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Ann Darrow was the name of the leading female character in which famous film of The 1930’s ?	Ann Darrow (Character) Ann Darrow (Character) from King Kong (1933) The content of this page was created by users. It has not been screened or verified by IMDb staff. There may be more photos available for this character. To select more photos to be displayed in this character's gallery, click the Edit Photos link. Overview Biography: Ann Darrow is a fictional character from the 1933 movie King Kong and its 2005 remake... See more » Alternate Names: ... aka "Kong: The Eighth Wonder of the World" - International (English title) (teaser title) ... aka "Peter Jackson's King Kong" - USA (promotional title) Dwan : You're just going to America to be a star. See more » Update You may correct errors and omissions on this page directly. Clicking the 'Update' button will take you through a step-by-step process. IMDb Everywhere Find showtimes, watch trailers, browse photos, track your Watchlist and rate your favorite movies and TV shows on your phone or tablet!	King Kong
Which Northern English city has districts called Manningham, Heaton and Little Horton ?	Kong is King.net \| The History of King Kong King Kong came back. In 2005, writer/director Peter Jackson, the man responsible for The Lord of the Rings Trilogy, directed a new, large-scale remake featuring a monstrous computer generated ape created by Jackson's special effects company, WETA Digital. However, Kong's origins lay long ago, towards the beginning of the last century in fact. What follows is a history of the great ape's adventures, on both the large and small screen. This history's films and TV series are the ones that were widley released. Many of the films that never left their native countries, such as the Indian and Japanese films, are not listed. "King Kong" - 1933 Official Text: An expedition explores a remote island with a gigantic ape deity known as Kong. Kong falls in love with a beautiful actress, who accompanies the expedition, when she is offered as a sacrifice. She is rescued. Kong is captured and taken to New York for exhibition. Kong breaks out of his cage and tries to elope with the actress. By the early 1930's, many producers were trying to build on the success of Sir Arthur Conan Doyle's "The Lost World," an epic adventure film about an expedition to a plateau filled with prehistoric animals, which we brought to life by Willis O'Brien. Merian C. Cooper and Edgar Wallace came up with the story about an island populated by dinosaurs, and of course, a huge silverback gorilla. The tale told of Carl Denham, a filmmaker who heads to the remote Skull Island to capture Kong, a huge creature who the locals hold at bay with a giant barrier that keep the beast locked in his primordial jungle. Ann Darrow, and John "Jack" Driscoll get caught up in the adventure, as Ann is captured by Kong and taken into the interior of his island home, and Jack leads the rescue mission to bring her back. On the way, the explorers are attacked by various types of dinosaurs. Eventually, they capture the gorilla and take him back to civilization, where Kong meets his end on the Empire State Building. The film went down in history as one of the great film adventures to be produced in that time period, and is considered a classic today. Be sure to watch our Quicktime 'turnaround' of the original King Kong model! [ Small ] [ Med ] [ Large ] "Son of Kong" - 1933 Official Text: After Kong has wrecked New York, producer Carl Denham flees from his creditors to Skull Island in search of some treasure, meets up with a cute brunette and the offspring of the thing that ruined him. After the wonderful reaction to the first film, a sequel was produced. Carl Denham returned, this time meeting a little Kong. The film was considered mediocre at best. (An interesting note: Both of these early films feature a character known as a "Witch king." Sound familiar?) "Kingukongu tai Gojira (King Kong vs. Godzilla)" - 1962 Official Text: In the waters off Japan, Godzilla, long thought destroyed, breaks out from an iceberg and heads towards the Japanese mainland. Meanwhile, the head of Tokyo Television Company dispatches a crew to Farou Island to capture the mysterious god that is reported to live on the island. The TTC crew then knocks out the giant ape known as "Kong" with narcotic berries and float him back to Japan on a raft. Kong escapes from the raft and he swims ashore to cause massive destruction. Meanwhile, Godzilla continues toward Tokyo. The authorities plan to use the strange narcotic berries to knock Kong out and bring him to Mt. Fuji where he will encounter, and, hopefully, destroy Godzilla. Another addition in the "Godzilla" series, the Japanese certainly have their own unique, and fun, take on the great ape. "King Kong" The TV Series" - 1966-69 Description: This popular ABC Saturday morning show was based on the famous 1930's monster movie. In this version, Kong lives peacefully on an island with the Bond family and fights various villians. Kong's best friend, Bobby Bond, is voiced by Billie Richards from "Rudolph The Red Nosed Reindeer." Each episode of "The King Kong Show" featured two adventures of Kon, and one episode of "Tom Of T.H.U.M.B." featuring a miniaturized secret agent, Tom, and his Asian sidekick, Swinging Jack. As part of the licensing deal to make this animated series, Rankin/Bass had to promise to make a new live action feature which they did in 1968 ("King Kong Escapes") in conjunction with Toho Productions, the makers of Godzilla. This was a children's series that featured the large ape and his escapades with young Billy Bond. It pretty much ignored the canon from the films. Looking for the theme song? We've got it right here! (Thanks to Harry over at AICN )	i don't know
"Which popular Restaurant chain, launched in 1979 now has over 125 different outlets Originally had a mascot named Charlie Chalk and has the advertising slogan ""Pub Food As It Should Be"" ?"	Brewers Fayre : definition of Brewers Fayre and synonyms of Brewers Fayre (English) History In the 1980s Whitbread also had the Roast Inns chain. Its slogan was The Family Welcome. In 1995 50 more outlets were added, at a cost of £85 million, taking the total to 280. At this time the Charlie Chalk Fun Factory was added to about thirty pubs. In 1996 52 were opened, with 17 having a Travel Inn next door; most were built near motorways. In early 1997 Whitbread introduced the Kiln & Kettle chain, which was similar to Brewers Fayre but without the children. Around the same time 90 more outlets opened. In May 1999 Whitbread announced it was proposing to leave the brewing industry and attempted to buy 3,600 outlets (including Firkin pubs) from Allied Domecq in a proposed £2.25 billion deal, in which they lost out to Punch Taverns . Later in October 1999 Whitbread formed a pubs and bars division (2,900 outlets) and a restaurants division (1,300 outlets) which included Brewers Fayre headed by Bill Shannon. On 25 May 2000 Whitbread announced it was leaving the brewing industry by selling its beers to Interbrew for £400 million, which allowed expansion of its food restaurants. In March 2001 Whitbread sold its non-food pubs to Deutsche Bank for £1.6 billion. In September 2001 34 outlets were put up for sale. In 2003 it announced that 35 outlets a year would be added over five years. Theme Brewers Fayre pubs are designed to give the feel of a traditional English pub. Warm contrasting colours are used throughout as well as stonework and wooden panelling. A small number of restaurants also feature stained glass. Victorian-style lampposts are a feature in many pub car parks. Paintings featuring a local feature (for example The Forth Road Bridge in the Brewers Fayre in South Queensferry ) are located at the front entrance to many pubs Disposals and re-branding Inshes Gate next to the A9 at Inverness There used to be many standalone Brewers Fayre pubs, but in 2006 Whitbread agreed to dispose of the 239 standalone Brewers Fayre and Beefeater sites. These had traditionally lower revenues and as growth had stalled in them compared to the still-growing Premier Inn sites, they were seen as an obstacle to the company's sales growth. Sites were sold to market rival Mitchells & Butlers , and over the year after they were sold, pubs were re-branded to Harvester, Toby Carvery and a selection of other brands. A large number of sites became Crown Carveries (formerly Pub & Carvery), and this sparked growth in the brand, which originally consisted of only a small number of pubs throughout the UK (they now have over 100 restaurants). A small number of standalone Brewers Fayre sites were retained where there was land where a Premier Inn could be built, such as The Three Bells near Lymington and The Craigside Inn in Llandudno . In 2008 Whitbread sold a further 44 Brewers Fayre & Beefeater sites (such as the Lauriston Farm in Edinburgh ) in exchange of 21 Express by Holiday Inn hotels, which were converted to Premier Inn. Brewers Fayre Local A small number of sites were renamed Brewers Fayre local, such as "The Glassworks" in Stourbridge. These pubs originally had a different menu but on the inside were designed more or less like a Table Table restaurant. The spin off brand did not appear to work as planned, and they are now just known as Brewers Fayre and have the same menu. Brewster's For a period in the early 2000s, some larger outlets were re-branded as Brewster's to differentiate a set of more family-oriented pubs from those more suited to adults. Although very similar in the environment and food offerings, Brewster's placed a greater emphasis on entertaining children: pubs had a multi-level play area known as the 'Fun Factory', children's entertainers and ice-cream machines. The brand was phased out in 2005, with most of its 147 outlets returned to the Brewers Fayre brand, after Brewster's had been identified as Whitbread's poorest-performing restaurant. All restaurants kept their indoor fun factories and at this point the firm's mascot Brewster the Bear took over as the Brewers Fayre mascot. A small number of Brewster's sites, such as The Inshes Gate in Inverness and Central Park in Rugby , had their fun factories cut down in size and became known as Play Zones. [2] [ citation needed ]. Honourable Pilot at the A2/A289 junction in Kent Table Table Main article: Table Table In 2006 a small number of Brewers Fayre restaurants were converted to Table Table restaurants, a more contemporary pub restaurant brand of Whitbread's. Originally the restaurants were unnamed (some kept the name Brewers Fayre but the logo was black instead of red). The first site was The Newhouse in Motherwell (which opened in June 2006). Over 100 sites were refurbished during 2007 and early 2008. Brewers Fayre has now stopped refurbishing its sites to this brand. Table Table had grown to 111 outlets by 2010. [1] Taybarns Starting in December 2007 with the Swansea Vale, a small number of restaurants were converted to the Taybarns format, an all-you-can-eat buffet restaurant. Whitbread announced plans to convert more Brewers Fayre sites to the Taybarns brand during 2009 and 2010, [3] but these conversions had not taken place by the end of 2011, partly due to their high cost. Possible sites included The Yeadon Way in Blackpool . Beefeater In early 2008 about ten Brewers Fayre restaurants were rebranded as Beefeater, such as The Millfield in York . Brewers Fayre Buffet Place Although a majority of Brewers Fayre pubs feature the Buffet Place as part of their restaurants, the newest site in Widnes (and a site due to open in autumn 2012) have been named 'Brewers Fayre Buffet Place'. the Widnes site features a larger buffet counter with buffets available all the time. Extras such as cakes and salads are also available. The theme of the restaurant is also slightly different. Castle Lake at Leybourne at the A228 junction 4 of the M20 near Leybourne Lakes Country Park Rejuvenation Despite the previous policy of disposals and rebranding of Brewers Fayres sites, the chain has seen a resurgence in popularity fuelled by new menu offers such as 2 for £10 meal deals, along with an option for 2 desserts for £2.[ citation needed ] In late 2008 a refurbishment program was launched. All sites were given a small make over featuring a new colour scheme, new carpets and paintings in the restaurants. Some of the first sites to be refurbished were The Meadows near Barnsley and The Oaks at Norwich Airport. On 31 March 2009 the new theme kicked off with a new logo featuring the new slogan "Pub Food as it Should Be" printed on the menus. Sites continued to be refurbished, with the last site refurbished in 2010. New external signage was given to each pub at this time, too. In December 2009, The Papermill in High Wycombe was refurbished and hot counters were added in the restaurant. The buffet counters (known as the "Buffet Place") are to hoast theme nights such as "Curry Night" on weekdays in addition to the main menu.[ citation needed ] After a successful trial at this location the programme was rolled out to further Brewers Fayre locations in September 2010 and then again during 2011. In September 2010 theme nights were introduced to all pubs, including those without buffet counters. These included "Pie nights" and "Fish & Chip shop nights". Sites that have the "Buffet Place" featured more theme nights for every weekday such as "Mexican night". This was a more cost-effective solution than conversion to a Taybarns or a Table Table restaurant, formats which currently have higher sales and profits than Brewers Fayre. More themes have been created since, and in some restaurants there is a different theme all day every day. According to Whitbread, it was "benefiting from sales at its Brewers Fayre and Premier Inn chain" in a 2011 economy in which "domestic price pressures [are] near their highest levels in two decades." [4] After opening The Harbour in Carrickfergus, Northern Ireland in early 2006, Brewers Fayre opened no pubs for over two years. Then The Wobbly Wheel near Banbury was refurbished from Millers Kitchen to Brewers Fayre in June 2008. Brewers Fayre opened its first new build site in 2011, The Malt & Myre at Lomondgate near Dumbarton, and now the brand is slowly opening more new build sites. Children's zones Almost all Brewers Fayres have some sort of children's play area. Almost all pubs feature an outdoor children's play area. All sites that were known as Brewster's have a big indoor multi-level soft play areas known as the Fun Factory (with the exception of a small number of pubs which cut the size of the fun factory to make way for more dining space). Brewster Bear is the firm's own mascot who appears in the indoor fun factories. Brewers Fayre originally had Charlie Chalk as their mascot, but he was replaced after the take over of Brewster's. A small number of Brewers Fayre pubs which had not been Brewster's also featured fun factories; however, most just had outdoor play areas. Brewers Fayre specialise in birthday parties for children, allowing private use of the Fun Factory. References	Brewers Fayre
Which moon of the planet Uranus shares it’s name with the daughter of Prospero in Shakespeare’s The Tempest ?	Brewers Fayre : definition of Brewers Fayre and synonyms of Brewers Fayre (English) History In the 1980s Whitbread also had the Roast Inns chain. Its slogan was The Family Welcome. In 1995 50 more outlets were added, at a cost of £85 million, taking the total to 280. At this time the Charlie Chalk Fun Factory was added to about thirty pubs. In 1996 52 were opened, with 17 having a Travel Inn next door; most were built near motorways. In early 1997 Whitbread introduced the Kiln & Kettle chain, which was similar to Brewers Fayre but without the children. Around the same time 90 more outlets opened. In May 1999 Whitbread announced it was proposing to leave the brewing industry and attempted to buy 3,600 outlets (including Firkin pubs) from Allied Domecq in a proposed £2.25 billion deal, in which they lost out to Punch Taverns . Later in October 1999 Whitbread formed a pubs and bars division (2,900 outlets) and a restaurants division (1,300 outlets) which included Brewers Fayre headed by Bill Shannon. On 25 May 2000 Whitbread announced it was leaving the brewing industry by selling its beers to Interbrew for £400 million, which allowed expansion of its food restaurants. In March 2001 Whitbread sold its non-food pubs to Deutsche Bank for £1.6 billion. In September 2001 34 outlets were put up for sale. In 2003 it announced that 35 outlets a year would be added over five years. Theme Brewers Fayre pubs are designed to give the feel of a traditional English pub. Warm contrasting colours are used throughout as well as stonework and wooden panelling. A small number of restaurants also feature stained glass. Victorian-style lampposts are a feature in many pub car parks. Paintings featuring a local feature (for example The Forth Road Bridge in the Brewers Fayre in South Queensferry ) are located at the front entrance to many pubs Disposals and re-branding Inshes Gate next to the A9 at Inverness There used to be many standalone Brewers Fayre pubs, but in 2006 Whitbread agreed to dispose of the 239 standalone Brewers Fayre and Beefeater sites. These had traditionally lower revenues and as growth had stalled in them compared to the still-growing Premier Inn sites, they were seen as an obstacle to the company's sales growth. Sites were sold to market rival Mitchells & Butlers , and over the year after they were sold, pubs were re-branded to Harvester, Toby Carvery and a selection of other brands. A large number of sites became Crown Carveries (formerly Pub & Carvery), and this sparked growth in the brand, which originally consisted of only a small number of pubs throughout the UK (they now have over 100 restaurants). A small number of standalone Brewers Fayre sites were retained where there was land where a Premier Inn could be built, such as The Three Bells near Lymington and The Craigside Inn in Llandudno . In 2008 Whitbread sold a further 44 Brewers Fayre & Beefeater sites (such as the Lauriston Farm in Edinburgh ) in exchange of 21 Express by Holiday Inn hotels, which were converted to Premier Inn. Brewers Fayre Local A small number of sites were renamed Brewers Fayre local, such as "The Glassworks" in Stourbridge. These pubs originally had a different menu but on the inside were designed more or less like a Table Table restaurant. The spin off brand did not appear to work as planned, and they are now just known as Brewers Fayre and have the same menu. Brewster's For a period in the early 2000s, some larger outlets were re-branded as Brewster's to differentiate a set of more family-oriented pubs from those more suited to adults. Although very similar in the environment and food offerings, Brewster's placed a greater emphasis on entertaining children: pubs had a multi-level play area known as the 'Fun Factory', children's entertainers and ice-cream machines. The brand was phased out in 2005, with most of its 147 outlets returned to the Brewers Fayre brand, after Brewster's had been identified as Whitbread's poorest-performing restaurant. All restaurants kept their indoor fun factories and at this point the firm's mascot Brewster the Bear took over as the Brewers Fayre mascot. A small number of Brewster's sites, such as The Inshes Gate in Inverness and Central Park in Rugby , had their fun factories cut down in size and became known as Play Zones. [2] [ citation needed ]. Honourable Pilot at the A2/A289 junction in Kent Table Table Main article: Table Table In 2006 a small number of Brewers Fayre restaurants were converted to Table Table restaurants, a more contemporary pub restaurant brand of Whitbread's. Originally the restaurants were unnamed (some kept the name Brewers Fayre but the logo was black instead of red). The first site was The Newhouse in Motherwell (which opened in June 2006). Over 100 sites were refurbished during 2007 and early 2008. Brewers Fayre has now stopped refurbishing its sites to this brand. Table Table had grown to 111 outlets by 2010. [1] Taybarns Starting in December 2007 with the Swansea Vale, a small number of restaurants were converted to the Taybarns format, an all-you-can-eat buffet restaurant. Whitbread announced plans to convert more Brewers Fayre sites to the Taybarns brand during 2009 and 2010, [3] but these conversions had not taken place by the end of 2011, partly due to their high cost. Possible sites included The Yeadon Way in Blackpool . Beefeater In early 2008 about ten Brewers Fayre restaurants were rebranded as Beefeater, such as The Millfield in York . Brewers Fayre Buffet Place Although a majority of Brewers Fayre pubs feature the Buffet Place as part of their restaurants, the newest site in Widnes (and a site due to open in autumn 2012) have been named 'Brewers Fayre Buffet Place'. the Widnes site features a larger buffet counter with buffets available all the time. Extras such as cakes and salads are also available. The theme of the restaurant is also slightly different. Castle Lake at Leybourne at the A228 junction 4 of the M20 near Leybourne Lakes Country Park Rejuvenation Despite the previous policy of disposals and rebranding of Brewers Fayres sites, the chain has seen a resurgence in popularity fuelled by new menu offers such as 2 for £10 meal deals, along with an option for 2 desserts for £2.[ citation needed ] In late 2008 a refurbishment program was launched. All sites were given a small make over featuring a new colour scheme, new carpets and paintings in the restaurants. Some of the first sites to be refurbished were The Meadows near Barnsley and The Oaks at Norwich Airport. On 31 March 2009 the new theme kicked off with a new logo featuring the new slogan "Pub Food as it Should Be" printed on the menus. Sites continued to be refurbished, with the last site refurbished in 2010. New external signage was given to each pub at this time, too. In December 2009, The Papermill in High Wycombe was refurbished and hot counters were added in the restaurant. The buffet counters (known as the "Buffet Place") are to hoast theme nights such as "Curry Night" on weekdays in addition to the main menu.[ citation needed ] After a successful trial at this location the programme was rolled out to further Brewers Fayre locations in September 2010 and then again during 2011. In September 2010 theme nights were introduced to all pubs, including those without buffet counters. These included "Pie nights" and "Fish & Chip shop nights". Sites that have the "Buffet Place" featured more theme nights for every weekday such as "Mexican night". This was a more cost-effective solution than conversion to a Taybarns or a Table Table restaurant, formats which currently have higher sales and profits than Brewers Fayre. More themes have been created since, and in some restaurants there is a different theme all day every day. According to Whitbread, it was "benefiting from sales at its Brewers Fayre and Premier Inn chain" in a 2011 economy in which "domestic price pressures [are] near their highest levels in two decades." [4] After opening The Harbour in Carrickfergus, Northern Ireland in early 2006, Brewers Fayre opened no pubs for over two years. Then The Wobbly Wheel near Banbury was refurbished from Millers Kitchen to Brewers Fayre in June 2008. Brewers Fayre opened its first new build site in 2011, The Malt & Myre at Lomondgate near Dumbarton, and now the brand is slowly opening more new build sites. Children's zones Almost all Brewers Fayres have some sort of children's play area. Almost all pubs feature an outdoor children's play area. All sites that were known as Brewster's have a big indoor multi-level soft play areas known as the Fun Factory (with the exception of a small number of pubs which cut the size of the fun factory to make way for more dining space). Brewster Bear is the firm's own mascot who appears in the indoor fun factories. Brewers Fayre originally had Charlie Chalk as their mascot, but he was replaced after the take over of Brewster's. A small number of Brewers Fayre pubs which had not been Brewster's also featured fun factories; however, most just had outdoor play areas. Brewers Fayre specialise in birthday parties for children, allowing private use of the Fun Factory. References	i don't know
If you were to order Rochebaron in a French restaurant, which food would you be served ?	Slow Travel France - French Language Lessons, Out for Dinner, ordering in restaurants * Sometimes spelled with a final t. Meals Although, like us, the French eat three meals per day, what they eat at each meal differs from what's customary in the US or UK. Generally breakfast is coffee and bread and jam. Contrary to common belief, croissants are not usually eaten daily but rather on more special occasions like weekends. (That said, we encourage you to eat many croissants au beurre whenever you like! After all, it's your vacation!) Both lunch and dinner can be larger or smaller meals. Traditionally the midday meal was the largest one. Nowadays, there is more variation - some people prefer to eat a smaller lunch and a larger dinner or vice versa. Lunch is served in restaurants usually between 12pm and 2pm. Dinner service usually starts at 7pm, although many French people don't go out for dinner until at least 8pm. ENGLISH please (in order to get waiter's attention) s'il vous plaît seel voo pleh * If pronouncing all of the consonants "t", "r" and "w" together is too difficult, leaving out the "r" will give you a close enough approximation. However, note that toi (twah) is a different word that means "you" informal. ** The French invariably pronounce foreign words as if they were French. It's not a bad idea to learn to pronounce your name as it might be pronounced in France. We are dah-VEED roh-NEES (David Ronis), zhoh-nah-TAH mohr-GAHN (Jonathan Morgan) et stehv koh-EHN (Steve Cohen)! Beverages Usually, servers first ask you what you would like to drink. Common choices are aperitifs, mineral water and wine. Below are some terms that will help you with your beverage order. ENGLISH ay-vee-ah Other Beverages Often, servers will offer you a drink before your meal. Also, many people like to have an after-dinner drink. Please refer to the Café Talk lesson for a list of common aperitifs and after-dinner drinks. Ordering Food When your drink order has been taken, it's time to turn to food. A traditional, full French meal might consist of appetizer, soup, fish course, meat course, cheese, dessert and coffee. Nowadays, diners are not expected to eat all of these courses. However, in the spirit of trying something new, you might consider a course in which you normally don't partake – cheese, for instance. Most fixed price menus are three or four courses and usually offer either an appetizer or soup for the first and dispense with the cheese course. Here is some vocabulary that should be useful when ordering. ENGLISH ça suffit sah sew-fee * Notice the subtle difference in pronunciation between voudrez (voo-dray) in the question and voudrais (voo-dreh) in the answer. A potage is usually a soup that is enriched with one or more of the following: cream, butter, egg, or a flour roux (butter and flour cooked together). * Beware that the words for fish (poisson) and drink (boisson) are very similar. If you mix the two up, you might find yourself in an embarrassing situation! Special Requests Many travelers have dietary restrictions or preferences. Here are a number of terms that will be helpful should you have any special needs. ENGLISH biologique bee-oh-loh-zheek * Feminine form in parenthesis. Also note that the indefinite article ("a" in English) is left out of the translated French phrase. Je suis un vegetarien is incorrect. Menu Items The following are examples of dishes commonly found on menus. It is, by no means, comprehensive. The gastronomy of France is vast and it's beyond the scope of these lessons to provide a detailed pronouncing dictionary of food terms. We do hope, however, that it will be helpful with the basics. (Note, again, that in this section we've switched the order in which the terms appear: French-English-Transliteration.) Appetizers Here are some appetizers you might find on a menu. FRENCH chicken breast sew-prehm duh voh-lahy* * The last syllable in volaille is basically a diphthong – a combination of two vowels, "ah" and "ee". In this case, the "ah" component receives the emphasis with the "ee" sounded lightly at the end. Meat In addition to the words for various meats, we're including a few of the organ meats. Europeans eat them with much more frequency than Americans and they are very commonly found on menus. Particularly if you don't like organ meats, you might want to know a few of their names so when they come up, you can avoid them! FRENCH veal sweetbreads (thymus gland) ree duh voh The French, in fact most Europeans, tend to cook their beef less than we do in the US and most wouldn't consider eating a steak well-done. Since both this predilection as well as the system for how meat is cooked is different from that in English-speaking countries, it's difficult to accurately translate the terms "rare, medium-rare" etc. Guidebooks and phrasebooks routinely contradict one another on this subject. That said, below is a guide that will hopefully be helpful. Of course, if meat is undercooked, you can always send it back to be cooked a bit more, although you might get a strange look from the waiter! In order to have a steak well-done, it might be necessary to order it très bien cuit. FRENCH ice cream glahs * Say that 10 times fast! Actually, since it's so difficult to articulate all of the "t"s, the final "t" in tarte is usually omitted, or rather assimilated into the initial "t" of tatin: "tahr tah-ta". Coffee After a meal, it's very common in France to have a cup of coffee. However, the French very seldom drink coffee with milk or cream after a meal. Like the Italians, there's a feeling that milk in coffee does not aid digestion. Most often, they'll just have a simple espresso. That said, don't let local custom dissuade you from enjoying a café au lait after your meal, if the spirit moves you. Decaffeinated coffee isn't an uncommon request in France. Nor is herbal or black tea. For a comprehensive listing of coffee terms, please consult the lesson entitled Café Talk . Paying the Bill When you are ready to pay and leave, you are expected to ask for your check. Waiters will almost never bring you the check until you request it. Restaurants in Europe don't expect to "turn over" tables. Once you sit down, the table is usually yours for the evening, or for as long as you like. ENGLISH You can hear this dialog being spoken. Download MP3 soundtrack: fr_restaurants.mp3 (340kb) Click on the link to play the sound file (it takes a few minutes to download). Right click to download the file to save on your computer. Dialog In the Slow Travel Italian Language Lesson: Going Out For Dinner, we encountered a simple conversation between a husband, wife and waiter at an Italian trattoria. What a coincidence that the same couple has decided to come to France the next year! Now they find themselves at a restaurant in Paris. Maître d': Bon soir, monsieur-dame. Vous avez une réservation? Husband: Oui. Pour deux personnes à huit heures et demi. Maître d': Quel est le nom? Husband: Cohen. Maître d': Bon, alors. Suivez-moi, s'il vous plaît. The Maître d' shows the couple to their table, gives them menus, leaves them alone. In a couple of minutes a waiter comes to take their order. Waiter: Bonsoir. Est-ce que vous voudrez quelque chose à boire? Un apéritif? Wife: Non, merci. Une bouteille d'eau minerale avec gas. Husband: Et un demi-litre de vin rouge du pays. Waiter: Bon. Et à manger? Wife: Je voudrais le menu prix-fixe à dix-neuf euros, avec les escargots à la bourguignonne, la sole meunière, une salade verte, et le mousse au chocolat. Husband: Moi, je voudrais la soupe à l'oignon, le cassoulet, une salade verte et la tarte tatin. Waiter: Excellent! Merci bien. The food is served and the couple relax and enjoy their meal. Finally they are ready to leave. Husband: L'addition, s'il vous plaît. Waiter: Oui. The couple pays the check, which includes a 12% service charge to which they add a few extra euro, and then they leave, stomachs full, and extremely content! Waiter: Bon soir. Merci.	Cheese
