intersecting Woodland Drive. From this point, the road passes to the east of the Ancora Psychiatric Hospital and intersects Center Drive before coming to Lake Drive. Following this intersection, it passes between several small sized lakes within heavily forested areas before heading through some farm fields. Here, the road intersects CR 721 (East Central Avenue). A short distance later, Route 143 crosses US 30 and continues for a little bit to the end of state maintenance. At this point, the road becomes CR 716 and continues north.
History
The alignment of Route 143 originates back to the creation of the state highway system in 1916, with the creation of State Highway Route 3 from Camden (in the namesake county) to Absecon in Atlantic County. The route was constructed as sections 7A and 2 of the alignment, with both being designated on April 1, 1918. During the 1927 state highway renumbering, the New Jersey State Highway Department renumbered former Route 3 to State Highway Route 43. The route used the same alignment of Route 3 for the several decades it existed, gaining one spur route in the process, State Highway Route S-43 in 1938 from Germania to Northfield. The routes remained intact until the 1953 New Jersey state highway renumbering, when Route 43, which was mostly concurrent with U.S. Route 30 beforehand, was decommissioned in favor of the U.S. Route. Route 43's alignment, however, was retaken by the state in 1955 as Section 11E of the highway. The route received its designation of Route 143 on June 14, 1989 when the State Legislature approved the new designation.
Major intersections
See also
References
External links
http://www.alpsroads.net/roads/nj/nj_143/ New Jersey Roads: Route 143]
http://www.njroads.org/ends/143/nj143.htm New Jersey Highway Ends: 143]
http://www.state.nj.us/transportation/refdata/traffic_orders/speed/rt143.shtm Speed Limits for State Roads: Route 143]
143
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261616 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adriatic%20Veneti | Adriatic Veneti | The Veneti (also Heneti) were an Indo-European people who inhabited northeastern Italy, in an area corresponding to the modern-day region of Veneto.
In Italy these ancient people are also referred to as Paleoveneti to distinguish them from the modern-day inhabitants of the Veneto region, called Veneti in Italian.
Ethnonym
According to Julius Pokorný, the ethnonym Venetī (singular *Venetos) is derived from Proto Indo-European root *wen- 'to strive, to wish for, to love'. As shown by the comparative material, Germanic languages had two terms of different origin: Old High German Winida 'Wende' points to Pre-Germanic *Wenétos, while Lat.-Germ. Venedi (as attested in Tacitus) and Old English Winedas 'Wends' call for Pre-Germanic *Wenetós. The latter, according to Tacitus, who would have been familiar with Adriatic Veneti, connects the Vistula Veneti with the Slavs. Etymologically related words include Latin venus, -eris 'love, passion, grace'; Sanskrit vanas- 'lust, zest', vani- 'wish, desire'; Old Irish fine (< Proto-Celtic *venjā) 'kinship, kinfolk, alliance, tribe, family'; Old Norse vinr, Old Saxon, Old High German wini, Old Frisian, Old English wine 'friend'.
Language
The ancient Veneti spoke Venetic, an extinct Indo-European language which is evidenced in approximately 300 short inscriptions dating from the 6th to 1st centuries BC. Venetic appears to share several similarities with Latin and the other Italic languages, but also has some affinities with other Indo-European languages, especially Germanic and Celtic. Venetic should not be confused with Venetian, a Romance language presently spoken in the Veneto region.
Geography
The extent of the territory occupied by the ancient Veneti before their incorporation by the Romans is uncertain. It included cities of the modern Veneto such as Este, Padua, Vicenza, Asolo, Oderzo, Montebelluna, Vittorio Veneto, Cadore, as well as other areas around the Po Delta. Venetic territory was incorporated into Cisalpine Gaul, and under Augustus was organized as the tenth region (Regio X) of Roman Italy. Regio X was bounded on the west by the Athesis (Adige), or according to others, by the Addua (Adda); on the north by the Alps; on the east by the Sava river in Slovenia) and on the south by the Adriatic Gulf.
History
Classical sources
Herodotus (c. 484–425 BC) at one point mentions the Veneti of the Adriatic (Histories V.9) and at another refers in passing to the "Eneti in Illyria" (Histories I.196) whose supposed marriage customs, he claims, mirrored those of the Babylonians. This led early scholars to seek to link the Veneti with the Illyrians. Their Illyrian origin is further strengthened by their close relationship with the inhabitants of the coastal regions of the Adriatic. Karl Pauli, a late 19th-century expert on the Venetic language, declared that the language was more closely related to that of the Illyrians than to any other language, even though knowledge of Venetic is limited to personal names, nouns, and verbs used in dedicatory formulae. There are even fewer remains of an Illyrian language which have been connected to the region and may indicate an Illyrian. However, this identification of the Adriatic Veneti as Illyrians has been discredited by many linguists. Hans Krahe and later Anton Mayer showed that Herodotus was not referring to the Adriatic Veneti, but to an Illyrian tribe that lived in the borderlands of northern historical Macedonia. Later linguistic and paleontological studies further solidified their findings.
Roman historian Titus Livius (59 BC–AD 17), himself a native of the Venetic town of Patavium, wrote that after the fall of Troy, the Trojan prince Antenor became the leader of the Paphlagonians after they all had been expelled from their homeland. Together, they migrated to the northern end of the Adriatic coast where they established a settlement, and conquered and merged with indigenous people known as the Euganei. The story connects the Veneti with the Paphlagonian Eneti, mentioned by Homer (750 BC).
Virgil (70-19 BC), in his epic the Aeneid, relates the same tradition. A commentary on Virgil's Aeneid by the grammarian Maurus Servius Honoratus (fl. c. AD 400) is said to imply a link between the Veneti and the Vindelici who are related to Liburnians from the Istrian Coast. However, the reference to the Veneti in Virgil seems to place them in the "innermost realm of the Liburnians" which must have been the goal at which Antenor is said to have arrived. This however implies only that the ancient Liburnians may have once encompassed a wide swath of the Eastern Alps, from Vindelicia, through Noricum, to the Dalmatian coast before the coming of the Veneti.
Pliny the Elder (AD 23–79) mentions that Cornelius Nepos (100–24 BC) implied that the Paphlagonian Eneti (Heneti) were ancestors of the Veneti of Italy. He lists the towns of Ateste, Acelum, Patavium, Opitergium, Belunum, and Vicetia as belonging to the Veneti.
The Greek historian Strabo (64 BC–AD 24), on the other hand, conjectured that the Adriatic Veneti descended from Celts who in turn were related to later Celtic tribe of the same name who lived on the coast of Brittany and fought against Julius Caesar. He further suggested that the identification of the Adriatic Veneti with the Paphlagonian Enetoi led by Antenor—which he attributes to Sophocles (496–406 BC)—was a mistake due to the similarity of the names. Strabo also gives information on the then-current domains of the Veneti.
Pre-Roman period
The territory of the Veneti came to the notice of the Greeks in the 4th c. BC. Strabo records that Dionysius I of Syracuse (c. 432–367 BC), desiring the famed horses of the Veneti, founded trading colonies along the Adriatic coast. The Sicilian tyrant favored the town of Adria as a trading partner, helping it build canals which linked it to the sea and broke the trading monopoly of Spina.
In 303/302 BC the Lacedaemonian prince Cleonymus of Sparta led a fleet of mercenaries up the Brenta River intending on sacking Patavium. However, the Veneti fought back and the Spartan ships were captured and destroyed.
The Veneti were in recurring conflict with the Celtic peoples who then occupied most of Northwestern Italy, although they maintained peaceful relations with the Cenomani Celts who had settled in and eventually absorbed the areas of Brescia and Verona.
Roman period
The Veneti seem to have begun contact with Rome in the third century BC. They established amicitia with Rome against the Gauls c. 238 BC. During the Second Punic War, the Veneti were again allied with the Romans against the Celts, Iberians, and the Carthaginian expedition (218–203 BC) led by Hannibal. Livy records that they sent soldiers to fight along with the Romans at the battle of Cannae.
With the foundation of the Latin colony of Aquileia by Rome in 181 BC and laying of the Via Postumia in 148 BC followed by the Via Annia in 131 BC, Roman influence among the Veneti increased. The Veneti seem to have voluntarily and gradually adopted the Latin language, Roman architecture, Roman city planning, and Roman religion. Votive offerings sometimes appear in the Venetic language written with the Roman alphabet or in Venetic with a Latin translation.
Roman consuls were asked to adjudicate border disputes between Este and Padua in 141 and again in 135 BC and also a border dispute between Este and Vicenza. In 175 BC, Padua requested the aid of Rome in putting down a local civil war. The Veneti were given Latin rights after the Social War in the Lex Pompeia de Transpadanis and Roman citizenship in 49 BC in the Lex Roscia. Roman colonies established at Este, Concordia, and Trieste between 49 BC and 14 AD and at Oderzo and Zuglio during the reign of Claudius further contributed to the absorption of the Veneti into Roman culture.
Beliefs
The equivalent of Apollo was Belenus in Veneto and Noricum. He had an oracle in the city of Aquileia and was worshipped as the divine protector of the town. Belenus was also connected with springs, which may suggest chthonic and medicinal powers. Belenus was most likely of Celtic origin, and the dominant god of the Norici.
Archaeology
Periodization
Findings
Information about Venetic society can be deduced from artifacts, tombs, and religious votive objects. There were heads of the villages. Among landowners there were the wealthy who were buried with amber jewelry. The Veneti were traded actively on the Amber road.
There were horsemen and fishermen, and members involved in animal husbandry. In the 7th century BC merchants at Este used bronze coins, while by the 3rd century BC silver money was in use, especially at Padua. Farmers cultivated grain and grapes. Artisans produced ceramic and bronze objects, and wove wool cloth. Artifacts show that among the sports enjoyed were boxing and boat races.
Studies
Many archaeological excavations are still under way in the Veneto today at sites such as Este, Padua, Oderzo, Adria, Vicenza, Verona and Altinum. Studies are also being done on the vast influence of the Greeks in the Adriatic and their interaction with the Veneti, particularly focusing on the Euboeans, Phocaeans and Corinthians. Studies are also being done on Etruscan activity in the region and their strong links to the Veneti.
Modern surveys on the Veneti and other Ancient Italic peoples, including the Venetic inscriptions from Este, were published by A. L. Prosdocimi, A. M. C. Bianchi and L. Capuis.
Related tribes
Other tribes originally thought to have been Illyrians and shown to be actually related to the Veneti are: Histri, Carni, Catari, Catali, Liburni, Lopsi, Secusses, Venetulani.
See also
Veneti (disambiguation)
Veneti (Gaul)
Reitia
Ancient peoples of Italy
Prehistoric Italy
References
Bibliography
Additional primary sources
Polybius - ii.17.4-6, 18.1-3; ii.23.1-3; ii.24.7-8
Xenophon - Anabasis (Xenophon), (known as Anabasis III in the Loeb Classical Library edition), I.viii.5; V.ii.22, iv.13, v.12, 22, vi.3, 6; VI.i.1, 6, 11, 13, 14, 15.
Further reading
Bader, Françoise. Le nom des Vénètes et leur expansion. In: Autour de Michel Lejeune. Actes des journées d'études organisées à l'Université Lumière Lyon 2 – Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée, 2-3 février 2006. Lyon : Maison de l'Orient et de la Méditerranée Jean Pouilloux, 2009. pp. 31–77. (Collection de la Maison de l'Orient méditerranéen ancien. Série philologique, 43) [www.persee.fr/doc/mom_0184-1785_2009_act_43_1_2653]
Lejeune, Michel. "Vénètes de Pannonie". In: Comptes rendus des séances de l'Académie des Inscriptions et Belles-Lettres, 134e année, N. 3, 1990. pp. 629–653. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/crai.1990.14885]; [www.persee.fr/doc/crai_0065-0536_1990_num_134_3_14885]
Loicq, Jean. Sur les peuples de nom «vénète» ou assimilé dans l'Occident européen. In: Etudes Celtiques, vol. 35, 2003. pp. 133–165. [DOI: https://doi.org/10.3406/ecelt.2003.2153] [www.persee.fr/doc/ecelt_0373-1928_2003_num_35_1_2153]
Šašel Kos, Marjeta. "The Story of the Grateful Wolf and Venetic Horses in Strabo's Geography". In: Studia Mythologica Slavica 11 (October). Ljubljana, Slovenija. 2008. pp. 9–24. https://doi.org/10.3986/sms.v11i0.1685.
External links
Extensive Bibliography - Studies on the Veneti Dr. Loredana Calzavara-Capuis (in Italian).
Venetic inscriptions Adolfo Zavaroni (in Italian).
Veneti
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261619 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Havant | Havant | Havant ( ) is a town in the south-east corner of Hampshire, England between Portsmouth and Chichester. Its borough (population: 125,000) comprises the town (45,826) and its suburbs including the resort of Hayling Island as well as Rowland's Castle, the larger town of Waterlooville and Langstone Harbour. Housing and population more than doubled in the 20 years following World War II, a period of major conversion of land from agriculture and woodland to housing across the region following the incendiary bombing of Portsmouth and the Blitz.
The old centre of the town was a small Celtic settlement before Roman times and the town's commerce, retired and commuter population swelled after World War II so as to be usually considered economically part of the Portsmouth conurbation.
History
Archeological digs in the 19th and 20th centuries uncovered evidence of Roman buildings – near St Faith's Church and in Langstone Avenue, along with neolithic and mesolithic remains.
Havant was known around 935AD as 'Hamafunta' (the spring of Hama), referring to the spring to the south-west of St Faith's Churchyard and a settlement was made at the crossing point of tracks from the Downs to the coast and another east–west along the coast.
In 1086 (at the time of the Domesday Book), Havant was a village with a population of around 100. In 1200, the monks of Winchester Cathedral were granted the right to hold a market at Haveunte. Around 1450 an annual fair was held.
For much of its history water played a vital part in local commerce, with many water mills, and parchment manufacture and brewing.
Much of Havant was destroyed by fire in 1760, leaving only the church and the adjacent late 16th or early 17th century cottages. The cottages are now known collectively as "The Old House at Home", and are used as a pub. It is claimed that the two main beams in the lounge bar were recovered from the Spanish Armada, and that the "Bear Post" within once had the last dancing bear in England tethered to it. The fire allowed widening of roads and easier passage of stagecoaches through the town: the Bear Hotel and Dolphin Hotel were notable coaching inns. In the early hours of 25 October 1784 Havant suffered a minor earthquake, and a similar event occurred on 30 November 1811.
Hall Place, on South Street is a grade II-listed house, larger than others in the four main streets. It was rebuilt in 1796 by John Butler, replacing a seventeenth-century house reputed to have been built with stone from the slighted Warblington Castle. The classically Georgian house, of buff colour bricks from Dorset, passed in the 1820s into the ownership of Mr Charles Beare Longcroft, solicitor of established civic fame, whose wife's grandfather, John Cressweller (or Crassweller), had purchased the house from John Butler in 1803 and whose family parted with it in the middle of the 20th century.
Early English in style, the oldest undisturbed parts of the church of St Faith, such as the chancel, date from the early 13th century. Some of the foundations are believed to date from Roman times. The vestry is 14th century and there is a monumental brass to William Aylward, 1413.
By 1768 Havant had its first postmaster trading from various offices until the present post office in East Street opened in 1936 (one of a handful in the UK with the cypher of King Edward VIII above the entrance). In 1976 a Royal Mail Christmas postage stamp depicted an angel design from a medieval embroidery in the Victoria and Albert Museum owned by the Victorian-established Catholic Mission in the Brockhampton neighbourhood.
In 1847 Havant was connected with a station on the railway to Portsmouth and Brighton via Chichester and this was followed by the Portsmouth Direct Line to London in 1859. The branch line to Hayling Island ran from 1867 until the mid-1960s rationalisation.
The first hospital in the town opened in 1894 in Potash Terrace as a fever hospital, closing in 1939. A war memorial hospital opened in 1929 in Crossway; in 1935 a fine frieze of Wedgwood tiles depicting nursery rhymes was added to the children's ward.
The resident population rose in 'Havant and Waterloo Urban District' from 26,367 in 1939 to 74,552 for this direct predecessor to the borough in 1961. The rate of population increase has decreased since 1961 but population approximately doubled in the 50 years to 2011, with less cultivated land and fewer housing schemes and little non-hillside or direct coastal land available for development.
Geography
The old centre of the town is on a classic crossroad configuration, with the four streets being named North Street, East Street, South Street and West Street, and St Faith's Church at the crossing. One axis is a known Roman road and a few artefacts along the route point to the other also being so.
The major A27 road with various crossings sections off the coastal village suburbs of Langstone and the south of Bedhampton. Its north is Leigh Park, a three-ward suburb originally of council housing laid out before 1960 through the co-operation of the local and Portsmouth authorities (the other designated area being Paulsgrove occupying west Cosham), beyond which is Staunton Country Park in the South Downs National Park. To the east is Emsworth, a much smaller contiguous town. To the west is Portsdown Hill and part of Bedhampton. The A3(M) passes to the west.
There are several natural springs in the area, including one a short distance south-west of the church on West Street at the end of Homewell. This used to be the home of the premier parchment making facility in Southern England (closing in 1936) which later became a glove making factory and leather processing plant. The Treaty of Versailles was written on Havant parchment.
Demography
Economy
The town's commerce, retired and commuter population swelled after World War II so as to be usually considered economically part of the Portsmouth conurbation, its part closest to the Brighton-Worthing-Littlehampton conurbation, as at the 2011 census, in population, within the 20 largest conurbations in the UK.
The main shopping centre is called Meridian Shopping (formerly known as the Meridian Centre), as well as a pedestrianised section of West Street. The old town hall now houses The Spring Arts & Heritage Centre (formerly known as Havant Arts Centre). Havant is home to the local community radio station, Angel Radio which specialises in music of the pre-1960s era.
Transport
The multi-bay Havant town bus station is located adjacent the Meridian Shopping Centre and 0.3 km south—west of the railway station. The primary operator is Stagecoach with services to Portsmouth, Hayling Island, Leigh Park, Waterlooville, Petersfield, Emsworth, Chichester, and Bognor Regis. Additional services are provided by First Hampshire & Dorset covering Emsworth, Leigh Park, and Rowlands Castle.
Education
Although there had been private schools before, it was not until the 1870 Education Act that Havant gained its first state schools – one in Brockhampton Lane, followed by one in West Street and then in Fairfield Road.