If you were to order Fladenbrot in a German or Turkish restaurant, which food would You be served ?	Meals and the Culture of Spain Meals and the Culture of Spain Meals and the Culture of Spain Spanish Meals & Eating Customs By Lisa & Tony Sierra Updated November 23, 2016. Spaniards love their food! In fact, the typical Spaniard probably eats more food than any one of us in the USA, but they take their time eating, spread their meals throughout the day, and walk between meals. Below is a brief description of a day of Spanish meals, from breakfast to dinner, with approximate mealtimes, as well as sample menus. The Smallest Meal of the Day Continental Breakfast A typical breakfast might include café con leche - strong coffee with hot, frothy milk, bollos (sweet rolls) with jam, toast with jam or mild cheese, or simply "Maria" crackers dunked in hot milk. Some families buy sweet and lemony magdalenas from the neighborhood bakery, but it is now very common (and more economical) to buy bags of these petite, fluffy, cupcake-like cakes in the supermarkets. Generally, breakfast in Spain is eaten at home, before dashing off to work or school. However, you may see some workers duck into the closest cafeteria at around 10:00am to enjoy a quick mid-morning "coffee break." continue reading below our video BBQ Side Dishes: The 411 Tapas - Little Spanish Meals Tapas are eaten well after breakfast, but before lunch, the large mid-afternoon meal! They are small plates, canapés or finger food, may be warm or cold dishes, and vary greatly from region to region - season to season. Tapas-Time generally includes bar-hopping to wine-taste and chat A different Tapa is ordered at each stop This time is just as much about socializing with friends and neighbors as it is about the quality of the tapas Friends may have a circuit, making regular stops at favorite bars The Spanish love tapas so much, they made a verb out of it. The phrase Vamos a tapear! means “Let’s go eat tapas!” There are literally hundreds, perhaps thousands of tapas. A few of the most popular tapas are: Tortilla Española - Spanish Omelet, also called tortilla de patata, or potato omelet Patatas Bravas - Potatoes with Spicy Brava Sauce Gambas al Ajillo - Shrimp in Garlic Want more tapas recipes? Read our Tapas FAQ , or visit our Tapas category page. La Comida – Lunch The midday meal or la comida as it is called in Spain is the largest meal of the day. It is definitely a large meal, usually with multiple courses. Traditionally, Spaniards have a 2-3 hour break from work or school in order to enjoy la comida and take a short nap or siesta, and the entire country closes up shop from about 2:00pm to 4:30 or 5:00pm. The siesta is a tradition that goes back centuries. When most people worked in agriculture and air conditioning did not exist, it is easy to understand why folks needed fuel from a large meal, and a rest from the hot Spanish sun before returning to farm work outside. Everyone in Spain enjoyed this afternoon break, from school kids to shop workers and government officials. Most Spaniards still enjoy a break and large meal, but life in Spain is changing. In larger cities like Madrid and Barcelona, many people spend over an hour commuting to and from their work, making it impossible to go home for a meal and siesta. Because of this, Spanish government employees in Madrid now work a standard eight-hour day with a one-hour lunch break. Many large supermarket and retail chains in large cities don't close for lunch anymore. Most small shops still close to enjoy their meal and a break before re-opening in the late afternoon. The Largest Meal of the Day Multiple Courses with Wine Eaten between 1:30 and 3:30 pm Below is a sample meal that you might find on a menu at a restaurant, or if you were invited to someone’s home for lunch: Vegetable, Bean or Seafood Soup (many times rice, potato or pasta-based) Fresh Fish or Seafood, Roast Chicken or Lamb, Fried Potatoes, Rabbit Stew, etc. Green Salad or Vegetables Dessert - Flan, light pastry, fresh fruit or ice cream Coffee and Liqueur or Brandy Bread is ALWAYS on the Spanish table. It is plentiful and fresh and used to mop up sauces. Since Spanish lunches are always large, and courses come one at a time, pace yourself! Like Italians, Spaniards believe in taking their time and enjoying their meals, so la comida can last an hour and a half or longer. Since Spaniards love eggs and dairy foods, you will find that many desserts are made from fresh milk or cream. Fresh fruit is typical to see on the dessert menu and may be served with a soft cheese. Don’t forget an espresso shot – You’ll probably need it after the big lunch! La Merienda - Snack The late-afternoon snack in Spain is called la merienda and is necessary since lunch is done by 3:30pm, but dinner isn't usually eaten for another five to six hours. La Merienda is especially important to children, who always seem to have lots of energy and play soccer in the streets, etc. La Merienda can be anything from a piece of French-style bread with a piece of chocolate on top, to bread with chorizo sausage, ham or salami. It is eaten around 4:30 or 5:00pm, and since dinner isn't served for at least another 3-4 hours, nobody worries that this snack will ruin the appetite for dinner! La Cena – Dinner Light fare, such as an omelet or fish with a green salad Eaten between 9:00 pm and Midnight A dinner might include fresh fish or seafood, a portion of roast chicken or lamb, with fried potatoes or rice. Portions are usually smaller, and plates are simpler. A simple and quick dish, commonly eaten at dinner is arroz cubano , which is a mound of white rice, topped with tomato sauce and a fried egg. Green salad and/or a vegetable dish are standard at lunch and dinner. A lighter dessert of fresh fruit or flan (Spanish vanilla custard) may also be eaten. Often times, rather than sitting down to dinner at a restaurant, a group of friends may decide to meet and tapear, (make the rounds at their favorite tapas bars) before seeing a movie, going to a club or show. After Dinner Spaniards are night owls. The typical Spaniard does not eat dinner until at least 9 o’clock in the evening and probably does not get to bed until close to midnight. On the weekends, on holidays and during the summer months, it wouldn’t be unusual for a Spanish family to turn in round 3 or 4 o’clock in the morning. So, after the late-night dinner, Spaniards continue their socializing in their neighborhood cafés and taverns or go out to a nightclub or pub. The last stop on the way home from an evening of fun might be to a churreria or a churro stand. Churros are fried pastries that look something like fried potatoes, though they have nothing to do with potatoes. The closest thing that we have in the USA would be fritters or donuts. However, fresh churros, bought from a street vendor or sidewalk café, served hot and sprinkled with sugar are delicious. To accompany your churros, hot chocolate is the drink of choice! Chocolate in Spain is NOT like the chocolate that you may have had in the USA. It´s not like Mexican chocolate either, which has cinnamon and other flavors in it. Spanish chocolate is made hot and very thick. It is usually made from fresh, whole milk, not a "just add water" chocolate packet. It’s sweet and so thick that you can practically stand a spoon in it!	i don't know
Which Southern English city has districts called Shirley, Bassett Green and Thornhill ?	shirley southampton : definition of shirley southampton and synonyms of shirley southampton (English) 7 Around Southampton History The place-name Shirley means 'bright glade', from the Old English scir (bright) and leah (cleared land in a wood). [1] Shirley is recorded as a manor with a mill in the Domesday book, 1086. Shirley Mill originally stood to the east of the present Romsey Road / Winchester Road junction, at the confluence of the Hollybrook and Tanner's Brook streams. Shirley Mill had three large ponds, to the north of Winchester Road. Only one of those three mill ponds remains today, accessible by following the Lordswood Greenway. In the nineteenth century an iron works was built, which was converted into a brewery in 1880 and subsequently into a laundry at the beginning of the 20th Century. The laundry was owned by Royal Mail and used to service the mail ships visiting Southampton . The outflow from the mill was crossed by a ford on the Romsey Road. The stream is presently culverted under the major traffic junction which presently stands there, and continues to the Test to the east of modern Tebourba Way, open in parts and culverted in others. The district grew rapidly in the 1830s following the enclosure of Shirley Common (not to be confused with Southampton Common ) in 1829. The parish church was built in 1836. The Shirley Local board of health was established in 1853. It merged with Freemantle in 1880. Shirley and Freemantle Urban District Council was formed on 2 January 1895 but was abolished on 8 November 1895 when the district became a suburb of Southampton. [2] [3] [4] In 1887 a drinking fountain was constructed to celebrate the Golden Jubilee of Queen Victoria . Originally in Shirley High Street, the fountain has now been incorporated into the shopping precinct. The fountain is Grade II listed . [5] The council estate was built in the 1960s to replace relatively dense terraced housing. Education Shirley is home to several schools including Upper Shirley High School (formerly Bellemoor Boys School), Taunton's College and the 450-year-old King Edward VI School . The area is also served by Regents Park Community College (formerly Regents park Girls School). Shirley also has a mixture of both infant schools and junior schools for mixed abilities and genders. Cemetery The nearby Hollybrook Cemetery is notable for being the resting place of several famous individuals, including the 1966 World Cup winning footballer Alan Ball (1945-2007) and the comedian Benny Hill (1924-1992). [1] References	Southampton
Which English author wrote the 1885 novel King Solomon’s Mines ?	Southampton Southampton MPs: John Denham, Sandra Gidley, Alan Whitehead Southampton is a city and major port situated on the south coast of England . It is the closest city to the New Forest , situated approximately halfway between Portsmouth and Bournemouth. Southampton lies at the northern-most point of Southampton Water where it is joined by the River Test and River Itchen, with the River Hamble joining to the south of the urban area. The city represents the core of the Greater Southampton region. A resident of Southampton is called a Sotonian. History Southampton High Street in 1839. The memorial to the engineers of the RMS Titanic . Although Stone Age settlements are known to have existed in the area, the first permanent settlement was established by the Romans . Known as Clausentum, it was an important trading port for the large Roman towns of Winchester and Salisbury. The Anglo-Saxons moved the centre of the town across the River Itchen to its present location, and it remained an important port. At the time, it was centered around what is now the St Mary's area, and the settlement was known as Hamwic. This name was later to evolve into Hamtun, and later still to Hampton. The Viking King Canute the Great is supposed to have defeated the Anglo-Saxon King Ethelred the Unready here in 1014 and been crowned here, and his fabled attempt to "command" the tide to halt may have taken place in Southampton. However, its prosperity was assured following the Norman Conquest in 1066, when it became the major port of transit between Winchester (then the capital of England ) and Normandy. By the 13th Century, Southampton had become a leading port, and was particularly involved in the wool trade. The Wool House was built in 1417 as a warehouse for the medieval wool trade with Flanders and Italy . This building is today used as the Maritime Museum, and can be found near Town Quay. It includes an exhibition concerning the RMS Titanic. Bowls was first played regularly on the Southampton Old Bowling Green adjacent to God's House Hospital in 1299. It is the world's oldest surviving bowling green. The town was sacked in 1338 by the French, including the pirate Grimaldi, who used the plunder to help found the principality of Monaco . After this attack, the city walls were built, some of which remain as ruins today. The city walls include God's House Tower, built in 1417, the first purpose-built artillery fortification in England. Today, it is open as the Museum of Archaeology. The 12th century Red Lion pub on the High Street below the Bargate within the old walls is where in 1415, immediately prior to King Henry V of England 's departure from Southampton to the Battle of Agincourt, the ringleaders of the " Southampton Plot", Richard, Earl of Cambridge, Henry Scrope, 3rd Baron Scrope of Masham and Sir Thomas Grey of Heton, were tried and found guilty of high treason, before being summarily executed outside the Bargate. During the Middle Ages , shipbuilding became an increasingly important industry, which was to remain for centuries to come. The city became a county corporate in 1447. King Edward VI Grammar School was founded in the city near God's House Tower as a school for poor clergyman in 1553 by William Capon. Isaac Watts, one of its locally born alumni, wrote the words of the hymn O God Our Help In Ages Past, the melody of which forms the four-hourly peal of the Civic Centre clock chimes. King Edward's survives as a selective independent co-educational secondary school. The Watts memorial in the city's West Park - also known as the Watts Park - was unveiled in 1861. The port was the original point of departure for the Pilgrim Fathers aboard the Mayflower in 1623. A memorial can be found on Town Quay. Since that time it has been the last port of call for literally millions of emigrants who left the Old World to start a new life in the USA, Australia , Canada , New Zealand , South Africa and other parts of the world. The painter John Everett Millais was born in the city. Southampton Solent University's art gallery is named Millais Gallery in his honour. In common with most of the luxury liners of the time, the RMS Titanic sailed from here, and it is still an important ocean liner port frequented by luxury ships such as the RMS QE2, the MV Oriana, and most recently the Queen Mary 2. A memorial to the engineers of the Titanic may be found in Andrews Park, on Above Bar Street. There is a memorial to the musicians who played on the Titanic just opposite the main memorial. Also, the Maritime museum in Wool Hall includes an exhibition related to the vessel. Most of Titanic's crew lived in Southampton; 549 Sotonians died in the sinking. The city is home to Sir Edwin Lutyens' first permanent cenotaph, a memorial to the city's dead of World War I . When it was unveiled on 6 November 1920, it was 1800 names, later raised to 2008. It can be found in West (Watts) Park, opposite the Titanic memorial. The Second World War hit Southampton particularly hard, partly because of its strategic importance as the major industrial area on the South Coast and partly because of the city's links to the Supermarine Spitfire fighter aircraft, which was invented and manufactured in Southampton. Pockets of Georgian architecture remain, but much of the city was levelled. The accuracy of the locally-based Ordnance Survey's maps did not go unrecognised by the Luftwaffe : the German bomber pilots used them to bomb Southampton. One notable building to survive the bombings was Southampton's oldest, St. Michaels Church. Thought to have been commenced in 1070 , the building has been added to many times over the centuries but its central tower dates from Norman times. The spire was an important navigation aid for the German pilots and consequently they were ordered to avoid it . The Spitfire was developed and initially manufactured in the suburb of Woolston. Its designer, Reginald Mitchell, grew up in Stoke-on-Trent, then had a house in Russell Place in the suburb of Highfield near the university (now identified by a memorial plaque). The plane was a direct descendant of experimental aircraft built by Supermarine that competed in the Schneider Trophy in the 1930s. Supermarine was taken over by Vickers in 1928. Mitchell's short life is documented in the film The First of the Few. On Sept 24th 1940, the Woolston factory was bombed, killing 100 workers, though not damaging the factory. Two days later, the factory was heavily damaged by bombing, and thirty more workers died, which interrupted production of the Spitfire for many weeks at a critical time of the UK's survival. There were many aircraft companies based around Hamble, to the east of the city, from the 1930s to 1950s, including Folland Aviation, started by Henry P Folland, the former chief designer of Gloster Aircraft. Folland was taken over by Hawker Siddeley in 1960, and later as British Aerospace, the factory built the Hawk and Harrier. The history of the area's contribution to aviation is celebrated at the Southampton Hall of Aviation, near Itchen Bridge, and opposite the erstwhile site of the Woolston Supermarine factory. BOAC had a flying boat base in the docks serving British colonial possessions in Africa and Asia in the 1930s and 1940s. It closed in 1950 when land based aircraft became dominant. Nearby, Calshot Spit was a base for the military flying boat services. Southampton was one of the boroughs reformed by the Municipal Corporations Act 1835, and contained the parishes of All Saints, Holy Rood, St John, St Lawrence, St Mary, St Michael, and part of South Stoneham. The town became a county borough under the Local Government Act 1888. In 1894, under the Local Government Act 1894, the part of South Stoneham within the borough became the parish of Portswood, and in 1895 the parish of Shirley was added. In 1920, Bitterne, and part of the parishes of North Stoneham and South Stoneham were added. The area of the Itchen Urban District was added in 1925. In 1967 it took in part of the Nursling and Rownham parishes added. The boundaries have been largely unchanged since then, despite the loss of county borough status under the Local Government Act 1972, and subsequent regaining of unitary authority status with the Banham Review. Southampton was awarded city status in 1964 by Letters Patent. Economy This is a chart of trend of regional gross value added of Southampton with Darwen at current basic prices published (pp.240-253) by Office for National Statistics with figures in millions of British Pounds Sterling. Year includes financial intermediation services indirectly measured ↑ Components may not sum to totals due to rounding Southampton today The dockyards on the River Test Containers being loaded at the docks The Ocean Village marina Council tower blocks in Weston In common with many British towns and cities, Southampton was heavily bombed during the Second World War. Many historic buildings were lost as a result, but the old city walls remain, as does the Bargate, formerly the main gateway to the city at the northern end of the walls (Southampton has England's second-longest stretch of surviving Medieval wall, the longest being in York ). The Bargate is often used as a symbol of the city, and is a prominent part of the city council's corporate identity. There are numerous large parks in the city centre. Most of Southampton's municipal services, including the library and the well-endowed art gallery are to be found in the Civic Centre. The city is home to the University of Southampton, Southampton Solent University and West Quay shopping centre, which was the biggest city-centre shopping mall in Europe when it was opened. It is also the headquarters of Ordnance Survey, the UK's national mapping agency, and the location of the National Oceanography Centre, Southampton, the focus of Natural Environment Research Council-funded marine research. The Lloyd's Register Group has announced plans to move its London marine operations to a specially developed site at the University of Southampton. The local newspaper for the city is the Southern Daily Echo, a Newsquest publication. Southampton has always been strongly connected with maritime history and developments. In particular, it is a primary port for cruise ships, its heyday being the first half of the 20th century , and in particular the inter-war years, when it handled almost half the passenger traffic of the UK . Today it remains home to many luxury liners, as well as being a very important container port. The outstanding harbour means it is the principal port on the south coast, and one of the largest in the UK. Sailing is a popular sport here. Much of this is centred around the Ocean Village development, a local marina which includes one of the South Coast's major independent cinema complexes, Harbour Lights. From 1977 to 2001 the famous Whitbread Around the World Yacht Race (now known as the Volvo Ocean Race) started in Southampton The area of Swaythling is home to Ford's Southampton Assembly Plant, where the majority of their Transit models are manufactured. Southampton is named the 'Green City' as it is graced with many green spaces and parks. Standing in any area of Southampton, if you turn 360 degrees you will see at least one form of greenery. The largest green space is Southampton Common, parts of which are used to host the annual summer festivals, circuses and funfairs. The Common covers a larger area than Hyde Park in London and includes a Wildlife Centre on the former site of Southampton Zoo, a swimming pool and several lakes and ponds. The city also boasts the Southampton Sports Centre which is the focal point for the public's sporting and outdoor activities and includes an Alpine Centre, Theme Park and Athletics Centre used by professional athletes. As with most cities there are several council estates such as those in the Weston district. Southampton Football Club (nicknamed the "Saints") is also based here, at St Mary's Stadium which was built in the early 2000's on the site of the old gasworks. It has a capacity of 32,000 and cost £32 Million to build. In 1976, "The Saints" won the FA Cup Final beating Manchester United 1-0. It was a Southampton team member, Charles William Miller, who founded Brazil 's first football club. Hampshire 's county Cricket ground is the Rose Bowl, Southampton, in nearby West End. Both the SFC stadium and the Rose Bowl have recently played host to concerts from Bon Jovi to Billy Joel. Southampton has a vibrant nightlife and thriving cafe culture. Music is an important aspect of the city and there are several stadiums and outlets for this. The city is home to R'n'B soulstar Craig David, Coldplay drummer Will Champion, and was the birthplace of comedian Benny Hill. There is a large Polish population in Southampton, with estimates as high as 20,000, or 1 in every 10. Government and politics Formerly a County Borough within the county of Hampshire (to which it gave its name, the County of Southampton or Southamptonshire - this was officially changed to Hampshire in 1959 though the county had been commonly known as Hampshire or Hantshire for centuries), it became a non-metropolitan district in 1974. However, the city became independent administratively from that county as it was made into a unitary authority in a local government re-organisation on 1 April 1997. The district remains part of the Hampshire ceremonial county. Southampton City Council consists of 48 councillors elected by thirds. After the 2006 local council elections on May 4, 2006 the Council is split evenly 16 seats each to the Liberal Democrats , Labour and the Conservative Party. Currently the council is run by the Liberal Democrats with Labour support. There are three members of parliament for the city: Rt Hon John Denham ( Labour) for Southampton Itchen (constituency for the east of the city), Dr Alan Whitehead (Labour) for Southampton Test (the west of the city), and Sandra Gidley (Liberal Democrat) for Romsey (which includes a portion of the north of the city). Transport As befits Southampton's role as a major port, the city has good transport links with the rest of the country. The M27 motorway, linking places along the south coast of England, runs just to the north of the city. The M3 motorway links the city to London and also, by linking to the A34 road at Winchester with the Midlands and North. The M271 motorway links the M27 with the Western Docks and city centre. Southampton is also well served by the rail network, used by both freight services to and from the docks, and passenger services as part of the national rail system. The main station in the city is Southampton Central. Routes run eastwards to Portsmouth and Brighton , north-east to Winchester and London , north to Reading, Birmingham and beyond, north-west to Salisbury, Bristol and Cardiff and west to Bournemouth, Poole and Weymouth . Southampton Coach Station was refurbished recently, and the range and frequency of services offered by the National Express Group increased to make use of the new facilities. Southampton Airport is a regional airport located in the town of Eastleigh, just north of Southampton. It is connected to the city by a frequent rail service, and hosts flights to UK and near European destinations. Whilst Southampton is no longer the base for any cross-channel ferries, it is the terminus for three internal ferry services, all of which operate from terminals at Town Quay. Two of these, a car ferry service and a fast catamaran passenger ferry service, provide links to Cowes on the Isle of Wight and are operated by Red Funnel. The third ferry is the Hythe Ferry, providing a passenger service to the town of Hythe on the other side of Southampton Water. Town Quay is linked to Southampton Central station by a free bus service. Local transport is largely road based, with significant peak hour congestion in the city. The main bus operators are First, Solent Blue Line (who also operate the BlueStar service) and Uni-link, although other operators also run services into the city, including Stagecoach and Wilts and Dorset.There is also a door to door minibus service (Southampton Dial a Ride) for residents who cannot access public transport, this is funded by the City Council and operated by SCA Support Services. However, local train services do operate in the central, Southern and Eastern sections of the city, serving Swaythling, St. Denys, Millbrook, Redbridge, Bitterne, Sholing and Woolston. The Uni-link bus service was commissioned by the University of Southampton to provide access to students who are studying at the university to all parts of the city. The buses run from early in the morning to midnight meeting demands of students who wish to get to the city during the day and leisure places in the evening. Districts and suburbs Map showing the districts and suburbs of Southampton. The city centre area is highlighted in red. Within Southampton there are several districts and suburbs, including: Bassett, Bassett Green, Bevois Valley, Bitterne, Bitterne Park, Bitterne Manor Chartwell Green, Chilworth Coxford Shirley, Sholing, St. Denys, St. Mary's, Swaythling Thornhill, Townhill Park	i don't know
Marion Crane was the name of the leading female character of which famous film of The 1960’s ?	Psycho (1960) - IMDb IMDb There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error From $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video ON DISC A Phoenix secretary embezzles $40,000 from her employer's client, goes on the run, and checks into a remote motel run by a young man under the domination of his mother. Director: a list of 32 titles created 06 Feb 2011 a list of 21 titles created 09 Oct 2013 a list of 24 titles created 09 Jul 2014 a list of 30 titles created 12 Sep 2014 a list of 41 titles created 9 months ago Search for " Psycho " on Amazon.com Connect with IMDb Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. Nominated for 4 Oscars. Another 5 wins & 9 nominations. See more awards » Videos A wheelchair-bound photographer spies on his neighbours from his apartment window and becomes convinced one of them has committed murder. Director: Alfred Hitchcock A San Francisco detective suffering from acrophobia investigates the strange activities of an old friend's wife, all the while becoming dangerously obsessed with her. Director: Alfred Hitchcock A family heads to an isolated hotel for the winter where an evil and spiritual presence influences the father into violence, while his psychic son sees horrific forebodings from the past and of the future. Director: Stanley Kubrick A hapless New York advertising executive is mistaken for a government agent by a group of foreign spies, and is pursued across the country while he looks for a way to survive. Director: Alfred Hitchcock A criminal pleads insanity after getting into trouble again and once in the mental institution rebels against the oppressive nurse and rallies up the scared patients. Director: Milos Forman A wealthy San Francisco socialite pursues a potential boyfriend to a small Northern California town that slowly takes a turn for the bizarre when birds of all kinds suddenly begin to attack people. Director: Alfred Hitchcock In Casablanca, Morocco in December 1941, a cynical American expatriate meets a former lover, with unforeseen complications. Director: Michael Curtiz A young F.B.I. cadet must confide in an incarcerated and manipulative killer to receive his help on catching another serial killer who skins his victims. Director: Jonathan Demme Following the death of a publishing tycoon, news reporters scramble to discover the meaning of his final utterance. Director: Orson Welles 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 8.3/10 X In future Britain, Alex DeLarge, a charismatic and psycopath delinquent, who likes to practice crimes and ultra-violence with his gang, is jailed and volunteers for an experimental aversion therapy developed by the government in an effort to solve society's crime problem - but not all goes according to plan. Director: Stanley Kubrick An insane general triggers a path to nuclear holocaust that a war room full of politicians and generals frantically try to stop. Director: Stanley Kubrick A mentally unstable Vietnam War veteran works as a night-time taxi driver in New York City where the perceived decadence and sleaze feeds his urge for violent action, attempting to save a preadolescent prostitute in the process. Director: Martin Scorsese Edit Storyline Phoenix officeworker Marion Crane is fed up with the way life has treated her. She has to meet her lover Sam in lunch breaks and they cannot get married because Sam has to give most of his money away in alimony. One Friday Marion is trusted to bank $40,000 by her employer. Seeing the opportunity to take the money and start a new life, Marion leaves town and heads towards Sam's California store. Tired after the long drive and caught in a storm, she gets off the main highway and pulls into The Bates Motel. The motel is managed by a quiet young man called Norman who seems to be dominated by his mother. Written by Col Needham <[email protected]> It Is _Required_ That You See Psycho From The Very Beginning! See more » Genres: 8 September 1960 (USA) See more » Also Known As: Alfred Hitchcock's Psycho See more » Filming Locations: Did You Know? Trivia Janet Leigh received threatening letters after the film's release, detailing what they would like to do to Marion Crane. One was so grotesque she passed it on to the FBI. The culprits were discovered, and the FBI said she should notify them again if she ever received any more letters. See more » Goofs At the car dealership, the same extras (people on the sidewalks) are seen repeatedly, walking in different directions See more » Quotes Marion Crane : Do you have any vacancies? Norman Bates : Oh, we have 12 vacancies. 12 cabins, 12 vacancies. Opening credits prologue: PHOENIX, ARIZONA FRIDAY, DECEMBER THE ELEVENTH TWO FORTY-THREE P.M. See more » Connections (Corvallis, Oregon) – See all my reviews When you look up the phrase "Horror Film" in the dictionary .. a picture of Janet Leigh screaming in a shower should appear next to it. Undoubtedly, Psycho is the greatest horror film ever made, bar-none. The story is incredible. The acting is near perfection. The cinematography is godly. The soundtrack is perfect. It's hard to find anything wrong with Psycho. Perhaps the only imperfection I can find with Psycho is the inability to stand the test of time. One of the reasons the shower scene has become so notorious is that it's not only filmed to perfection, but because the elements of sexuality and murder are so surreal. In 1960, seeing a nude women being murdered in a shower was something that no-one had experienced yet, and was quite shocking. Nowadays, seeing Jason double-spearing two lovers having sex is nothing uncommon. I envy those who experienced Psycho in 1960 in the theaters .. those experienced the full terror of Psycho. Aside from this though, the movie is flawless. I won't even go into to how incredible the cinematography is. One thing I think people seem to forget about the movie is the incredible soundtrack. Sound is such an important element in movies and Psycho is undaunted when it comes to sound. The only other horror movie that even comes close to using sound with such perfection is Halloween (1978). The movie is perfectly casted as well. Janet Leigh as the beautiful Marion Crane, Vera Miles as the concerned sister, Lila Crane, and of course the unforgettable performance from Anthony Perkins as the eerie yet charismatic Norman Bates. I would recommend this movie to any horror movie film fanatic. I would especially recommend this movie to any horror movie fan not desensitized by Friday The 13th, Nightmare On Elm Street, or Scream .. if such a fan exists. 223 of 289 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you? Yes	Psycho
William F Lamb from the construction firm Shreve, Lamb and Harmon was the designer Of which famous construction that first opened in 1931 ?	Greatest Films of 1960 The Apartment (1960) , 125 minutes, D: Billy Wilder A Best Picture-winner - a classic, caustically-witty, satirically cynical, melodramatic comedy about corporate politics - and a bitter-sweet romance. In a bid to get ahead, an ambitious, lowly, misguided and young insurance clerk C. C. Baxter (Jack Lemmon) generously lent out the keys to his NYC apartment to his company's higher-up, philandering executives for romantic, adulterous, extra-marital trysts, including to his callous married boss J. D. Sheldrake (Fred MacMurray). Baxter's own budding crush toward his building's elevator operator - melancholy, and vulnerable Fran Kubelik (Shirley MacLaine) turned ugly when he discovered he had been outsmarted - she was the latest conquest of his boss - and had attempted suicide in his apartment. Baxter's next-door, philosophizing doctor/neighbor Dr. Dreyfuss (Jack Kruschen) convinced Baxter to confront the craven ethics of his superiors - and he won the affections of Fran. L'Avventura (1960, It./Fr.) (aka The Adventure), 145 minutes, D: Michelangelo Antonioni The first part of a trilogy, followed by La Notte (1961, It./Fr.) (aka The Night) and L'Eclisse (1962, It./Fr.) (aka The Eclipse). Black Sunday (1960, It.) (aka La Maschera del Demonio, or The Mask of Satan), 87 minutes, D: Mario Bava Les Bonnes Femmes (1960, Fr./It.) (aka The Good Time Girls), 100 minutes, D: Claude Chabrol Chabrol's film was one of the French New Wave (Nouvelle Vague) films of its time (although never released in the US), and set in Paris (although photographed as drab and dingy). The dark and cynical melodrama followed the exploits of four "good time girls," all shop-girl clerks in an electrical appliance store, as they sought love, excitement, freedom, and escape at nighttime. However, each one had very different aspirations in life. The four included carefree party-girl Jane (Bernadette Lafont), aspiring night-club singer Ginette (Stéphane Audran), and marriage-fixated/engaged and social-climbing Rita (Lucille Saint-Simon). The main protagonist, sweet, shy, demure and sensitive Jacqueline (Clotilde Joano), a hopeless and vulnerable romantic, was tragically drawn to a mysterious, black-leathered motorcyclist Andre (Mario David), who was stalking her. He was mistaken as her long-awaited Prince Charming and turned out to be her executioner. A Bout De Souffle (1960, Fr.) (aka Breathless), 90 minutes, D: Jean-Luc Godard BUtterfield 8 (1960), 109 minutes, D: Daniel Mann La Dolce Vita (1960, It./Fr.) (aka The Sweet Life), 174 minutes, D: Federico Fellini Elmer Gantry (1960) , 146 minutes, D: Richard Brooks Eyes Without a Face (1960, Fr./It.) (aka Les Yeux Sans Visage), 88 minutes, D: Georges Franju Inherit the Wind (1960) , 127 minutes, D: Stanley Kramer This absorbing liberal "message" film portrayed the famous and dramatic courtroom Scopes "Monkey Trial" battle (in the sultry summer of 1925 in Dayton, Tennessee) between two famous lawyers (Clarence Darrow and William Jennings Bryan), who heatedly argued both sides of the case. The film starred two major Oscar-winning giants and veterans of the cinema with remarkable career-high performances - Spencer Tracy (as Darrow- Henry Drummond) and Fredric March (as Bryan - Matthew Harrison Brady) - who had never before acted together in a film. Film-maker Stanley Kramer both produced and directed this film that modified and slightly disguised the historical event by changing the names of the prototypical characters and making them fictional figures, and placing the action in fictional Hillsboro, Tennessee. Its story centered around the issue of evolution vs. creationism and the prosecution of 24 year-old Tennessee teacher John T. Scopes (in the film, Bert Cates played by Dick York) for violating state law by teaching Darwin's theories of evolution in public schools. [In fact, Scopes deliberately agreed to challenge the Tennessee legislature's statutes and become the test case for the American Civil Liberties Union (ACLU) by teaching theories that denied the Biblical story of the divine creation of man.] The film's title was taken from the Biblical book of Proverbs 11:29: "He that troubleth his own house shall inherit the wind." Kramer's film was also designed as a protest against the repressive thinking of the 50s McCarthy era. Much of the film's story (and dialogue), written into a screenplay by Nathan E. Douglas (Nedrick Young was the blacklisted screenwriter's real name) and Harold Jacob Smith, was based on the successful Broadway play (by Jerome Lawrence and Robert E. Lee) that first starred Paul Muni and Ed Begley. In the Tennessee town of Hillsboro, high school biology teacher Bertram Cates tested a state criminal statute that forbade the teaching of Darwin's theory of evolution. Three-time Presidential candidate and fundamentalist Matthew Brady was selected by the DA to prosecute the case. A media hoopla and hysterical frenzy was whipped up in the sweltering hot town by opposing forces. Cynical and sarcastic newspaper reporter E.K. Hornbeck (Gene Kelly cast against type) (portraying acid-penned writer/reporter H.L. Mencken) was behind the selection of notorious atheist Henry Drummond to defend the science teacher. At first, Drummond was frustrated by the trial, so he summoned Brady to the stand to interrogate him about his literal interpretations of the Bible. Through intense questioning, Brady was forced to admit that the Bible could be interpreted non-literally. Brady's admission opened the door to the idea that evolution was consistent with Biblical teaching. However, the conservative jury convicted Cates, but the Judge (Henry Morgan) (to avoid further controversy) fined Cates only $100. As Brady gave one final religious defense as everyone dispersed, he had a stroke, collapsed and died. The Magnificent Seven (1960), 126 minutes, D: John Sturges Never on Sunday (1960, Greece/US) (aka Pote tin Kyriaki), 91 minutes, D: Jules Dassin Peeping Tom (1960, UK), 109 minutes, D: Michael Powell Psycho (1960) , 109 minutes, D: Alfred Hitchcock The greatest, most influential Hitchcock horror/thriller ever made and the progenitor of the modern Hollywood horror film, based on Robert Bloch's novel. A classic, low budget, manipulative, black and white tale that includes the most celebrated shower sequence ever made. Worried about marital prospects after a lunch tryst with her divorced lover (John Gavin), blonde real estate office secretary Marion Crane (Janet Leigh) embezzles $40,000 and flees, stopping at the secluded off-road Bates Motel, managed by a nervous, amateur taxidermist son named Norman (Anthony Perkins). The psychotic, disturbed "mother's boy" is dominated by his jealous 'mother', rumored to be in the Gothic house on the hillside behind the dilapidated, remote motel. The story includes the untimely, violent murder of the main protagonist early in the film, a cross-dressing transvestite murderer, insanity, a stuffed corpse, and Oedipal Freudian motivations. Rocco and His Brothers (1960, It./Fr.) (aka Rocco e i Suoi Fratelli), 177 minutes, D: Luchino Visconti Saturday Night and Sunday Morning (1960, UK), 90 minutes D: Karel Reisz Shoot the Piano Player (1960, Fr.) (aka Tirez Sur le Pianiste, or Shoot the Pianist), 80 minutes, D: François Truffaut Sons and Lovers (1960, UK), 103 minutes, D: Jack Cardiff Spartacus (1960), 185 minutes, D: Stanley Kubrick A somewhat dated, uneven historical costume (and sword and sandal) epic adapted by openly-credited, blacklisted screenwriter Dalton Trumbo (thereby breaking the abhorrent system) from left-leaning Howard Fast's 1952 fictionalized novel about a slave revolt in Rome between 73-71 BC. This is the story of Thracian Spartacus (Kirk Douglas), first introduced as a slave in the Libyan mines who is sold to slave trader Lentulus Batiatus (Peter Ustinov), and becomes under his training a skilled gladiator. He is forced, for pure entertainment's sake, to fight to the death and kill fellow gladiator/friend Draba (Woody Strode). Growing resentment forces Spartacus to kill his captor-owner and instigate a revolt among his fellow slaves. He moves from town to town in the countryside and recruits freedom-fighting slaves along the way, threatening Rome itself and fueling a power struggle and in-fighting between two influential figures in the ruling class: the philosophical Roman senator Gracchus (Charles Laughton) and the power-hungry Roman general Marcus Crassus (Laurence Olivier). Eventually, Spartacus' forces are overwhelmed, and he is captured and marched to Rome, with Crassus desirous of the sexual favors of his wife Varinia (Jean Simmons). During the film's production, there was a change of directors (from Anthony Mann (famous for El Cid (1961)) to Stanley Kubrick, who wasn't permitted his usual directorial freedom, resulting in a decidedly un-Kubrick-like film) and rampant ego clashes amongst the actors. Additionally, the Hayes Code removed, among other things, homosexual innuendo and various depictions of gore (such as severed limbs). The 1991 re-release of Spartacus restored much of what was cut from the film, including the notorious bathhouse scene featuring the sexual advances of Crassus toward slave servant-poet Antoninus (Curtis), with dialogue dubbed by Anthony Hopkins for the deceased Olivier: "Do you consider the eating of oysters to be moral and the eating of snails to be immoral?... My taste includes both snails and oysters." Although anachronistic in costuming and accents, and overly long with some 'wooden' acting, Spartacus remains one of the more beloved and intelligent gladiator films (and a model for Ridley Scott's Gladiator (2000)), with such memorably powerful scenes as the large scale battles with thousands of extras, and the famous climax with the moving "I am Spartacus!" scene when Spartacus is crucified under orders of Crassus along with hundreds of other slaves, and a disguised Varinia risks capture to show him his infant son. The Sundowners (1960), 133 minutes, D: Fred Zinnemann The Time Machine (1960), 103 minutes, D: George Pal Two Women (1960, It./Fr.) (aka La Ciociara), 93/100 minutes, D: Vittorio De Sica The Virgin Spring (1960, Swe.) (aka Jungfrukällan), 89 minutes, D: Ingmar Bergman Set in medieval, 14th century Sweden. Wealthy and religious land-owning farmers Töre (Max von Sydow) and Märeta (Birgitta Valberg) have only one surviving child - innocent, vain, naive and virginal daughter Karin (Birgitta Pettersson). Her jealous step-sister, pregnant maid-servant Ingeri (Gunnel Lindblom), invokes a pagan curse upon Karin after praying to the Norse deity Odin. During a journey to the nearest village's church on the celebrated day of Our Lady of Virgins, Karin is assaulted by a group of goatherd brothers, two adults and an adolescent, and is ultimately raped and murdered. The crime is witnessed by Ingeri. The three find refuge at Töre's farm for food and shelter, where he learns of their deadly assault and avenges his daughter's murder. The same plot served as the basis for Wes Craven's horror film The Last House on the Left (1972).	i don't know
Written about in the Bible, what eleven letter word is used to describe the area of land That covers the region of South West Asia and lies nearly the full length of the Iran/Iraq border It declined in importance after Mongol invaders destroyed it’s extensive irrigation system In A D 1258 ?	Iraq facts, information, pictures \| Encyclopedia.com articles about Iraq Al-Jumhuriyah al-'Iraqiyah CAPITAL: Baghdād FLAG: The national flag is a tricolor of red, white, and black horizontal stripes, with three five-pointed stars in green in the center of the white stripe. In 1991 the phrase Allahu Akbar (" God is Great") was added in green Arabic script—Allahu to the right of the middle star and Akbar to the left of the middle star. ANTHEM: Al-Salaam al-Jumhuri (Salute of the Republic). MONETARY UNIT: The Iraqi dinar (id) is a paper currency of 1,000 fils. There are coins of 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, 100, and 250 fils, and notes of 250 and 500 fils and 1, 5, 10, 50, and 100 dinars. 1id = $0.00068 (or $1 = id1,475) as of 2005. WEIGHTS AND MEASURES: The metric system is the legal standard, but weights and measures in general use vary, especially in domestic transactions. The unit of land is the dunam, which is equivalent to approximately 0.25 hectare (0.62 acre). HOLIDAYS: New Year's Day, 1 January; Army Day, 6 January; 14th Ramadan Revolution Day, 8 February; Declaration of the Republic, 14 July; and Peaceful Revolution Day, 17 July. Muslim religious holidays include 'Id al-Fitr, 'Id al-'Adha', Milad an-Nabi, and Islamic New Year. TIME: 3 pm = noon GMT. LOCATION, SIZE, AND EXTENT Present-day Iraq, comprising an area of 437,072 sq km (168,754 sq mi), corresponds roughly to the former Turkish provinces of Baghdād, Al Mawşil ( Mosul ), and Al Başrah ( Basra ). Comparatively, the area occupied by Iraq is slightly more than twice the size of the state of Idaho . It extends 984 km (611 mi) sse–nnw and 730 km (454 mi) ene–wsw. Iraq is bordered on the n by Turkey , on the e by Iran , on the se by the Persian Gulf and Kuwait , on the s by Saudi Arabia , on the w by Jordan , and on the nw by Syria , with a total land boundary length of 3,650 km (2,268 mi) and a coastline of 58 km (36 mi). Iraq's capital city, Baghdād, is located in the east central part of the country. TOPOGRAPHY Iraq is divided into three distinct zones: the desert in the west and southwest; the plains; and the highlands in the northeast, which rise to 3,000 m (10,000 ft) or more. The desert is an upland region with altitudes of 600 to 900 m (2,000–3,000 ft) between Damascus in Syria and Ar-Rutbah in Iraq, but declines gently toward the Euphrates (Al-Furāt) River. The water supply comes from wells and wadis that at times carry torrential floods and that retain the winter rains. Dominated by the river systems of the Tigris (Dijlah) and Euphrates (Al-Furāt), the plains area is composed of two regions divided by a ridge, some 75 m (250 ft) above the flood plain, between Ar Ramādi and a point south of Baghdād that marks the prehistoric coastline of the Persian Gulf. The lower valley, built up by the silt the two rivers carry, consists of marshland, crisscrossed by drainage channels. At Qarmat 'Ali, just above Al Başrah, the two rivers combine and form the Shatt al Arab, a broad waterway separating Iraq and Iran. The sources of the Euphrates and Tigris are in the Armenian Plateau. The Euphrates receives its main tributaries before entering Iraq, while the Tigris receives several streams on the eastern bank within the country. CLIMATE Under the influence of the monsoons, Iraq in summer has a constant northwesterly wind (shamal), while in winter a strong southeasterly air current (sharqi) develops. The intensely hot and dry summers last from May to October, and during the hottest time of the day—often reaching 49°c (120°f) in the shade—people take refuge in underground shelters. Winters, lasting from December to March, are damp and comparatively cold, with temperatures averaging about 10°c (50°f). Spring and autumn are brief transition periods. Normally, no rain falls from the end of May to the end of September. With annual rainfall of less than 38 cm (15 in), agriculture is dependent on irrigation. FLORA AND FAUNA In the lower regions of the Tigris (Dijlah) and Euphrates (Al-Furāt) and in the alluvial plains, papyrus, lotus, and tall reeds form a thick underbrush; willow, poplar, and alder trees abound. On the upper and middle Euphrates (Al-Furāt), the licorice bush yields a juice that is extracted for commercial purposes; another bush growing wild in the semiarid steppe or desert yields gum tragacanth for pharmaceutical use. In the higher Zagros Mountains grows the valonia oak, the bark of which is used for tanning leather. About 30 million date palms produce one of Iraq's most important exports. Wild animals include the hyena, jackal, fox, gazelle, antelope, jerboa, mole, porcupine, desert hare, and bat. Beaver, wild ass, and ostrich are rare. Wild ducks, geese, and partridge are the game birds. Vultures, owls, and ravens live near the Euphrates. Falcons are trained for hunting. As of 2002, there were at least 81 species of mammals and 140 species of birds throughout the country. ENVIRONMENT Three major armed conflicts since 1980 have had a significant negative effect on the nation's environment. Chemical weapons deployed at various locations along the Iran-Iraq border during the 1980–88 war killed thousands of people. During the 1991 Gulf War, coalition forces initiated a massive air campaign that destroyed nuclear, biological, and chemical facilities, causing toxic agents to seep into the air, soil, and waterways. Electrical plants, oil facilities, and water and sewage treatment plants were heavily damaged in both the 1991 and 2003 conflicts, contributing increased levels of air, water, and soil pollution to an already distressed environment. Plus, the Iraqi government's tactic of setting oil fires to ward off coalition forces set a broad range of toxic chemicals into the air and threatened many of the marshland ecosystems of the Tigris (Dijlah)–Euphrates (Al-Furāt) river basin. Although the full environmental impact of the conflicts had not been assessed as of 2006, it was clear that the new Iraqi government was facing several challenges in restoring basic services of power, water, and sanitation to the population, as well as in addressing issues of environmental renewal. In 2000, only about 1.8% of the total land area was forested. Desertification has long been a problem in the hot, dry climate. Salinization and soil erosion caused by river basin flooding has affected otherwise fertile agricultural lands. In 2003, there were no protected lands in the country. According to a 2006 report issued by the International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN), threatened species included 9 types of mammals, 18 species of birds, 2 types of reptiles, 1 species of amphibian, 3 species of fish, and 2 species of invertebrates. Th reatened species include the black vulture, the imperial eagle, the wild goat, the striped hyena, and the sand cat. The Saudi gazelle has become extinct. POPULATION The population of Iraq in 2005 was estimated by the United Nations (UN) at 28,807,000, which placed it at number 39 in population among the 193 nations of the world. In 2005, approximately 3% of the population was over 65 years of age, with another 42% of the population under 15 years of age. There were 103 males for every 100 females in the country. According to the UN, the annual population rate of change for 2005–10 was expected to be 2.7%, a rate the government viewed as satisfactory. The projected population for the year 2025 was 44,664,000. The population density was 66 per sq km (170 per sq mi), with Mesopotamia the most densely populated region. The UN estimated that 68% of the population lived in urban areas in 2005, and that urban areas were growing at an annual rate of 2.52%. The capital city, Baghdād, had a population of 5,620,000 in that year. Other major cities and their estimated populations included Arbil, 2,368,000, and Al Mawşil, 1,236,000. MIGRATION Immigration into Iraq was limited until the beginning of the 1970s. However, the rise in oil prices and the increase of oil exports, as well as extensive public and private spending in the mid-1970s, created a market for foreign labor. The result was a stream of foreign (mainly Egyptian) workers, whose number may have risen as high as 1,600,000 before the Gulf War. During the Iran–Iraq war, many Egyptians worked in the public sector, filling a gap left by civil servants, farmers, and other workers who were fighting at the front. A number of Iraqis, mainly from southern Iraq and influenced by family ties and higher wages, migrated to Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. To weaken local support in the north for Kurdish rebels, the government forced tens of thousands of Kurds to resettle in the south; in September 1987, a Western diplomat in Baghdād claimed that at least 500 Kurdish villages had been razed and 100,000 to 500,000 Kurds relocated. In 1991 some 1.5 million Iraqis fled the country for Turkey or Iran to escape Saddam Hussein's increasingly repressive rule, but fewer than 100,000 remained abroad as of 2005. Most of the refugees were Kurds who later resettled in areas in Iraq not controlled by the government. In September and October of 1996, around 65,000 Iraqi Kurds fled to Iran due to internal fighting between the Iraqi Kurds. As of 1999, the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) assisted 31,400 refugees in Iraq. Of these, some 19,000 were Iranian Kurds and 11,300 were Turkish Kurds. In 2004, Iraq had 241,403 refugees, 1,353 of these were asylum seekers and 193,990 returned refugees. Some 22,000 refugees were from the Occupied Palestinian Territory, 13,353 from Turkey, and 10,230 from Iran. Nearly 350,000 Iraqis were refugees themselves in 11 countries: 150,196 in Iran, 73,489 in Germany , and more than 23,000 each in Sweden and the United Kingdom . Iraq's asylum seekers in 2004 were from Iran. However, some 22,000 Iraqis sought asylum in 24 countries: 6,510 in Jordan, 5,351 in Sweden, 4,496 in Syria, some 2,000 each in Germany and the Netherlands , and over 1,000 each in Greece and Switzerland . Also in 2004, Iraq had 900,000 internally displaced persons. In 2005, the net migration rate was estimated as zero migrants per 1,000 population. ETHNIC GROUPS Arabs constitute about 75–80% of the total population. The Kurds, an Islamic non-Arab people, are the largest and most important minority group, constituting about 15–20%. A seminomadic pastoral people, the Kurds live in the northeastern Zagros Mountains, mostly in isolated villages in the mountain valleys near Turkey and Iran. Kurdish opposition to Iraqi political dominance has occasioned violent clashes with government forces. Other minorities (5%) include Turkomans, living in the northeast; Yazidis, mostly in the Sinjar Mountains; Assyrians, mainly in the cities and northeastern rural areas; and Armenians. LANGUAGES Arabic is the national language and is the mother tongue of an estimated 79% of the population. Kurdish—the official language in Kurdish regions—or a dialect of it, is spoken by the Kurds and Yazidis. Aramaic , the ancient Syriac dialect, is retained by the Assyrians. The Turkomans speak a Turkic dialect. Armenian is also spoken. RELIGIONS Islam is the national religion of Iraq, adhered to by some 97% of the population. Though the interim constitution provided for freedom of religion, that right is restricted by the government. About 60–65% of Muslims belong to the Shia sect and 32–37% to the Sunni sect. Traditionally, the Shia majority has been governed and generally oppressed by members of the Sunni minority. There are also some syncretic Muslim groups, such as the Yazidis, who consider Satan a fallen angel who will one day be reconciled with God. They propitiate him in their rites and regard the Old and New Testaments, as well as the Koran (Quran), as sacred. About 3% of the population are adherents to Christianity and other religions. The Assyrians (who are not descended from the ancient Assyrians) are Nestorians. In the 19th century, under the influence of Roman Catholic missions, Christian Chaldeans joined the Uniate churches, which are in communion with Rome ; their patriarch has his seat in Al Mawşil. The Sabaeans, or Mandaeans, are often called Christians of St. John, but their religious belief and their liturgy contain elements of many creeds, including some of pre-Christian Oriental origin. Since baptism is their main ritual, they always dwell near water and are concentrated on the riverbanks south of Baghdād. There are a small number of Jews . TRANSPORTATION Major cities, towns, and villages are connected by a modern network of highways and roads, which have made old caravan routes extinct. The city of Baghdād has been reshaped by the development of expressways through the city and by passes built since the 1970s. By 2002, Iraq had 45,550 km (28,304 mi) of roads, of which 38,400 km (23,861 mi) were paved. There were some 747,530 cars and 130,275 commercial vehicles in use as of 2003. Railroads are owned and operated by the Iraqi State Railways Administration. A standard-gauge railroad connects Iraq with Jordan and Syria, and nearly all the old meter-gauge line connecting Arbil in the north with Al Başrah, by way of Kirkūk and Baghdād, has been replaced. In 2004, there were about 2,200 km (1,368 mi) of railway lines, all of it standard gauge. Iraq had an estimated 111 airports in 2004, down from 150 in 2002. As of 2005, a total of 78 had paved runways, and there were 8 heliports. However, an unknown number of runways were damaged during the March–April 2003 war. Baghdād, Al Başrah, and Al Mawşil have international airports. Iraq Airways is the state-owned carrier; in the 1980s, its international flights landed only at night because of the Iraq-Iran war. The war also virtually closed Iraq's main port of Al Başrah and the new port of Umm Qasr on the Persian Gulf. Although Iraq had 5,275 km (3,281 mi) of inland waterways as of 2004, not all were navigable. Of those that were navigable, the Euphrates River (Al Furāt—2,815 km or 1,864 mi), the Tigris River (Dijlah—1,895 km or 1,178 mi) and the Th ird River (565 km or 351 mi) were the main waterways. In addition, the Shatt al Arab is usually navigable by maritime traffic for 130 km (81 mi). The Tigris and Euphrates have navigable sections for shallow-draft boats, and the Shatt al Al Başrah canal was navigable by shallow-draft craft before closing in 1991 because of the Gulf War. Expansion of Iraq's merchant marine, which totaled 1,470,000 gross registered tonnage (GRT) in 1980, was halted by the war with Iran and again by the Persian Gulf War. By 2005, the merchant marine totaled only 14 ships with 1,000 GRT or more, for a total capacity of 83,221 GRT. HISTORY Some of the earliest known human settlements have been found in present-day Iraq. Habitations, shrines, implements, and pottery found on various sites can be dated as early as the 5th millennium bc. Some sites bear names that are familiar from the Bible , which describes the region of the Tigris (Dijlah) and Euphrates (Al Furāt) rivers as the location of the Garden of Eden and the city of Ur as the birthplace of the patriarch Abraham. Scientific exploration and archaeological research have amplified the biblical accounts. Recorded history in Mesopotamia (the ancient name of Iraq, particularly the area between the Tigris and Euphrates) begins with the Sumerians, who by the 4th millennium bc had established city-states. Records and accounts on clay tablets prove that they had a complex economic organization before 3200 bc. The reign of Sumer was challenged by King Sargon of Akkad (r.c.2350 bc); a Sumero-Akkadian culture continued in Erech (Tall al-Warka') and Ur (Tall al-Muqayyar) until it was superseded by the Amorites or Babylonians (about 1900 bc), with their capital at Babylon. The cultural height of Babylonian history is represented by Hammurabi (r.c.1792–c.1750 bc), who compiled a celebrated code of laws. After Babylon was destroyed by the Hittites about 1550 bc, the Hurrians established the Mitanni kingdom in the north for about 200 years, and the Kassites ruled for about 400 years in the south. From Assur, their stronghold in the north, the Assyrians overran Mesopotamia about 1350 bc and established their capital at Nineveh (Ninawa). Assyrian supremacy was interrupted during the 11th and 10th centuries bc by the Aramaeans, whose language, Aramaic, became a common language in the eastern Mediterranean area in later times. Assyrian power was finally crushed by the Chaldeans or Neo-Babylonians, who, in alliance with the Medes in Persia , destroyed Nineveh in 612 bc. Nebuchadnezzar II (r.c.605–c.560 bc) rebuilt the city-state of Babylon, but it fell to the Persians, under Cyrus of the Achaemenid dynasty, in 539 bc. Under his son Cambyses II, the Persian Empire extended from the Oxus ( Amu Darya ) River to the Mediterranean, with its center in Mesopotamia. Its might, in turn, was challenged by the Greeks. Led by the Macedonian conqueror Alexander the Great, they defeated the Persians by 327 bc and penetrated deep into Persian lands. The Seleucids, Alexander's successors in Syria, Mesopotamia, and Persia, built their capital, Seleucia, on the Tigris, just south of Baghdād. They had to yield power to the Parthians, who conquered Mesopotamia in 138 bc. The Arabs conquered Iraq in ad 637. For a century, under the "Orthodox" and the Umayyad caliphs, Iraq remained a province of the Islamic Empire, but the 'Abbasids (750–1258) made it the focus of their power. In their new capital, Baghdād, their most illustrious member, Harun al-Rashid (ar-Rashid, r.786–809), became, through the Arabian Nights, a legend for all time. Under Harun and his son Al-Ma'mun, Baghdād was the center of brilliant intellectual and cultural life. Two centuries later, the Seljuk vizier Nizam al-Mulk established the famous Nizamiyah University, one of whose professors was the philosopher Al-Ghazali (Ghazel, d.1111). A Mongol invasion in the early 13th century ended Iraq's flourishing economy and culture. In 1258, Genghis Khan's grandson Hulagu sacked Baghdād and destroyed the canal system on which the productivity of the region had depended. Timur, also known as Timur Lenk ("Timur the Lame") or Tamerlane, conquered Baghdād and Iraq in 1393. Meanwhile, the Ottoman Turks had established themselves in Asia Minor and, by capturing Cairo (1517), their sultans claimed legitimate succession to the caliphate. In 1534, Süleyman the Magnificent conquered Baghdād and, except for a short period of Persian control in the 17th century, Iraq remained an Ottoman province until World War I. Late in 1914, the Ottoman Empire sided with the Central Powers, and a British expeditionary force landed in Iraq and occupied Al Başrah. The long campaign that followed ended in 1918, when the whole of Iraq fell under British military occupation. The collapse of the Ottoman Empire stimulated Iraqi hopes for freedom and independence, but in 1920, Iraq was declared a League of Nations mandate under UK administration. Riots and revolts led to the establishment of an Iraqi provisional government in October 1920. On 23 August 1921, Faisal I (Faysal), the son of Sharif Hussein (Husayn ibn-'Ali) of Mecca , became king of Iraq. In successive stages, the last of which was a treaty of preferential alliance with the United Kingdom (June 1930), Iraq gained independence in 1932 and was admitted to membership in the League of Nations. Faisal died in 1933, and his son and successor, Ghazi, was killed in an accident in 1939. Until the accession to the throne of Faisal II, on attaining his majority in 1953, his uncle 'Abdul Ilah, Ghazi's cousin, acted as regent. On 14 July 1958, the army rebelled under the leadership of Gen. 'Abd al-Karim al-Qasim (Kassim). Faisal II, Crown Prince 'Abdul Ilah, and Prime Minister Nuri al-Sa'id (as-Sa'id) were killed. The monarchy was abolished, and a republic established. Iraq left the anticommunist Baghdād Pact, which the monarchy had joined in 1955. An agrarian reform law broke up the great landholdings of feudal leaders, and a new economic development program emphasized industrialization. In spite of some opposition from original supporters and political opponents, tribal uprisings, and several attempts at assassination, Qasim managed to remain the head of Iraq for four and a half years. On 9 February 1963, however, a military junta, led by Col. 