In 2017 Havant College was merged with South downs college.
Sport
The town's senior non-league football side is Havant & Waterlooville F.C., On 16 January 2008 they reached the fourth round of the FA Cup for the first time in their history, beating Swansea City 4–2 in a third-round replay, setting up a 4th round match against Liverpool at Anfield, which they went on to lose 5–2 despite having led twice in the first half. The town is represented by Havant RFC (founded 1951) for rugby and Havant HC (founded 1905) are three times winners of the English Hockey League. The latter contributed several players to the British Olympic gold medal-winning side of 1988. Havant Hockey Club also contributed two players to the 2006 Commonwealth Games in Melbourne. The astroturf was provided by the National Lottery Fund. The town has a successful amateur cricket club (founded 1876), which has attracted a number of first-class cricketers. Havant Cricket Club have won the Southern Premier Cricket League in 2000, 2002, 2007, 2008 and most recently 2009. In 2005 Havant Cricket Club reached the semi-finals of the Cockspur Cup.
Havant is also home to a notable rifle and pistol club. This club was the training venue for a member named Malcolm Cooper who won Olympic Gold at the 1984 Los Angeles Games and the 1988 Seoul Games, a feat not yet matched or beaten.
The Avenue (Tennis) Club, Havant has ten lawn tennis championship (LTC)-standard grass courts.
See also
Havant War Memorial Hospital
References
External links
Havant council's website
Havant Business Group
Towns in Hampshire
Borough of Havant | [
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261621 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rotating%20magnetic%20field | Rotating magnetic field | A rotating magnetic field is the resultant magnetic field produced by a system of coils symmetrically placed and supplied with polyphase currents. A rotating magnetic field can be produced by a poly-phase (two or more phases) current or by a single phase current provided that, in the latter case, two field windings are supplied and are so designed that the two resulting magnetic fields generated thereby are out of phase.
Rotating magnetic fields are often utilized for electromechanical applications, such as induction motors, electric generators and induction regulators.
History
In 1824, the French physicist François Arago formulated the existence of rotating magnetic fields using a rotating copper disk and a needle, termed “Arago's rotations.” English experimenters Charles Babbage and John Herschel found they could induce rotation in Arago's copper disk by spinning a horseshoe magnet under it, with English scientist Michael Faraday later attributing the effect to electromagnetic induction. In 1879, English physicist Walter Baily replaced the horseshoe magnets with four electromagnets and, by manually turning switches on and off, demonstrated a primitive induction motor.
Practical application of a rotating magnetic field in an AC motor is generally attributed to two inventors, the Italian physicist and electrical engineer Galileo Ferraris, and the Serbian-American inventor and electrical engineer Nikola Tesla. Tesla claimed in his autobiography that the idea came to him in 1882 when he was walking in a park, drawing it in the sand to illustrate how it worked to a friend. Ferraris wrote about researching the concept and built a working model in 1885. In 1888, Ferraris published his research in a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in Turin and Tesla obtained a United States patent () for his design.
Description
The rotating magnetic field is the key principle in the operation of induction machines. The induction motor consists of a stator and rotor. In the stator a group of fixed windings are so arranged that a two phase current, for example, produces a magnetic field which rotates at an angular velocity determined by the frequency of the alternating current. The rotor or armature consists of coils wound in slots, which are short circuited and in which the changing flux generated by the field poles induce a current. The flux generated by the armature current reacts upon the field poles and the armature is set in rotation in a definite direction.
A symmetric rotating magnetic field can be produced with as few as two polar wound coils driven at 90-degree phasing. However, three sets of coils are nearly always used, because it is compatible with a symmetric three-phase AC sine current system. The three coils are driven with each set 120 degrees in phase from the others. For the purpose of this example, the magnetic field is taken to be the linear function of the coil's current.
The result of adding three 120-degree phased sine waves on the axis of the motor is a single rotating vector that always remains constant in magnitude. The rotor has a constant magnetic field. The north pole of the rotor will move toward the south pole of the magnetic field of the stator, and vice versa. This magnetomechanical attraction creates a force that will drive the rotor to follow the rotating magnetic field in a synchronous manner.
A permanent magnet in such a field will rotate so as to maintain its alignment with the external field. This effect was utilized in early alternating-current electric motors. A rotating magnetic field can be constructed using two orthogonal coils with a 90-degree phase difference in their alternating currents. However, in practice, such a system would be supplied through a three-wire arrangement with unequal currents. This inequality would cause serious problems in the standardization of the conductor size. In order to overcome this, three-phase systems are used in which the three currents are equal in magnitude and have a 120-degree phase difference. Three similar coils having mutual geometrical angles of 120 degrees will create the rotating magnetic field in this case. The ability of the three-phase system to create the rotating field utilized in electric motors is one of the main reasons why three-phase systems dominate the world’s electric power-supply systems.
Rotating magnetic fields are also used in induction motors. Because magnets degrade with time, induction motors use short-circuited rotors (instead of a magnet), which follow the rotating magnetic field of a multicoiled stator. In these motors, the short-circuited turns of the rotor develop eddy currents in the rotating field of the stator, which in turn move the rotor by Lorentz force. These types of motors are not usually synchronous, but instead necessarily involve a degree of 'slip' in order that the current may be produced due to the relative movement of the field and the rotor.
See also
Dynamo theory
Halbach array, a magnetic field that rotates spatially
Linear motor
Magnetic stirrer
Shaded-pole motor
Squirrel cage rotor
Synchronous motor
Tesla's Egg of Columbus
Timeline of motor and engine technology
War of the currents
References
Further reading
Beckhard, Arthur J., "Electrical genius Nikola Tesla". New York, Messner, 1959. LCCN 59007009 /L/AC/r85 (ed. 192 p.; 22 cm.; biography with notes on the inventions of the rotating magnetic field motors for alternating current.)
Labzovskii, L.N., A.O. Mitrushchenkov, and A.I. Frenkel, "Parity Nonconserving Current in Conductors of Electricity". 6 July 1987. (ed., Shows that the continuous current arises under the influence of the rotating magnetic field.)
Naval Electrical Engineering Training Series, Module 05 - Introduction to Generators and Motors, Chapter 4 Alternating Current Motors, Rotating magnetic fields (ed. different copy of the NEETS book is available, Add-free version)
Rotating Magnetic Field, eng.ox.ac.uk
Tesla's Autobiography, III. My Later Endeavors; The Discovery of the Rotating Magnetic Field
Nikola Tesla and the electro-magnetic motor, Inventor of the Week Archive.
Galileo Ferraris: the rotating magnetic field
Single Phase Induction Motors
H.Y. Guo, A.L. Hoffman, D. Lotz, S.J. Tobin, W.A. Reass, L.S. Schrank and G.A. Wurden, The Rotating Magnetic Field Oscillator System for Current Drive in the Translation, Confinement and Sustainment Experiment, March 22, 2001.
Putko, V. F., and V. S. Sobolev, Effect of a rotating magnetic field on the characteristics of a direct-current plasma generator.
External links
Rotating magnetic field: interactive lecture
Rotating field animation (YouTube video)
"Rotating magnetic fields". Integrated Publishing.
"Induction Motor – Rotating Fields".
Patents
, Tesla, "Electromagnetic motor".
, Ress, "Particle accelerator".
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261622 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Krukenberg%20tumor | Krukenberg tumor | A Krukenberg tumor refers to a malignancy in the ovary that metastasized from a primary site, classically the gastrointestinal tract, although it can arise in other tissues such as the breast. Gastric adenocarcinoma, especially at the pylorus, is the most common source. Krukenberg tumors are often (over 80%) found in both ovaries, consistent with its metastatic nature.
Signs and symptoms
Krukenberg tumors often come to the attention when they cause abdominal or pelvic pain, bloating, ascites, or pain during sexual intercourse. Krukenberg tumors can occasionally provoke a reaction of the ovarian stroma which leads to hormone production, that results in vaginal bleeding, a change in menstrual habits, or hirsutism, or occasionally virilization as a main symptom. In rare cases the disease can manifest with hydronephrosis and hydroureter.
All these symptoms are non-specific and can also arise with a range of problems other than cancer, and a diagnosis can only be made following confirmatory investigations such as computed tomography (CT) scans, laparotomy and/or a biopsy of the ovary.
Cause and incidence
Krukenberg tumors can be seen in all age groups, with an average age of 45 years. In most countries, cancer that has metastasized to the ovary accounts for only about 1 to 2% of ovarian cancer; in the remainder, the ovary itself is the primary cancer site. However, in Japan they represent a much higher percentage of malignancies in the ovary (almost 20%) due to the increased prevalence of gastric cancer.
Krukenberg tumors account for about 15% of metastatic cancers that initially appear to have arisen in the ovary, and as such is less common than metastasis arising from ovarian epithelial and germ-cell tumors.
In people who have had nongynecologic malignancy, approximately 20% of adnexal masses are malignant, and 60% of these are Krukenberg tumors.
Pathogenesis
There has been debate over the exact mechanism of metastasis of the tumor cells from the stomach, appendix or colon to the ovaries. Classically it was thought that direct seeding across the abdominal cavity accounted for the spread of this tumor, but spread by way of the lymphatic is considered more likely. Retrograde lymphatics are thought to be more important in the pathogenesis of Krukenberg tumour, since the ovaries in Krukenberg tumour do not show capsular invasion or a breech of the epithelium lining the surface. The average age of diagnosis of Krukenberg tumors may partly relate to the relatively increased vascularity of the ovaries.
Microscopically, Krukenberg tumors are often characterized by mucin-secreting signet-ring cells in the tissue of the ovary; when the primary tumor is discovered, the same signet-ring cells are typically found. However, other microscopic features can predominate. Krukenberg tumors are most commonly metastases from gastric cancer, particularly adenocarcinoma, or breast cancer particularly invasive lobular breast carcinoma, but they can arise in the appendix, colon, small intestine, rectum, gallbladder, and urinary bladder or gallbladder, biliary tract, pancreas, ampulla of Vater or uterine cervix.
Immunohistochemistry may help in diagnosing Krukenberg tumors from primary ovarian neoplasms but needs to be applied with discretion. For example, tumors that are immunoreactive to CEA or cytokeratin 20 (CK20) and negative for cytokeratin 7 (CK7) may be more likely to be of colorectal origin.
Treatment and prognosis
Since Krukenberg tumors are secondary (metastatic), management might logically be driven by identifying and treating the primary cancer. The optimal treatment of Krukenberg tumors is unclear. The role of surgical resection has not been adequately addressed but if metastasis is limited to the ovaries, surgery may improve survival. The role of chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy is uncertain but may sometimes be beneficial.
History
Krukenberg tumors are named after Friedrich Ernst Krukenberg (1871–1946), who reported what he thought was a new type of primary ovarian malignancy in 1896; six years later these were shown to be of metastatic gastrointestinal tract origin. However, Paget had described the process in 1854.
References
External links
Gastrointestinal cancer
Ovarian cancer | [
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261625 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Robert%20Burns%20Woodward | Robert Burns Woodward | Robert Burns Woodward (April 10, 1917 – July 8, 1979) was an American organic chemist. He is considered by many to be the most preeminent synthetic organic chemist of the twentieth century, having made many key contributions to the subject, especially in the synthesis of complex natural products and the determination of their molecular structure. He also worked closely with Roald Hoffmann on theoretical studies of chemical reactions. He was awarded the Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1965.
Early life and education
Woodward was born in Boston, Massachusetts, on 10 April 1917. He was the son of Margaret Burns (an immigrant from Scotland who claimed to be a descendant of the poet, Robert Burns) and her husband, Arthur Chester Woodward, himself the son of Roxbury apothecary, Harlow Elliot Woodward.
His father was one of the many victims of the Spanish flu pandemic of 1918.
From a very early age, Woodward was attracted to and engaged in private study of chemistry while he attended a public primary school, and then Quincy High School, in Quincy, Massachusetts. By the time he entered high school, he had already managed to perform most of the experiments in Ludwig Gattermann's then widely used textbook of experimental organic chemistry. In 1928, Woodward contacted the Consul-General of the German consulate in Boston (Baron von Tippelskirch ), and through him, managed to obtain copies of a few original papers published in German journals. Later, in his Cope lecture, he recalled how he had been fascinated when, among these papers, he chanced upon Diels and Alder's original communication about the Diels–Alder reaction. Throughout his career, Woodward was to repeatedly and powerfully use and investigate this reaction, both in theoretical and experimental ways. In 1933, he entered the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT), but neglected his formal studies badly enough to be excluded at the end of the 1934 fall term. MIT readmitted him in the 1935 fall term, and by 1936 he had received the Bachelor of Science degree. Only one year later, MIT awarded him the doctorate, when his classmates were still graduating with their bachelor's degrees. Woodward's doctoral work involved investigations related to the synthesis of the female sex hormone estrone. MIT required that graduate students have research advisors. Woodward's advisors were James Flack Norris and Avery Adrian Morton, although it is not clear whether he actually took any of their advice. After a short postdoctoral stint at the University of Illinois, he took a Junior Fellowship at Harvard University from 1937 to 1938, and remained at Harvard in various capacities for the rest of his life. In the 1960s, Woodward was named Donner Professor of Science, a title that freed him from teaching formal courses so that he could devote his entire time to research.
Research and career
Early work
The first major contribution of Woodward's career in the early 1940s was a series of papers describing the application of ultraviolet spectroscopy in the elucidation of the structure of natural products. Woodward collected together a large amount of empirical data, and then devised a series of rules later called the Woodward's rules, which could be applied to finding out the structures of new natural substances, as well as non-natural synthesized molecules. The expedient use of newly developed instrumental techniques was a characteristic Woodward exemplified throughout his career, and it marked a radical change from the extremely tedious and long chemical methods of structural elucidation that had been used until then.
In 1944, with his post doctoral researcher, William von Eggers Doering, Woodward reported the synthesis of the alkaloid quinine, used to treat malaria. Although the synthesis was publicized as a breakthrough in procuring the hard to get medicinal compound from Japanese occupied southeast Asia, in reality it was too long and tedious to adopt on a practical scale. Nevertheless, it was a landmark for chemical synthesis. Woodward's particular insight in this synthesis was to realise that the German chemist Paul Rabe had converted a precursor of quinine called quinotoxine to quinine in 1905. Hence, a synthesis of quinotoxine (which Woodward actually synthesized) would establish a route to synthesizing quinine. When Woodward accomplished this feat, organic synthesis was still largely a matter of trial and error, and nobody thought that such complex structures could actually be constructed. Woodward showed that organic synthesis could be made into a rational science, and that synthesis could be aided by well-established principles of reactivity and structure. This synthesis was the first one in a series of exceedingly complicated and elegant syntheses that he would undertake.
Later work and its impact
Culminating in the 1930s, the British chemists Christopher Ingold and Robert Robinson among others had investigated the mechanisms of organic reactions, and had come up with empirical rules which could predict reactivity of organic molecules. Woodward was perhaps the first synthetic organic chemist who used these ideas as a predictive framework in synthesis. Woodward's style was the inspiration for the work of hundreds of successive synthetic chemists who synthesized medicinally important and structurally complex natural products.
Organic syntheses and Nobel Prize
During the late 1940s, Woodward synthesized many complex natural products including quinine, cholesterol, cortisone, strychnine, lysergic acid, reserpine, chlorophyll, cephalosporin, and colchicine. With these, Woodward opened up a new era of synthesis, sometimes called the 'Woodwardian era' in which he showed that natural products could be synthesized by careful applications of the principles of physical organic chemistry, and by meticulous planning.
Many of Woodward's syntheses were described as spectacular by his colleagues and before he did them, it was thought by some that it would be impossible to create these substances in the lab. Woodward's syntheses were also described as having an element of art in them, and since then, synthetic chemists have always looked for elegance as well as utility in synthesis. His work also involved the exhaustive use of the then newly developed techniques of infrared spectroscopy and later, nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Another important feature of Woodward's syntheses was their attention to stereochemistry or the particular configuration of molecules in three-dimensional space. Most natural products of medicinal importance are effective, for example as drugs, only when they possess a specific stereochemistry. This creates the demand for 'stereoselective synthesis', producing a compound with a defined stereochemistry. While today a typical synthetic route routinely involves such a procedure, Woodward was a pioneer in showing how, with exhaustive and rational planning, one could conduct reactions that were stereoselective. Many of his syntheses involved forcing a molecule into a certain configuration by installing rigid structural elements in it, another tactic that has become standard today. In this regard, especially his syntheses of reserpine and strychnine were landmarks.
During World War II, Woodward was an advisor to the War Production Board on the penicillin project. Although often given credit for proposing the beta-lactam structure of penicillin, it was actually first proposed by chemists at Merck and Edward Abraham at Oxford and then investigated by other groups, as well (e.g., Shell). Woodward at first endorsed an incorrect tricyclic (thiazolidine fused, amino bridged oxazinone) structure put forth by the penicillin group at Peoria. Subsequently, he put his imprimatur on the beta-lactam structure, all of this in opposition to the thiazolidine–oxazolone structure proposed by Robert Robinson, the then leading organic chemist of his generation. Ultimately, the beta-lactam structure was shown to be correct by Dorothy Hodgkin using X-ray crystallography in 1945.
Woodward also applied the technique of infrared spectroscopy and chemical degradation to determine the structures of complicated molecules. Notable among these structure determinations were santonic acid, strychnine, magnamycin and terramycin. In each one of these cases, Woodward again showed how rational facts and chemical principles, combined with chemical intuition, could be used to achieve the task.
In the early 1950s, Woodward, along with the British chemist Geoffrey Wilkinson, then at Harvard, postulated a novel structure for ferrocene, a compound consisting of a combination of an organic molecule with iron. This marked the beginning of the field of transition metal organometallic chemistry which grew into an industrially very significant field. Wilkinson won the Nobel Prize for this work in 1973, along with Ernst Otto Fischer. Some historians think that Woodward should have shared this prize along with Wilkinson. Remarkably, Woodward himself thought so, and voiced his thoughts in a letter sent to the Nobel Committee.
Woodward won the Nobel Prize in 1965 for his synthesis of complex organic molecules. He had been nominated a total of 111 times from 1946 to 1965. In his Nobel lecture, he described the total synthesis of the antibiotic cephalosporin, and claimed that he had pushed the synthesis schedule so that it would be completed around the time of the Nobel ceremony.
B12 synthesis and Woodward–Hoffmann rules
In the early 1960s, Woodward began work on what was the most complex natural product synthesized to date—vitamin B12. In a remarkable collaboration with his colleague Albert Eschenmoser in Zurich, a team of almost one hundred students and postdoctoral workers worked for many years on the synthesis of this molecule. The work was finally published in 1973, and it marked a landmark in the history of organic chemistry. The synthesis included almost a hundred steps, and involved the characteristic rigorous planning and analyses that had always characterised Woodward's work. This work, more than any other, convinced organic chemists that the synthesis of any complex substance was possible, given enough time and planning (see also palytoxin, synthesized by the research group of Yoshito Kishi, one of Woodward's postdoctoral students). As of 2019, no other total synthesis of Vitamin B12 has been published.
That same year, based on observations that Woodward had made during the B12 synthesis, he and Roald Hoffmann devised rules (now called the Woodward–Hoffmann rules) for elucidating the stereochemistry of the products of organic reactions. Woodward formulated his ideas (which were based on the symmetry properties of molecular orbitals) based on his experiences as a synthetic organic chemist; he asked Hoffman to perform theoretical calculations to verify these ideas, which were done using Hoffmann's Extended Hückel method. The predictions of these rules, called the "Woodward–Hoffmann rules" were verified by many experiments. Hoffmann shared the 1981 Nobel Prize for this work along with Kenichi Fukui, a Japanese chemist who had done similar work using a different approach; Woodward had died in 1979 and Nobel Prizes are not awarded posthumously.
Woodward Institute
While at Harvard, Woodward took on the directorship of the
Woodward Research Institute, based at Basel, Switzerland, in 1963. He also became a trustee of his alma mater, MIT, from 1966 to 1971, and of the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel.
Woodward died in Cambridge, Massachusetts, from a heart attack in his sleep. At the time, he was working on the synthesis of an antibiotic, erythromycin. A student of his said about him:
I owe a lot to R. B. Woodward. He showed me that one could attack difficult problems without a clear idea of their outcome, but with confidence that intelligence and effort would solve them. He showed me the beauty of modern organic chemistry, and the relevance to the field of detailed careful reasoning. He showed me that one does not need to specialize. Woodward made great contributions to the strategy of synthesis, to the deduction of difficult structures, to the invention of new chemistry, and to theoretical aspects as well. He taught his students by example the satisfaction that comes from total immersion in our science. I treasure the memory of my association with this remarkable chemist.
Publications
During his lifetime Woodward authored or coauthored almost 200 publications, of which 85 are full papers, the remainder comprising preliminary communications, the text of lectures, and reviews. The pace of his scientific activity soon outstripped his capacity to publish all experimental details, and much of the work in which he participated was not published until a few years after his death. Woodward trained more than two hundred Ph.D. students and postdoctoral workers, many of whom later went on to distinguished careers.
Some of his best-known students include Robert M. Williams (Colorado State), Harry Wasserman (Yale), Yoshito Kishi (Harvard), Stuart Schreiber (Harvard), William R. Roush (Scripps-Florida), Steven A. Benner (UF), James D. Wuest (Montreal), Christopher S. Foote (UCLA), Kendall Houk (UCLA), porphyrin chemist Kevin M. Smith (LSU), Thomas R. Hoye (University of Minnesota), Ronald Breslow (Columbia University) and David Dolphin (UBC).
Woodward had an encyclopaedic knowledge of chemistry, and an extraordinary memory for detail. Probably the quality that most set him apart from his peers was his remarkable ability to tie together disparate threads of knowledge from the chemical literature and bring them to bear on a chemical problem.
Honors and awards
For his work, Woodward received many awards, honors and honorary doctorates, including election to the National Academy of Sciences in 1953, and membership in academies around the world. He was also a consultant to many companies such as Polaroid, Pfizer, and Merck. Other awards include:
John Scott Medal, from the Franklin Institute and City of Philadelphia, 1945
Leo Hendrik Baekeland Award, from the North Jersey Section of the American Chemical Society, 1955
Elected a Foreign Member of the Royal Society (ForMemRS) in 1956
Davy Medal, from the Royal Society in 1959
Roger Adams Medal, from the American Chemical Society in 1961
Pius XI Gold Medal, from the Pontifical Academy of Sciences in 1969
National Medal of Science from the United States in 1964 ("For an imaginative new approach to the synthesis of complex organic molecules and, especially, for his brilliant syntheses of strychnine, reserphine, lysergic acid, and chlorophyll.")
Nobel Prize in Chemistry in 1965
Willard Gibbs Award from the Chicago Section of the American Chemical Society in 1967
Lavoisier Medal from the Société chimique de France in 1968
The Order of the Rising Sun, Second Class from the Emperor of Japan in 1970
Hanbury Memorial Medal from The Pharmaceutical Society of Great Britain in 1970
Pierre Bruylants Medal from the University of Louvain in 1970
AMA Scientific Achievement Award in 1971
Cope Award from the American Chemical Society, shared with Roald Hoffmann in 1973
Copley Medal from the Royal Society, London in 1978
Honorary degrees
Woodward also received over twenty honorary degrees, including honorary doctorates from the following universities:
Wesleyan University in 1945;
Harvard University in 1957;
University of Cambridge in 1964;
Brandeis University in 1965;
Technion Israel Institute of Technology in Haifa in 1966;
University of Western Ontario in Canada in 1968;
University of Louvain in Belgium, 1970.
Personal life
Family
In 1938 he married Irja Pullman; they had two daughters: Siiri Anna (b. 1939) and Jean Kirsten (b. 1944). In 1946, he married Eudoxia Muller, an artist and technician whom he met at the Polaroid Corp. This marriage, which lasted until 1972, produced a daughter, and a son: Crystal Elisabeth (b. 1947), and Eric Richard Arthur (b. 1953).
Idiosyncrasies
His lectures frequently lasted for three or four hours. His longest known lecture defined the unit of time known as the "Woodward", after which his other lectures were deemed to be so many "milli-Woodwards" long. In many of these, he eschewed the use of slides and drew structures by using multicolored chalk. Typically, to begin a lecture, Woodward would arrive and lay out two large white handkerchiefs on the countertop. Upon one would be four or five colors of chalk (new pieces), neatly sorted by color, in a long row. Upon the other handkerchief would be placed an equally impressive row of cigarettes. The previous cigarette would be used to light the next one. His Thursday seminars at Harvard often lasted well into the night. He had a fixation with blue, and many of his suits, his car, and even his parking space were coloured in blue. In one of his laboratories, his students hung a large black and white photograph of the master from the ceiling, complete with a large blue "tie" appended. There it hung for some years (early 1970s), until scorched in a minor laboratory fire. He detested exercise, could get along with only a few hours of sleep every night, was a heavy smoker, and enjoyed Scotch whisky and martinis.
References
Bibliography
Robert Burns Woodward: Architect and Artist in the World of Molecules; Otto Theodor Benfey, Peter J. T. Morris, Chemical Heritage Foundation, April 2001.
Robert Burns Woodward and the Art of Organic Synthesis: To Accompany an Exhibit by the Beckman Center for the History of Chemistry (Publication / Beckman Center for the History of Chemistry); Mary E. Bowden; Chemical Heritage Foundation, March 1992
Video podcast of Robert Burns Woodward talking about cephalosporin
Robert Burns Woodward: Three Score Years and Then? David Dolphin, Aldrichimica Acta, 1977, 10(1), 3–9.
Robert Burns Woodward Patents Woefully incomplete list; see Discussion pages.
External links
Notes from Robert Burns Woodward's Seminars taken by Robert E. Kohler in Science History Institute Digital Collections
including the Nobel Lecture, December 11, 1965 Recent Advances in the Chemistry of Natural Products
1917 births
1979 deaths
20th-century American chemists
20th-century American educators
American Nobel laureates
American science writers
Foreign Members of the Royal Society
Harvard University faculty
Massachusetts Institute of Technology alumni
Wesleyan University people
Nobel laureates in Chemistry
National Medal of Science laureates
Organic chemists
Stereochemists
People from Belmont, Massachusetts
Recipients of the Copley Medal
20th-century American writers | [
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261627 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Multi-Man%20Publishing | Multi-Man Publishing | Multi-Man Publishing, LLC ("MMP"), founded in 1994, is a Maryland based game company that publishes many wargame titles, including Advanced Squad Leader and Operational Combat Series.
History
Multi-Man Publishing (MMP) was founded in 1994 by four Avalon Hill playtesters and a graphics art designer. Their first publication was Backblast, a fanzine for Avalon Hill's wargame Advanced Squad Leader (ASL). Around the same time, Avalon Hill had made the decision that ASL did not have a future, and so MMP sought to keep it alive among fans by publishing occasional scenarios and a fanzine. MMP also entered into discussions with AH about purchasing the rights to ASL. In late 1995, professional baseball player Curt Schilling, who was a devoted player of ASL, separately also tried to buy the rights to ASL. Avalon Hill did not agree to either offer, they held out for more money, but introduced Schilling to MMP, who subsequently joined the company as a one-third partner, the other two-thirds owned equally by Perry Cocke and Brian Youse.
After Avalon Hill was sold to Hasbro in 1999, MMP negotiated to license ASL from Hasbro. MMP would also develop, print and sell some of the other former Avalon Hill titles. In 2002 MMP acquired The Gamers line of wargames, vastly increasing its list of titles including the popular Civil War Brigade Series and Operational Combat Series.
MMP also continued publication of The Gamers' Operations Magazine as a "house organ" similar to Avalon Hill's The General, which had ceased publication with the demise of Avalon Hill. In summer 2011, MMP started a new magazine called Special Ops which replaced Operations as the MMP house organ.
The company is privately owned and thus does not publicly report financial information. Co-owner Brian Youse has stated that the company supports itself solely through the sale of its games, and has done so since 1999.
Published games
Series games
Advanced Squad Leader
Area Movement Series
Battalion Combat Series
Civil War Brigade Series
G.C.A.C.W.
Grand Tactical Series
International Game Series
Line of Battle Series (LoB)
Napoleonic Brigade Series
Operational Combat Series
Panzerblitz 2
Regimental Sub-Series
Standard Combat Series
Tactical Combat Series
Variable Combat Series
War Storm Series
Individual games
Circus Minimus
Front Toward Enemy
Lincoln's War
Shifting Sands
The Kingdom of Heaven
References
External links
Multi-Man Publishing, official website
1994 establishments in Maryland
Wargame companies | [
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261628 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cuckoo-roller | Cuckoo-roller | The cuckoo-roller or courol (Leptosomus discolor) is the only bird in the family Leptosomidae , which was previously often placed in the order Coraciiformes but is now placed in its own order Leptosomiformes. The cuckoo-roller is at the root of a group that contains the Trogoniformes, Bucerotiformes, Piciformes, and Coraciiformes.
It is a medium-large bird, inhabiting forests and woodlands in Madagascar and the Comoro Islands. Three subspecies are described: the nominate L. d. discolor is found in Madagascar and Mayotte Island, L. d. intermedius on Anjouan, and L. d. gracilis of Grand Comoro. Based on its smaller size, differences in the plumage, and minor difference in the voice, the last of these is sometimes considered a separate species, the Comoro cuckoo-roller (L. gracilis).
Description
The cuckoo-roller has a total length of ; the nominate subspecies is the largest, and L. d. gracilis the smallest. Unlike the true rollers and ground rollers, where the sexes have identical appearance, the cuckoo-roller is sexually dichromatic. Males have a mostly velvety grey chest and head, changing gradually to white on the remaining underparts (the demarcation between grey and white is stronger in L. d. gracilis). The back, tail, and wing-coverts are dark iridescent green with a purplish tinge (especially on the wing-coverts), and the crown and eye-stripe are black. Females are mostly brown, with strongly dark-spotted pale underparts (less spotting in L. d. gracilis). Juveniles are generally reported as resembling a dull female, but at least juveniles of L. d. gracilis are sexually dimorphic, and this also possibly applies to the other subspecies. The bill is stout and the eyes are set far back in the face. The legs and feet are small, and the feet have an unusual structure which has confused many ornithologists, but is now thought to be zygodactylous (two toes forwards, two toes backwards).
Distribution and habitat
The cuckoo-roller occupies a wide variety of habitats, including altered areas. They inhabit forest, including rainforest, litoral forest, deciduous forest, spiny bush-forest, and tree plantations. In the Comoros, the species is found on all the major islands, particularly in forested zones. It can be found from near sea level up to 2000 m.
Behaviour and ecology
The diet of the cuckoo-roller is not well known, but a 1931 expedition found that chameleons and insects, particularly locusts and caterpillars, are important food items. Stomachs have often been found to be lined with caterpillar hairs, and other prey taken include grasshoppers, cicadas, stick insects, and geckos. The principal foraging technique is to perch motionless, watching for prey, then to make a quick sally towards the prey when observed. They also hunt from the air. Prey is caught in the large bill and killed by beating it against a branch.
Very few studies have investigated the breeding habits of the cuckoo-roller. It has been described in the past as a polygamous breeder, but no evidence for this is available. The nest is located in tall trees, off the ground, in natural cavities. No lining is placed inside the cavity; the white eggs are laid directly on the bottom. The usual clutch size is around four eggs. Incubation is performed by the female only, while the male feeds her. The incubation period is about 20 days, after which fluffy chicks are born. Chicks remain in the nest for 30 days before fledging.
Status and conservation
The species is not generally hunted and has proven resistant to habitat change that has threatened other native birds. It is assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN. The distribution of the cuckoo-roller is vast, and populations in Madagascar persist in small forest fragments. Areas with abundant populations include broad expanses of forest associated with reserves such as Zahamena, Andringitra, Andohahela, and Marojejy.
Relations with humans
The cuckoo-roller is very tame, and it is generally not disturbed by the inhabitants of Madagascar, many of whom have legends and myths about the species. It is often considered a good omen, as the harbinger of clear weather and (because it is often seen in pairs) as associated with couples and love.
References
Further reading
External links
Cuckoo-roller videos, photos & sounds on the Internet Bird Collection
Coraciiformes
Birds of the Comoros
Birds of Madagascar
Birds of Mayotte
Birds described in 1783 | [
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261629 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeta%20%28river%29 | Zeta (river) | The Zeta (Serbian Cyrillic: Зета, ) is a river in Montenegro.
Its source is under the mountain of Vojnik. The river flows eastwards for until it empties into the river Morača just north of Podgorica. Its drainage basin area is .
Geography
One theory is that the name "Zeta" derives from an early Greek "Zenta", later romanized in "Senta".
The Zeta River is the most significant tributary of the Morača river. The Perućica hydroelectric power plant near Nikšić (307 MW, 970 GWh) uses the waters of the Zeta River to generate power. After that, the river meanders through the Bjelopavlići Valley and Danilovgrad Municipality, until it empties into the Morača a few miles north of Capital City of Podgorica.
Historical monumental Carev Most (the Tsar's Bridge) exists over Zeta to the south of Nikšić town, and the ancient castle of Pandurica is situated nearby.
References
Rivers of Montenegro
Morača
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261630 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Freddie%20Hubbard | Freddie Hubbard | Frederick Dewayne Hubbard (April 7, 1938 – December 29, 2008) was an American jazz trumpeter. He played bebop, hard bop, and post-bop styles from the early 1960s onwards. His unmistakable and influential tone contributed to new perspectives for modern jazz and bebop.
Career beginnings
Hubbard started playing the mellophone and trumpet in his school band at Arsenal Technical High School in Indianapolis, Indiana. Trumpeter Lee Katzman, former sideman with Stan Kenton, recommended that he begin studying at the Arthur Jordan Conservatory of Music (now the Jordan College of the Arts at Butler University) with Max Woodbury, the principal trumpeter of the Indianapolis Symphony Orchestra. In his teens, Hubbard worked locally with brothers Wes and Monk Montgomery, and worked with bassist Larry Ridley and saxophonist James Spaulding. In 1958, at the age of 20, he moved to New York and began playing with some of the best jazz players of the era, including Philly Joe Jones, Sonny Rollins, Slide Hampton, Eric Dolphy, J. J. Johnson, and Quincy Jones. On June 19. 1960. Hubbard made his first record as a leader, Open Sesame at the beginning of his contract with Blue Note Records, with saxophonist Tina Brooks, pianist McCoy Tyner, bassist Sam Jones, and drummer Clifford Jarvis. Six days later he returned the favor to Brooks and recorded with him on True Blue.
1960s
In December 1960, Hubbard was invited to play on Ornette Coleman's Free Jazz, after Coleman had heard him performing with Don Cherry.
Then in May 1961, Hubbard played on Olé Coltrane, John Coltrane's final recording session for Atlantic Records. Together with Eric Dolphy and Art Davis, Hubbard was the only sideman who appeared on both Olé and Africa/Brass, Coltrane's first album with Impulse!. Later, in August 1961, Hubbard recorded Ready for Freddie (Blue Note), which was also his first collaboration with saxophonist Wayne Shorter. Hubbard joined Shorter later in 1961 when he replaced Lee Morgan in Art Blakey's Jazz Messengers. He played on several Blakey recordings, including Caravan, Ugetsu, Mosaic, and Free for All. In all, during the 1960s, he recorded eight studio albums as a bandleader for Blue Note, and more than two dozen as a sideman. Hubbard remained with Blakey until 1966, leaving to form the first of several small groups of his own, which featured, among others, his Blue note associate James Spaulding, pianist Kenny Barron and drummer Louis Hayes. This group recorded for Atlantic.
It was during this time that he began to develop his own sound, distancing himself from the early influences of Clifford Brown and Morgan, and won the DownBeat jazz magazine "New Star" award on trumpet.
Throughout the 1960s, Hubbard played as a sideman on some of the most important albums from that era, including Oliver Nelson's The Blues and the Abstract Truth, Eric Dolphy's Out to Lunch!, Herbie Hancock's Maiden Voyage, and Wayne Shorter's Speak No Evil. Hubbard was described as "the most brilliant trumpeter of a generation of musicians who stand with one foot in 'tonal' jazz and the other in the atonal camp". Though he never fully embraced the free jazz of the 1960s, he appeared on two of its landmark albums: Coleman's Free Jazz and Coltrane's Ascension, as well as on Sonny Rollins' "new thing" track, "East Broadway Run Down" (on the 1966 album of the same name), with Elvin Jones and Jimmy Garrison.