'Abd as-Salam Muhammad 'Arif, overthrew his regime and executed Qasim. Since 1961, Iraq's Kurdish minority has frequently opposed with violence attempts by Baghdād to impose authority over its regions. In an attempt to cope with this opposition, the Bakr government passed a constitutional amendment in July 1970 granting limited political, economic, and cultural autonomy to the Kurdish regions. But in March 1974, Kurdish insurgents, known as the Pesh Merga, again mounted a revolt, with Iranian military support. The Iraqi army countered with a major offensive. On 6 March 1975, Iraq and Iran concluded an agreement by which Iran renounced support for the Kurds and Iraq agreed to share sovereignty over the Shatt al Arab estuary. The new regime followed a policy based on neutralism and aimed to cooperate with Syria and Egypt and to improve relations with Turkey and Iran. These policies were continued after 'Arif was killed in an airplane crash in 1966 and was succeeded by his brother, 'Abd ar-Rahman 'Arif. Th is regime, however, was overthrown in July 1968, when Gen. (later Marshal) Ahmad Hasan al-Bakr, heading a section of the Ba'ath Party, staged a coup and established a new government with himself as president. In the 1970s, the Ba'ath regime focused increasingly on economic problems, nationalizing the petroleum industry in 1972–73 and allocating large sums for capital development. Bakr resigned in July 1979 and was followed as president by his chosen successor, Saddam Hussein (Husayn) al-Takriti. Tensions between Iraq and Iran rose after the Iranian revolution of 1979 and the accession to power of Saddam Hussein. In September 1980, Iraq sought to take advantage of the turmoil in Iran by suddenly canceling the 1975 agreement and mounting a full-scale invasion. Iraqi soldiers seized key points in the Khuzistan region of southwestern Iran, captured the major southern city of Khorramshahr , and besieged Abadan, destroying its large oil refinery. The Iraqi army then took up defensive positions, a tactic that gave the demoralized Iranian forces time to regroup and launch a slow but successful counterattack that retook Khuzistan by May 1982. Iraq then sought peace and in June withdrew from Iranian areas it had occupied. Iran's response was to launch major offensives aimed at the oil port of Al Başrah. Entrenched in well-prepared positions on their own territory, Iraqi soldiers repelled the attacks, inflicting heavy losses, and the war ground to a stalemate, with tens of thousands of casualties on each side. Attempts by the UN and by other Arab states to mediate the conflict were unsuccessful; in the later stages of the war, Iraq accepted but Iran regularly rejected proposals for a compromise peace. Although most Arab states supported Iraq, and the Gulf oil states helped finance Iraqi military equipment, the war had a destabilizing effect both on the national economy and on the ruling Ba'ath Party. France also aided Iraq with credits to buy advanced weapons (notably, Super Étendard fighters and Exocet missiles), and it provided the technology for Iraq to construct the Osirak nuclear reactor near Baghdād. (In June 1981, this installation was destroyed in a bombing raid by Israel, which claimed that the facility would be used to produce nuclear weapons, a charge Iraq denied.) Other Western countries provided supplies, financing, and intelligence to Iraq but denied the same to Iran. In February 1986, the Iranians made their biggest gain in the war, crossing the Shatt al Arab and capturing Fao (Al-Faw) on the southernmost tip of land in Iraq. In early 1987, they seized several islands in the Shatt al Arab opposite Al Başrah. The war soon spread to Persian Gulf shipping, as both sides attacked oil tankers and ships transporting oil, goods, and arms to the belligerents or their supporters. The war ended on 20 August 1988 after Iran accepted a UN cease-fire proposal on 18 July. Having suffered enormous casualties and physical damage plus a massive debt burden, Baghdād began the postwar process of reconstruction . Before and after the war, there were scores to settle, primarily against the Kurds, some of whom had helped Iran and were the victims of Iraqi poison gas attacks. Many border villages were demolished and their Kurdish populations relocated. When Iraq's wartime allies seemed unwilling to ease financial terms or keep oil prices high and questioned Iraq's rearmament efforts, Saddam Hussein turned bitterly against them. Kuwait was the principal target. After threats and troop movements, Iraq reasserted its claim (which dated from the days of the monarchy) to that country and on 2 August 1990, invaded and occupied it. Saddam Hussein was unflinching in the face of various peace proposals, economic sanctions, and the threatening buildup of coalition forces led by the United States . A devastating air war led by the United States began on 17 January 1991 followed by ground attack on 24 February. Iraq was defeated, but not occupied. Despite vast destruction and several hundred thousand casualties, Saddam's regime remained firmly in control. It moved to crush uprisings from the Shia in the south and Kurds in the north. To protect those minorities, the United States and its allies imposed no-fly zones that gave the Kurds virtually an independent state, but afforded much less defense for the rebellious Arabs in the south whose protecting marshes were being drained by Baghdād. There were several clashes between allied and Iraqi forces in both areas. In 1996, in an effort to boost morale in Iraq and bolster its image abroad, Iraq conducted its first parliamentary elections since 1989. However, only candidates loyal to Saddam Hussein were allowed to run. A government screening committee reviewed and approved all 689 candidates, who either belonged to Hussein's Ba'ath Party or were independents that supported the 1968 coup that brought the party to power. The Iraqi economy continued to decline throughout the 1990s, with the continuation of the UN sanctions, imposed in 1990, which prohibited Iraq from selling oil on the global market in major transactions and froze Iraqi assets overseas. The deteriorating living conditions imposed on the Iraqi population prompted consideration of emergency measures. In 1996 talks were held between Iraq and the United Nations on a proposed "oil for food" humanitarian program that would permit Iraq to sell a limited quantity of oil in order to purchase food and basic supplies for Iraqi citizens. The United States and Britain wanted money earmarked for Iraq's Kurdish provinces funneled through the existing United Nations assistance program there. They also raised the issue of equity with respect to Iraq's existing rationing system. In December 1996, the UN agreed to allow Iraq to export $2 billion in oil to buy food and medical supplies. Iraq began receiving 400,000 tons of wheat in the spring of 1997. Since the end of the Gulf War, Iraq had demonstrated cooperation with UNSCOM, the special UN commission charged with monitoring weapons of mass destruction. However, Saddam Hussein refused to dismantle his country's biological weapons and had stopped cooperating with UNSCOM by August 1997, leading to increasing tension and a US military buildup in the region by early 1998. Personal intervention by UN Secretary General Kofi Annan helped diffuse the situation temporarily. However, renewed disagreements arose in the latter half of the year, ultimately leading to a December bombing campaign (Operation Desert Fox) by US and UK forces, with the goal of crippling Iraq's weapons capabilities. In late 1998 the US Congress also approved funding for Iraqi opposition groups, in hopes of toppling Saddam Hussein politically from within. In 1999 the oil for food program was expanded to allow for the sale of $5.25 billion in oil by Iraq over a six-month period to buy goods and medicine. By 2000, most observers agreed that the decade-long UN sanctions, while impoverishing Iraq and threatening its population with a major humanitarian crisis, had failed in their goal of weakening Saddam's hold on power. The situation in Iraq intensified in 2002. In his January 2002 State of the Union Address, US president George W. Bush labeled Iraq, along with Iran and North Korea, part of an "axis of evil"—states that threatened the world with weapons of mass destruction and sponsored terrorism. Throughout 2002, the United States, in partnership with the United Kingdom, brought the issue of the need to disarm the Iraqi regime of weapons of mass destruction (WMD) to the forefront of international attention. On 8 November 2002, the UN Security Council unanimously approved Resolution 1441, calling upon Iraq to disarm itself of all biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons and weapons capabilities, to allow for the immediate return of UN and International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) weapons inspectors (they had been expelled from the country in 1998), and to comply with all previous UN resolutions regarding the country since the end of the Gulf War in 1991. UN and IAEA weapons inspectors returned to Iraq, but the United States and the United Kingdom were neither satisfied with their progress nor with Iraq's compliance with the inspectors. The United States and the United Kingdom began a military buildup in the Persian Gulf region (eventually 250,000 US and 45,000 British troops would be stationed there), and pressed the UN Security Council to issue another resolution authorizing the use of force to disarm the Iraqi regime. This move was met by stiff opposition from France, Germany, and Russia (all members of the Security Council at the time, with France and Russia being permanent members with veto power); the diplomatic impasse ended on 17 March 2003, when the United States, the United Kingdom, and Spain withdrew from the Security Council the resolution they had submitted that February that would have authorized the use of military force. War began on 19 March 2003, and by early April, the Iraqi regime had fallen. The postwar period proved to be a diffi cult one for the United States and the United Kingdom, as their troops attempted to prevent looting and violence, to disarm Iraqis, and to begin the process of reconstruction. Especially contentious was the issue of the formation of a new Iraqi government: Iraqi exiles returned to the country, attempting to take up positions of power; Kurds demanded representation in a new political structure; and Shias (who make up some 60% of the Iraqi population) agitated for recognition and power. The United States initially installed retired US Army Lt. Gen. Jay Garner as head of the Office of Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance to oversee Iraq's civil administration while a new government was to be installed. Garner was replaced by former US State Deparment official L. Paul Bremer III in May 2003 in what some called an effort to put a civilian face on the reconstruction effort. Many Iraqi political figures in June labeled the allied campaign to remove the Saddam Hussein regime more like an "occupation" than a "liberation," and called for elections to a national assembly that would produce a new constitution for the country. On 13 December 2003, Saddam Hussein was found alive hiding in a hole 2.5-m (8-ft) deep near his hometown of Tikrit. He was taken into custody, and beginning in October 2005, was put on trial for the killing of 143 Shias from Dujail, in retaliation for a failed assassination attempt in 1982. In June 2004, the United States disbanded the Coalition Provisional Authority led by Bremer and transferred sovereignty back to Iraq in the form of an interim government, headed by Prime Minister Iyad Allawi. On 30 January 2005, Iraqi voters elected a 275-member Transnational National Assembly. The Assembly was given the tasks of serving as Iraq's national legislature and forming a constitution. In April 2005, the National Assembly appointed Jalal Talabani, a prominent Kurdish leader, president. Ibrahim al-Jaafari, a Shia, whose United Iraq Alliance Party won the most votes in the January elections, was named prime minister. A constitution was written and presented to the people in a national referendum held on 15 October 2005: more than 63% of eligible voters turned out to vote. The constitution passed with a 78% majority, although three provinces voted against it, two of them by a two-thirds majority. Under election rules, had two-thirds of voters in each of the three provinces voted against the constitution, it would have failed. The vote was sharply divided along ethnic and sectarian lines: Shias and Kurds generally supported the document. As it was, the constitution was largely drafted by Shias and Kurds, who together make up some 80% of the population. The Iraqi insurgency is largely composed of Sunni Arabs. On 15 December 2005, the country turned out in new parliamentary elections to elect a permanent government. Turnout was high; 10.9 million out of 15.6 million registered voters cast ballots across the country. Some fraud was detected, but in general the elections were held in a free and democratic manner. Official results were announced in January 2006, showing that the Shia and Kurdish coalitions once again dominated the voting, although they came up short of the two-thirds majority needed to form a government of their own. Sunni Arab parties won 58 of the 275 seats, which was the second-largest bloc of seats, giving them a much larger voice than they had in the January 2005 elections. In all, four main coalitions won 250 of the 275 seats in the parliament, which was elected for a term lasting until 2009. Of the remaining 25 seats, most were won by smaller groups with ideological or geographic links to the winning coalitions. The United Iraqi Alliance, the alliance of the main Shia parties, took 128 seats. The Kurdistan Alliance, an alliance of the primary Kurdish parties, won 53 seats. The Iraqi Consensus Front, an alliance of predominantly Sunni parties, took 44 seats, and the Iraqi List, an alliance of the main secular parties, won 25 seats. Although the election held the fragile promise of a stable government, by the end of February 2006, sectarian violence had reached new levels. On 22 February 2006, Sunni insurgents bombed the important Shia Askariya Shrine in Sunni-dominated Sāmarrā; the shrine's gold dome was reduced to rubble by explosives. Th ousands of Shias took to the streets in both peaceful demonstrations and retaliatory attacks: the sectarian violence that ensued left at least 138 people dead in two days, and political negotiations over the new government in ruins. Civil war was not an unthinkable future for Iraq as of mid-2006. GOVERNMENT The coup d'état of 14 July 1958 established an autocratic regime headed by the military. Until his execution in February 1963, 'Abd al-Karim al-Qasim ruled Iraq, with a council of state and a cabinet. On 27 July 1958, a fortnight after taking over, Qasim's regime issued a provisional constitution, which has been repeatedly amended to accommodate changes in the status of the Kurdish regions. Since the 1968 coup, the Ba'ath Party ruled Iraq by means of the Revolutionary Command Council, "the supreme governing body of the state," which selected the president and a cabinet composed of military and civilian leaders. The president (Saddam Hussein from 1979–2003) served as chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council, which exercised both executive and legislative powers by decree. He was also prime minister, commander-in-chief of the armed forces, and secretary-general of the Ba'ath Party. A national assembly of 250 members that was elected by universal suffrage in 1980, 1984, 1989, 1996, and 2000, had little real power. Most senior officials were relatives or close associates of Saddam Hussein; nevertheless, their job security was not great. The precarious nature of working in the regime of Saddam Hussein, even for relatives, was made evident in 1995 when two of his sons-in-law defected to Jordan along with President Hussein's daughters. The defection was widely reported in the international media and considered a great embarrassment to the regime as well as a strong indicator of how brutal and repressive its machinations were. After a promise of amnesty was delivered to the defectors by Iraq, the men returned and were executed shortly after crossing the border into Iraq. In the aftermath of the Iraq war which began in March 2003, Iraq was effectively ruled by the US-installed Office of Reconstruction and Humanitarian Assistance, and then by a Coalition Provisional Authority. In December 2003, Saddam Hussein was captured and brought into US custody; beginning in October 2005, he went on trial for the killing of 143 Shias from Dujail. In June 2004, sovereignty was transferred back to Iraq and an interim Iraqi government was installed, led by Prime Minister Iyad Allawi. On 30 January 2005, Iraqi voters elected a 275-member Transnational National Assembly. In April 2005, the National Assembly appointed Jalal Talabani, a prominent Kurdish leader, president. Ibrahim al-Jaafari, a Shia, was named prime minister. A constitution was written and presented to the people in a national referendum held on 15 October 2005: more than 63% of eligible voters turned out to vote. The constitution passed with a 78% majority. Under the 2005 constitution, the government is broken down into four branches: legislative, executive, judicial, and independent associations. In the legislative branch, two councils were created: a Council of Representatives, the main law-making body, and the Council of Union, whose primary task is to examine bills related to regions and provinces. The executive branch is composed of a president, who is not directly elected and whose powers are primarily ceremonial; a deputy president; a prime minister, who as head of government is appointed by the president from the leader of the majority party in the Council of Representatives; and a cabinet chosen by the prime minister. The judiciary is independent and composed of the following: a Supreme Judiciary Council; a Supreme Federal Court; a Federal Cassation Court; a Prosecutor's Office; a Judiciary Inspection Dept.; and other federal courts organized by law. The "fourth branch" is that of independent associations whose actions are subject to legislation and supervision by the other branches. They include: a Supreme Commission for Human Rights; a Supreme Independent Commission for Elections; an Integrity Agency; an Iraqi Central Bank; a Financial Inspection Office; a Media and Communications Agency; Offices of (religious) Endowments; Institution of the Martyrs; and the Federal Public Service Council. On 15 December 2005, new parliamentary elections were held to elect a permanent government. Sunni Arab parties won 58 of the 275 seats in the Council of Representatives, which was the second-largest bloc of seats. In all, four main coalitions won 250 of the 275 seats in the parliament, which will lead the country until 2009. Of the remaining 25 seats, most were won by smaller groups with ideological or geographic links to the winning coalitions. The United Iraqi Alliance, the alliance of the main Shia parties, took 128 seats. The Kurdistan Alliance, an alliance of the primary Kurdish parties, won 53 seats. The Iraqi Consensus Front, an alliance of predominantly Sunni parties, took 44 seats, and the Iraqi List, an alliance of the main secular parties, won 25 seats. POLITICAL PARTIES Until 1945, political parties existed but were ineffective as political factors. In 1946, five new parties were founded, including one that was Socialist (Al-Hizb al-Watani al-Dimuqrati, or the National Democratic Party), one avowedly close to communism (AshSha'b, or the People's Party), and one purely reformist (Al-Ittihad al-Watani, or the National Union Party). The response to these parties alarmed the conservative politicians. The Palestine War (1948) provided the pretext for suppression of the Sha'b and Ittihad parties. Only the National Democratic Party functioned uninterruptedly; in 1950, with the lifting of martial law, the others resumed work. In 1949, Nuri as-Sa'id founded the Constitutional Union Party (Al-Ittihad ad-Dusturi), with a pro-Western, liberal reform program to attract both the old and the young generations. In opposition, Salih Jabr, a former partisan of Nuri's turned rival, founded the Nation's Socialist Party (Al-Ummah al-Ishtiraki), which advocated a democratic and nationalistic, pro-Western and pan-Arab policy. In 1954, however, Sa'id dissolved all parties, including his own Constitutional Union Party, on the ground that they had resorted to violence during the elections of that year. After the coup of 1958, parties "voluntarily" discontinued their activities. In January 1960, Premier Qasim issued a new law allowing political parties to operate again. Meanwhile, the Ba'athists, who first gained strength in Syria in the 1950s as a pan-Arab movement with strong nationalist and socialist leanings, had attracted a following among elements of the Syrian military. In February 1963, Qasim was overthrown and executed by officers affiliated with a conservative wing of Iraq's Ba'ath movement. In November, a second coup was attempted by Ba'athist extremists from the left, who acted with complicity of the ruling Syrian wing of the party. With the 1968 coup, rightist elements of the Ba'ath Party were installed in prominent positions by Gen. Bakr. Since then, the Ba'athists, organized as the Arab Ba'ath Socialist Party, were the ruling political group in Iraq. In the national assembly elections of 1980, the Ba'athists won more than 75% of the seats at stake; in the 1984 elections, they won 73% of the seats. Elections were again held in March 1996, with only Ba'athists or independent supporters of Saddam Hussein allowed to run for seats in the Assembly. Altogether, 220 seats were contested by 689 candidates. Only Ba'ath Party members and supporters of the Saddam Hussein regime were allowed to run in the March 2000 elections as well. In the 1990s and into the mid-2000s, most real party activity in Iraq involved the country's Kurdish minority, which had established a number of political groups, most of them in opposition to the central government. In 1991, the regime issued a decree theoretically allowing the formation of other political parties, but which in fact prohibited parties not supportive of the regime. Under the 1991 edict, all political parties had to be based in Baghdād and all were prohibited from having ethnic or religious affiliations. Outside of Iraq, ethnic, religious and political opposition groups came together to organize a common front against Saddam Hussein, but they achieved very little until 2003. The Shia al Dawa Party was brutally suppressed by Saddam before the Iran-Iraq war. In the aftermath of the 2003 war, certain Shia clerics, including Grand Ayatollah Ali al-Sistani and Ayatollah Muhammad Bakr al-Hakim, emerged as political and religious leaders for the Shia community. In August 2003, al-Hakim was killed in a car bomb attack along with dozens of followers in the holy city of Najaf. The two main Kurdish political parties as of 2003 were the Kurdistan Democratic Party (KDP), led by Massoud Barzani, and the Patriotic Union of Kurdistan (PUK), led by Jalal Talabani. Long rivals, the two parties were called upon to reconcile differences so as to provide for a viable future for Iraq's Kurds. The Iraqi National Congress, based in Salahuddin in northern Iraq and in London, was led by Ahmad Chalabi. In the parliamentary elections for a permanent government that were held on 15 December 2005, four main coalitions won 250 of the 275 seats in the parliament. The United Iraqi Alliance, the alliance of the main Shia parties, took 128 seats. The Kurdistan Alliance, an alliance of the primary Kurdish parties, won 53 seats. The Iraqi Consensus Front, an alliance of predominantly Sunni parties, took 44 seats, and the Iraqi List, an alliance of the main secular parties, won 25 seats. The remaining 25 seats were held by smaller groups with ideological or geographic links to the winning coalitions. LOCAL GOVERNMENT Iraq until 2003 was divided into 18 provinces (three of which formed an autonomous Kurdish region), each headed by an appointed governor. Provinces were subdivided into districts, each under a deputy governor; a district consists of counties, the smallest units, each under a director. Towns and cities were administered by municipal councils led by mayors. Baghdād's municipality, the "governorate of the capital," under its mayor, or "guardian of the capital," served as a model municipality. A settlement reached with the Kurds in 1970 provided for Kurdish autonomy on the local level. In 1974, the provisional constitution was further amended to provide the Kurdistan region with an elected 80-member legislative council; elections were held in 1980 and 1986, but, in fact, the Iraqi army controlled Kurdistan until the imposition of a UN-approved protected zone in the north at the end of the Gulf War. In May 1992, Kurds held elections there for a new 100-member parliament for the quasi-independent region. This marked the only relatively free elections held in Iraq in several decades. Local governing authority broke down following the fall of the Iraqi regime in April 2003. US and British troops were responsible for policing the country, and for restoring electricity, running water, sanitation, and other essential services. By 2006, however, sectarian violence was worsening, and the country looked as if it might be on the path to civil war. Under the 2005 constitution, Iraq's federal system is made up of the capital of Baghdād, regions, decentralized provinces, and local administrations. The country's future regions are to be established from its current 18 governorates (provinces). Any single province, or group of provinces, is entitled to request that it be recognized as a region, with such a request being made by either two-thirds of the members of the provincial councils in the provinces involved or by one-tenth of the registered voters in the province(s) in question. Provinces that are unwilling or unable to join a region still enjoy enough autonomy and resources to enable them to manage their own internal affairs according to the principle of administratative decentralization. With the two parties' approval, federal government responsibilities may be delegated to the provinces, or vice versa. These decentralized provinces are headed by Provincial Governors, elected by Provincial Councils. The administrative levels within a province are defined, in descending order, as districts, counties and villages. JUDICIAL SYSTEM The court system until 2003 was made up of two distinct branches: a security component and a more conventional court system to handle other charges. There was no independence in the operation of the judiciary; the president could override any court decision. The security courts had jurisdiction in all cases involving espionage, treason, political dissent, smuggling and currency exchange violations, and drug trafficking. The ordinary civil courts had jurisdiction over civil, commercial, and criminal cases except for those that fell under the jurisdiction of the religious courts. Courts of general jurisdiction were established at governorate headquarters and in the principal districts. Magistrates' courts tried criminal cases in the first instance, but they could not try cases involving punishment of more than seven years in prison. Such cases were tried in courts of sessions that were also appellate instances for magistrates' courts. Each judicial district had courts of sessions presided over by a bench of three judges. There were no jury trials. Special courts to try national security cases were set up in 1965; verdicts of these courts could be appealed to the military supreme court. In other cases, the highest court of appeal was the court of cassation in Baghdād, with civil and criminal divisions. It was composed of at least 15 judges, including a president and two vice presidents. For every court of first instance, there was a Shariah (Islamic) court that ruled on questions involving religious matters and personal status. Trials were public and defendants were entitled to free counsel in the case of indigents. The government protected certain groups from prosecution. A 1992 decree granted immunity from prosecution to members of the Ba'ath Party. A 1990 decree granted immunity to men who killed their mothers, daughters, and other female family members who had committed "immoral deeds" such as adultery and fornication. Under the constitution ratified in 2005, the judiciary is independent and composed of the following: a Supreme Judiciary Council; a Supreme Federal Court; a Federal Cassation Court; a Prosecutor's Office; a Judiciary Inspection Dept.; and other federal courts organized by law. The Supreme Judiciary Council administers the judicial branch, nominates members of the courts and departments, and presents the judicial budget to the legislature. The Supreme Federal Court is the highest court in Iraq, oversees election results, and rules in the case of accusations against the president or prime minister. Private courts are banned. ARMED FORCES The Iraqi security forces in 2005 had 179,800 active personnel. The Army, including the National Guard, had an estimated 79,000 active personnel, followed by the Navy with an estimated 700 personnel and the Air Wing, which had an estimated 200 active members. In addition to the military forces, Iraq's security forces included an estimated 32,900 Ministry of Interior Forces and 67,000 active members of the Iraqi Police Service. Major naval units consisted of 10 patrol/coastal vessels operated by the Iraqi Coastal Defense Force. The Iraqi Air Wing was under the Department of Border Enforcement, and was equipped with 16 reconnaissance and six transport fixed wing aircraft, plus 36 support and 20 utility helicopters. As of 2005, there was no data available on defense spending by Iraq. INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION Iraq is a charter member of the United Nations, having joined on 21 December 1945, and participates in ESCWA and several nonregional specialized agencies. A founding member of the Arab League, Iraq also participates in the Arab fund for Economic and Social Development, the Arab Bank for Economic Development in Africa, the Arab Monetary Fund, the Council of Arab Economic Unity, Organization of the Islamic Conference (OIC), G-19, G-77, OAPEC, and OPEC. Iraq holds observer status in the WTO. Iraq has given both military and economic support to Arab parties in the conflict with Israel. The war with Iran preoccupied Iraq during the 1980s, and Iraq's relations with other countries in the Arab world have varied. During the 1980s, Iraq maintained friendly relations with some Western countries, notably France, a major arms supplier to Iraq. In November 1984, diplomatic relations between Iraq and the United States were renewed after a break of 17 years, but were broken off again when Iraq invaded Kuwait in August of 1990. The United States and its allies launched an air war against Iraq after diplomatic efforts and economic sanctions failed to convince Iraq to leave Kuwait. Iraq's international standing deteriorated badly and the nation was placed under an international trade embargo. Iraq was attacked by US and British forces beginning on 19 March 2003, and the regime led by Saddam Hussein was defeated by those forces that April. In the postwar period, the country is undergoing reconstruction and the government is in transition. A Transitional National Assembly (TNA) was formed by direct democratic elections held on 30 January 2005. On 15 December 2005, a permanent 275-seat Council of Representatives was elected. Iraq is a member of the Nonaligned Movement. In environmental cooperation, Iraq is part of the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty and the UN Convention on the Law of the Sea. ECONOMY In 1973, Iraqi oil revenue was $1.8 billion. By 1978, oil revenues peaked at $23.6 billion. In 2002, oil revenues were estimated at about $15 billion. Oil production growth was forecast to be constrained by security problems and long-standing underinvestment over the period 2006–07, but modest increases in output were expected to improve real GDP growth. GDP growth was in double digits from 1973 to 1980 with the exception of 1974, when it was 7.2%. It was from these lofty heights that the regime of Saddam Hussein launched two wars whose effects on the Iraqi economy, even aside from the tragic human costs, proved devastating. The Iraq-Iran War (1980–88) began with Iraq's attempt to seize control of the economically and strategically important Shatt al Arab from Iran, which the countries had agreed to divide in a treaty in 1975. Saddam miscalculated that Iran could be easily dismembered during its revolutionary upheavals, and when the war ended eight bloody years later, the Shatt al Arab and all other border issues returned to the status quo antebellum, leaving Iraq with no material gain and a debt of over $100 billion, much of it owed to Kuwait. Annual oil revenues for Iraq and Kuwait were roughly even—averaging about $16 billion a year—but Kuwait, instead of spending on armaments, had invested sizeable amounts in the West, essentially doubling its returns. Kuwait refused to see the debts owed it by Iraq as money spent for its own defense, and insisted on being repaid, providing the economic trigger for Iraq's second disastrous foray—the invasion of Kuwait on 2 August 1990. For the first time the UN Security Council agreed to support collective action against an aggressive power and Iraqi forces were driven out of Kuwait in the first Gulf War in February 1991. The UN imposed comprehensive economic, financial, and military sanctions, placing the Iraqi economy under siege. Acting on its own, the United States also froze all Iraqi assets in the United States and barred all economic transactions between US citizens and Iraq. Many other countries imposed similar sanctions on top of the UN-imposed embargo. UN Security Council resolutions authorized the export of Iraqi crude oil worth up to $1.6 billion over a limited time to finance humanitarian imports for the Iraqi people. The effect of war in Kuwait and continuing economic sanctions reduced real GDP by at least 75% in 1991, on the basis of an 85% decline in oil production, and the destruction of the industrial and service sectors of the economy. Living standards deteriorated and the inflation rate reached 8,000% in 1992. Estimates for 1993 indicated that unemployment hovered around 50% and that inflation was as high as 1,000%. Because UN costs and reparations for Kuwait were taken out of permitted oil sales before being handed over to the Iraqi regime, the government's revenues were lower than total oil sales. The Organization of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries (OAPEC) reported that Iraqi oil revenues at current prices were $365 million in 1994, $370 million in 1995 and $680 million in 1996. After the first Gulf War Iraq refused to provide economic data to the UN or any other international organization, and all estimates therefore were subject to wide variability and questions of reliability. Uncertainty was increased by a flourishing black market that was responsible for an increasing share of domestic commerce. There were widespread expectations that the Hussein regime would soon fall from the weight of its disastrous political and economic miscalculations, but this did not happen, and by 1995 it had become apparent that the tight restrictions on oil sales were resulting in serious harm to the Iraqi people. The UN passed its first oil-for-food program (which the Iraqi regime refused to accept until 1996) allowing oil worth $5.26 billion to be sold every six months, with strict controls over how the money was spent. OAPEC reported that Iraqi oil revenues were about $4.6 billion in 1997 and $6.8 billion in 1998. In December 1999 the UN Security Council lifted the limits on Iraq's oil production, which then rose from 550,000 billion barrels per day (bbl/d) in November 1996 to an average of about 2.6 million bbl/d during 2000. Real GDP growth fell by 5.7% in 2001 due to the slowdown in the world economy and lower oil prices. By 2002, crude exports from Iraq had fallen below normal capacity (about 2 million