1970s
Hubbard achieved his greatest popular success in the 1970s with a series of albums for Creed Taylor and his record label CTI Records, overshadowing Stanley Turrentine, Hubert Laws, and George Benson. Although his early 1970s jazz albums Red Clay, First Light, Straight Life, and Sky Dive were particularly well received and considered among his best work, the albums he recorded later in the decade were attacked by critics for their commercialism. First Light won a 1972 Grammy Award and included pianists Herbie Hancock and Richard Wyands, guitarists Eric Gale and George Benson, bassist Ron Carter, drummer Jack DeJohnette, and percussionist Airto Moreira. In 1994, Hubbard, collaborating with Chicago jazz vocalist/co-writer Catherine Whitney, had lyrics set to the music of First Light.
In 1977, Hubbard joined with Herbie Hancock, Tony Williams, Ron Carter and Wayne Shorter, members of the mid-1960s Miles Davis Quintet, for a series of performances. Several live recordings of this group were released as V.S.O.P, V.S.O.P. The Quintet, V.S.O.P. Tempest in the Colosseum (all 1977) and V.S.O.P. Live Under the Sky (1979).
Hubbard's trumpet playing was featured on the track "Zanzibar", on the 1978 Billy Joel album, 52nd Street (the 1979 Grammy Award Winner for Best Album). The track ends with a fade during Hubbard's performance. An "unfaded" version was released on the 2004 Billy Joel box set My Lives.
Later life
In the 1980s Hubbard was again leading his own jazz group – this time with Billy Childs and Larry Klein, among others, as members – attracting favorable reviews, playing at concerts and festivals in the US and Europe, often in the company of Joe Henderson, playing a repertory of hard bop and modal jazz pieces. Hubbard played at the Monterey Jazz Festival in 1980 and in 1989 (with Bobby Hutcherson). He played with Woody Shaw, recording with him in 1985, and two years later recorded Stardust with Benny Golson. In 1988, he teamed up once more with Blakey at an engagement in the Netherlands, from which came Feel the Wind. In 1988, Hubbard played with Elton John, contributing trumpet and flugelhorn and trumpet solos on the track "Mona Lisas and Mad Hatters (Part Two)" for John's Reg Strikes Back album. In 1990, he appeared in Japan headlining an American-Japanese concert package which also featured Elvin Jones, Sonny Fortune, pianists George Duke and Benny Green, bass players Ron Carter, and Rufus Reid, with jazz vocalist Salena Jones. He also performed at the Warsaw Jazz Festival, at which Live at the Warsaw Jazz Festival (Jazzmen 1992) was recorded.
Following a long setback of health problems and a serious lip injury in 1992 where he ruptured his upper lip and subsequently developed an infection, Hubbard was again playing and recording occasionally, even if not at the high level that he set for himself during his earlier career. His best records ranked with the finest in his field.
Legacy and honors
In 2006, the National Endowment for the Arts accorded Hubbard its highest honor in jazz, the NEA Jazz Masters Award.
On December 29, 2008, Hubbard died in Sherman Oaks, California from complications caused by a heart attack he suffered on November 26.
Hubbard had close ties to the Jazz Foundation of America in his later years. He is quoted as saying, "When I had congestive heart failure and couldn't work, The Jazz Foundation paid my mortgage for several months and saved my home! Thank God for those people." The Jazz Foundation of America's Musicians' Emergency Fund took care of him during times of illness. After his death, Hubbard's estate requested that tax-deductible donations be made in his name to the Jazz Foundation of America.
Discography
As leader/co-leader
Sortable table with last recording session for each release as primal order.
Compilation
Polar AC (CTI, 1975) – recorded in 1971–73
As sideman
Sortable table with main artist alphabetically as primal order.
Filmography
1981 – Studiolive (Sony)
1985 – One Night with Blue Note
2004 – Live at the Village Vanguard (Immortal)
2005 – All Blues (FS World Jazz)
2009 – Freddie Hubbard: One of a Kind
References
External links
Freddie Hubbard interview, In Black America – Jazz Trumpeter Freddie Hubbard, April 1, 1984 at the American Archive of Public Broadcasting
Howard Mandel, "Jazz Trumpeter Freddie Hubbard Dies", NPR Music, December 30, 2008.
1938 births
2008 deaths
African-American jazz musicians
American jazz trumpeters
American male trumpeters
American jazz composers
American male jazz composers
American jazz flugelhornists
American jazz cornetists
Grammy Award winners
Hard bop trumpeters
Jazz-funk trumpeters
Jazz fusion trumpeters
The Jazz Messengers members
Mainstream jazz trumpeters
Musicians from Indianapolis
Post-bop trumpeters
Soul-jazz trumpeters
Enja Records artists
Blue Note Records artists
Columbia Records artists
Prestige Records artists
Atlantic Records artists
Elektra Records artists
Timeless Records artists
21st-century American composers
20th-century American composers
V.S.O.P. (group) members
Resonance Records artists
20th-century jazz composers
CTI Records artists
HighNote Records artists
Pablo Records artists
20th-century American male musicians
21st-century jazz composers | [
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] |
261633 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Operation%20Condor | Operation Condor | Operation Condor (, also known as Plan Cóndor; ) was a United States-backed campaign of political repression and state terror involving intelligence operations and assassination of opponents. It was officially and formally implemented in November 1975 by the right-wing dictatorships of the Southern Cone of South America.
Due to its clandestine nature, the precise number of deaths directly attributable to Operation Condor is highly disputed. Some estimates are that at least 60,000 deaths can be attributed to Condor, roughly 30,000 of these in Argentina, and the Archives of Terror list 50,000 killed, 30,000 disappeared and 400,000 imprisoned. Additionally, American political scientist J. Patrice McSherry gives a figure of at least 402 killed in Condor operations which crossed national borders in a 2002 source, and mentions in a 2009 source that of those who "had gone into exile" and were "kidnapped, tortured and killed in allied countries or illegally transferred to their home countries to be executed... hundreds, or thousands, of such persons—the number still has not been finally determined—were abducted, tortured, and murdered in Condor operations." Victims included dissidents and leftists, union and peasant leaders, priests and nuns, students and teachers, intellectuals and suspected guerrillas. Although it was described by the Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) as "a cooperative effort by the intelligence/security services of several South American countries to combat terrorism and subversion," guerrillas were used as an excuse, as they were never substantial enough to control territory, gain material support by any foreign power, or otherwise threaten national security. Condor's key members were the governments in Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, Bolivia, while Brazil signed the agreement later on. Ecuador and Peru later joined the operation in more peripheral roles.
The United States government provided planning, coordinating, training on torture, and technical support and supplied military aid to the Juntas during the Johnson, Nixon, Ford, Carter, and Reagan administrations. Such support was frequently routed through the CIA.
Antecedents: The 1970s
Operation Condor, which took place in the context of the Cold War, had the tacit approval and material support of the United States. In 1968, U.S. General Robert W. Porter stated that "in order to facilitate the coordinated employment of internal security forces within and among Latin American countries, we are ... endeavoring to foster inter-service and regional cooperation by assisting in the organization of integrated command and control centers; the establishment of common operating procedures; and the conduct of joint and combined training exercises."
According to American historian J. Patrice McSherry, based on formerly secret CIA documents from 1976, in the 1960s and early 1970s plans were developed among international security officials at the US Army School of the Americas and the Conference of American Armies to deal with perceived threats in South America from political dissidents. A declassified CIA document dated 23 June 1976, explains that "in early 1974, security officials from Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay, and Bolivia met in Buenos Aires to prepare coordinated actions against subversive targets."
The program was developed following a series of government coups d'états by military groups, primarily in the 1970s:
General Alfredo Stroessner took control of Paraguay in 1954.
General Francisco Morales-Bermúdez takes control of Peru after a successful coup in 1975
The Brazilian military overthrew the president João Goulart in 1964.
General Hugo Banzer took power in Bolivia in 1971 through a series of coups.
A civic-military dictatorship seized power in Uruguay on 27 June 1973.
Chilean armed forces commanded by General Augusto Pinochet bombed the presidential palace in Chile (La Moneda) on 11 September 1973, overthrowing democratically elected president Salvador Allende.
A military junta headed by General Jorge Rafael Videla seized power in Argentina on 24 March 1976.
According to American journalist A. J. Langguth, the organization of the first meetings between Argentinian and Uruguayan security officials, concerning the watching (and subsequent disappearance or assassination) of political refugees in these countries, can be attributed to the CIA, as well as its participation as intermediary in the Argentinian, Uruguayan and Brazilian death squads meetings.
The National Security Archive reported, "Founded by the Pinochet regime in November 1975, Operation Condor was the codename for a formal Southern Cone collaboration that included transnational secret intelligence activities, kidnapping, torture, disappearance and assassination, according to the National Security Archive's documentary evidence from U.S., Paraguayan, Argentine, and Chilean files." Under this codename mission, several people were killed. As the report stated, "Prominent victims of Condor include two former Uruguayan legislators and a former Bolivian president, Juan José Torres, murdered in Buenos Aires, a former Chilean Minister of the Interior, Bernardo Leighton, as well as former Chilean ambassador Orlando Letelier and his 26-year old American colleague, Ronni Moffitt, assassinated by a car bomb in downtown Washington D.C."
History
Cooperation among various security services had existed prior to the creation of Operation Condor, with the aim of "eliminating Marxist subversion." During the Conference of American Armies held in Caracas on 3 September 1973, Brazilian General Breno Borges Fortes, head of the Brazilian army, proposed to "extend the exchange of information" between various services in order to "struggle against subversion."
In March 1974, representatives of the police forces of Chile, Uruguay and Bolivia met with Alberto Villar, deputy chief of the Argentine Federal Police and co-founder of the Triple A death squad, to implement cooperation guidelines. Their goal was to destroy the "subversive" threat represented by the presence of thousands of political exiles in Argentina. In August 1974, the corpses of Bolivian refugees were found in garbage dumps in Buenos Aires. In 2007, McSherry also confirmed the abduction and torture during this period of Chilean and Uruguayan refugees who were living in Buenos Aires, based on newly declassified CIA documents dated June 1976.
On 25 November 1975, General Augusto Pinochet's 60th birthday, leaders of the military intelligence services of Argentina, Bolivia, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay met with Manuel Contreras, chief of DINA (the Chilean secret police), in Santiago de Chile, officially creating the Plan Condor. According to French journalist Marie-Monique Robin, author of Escadrons de la mort, l'école française (2004, Death Squads, The French School), General Rivero, intelligence officer of the Argentine Armed Forces and former student of the French, developed the concept of Operation Condor.
Based on the governments' perception of threats, officially the targets were armed groups (such as the MIR, the Montoneros or the ERP, the Tupamaros, etc.), but the governments broadened their attacks against all kinds of political opponents, including their families and others, as reported by the Valech Commission. The Argentine "Dirty War", for example, which resulted in approximately 30,000 victims according to most estimates, kidnapped, tortured and killed many trade-unionists, relatives of activists, social activists such as founders of the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo, nuns, university professors, etc.
From 1976 onwards, the Chilean DINA and its Argentine counterpart, SIDE, were the operation's front-line troops. The infamous "death flights," theorized in Argentina by Luis María Mendía – and previously used during the Algerian War (1954–62) by French forces;— were widely used. Government forces took victims by plane or helicopter out to sea, dropping them to their deaths in planned disappearances. It was said that from this military bombardment that OPR-33 infrastructure located in Argentina was destroyed. In May 1976, members of Plan Condor met in Santiago, Chile, at which the participating countries discussed "long-range cooperation... [that] went well beyond information exchange" and were given code names. In July, the CIA gathered intelligence that members of Plan Condor had the intention of striking "against leaders of indigenous terrorist groups residing abroad."
In late 1977, due to unusual storms, numerous corpses washed up on beaches south of Buenos Aires, producing evidence of some of the government's victims. There were also hundreds of cases of babies and children being taken from mothers in prison who had been kidnapped and later disappeared; the children were handed over in illegal adoptions to families and associates of the regime. The CIA also reported that Operation Condor countries took very well to the idea of working together, and developed their own communications network and combined training initiatives in areas such as psychological warfare.
In a report written from Assistant Secretary of State for Latin America Harry W. Shlaudeman to Kissinger 3 August 1976, it was reported that the military regimes in South America were coming together to join forces for security reasons. They were concerned about the spread of Marxism and the implications that this could have on their grasp on power. This new force operated in other member's countries in secrecy. Their goal: to seek and kill terrorists of the "Revolutionary Coordinating Committee" in their own countries and in Europe. Shlaudeman expressed concern that the "siege mentality" that permeated the members of Operation Condor could lead to a larger chasm between the military and civilian institutions in the region. He was also fearful that this could lead to increasing isolation of these countries from developed Western nations. He believed that there was justification to some of their fears, yet he felt that by reacting too strongly these countries could engender a strong terrorist counter reaction similar to the PLO in Israel.
U.S. documents dated 17 April 1977, listed Chile and Argentina as both active in utilizing communications media for the purpose of broadcasting propaganda. The objective of the propaganda had two purposes. The first purpose was to defuse/counter criticism of the governments involved by foreign media and the second was to cultivate national pride in the local populace. One propaganda piece created by Chile entitled, "Chile after Allende," was distributed amongst the governments acting under Condor. However, the document notes only that Uruguay and Argentina were the only two countries to acknowledge the agreement. Paraguay's government was listed only as utilizing the local press, "Patria", as its main propaganda producer. A meeting that was to have taken place in March 1977, discussing "Psychological warfare techniques against terrorists and leftist extremists", was canceled due to the restructuring of the intelligence services of both Argentina and Paraguay.
A 2016 declassifed CIA report dated 9 May 1977, titled "Counterterrorism in the Southern Cone," underscored one "aspect of the program involving Chile, Uruguay, and Argentina envisages illegal operations outside Latin America against exiled terrorists, particularly in Europe." "The military-controlled governments of the Southern Cone," the document read, "all consider themselves targets of international Marxism." The document highlighted Condor's fundamental characteristic, constituting as part of a long tried "regional approach" to pacifying "subversion," came to fruition in early 1974 when "security officials from all of the member countries, except Brazil, agreed to establish liaison channels and to facilitate the movement of security officers on government business from one country to the other." One of Condor's "initial aims" was the "exchange of information on the Revolutionary Coordinating Junta (RCJ), an organization...of terrorist groups from Bolivia, Uruguay, Chile, Argentina, and Paraguay" whose "representatives" in Europe were "believed to have been involved in the assassinations in Paris of the Bolivian ambassador to France last May and an Uruguayan military attache in 1974." The CIA report noted that the fundamental mission of Condor was the liquidation of "top-level terrorist leaders" as well as non-terrorist targets including "Uruguayan opposition politician Wilson Ferreira, if he should travel to Europe, and some leaders of Amnesty International." Condor was also seen by the CIA to be "engaged in non-violent activities, including psychological warfare and a propaganda campaign" that utilized the reach of the media to "publicize crimes and atrocities committed by terrorists." Additionally, in an appeal to "national pride and the national conscience," Condor called for the citizenry comprising its member nations to "report anything out of the ordinary in their neighborhoods." In 1980, another meeting took place in which Montensero was captured. It was said that the RSO would not kill them if they agreed to cooperate and give information regarding future meetings in Rio.
Revelations about Condor
The dictatorships and their intelligence services were responsible for tens of thousands of killed and missing people in the period between 1975 and 1985. Analyzing the political repression in the region during that decade, Brazilian journalist Nilson Mariano estimates the number of killed and missing people as 2,000 in Paraguay; 3,196 in Chile; 297 in Uruguay; 366 in Brazil; and 30,000 in Argentina. Estimates of numbers of killed and disappeared by member countries during the period of operation are 7,000-30,000 in Argentina, 3,000-10,000 in Chile, 116–546 in Bolivia, 434–1,000 in Brazil, 200–400 in Paraguay and 123–215 in Uruguay. While many sources combine these numbers into a single death toll attributable to Operation Condor, killings directly linked to Condor's cross-border military and intelligence cooperation between South American dictatorships are, by definition, only a small subset of the total. McSherry, for example, estimated in 2002 that at least 402 individuals were killed or "disappeared" in Condor operations: "Some 132 Uruguayans (127 in Argentina, 3 in Chile, and 2 in Paraguay), 72 Bolivians (36 in Chile, 36 in Argentina), 119 Chileans, 51 Paraguayans (in Argentina), 16 Brazilians (9 in Argentina and 7 in Chile), and at least 12 Argentines in Brazil". McSherry added that "some 200 persons passed through Automotores Orletti, the key Condor detention center in Argentina," and cautioned that "these figures are likely underestimates". In 2009, McSherry offered a range of "hundreds, or thousands ... murdered in Condor operations," acknowledging that "the number still has not been finally determined".
On 22 December 1992, torture victim Martín Almada and José Agustín Fernández, a Paraguayan judge, visited a police station in the Lambaré suburb of Asunción to look for files on a former political prisoner. They found what became known as the "Archives of Terror" (Portuguese: Arquivos do Terror), documenting the fates of thousands of Latin American political prisoners, who were secretly kidnapped, tortured and killed by the security services of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay and Uruguay. The archives held a total of 60,000 documents, weighing 4 tons and comprising 593,000 microfilmed pages. Southern Cone Operation Condor resulted in up to 50,000 killed; 30,000 "disappeared"; and 400,000 arrested and imprisoned. Some of these countries have relied on evidence in the archives to prosecute former military officers. A higher number of 90,000 killed has been put forth by La Federación Latinoamericana de Asociaciones de Familiares de Detenidos-Desaparecidos (FEDEFAM).
According to these archives, other countries, such as Peru, cooperated by providing intelligence information in response to requests from the security services of the Southern Cone nations. While Peru had no representatives at the secret November 1975 meeting in Santiago de Chile, there is evidence of its involvement. For instance, as late as June 1980, Peru was known to have collaborated with Argentine agents of 601 Intelligence Battalion in the kidnapping, torture and "disappearance" of a group of Montoneros living in exile in Lima. Brazil signed the agreement later (June 1976), but refused to engage in actions outside Latin America.
Mexico, along with Costa Rica, Canada, France, the United Kingdom, Spain, and Sweden, received many people fleeing as refugees from the terror regimes. The third phase of Operation Condor included plans to assassinate and take other measures against opponents of the military dictatorships in other countries, such as France, Portugal, the United States, Italy and Mexico. These plans were carried out in cases such as the assassination of Orlando Letelier and Ronni Karpen Moffitt in the United States. An undetermined number of foreigners were also arrested and tortured, including citizens of Spain, the UK, France and the United States. Operation Condor officially ended when Argentina ousted the military dictatorship in 1983 (following its defeat in the Falklands War) and restored democracy.
Neoliberal economic policies
During this period of neoliberal policies, the level of debt contracted illegally by the military dictatorships reached higher levels. In Argentina, the economic policy of José Alfredo Martínez de Hoz, Minister of Economy of the dictatorship, implemented from 2 April 1976, marks the beginning of a process of destruction of the productive apparatus and increase of debt with the IMF. Short-term financial speculation flourished, while chronic tax evasion and budget deficits remained high. Frequent wage freeze decrees continued to depress living standards generally, and income inequality increased.
During Martínez de Hoz's tenure, Argentina's foreign debt increased fourfold, and disparities between the upper and lower classes became much more pronounced. The period ended in a tenfold devaluation and one of the worst financial crises in Argentine history. In Your Money or your Life, historian and political scientist Éric Toussaint writes:
Notable cases and prosecutions
Argentina
The civic-military dictatorship of Argentina existed from 1976 to 1983 by the military juntas under Operation Condor. The Argentine SIDE cooperated with the Chilean DINA in numerous cases of desaparecidos. They assassinated Chilean General Carlos Prats, former Uruguayan MPs Zelmar Michelini and Héctor Gutiérrez Ruiz, as well as the ex-president of Bolivia, Juan José Torres, in Buenos Aires. The SIDE also assisted Bolivian general Luis García Meza Tejada's Cocaine Coup in Bolivia, with the help of the Italian Gladio operative Stefano Delle Chiaie and Nazi war criminal Klaus Barbie (see also Operation Charly).Recently, since the opening of confidential archives, it has been discovered that there were operative units composed of Italians, used at ESMA for the repression of groups of Italian Montoneros. This unit called "Shadow Group" was led by Gaetano Saya at the time Officer of the Italian stay behind next - Operation Gladio. In April 1977, the Madres de la Plaza de Mayo, a group of mothers whose children had disappeared, started demonstrating each Thursday in front of the Casa Rosada on the plaza. They were seeking to learn the location and fates of their children. The disappearance in December 1977 of two French nuns and several founders of the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo gained international attention. Authorities later identified their remains among the bodies washed up on beaches in December 1977 south of Buenos Aires, victims of death flights. Other members of the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo continued the struggle for justice in the ensuing decades.
After democracy was restored in Argentina in 1983, the government set up the National Commission for Forced Disappearances (CONADEP), led by writer Ernesto Sabato. It collected testimony from hundreds of witnesses about victims of the regime and known abuses, documenting hundreds of secret prisons and detention centers, and identifying leaders of the torture and death squads. Two years later, the Juicio a las Juntas (Trial of the Juntas) largely succeeded in proving the crimes of the top officers of the various juntas that had formed the self-styled National Reorganization Process. Most of the top officers put on trial were convicted and sentenced to life imprisonment, including Jorge Rafael Videla, Emilio Eduardo Massera, Roberto Eduardo Viola, Armando Lambruschini, Raúl Agosti, Rubén Graffigna, Leopoldo Galtieri, Jorge Anaya and Basilio Lami Dozo.
Under pressure from the military following these trials, Raúl Alfonsín's government passed two amnesty laws protecting military officers involved in human rights abuses: the 1986 Ley de Punto Final (law of closure) and the 1987 Ley de Obediencia Debida (law of due obedience), ending prosecution of crimes committed during the Dirty War. In 1989–1990, President Carlos Menem pardoned the leaders of the junta who were serving sentences in what he said was an attempt at healing and reconciliation.
In the late 1990s, due to attacks on American nationals in Argentina and revelations about CIA funding of the Argentine military, and after an explicit 1990 Congressional prohibition, U.S. President Bill Clinton ordered the declassification of thousands of State Department documents related to U.S.-Argentine activities going back to 1954. These documents revealed U.S. complicity in the Dirty War and Operation Condor.
Following continuous protests by the Mothers of the Plaza de Mayo and other human rights groups, in 2003 the Argentine Congress, counting on President Nestor Kirchner and the ruling majority on both chambers full support, repealed the amnesty laws. The Argentine Supreme Court under separate review declared them unconstitutional in June 2005. The court's ruling enabled the government to renew the prosecution of crimes committed during the Dirty War.
DINA civil agent Enrique Arancibia Clavel, who was prosecuted in Argentina for crimes against humanity in 2004, was sentenced to life imprisonment for his part in the murder of General Prats. It has been claimed that suspected Italian terrorist Stefano Delle Chiaie was involved in the murder as well. He and fellow extremist Vincenzo Vinciguerra testified in Rome in December 1995 before federal judge María Servini de Cubría that DINA agents Clavel and Michael Townley were directly involved in this assassination. In 2003, Judge Servini de Cubría requested that Mariana Callejas (Michael Townley's wife) and Cristoph Willikie, a retired colonel from the Chilean army, be extradited, as they were accused of also being involved in the murder. Chilean appeals court judge Nibaldo Segura refused extradition in July 2005 on the grounds that they had already been prosecuted in Chile.
On 5 March 2013, twenty-five former high-ranking military officers from Argentina and Uruguay went on trial in Buenos Aires, charged with conspiracy to "kidnap, disappear, torture and kill" 171 political opponents during the 1970s and 1980s. Among the defendants are former Argentine "presidents" Jorge Videla and Reynaldo Bignone, from the period of El Proceso. Prosecutors are basing their case in part on U.S. documents declassified in the 1990s and later, and obtained by the non-governmental organization, the National Security Archive, based at George Washington University in Washington, DC.
On 27 May 2016, fifteen ex-military officials were found guilty. Reynaldo Bignone received a sentence of 20 years in jail. Fourteen of the remaining 16 defendants got eight to 25 years. Two were found not guilty. Luz Palmás Zaldúa, a lawyer representing victims' families, contends that "this ruling is important because it is the first time the existence of Operation Condor has been proved in court. It is also the first time that former members of Condor have been sentenced for forming part of this criminal organisation."
Brazil
President Fernando Henrique Cardoso ordered the release of some military files concerning Operation Condor in 2000.
There are documents that prove that, on that year attorney general Giancarlo Capaldo, an Italian magistrate, investigated the "disappearences" of Italian nationals in Latin America, likely due to actions of Argentine, Paraguayan, Chilean and Brazilian military personnel who tortured and murdered Italian citizens during the military dictatorships in Latin America. In the case of Brazilians accused of murder, kidnapping and torture, there was a list with the names of eleven Brazilians in addition to many high-ranking military personnel from other countries involved in the operation.
In the words of the Magistrate, on 26 October, 2000, "(...) I can neither confirm nor deny because until December Argentine, Brazilian, Paraguayan and Chilean militaries [military personnel] will be subject to criminal trial..."
According to the official statement, the Italian government, it was unclear whether the government would prosecute the accused military officers or not, , nobody in Brazil had been convicted of human rights violations for actions committed under the 21 years of military dictatorship because of the Amnesty Law has secured both governamental officials and leftist guerrillas over their crimes.
Kidnapping of Uruguayans
The Condor Operation expanded its clandestine repression from Uruguay to Brazil in November 1978, in an event later known as "o Sequestro dos Uruguaios," or "the Kidnapping of the Uruguayans." With the consent of the Brazilian military regime, senior officers of the Uruguayan army secretly crossed the border and entered Porto Alegre, capital of the State of Rio Grande do Sul. There they kidnapped Universindo Rodriguez and Lilian Celiberti, an activist Uruguayan couple of the political opposition, along with her two children, Camilo and Francesca, five and three years old.
The illegal operation failed because two Brazilian journalists, reporter Luiz Cláudio Cunha and photographer João Baptista Scalco from Veja magazine, had been warned by an anonymous phone call that the Uruguayan couple had been "disappeared." To check on the information, the two journalists went to the given address: an apartment in Porto Alegre. When they arrived, the journalists were at first taken to be other political opposition members by the armed men who had arrested Celiberti, and they were arrested in turn. Universindo Rodriguez and the children had already been clandestinely taken to Uruguay.
When their identities were made clear, the journalists had exposed the secret operation by their presence. It was suspended. The exposure of the operation is believed to have prevented the murder of the couple and their two young children, as the news of the political kidnapping of Uruguayan nationals in Brazil made headlines in the Brazilian press. It became an international scandal. The military governments of both Brazil and Uruguay were embarrassed. A few days later, officials arranged for the Celibertis' children to be taken to their maternal grandparents in Montevideo. After Rodriguez and Celiberti were imprisoned and tortured in Brazil, they were taken to military prisons in Uruguay, and detained for the next five years. When democracy was restored in Uruguay in 1984, the couple were released. They confirmed all the published details of their kidnapping.
In 1980, Brazilian courts convicted two inspectors of DOPS (Department of Political and Social Order, an official police branch in charge of the political repression during the military regime) for having arrested the journalists in Lilian's apartment in Porto Alegre. They were João Augusto da Rosa and Orandir Portassi Lucas. The reporters and the Uruguayans had identified them as taking part in the kidnapping. This event confirmed the direct involvement of the Brazilian government in the Condor Operation. In 1991, Governor Pedro Simon arranged for the state of Rio Grande do Sul to officially recognize the kidnapping of the Uruguayans and gave them financial compensation. The democratic government of President Luis Alberto Lacalle in Uruguay was inspired to do the same a year later.
Police officer Pedro Seelig, the head of the DOPS at the time of the kidnapping, was identified by the Uruguayan couple as the man in charge of the operation in Porto Alegre. While Seelig stood trial in Brazil, Universindo and Lílian remained in prison in Uruguay and were prevented from testifying. The Brazilian policeman was acquitted for lack of evidence. Lilian and Universindo's later testimony revealed that four officers of the secret Uruguayan Counter-information Division;– two majors and two captains;– took part in the operation with the consent of Brazilian authorities. Captain Glauco Yanonne, was personally responsible for torturing Universindo Rodriquez in the DOPS headquarters in Porto Alegre. Although Universindo and Lilian identified the Uruguayan military men who had arrested and tortured them, not one was prosecuted in Montevideo. The Law of Immunity, passed in 1986, provided amnesty to Uruguayan citizens who had committed acts of political repression and human rights abuses under the dictatorship.
The 1979 Esso Prize, regarded as the most important prize of the Brazilian press, was awarded to Cunha and Scalco for their investigative journalism of the case. Hugo Cores, a former Uruguayan political prisoner, was the one who had called Cunha in warning. In 1993, he said to the Brazilian press:
All the Uruguayans kidnapped abroad, around 180 people, are missing to this day. The only ones who managed to survive are Lilian, her children, and Universindo.
Alleged assassination of João Goulart
After being overthrown, João "Jango" Goulart was the first Brazilian president to die in exile. He died of an alleged heart attack in his sleep in Mercedes, Argentina, on 6 December 1976. Because an autopsy was never performed, the true cause of his death remains unknown.
On 26 April 2000, former governor of Rio de Janeiro and Rio Grande do Sul Leonel Brizola, Jango's brother-in-law, alleged that ex-presidents João Goulart and Juscelino Kubitschek (who died in a car accident) were assassinated as part of Operation Condor. He asked for investigations to be opened into their deaths.
On 27 January 2008, the newspaper Folha de S.Paulo printed a story with a statement from Mario Neira Barreiro, a former intelligence service member under Uruguay's dictatorship. Barreiro said that Goulart was poisoned, confirming Brizola's allegations. Barreiro also said that the order to assassinate Goulart came from Sérgio Paranhos Fleury, head of the Departamento de Ordem Política e Social (Department of Political and Social Order) and the licence to kill came from president Ernesto Geisel. In July 2008, a special commission of the Legislative Assembly of Rio Grande do Sul, Goulart's home state, concluded that "the evidence that Jango was willfully assassinated, with knowledge of the Geisel government, is strong."
In March 2009, the magazine CartaCapital published previously unreleased documents of the National Information Service created by an undercover agent who was present at Jango's properties in Uruguay. This revelation reinforces the theory that the former president was poisoned. The Goulart family has not yet identified who could be the "B Agent," as he is referred to in the documents. The agent acted as a close friend to Jango, and described in detail an argument during the former president's 56th birthday party with his son because of a fight between two employees. As a result of the story, the Human Rights Commission of the Chamber of Deputies decided to investigate Jango's death.
Later, CartaCapital published an interview with Jango's widow, Maria Teresa Fontela Goulart, revealing documents from the Uruguayan government detailing her complaints that her family had been monitored. The Uruguayan government was monitoring Jango's travel, his business, and his political activities. These files were from 1965, a year after the coup in Brazil, and suggest that he could have been deliberately attacked. The Movement for Justice and Human Rights and the President João Goulart Institute have requested a document referring to the Uruguayan Interior Ministry saying that "serious and responsible Brazilian sources" talked about an "alleged plot against the former Brazilian president."
Chile
When Augusto Pinochet was arrested in London in 1998 in response to Spanish magistrate Baltasar Garzón's request for his extradition to Spain, additional information concerning Condor was revealed. One of the lawyers seeking his extradition said there had been an attempt to assassinate Carlos Altamirano, leader of the Chilean Socialist Party. He said that Pinochet met Italian neofascist terrorist Stefano Delle Chiaie during Franco's funeral in Madrid in 1975 and arranged to have Altamirano murdered. The plan failed. Chilean judge Juan Guzmán Tapia eventually established a precedent concerning the crime of "permanent kidnapping": since the bodies of victims kidnapped and presumably murdered could not be found, he deemed that the kidnapping was thought to continue, rather than to have occurred so long ago that the perpetrators were protected by an amnesty decreed in 1978 or by the Chilean statute of limitations. In November 2015 the Chilean government acknowledged that Pablo Neruda might have been murdered by members of Pinochet's regime.
General Carlos Prats
General Carlos Prats and his wife, Sofía Cuthbert were killed by a car bomb on 30 September 1974, in Buenos Aires, where they lived in exile. The Chilean DINA has been held responsible. In Chile, Judge Alejandro Solís terminated the prosecution of Pinochet in January 2005 after the Chilean Supreme court rejected his demand to revoke Pinochet's immunity from prosecution (as chief of state). The leaders of DINA, including chief Manuel Contreras, ex-chief of operations and retired general Raúl Itturiaga Neuman, his brother Roger Itturiaga, and ex-brigadiers Pedro Espinoza Bravo and José Zara, were charged in Chile with this assassination. DINA agent Enrique Arancibia Clavel has been convicted in Argentina for the murder.
Bernardo Leighton
Bernardo Leighton and his wife were severely injured by a failed assassination attempt on 6 Oct. 1975, after settling in exile in Italy. The pistol attack left Bernardo Leighton seriously injured and his wife, Anita Fresno permanently disabled. According to declassified documents in the National Security Archive and Italian attorney general Giovanni Salvi, who led the prosecution of former DINA head Manuel Contreras, Stefano Delle Chiaie met with Michael Townley and Virgilio Paz Romero in Madrid in 1975 to plan the murder of Bernardo Leighton with the help of Franco's secret police. In 1999, the secretary of the National Security Council (NSC), Glyn T. Davies, declared that the declassified documents established the responsibility of Pinochet government in carrying out the assassination of Bernardo Leighton, as well as Orlando Letelier and General Carlos Prats. a failed assassination attempt on 6 October 1975.
Orlando Letelier
In December 2004, Francisco Letelier, the son of Orlando Letelier, wrote in an OpEd column in the Los Angeles Times that his father's assassination was part of Operation Condor, which he described as "an intelligence-sharing network used by six South American dictators of that era to eliminate dissidents."
Michael Townley has accused Pinochet of being responsible for Letelier's death. Townley confessed that he had hired five anti-Castro Cuban exiles to booby-trap Letelier's car. According to Jean-Guy Allard, after consultations with the terrorist organization CORU's leadership, including Luis Posada Carriles and Orlando Bosch, those elected to carry out the murder were Cuban-Americans José Dionisio Suárez, Virgilio Paz Romero, Alvin Ross Díaz, and brothers Guillermo and Ignacio Novo Sampoll. According to the Miami Herald, Luis Posada Carriles was at this meeting, which decided on Letelier's death and also the Cubana Flight 455 bombing.
Caso Quemados
In July 1986, photographer Rodrigo Rojas DeNegri was burned alive and Carmen Gloria Quintana suffered serious burns during a street protests against Pinochet. The two's case became known as Caso Quemados ("The Burned Case") and the case received attention in the United States because Rojas had fled to the US after the 1973 coup. A document by the United States State Department highlights that the Chilean army deliberately set both Rojas and Quintana on fire. Pinochet, on the other hand, accused both Rojas and Quintana of being terrorists who were set ablaze by their own Molotov cocktails. According to National Security Archive analyst Peter Kornbluh, Pinochet's reaction to the attack and death of Rojas "contributed to Reagan’s decision to withdraw support for the regime and press for a return to civilian rule."
Operación Silencio
Operación Silencio (Operation Silence) was a Chilean operation to impede investigations by Chilean judges by removing witnesses from the country. It started about a year before the "terror archives" were found in Paraguay.
In April 1991, Arturo Sanhueza Ross, linked to the murder of MIR leader Jecar Neghme in 1989, left the country. According to the Rettig Report, Jecar Neghme's death had been carried out by Chilean intelligence agents. In September 1991, Carlos Herrera Jiménez, who killed trade-unionist Tucapel Jiménez, left by plane. In October 1991, Eugenio Berríos, a chemist who had worked with DINA agent Michael Townley, was escorted from Chile to Uruguay by Operation Condor agents in order to avoid testifying in the Letelier case. He used Argentinian, Uruguayan, Paraguayan and Brazilian passports, raising concerns that Operation Condor was not dead. Berríos was found dead in El Pinar, near Montevideo (Uruguay), in 1995. His body had been so mutilated as to make identification by appearance impossible.