bbl/d) to an average of 630,000 bbl/d. According to UN assessments, this low export level created a $2.64 billion shortfall in the oil-for-food program. Low exports were blamed on illegal surcharges of about 15–45 cents per barrel being levied by Iraq from about December 2000, and the tactic of "retroactive pricing" adopted by the United States and the United Kingdom in January 2001 to combat these surcharges. Both the surcharges and the retroactive pricing—whereby the price charged for Iraqi oil was revealed only after the sale, and then set at a level too high for a surcharge to be paid and still make a profit—raised the price and reduced demand for Iraqi oil. The concerns by the United States and the United Kingdom were that the surcharges were being used to fund a secret military build-up by Iraq. UN estimates are that from 1996 to 2002 the "oil-for-food" program generated about $60 billion. The US government estimates that through smuggling and illegal surcharges the Iraqi government secured about $6.6 billion from 1997 to 2001. On 14 May 2002, after Iraq had resumed oil exports, the UN Security Council approved a change in the oil-for-food program to add an extensive list of "dual-use" goods (goods that could be used for military as well as nonmilitary purposes) that Iraq could not purchase with its oil revenues. On 16 October 2002, US president George W. Bush signed a resolution passed by the US Congress authorizing the use of force in Iraq. On 8 November 2002 the UN Security Council unanimously adopted Resolution 1441 demanding UN arms inspectors be given unconditional access to search anywhere in Iraq for banned weapons, and requiring a "accurate, full and complete" accounting of all of its weapons of mass destruction within 30 days. After failure to secure a second resolution from the UN Security Council in February 2003 explicitly supporting a military invasion of Iraq—all members of the Council were opposed except the United Kingdom—the United States and United Kingdom held to their intention to act without the UN. The US-led attack on Iraq was launched on 19 March 2003. Baghdād fell on 9 April 2003, and President Bush announced the end of major combat operations on 1 May 2003. Sanctions against Iraq were lifted in May 2003, allowing reconstruction efforts to begin, but serious security problems arising from an Iraqi insurgency hampered the rebuilding effort. In 2003, real GDP growth stood at–21.8%, and the inflation rate was 29.3%. The "oil-for-food" program was phased out that May. A transitional government was elected in January 2005, and constitution-writing began. A referendum on the constitution was held in October 2005, with the constitution being approved overwhelmingly. Elections for a permanent government were held in December 2005. Iraq's unemployment rate in 2005–06 remained high (27–40%), but the overall Iraqi economy appeared to be improving somewhat. The continued sabotage of oil installations put a drag on the economy, however, but real GDP was forecast to grow at a rate of around 6% in 2006. In October 2003, a new Iraqi currency, the "new Iraqi dinar" was introduced, and by 2006 it had appreciated sharply. As of that date, Iraq had requested formal membership in the WTO. In November 2005, the World Bank approved a $100 million loan (for education purposes) to Iraq. Iraq assumed a heavy debt burden during the Saddam Hussein years of some $100–$250 billion, if debts to Gulf states, Russia, and reparations payment claims stemming from the 1990 invasion of Kuwait are included. Iraq's oil export earnings were immune from legal proceedings, including debt collection, until the end of 2007. In 2004, the Paris Club of 19 creditor nations agreed to forgive up to 80% on $42 billion worth of loans, but the relief was contingent upon Iraq reaching an economic stabilization program with the IMF. The country's oil exports in 2005 were below 2004 levels. Oil production by 2006 had not returned to its prewar levels: it remained below 2 million barrels per day compared with a level of some 2.5 million barrels per day before the 2003 invasion. Persistent fuel shortages forced the government to raise the heavily subsidized price of gasoline in 2005. This sparked protests and rioting throughout Iraq. Oil exports for 2005 were 1.39 million barrels per day, down from 1.5 million barrels per day in 2004. The poor oil production figures were largely due to attacks on pumping and distribution facilities; death threats were also made to tanker drivers, which led to the closing of a refinery in northern Iraq. More than 75% of the country's GDP comes from oil. The high price of oil (more than $63 per barrel in the first week of January 2006) mitigated the economic damage from lower production, and oil prices were forecast to remain high over the long term. INCOME The US Central Intelligence Agency ( CIA ) reported that in 2005 Iraq's gross domestic product (GDP) was estimated at $94.1 billion. The per capita GDP was estimated at $3,400. The annual growth rate of GDP was estimated at 2.4%. The average inflation rate in 2005 was 40%. The CIA defines GDP as the value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year and computed on the basis of purchasing power parity (PPP) rather than value as measured on the basis of the rate of exchange. In 2004, it was estimated that agriculture accounted for 7.3% of GDP, industry 66.6%, and services 26.1%. More than $33 billion in foreign aid was pledged for 2004–07. LABOR In 2004, Iraq's labor force was estimated at 7.4 million; however, there was no data available as to its occupational breakdown. Unemployment in 2005 was estimated to fall within the 25–30% range. The Trade Union Organization Law of 1987 established a centralized trade union structure of committees linked to trade unions, which in turn are part of provincial trade union federations under the control of the Iraqi General Federation of Trade Unions, and ultimately are controlled by the ruling Ba'ath Party. Although workers are legally allowed to strike upon informing the Labor Ministry, no strike has been reported in over 20 years. Child labor is strictly controlled and in many cases prohibited. The minimum working age is 14, although economic necessity and lack of government enforcement have increased the number of children of all ages that are employed. There is a 6-day, 48-hour workweek, although this does not apply to agricultural workers. Historically, working women have been accepted in Iraq, but the number of women in the workforce dramatically increased because of the prolonged war with Iran as well as the Persian Gulf War, as women replaced men in the labor market. In many cases, rural labor and farmers employed in government projects get reasonable salaries and good housing, but small, independent farmers receive fewer benefits. Since 1958, the Iraqi government has passed a number of agrarian reform laws. As a general rule, however, the quality of life differs greatly between rural areas and the cities, especially that in Baghdād. Th is differential has resulted in massive rural to urban migration. AGRICULTURE The rich alluvial soil of the lowlands and an elaborate system of irrigation canals made Iraq a granary in ancient times and in the Middle Ages . After the irrigation works were destroyed in the Mongol invasion, agriculture decayed. Today, about 13% of the land is considered arable. Unlike the rain-fed north, southern Iraq depends entirely on irrigation, which is in turn heavily reliant on electricity and fuel supply to run the pumping networks. There are similar diffi culties with the spring crop of vegetables in the south, also entirely dependent on irrigation. Over half the irrigated area in southern Iraq is affected by water-logging and salinity, diminishing crop production and farm incomes. Agriculture is Iraq's largest employer and the second-largest sector in value. Under various agrarian reform laws—including a 1970 law that limited permissible landholdings to 4–202 hectares (10–500 acres), depending on location, fertility, and available irrigation facilities—about 400,000 previously landless peasants received land. Agrarian reform was accompanied by irrigation and drainage works, and by the establishment of cooperative societies for the provision of implements and machinery, irrigation facilities, and other services. Agricultural production in Iraq declined progressively because of the war with Iran and the Persian Gulf War. In 1992, wheat production was estimated at 600,000 tons compared with 965,000 tons in 1982, but by 1999 was only 800,000 tons. During the 2003 conflict, most farmers in Iraq's three northern provinces were not displaced. The northern region produces some 30–35% of the grain crop. FAO estimates for 2004 included the following (in tons): wheat, 2,200,000; barley, 1,315,000; tomatoes, 1,000,000; dates, 910,000; potatoes, 625,000; eggplants, 442,000; cucumbers, 350,000; oranges, 310,000; and grapes, 300,000. Other crops grown for domestic consumption include millet, lentils, beans, melons, figs, corn, sugarcane, tobacco, and mulberries. Iraq currently imports almost $3 billion in food commodities annually. Aid programs are helping expand production of wheat to minimize food imports. Efforts on select Iraqi farms doubled wheat production in 2004. Since 2003, the USAID's agriculture program has been working to restore veterinary clinics, introduce improved cereal grain varieties, repair agricultural equipment, and train farmers and Iraqi government staff. The US government has estimated that the Iraqi Ministry of Agriculture would require over $1 billion of agricultural inputs annually for Iraq's agricultural producers to boost production. Iraq will need to rely on imports to meet a large portion of its food and fiber needs, even with substantial gains in production. ANIMAL HUSBANDRY Animal husbandry is widespread. Sheep raising is most important, with wool used domestically for weaving carpets and cloaks. In 2001, Iraq had an estimated 6.1 million sheep; 1.6 million goats; 1.4 million head of cattle, and numerous donkeys, camels, mules, buffaloes, and poultry. FAO production estimates for 2004 included: cow's milk, 450,000 tons; sheep's milk, 157,500 tons; and chicken meat, 98,906 tons. FORESTRY Forests of oak and Aleppo pine in the north cover less than 2% of Iraq's entire area and have been depleted by excessive cutting for fuel or by fires and overgrazing. Since 1954, indiscriminate cutting has been prohibited, and charcoal production from wood has ceased. The forestry research center at Arbil has established tree nurseries and conducted reforestation programs. Output of roundwood was estimated at 114,000 cu m (4,024,000 cu ft) in 2004. MINING Iraq's mineral resources (excluding hydrocarbons) are limited. Crude oil was Iraq's sole export commodity in 2002, and construction materials comprised another leading industry. In 2004, Iraq produced hydraulic cement, nitrogen, phosphate rock (from the Akashat open-pit mine), salt, and native Frasch sulfur from underground deposits at Mishraq, on the Tigris (Al Furāt) River, south of Al Mawşil. In 2001, the State Organization for Minerals reported the discovery of sulfur deposits in the Western Desert, near Akashat. Production figures for 2004, were: phosphate rock 30,000 metric tons, down from 532,000 metric tons in 2002; sulfur, 20,000 metric tons (as a by product only); and salt, 50,000 metric tons. Without exception, production of all mineral commodities (excluding hydrocarbon minerals) has fallen since 2003. However, the output of Portland cement, while down from the 6,834,000 metric tons produced in 2002, had risen in 2004 to 2,500,000 metric tons from 1,901,000 metric tons in 2003, possibly as a result of the fighting and car bomb attacks in urban areas. Geological surveys have indicated usable deposits of iron ore, copper, gypsum, bitumen, dolomite, and marble; these resources have remained largely unexploited, because of inadequate transport facilities and lack of coal for processing the ores. ENERGY AND POWER Iraq's petroleum reserves are among the largest in the world. As of 1 January 2005, Iraq's proven oil reserves were estimated by the Oil and Gas Journal at 115 billion barrels, of which, about 75 billion barrels had yet to be developed. However, the country's reserves may be significantly higher. Only about 10% of the country has been explored for oil and it is believed by some analysts that in Iraq's Western Desert region, deep oil-bearing formations may contain another 100 billion or more barrels of oil. Others are less optimistic, estimating that only another 45 billion barrels may lie undiscovered. In spite of its huge oil reserves, Iraq's oil production has been deeply affected by the nation's wars, resulting in major drops in crude oil production. During Iraq's war with Iran, output dropped from 3,476,900 barrels per day in 1979 to 897,400 barrels daily in 1981, and from 2,897,000 barrels per day in 1989 to 305,000 barrels daily in 1991, following an embargo on Iraqi oil exports for Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990. Iraq's oil production slowly increased to 600,000 barrels per day by 1996, and with the country's acceptance of United Nations Resolution 986, allowing limited oil exports for humanitarian reasons ("oil-for-food program"), production rose to about 2.58 million barrels per day in January 2003, just before the US-led invasion of Iraq in March of that year. As of May 2005, maximum sustainable oil production by Iraqi was estimated at 1.9 million barrels per day. Oil production in 2004 was estimated at two million barrels per day. Domestic demand for oil was estimated in 2004 at 550,000 barrels per day, and forecast to reach 650,000 barrels per day in 2005. According to the Oil and Gas Journal, crude oil refining capacity was estimated as of 1 January 2005 at 597,500 barrels per day. Iraq's natural gas reserves were estimated, as of 1 January 2005, at 110 trillion cu ft, with production and domestic consumption estimated at 53 billion cu ft in 2003. Iraq's electric power sector has also been affected by the country's wars. During the 1990–91 Persian Gulf War, about 85–90% of the national power grid was destroyed or damaged. However, 75% of the national grid had been restarted by early 1992. Total electricity production in 2000 was 31,700 million kWh, of which 98% was from fossil fuels and 2% from hydropower. The country's generating capacity was about 9,500 MW in 2001. As of late May 2005, Iraq's available and operating generating capacity was placed at about 4,000 to 5,000 MW. Peak summer demand however, was forecast to be at 8,000 MW. In 2004, electric output came to 32.6 billion kWh, with demand at 33.7 billion kWh and imports at 1.1 billion kWh. INDUSTRY Main industries are oil refining, food processing, chemicals, textiles, leather goods, cement and other building materials, tobacco, paper, and sulfur extraction. In 1964, the government took over all establishments producing asbestos, cement, cigarettes, textiles, paper, tanned leather, and flour. Iraq has eight major oil refineries, at Baiji, Al Başrah, Daura, Khānaqin, Haditha, Mufthiah, Qaiyarah, Al Mawşil, and Kirkūk. The Iraq-Iran War, Persian Gulf War, and Iraq War of 2003 seriously affected Iraqi refining. Iraq had a total refinery capacity of 597,500 barrels per day in 2005. The bulk of Iraq's refinery capacity is concentrated in the Baiji complex. Industrial establishments before the 2003 war included a sulfur plant at Kirkūk, a fertilizer plant at Al Başrah, an antibiotics factory at Sāmarrā, an agricultural implements factory at Iskandariyah, and an electrical equipment factory near Baghdād. In the 1970s, Iraq put strong emphasis on the development of heavy industry and diversification of its industry, a policy aimed at decreasing dependence on oil. During the 1980s, the industrial sector showed a steady increase, reflecting the importance given to military industries during the Iran–Iraq war. By early 1992 it was officially claimed that industrial output had been restored to 60% of pre-Persian Gulf War capacity. Beginning in 1996, Iraq was permitted to export limited amounts of oil in exchange for food, medicine, and some infrastructure spare parts (the UN "oil-for-food" program). By 1999, the UN Security Council allowed Iraq to export as much oil as required to meet humanitarian needs. The program was phased out in May 2003 following the defeat of the Saddam Hussein regime. In 2004, industry accounted for 66.6% of GDP. SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY Iraq has imported Western technology for its petrochemical industry. The Scientific Research Council was established in 1963 and includes nine scientific research centers. The Nuclear Research Center (founded in 1967) has conducted nuclear physics experiments and produced radioisotopes with equipment supplied by France. In 1982, the French government agreed to help rebuild the institute's Osirak reactor, knocked out by an Israeli air attack the previous year. Eight universities offer degrees in basic and applied sciences. In addition, the Ministry of Higher Education has 18 incorporated technical institutes. The Agriculture and Water Resources Research Center (founded in 1980) and the Iraq Natural History Research Center and Museum (founded in 1946) are both located in Baghdād. The Iraqi Medical Society (founded in 1920) is headquartered there. DOMESTIC TRADE Modern shops and department stores have spread throughout the country, replacing traditional bazaars. Baghdād, Al Mawşil, and Al Başrah, as well as other large and medium-size cities, all have modern supermarkets. Baghdād leads in wholesale trade and in the number of retail shops. The previously state-owned economy has been suffering since the 1980–88 Iran-Iraq War. The 1990 Kuwait invasion and the subsequent international military intervention caused even greater damage to the infrastructure and resulted in international sanctions that crippled the economy. With the 2003 ousting of Saddam Hussein by international coalition forces, the way was paved to reopen the Iraqi economy to international trade. However, the nation was expected to be highly dependent on foreign aid and investment for the foreseeable future. FOREIGN TRADE Iraq's most valuable export is oil, which has historically accounted for almost all of its total export value. Rising oil prices during the 1970s created increases in export revenues. However, the drop in world oil prices and Iraq's exporting problems due to international sanctions essentially put an end to Iraqi oil exports. The United Nations (UN) imposed trade restrictions on non-oil exports in August 1990. Non-oil exports (often illegal) were estimated at $2 billion for the 12 months following the March 1991 cease-fire. Iraq was traditionally the world's largest exporter of dates, with its better varieties going to Western Europe, Australia , and North America . Until 1994, the UN committee charged with supervising what little international trade Iraq was permitted to engage in—food and medicine, essentially—kept records on the amount of goods it approved for import in exchange for oil. In the first half of 1994, the committee recorded $2 billion in food imports, $175 million in medicine, and an additional $2 billion in "essential civilian needs," a term that at that time referred to agricultural machinery, seeds, and goods for sanitation. In 1995, the Iraqi government rationed its people only one-half of the minimum daily requirement in calories. In 1997, the UN permitted Iraq to expand its oil sales to increase its purchasing power of food and other sources of humanitarian relief. In the spring of that year the country received 400,000 tons of wheat to help feed its suffering population, who had been living under strict food rations for four years. Limited exports were organized by the UN, and the oil-for-food program brought in revenues during 1999 equaling $5.3 billion. In 2005, Iraq's exports were crude petroleum (83.9%), crude materials excluding fuels (8%), and food and live animals (5%). Imports were food, medicines, and manufactures. Iraq's export partners in 2005 were: the United States (51.9%), Spain (7.3%), Japan (6.6%), Italy (5.7%), and Canada (5.2%). Iraq's import partners were: Syria (22.9%), Turkey (19.5%), the United States (9.2%), Jordan (6.7%), and Germany (4.9%). BANKING AND SECURITIES When Iraq was part of the Ottoman Empire, a number of European currencies circulated alongside the Turkish pound. With the establishment of the British mandate after World War I, Iraq was incorporated into the Indian monetary system, which was operated by the British, and the rupee became the principal currency in circulation. In 1931, the Iraq Currency Board was established in London for note issue and maintenance of reserves for the new Iraqi dinar. The currency board pursued a conservative monetary policy, maintaining very high reserves behind the dinar. The dinar was further strengthened by its link to the British pound. In 1947 the government-owned National Bank of Iraq was founded, and in 1949 the London-based currency board was abolished as the new bank assumed responsibility for the issuing of notes and the maintenance of reserves. In the 1940s, a series of government-owned banks was established: the Agricultural Bank and the Industrial Bank, the Real Estate Bank, the Mortgage Bank, and the Cooperative Bank. In 1956 the National Bank of Iraq became the Central Bank of Iraq. In 1964, banking was fully nationalized. The banking system comprised the Central Bank of Iraq, the Rafidain Bank (the main commercial bank), and three others: the Agricultural Cooperative Bank, the Industrial Bank, and the Real Estate Bank. In 1991 the government decided to end its monopoly on banking. After 1991, six new banks were established—the Socialist Bank, Iraqi Commercial Bank, Baghdād Bank, Dijla Bank, Al-Itimad Bank, and the Private Bank—as a result of liberalizing legislation and the opportunity for large-scale profits from currency speculation. Preference for investing savings in rural or urban real estate is common. Major private investments in industrial enterprises can be secured only by assurance of financial assistance from the government. The establishment of a stock exchange in Baghdād was delayed by practical considerations (such as a lack of computers), but it was eventually inaugurated in March 1992. During the 2003 US-led war and subsequent occupation of Iraq, the financial sector essentially disappeared. The banking district of Baghdād was wrecked by the bombing campaign, and until the provisional government becomes stable, it appeared that financial activity would remain at a standstill. Rejuvenation of Iraq's banking system was seen as a high priority. With the passage of the 2005 constitution, a central bank was established, which has the power to issue new currency and set interest rates in the hopes of managing the country's massive debts. USAID gave loans of up to $250,000 to small businesses and entrepreneurs in order to jumpstart the economy. Iraq's banking system had been one of the region's most advanced prior to the war, so the foundations were already in place for a sound financial sector. INSURANCE The insurance industry was nationalized in 1964. The State Insurance Organization supervises and maintains three companies: the National Life Insurance Co., the Iraqi Life Insurance Co., and the Iraqi Reinsurance Co. Third-party motor vehicle liability insurance is compulsory. In 1999, Iraqis spent $42 million on insurance. PUBLIC FINANCE There are several budgets: the ordinary budget, under which the regular activities of the government are financed; separate budgets for the Iraqi State Railways, the Port of Al Başrah Authority, the Al-Faw Dredging Scheme, and the tobacco monopoly; municipal budgets requiring government approval; and allocations for semi-independent government agencies. In addition, there is a separate development budget, as well as an undeclared budget for the military believed to have absorbed over half of state funds during the war with Iran. Since 1980, the decline in oil exports and huge war expenditures forced Iraq to borrow and to raise funds from abroad. Iraq's invasion of Kuwait in 1990, with the consequent infrastructural damage, UN sanctions, and oil embargo, severely diminished revenues. The future of the Iraqi economy is highly uncertain. Until a stable government is in place, it will be very difficult for any commercial activity to take place. The US Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) estimated that in 2005 Iraq's central government took in revenues of approximately $19.3 billion and had expenditures of $24 billion. Revenues minus expenditures totaled approximately -$4.7 billion. Total external debt was $82.1 billion. TAXATION Direct taxes are levied on income and on property. The rental value of dwellings, commercial buildings, and nonagricultural land is taxed, with a certain tax-free minimum. In 1939, graduated income tax rates were established on income from all sources except agriculture. Most agricultural income is not taxed. Indirect taxation predominates. The land tax must be paid by all who farm government lands with or without a lease. Owners of freehold (lazimah) land pay no tax or rent. Much farm produce consumed on the farm or in the village is not taxed at all, but when marketed, farm products are taxed. CUSTOMS AND DUTIES As of 1 March 2004, a 5% reconstruction levy based on the customs value of the product was imposed upon all imports. However, food, clothing, medicines, humanitarian goods, and books are exempt. In 1989, Iraq joined the newly formed Arab Cooperation Council (ACC) with Egypt, Jordan, and Yemen . The ACC's goals included formation of a common market and economic integration in other areas. The international embargo levied against the nation after it invaded Kuwait essentially ended Iraq's participation in the ACC. Egypt, one of its partners in the Council, was a leader in the military coalition that liberated Kuwait. FOREIGN INVESTMENT UN sanctions effectively froze all of Iraq's foreign transactions in the 1990s. In October 1992, the UN Security Council permitted these frozen assets, including Iraqi oil in storage in Turkey and Saudi Arabia, to be sold without the permission of the Iraqi government. About $1 billion of frozen assets were to pay for compensation to Kuwaiti victims of the invasion and to cover UN operations inside Iraq. In September 2003, the American-appointed Coalition Provisional Authority announced it was opening up all sectors of the economy to foreign investment in an attempt to deliver much-needed reconstruction in the war-torn country. The Iraqi Governing Council announced it would allow total foreign ownership without the need for prior approval. The program applied to all sectors of the economy, from industry to health and water, except for natural resources (including oil). The deal also included full, immediate remittance to the host country of profits, dividends, interest, and royalties. Income and business taxes for foreign investors were capped at 15% beginning in 2004. More than $33 billion in foreign aid was pledged to Iraq for 2004–07. ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT Until the 2003 Iraq War, the government both controlled and participated in petroleum, agriculture, commerce, banking, and industry. In the late 1960s, it made efforts to diversify Iraq's economic relations and to conserve foreign exchange. As an example, it was announced in 1970 that contracts for all planned projects would be awarded to companies willing to receive compensation in crude oil or petroleum products. The government also undertook to build an Iraqi tanker fleet to break the monopoly of foreign oil-transport companies. The imposition of sanctions against Iraq in the 1990s destroyed all attempts to stabilize Iraq's payments on its foreign debt. Iraq also faced reparation claims. Iran separately pursued its claim for massive separation payments arising from the 1980–88 war. Iraq was also obligated by UN resolutions to pay for various UN agency activities. Iraq had an estimated foreign debt in 2005 of $82.1 billion. However, a large portion of Iraq's debt had been forgiven by that time, and the IMF provided new funds as part of an effort to get Iraq back into capital markets, where it could secure the financing it needs to invest in the critical oil sector. The insurgency against coalition forces, in addition to underinvestment, prevented the oil industry from getting back on its feet. Work was being carried out to rebuild infrastructure, but by 2006, insurgents were destroying much of what was being built. SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT A social security law passed in 1971 provides benefits or payments for disability, maternity, old age, unemployment, sickness, and funerals. This law applies to all establishments employing five or more people, but excludes agricultural employees, temporary employees, and domestic servants. This social insurance system is funded by employee contributions of 5% of their wages, and employer contributions of 12% of payroll. Oil companies are required to pay 25% of payroll. Men may retire at age 60 and women at 55 after they have worked for 20 years. Maternity benefits for employed women include 100% of salary for a period of 10 weeks. Work injury is covered and unemployment assistance is available. Little is known about the extent of domestic violence in Iraq. Domestic abuse is addressed within the family structure, therefore there are no statistics available or agencies to assist victims. In 2004 there were reports of honor killings. Women who do not wear traditional clothing are subject to harassment. Human rights are being addressed as the government undergoes significant transformation. The regime of Saddam Hussein was notorious for extensive human rights abuses. HEALTH There are many well-trained Iraqi physicians; however, their effectiveness is limited by a lack of trained nursing and paramedical staff. In the period 1985–95, some 93% of the population had access to health care services. Private hospitals are allowed to operate in Baghdād and other major cities. Considerable effort was made to expand medical facilities to small towns and more remote areas of the country, but these efforts have been hampered by a lack of transportation and a desire of medical personnel to live and work in Baghdād and the major cities. In 2000, 85% of the population had access to safe drinking water and 79% had adequate sanitation. Dentists and other specialists are almost unknown in rural districts. Child nutrition has been negatively affected by years of conflict. The UN Children's Fund documented that 4,500 children under five die every month from hunger and disease. In 2004, Iraq had 54 physicians, 308 nurses, 8 pharmacists, and 11 dentists per 100,000 people. Iraq's 2002 birth rate was estimated at 34 per 1,000 people. Of married women (ages 15 to 49), 14% used contraception in 1989. Life expectancy in 2005 averaged 68.7 years. The fertility rate decreased from 7.2 in 1960 to 4.3 children in 2000 for each woman during childbearing years. Immunization rates for children up to one year old were: tuberculosis, 90%; diphtheria, pertussis, and tetanus, 92%; and measles, 98%. In 1999, there were 156 reported cases of tuberculosis per 100,000 people. The infant mortality rate in 2005 was 50.23 per 1,000 live births. The HIV/AIDS prevalence was 0.10 per 100 adults in 2003. As of 2004, there were approximately 500 people living with HIV/AIDS in the country. HOUSING In the 20 years leading up to the 2003 Iraq War, living conditions for the vast majority of the population improved greatly. Electricity and running water were normal features of all Iraqi villages in rural areas. Mud huts in remote places were rapidly being replaced by brick dwellings. Major cities like Al Mawşil, Al Başrah, and especially Baghdād had most of the amenities of modern living. Traditionally, Iraqis have lived in single family dwellings, but in the last 15 years, the government had built a number of high-rise apartments, especially in Baghdād. It had done so to control urban sprawl and to cut down on suburban service expenditures. The 2003 invasion of Iraq by international coalition forces caused destruction and damage to a large portion of the housing sector, particularly in and around Baghdād. The UN responded to the crisis by providing construction materials through the oil-for-food program. The housing sector had been part of this program since 2000. Through the program, about 64,932 housing units were built to accommodate about 551,922 people. EDUCATION Under the regime of Saddam Hussein, public education was forcibly secular and militarized, with most textbooks and other curriculum strongly based on promoting the causes of the government. The US-led invasion of Iraq beginning in 2003 and the overthrow of Hussein's regime continue to have damaging effects on the country's infrastructure. Many schools have been severely damaged or destroyed; but reconstruction efforts are being funded by a variety of international groups and governments. New developments in the post-Hussein system include the reprinting of textbooks and a greater freedom for teachers in designing and implementing curriculums. Some schools are beginning to adopt fundamental Islamic studies as a large part of their curriculum. This has caused some concern for new government officials and analysts, who fear that too much of a fundamentalist approach might lead to a new set of restrictions in