In January 2005, Michael Townley, who now lives in the U.S. under the witness protection program, acknowledged links between Chile, DINA, and the detention and torture center Colonia Dignidad. The center was established in 1961 by Paul Schäfer, who was arrested in March 2005 in Buenos Aires and convicted on charges of child rape. Townley informed Interpol about Colonia Dignidad and the Army's Bacteriological Warfare Laboratory. This last laboratory would have replaced the old DINA laboratory on Via Naranja de lo Curro street, where Townley worked with the chemical assassin Eugenio Berríos. The toxin that allegedly killed Christian-Democrat Eduardo Frei Montalva may have been made in this new lab in Colonia Dignidad, according to the judge investigating the case. In 2013, a Brazilian-Uruguayan-Argentinian collaborative documentary, Dossiê Jango, implicated the same lab in the alleged poisoning of João Goulart, Brazil's deposed president.
U.S. Congressman Edward Koch
In February 2004, reporter John Dinges published The Condor Years: How Pinochet and His Allies Brought Terrorism to Three Continents. He revealed that Uruguayan military officials threatened to assassinate U.S. Congressman Edward Koch (later Mayor of New York City) in mid-1976. In late July 1976, the CIA station chief in Montevideo had received information about it. Based on learning that the men were drinking at the time, he recommended that the Agency take no action. The Uruguayan officers included Colonel José Fons, who was at the November 1975 secret meeting in Santiago, Chile; and Major José Nino Gavazzo, who headed a team of intelligence officers working in Argentina in 1976 and was responsible for more than 100 Uruguayans' deaths.
Interviewed in the early 21st century by Dinges, Koch said that George H. W. Bush, then CIA director, informed him in October 1976 that "his sponsorship of legislation to cut off U.S. military assistance to Uruguay on human rights grounds had provoked secret police officials to 'put a contract out for you'." In mid-October 1976, Koch wrote to the Justice Department asking for FBI protection, but none was provided. (This was more than two months after the meeting and after Orlando Letelier's murder in Washington.) In late 1976, Colonel Fons and Major Gavazzo were assigned to prominent diplomatic posts in Washington, D.C. The State Department forced the Uruguayan government to withdraw their appointments, with the public explanation that "Fons and Gavazzo could be the objects of unpleasant publicity." Koch learned about the connections between the threats and the post appointments only in 2001.
Paraguay
The United States backed Alfredo Stroessner's anti-communist military dictatorship and played a "critical supporting role" in the domestic affairs of Stroessner's Paraguay. For instance, U.S. Army officer Lieutenant Colonel Robert Thierry was sent to help local workmen build a detention and interrogation center named "La Technica" as part of Operation Condor. La Technica was also a well known torture centre. Stroessner's secret police, headed by Pastor Coronel, bathed their captives in tubs of human vomit and excrement and shocked them in the rectum with electric cattle prods. They dismembered the Communist party secretary, , alive with a chainsaw while Stroessner listened on the phone. Stroessner demanded the tapes of detainees screaming in pain to be played to their family members.
In a report to Kissinger, Harry Shlaudeman described Paraguay's militaristic state as a "nineteenth-century military regime that looks good on the cartoon page." Shlaudeman's judgments adopted a tone of paternalism, but was correct in noting that Paraguay's "backwardness" was leading it toward the fate of its neighbors. Although the United States viewed conflict from a global and ideological perspective, many decolonized nations defined national security threats in terms of neighboring nations and longstanding ethnic or regional feuds. Shlaudeman notes the incredible resilience that Paraguay showed against the superior military might of its neighbors during the Chaco War. From the perspective of the government in Paraguay, the victory against its neighbors over the course of several decades justified the lack of development in the nation. The report further states that the political traditions in Paraguay were anything but democratic. This reality, combined with a fear of leftist dissent in neighboring nations, led the government to focus on the containment of political opposition instead of on the development of its economic and political institutions. An ideological fear of its neighbors compelled them to protect its sovereignty. Therefore, the fight against radical, leftist movements within and without the country motivated many policymakers to act in the interest of security. In 2020, French writer Pablo Daniel Magee published the book Opération Condor prefaced by Costa Gavras. The book follows the life of paraguayan victim of the Condor Operation Martín Almada.
Peruvian case
The Peruvian legislator Javier Diez Canseco declared that he and twelve compatriots of his own (Justiniano Apaza Ordóñez, Hugo Blanco, Genaro Ledesma Izquieta, Valentín Pacho, Ricardo Letts, César Lévano, Ricardo Napurí, José Luis Alvarado Bravo, Alfonso Baella Tuesta, Guillermo Faura Gaig, José Arce Larco and Humberto Damonte), all opponents of the dictatorship of Francisco Morales Bermúdez, were expatriated and handed over in 1978, after being kidnapped in Peru, to the Argentine armed forces in the city of Jujuy. He also stated that there is declassified documentation of the CIA and cable information disseminated by WikiLeaks, which account for the links of the Morales Bermudez government with Operation Condor.
Uruguay
As per usual with Southern Cone 1970s dictatorships, Juan María Bordaberry proclaimed himself a dictator and banned the rest of political parties. The de facto government spanned from 1973 to 1985, in which period a considerable number of people were murdered, tortured, illegally detained and imprisoned, kidnapped and forced into disappearance, in the purported defence against subversion. Prior to the 1973 coup d'état, the CIA had acted as a consultant to the law enforcement agencies in the country. Dan Mitrione, the best-known example of such cooperation, had trained civilian police in counterinsurgency at the School of the Americas in Panama, known as the Western Hemisphere Institute for Security Cooperation after 2000.
Mexico
Mexico had its own, denominated "Operacion Condor" during the same era, in which the military was documented to "disappear", kill, rape and torture several people they linked to the Illegal drug trade there, especially in the state of Sinaloa.
Other cases
Edgardo Enríquez, Chilean leader of the MIR, "disappeared" in Argentina, as did the MIR leader Jorge Fuentes. Alexei Jaccard and Ricardo Ramírez were "disappeared," and a support network to the Communist party was dismantled in Argentina in 1977. Cases of repression in the country against German, Spanish, Peruvian, and Jewish people were also reported. The assassinations of former Bolivian president Juan José Torres and former Uruguayan deputies Héctor Gutiérrez and Zelmar Michelini in Buenos Aires in 1976 were also part of Condor. The DINA contacted Croatian terrorists (i.e. Ustashe émigrés and descendants), Italian neofascists and the Shah's SAVAK to locate and assassinate dissidents in exile.
According to reports in 2006, resulting from trials of top officials in Argentina, Operation Condor was at its peak in 1976 when Chilean exiles in Argentina were threatened; many went underground or into exile again in other countries. Chilean General Carlos Prats had been assassinated by DINA in Buenos Aires in 1974, with the help of former CIA agent Michael Townley. Cuban diplomats were assassinated in Buenos Aires in the Automotores Orletti torture center, one of the 300 clandestine prisons of the dictatorship. These centers were managed by the Grupo de Tareas 18, headed by former police officer and intelligence agent Aníbal Gordon, earlier convicted of armed robbery, who reported directly to General Commandant of the SIDE, Otto Paladino.
Automotores Orletti was the main base of foreign intelligence services involved in Operation Condor. José Luis Bertazzo, a survivor of kidnapping and torture who was detained there for two months, identified Chilean, Uruguayan, Paraguayan and Bolivian nationals held as prisoners and who were interrogated by agents from their own countries. The 19-year-old daughter-in-law of poet Juan Gelman was tortured here along with her husband, before being transported to a Montevideo prison. There she delivered a baby which was immediately stolen by Uruguayan military officers and placed for illegal adoption with friends of the regime. Decades later, President Jorge Batlle ordered an investigation and finally, Macarena Gelman was found and recovered her identity.
According to Dinges' book Los años del Cóndor (The Years of the Condor), Chilean MIR prisoners in the Orletti center told José Luis Bertazzo that they had seen two Cuban diplomats, 22-year-old Jesús Cejas Arias and 26-year-old Crescencio Galañega, tortured by Gordon's group. They were interrogated by a man who had travelled from Miami to interrogate them. The Cuban nationals had been responsible for protection of Cuban ambassador to Argentina, Emilio Aragonés. They were kidnapped on 9 August 1976, at the corner of calle Arribeños and Virrey del Pino, by 40 armed SIDE agents, who blocked the street with their Ford Falcons. (These were the car models used by the security forces during the dictatorship.)
According to Dinges, the FBI and the CIA were informed of their arrest. He quotes a cable sent from Buenos Aires by FBI agent Robert Scherrer on 22 September 1976, in which he mentioned that Michael Townley, later convicted for the assassination of former Chilean minister Orlando Letelier in Washington, D.C., had taken part in the interrogations of the two Cubans. On 22 December 1999, the former head of the DINA confirmed to Argentine federal judge María Servini de Cubría in Santiago de Chile that Michael Townley and Cuban Guillermo Novo Sampoll were present in the Orletti center. They had travelled from Chile to Argentina on 11 August 1976 and "cooperated in the torture and assassination of the two Cuban diplomats." Luis Posada Carriles, an anti-Castro Cuban terrorist, boasted in his autobiography, Los Caminos Del Guerrero (The Roads of the Warrior), of the murder of the two young men.
Prominent victims
Martín Almada, educator in Paraguay, arrested in 1974 and tortured for three years
Víctor Olea Alegría, member of the Socialist Party, arrested on 11 September 1974 and "disappeared" (Manuel Contreras, head of DINA, was convicted in 2002 for this crime)
William Beausire, businessman with dual British-Chilean nationality, abducted in transit in Buenos Aires airport in November 1974, taken to the Villa Grimaldi torture center in Chile and "disappeared" Why Pinochet should not go free.
Volodia Teitelboim, member of the Communist Party of Chile, targeted for murder in Mexico with Carlos Altamirano in Mexico in 1976
Juan Jose Torres, former socialist president of Bolivia, was kidnapped and assassinated by right-wing death squads in June 1976.
"Disappearance" of two Cuban diplomats in Argentina, Crecencio Galañega Hernández and Jesús Cejas Arias, who transited through Orletti detention center in Buenos Aires (9 August 1976 – see Lista de centros clandestinos de detención (Argentina)); both were questioned by the SIDE and the DINA, with the knowledge of the FBI and the CIA
Andrés Pascal Allende, nephew of Salvador Allende and secretary general of the MIR, escaped an assassination attempt in Costa Rica in March 1976
Carmelo Soria, Spanish diplomat, civil servant of the CEPAL (a UN organization), assassinated on 21 July 1976
Jorge Zaffaroni and María Emilia Islas, possible members of the Tupamaros, "disappeared" in Buenos Aires on 29 September 1976, kidnapped by the Batallón de Inteligencia 601, who transferred them to the Uruguayan OCOAS (Organismo Coordinador de Operaciones Anti-Subversivas)
Dagmar Ingrid Hagelin, 17-year-old Swedish national kidnapped in 1977 and shot in the back by Alfredo Astiz as she tried to escape; later "disappeared"
Poet Juan Gelman's son and daughter-in-law – imprisoned; their baby, born in prison, was taken by the Uruguayan military and illegally placed for adoption by a regime ally
U.S. involvement
The United States documentation shows that the United States provided key organizational, financial and technical assistance to the operation into the 1980s.
In a United States Department of State briefing for Henry Kissinger, then the Secretary of State, dated 3 August 1976 written by Harry Shlaudeman and entitled the "Third World War and South America," the long-term dangers of a right-wing bloc and their initial policy recommendations were considered. The briefing was a summary of Southern Cone security forces. It stated that the operation was an effort of six countries in the southern cone of Latin America (Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Paraguay, and Uruguay) to win the "Third-World-War" by wiping out "subversion" through transnational secret intelligence activities, kidnapping, torture, disappearance and assassination. The report opens by considering the cohesiveness felt by the six nations of the Southern Cone. It was the assumption of the Shlaudeman's briefing that the countries in the Southern Cone perceived themselves as "the last bastion of Christian civilization" and thus they consider the efforts against communism as justified as the "Israeli actions against Palestinian terrorists". Shlaudeman warns Kissinger that in the long term the "Third World War" would put those six countries in an ambiguous position because they are trapped on either side by "international Marxism and its terrorist exponents," and on the other by "the hostility of uncomprehending industrial democracies misled by the Marxist propaganda." The report recommended that U.S. policy towards Operation Condor should emphasize the differences between the five countries at every opportunity, to depoliticize human rights, to oppose rhetorical exaggerations of the "Third-World-War" type, and bring the potential bloc-members back-into our cognitive universe through systematic exchanges.
Based on 1976 CIA documents stated that from 1960 to the early 1970s, the plans were developed among international security officials at the US Army School of the Americas and the Conference of American Armies to deal with political dissidents in South America. A declassified CIA document dated 23 June 1976, explains that "in early 1974, security officials from Argentina, Chile, Uruguay, Paraguay and Bolivia met in Buenos Aires to prepare coordinated actions against subversive targets." US officials were aware of what was going on.
Additionally, as of a September 1976, the Defense Intelligence Agency reported that US intelligence services were quite aware of the infrastructure and goals of Operation Condor. They realized that "Operation Condor" was the code name given for intelligence collection on "leftists", Communists, Peronists or Marxists in the Southern Cone Area. The intelligence services were aware that it was security cooperation among several South American countries' intelligence services (such as Argentina, Paraguay, Uruguay, and Bolivia) with Chile as the epicenter of the operation. The DIA noted that Argentina, Uruguay, and Chile were already fervently conducting operations, mainly in Argentina, against leftist targets. Members of SIDE were also operating with Uruguayan military Intelligence officers in an operation carried out against the Uruguayan terrorist organization, the OPR-33. The report also noted that a large volume of U.S. currency was seized during the combined operation.
The third point of the report demonstrates the United States' understanding of Operation Condor's more nefarious operations. The report notes, "the formation of special teams from member countries who are to carry out operations to include assassinations against terrorist or supporters of terrorist organizations." The report also highlighted the fact that these special teams were intelligence service agents rather than military personnel, however these teams did operate in structures reminiscent of U.S. special forces teams. The State Department briefing for Kissinger mentioned awareness of Operation Condor's plans to conduct possible operations in France and Portugal - a matter that would be prove to be extremely controversial later in Condor's history.
The US government sponsored and collaborated with DINA (Directorate of National Intelligence), as well as other intelligence organizations forming the nucleus of Condor. CIA documents show that the agency had close contact with members of the Chilean secret police, DINA, and its chief Manuel Contreras. Contreras was retained as a paid CIA contact until 1977, even as his involvement in the Letelier-Moffit assassination was being revealed.
The Paraguayan Archives include official requests to track suspects to and from the U.S. Embassy, the CIA, and FBI. The CIA provided lists of suspects and other intelligence information to the military states. In 1975 the FBI searched in the US for individuals wanted by DINA.
In a February 1976 telecom from the embassy in Buenos Aires to the State Department, intelligence noted the United States possessed awareness of the coming Argentinian coup. The ambassador wrote that the Chief of the North American desk of the Foreign Ministry revealed that he had been asked by the "Military Planning Group" to prepare a report and recommendations for how the "future military government can avoid or minimize the sort of problems the Chilean and Uruguayan governments are having with the US over human rights issue." The Chief also specifically stated that "they" (whether he is referring to the CIA or the future military government in Argentina, or both) will face resistance if they were to begin assassinating and executing individuals. This being true, the ambassador explains the military coup will "intend to carry forward an all-out war on the terrorists and that some executions would therefore probably be necessary." This signals that the US also was aware of the planning of human rights violations before they occurred and did not step in to prevent them, despite being entangled in the region's politics already. The last comment confirms this: "It is encouraging to note that the Argentine military are aware of the problem and are already focusing on ways to avoid letting human rights issues become an irritant in US-Argentine Relations."
Regarding the ongoing human rights abuses by the Argentine junta, professor Ruth Blakeley writes that Kissinger "explicitly expressed his support for the repression of political opponents." On 5 October 1976 Henry Kissinger met with Argentina's Foreign Minister and said:
Ultimately, the démarche was never delivered. Kornbluh and Dinges suggest that the decision not to send Kissinger's order was due to Assistant Secretary Harry Shlaudeman's sending a cable to his deputy in D.C which states "you can simply instruct the Ambassadors to take no further action, noting that there have been no reports in some weeks indicating an intention to activate the Condor scheme." McSherry adds, "According to [U.S. Ambassador to Paraguay Robert] White, instructions from a secretary of state cannot be ignored unless there is a countermanding order received via a secret (CIA) backchannel."
Patricia M. Derian, the Assistant Secretary of State for Human Rights and Humanitarian Affairs from 1977 to 1981, said of Kissinger's role in giving the green light to the junta's repression: "It sickened me that with an imperial wave of his hand, an American could sentence people to death." During the Carter administration, Kissinger congratulated the Argentine military for "wiping out terrorism", and visited the country as a guest of Jorge Videla during the 1978 World Cup. US diplomats feared that this would hinder the Carter Administration's efforts to end the killings by the Argentine junta.
Declassification and reflection
In June 1999, by order of President Bill Clinton, the State Department released thousands of declassified documents revealing for the first time that the CIA and the State and Defense Departments were intimately aware of Condor. One DOD intelligence report dated 1 October 1976, noted that Latin American military officers bragged about it to their U.S. counterparts. The same report described Condor's "joint counterinsurgency operations" that aimed to "eliminate Marxist terrorist activities"; Argentina, it noted, created a special Condor team "structured much like a U.S. Special Forces Team." A summary of material declassified in 2004 states that
Kornbluh and Dinges conclude that "The paper trail is clear: the State Department and the CIA had enough intelligence to take concrete steps to thwart the Condor assassination planning. Those steps were initiated but never implemented." Shlaudeman's deputy Hewson Ryan later acknowledged in an oral history interview that the State Department was "remiss" in its handling of the case. "We knew fairly early on that the governments of the Southern Cone countries were planning, or at least talking about, some assassinations abroad in the summer of 1976. ... Whether if we had gone in, we might have prevented this, I don't know", he stated in reference to the Letelier-Moffitt bombing. "But we didn't."
A CIA document described Condor as "a counter-terrorism organization" and noted that the Condor countries had a specialized telecommunications system called "CONDORTEL." A 1978 cable from the US ambassador to Paraguay, Robert White, to the Secretary of State Cyrus Vance, was published on 6 March 2001 by The New York Times. The document was released in November 2000 by the Clinton administration under the Chile Declassification Project. White reported a conversation with General Alejandro Fretes Davalos, chief of staff of Paraguay's armed forces, who informed him that the South American intelligence chiefs involved in Condor "[kept] in touch with one another through a U.S. communications installation in the Panama Canal Zone which cover[ed] all of Latin America".
Davalos reportedly said that the installation was "employed to co-ordinate intelligence information among the southern cone countries". The US feared that the connection to Condor might be publicly revealed at a time when the assassination in the U.S.A. of Chilean former minister Orlando Letelier and his American assistant Ronni Moffitt was being investigated. White cabled Vance that "it would seem advisable to review this arrangement to insure that its continuation is in US interest." McSherry describes such cables as "another piece of increasingly weighty evidence suggesting that U.S. military and intelligence officials supported and collaborated with Condor as a secret partner or sponsor." In addition, an Argentine military source told a U.S. Embassy contact that the CIA was privy to Condor and had played a key role in setting up computerized links among the intelligence and operations units of the six Condor states.
Role of Henry Kissinger
Henry Kissinger, Secretary of State in the Nixon and Ford administrations, was well aware of the Condor plan and was closely involved diplomatically with the Southern Cone governments, going so far as to be Jorge Videla's personal guest to the 1978 World Cup in Argentina, after his tenure as Secretary of State concluded. According to the French newspaper L'Humanité, the first cooperation agreements were signed between the CIA and anti-Castro groups, and the right-wing death squad Triple A, set up in Argentina by Juan and Isabel Perón's "personal secretary" José López Rega, and Rodolfo Almirón (arrested in Spain in 2006).
On 31 May 2001, French judge Roger Le Loire requested that a summons be served on Henry Kissinger while he was staying at the Hôtel Ritz in Paris. Le Loire wanted to question the statesman as a witness regarding alleged U.S. involvement in Operation Condor and for possible US knowledge concerning the "disappearances" of five French nationals in Chile during military rule. Kissinger left Paris that evening, and Loire's inquiries were directed to the U.S. State Department.
In July 2001, the Chilean high court granted investigating judge Juan Guzmán the right to question Kissinger about the 1973 killing of American journalist Charles Horman. (His execution by the Chilean military after the coup was dramatized in the 1982 Costa-Gavras film, Missing.) The judge's questions were relayed to Kissinger via diplomatic routes but were not answered.
In August 2001, Argentine Judge Rodolfo Canicoba sent a letter rogatory to the US State Department, in accordance with the Mutual Legal Assistance Treaty (MLAT), requesting a deposition by Kissinger to aid the judge's investigation of Operation Condor.
In 2002, the editors of The New York Times defended Henry Kissinger, arguing that he should be given a pass for his role in Condor and other dirty works because "the world was polarised, and fighting communism involved hard choices and messy compromises".
On 16 February 2007, a request for the extradition of Kissinger was filed at the Supreme Court of Uruguay on behalf of Bernardo Arnone, a political activist who was kidnapped, tortured and disappeared by the dictatorial regime in 1976.
It was discovered in 2010 that Henry Kissinger canceled a warning against the international assassination of political opponents that was to be issued to some of the countries participating in Operation Condor.
"French connection"
French journalist Marie-Monique Robin found in the archives of the Quai d'Orsay, the French Ministry of Foreign Affairs, the original document proving that a 1959 agreement between Paris and Buenos Aires set up a "permanent French military mission" of officers to Argentina who had fought in the Algerian War. It was located in the offices of the chief of staff of the Argentine Army. It continued until François Mitterrand was elected President of France in 1981. She showed how Valéry Giscard d'Estaing's government secretly collaborated with Videla's junta in Argentina and with Augusto Pinochet's regime in Chile.
In 1957, Argentine officers, among them Alcides Lopez Aufranc, went to Paris to attend two-year courses at the École de Guerre military school, two years before the Cuban Revolution, and before the rise of anti-government guerrilla movements in Argentina. "In practice", said Robin to Página/12, "the arrival of the French in Argentina led to a massive extension of intelligence services and of the use of torture as the primary weapon of anti-subversive war in the concept of modern warfare." The "annihilation decrees" signed by Isabel Perón were inspired by earlier French documents.
During the Battle of Algiers, police forces were put under the authority of the French Army, and in particular of the paratroopers. They systematically used torture during interrogations and also began to "disappear" suspects, as part of a program of intimidation. Reynaldo Bignone, named President of the Argentinian junta in July 1982, said, "The March 1976 order of battle is a copy of the Algerian battle."
On 10 September 2003, French Green Party deputies Noël Mamère, Martine Billard and Yves Cochet petitioned for a Parliamentary Commission to be established to examine the "role of France in the support of military regimes in Latin America from 1973 to 1984" before the Foreign Affairs Commission of the National Assembly, presided by Édouard Balladur. The only newspaper to report this was Le Monde. Deputy Roland Blum, in charge of the commission, refused to allow Marie-Monique Robin to testify. The government's report in December 2003 was described by Robin as being in the utmost bad faith. It claimed that no agreement had ever been signed on this issue between France and Argentina.
When French Minister of Foreign Affairs Dominique de Villepin traveled to Chile in February 2004, he claimed that there had been no cooperation between France and the military regimes.
Reporter Marie-Monique Robin said to L'Humanité newspaper: "The French have systematized a military technique in the urban environment which would be copied and passed to Latin American dictatorships." The methods employed during the 1957 Battle of Algiers were systematized and exported to the War School in Buenos Aires. Roger Trinquier's famous book on counter-insurgency had a very strong influence in South America. Robin said that she was shocked to learn that the French intelligence agency Direction de surveillance du territoire (DST) communicated to the DINA the names of refugees who returned to Chile (Operation Retorno), all of whom were killed. "Of course, this puts the French government in the dock, and Giscard d'Estaing, then President of the Republic. I was very shocked by the duplicity of the French diplomatic position which, at the same time received political refugees with open arms, and collaborated with the dictatorships."
Marie-Monique Robin also showed ties between the French far right and Argentina since the 1930s, in particular through the Roman Catholic fundamentalist organization Cité catholique created by Jean Ousset, a former secretary of Charles Maurras (founder of the royalist Action Française movement). La Cité published a review, Le Verbe, which influenced military officers during the Algerian War, notably by justifying their use of torture. At the end of the 1950s, the Cité catholique established groups in Argentina and set up cells in the Army. It was greatly expanded during the government of General Juan Carlos Onganía, in particular in 1969.
The key figure of the Cité catholique was priest Georges Grasset, who became Videla's personal confessor. He had been the spiritual guide of the Organisation armée secrète (OAS), a pro-French Algeria terrorist movement founded in Franquist Spain. Robin says that this Catholic fundamentalist current in the Argentine Army contributed to the importance and duration of Franco-Argentine cooperation. In Buenos Aires, Georges Grasset maintained links with Archbishop Marcel Lefebvre, founder of the Society of St. Pius X in 1970. He was excommunicated in 1988. The Society of Pius-X has four monasteries in Argentina, the largest in La Reja. A French priest there said to Marie-Monique Robin: "to save the soul of a Communist priest, one must kill him." Luis Roldan, former Under Secretary of Religion under Carlos Menem (President of Argentina from 1989 to 1999), was presented to her by Dominique Lagneau, the priest in charge of the monastery, and described as "Mr. Cité catholique in Argentina". Bruno Genta and Juan Carlos Goyeneche represent this ideology.
Argentine Admiral Luis María Mendía, who had theorized the practice of "death flights", testified in January 2007 before Argentine judges that a French intelligence "agent", Bertrand de Perseval, had participated in the abduction of two French nuns, Léonie Duquet and Alice Domon, who were later murdered. Perseval, who lives today in Thailand, denied any links with the abduction. He has admitted being a former member of the OAS, and having escaped for Argentina after the March 1962 Évian Accords that ended the Algerian War (1954–62). Referring to Marie Monique Robin's film documentary titled The Death Squads – the French School (Les escadrons de la mort – l'école française), Luis María Mendía asked of the Argentine Court that former French president Valéry Giscard d'Estaing, former French premier Pierre Messmer, former French ambassador to Buenos Aires François de la Gorce, and all officials in place in the French embassy in Buenos Aires between 1976 and 1983 be called before the court.
Besides this "French connection," he has also accused former head of state Isabel Perón and former ministers Carlos Ruckauf and Antonio Cafiero, who had signed the "anti-subversion decrees" before Videla's 1976 coup d'état. According to ESMA survivor Graciela Daleo, this tactic tries to claim that the crimes were legitimised by Isabel Perón's "anti-subversion decrees." She notes that torture is forbidden by the Argentine Constitution. Alfredo Astiz, a marine known as the "Blond Angel of Death" because of his torture, also referred to the "French connection" at his trial.
Europe
As showed in a newly declassified CIA document, in 1977 intelligence agencies from Britain, France and West Germany looked into using the tactics employed in Operation Condor against leftwing "subversives" in their own countries. The agencies sent representatives to the Condor organisation secretariat in Buenos Aires in September 1977 in order to discuss how to establish an "anti-subversion organization similar to Condor" in which the agencies would pool their resources into a single organisation. The intention was for the agencies to act in a coordinated fashion against subversives within member countries in Europe.
Legal actions
Italy
In December 2000, the Italian Justice began the trial of eleven Brazilians, all military and police. They were accused of the disappearance of three Argentines of Italian descent. The Brazilians were active in Operation Condor. Due to the secrecy of justice, the results of the trials and the punishments of the criminals, if any, were not reported. In December 2007 they were enacted by Italian authorities, preventive arrests of several people involved, including the deceased João Figueiredo (former president) and Octávio Aguiar de Medeiros (former head of the SNI ).
In July 2019, in a landmark ruling, the Italian courts sentenced former Peruvian dictator Morales Bermudez to life imprisonment, together with former Prime Minister Pedro Richter Prada and General Germán Ruíz Figueroa, for the disappearance of Italian citizens.
Argentina
In Argentina, the CONADEP human rights commission of 1983, led by writer Ernesto Sabato and René Favaloro among other respected personalities, investigated human rights abuses during the dictatorship. The 1985 Trial of the Juntas convicted top officers who ran the military governments for acts of state terrorism. The amnesty laws (Ley de Obediencia Debida and Ley de Punto Final) of 1985–1986 stopped the trials until 2003, when the Congress repealed them, and in 2005 the Argentine Supreme Court ruled they were unconstitutional.
Chilean Enrique Arancibia Clavel was convicted and sentenced in Argentina for the assassination of Carlos Prats and of his wife; in a 2011 court verdict, life terms were handed down to Alfredo Astiz, Jorge Acosta, Antonio Pernias and Ricardo Cavallo. In 2016 Reynaldo Bignone, Santiago Riveros, Manuel Cordero and 14 others were convicted.
Most of the Junta's members are in prison for genocide and crimes against humanity.
Former military officers from Argentina and Uruguay went on trial in 2013 in Buenos Aires for their human rights abuses in Operation Condor. The cross-border conspiracy of dictatorships in the 1970s and 1980s to "eradicate 'subversion,' a word which increasingly translated into non-violent dissent from the left and center left." These prosecutions were enabled by massive releases of formerly classified documents to the national Security Archive which were then used as evidence against the accused. "The documents are very useful in establishing a comprehensive analytical framework of what Operation Condor was," said Pablo Enrique Ouvina, the lead prosecutor in the case. Of the 171 Condor victims cited in the indictments, approximately forty-two survived and one hundred twenty others were killed and/or disappeared. "Condor was a latter day rendition, torture and assassination program," noted Carlos Osorio, who directs the Archive's Southern Cone Documentation project. "Holding these officials accountable for the multinational crimes of Condor," he said, "cannot help but set a precedent for more recent abuses of a similar nature."
A Prominent victim of Operation Condor included former Bolivian president, Juan Torres, who was murdered in Buenos Aires.
Chile
Chilean judge Juan Guzmán, who had arraigned Pinochet at his return to Chile after his arrest in London, started prosecution of some 30 torturers, including former head of the DINA Manuel Contreras, for the disappearance of 20 Chilean victims of the Condor plan.
On 3 August 2007, General Raúl Iturriaga, former head of DINA, was captured in the Chilean city of Viña del Mar on the Pacific coast. He had previously been a fugitive from a five-year jail term, after being sentenced for the kidnapping of Luis Dagoberto San Martin, a 21-year-old opponent of Pinochet. Martín had been captured in 1974 and taken to a DINA detention center, from which he "disappeared". Iturriaga was also wanted in Argentina for the assassination of General Prats.
According to French newspaper L'Humanité,
in most of those countries legal action against the authors of crimes of "lese-humanity" from the 1970s to 1990 owes more to flaws in the amnesty laws than to a real will of the governments in power, which, on the contrary, wave the flag of "national reconciliation". It is sad to say that two of the pillars of the Condor Operation, Alfredo Stroessner and Augusto Pinochet, never paid for their crimes and died without ever answering charges about the "disappeared" – who continue to haunt the memory of people who had been crushed by fascist brutality.Prominent victims of Operation Condor in Chile included former Chilean ambassador Orlando Letelier and his 26-year old American Colleague Ronni Moffitt who were assassinated by a car bomb in downtown Washington D.C.
Uruguay
Former Uruguayan president Juan María Bordaberry, his minister of Foreign Affairs and six military officers, responsible for the disappearance in Argentina in 1976 of opponents to the Uruguayan regime, were arrested in 2006 and placed under house arrest in 2007. In 2010, Bordaberry was convicted of violating the constitution, nine counts of "forced disappearance" and two counts of political homicide and sentenced to 30 years.
Prominent Uruguayan victims of Operation Condor included two former legislators.
See also
Dirty War (Argentina)
Dirty War (Mexico)
Operation Charly
Central American crisis
Anti-communist mass killings
United States and state terrorism
U.S. role in Guatemalan Civil War
U.S. support of Contras
U.S. role in Indonesian Communist Purge
U.S. role in Invasion of East Timor
1981 Spanish Coup d'État Plots
1982 Spanish Coup d'État Plots
The War on Democracy (documentary)
Domino theory
Monroe Doctrine
Safari Club
Alianza Anticomunista Argentina (aka Triple A)
SISMI (Italian secret services)
National Security Archives, a United States NGO which publicizes CIA documents obtained under Freedom of Information Act
Forgotten
Santiago Riveros
Antonio Pernías
Detention and torture centers
Esmeralda (BE-43)
Estadio Nacional de Chile
Villa Baviera
Other operations and strategies related to Condor
Operation Colombo, for which Augusto Pinochet was being tried at the time of his death
Caravan of Death, carried on a few weeks after the 1973 coup in Chile
Fictional references
Don Winslow's 2005 books The Power of the Dog is based on the actions and some of the consequences of Operation Condor.
Nathan Englander's novel, The Ministry of Special Cases (2007), is set in Buenos Aires in the early 1970s. Its main characters are Kaddish and Lillian, a Jewish couple whose son Pato is "disappeared" shortly after the Videla junta takes power.
Memorias de un desaparecido / Memoirs of a Disappeared (1996)
In DC Comics, the father of the superheroine Fire was a key figure in Operation Condor.
Notes
References and further reading
Blakeley, Ruth (2009). State Terrorism and Neoliberalism: The North in the South. Routledge.
Stella Calloni, Los años del lobo (The Years of the Wolf) and Operación Cóndor: Pacto Criminal (Operation Condor: Criminal Pact), La Habana: Editorial Ciencias Sociales, 2006.
Luiz Cláudio Cunha. Operação Condor. O sequestro dos uruuguaios. Uma reportagem dos tempos da ditadura. Porto Alegre: L&PM, 2008.
John Dinges, The Condor Years: How Pinochet and His Allies Brought Terrorism to Three Continents (The New Press, 2004)
Peter Kornbluh, The Pinochet File: A Declassified Dossier on Atrocity and Accountability (The New Press, 2013)
Cecilia Menjívar and Néstor Rodríguez (eds). When States Kill: Latin America, the U.S., and Technologies of Terror. (University of Texas Press, 2005)
Marie-Monique Robin, Escadrons de la mort, l'école française ("Death Squads, the French School"). Book and documentary film (French, transl. in Spanish, Sudamericana, 2002).
J. Patrice McSherry, Predatory States: Operation Condor and Covert War in Latin America. (Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2005)
Nilson, Cezar Mariano; Operación Cóndor. Terrorismo de Estado en el cono Sur (Operation Condor in the Southern Cone). Buenos Aires: Lholé-Lumen, 1998.
Paredes, Alejandro. La Operación Cóndor y la guerra fría (Operation Condor and the Cold War), Universum [online], 2004, vol. 19, no. 1, p. 122–137. .
Gutiérrez Contreras, J.C. y Villegas Díaz, Myrna. "Derechos Humanos y Desaparecidos en Dictaduras Militares" (Human Rights and the Disappeared of the Military Dictatorships), KO'AGA ROÑE'ETA, se.vii (1999) – Previamente publicado en Derecho penal: Implicaciones Internacionales, Publicación del IX Congreso Universitario de Derecho Penal, Universidad de Salamanca. Edit. Colex, Madrid, Marzo de 1999
Informe de la Comisión Nacional sobre prisión política y tortura (Report of the National Commission on Political Imprisonment and Torture). Santiago de Chile, Ministerio del Interior – Comisión Nacional sobre Prisión Política y Tortura, 2005.
External links
Operation Condor on Nizkor's website (in Spanish)
Memoriaviva, a complete list of victims, torture centers and criminals (in Spanish)
FBI file at Internet Archive
The Condor Years – How Pinochet and His Allies Brought Terrorism to Three Continents
Ed Koch Threatened with Assassination in 1976
How Paraguay's 'Archive of Terror' put Operation Condor in focus. BBC, 22 December 2012.
Operation Condor Trial Tackles Coordinated Campaign by Latin American Dictatorships to Kill Leftists, March 2013 video report by Democracy Now!
Argentina begins prosecution of military-era human rights abuses. Christian Science Monitor. 5 March 2013.
Fight of the Condor: uncovering South America's shame – in pictures. The Guardian. 7 July 2016.
The United States Declassification Project on Argentina
The CIA's Secret Global War Against the Left. Jacobin. 30 November 2020.
Anti-communism
Anti-communist terrorism
Clandestine operations
Cold War
Cold War conflicts
Cold War in Latin America
Extrajudicial killings
Enforced disappearances
Condor, Operation
Political and cultural purges
Politicides
Proxy wars
State-sponsored terrorism
Central Intelligence Agency operations
1960s in South America
1970s in South America
1980s in South America | [
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261635 | https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Inline%20speed%20skating | Inline speed skating | Inline speed skating is the roller sport of racing on inline skates. The sport may also be called inline racing by participants. Although it primarily evolved from racing on traditional roller skates, the sport is similar enough to ice speed skating that many competitors are known to switch between inline and ice speed skating according to the season.