academic freedom. In general, six years of compulsory primary education has been in effect since 1978. Primary schools have provided the six-year course, at the end of which the student passes an examination to be admitted to secondary school. An intermediate secondary school program covers a three-year course of study. After this stage, students choose to attend a preparatory school or a vocational school, both of which offer three-year programs. Education at all levels from primary to higher education has been free. Private schools are now permitted to operate. There are 20 state universities in Iraq and 47 technical colleges and institutes. The University of Baghdād is the most important higher education institution in the country. Other universities include Al Mawşil, al-Mustansiriya, Al Başrah, and As Sulaymāniyah. In 2003, the adult literacy rate was estimated at about 40.4%, with 55.9% for men and 24.4% for women. LIBRARIES AND MUSEUMS Following the war in 2003, arsonists and looters ransacked the libraries and museums of Iraq, causing extensive destruction and damage and nearly eliminating some valuable historic and cultural collections of books, documents, and artwork. Various international groups have stepped forward to offer assistance in rebuilding and restocking the sites of what were Iraq's most prominent museums and libraries, but it is uncertain as to how many rare and valuable items can be recovered. The National Library and Archives in Baghdād was founded in 1961. Two noteworthy academic libraries are the Central Library of the University of Baghdād and the Central Library of the University of Al Mawşil. One of the country's outstanding libraries has been the Iraqi Museum Library (founded 1934), with modern research facilities. The Directorate of Antiquities in Baghdād houses a library as well. There are public library branches in many provincial capitals. With the exception of the National History Research Center and Museum and the National Museum of Modern Art, museums have been under the control of the Department of the Directorate-General of Antiquities in Baghdād. One of the most outstanding collections were kept at the Iraqi Museum in Baghdād, which contained antiquities dating from the early Stone Age; however, this was one of the sites looted and damaged after the war. The Abbasid Palace Museum and the Museum of Arab Antiquities, both located in Baghdād, are housed in restored buildings from the 13th and 14th centuries, respectively. MEDIA In 2003, there were an estimated 28 mainline telephones for every 1,000 people. The same year, there were approximately three mobile phones in use for every 1,000 people. As of 2005, television and radio stations that were initially launched by the Coalition Provisional Authority were being incorporated into the new publicly-funded Iraqi Public Broadcasting Service. A number of foreign broadcasters are being accessed through satellite. In 2004, there were about 80 radio stations and 21 television stations in operation inside the country. In 2003, there were an estimated 222 radios for every 1,000 people. The number of televisions was not available through the same survey. Also in 2003, there were 8.3 personal computers for every 1,000 people and one of every 1,000 people had access to the Internet . Access is made primarily through Internet cafés. In 2004, there were over 130 daily and weekly publications nationwide. Prominent daily papers in 2005 included Al-Sabah, Al-Mada, Al-Zaman, Al-Mashriq, and Al-Dustur. Iraq Today is a popular English-language weekly. The 2005 constitution guarantees freedom of speech, press, and assembly. ORGANIZATIONS Chambers of commerce are active in Baghdād, Al Başrah, and Al Mawşil. Cooperatives, first established in 1944, have played an increasingly important social role, especially under the post-1968 Ba'ath government. There are many youth centers and sports clubs. Scouting programs are active. The General Federation of Iraqi Youth and the General Federation of Iraqi Women are government-sponsored mass organizations. The Women's Union of Kurdistan (WUK), established in 1989, works toward improving the lifestyle and social development of women by publishing educational magazines and presenting educational seminars on health, education, and legal issues. Red Crescent societies provide social services in many cities and towns. TOURISM, TRAVEL, AND RECREATION Tourism declined sharply in the 1980s during Iraq's occupation of Kuwait and the Gulf War, and has not recovered. The March 2003 attack on Iraq by US and UK forces and the subsequent fall of the government led to almost no tourist activity as of 2006. Prior to the political and military challenges of the 1980s, many visitors from other Arab states were pilgrims to Islamic shrines. The other principal tourist attraction is visiting the varied archeological sites. Popular forms of recreation include tennis, cricket, swimming, and squash. According to the US Department of State in 2004, the estimated daily cost of staying in Baghdād was $11. FAMOUS IRAQIS The most famous kings in ancient times were Sargon (Sharrukin) of Akkad (fl.c.2350 bc), Hammurabi of Babylon (r.1792?–1750? bc), and Nebuchadnezzar II (Nabu-kadurri-utsur, r.605?–560? bc) of Babylon. Under the caliphs Harun al-Rashid (ar-Rashid ibn Muhammad al-Mahdi ibn al-Mansur al-'Abbasi, r.786–809) and al-Mamun (abu al-'Abbas 'Abdullah al-Mamun, r.813–33), Baghdād was the center of the Arab scholarship that translated and modified Greek philosophy. A leading figure in this movement was Hunain ibn Ishaq (d.873), called Johannitius by Western scholastics. His contemporary was the great Arab philosopher Yaqub al-Kindi, whose catholicity assimilated both Greek philosophy and Indian mathematics. The founder of one of the four orthodox schools of Islamic law, which claims the largest number of adherents in the Muslim world, Abu Hanifa (d.767) was also a native Iraqi. Another celebrated figure in theology, 'Abd al-Hasan al-Ash'ari (c.913), who combated the rationalist Mu'tazila school, also lived in Baghdād; his influence still prevails in Islam. Al-Ghazali (Ghazel, d.1111), though Persian by birth, taught at the Nizamiyah University in Baghdād; he is one of the best-known Islamic philosopher-theologians. Iraq also produced famous mystics like Hasan al-Basri (642–728) and 'Abd al-Qadir al-Jilani (1077–1166); the latter's followers are numerous among Asian Muslims, and his tomb in Baghdād draws many pilgrims. Modern Iraq has produced no artist or writer famous outside the Arabic-speaking world. Gen. Saddam Hussein (Husayn) al-Takriti (b.1937), served as chairman of the Revolutionary Command Council and president of the country from 1979 until his ousting in 2003. BIBLIOGRAPHY Arnove, Anthony. Iraq under Siege: The Deadly Impact of Sanctions and War. Cambridge, Mass.: South End Press, 2000. Cirincione, Joseph, Jon B. Wolfsthal, and Miriam Rajkumar. Deadly Arsenals: Nuclear, Biological, and chemical Th reats. 2nd ed. Washington, D.C.: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace, 2005. Cordesman, Anthony H. Iraq: Sanctions and Beyond. Boulder, Colo.: Westview Press, 1997. ——. The War after the War: Strategic Lessons of Iraq and Afghanistan. Washington, D.C.: CSIS Press, 2004. Dalley, Stephanie. The Legacy of Mesopotamia. New York: Oxford University Press, 1998. Fulanain. The Tribes of the Marsh Arabs: The World of Haji Rikkan. London, Eng.: Kegan Paul International, 2003. Ghareeb, Edmund. Historical Dictionary of Iraq. Lanham, Md.: Scarecrow, 2004. Gunter, Michael M. The Kurds of Iraq: Tragedy and Hope. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1992. Hiro, Dilip. Iraq: In the Eye of the Storm. New York: Th under's Mouth Press/Nation Books, 2002. Hourani, Albert Habib. A History of the Arab Peoples. Cambridge, Mass.: Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, 2002. Hunt, Courtney. The History of Iraq. Westport, Conn.: Greenwood Press, 2005. Natali, Denise. The Kurds and the State: Evolving National Identity in Iraq, Turkey, and Iran. Syracuse, N.Y.: Syracuse University Press, 2005. O'Sullivan, Meghan L. Shrewd Sanctions: Statecraft and State Sponsors of Terrorism. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution Press, 2003. Seddon, David (ed.). A Political and Economic Dictionary of the Middle East. Philadelphia: Routledge/Taylor and Francis, 2004. Cite this article Baghdād, Al Başrah, Al Mawşil Other Cities: An Najaf, Arbil, Kirkūk, Ar Ramādi, Nimrud, Nineveh EDITOR'S NOTE This chapter was adapted from the Department of State Post Report for Iraq. Supplemental material has been added to increase coverage of minor cities, facts have been updated, and some material has been condensed. Readers are encouraged to visit the Department of State's web site at http://travel.state.gov/ for the most recent information available on travel to this country. INTRODUCTION IRAQ is the cradle of civilization, the country of the Thousand and One Nights, and the land of the two great rivers of history, the Tigris and the Euphrates . Known to the ancient Greeks as Mesopotamia ("in the midst of the rivers"), Iraq was enlarged after World War I to include the northern mountainous district of Kurdistan. Modern Mesopotamia is still a fascinating juxtaposition of the old and the new. While signs of progress are visible everywhere, so are the manifestations of past glories. Excavated sites of vanished empires—Sumerian, Akkadian , Babylonian, Assyrian, Chaldean, Persian, Greek, Parthian, Ottoman, and Islamic—remind every visitor of the incredible heritage of which modern Iraq is a part. Editor's Note: Most of the city and country profile information contained in this entry reflects the conditions in Iraq prior to the outbreak of hostilities from the 1990 Iraqi invasion of Kuwait , the subsequent withdrawal of Iraqi troops as a result of the multi-national military attack that ended on February 27, 1991, and the continued economic sanctions imposed by the United Nations. MAJOR CITIES Baghdād The history of Baghdād begins in the eighth century. It was founded by Caliph Mansur, and was known as the City of Peace. During the time of Charlemagne , it flourished under the Abbassid Caliph Harun al-Rashid, after whom its present-day main street was named. The old walled city, with a diameter of 3,000 yards, was completely destroyed, first by the Mongols , later by Hulagu Khan in 1258, and again by Tamerlane in 1400. Baghdād became a frontier outpost of the Ottoman Empire from 1638 to 1917, finally emerging as the capital of the Kingdom of Iraq in 1921. The city was the scene of the 1958 coup that overthrew the monarchy and established the Iraqi republic. Baghdād of the 19th century can best be observed in the souks or bazaars, which have changed little in the last 100 years, except for the goods they offer the shopper. Among the things that can be found are silver and gold jewelry, copper and brass trays and coffee pots, Persian carpets, Kuwaiti chests, and hordes of people. Baghdād is a sprawling city of about 4.9 million people (2000 est.). It bustles with vehicular traffic like all other capitals of oil-producing states. Yet, residential areas are still quiet with some remnants of mud villages interspersed with modern villas. The villas themselves are surrounded by high walls within which grow pleasant gardens with fruit tress, grass, and flowers. Baghdād is rich in archaeological remains, and several museums are located in the city. There are three universities in Baghdād; the largest is the University of Baghdād, founded in 1958. Baghdād International Airport is 12 miles from the city. Clothing Only two types of clothing are required in Baghdād: an extensive summer wardrobe and warm winter clothing for the chilly November to March season. Bring garment bags to protect clothing from dust and insects. Sports attire varies. White is required for tennis at the local clubs. Bathing suits deteriorate rapidly, so several should be brought to Iraq. Raincoats and boots or rubbers are needed for the whole family, especially children, during the very muddy, wet winter months. Boots can be bought locally. In general, most imported clothing items are restricted in availability and selection, and are expensive; locally made clothing is of poor quality. Men need cool, lightweight suits, and many shirts. Suits and ties are worn throughout the year in the office. In summer, it is often necessary to change shirts during the day. Sports shirts and slacks are worn during the leisure hours; shorts should be worn only at home. Women require a wardrobe of lightweight suits; cool, washable dresses; slacks; shirts; and blouses. Inexpensive cottons are advisable due to frequent laundering. There is no taboo against wearing reasonably low-cut dresses. Dry cleaning is satisfactory. Stockings usually are not worn during summer. In winter, wool suits, dresses, slacks, sweaters, and warm bathrobes are essential. Coats, stoles, and warm wraps are required for winter evenings; light wraps are necessary for spring and fall. Women's shoes are available locally but quality is poor and they are expensive. Low-heeled sandals, flats, and sneakers are used for ordinary day wear, depending on the season, with emphasis on sturdiness. Children's clothing should be washable. Warm clothing is needed for winter in unheated rooms with cold tile floors. In summer, most children wear cotton clothing. Because much time is spent at swimming pools, several bathing suits are needed for each child. Children's tennis shoes, sandals, and flip-flops are available at a reasonable price. Supplies and Services Toilet articles, cosmetics, over-the-counter medications, household items and other related items are scarce or unavailable. The better tailors and dressmakers in Baghdād can usually follow a pattern with desired results, but they are not designers and are very expensive. Simple shoe repairs are possible, but repair work on women's shoes is unsatisfactory. Dry cleaning is available and is of acceptable quality. Several beauty shops in Baghdād have experienced stylists at reasonable prices. Barbershops are less satisfactory, but are adequate. Education Baghdād International School offers an international education in English to children of foreign diplomats and expatriates from pre-kindergarten through grade 12. Founded in 1969, the coeducational, day, proprietary school is governed by an independent board of directors that includes both appointed and elected members. The school is chartered by the United Nations Economic and Social Commission for Western Asia under an agreement with the government of Iraq. It is not accredited and there are no facilities for special education, learning disabilities, or gifted. If the child receives supplementary work at home, the school curriculum is considered adequate for the early elementary grades. A variety of extracurricular activities centering around sports and dance may be chosen. Enrollment currently totals over 50 representing many different countries. The school year runs from September to early June. Baghdād International School is located six miles west of the city on an 11-acre campus. The air-conditioned school has a media center, auditorium, cafeteria, science laboratories, athletic fields, and a 16,000-volume library. The school's mailing address is P.O. Box 571, Baghdād, Iraq. Other schools in Baghdād provide education in other languages. Recreation The flat desert terrain of Baghdād and vicinity is aesthetically unappealing, but some relief is afforded by drives to nearby places of interest. Many foreigners combine picnicking with archaeological exploration on weekends and holidays. Extensive travel within Iraq is limited by the desert, the summer heat, the lack of good roads (except between major cities), and, above all, travel restrictions. A new road has been under construction from the Kuwaiti border to Baghdād and then west to Jordan . Driving time from Baghdād to Al Başrah is about six hours; to Al Mawşil about four hours. Truck traffic on the existing roads is often heavy. All diplomatic personnel must obtain government permission for most travel outside Baghdād. Difficulties encountered in travel contribute to the isolation of Baghdād. Picnic excursions outside Baghdād in cool weather may include visits to the ruins of Babylon (45 miles, longtime capital of the Babylonian Empire), Ctesiphon (18 miles, vaulted banqueting hall of the Sassanian Kings), and Samarra (87 miles, short-lived ninth-century capital of the Abbassid Caliphate). Visits to the Shia holy places of An Najaf and Kerbala are an easy oneday excursion. The upper Euphrates River, with its unique water wheels, is worth a weekend trip. The sites of Hatra, Nineveh, Nimrud, and Khorsabad are also of archaeological and historical interest. When travel to northern Iraq is permitted, visits to Christian and Yazidi villages there are also rewarding, as are visits to the mountains of the Kurdish areas. The northern resort areas of Iraq have been rebuilt and expanded. The higher elevations and colorful local culture in the Kurdish region combine to make this area one of prime tourist interest. Security restrictions may prevent foreigners from visiting this area. The cities of Amman (Jordan), Istanbul ( Turkey ), and Kuwait City (Kuwait) offer a welcome change, but air travel is expensive and auto travel is time-consuming. However, good roads do exist to these points, and the journeys, if time allows, are rewarding. The bazaars of Baghdād should be explored and visits to the city's monuments and museums are rewarding. Tennis, softball, cricket, bowling, swimming, and squash are available in and around Baghdād. Several of the city's luxury hotels offer memberships entitling one to use their athletic facilities which usually include swimming, tennis, squash bowling, weight rooms, and sauna. Hunting is forbidden and guns may not be imported. Boating, water-skiing, and windsurfing are possible at several Iraqi lakes but these destinations require travel permission. Many foreigners belong to the Alwiyah Club. Members of the foreign community informally organize activities which include running, drama, music appreciation and bridge. Social life is restricted to home entertainment among members of the diplomatic and business communities. Home entertainment equipment such as stereos, record collections, and videotape equipment can be brought to Iraq. Videotaped movies are available in Kuwait for both the VHS and BETA systems. Baghdād, as an entertainment center, is undistinguished. Opera, ballet, and the legitimate theater do not exist, but some English-language films are shown in the local cinemas. Nightclubs, although in operation, do not have a wide selection of entertainment. Some local restaurants are frequented by foreigners in Baghdād. The Iraqi Symphony Orchestra gives a few concerts during the winter season. Iraq's national tourist agency, the General Establishment for Travel and Tourism Services, is located at Al-Kodwa Square, Khalid bin Al-Waleed Street, Baghdād. Al Başrah Iraq's only port is Al Başrah (also spelled Basra , Bassora, Bussora, and Busra, and known in the Arabian Nights as Bassorah), located in the southeastern section of the country on the Shatt-al-Arab waterway, 300 miles south of Baghdād. Al Başrah has become a prosperous city due to its location near the oil fields and 75 miles from the Arabian Gulf; it was the site of a great deal of Gulf War fighting. Petroleum products, grains, dates, and wool are exported from Al Başrah. Many oil refineries have been constructed in the city since 1948. Founded by the Caliph Umar I in 636, Al Başrah was a cultural center under Harun ar-Rashid, but declined with the decay of the Abbassid caliphate. For many years, the Persians and the Turks fought for possession of Al Başrah. The construction of a rail line linking Al Başrah and Baghdād and the building of a modern harbor restored the city's importance after World War I. Occupied by the British in World War II , it was an important transshipment point for supplies to Turkey and the former U.S.S.R. A branch of the University of Baghdād is located in Al Başrah. The population of Al Başrah is over 700,000. Al Mawşil Al Mawşil, with a population of about 1,034,000 (2000 est.), is located on the Tigris River in northern Iraq, opposite the ruins of Nineveh, and 225 miles north of Baghdād. The largest city in northern Iraq and the country's third largest city, Al Mawşil is important for its trade in agricultural goods and exploitation of oil. Most of the city's inhabitants are Arabs, although the surrounding area is mostly populated by Kurds. Historically, Al Mawşil was the chief city in northern Mesopotamia for 500 years before being devastated by the Mongols. During its occupation by the Persians in 1508, and by the Turks from 1534 to 1918, the city remained extremely poor. Under British occupation from 1918 to 1932, Al Mawşil again became the chief city of the region. Turkey disputed its possession by Iraq in 1923-1925, but it was confirmed by the League of Nations in 1926. The city's oil wells were seized during the Arab revolt of April 1941, but were soon retaken by the British. A trading center for grain, hides, wool, livestock, and fruit, Al Mawşil produces cement, sugar, nylon, and bitumen. The city has numerous mosques, shrines, and churches; its university was founded in 1967. Nearby are the ancient ruins of Nineveh and the partially excavated cities of Tepe Gawra, Calah, and Dur Sharrukin. OTHER CITIES The holy city of AN NAJAF is located in south-central Iraq on a lake near the Euphrates River, about 100 miles south of Baghdād. With a population over 130,000, An Najaf is the site of the tomb of Ali, the son-in-law of Muhammad the Prophet. An object of pilgrimage by the Shi'ite Muslims, the tomb is a starting point for the pilgrimage to Mecca . The city is also called Mashad Ali in honor of Ali. ARBIL (also spelled Irbil) is a commercial and administrative center in northern Iraq, between the Great and Little Zab Rivers, about 200 miles north of Baghdād in a rich agricultural region. The ancient Sumerian city of Urbillum, or Arbela, formerly occupied this site; it eventually became one of the great Assyrian towns. As the capital of its province, Arbil today is a major grain producer. The railroad that ends in Arbil connects the city with Kirkūk and Baghdād. Arbil is currently built on an artificial mound on top of an old Turkish fort. The population was estimated at 2,368,000 in 2000. Iraq's oil industry is centered in the city of KIRKŪK , located in the northeast part of the country about 150 miles north of Baghdād. The city, with a population of approximately 535,000, is connected by pipelines to ports on the Mediterranean Sea . Kirkūk is also the market for the region's produce, including cereals, olives, cotton, and fruits. The city is also home to a small textile industry. The surrounding agricultural region also raises sheep. Present-day Kirkūk is situated on a mound that contains the remains of a settlement that dates back to 3000 B.C. Most of the residents of Kirkūk are Kurds. Kirkūk is the terminus of a railroad from Baghdād. AR RAMĀDI (also called Rumadiya; in Arabic, Ramadi) lies on the right bank of Euphrates River, 60 miles west of Baghdād. It is the starting point of a highway that crosses the desert to Mediterranean towns. Ar Ramādi was the scene of battle during World War I in which the British, under the rule of Maude, defeated the Turks. The population was estimated well over 80,000. The ruins of the ancient city of NIMRUD lie about 37 km southeast of the city of Monsul, south of Nineveh. In the time of the Assyrian empire it was known as Kalhu, or Calah, as it is mentioned in Genesis of the Old Testament . It served as the capital of Assyria under Assurbanipal II in 879BC and was destroyed by the Medes of Northern Persia at about 612BC. Archeological excavations have uncovered many of the walls and several artifacts from the king's palace, called the Northwest Palace. A site museum is now located there. On the southeastern side of the city lie the remains of the royal arsenal, Fort Shalmanesar. The ancient city site of NINEVEH is located on the Tigris River, just opposite of Monsul. Today, however, the name refers to the larger administrative district for the area, which has a population of about 1.6 million (1991 est.). The ancient city served as the capital of the Assyrian Empire from about 704-681BC and was somewhat known as the hub of the civilized ancient world. It was taken over by the Medes of Northern Persia at about 612BC. As capital, the city of Nineveh was the site for the magnificent palaces of Sennacherib and Assurbanipal. Recent archeological excavations have uncovered a great deal of the ancient city, including a section of wall about 7.5 miles long and sculptures from the palaces. The original city's protection wall contained 15 gates, each named for an Assyrian god . At least two of these gates, Shamash and Nergal, have been reconstructed. One of the most incredible finds was the Assurbanipal library, which includes over 20,0000 cuneiform tablets. The Iraq Department of Antiquities has roofed the sites and has established the Sennacherib Palace Site Museum for visitors. COUNTRY PROFILE Geography and Climate The Republic of Iraq is situated on the Asian Continent, northeast of the Arabian Peninsula. It lies between 38° and 29°30′ north latitude, and 38° 30′ and 51°30′ east longitude, from its northwestern tip to its southeastern extremity. Iraq is bounded on the north by Turkey, on the east by Iran , on the south by Kuwait and the Arabian Gulf, on the southwest by Saudi Arabia and Jordan, and on the northwest by Syria . Iraq's 171,554 square miles are divided into four major geographical areas. The main one, having almost 75 percent of the population, is the alluvial plain or delta lowlands. Stretching from north of Baghdād, the capital, past Al Başrah to the Gulf, this area is watered by the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers which rise in the Armenian Mountains of eastern Turkey. The rivers approach to within 40 miles of each other near Baghdād, diverge before joining to form the Shatt al-Arab north of Al Başrah, and then flow together with the Karun into the Gulf. An estimated 25 billion cubic feet of silt a year is carried down stream by these rivers to add to the delta. As well as being the legendary locale of the Garden of Eden , the region contains the ruins of Ur, Babylon, and countless other ancient cities. The plain is quite flat—average altitude is 75 feet—and encompasses about 7,500 square miles of marshland to the north of Al Başrah. In spite of the fertility of the area irrigated by the rivers, over three-fourths of it is arid desert. The second area is the western plateau, an extension of the Arabian Peninsula, which marks the region to the west and south of the Euphrates, extending into Jordan and Syria. Comprising more than half of Iraq's total area, it is home to only one percent of the population. The land here is not sandy; it is primarily dust and gravel. Sand dunes exist, but they are not dominant. The average altitude is about 400 feet. Irrigation is limited to sparsely scattered wells. The most heavily populated part of the area is in a depression in the plateau west of the Euphrates between Hit and Najaf, running in a southerly direction from Ar Ramādi to Kerbala. The depression is divided into two basins, Habbaniya in the north and Abu Dibbis in the south. The third geographical area is the Jazira, or island, formed by the upper reaches of the Tigris and Euphrates and their tributaries. Both undulating plains and flat country are found in the region, as well as a basalt chain—50 miles long and 4,800 feet high—west of Al Mawşil. The fourth area consists of the mountains to the east of the Tigris in the north of Iraq, which rise from 700 feet near the river bank to nearly 12,000 feet on the Iraq-Turkey-Iran border. This is an extension of the Alpine system which runs southeast through the Balkans , the Taurus Mountains of southern Turkey, northern Iraq and Iran, and into Afghanistan , finally ending in the Himalayas . East of Kirkūk and Arbil, the land is very rocky until the Plains of Sulaimaniya are reached. Baghdād is located almost in the geographical center of Iraq. Just north of the city, the alluvial plain begins, extending southward through the marshlands to the Gulf. Climatically, the Baghdād area is comparable to the extreme southwestern United States and northern Mexico, with hot, dry summers, cold (but rarely freezing) winters, and pleasant spring and fall seasons. Maximum daytime temperatures in summer (May through September) occasionally reach as high as 130°F, but are generally between 115° and 120°F. The low humidity (5-25%) and 20°F drop in temperature at night result in more comfortable weather than that found in tropical humid regions. Population About 75 to 80 percent of the approximately 23.2 million Iraqis are of Arab stock. The largest ethnic minority are the Kurds, who comprise 15 to 20 percent of the population. Although the Kurds are mostly Muslims, they differ from their Arab neighbors in language, dress, and customs. Other distinctive ethnic communities include Assyrians, Turkmans, Chaldeans, and Armenians. About 97 percent of the population is Muslim ; Iraq is the only Arab country in which most Muslims are members of the Shi'ite sect. There are also small communities of Christians , Jews , Mandaeans, and Yazidis. Arabic is most commonly spoken and is the country's official language; English is the most commonly used Western language. Government Iraq's role in the Middle East has undergone several significant changes since World War II. The July Revolution of 1958 ended Hashemite rule in Iraq, the country's participation in the Baghdād pact (now called CENTO), and its traditional ties with the West. Foreign policy, which followed a neutralist line under Qasim from 1958 to 1963, was identified with the cause of Arab unity after the Ba'ath ( Renaissance ) Party came to permanent power in 1968. Iraq entered into a treaty of friendship with the Soviet Union in 1972, and the Ba'ath and Communist parties formed a Nominal coalition with a Kurdish party. In 1979, the Communist Party was removed from the coalition. Iraq is governed by the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC), consisting of nine of civilian and military members and chaired by the President. The RCC enacts legislation, which is then ratified by the National Assembly. The RCC's President (chief of state and supreme commander of the armed forces) is elected by a two-thirds majority of the RCC. The current president is Saddam Hussein, who took office in July 1979. A 29-member Council of Ministers (Cabinet), appointed by the RCC, has administrative and some legislative responsibilities. A 250-member National Assembly was elected on June 20, 1980, in the first elections since the end of the monarchy; the last election was held in March 1996 (only candidates loyal to Saddam Hussein were allowed to run). No real opposition party exists. A new constitution was drafted in 1990 but not adopted. Iraq is divided into 18 provinces, each headed by a governor with extensive administrative powers. Iraq's judicial system is based on the French model, which was introduced during Ottoman rule. It does not serve as an independent branch of government as in the United States. There are three different courts: civil, religious, and special. The Court of Cassation is the last court for appeals. National security cases are handled by the special courts. Iraq is essentially a one-party state and the press is limited to a few newspapers published by and expressing the views of the government. After years of precarious relations with Iran over control of the Shattal-Arab Waterway that divides the two countries, war erupted in September 1980 when Iraqi planes bombed Iranian airfields and Iran retaliated. Ground fighting began and Iraqi troops crossed the border but were driven back in May 1982. In 1984, both countries attacked tankers in the Persian Gulf , including an Iraqi attack of the U.S.S. Stark which killed 37 U.S. Navy personnel. Warfare ended in August 1988 when a United Nations ceasefire resolution was accepted. In August 1990, Iraq attacked and invaded neighboring Kuwait; declared it a province and precipitated an international crisis. The United Nations called for economic sanctions in Iraq. When Iraq did not withdraw its troops from Kuwait by the U.N. deadline of January 16, 1991, a multi-national force (including the United States) launched an attack on Iraq. In February after cease-fire attempts were rejected by both sides as unacceptable, the multi-national coalition began a ground offensive with the aim of liberating Kuwait. Iraqi troops offered little resistance and were quickly defeated. On March 3, Iraq accepted defeat and agreed to ceasefire terms. After the war, internal revolts against Saddam Hussein's government by the Shi'ites in southern Iraq and Kurds in the northern provinces were suppressed by Iraqi armed forces. One to two million Kurds fearing for their safety fled across the border into Iran and Turkey. To help solve this refugee crisis, other countries stepped in to establish "safe havens" for Kurdish population within Iraq and many Kurds returned. After the war, the United Nations imposed economic sanctions on Iraq and mandated the dismantling of certain Iraqi weapons and missile programs. In 1996, the United Nations brokered a deal with Iraq that would allow it to sell a limited quantity of oil to pay for critical civilian needs. In late 1997, Saddam Hussein expelled ten Americans who were working as weapons inspectors for the United Nations, thus obstructing the disarmament process. The United States sent 30,000 troops to the Persian Gulf to prompt Iraq into submitting to the United Nations' resolutions. Tensions mounted and a military confrontation seemed imminent. In February 1998, United Nations Secretary General Kofi Annan went to Iraq and persuaded the Iraqi government to cooperate. The flag of Iraq is made up of red, white, and black horizontal bands. In the central white band are three green stars arranged horizontally. The words Allah Akhbar (" God is Great") in green Arabic script were added between the stars during the Persian Gulf War in 1991. Arts, Science, Education Iraq's cultural life is centered in Baghdād, arguably the second most important Arab capital after Cairo . Once confined to a small group of the more Westernized and well-to-do Iraqis, cultural participation by ordinary citizens and official patronage has increased. The most vigorous activity is in fine arts. The Iraq Museum of Modern Art has organized an extensive permanent collection of the work of Iraqi artists. In Western classical music, the government-subsidized Iraq National Symphony and its chamber ensemble offer about eight different programs during the winter months. A number of special presentations are sponsored by foreign embassies and cultural institutions. Occasional Arabic language dramatic productions are given at the National Theater and at the Mansour Theater. In keeping with Iraq's ambitious national development program, the government before the Gulf War awarded thousands of scholarships to many U.S. and other foreign universities, with heavy emphasis on engineering and the sciences. Iraqis are proud of their rich scientific heritage from Islamic and pre-Islamic times, and the government wanted to increase modern manifestations of this heritage. Six years of primary school is compulsory and there are plans to extend it to nine years. Secondary education is available for six years. Public education is free; private schools were abolished in 1970s. Adult literacy is currently estimated to be 58% (1995 est.). Archaeology attracts the interest of many members of the foreign community. A number of archaeological digs are in progress, and the Iraq Department of Antiquities has undertaken major restorations of some principal sites. Iraq's superlative collections of Mesopotamian antiquities are on display at the excellent Iraq Museum. Commerce and Industry The long war with Iran (1980-1988) resulted in considerable debt and post-war reconstruction funds were needed to repair industrial and oil installations, as well as, damage to the physical infrastructure around the southern city of Al Başrah. Economics, especially the shortage of hard currency, was the driving force behind Saddam Hussein's invasion of Kuwait. However, the war over Kuwait resulted in severe economic damage to Iraq—considerably more than the years of war. The loss of trade, investment, economic assistance, and the many foreign workers who left the country because of the war resulted in economic problems that have persisted for many years. Iraq has a state-controlled economy with a small private sector. The economy is heavily dependent on oil and refined products; 95% of export earnings come from this source. Iraq has the second largest oil reserves in the world and was the second largest Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) producer after Saudi Arabia. Since 1972, the government has gradually nationalized all the oil fields in the country, in keeping with the policy that the country's resources, particularly oil, should not be under foreign control. Since 1999, Iraq was authorized to export unlimited quantities of oil to finance humanitarian needs including food, medicine, and infrastructure repair parts. Oil exports fluctuate as the regime alternately starts and stops exports, but, in general, oil exports have now reached three-quarters of their pre-Gulf War levels. Per capita output and living standards remain well below pre-Gulf War levels. Manufacturing and agriculture play much smaller roles in the economy despite their great potential. All heavy industry is government-owned and includes iron, steel, cement, pharmaceuticals, and fertilizers. There is a trend to allow private ownership of light industrial concerns such as food processing and textiles. Iraq has a large, skilled work force. Much fertile, irrigated land is available for agricultural purposes and 30% of the work force is involved in agriculture. Iraq is one of the world's largest producer of dates; barley and wheat are the other major agricultural products. Iraq's gross domestic product ( GDP ) is approximately $57 billion, or $2,500 per capita (2000 est.). The United Nations trade embargo established in August 1990 and the war has blocked or disrupted Iraq's trade with other nations. The address of the Baghdād Chamber of Commerce is Mustansir Street, Baghdād, Iraq. Transportation During the Gulf War, many roads, railways, bridges, and ports were destroyed or damaged. Immediately after the war the only surface link to other countries was through Amman, Jordan. The Iraqi government has given the repair of roads and bridges a high priority. Baghdād is served by a limited number of international airlines as well as Iraqi Airways, the national carrier. Iraq has intercountry rail transportation. Rail lines connect Baghdād with major cities such as Al Başrah, Arbil, and to Al Mawşil, where Istanbul (Turkey) and Europe can be reached via Aleppo (Syria). The Oriental Express travels to and from Baghdād via Turkey and Syria. Local transportation includes taxis and buses. Americans seldom use either. Taxis, operated by both companies and private individuals, are usually available, but are difficult to find after 8 p.m. Taxis may be hired for trips out of Baghdād. Many taxis are American-made and many are not equipped with meters. Fares must be negotiated, but is easily managed once the recognized standard rates are known. Even for taxis with meters, fares should be agreed on in advance. Tipping is not expected. Some established foreigners without cars make contact with a taxi company in their vicinity and use it exclusively, paying their bills by the month. This can become quite expensive for more than a short-term arrangement. The bus system operates on most of the main streets; however, most buses are in poor condition. A car is essential in Baghdād, especially for a foreigner living in an outlying residential district. Markets for food and household goods are far apart, and distances between home, office, and friends can be great. Certain car colors are prohibited (black, olive, beige, tan), as are all cars with diesel engines. An international or U.S. driver's license will expedite issuance of an Iraqi license. International driver's licenses must specifically list Iraq in order to be valid here. Third-party insurance is compulsory. Major roads have international traffic signs; driving is on the right-hand side of the road. Communications Iraq has a dial telephone system. Long-distance service, although poor, is normally available within the country and to nearby capitals. Satellite connections to overseas countries are usually satisfactory, although delays can be encountered in placing a call. At times, as a war-related economic move, Iraq has discontinued long distance, direct-dial service. Long distance calls must then be placed through operators and usually only placed for phone numbers on an approved list. International airmail letters to or from the U.S. usually take eight to 12 days, although if selected for review by the censors, letters can be delayed as much as three weeks. Air Mail is more reliable than surface mail. Telex is available at the major hotels and telegrams may be sent from the telegram office in Baghdād. Radio reception is fair. Domestic service is available in Arabic, Kurdish, and several minority languages, while external service is available in many languages. It is possible to tune in to Voice of America (VOA), British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC), Monte Carlo (Monaco), and other shortwave programs. A good shortwave set capable of worldwide reception is worthwhile. There are 16 medium-wave and 30 short-wave transmitters in the country. Baghdād has two TV stations, both government-operated. With the exception of a few English-language serials and films, its limited programs are in Arabic only (usually about eight/nine hours a day). The state-sponsored Baghdad Observer is the only English-language paper readily available. Few Western publications are available. Occasional copies of Time and Newsweek, censored, are seen at local vendors. A subscription to European versions of these magazines, although expensive, is much more dependable. The International Herald Tribune, printed in Paris , can also be subscribed to via international mail. The delay on these publications is about five days. Only a limited supply of books and technical journals is available. The British Council library, however, has a wide selection of fiction and nonfiction, and the International Children's Center (ICC) has a library, although not extensive, of children's books. The U.S. Interests Section maintains an informal lending library. Health and Medicine Baghdād has several small private hospitals where Westerners may be hospitalized in emergencies. These hospitals, however, do not offer the comprehensive medical, surgical, or diagnostic care of a large American medical center; most foreigners use medical facilities abroad. Many well-trained and qualified doctors in nearly all the medical and surgical specialties practice in Baghdād. However, these doctors are severely overworked and are limited by the lack of development of hospitals, money in a war situation, laboratories, and well-trained nursing staffs. Although adequate routine dental care is available, complex dental problems are usually hard to solve locally. Children requiring orthodontia should have the process initiated prior to arrival. Satisfactory follow-up care for orthodontia can be obtained in Baghdād. No adequate diagnostic facilities exist for allergies. Those with severe or disturbing allergies should have diagnostic sensitivity procedures performed prior to arrival. Iraq's climate could severely aggravate allergies. If therapeutic allergy serum for desensitization is necessary, an adequate supply should be kept on hand. If you require special or unusual medicines, bring your own supply. Medications are scarce and hard to find; U.S. brands are unavailable. Sanitation is below U.S. standards; there are indiscriminate dumpings of waste and garbage. One city garbage collection per week services residential areas. Baghdād's central water system provides adequate potable water, which is filtered in the home for drinking. The water is obtained from the Tigris River. The city water in Al Mawşil, Al Başrah, and Kirkūk is also safe to drink. It is unsafe, however, to drink untreated water in the villages. Periodic fumigation with DDT or equivalent spray helps eliminate insect pests. The Baghdād city and health authorities have several large trucks which irregularly spray major portions of the city to reduce the number of flies and mosquitoes. The foreign community is commonly subject to gastro-intestinal upsets. Respiratory infections and colds also are common, and often severe. They are frequently of prolonged duration and may progress to bronchitis, pneumonia, or pleurisy. These complications should be promptly and adequately treated. Children are subject to the usual childhood diseases, but generally do well in Baghdād. Hepatitis and sand fly fever are local hazards. Skin and eye infections prevalent among the local population must be guarded against by proper habits of personal hygiene. Parasitic diseases such as hydatid cyst, amoebic and bacillary dysentery, and worms are prevalent. Bilharzia may be prevented by avoiding bathing, washing, or wading in irrigation ditches and slow-moving streams. Malaria and Baghdād boil (Cutaneous Leishmaniasis) are relatively uncommon now. The dust-laden air may severely aggravate sinus and other respiratory tract complaints, and may cause acute irritative conjunctivitis. Baghdād also experiences smog, due mainly to brick factories and oil refineries built close to the city. The long, hot summer can be debilitating. Since the dryness evaporates perspiration rapidly, fluid loss can be extensive. Salt tablets are helpful to those who perspire profusely. Insect bites, heat rash, and temperature extremes may be discomforting to some. Insect repellents are advised. Like other desert areas, Iraq is an entomologist's paradise. Many varieties of insects are found year round. Sand flies are a particular nuisance during the late summer and early fall, and houseflies are plentiful throughout the year. Precautions must be taken against cockroaches, ants, and termites. The insect population of homes is kept to a minimum by small, harmless lizards which keep mainly to the upper walls and seldom bother humans. In the Middle East, they are regarded as bringing good fortune to the home. U.S. health authorities recommend immunization against cholera (except for infants under six months), typhoid, tetanus, polio, and gamma globulin. The usual pediatric immunizations also should be updated. LOCAL HOLIDAYS NOTES FOR TRAVELERS Passage, Customs and Duties No American air carriers serve Baghdād, other airlines, including Iraqi Air, Air France, Lufthansa, and Swissair offer frequent direct flights from several European capitals. Iraqi Air prohibits hand baggage (including brief cases) on most flights. Passports and visas are required. On February 8, 1991, U.S. passports ceased to be valid for travel to, in or through Iraq and may not be used for that purpose unless a special validation has been obtained. Please see paragraphs on Passport Validation and U.S. Government Economic Sanctions. For visa information, please contact the Iraqi Interests Section of the Algerian Embassy, 1801 P Street, NW, Washington, DC 20036, telephone 202-483-7500, fax 202-462-5066. Without the requisite validation, use of a U.S. passport for travel to, in or through Iraq may constitute a violation of 18 U.S.C. 1544, and may be punishable by a fine and/or imprisonment. An exemption to the above restriction is granted to Americans residing in Iraq as of February 8, 1991 who continue to reside there and to American professional reporters or journalists on assignment there. Iraq has strict customs regulations. Upon arrival, a traveler must declare any foreign currency, audio-visual equipment, satellite and cell telephones, personal computers and especially modems. There may be difficulty in obtaining a permit to take these items out when leaving Iraq. The Iraqi authorities may request the surrender of such equipment for depositing at the border (there might be difficulties in reclaiming it when leaving Iraq). Videotapes may be confiscated. Carrying firearms and pornography is forbidden. Any news publications may be regarded as hostile propaganda and confiscated. Charges of disseminating propaganda detrimental to Iraq might follow. So-called "friendly" requests for foreign periodicals and newspapers should be flatly refused. Usually cars are very thoroughly checked. Offering gifts to inspectors may result in charges of bribery, which could lead to serious consequences. Generally, export of gold, foreign currency, valuable equipment, antiquities and expensive carpets is forbidden. All foreigners (except diplomats) are requested to take an AIDs or HIV test at the border. Sanitary conditions at the Ministry of Health border stations are questionable. You may wish to bring your own needle or try to postpone the check until your arrival in Baghdad. You may wish to have the test done ahead and carry a valid certificate. The U.S. does not have diplomatic relations with Iraq, and there is no U.S. Embassy in Iraq. The Embassy of Poland represents U.S. interests in Iraq; however, its ability to assist American citizens is limited. Pets A veterinarian's certified statement of good health and a rabies inoculation is necessary for all pets brought into Iraq. Import licenses are obtained after entry. Pets are most easily brought into the country when they accompany the owner. Adequate veterinary care is available locally but animal medicines are in short supply. Commercially prepared pet food is not available and other pet supplies are very scarce. St. George's Anglican Church in Baghdād holds services in English, and is open to all members of Protestant denominations. There is no resident minister, and activities are limited to the weekly services. There are several Catholic churches, and English-language masses are offered at St. Raphael's. English-language services are also offered at a Seventh-Day Adventist Church. Currency, Banking and Weights and Measures The monetary unit of Iraq is the dinar (ID), which is divided into 1,000 fils. All private foreign exchange transactions are government-controlled through the Central Bank of Iraq. Travelers checks and foreign currency are not limited, provided they are declared upon entry. Rafidian Bank, Iraq's sole commercial bank, is the only one authorized to accept foreign currency or travelers checks. Comprehensive U.N. sanctions on Iraq, imposed following Iraq's 1990 invasion of Kuwait, prohibit all economic and financial transactions with the Government of Iraq, persons or entities in Iraq unless specifically authorized by the U.N. Since 1998, foreigners traveling in Iraq may legally exchange foreign currency in money exchange kiosks or bureaus (run privately or state banks). Payments for hotel, renting a taxi, etc. must be paid in foreign currency. No ATM machines exist. The metric system of weights and measures is used in Iraq. The use of any other system is legally prohibited. The time in Iraq is Greenwich Mean Time (GMT) plus three hours. RECOMMENDED READING These titles are provided as a general indication of the material published on this country: Abu Jaber, Kamel S. The Arab Ba'ath Socialist Party: History, Ideology, & Organization. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1966. Abdulghani, Jasmin. Iraq and Iran: The Years of Crisis. Baltimore , MD: John Hopkins University Press, 1984. Baghdad Writer Group. Baghdad and Beyond. Washington, DC: Middle East Editorial Associates, 1985. Batatu, Hanna. The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978. El Azhary, M.S., ed. The Iran-Iraq War. New York : St. Martin's Press, 1984. Fernea, Elizabeth Warnok. Guest of the Sheikh. New York: Anchor Books, 1969. Ghareeb, Edmund. The Kurdish Question in Iraq. Syracuse, NY: Syracuse University Press, 1981. Hamady, Sania. Temperament and Character of the Arabs. New York: Twayne Publishers, 1960. Helms, Christine M. Iraq: Eastern Flank of the Arab World. Washington, DC: Brookings Institution, 1984. Kelidar, Abbas , ed. The Integration of Modern Iraq. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1979. Lloyd, Seton. The Archaeology of Mesopotamia. Rev. ed. New York: Thames and Hudson, 1984. Maar, Phoebe. The Modern History of Iraq. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1985. Pelletiere, Stephen. The Kurds, An Unstable Element in the Gulf. Boulder, CO: Westview Press, 1984 Roux, George. Ancient Iraq. 2nd ed. Winchester, MA: Allen and Unwin, 1980. Stark, Freya. Baghdad Sketches. New York: E.P. Dutton, 1938. Szaz, Z. Michael, ed. Sources of Domestic and Foreign Policy in Iraq. American Foreign Policy Institute, 1986. Thesiger, Wilfred. The Marsh Arabs. New York: Penguin Books, 1967. Winstone, H.V.F. Gertrude Bell. London: Jonathan Cape, 1978. Young, Gavin. Iraq, Land of Two Rivers. London: Collins, 1980. ——. Return to the Marshes. London: Collins, 1977. Cite this article COUNTRY OVERVIEW LOCATION AND SIZE. Iraq is located in the Middle East , between Iran and Saudi Arabia . Iraq is also bordered by Jordan and Syria to the west, Kuwait to the south, and Turkey to the north. A very small sliver of the Persian Gulf (58 kilometers, or 36.04 miles) abuts Iraq on its southeast border. With an area of 437,072 square kilometers (168,753 square miles), Iraq is slightly more than twice the size of Idaho . Iraq's capital city, Baghdad , is located in the center of the country. Other major cities include al- Basra in the south and Mosul in the north. POPULATION. The population of Iraq is the fifth largest in the Middle East and North Africa. The population was estimated at 22,675,617 in July of 2000, an increase of 4.675 million from the 1980 population of 18 million. In 2000, Iraq's birth rate stood at 35.04 per 1,000, while the death rate was reported at 6.4 per 1,000. With a projected growth rate of 2 percent between 2000 and 2015, the population is expected to reach 38 million by the year 2030. Some 97 percent of the population are Muslims. Shi'ite Muslims make up the majority (60-65 percent), while Sunnis comprise 32-37 percent of Muslims in the country. The remaining 3 percent is made up of Christians and other religious groups. The Kurds, descendants of Indo-European tribes who settled in Iraq in the 2nd century B.C., make up 15-20 percent of the population. Arabic is the official language, but Kurdish, Assyrian, and Armenian are also spoken. Iraq's population growth has increased since 1993, despite the exodus of the middle class as a result of the Gulf War and the adverse effects of the United Nations (UN) economic sanctions imposed since 1991. Population growth before the 1991 Gulf War was as high as 3.6 percent annually. The government has strongly encouraged population growth. With a high fertility rate and a relatively young population, 45 percent of which is under 15 years of age, population growth is expected to remain high. Population growth dropped significantly to 1.9 percent in 1993 but resumed in recent years, with the growth rate reaching 2.98 percent in 1998. This rate suggests that the emigration of the middle class has slowed. The International Monetary Fund (IMF) also estimates that the effects of the UN sanctions have begun to fade. An estimated 1 to 2 million Iraqis live abroad, many as political exiles. The large majority of these are concentrated in Iran, after having been forced to leave in the wake of the 1990-91 Gulf War. As in many developing countries, a majority of Iraqis live in urban areas. The population of urban areas has grown significantly since the 1960s at a rate of 5.2 percent annually. Baghdad and its suburbs are home to some 31 percent of the population. Rural-urban migration has eroded some of the ethno-religious and linguistic differences between regions, with the exception of the Kurdish minority, which is concentrated in the north. Iraqi society is dominated by tribal and familial affiliations. OVERVIEW OF ECONOMY Iraq's economy has suffered greatly as a result of the United Nations sanctions, imposed following Iraq's military defeat at the hands of a U.S.-led coalition that freed Kuwait after it was invaded by Iraq in 1990. The sanctions were imposed to contain militarily the regime of Saddam Hussein by ensuring that all weapons of mass destruction (such as nuclear, chemical, and biological weapons capable of killing large numbers of people indiscriminately) at its disposal are destroyed by a UN-appointed inspections committee. However, Iraq's incomplete compliance with UN resolutions pertaining to the destruction of its weapons has precluded the removal of the trade sanctions more than a decade after the war. Iraq entered the 20th century as part of an enfeebled Ottoman Empire (a 700-year empire that spanned much of the Middle East and centered in what is now Turkey). By 1915, Iraq became a British mandate area administered by a civil government headed by a British high commissioner. In 1921, the British replaced their direct rule with a monarchy headed by King Faisal. Iraq became a sovereign independent state in 1932 after the British finally acceded to local demands for full independence. Iraq was proclaimed a republic in 1958, after the monarchy was overthrown by a military coup executed by officers under the leadership of General Abdul Karim Qasim, who became Iraq's first president. In fact, Iraq has been controlled by a series of strongmen, the latest of which is Saddam Hussein, who took power in 1979. Oil, discovered in Iraq in the early 1950s, has made Iraq one of the world's largest oil producers. Its economy is largely dependent on the oil sector, which has traditionally accounted for about 95 percent of foreign exchange. Iraq's economy has, however, been on a downward trend since the early 1980s. Gains achieved during the initial years of the Ba'ath party (Iraq's only political party and the center of power in the country) rule were reversed as the Hussein regime sought to finance the 10-year war with Iran that broke out in 1980. As a result of the war, Iraq's oil production capabilities were curtailed, and the government's debts to Western nations for the purchase of military materiél grew considerably throughout the 1980s. Iraq sustained heavy debts as a result of its war with Iran. Accurate figures regarding Iraq's total external liabilities are hard to establish because the Iraqi government did not publish official information on its debt. In 1986, Iraq's total debt was estimated to be between US$50 billion and US$80 billion. Of this total, Iraq owed about US$30 billion to Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, and the other Gulf states. Most of this debt resulted from the sale of crude oil on Iraq's behalf. Iraq's total foreign debt today is estimated to be in the range of US$130 billion. Iraq has not made any debt payments since the United Nations' sale of its overseas assets to compensate the Kuwaiti victims of the invasion and to pay creditors. Since 1996, Iraq has been allowed to export only a limited quantity of oil, worth US$2.14 billion every 6 months, in return for food and medical supplies to address the country's deteriorating humanitarian conditions after the war, which include a lack of clean water supplies and basic services. Of revenues accruing from the sale of oil, some 53 percent is used to finance the import of food and medicine for the Iraqi people, while 13 percent is being diverted by UN agencies to the Kurdish provinces in the north. The effects of the sanctions have led to a sharp increase in poverty and infant mortality, especially in the south, and much of the country's infrastructure is not functioning. POLITICS, GOVERNMENT, AND TAXATION A complex web of social, economic, ethnic, religious, and ideological conflicts has hindered the process of state formation in Iraq since it gained independence from Britain in 1932. Festering socioeconomic problems—such as widespread poverty and deep divisions between the Sunnis and the Shi'ites in the post-World War II period—were compounded by an enduring leadership crisis that continued to afflict Iraqi politics and society for more than 5 decades after independence. The political process has been characterized by deep social and political divisions that have meant that no single political group was able to gain enough support to rule the country without resorting to violence. As a result, Iraq's deep-rooted fragmentation has allowed the armed forces to exercise great control over politics since the 1930s. A total of 11 coups took place between 1936 and 1968. The Ba'ath party, which came to power in 1968, also through a military coup, has greatly shaped the country's modern history and its economic system. The party espouses the goals of socialism , freedom, and unity, and has attempted to redress widespread social inequality through the redistribution of wealth. According to the constitution, Iraq is a republic with an elected legislature and an independent judiciary. Executive power is concentrated in the hands of the president and Council of Ministers. In reality, and owing to the revolutionary nature of Iraqi politics, all executive and legislative powers rest with the Revolutionary Command Council president (RCC). The RCC elects the president, who, in addition to being the chairman of the RCC, also serves as prime minister and commander of the armed forces. The president and the Council of Ministers are accountable to the RCC. Since the late 1960s, the ruling Ba'ath Party has used vast oil revenues to build a modern state, although it is also one of the most highly militarized countries in the world. The Ba'ath party adopted a centralized socialist welfare system, which regulated every aspect of the economy, with the exception of the agriculture and personal services sectors. Much of Ba'ath party's ambitious plans to develop Iraq and exploit its vast oil resources were done with Soviet technical assistance. Since taking office in 1979, President Saddam Hussein pursued a state-sponsored industrial modernization program that led to a more equitable distribution of wealth, greater social mobility, improved education and health-care standards, as well as the redistribution of land. The government experimented with economic liberalization in the 1980s, which sought to ease state control of the economy and to increase commercialization in the state sector. These efforts, however, were largely unsuccessful, mainly due to a long legacy of state control and a bloated state bureaucracy that was unable to meet the challenges of reform. Iraq's spending on defense has traditionally accounted for 25-33 percent of the state budget, even when the country was not at war with any of its neighbors. Since the early 1970s, the government has dedicated huge resources to thwart efforts by the Kurdish people to establish their own state in the northern Kurdistan region. After efforts to reach an agreement to establish a politically and culturally autonomous area in the north failed in 1975, the government waged in 1976 a costly campaign to forcibly evacuate 800 Kurdish villages along the border with Iran. This campaign to replace the Kurdish population with Arabs resumed after an 8-year hiatus during the Iraq-Iran war. At least 300,000 Kurds were deported from their villages in the north, and chemical weapons were used against Kurdish civilians at Halabjah in 1988 in which more than 5,000 Kurds were killed. Following Iraq's military defeat in 1991, U.S.