Skate
An inline speed skate is a specialized shoe version of the inline skate. The boot or shoe is close-fitting, without much padding and usually made of leather, carbon fiber, and/or fiberglass composites. For best performance, the boot must conform closely to the shape of the foot, so most inline speed skating boots are custom-fitted or else heat-moldable.
Speed skating boots are low-cut and offer little ankle support, allowing the skater extra ankle movement. Skin blisters due to friction can be a problem, and common solutions include neoprene or silicone "ankle bootee" such as "Ezeefit" or "Bunga Pads"; double thin synthetic socks; smaller boots; improving technique; re-moulding the boots; sports tape; and use of "advanced healing" plasters to help recovery.
The frame (sometimes called the chassis or plate) that holds the wheels may be made of aircraft-quality aluminum, magnesium, or possibly carbon fiber. Frames flex during skating, and the amount of flex can be a personal factor in which frame choice to use. Very "stiff" frames may be favored by heavy skaters. But a frame that is too stiff for a particular skater may feel unstable on corners, while a frame that is not stiff enough will be slower. Frame stiffness also works along with boot and wheel stiffness, so there are endless possible variations. Nevertheless, a light frame is desirable. Ideal frame length is affected by foot size and wheel size. A slightly shorter frame may be preferred for the tight curves of smaller tracks; a longer frame may be preferred for longer distance events.
The frame position can usually be adjusted with respect to the skate to adjust for a skater's individual foot, ankle and leg characteristics. Frame positioning is very critical as even a minor change from the skater's actual frame position can lead to severe foot pain. Also, many times it leads to 'locking' of the skater's ankle and/or calf muscle, thereby restricting its movements. It may take a skater several days to weeks to test and adjust the frame position of his new skates. The common inline mounting is 195mm, which is different from the ice mounting of 165mm. The frame usually mounts three, four, or five polyurethane wheels. The three wheel frames are used by skaters with small feet, otherwise four-wheel frames are commonly used, with 90 mm to 110 mm diameter wheels. Five-wheel frames with smaller wheel have lost favor. Each wheel contains two ball bearings with an aluminum spacer, held in place with an axle screwed into the frame.
Larger wheels require better skating technique, so skaters generally progress upwards in wheel size as they gain experience. "Hi-Lo" arrangements are also available, which usually have three larger wheels and one smaller wheel under the ball of the foot, allowing a lower and shorter overall frame design.
In 2014 Powerslide (a German inline skate company) introduced a 125mm wheel for use on a three-wheeled frame varying in sizes from 11.8" to 13.0". Much controversy surrounded this development since FIRS did not allow 125m wheels at the 2014 and 2015 world championships. On January 18 of 2016 FIRS released a press release that stated: "Dear Friends, Considering the evolution and growth that our sport has attained in the last years, the FIRS and the Speed Technical Committee have decided to allow, starting from February 1, 2016, the use of the w heels up to a maximum size of 125 mm but only for the Marathons (JUNIOR and SENIOR) and the MASTER Category (MEN and LADIES). We will be grateful for the spread of this information and we take this opportunity to send you. Kind regards, Jorge Roldan, FIRS Speed Technical Committee, Chairman & Robert Marotta FIRS Secretary General."
Harder wheels minimize elastic hysteresis energy absorption, due to skater's weight deforming the solid polyurethane "tyre". So, speed skaters tend to select the hardest possible wheels, with the highest polyurethane durometer for their skating condition, limited by either wheel slip or surface roughness. Durometer selection is also affected by skater weight, and temperature. Wheels for indoor use are hardest with a durometer of 88–97. They tend to last well, but can be easily damaged if used outdoors. Wheels for outdoor use are softer with a durometer of 82–87, and tend to wear more quickly. Harder outdoor wheels can also be used effectively indoors. Skaters sometimes combine different hardness wheels on the same skate in an attempt to achieve the best combination.
Skaters also refer to wheel "rebound". This refers to the relative height to which a dropped wheel rebounds. It is a reasonable comparative indicator of the relative energy absorbed by elastic hysteresis of a wheel during skating.
Bearing sizes have been standardized around the popular 608 series. A smaller and lighter 688 series has had limited acceptance. Bearing manufacturing precision generally run from ABEC-1 to ABEC-11, and some skate bearings are additionally designed to be "loose" to minimize ball rolling friction.
Various grades of steel offer better hardness, rust resistance etc. Bearings with ceramic balls (and races) have been available since the late 1990s They are lighter and longer lasting, however significantly more expensive. Black silicon nitride ceramic is superior to white zirconium dioxide ceramic, since it is considerably harder and tougher. At the modest rotational speeds encountered in skates, manufacturer data suggests negligible difference in friction performance between the various bearing materials. At these speeds, ball bearing friction tends to be dominated by seals and lubricants.
Bearing shields reduce the entry of dirt into the bearing. Metal and rubber non-contact shields are commonly used, of which rubber shields are slightly more effective. Neither shield type is totally effective, often resulting in the need for bearing maintenance. The ball retainer is usually made of either metal, plastic, or glass. Plastic types are preferred since they are quieter.
Bearing lubrication is usually either light oil or grease. Synthetic types last longer before breaking down. Grease assists in holding dirt away, and stays in the bearing longer, reducing maintenance and increasing bearing life. The lifetime of bearings used for outdoor speed skating is often quite limited due to damage caused by dirt ingress. These bearings are usually cleaned by soaking them in petrol overnight and then cleaning the dirt.
In search of the maximum speed the principal goal is to minimize wind resistance, hence the use of skinsuits, special helmets and techniques. The second issue is elastic hysteresis energy absorption in the wheel. The distant third is bearing internal friction, a set of bearings in good condition, properly inserted and lubricated is normally enough.
Technique and control
Mechanically, strokes in speed skating are deeper and faster (to a sharper angle, closer to the point of losing traction) than recreational skating but not as deep or as fast as in ice speed skating. This is because of the greater frictional forces in the direction of travel and lesser ability to apply friction without slipping of wheels on a hard surface compared to a steel blade on ice.
Speedskaters move each foot across the center line of travel, leading to the double push, a method named by United States skater Chad Hedrick (this is a normal efficient skate technique that is learned as skater gets comfortable with skates). The technique allows two pushes in each stroke of the skate. However, it can be tiring for inexperienced skaters who have improper technique and they will often save it until needed, such as the latter stages or final sprint of a distance race. With proper execution, the double push is an energy saver. The double push is mostly used in outdoor racing and the straightaways of indoor skating.
During Sprints, skaters need to initially push their body with force to get a jump start. For this they tend to take quick and sharp strides. Once they have achieved a good pace, they move to taking comparatively longer strides. Speedskaters also need to take care of their body posture during all of this. They usually bend from their knees to maintain a low posture. This has two advantages. First of all, it increases the reach of the skater's legs, which results into even more powerful strides. Secondly, a low posture reduces the total surface area of the skater's body that comes in contact with the resistive air, thus providing an aerodynamic advantage.
Turning is significantly more difficult with inline speed skates than recreational skates because of more and larger wheels, creating a longer wheelbase. The wheel profile, that is, the cross-section, is parabolic, with a sharper shape than recreational or aggressive wheels, allowing the skater to essentially skate on a smaller, and hence more agile, wheel when leaned over in a turn.
Brakes are not generally used on speed skates so various other techniques to slow down are used, such as slaloming (skating s-curves) or v-plowing (or "snow-plowing"), where the heels are pushed outward and the toes inward. It is not readily obvious to an observer from a skater's stance that the skater is v-plowing, if it were the skater would quickly crash. The v-plow is often the stop used in situations where there is little lateral and forward room to stop. One technique is the T-stop, essentially dragging one foot perpendicular to and behind the other, however this wears the wheels of that skate quickly. Another stop involves picking up one foot and setting it down quickly and repeatedly somewhat perpendicular to the forward motion while keeping weight on the other foot. Hockey stops are possible on speed skates, but require a very deep lean in order to cause the wheels to lose traction and slide, also the fact that wheels are sliding means that the wheels are also wearing down very quickly. Grass runouts are always a last option, given an adjacent grassy area.
An inline speedskater takes much time to stop and often has still fewer options in an emergency, often taking several hundred feet on a level surface to come to a stop at a full, controlled deceleration. Thus, a skater should be familiar with and proficient in stopping techniques before attempting difficult situations such as heavily travelled roads or hills.
Training
Inline speed skating requires professional athletes to go through intense physical training. A strict diet and a rigorous training schedule has to be followed. The training schedule is mainly designed to build and maintain strong thighs and calves. But skating, just like swimming, requires the use of the whole body. Therefore, it is critical that the whole schedule is well balanced to attain and maintain a sturdy upper-body too. Also, a flexible upper body is preferred, which could help in maintaining the balance of the body in a better way. A heavy, protein-rich diet is required to be followed.
Usually, skaters have two sets of skates/wheels, one for training and the other for races and competitions. Wheels and bearings used for practice generally require much more efforts to gain some momentum and speed, as compared to the ones used in competitions. Ultra distance training requires years of training, time, and dedication to reach world class levels.
Tactics
In outdoor inline racing events, team tactics may apply. If so, tactics are similar to those of marathon ice speed skating and of road bicycle racing, in which members of the team perform specified roles.
Skaters tend to form packs or "pacelines", or "pelotons", in which skaters line up behind a lead skater and match their stride, thereby saving energy by skating in their draft. Sportsmanship requires that skaters in the paceline share the duty as paceline leader. Those who never "take a pull" at the front are likely to find other skaters tactically working together to defeat them.
During the course of a race skaters may make "attacks", speeding up the pace in an effort to weed out the weaker and slower competition. These attacks may include "breakaways" and "fliers", in which skaters try to create new smaller and faster packs or else to escape entirely from the other skaters. Depending on the length of the race and the skills and the cooperative effort of the chasers, these breakaways may or may not prove successful. If a skater escapes a pack in order to join a successful breakaway group, it is known as "bridging up".
When skaters who are member of teams participate in a race together, they often have pre-determined roles. One or two would be designated attackers whose role it is to tire out the competition. Another skater may be the designated winner for the team, and he may avoid chasing any breakaways until late in a race, possibly until the final sprint if the lead pack has never broken up.
Quad speed skating
Quad roller-skating racing is the precursor to the popularity and acclaim received by competitive racing on in-line skates. Up until 1991 all World Championships were held on quad skates. Most events at the 1992 World Championships were specific to quads, however, some events were classed as "open" giving the athlete the option of choosing either quads or in-lines. The same criteria were applied for the 1993 World Championships. In 1994 all events were declared as "open". Despite this, it had soon become evident that in-lines were predominantly quicker than quads on all surfaces and all tracks and to this end athletes opted for in-lines over quads, as is still the case today.
Race venues and formats
Inline speed skating races are held in a variety of formats and on a variety of surfaces.
Indoor races are most common in the United States, which has a long tradition of racing on skates at rinks. The competitions are generally held at roller skating rinks with plastic-coated wood floors and, less commonly, a plastic coated cement floor. The track is about 100 m in circumference. At USA Roller Sports (USARS) events, tracks are marked by four pylons set in a parabolic oval, while at NIRA (National Inline Racing Association) events, tracks are marked by multiple pylons that create an oval shaped track. Events, or meets, are typically structured so that members of numerous age groups race in three or four distances. For the more populous divisions, there may be a series of heats in order to qualify for the final race. To some extent, indoor inline races are similar to short track speed skating.
Outdoor races may be held on regular pavement on city streets or park roads, or they may be held at specialized venues similar to velodromes, sometimes called patinodromes. A patinodrome is generally about 200 m in circumference and may be surfaced with asphalt, concrete or similar material. The curves may be banked. Such specialized skating tracks are relatively common in Europe but rare in the United States. The international governing body for World Roller Sports, Federation Internationale de Roller Sports (FIRS) and its technical committee, Committee International de Course (CIC), are making strides to commonise tracks used specifically for World Championships that have the same size, shape and surface. Plans for such tracks are available from FIRS upon request.
Race formats include:
Time trials Held "against the clock", each skater races individually or in pairs over a distance of 100 m to 300 m, attempting to establish the best time. Time trials are occasionally held over longer distances, up to 100k which is 62 miles for fastest time. Another format measures how many miles one can achieve alone in 24 hours or 48 hours. All time trials are very physically demanding and not as popular as group racing. The time trial is the hardest of races, called "The Truth" because it's the true test of the individual with no help from drafting, teammates, or other competitors to achieve the fastest times. Bicycling has time trials in the Olympics and the Tour de France, for example.
Sprint races Skaters race individual short races 100m to 300m against the clock.
Elimination races In these moderate-distance races, also known as last man out, the hindmost skater is eliminated from the competition each time the pack of skaters complete a lap or when they complete certain specified lap numbers. At one or two laps to before the finish, the group has usually been pared down to four or five skaters. At this point, the first across the finish line is the winner.
Points races In these moderate-distance races, the first, second and third skaters to cross the start/finish line at certain specified laps are awarded points. Laps late in the race are worth more points, with the final lap worth the most points of all. It is possible to win a points race without actually being the first to cross the finish line at the end.
Points-elimination races A combination of elimination races and points races.
Relays Relay events include teams of two to four skaters each. Indoor meets may include "mixed" relay events in which teams have either one female and one male OR two females and two males, but outdoor relays (usually held on tracks) are usually if not always single-sex events. In a mix relay, it is traditional that a female goes to the starting line as the first skater to race.
Criterium races Instead of racing a specified distance or number laps, the skaters skate for a certain amount of time, then plus a (small) number of laps. The time is typically between 15 and 45 minutes, after which a bell is rung and the skaters informed the race is over when they skate one or two more laps around the course. The portion of the race skated after the bell is rung is known as the bell lap (or laps).
Distance races Although events such as points-elimination races and criteriums may cover a distance of 10 to 25 km, a distance race usually refers to a race over a set distance of about 5 km or longer and without specialized points or elimination rules. The event may be truly point-to-point or may be held on a repeating course with a circumference of at least 1 km. Distance races are often marketed to the general populace and not just to members of inline racing clubs.
Marathons Lately there is a new movement of skaters bringing big masses to events, these events are the skate marathons, . The most popular marathons in the USA are: The North Shore Marathon and Saint Paul Inline Marathon, however they are now taking place all over the world including the Goodwood Roller Marathon in the UK. These races gain more popularity everyday as skaters form friendships and bonds at these events.
Ultra Marathons Ultra Marathons draw relatively large numbers, given the time needed to complete such events, one could say that they are the equivalent to a running marathon, these events were very popular in the late 1990s but declined after the year 2001, there is a new movement of people keeping this events alive and bringing them back to the forefront of the speed skating world.
There are two very old and popular ultra marathons in the USA:
The New York City Skate Marathon and New York 100K The New York City Skate Marathon & NY 100K has been held since the early 1990s, with Brooklyn's Prospect Park hosting the event since the late 1990s. Various distances are competed at the event, but always including a race of approximately 42 kilometers and another of 100 kilometers.
Athens to Atlanta Road Skate (The A2A) This is the longest running point to point event in the USA, with a maximum distance of covering the distance from Athens, Georgia to Atlanta, Georgia.
In the early days of inline racing, sponsors of distance races were often also running event organizers, and the races they organized were commonly the same distances as those of running races, about 5–10 km. By the mid-1990s such events were proving to not be very popular and in the United States, where sales of inline skates were also beginning to slip, there was a decline in participation at races. However, at about that time in Europe, where inline skate sales were beginning to rise, race sponsors began to regularly organize longer events, particularly inline marathons. Such events proved to be enormously popular among fitness skaters, with some events such as the Berlin Inline Marathon (with more than 11.000 at its peak) and the Engadin Inline Marathon in St. Moritz, Switzerland, regularly attracting over 5000 skaters each year.
In about 2000 American event sponsors followed suit, and inline half-marathons and marathons were scheduled more and more frequently around the country. As in Europe the events proved a big draw with fitness skaters looking for events which would give their training a focus. However, by 2005 this surge was tempered as some major events were either postponed for a year or cancelled permanently. In the United States the most popular inline marathon has continued to be the NorthShore Inline Marathon in Duluth, Minnesota.
In 1999, a team of six British men led by Paul Robinson skated from Land's End to John O'Groats, a distance of . This is the only known long-distance skating event held in the world to date.
Dryland triathlons Occasionally organized by triathlon sponsors, these events substitute inline skating for the swimming component of the race. These events were infrequent even during the mid-1990s boom in inline skating participation. Today they are rare to non-existent.
Downhill races An event most popular in the Alpine countries of Europe, these races are timed events down a steep course. The use of concrete bobsleigh courses in summertime is not uncommon. Racers usually skate alone and the event commonly uses the best time of two heats to establish the winner. Downhill inline racers usually wear skates much more like "regular" inline skates than inline speed skates, along with extensive body covering and protective gear, and strong helmets. They may reach speeds of up to 130 km/h. The International Inline Downhill Association (IIDA) is the largest organization for inline downhill racing, holding races on several continents.
World Championships
Olympic status
Attempts by the world governing body for roller sports, the International Roller Sports Federation (FIRS), to gain Olympic status for any of its disciplines were distinctly insufficient in the closing decades of the 20th century. Most notably, it failed to capitalize when rink hockey (a form of roller hockey) appeared as a demonstration sport at the 1992 Summer Olympics in Barcelona.
Efforts by FIRS to obtain Olympic status became more coherent in about 2000, with inline speed skating promoted as the roller sport best suited for the Olympics. However, the federation faces competition from approximately 20 other sports also seeking entry into the Olympics, while at the same time the president of the International Olympic Committee has expressed a desire to reduce the size of the summer Olympic Games. Roller sports was a candidate sport for the 2016 Summer Olympics, following the drop of baseball and softball, but the Olympic Committee eventually chose rugby sevens and golf instead.
Notably, roller speed or in-line speed skating has been an included sport at the World Games since their inception in 1981.
World records
Track
Road
See also
Inline skating
Freestyle slalom skating
Road skating
References
External links
Inline Speed Skater The leading source for inline speed skating news, information, skater profiles, videos, and race results.
Big Wheel Blading Online Magazine focusing on all disciplines of Big Wheel Blading
International Federation of Roller Sports
World Speed Records
British Skating Legends
Bont Skates
Inline skating
Speed skating | [
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Subsets and Splits