-led allied forces carved out an autonomous region for the Kurds in the north, effectively separating the region from the rest of the country. Since 1991, the Iraqi Kurds have enjoyed a large degree of autonomy from the central government in Baghdad under the protection of allied forces. Nevertheless, the Kurds live in primitive conditions, often in large "tent cities," with only the barest necessities (such as food, medicine and clean water) supplied by aid agencies. In the wake of the Gulf War and its aftermath, the Iraqi government's role in the economy is bigger than ever, as it continues to control the vast majority of imports and foreign exchange flowing into the country from the limited sale of oil allowed under the sanctions. The government, however, lacks a clear economic objective, given its primary goal since the 1990 Gulf War has been to ensure the survival of the regime in the face of international political and economic isolation. Instead of using its limited resources from oil sales to benefit the economy and expand its base, the state has redirected its efforts toward guaranteeing the continued support of the regime's chief domestic allies, mainly the merchant class and the military. This class has been both paid off and allowed to accumulate wealth illegally to ensure its continued allegiance to the state. Taxation is not and has never been a major source of government income. Iraq's relative prosperity in the years preceding the Iran-Iraq war enabled the government to adopt a welfare system that exempted the population from paying taxes. After the 1990 Gulf War, however, the government has attempted to impose taxes to increase its revenue, but collection enforcement has been rather poor. Private sector employees are required to pay income tax , although the tax is rarely collected. State employees continue to be exempt from taxation. INFRASTRUCTURE, POWER, AND COMMUNICATIONS Prior to the Gulf War, Iraq's infrastructure was one of the most highly developed and extensive in the region. The government has been largely successful in its efforts to repair the severe damage the infrastructure sustained as a result of the 1990 Gulf War. The lack of resources available to the government, however, has meant that most of the repair work is substandard. In 1996, the country was serviced by a network of over 45,550 kilometers (28,304 miles) of primary and secondary roads, 38,400 kilometers (23,862 miles) of which were paved. The nation's 2,032-kilometer (1,263-mile) railway system is in good condition and connects Iraq to its neighbors to the north, Syria and Turkey. Iraq has 2 major airports, located in Baghdad and Basra. Both airports are in fairly good condition. There are 3 smaller civil airfields at Haditha, Kirkuk and Mosul. All commercial airlines stopped service to Iraq in 1991 under the United Nations sanctions. A number of countries, mainly France , Russia , and Jordan, began sending humanitarian flights carrying food and medicine to Baghdad in mid-2000, in violation of the sanctions. These flights were sent as an expression of opposition to the continuation of the UN sanctions against Iraq. The country has 3 ports at Umm Qasr, Khawr az-Zubayr, and al-Basra, which currently have limited functionality because of the damage sustained during the Gulf War and the subsequent trade sanctions. Since 1997, most of Iraq's needs are serviced at Umm Qasr, the main point of entry for most food imports. Communications aData are from International Telecommunication Union, World Telecommunication Development Report 1999 and are per 1,000 people. bData are from the Internet Software Consortium ( http://www.isc.org ) and are per 10,000 people. SOURCE: World Bank. World Development Indicators 2000. Electric power is supplied to Iraqis by state-owned power stations throughout the country, which have a total capacity of 17,000 megawatts of power. As a result of repeated bombings during the Iran-Iraq war and the Gulf War, power stations today can barely meet local demand, and it is estimated that in 2000, capacity in the central and southern regions supplied only 50 percent of demand. Despite the construction of 4 new power stations after the Gulf War, blackouts are common, and at least 14 central and southern provinces experience an average of 12 hours of power cuts daily. In Baghdad, 4-hour power outages are routine. Telecommunications services in Iraq are in poor condition and are quite unreliable, mainly as a result of repeated air strikes by allied forces during and after the war. The country had 675,000 working lines in 1995. Mobile cellular service is unavailable. Internet service is available but is both costly and unreliable. ECONOMIC SECTORS Iraq's economic sectors reflect the state of devastation that the country has endured as a result of war. The economy has traditionally been heavily dependent on the oil sector, which accounted for more than 60 percent of the GDP before the Gulf War. The oil sector's contribution to the GDP, however, greatly diminished in the immediate years after the war, but its contribution to GDP has increased since the 1996 introduction of the United Nations oil-for-food program, which allows limited oil exports in return for food and medicine. Iraq in 1991 exported less than 10 percent of its pre-war oil export levels. By 2001, Iraq had regained three-quarters of the pre-war oil export levels. However, the UN's control of oil exports removed these revenues as a source of the GDP. In the post-Gulf War era, services was the largest contributor to the GDP at 81 percent in 1993. Industry contributed 13 percent in the GDP, while agriculture accounted for 6 percent of the GDP. Real GDP was cut by around 63 percent in 1991, a direct result of the war and subsequent sanctions. The GDP was estimated in 1999 to be equivalent to US$59.9 billion. The country's major economic sectors witnessed a serious decline in 1990-91 because of the Gulf War, and continued allied bombardment of key Iraqi infrastructure facilities, including power generators and communications equipment. The manufacturing sector was hit by the shortage of imported raw materials and spare parts, while the collapse of the country's irrigation system in the aftermath of the war has left the agricultural sector in dire straits. AGRICULTURE Despite intermittent government efforts to develop the sector, agricultural production has always been a modest contributor to Iraq's economy, accounting for 7 percent of GDP prior to the 1980 Iran-Iraq war and 6 percent in 1993. Despite declining performance, however, the sector continues to employ almost one-third of the country's labor force . The agricultural sector employed 30 percent of the labor force in 1989, and although the number is believed to have declined as a result of the sector's declining performance, no hard figures are available to support this contention. Iraq's arable land is estimated at 8 million hectares, comprising less than 15 percent of the country's total area. However, only 4 to 5 million hectares of this land is being cultivated. Arable land is mostly concentrated in the north and northeast, where winter crops—mainly wheat and barley—are grown, and in the valleys of the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The sector's contribution to the GDP has steadily declined since the early 1980s, despite repeated government efforts to boost agricultural production. Until the late 1980s, cultivable land was under the control of the state, the direct result of the land reforms begun in 1958. In 1988-89, in an effort to boost agricultural production, the state privatized agriculture, but the sector's weakness persisted. Further, the government continued to control the price of agricultural products, mainly to protect the urban consumer. Despite government efforts to encourage agricultural production after the Gulf War by raising the price of staple foods—especially of wheat, barley and rice—the labor-intensive sector remains in 2001 under-developed and inefficient, as a result of the high costs of energy, credit, and land and lack of investment. The problem is further aggravated by the lack of pesticides, fertilizers, and machinery. Further, competition from produce and agriculture products imported under the UN food-for-oil program, which allows the sale of a given amount of oil in return for basic foodstuffs and medicine, has also hurt the sector. In 2000, Iraq's farmers were also hit hard by the worst drought in a century. This drought devastated output and forced many farmers to ask the government to loan them the money to pay local banks back for funds they had borrowed to plant their crops, which in the summer of 2000 were failing. Major agricultural products are cereals, including wheat and barley. Iraq is also a producer of dates, sheep and goat meat, chicken meat, and milk. Most agricultural activity is concentrated in the fertile lowlands in the Mesopotamian plains irrigated from the Tigris and the Euphrates. The Kurdish areas in the north, which have received minimal attention due to the conflict between the central government and the Kurds, remain underdeveloped and mostly dependent on rainwater. Agricultural production in Kurdish areas has improved under the UN sanctions regime, due to the distribution of fertilizers and spare parts by international agencies in those areas. INDUSTRY MINING. Oil dominates the country's mining activity, and accounted for more than 60 percent of the GDP before the 1990 Gulf War. Iraq has 112,500 billion barrels in proven reserves—the second largest known reserves in the world. Prior to its war with Iran, which began in 1980, Iraq was also the second-largest exporter of oil in the world. Oil production is concentrated in the north in Kirkuk, Jambur, Bai Hassam, Ain Zalah, Butman, and Baiji. Oil fields in the south include Rumaila and Zubeir, and until the Gulf War, oil was exported via the Gulf port at Khor al-Amaya. In addition, smaller fields can be found at Luhais, Nahr Umr, Buzurgan, Abu Ghuraib, and Jabal Fauqi. Iraqi oil exports consist of 2 types of crude. The "Kirkuk Crude," which forms the majority of exported oil, is extracted from the northern oil fields and exported via Turkey. The "Basra Light" comes from the fields in the south and is exported via the Mina al-Bakr terminal on the Persian Gulf. Oil production and output has more than once been interrupted as a result of armed conflict, first with Iran and then with the allied forces during the Gulf War. Production before the Iran-Iraq war reached as high 3.5 million barrels a day (b/d) in 1979 but declined to 700,000-870,000 b/d with the start of the war in 1980. Although most damage to Iraq's facilities was repaired, and production was restored to 3.07 million b/d by the end of the 1980s, the Gulf War and subsequent UN sanctions imposed once more severely depressed both production and output capacity. Until 1996, Iraqi exports were forbidden under the terms of the UN sanctions, with the exception of 65,000 b/d exported to Jordan as part as a special deal worked out with the United Nations. As a result, oil production averaged only 500,000-600,000 b/d between 1990 and 1996, with the majority used for domestic consumption. Iraq was allowed to resume partial exports in 1996, as part of the food-for-oil program designed to provide for the humanitarian needs of the Iraqi people. Oil production was estimated at 2.52 million b/d in 1999, 1.76 million of which are exported under the food-for-oil program. Local consumption accounts for 500,000 million b/d, while an estimated 166,000 million b/d are believed to be smuggled through Turkey and Iran. In June 1998, Iraq was permitted to import spare parts in the amount of $300 million every 6 months to repair its oil facilities. In December 1999, the value of imports was doubled to $600 million per 6 months, but Iraq was allowed to purchase parts only from a list of parts drawn up by the United Nations. Despite an increase in production, which reached 2.49 million b/d in July 2000, the oil sector continues to suffer from the lack of adequate investment and of the kind of Western expertise that was once available to Iraq before the war. Before 1972, a consortium of British, U.S., French and Dutch companies virtually dominated the oil industry through the Iraqi Petroleum Company and its associates. This company was nationalized by the Iraqi government in 1972, and the U.S. and Dutch interests in the last remaining foreign oil firm—the Basra Petroleum Company—were confiscated because of their governments' pro-Israel stance during the 1973 Arab-Israeli war. The entire oil sector was nationalized in December 1975 and placed under the control of the state-owned Iraqi National Oil Company. In the late 1990s, however, and as a direct result of the sanctions, the Iraqi government has once again allowed production-sharing agreements with foreign companies, mainly Russian and Chinese, to develop the oil sector and increase production to 3.4 million b/d in the short-term and 6 million b/d in the medium-term. These agreements, however, are contingent upon the lifting of the UN sanctions, and it remains to be seen whether the United States will allow the Russian and Chinese firms to benefit from the development of the Iraqi oil sector. In addition to oil, Iraq ranks tenth in the world in terms of proven reserves of natural gas, which are estimated at 3.1 trillion cubic meters. In 1998, Iraq's production of natural gas reached 2.9 billion cubic meters, most of which was used for domestic consumption. Natural gas is currently not being exported, although the government has recently signed agreements with Turkish companies to export 10 billion cubic meters worth of gas annually from its northern field. Iraq also has phosphate deposits located at Akashat near its border with Syria, which are used to produce fertilizers. Sulphur deposits can also be found in Mishraq. European companies were involved in the mining of sulphur before the Iran-Iraq war, but these efforts came to a standstill during the war and have not resumed. The mining of both phosphates and sulphur has largely remained limited in scope due to the dominance of the oil sector. MANUFACTURING. The manufacturing sector is the second largest non-oil sector, accounting in 1993 for 13 percent of the GDP. The sector's contribution to the GDP in 2001 is hard to assess in the absence of government data about manufacturing activity in the country. Total employment in manufacturing in 1989 stood at 968,000 or 22 percent of the labor force. Historically, the sector has been dominated by oil refining and natural gas processing industries. Refineries are situated in Baghdad, Basra, al-Hadithah, Khanaqin, Kirkuk, and Qayyarah, and by the late 1980s were producing a total of 743.3 million barrels of petroleum and 3.7 billion cubic meters (131 billion cubic feet) of natural gas per year. Since the 1970s, Iraqi companies have processed iron and steel at plants located at Khawr az-Zubayr. Other manufacturing activities include the production of advanced military hardware, tractors, electrical goods, car assembly, truck manufacture, aluminum smelting, detergents, and fertilizers. Since the mid-1970s, Iraqi industries have been under the control of the state. The government experimented with privatization in late 1988, right after the end of its war with Iran, in an effort to boost manufacturing production. The state, however, continues to control all heavy industry, the oil sector, power production, and the infrastructure, while private investment is restricted to light industry. An important reason for the failure of the privatization program was the price controls that the government was forced to introduce following the outbreak of popular unrest over rising prices in 1989. Overall, the sector has been characterized by mismanagement and constant policy shifts, which severely hindered its development. In the 1970s, the government encouraged the development of local food processing and building supplies industries to substitute for imports, but by the late 1970s, the government shifted its focus toward the development of heavy industries, such as iron and steel. The initiative, however, never took off. Efforts to expand the manufacturing sector came to a standstill during the Iran-Iraq war, as resources had to be reallocated to finance the war, and greater emphasis was placed on increasing the output of existing industries. In the 1990s, the manufacturing sector has also been severely hurt by the UN sanctions and has shrunk considerably as a result. The UN closely monitors the import of industrial raw materials to ensure that implements necessary for the production of weapons of mass destruction do not enter the country. The sector has also been hurt by the lack of the foreign currency needed to purchase imported parts. CONSTRUCTION. The construction sector has been a major contributor to the economy for most of the last 3 decades. The sector's growth can be attributed to the government's continuous involvement since the 1970s in reconstructing war-damaged facilities or in expanding the military infrastructure. Spending on construction dropped significantly in 1991, reaching ID578 million, down from ID1.7 billion in 1990. Spending on construction, however, has been on an upward trend since 1991, reaching some ID20 billion in 1994. SERVICES FINANCIAL SERVICES. Financial services in Iraq are fairly outdated. As a result of the nationalization of banks and insurance companies in 1964, all financial transactions are controlled by the government through the Central Bank of Iraq, which is responsible for issuing and monitoring all aspects of the Iraqi dinar. Black market currency dealings are prohibited but continue to take place. International banking transactions are undertaken by the Rafidain Bank, which represents the government in all transactions not undertaken by the Central Bank. The Rasheed Bank, established in 1989, deals with domestic transactions. The banking sector was liberalized in 1991, paving the way for the establishment of 6 new banks. RETAIL. Iraq has a poor retail sector. Baghdad's once well-developed commercial centers have been severely hurt by the UN sanctions, and the lack of imported goods has forced many of them to close in the last 10 years. The majority of shops in major cities, including Baghdad, consist of small family-owned and-run businesses. Small shops and temporary road stands also characterize the majority of towns in the interior of the country. INTERNATIONAL TRADE Iraq's imports have declined dramatically in the last decade, as a direct result of the UN sanctions. In 2001, Iraq's total imports were estimated at US$8.9 billion, almost 40 percent lower than their 1989 levels of US$22 billion. Iraq was not allowed to import any goods until 1997. After the conclusion of the food-for-oil agreement, Iraq's imports have been regulated by the UN, which approves all goods entering the country. Exchange rates: Iraq Dec 1995 3,000 Note: Rates are black market rates and are subject to wide fluctuations;Iraqi dinars have been officially fixed at 0.3109 since 1982. SOURCE: CIA World Factbook 2001 [ONLINE]. Iraq imports a variety of goods, but food imports (wheat, rice, barley, sugar and meat) and medicine are by far the largest component of the import bill. However, the Iraqi government and its agencies control the purchase and marketing of imported goods. Before the Gulf War, Iraq imported the majority of its goods from the United States, Japan , the United Kingdom , Germany , France, Italy, Brazil and Turkey. By the late 1990s, France (19.2 percent of total imports), Australia (18 percent), China (12.5 percent), Russia (8.2 percent), and the United States (2.1 percent) are the largest exporters of goods to Iraq. The majority of exports are dominated by oil, which accounted for about 95 percent of total sales abroad before the Gulf War. Iraq in 2000 had restored three-quarters of its pre-war oil export levels, which means that oil sales in 2001 account for around 70 percent of total exports. Other non-oil exports included fertilizers and dates. Sales of liquefied natural gas are expected to surge, but the prospects for that eventuality are far from certain. In 1999, Iraq exported the majority of its oil to the United States (US$3,879 million), the Netherlands (US$848 million), Japan (US$644 million), France (US$521 million), and Spain (US$402 million). Given its weak industrial base and the unlikely removal of the UN sanctions, oil is expected to continue to be the country's major export. Total exports in 1999 reached US$12.7 billion, with the vast majority of export earnings coming from the sale of oil. MONEY The value of the Iraqi dinar has declined steadily on the world market over a period of 20 years, making it increasingly harder for the average Iraqi to afford imported goods. The value of the dinar held steady until the beginning of the Iran-Iraq war, but that trend was reversed with the collapse of oil prices in mid-1980s. The dinar, which sold at ID0.3109=US$1 in 1982 (which is still the official rate set by the Iraqi government), was further weakened in the aftermath of the Gulf War, reaching a GDP per Capita (US$) 6,300 Note: Data are estimates. SOURCE: Handbook of the Nations, 17th,18th, 19th and 20th editions for 1996, 1997, 1998 and 1999 data; CIA World Factbook 2001 [Online] for 2000 data. low of ID2,660:US$1 in December 1995. Despite occasional peaks, the value of the dinar against the U.S. dollar has held steady in the last 2 years at ID2,000:US$1 on the black market, the same rate sold by state banks since June 1999. However, the dinar's instability is likely to persist as a result of the uncertain political and the continuation of the UN sanctions. Iraq has a single stock market, established in Baghdad in March 1992 in the wake of the privatization of state enterprises. Trading, however, remains thin due to the uncertain political conditions prevailing in the country. POVERTY AND WEALTH The UN sanctions imposed on Iraq since 1990 have severely affected the social fabric and living conditions in the country. As a result of the severe deterioration of services—including water and sanitation, health care, and education—the living standards of all Iraqis have declined. Rising unemployment and inflation , which was estimated at around 250 percent in 1995 and 135 percent in 1999, coupled with the falling purchasing power of salaries and rising prices, have deepened social divisions and inequalities, with all sectors of the society growing more impoverished. Wealth as of 2001 is concentrated in the hands of a small privileged group of regime supporters, mainly from among the military and the business community who have been allowed to benefit from the sanctions. This group is heavily involved in black market currency dealing and the smuggling of food and merchandise on a regional scale. The economic embargo has also had an uneven impact on different Iraqi regions. Ethnic, religious, and tribal rivalries have always been the dominant feature of Iraqi society. The Sunni-dominated central government in Baghdad has historically discriminated against the Shi'ites in the south and the Kurds in the north. Systematic efforts to "Arabize" the predominantly Kurdish region in the north resulted in a rebellion in the 1970s that brought the Kurds further retribution. Under the sanctions regime, living conditions in the northern provinces that are under Kurdish control have improved, partly because the UN, rather than the government of Iraq, is administering the oil-for-food program there, and partly as a result of the infusion of higher per capita international humanitarian assistance to this region between 1991-96. The future social and economic prospects of this region, however, remain uncertain, given that the status of the region is yet to be determined. The predominantly Shi'ite south, which witnessed an uprising against the Sunni-controlled Baghdad government in the wake of the 1991 war, has been less fortunate. The military continued its water-diversion and other projects in the south designed to displace the Shi'ite community there, known as the "marsh Arabs." Since the 1980s, the government has drained most of the southern areas by either drying up or diverting the streams and rivers, effectively cutting off water supplies to the Shi'ite community inhabiting those areas for thousands of years. The government also limited the delivery of food, medical supplies, drinking water, and transportation to the region. The regime has used food rations allowed under the oil-for-food program to reward regime supporters and silence opponents. As a result of this policy, the humanitarian conditions of Shi'ites in the south continued to deteriorate, despite a significant expansion of the oil-for-food program after 1997. WORKING CONDITIONS Iraq's labor force has increased steadily since the 1970s, reaching over 6 million workers in 1998. No official statistics are available for the unemployment rate in the country, but it is widely believed that the unemployment rate has increased dramatically as a result of the war and the subsequent sanctions. Iraq suffered labor shortages in the 1980s as result of the conscription of thousands of Iraqi men in the military. Declining economic conditions forced thousands of foreign workers who migrated to Iraq for work opportunities during the war to leave after the war ended. This problem was further aggravated by the exodus of thousands of Iraqi professionals at the outset of the Gulf War. The majority of the labor force (67 percent) is concentrated in the services sector, which is dominated by the military, in comparison to only 14 percent in the agricultural sector and 19 percent in the industrial sector. Iraq's trade unions were legalized in 1936, and although more than a dozen are in existence today, the labor movement has been largely ineffective due to the domination of the government and Ba'ath Party. In 1987, the government established the Iraqi General Federation of Trade Unions (IGFTU) as the sole legal trade federation, which is used to promote the principles and policies of the Ba'ath party among union members. Iraqi employees work a 6-day, 48-hour week, but working hours in the public sector are set by the head of each ministry. Child labor is prohibited, although children under the age of 14 can work in the agricultural sector and are encouraged to help support their families. Although labor laws protecting the right of workers have been in place since 1958 and subsequently amended in 1964, working conditions in Iraq are not ideal. Workers do not enjoy the right to strike, as mandated by the 1987 Labor Law; do not have the right to bargain collectively; and are often arbitrarily moved from their positions for political considerations. Salaries in the public sector are set by the government, but no information is available on minimum wages. Declining economic conditions in the 1990s have forced many government employees to take second and third jobs to support themselves. Since the 1970s, the ruling Ba'ath party has encouraged the participation of women in the labor force and much effort was exerted to improve their level of education. The percentage of women in the labor force has, however, remained rather steady in the 2 decades between 1970 and 1990, hovering at around 16.8 percent. According to World Bank figures, Iraqi women's participation in the labor force has risen consistently since the 1990/91 Gulf War, jumping from 16.6 percent in 1991 to a high of 19 percent in 1998. This increase can be best explained in terms of the harsh economic conditions that Iraqis have had to endure as a result of the war, which have forced many women to seek employment opportunities outside their homes to earn a living. COUNTRY HISTORY AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 1917. As the Ottoman Empire collapses, Iraq comes under the control of the British. 1921. The British declare Faisal king of Iraq. 1932. Modern Iraq gains independence. A new government headed by General Nouri al-Said is formed. 1933. Ghazi, the son of King Faisal, becomes king. 1941. The Ba'ath Party is founded by 2 Syrian students, espousing the goals of socialism, freedom, and unity. 1939. King Ghazi is killed in a car accident and is succeeded by his son Faisal II. 1958. Hashemite monarchy is overthrown by officers of the Nineteenth Brigade under the leadership of Brigadier Abdul-Karim Qassem and Colonel Abdul Salam Arif. Iraq is declared a republic. 1963. President Abdul-Karim Qassem is overthrown by Abdul Salam Arif and a coterie of military officers in a bloodless coup. 1970. The government signs a 15-article peace plan with the Kurds after years of rebellion and conflict. 1972. Iraq and the Soviet Union sign a treaty of friendship for political and economic cooperation. Iraqi Petroleum Company is nationalized and Iraq National Oil Company is established to exploit new oil concessions. 1979. President Bakr resigns, and Saddam Hussein officially replaces him as president of the republic, secretary general of the Ba'ath Party Regional Command, chairman of the RCC, and commander in chief of the armed forces. 1979. Shah of Iran is overthrown. 1980. Iran-Iraq War begins. 1988. Government launches privatization program to spur economy. 1990. Iraq invades Kuwait. 1991. Iraq is defeated by allied forces. United Nations sanctions are imposed. 1997. Iraq is permitted to export limited amounts of oil in return for food and medicine. FUTURE TRENDS Iraq entered the 21st century under a cloud of great uncertainty. Despite the large sums of money that have entered the government's coffers from the sale of oil in the last 50 years, Saddam Hussein's legacy of war, first with Iran and then as a result of the invasion of Kuwait, has left the economy in ruins. The country's economic and social achievements during the 1970s and 1980s have been completely lost. Despite the food-for-oil program approved by the United Nations in 1997, the Iraqi economy will continue to suffer as a result of the sanctions. Further, the prospects for the lifting of the United Nations sanctions remain uncertain, given that their termination has been made conditional upon the removal of President Saddam Hussein from power. Even after the sanctions are lifted, it is estimated that Iraq will have to pay US$12 billion in debt-servicing annually and to pay for food imports, medicine, and reconstruction. The problem will be further aggravated by the massive reparations payments that Iraq will be forced to pay. Unless forgiven, Iraq's debts will continue to greatly hinder its ability to undertake large-scale reconstruction and repair needed to restore the civilian infrastructure. Internally, the social and ethnic divisions that have long characterized Iraq are stronger than ever. Despite being greatly weakened by the Gulf War and the sanctions, the repressive Saddam Hussein regime continues to rule the country unchallenged. The country itself has been divided into 3 zones, with the center and the south remaining under the control of the Iraqi government. Meanwhile, the north, where the Kurdish minority is concentrated, has been granted, at least temporarily, the right to administer its own affairs. For the last 10 years, the Kurds have enjoyed the protection of U.S. and British forces against potential military attacks by the Iraqi government. However, it remains uncertain whether such an arrangement can be sustained after the U.N. sanctions are lifted. DEPENDENCIES Iraq has no territories or colonies. BIBLIOGRAPHY "Another Dry Year Means Bad Harvest For Iraq." Arabia.com/Iraq. <http://www.arabia.com/iraq/business/article/english/0,5508, 24836,00.html>. Accessed June 2001. Arnove, Anthony, editor. Iraq Under Siege: The Deadly Impact of Sanctions and War. Cambridge, Mass.: South End Press,2000. Batatu, Hanna. The Old Social Classes and the Revolutionary Movements of Iraq: A Study of Iraq's Old Landed and Commercial Classes and of Its Communists, Bathists, and Free Officers. Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1978. Clawson, Patrick. How Has Saddam Hussein Survived?: Economic Sanctions, 1990-93. Washington, D.C.: Institute for National Strategic Studies, 1993. Economist Intelligence Unit. Country Profile Iraq, 2000/2001. London: Economist Intelligence Unit, 2000. Helms, Christine Moss. Iraq, Eastern Flank of the Arab World. Washington, D.C.: Brookings Institution, 1984. "Kurds Despair Under West's Leaky Umbrella." Guardian Unlimited. <http://www.guardian.co.uk/The_Kurds/Story/ 0,2763,440396,00.html>. Accessed June 2001. U.S. Central Intelligence Agency. World Factbook 2000. <http:// www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/index.html>. Accessed July 2001. —Reem Nuseibeh Baghdad. MONETARY UNIT: Iraqi dinar (ID). One Iraqi dinar equals 20 dirhams, or 1,000 fils. Coins of ID1, and 1, 5, 10, 25, 50, and 100 fils. Notes are in denominations of 5, 10, 50, and 100 dinars. CHIEF EXPORTS: CHIEF IMPORTS: Food, medicine, manufactures. GROSS DOMESTIC PRODUCT: US$59.9 billion (purchasing power parity, 1999 est.). BALANCE OF TRADE: Exports: US$12.7 billion (1999 est.). Imports: US$8.9 billion (1999 est.). Cite this article Secondary: 32% History & Background Historical Evolution: The Republic of Iraq, aljumhuriyya al-'iraqiyya, is an Arab nation located in southwestern Asia , at the head of the Persian/Arabian Gulf. Iraq is bordered by its Arab neighbors Kuwait , Saudi Arabia , Jordan , and Syria and by non-Arab Turkey and Iran . The capital of Iraq is Baghdad , also its largest city. The land area measures 438,446 kilometers (175,378 square miles). In July 2000 the population was estimated to be more than 22.6 million. About three-fourths of Iraq's people live in the fertile area that stretches from Baghdad, following the Tigris and Euphrates rivers. The ancient Greeks named this area Mesopotamia, or "between rivers." For thousands of years, the agriculture of the area has depended on the flow of irrigation from these two sources. The country is comprised of 18 administrative units, or governorates (muhaafatha, plural muhaafathaat ), further divided into districts and subdistricts. Iraq is a nation of varied ethnic groups and cultural heritages; Iraqis of Arab descent comprise 75.8 percent of the population, while Iraq's Kurdish peoples number 15 to 20 percent. Turkomans, Assyrians, and other groups compose the remaining 5 percent of the population. The three governorates of Arbil, Sulaymaniya, and Dohouk form the Kurdish Autonomous Region, an area of limited self-rule by Iraq's Kurdish minority. Kurdish is the official language of the Autonomous Region and is widely used as the language of educational instruction in the area. Nearly 97 percent of Iraq's people are Muslim , along with tiny groups of Christians , Jews , and Yezidis. The Muslim population is split into the Sunni (32 to 37 percent) and the Shi'a sects (60 to 65 percent). Approximately three-quarters of the population speak Arabic as their native language. Arabic is the official language of Iraq, with Kurdish, Assyrian, and Armenian spoken among their respective ethnic groups. Iraq's natural resources give it the potential to be one of the wealthiest nations in the region and the world. A founding member of the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC), Iraq possesses more than 112 billion barrels of oil—the world's second largest proven reserves. Iraq also benefits from its geography, unique in the region; two great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates, converge in the heart of the nation, creating a fertile alluvial plain and generous tracts of cultivatable land. The history of Iraq has been marked by cultural ascendance comparable only to the glory of the ancient Egyptian and Greco-Roman civilizations. Mesopotamia sustained its place as an axis of learning for more than 4,000 years, attracting students, thinkers, and intellectuals from around the world. The world's first civilization developed in the area of Mesopotamia known as Sumer around 3500 B.C.E. Ancient Iraq was also the site of the Assyrian and Babylonian civilizations, extant in the period from 3500 B.C.E. to 53 B.C.E. The Code of Hammurabi, the first codified legal system, and cuneiform, the first system of writing, were both invented in what is now modern Iraq. The Arab conquest of 637 C.E. brought with it Arabic, the language of the Qur'an, and the Islamic faith. Mesopotamia was soon to be the hub of trade and culture in the Muslim world, becoming the seat of the Abbasid dynasty in 750 C.E. Saladin, or Salah Al-Din, a Kurdish warrior from Mesopotamia, defeated the Crusaders in Jerusalem in 1187. In 1258, Arab rule over the area was brought to an end by invading Mongol forces from central Asia. Mesopotamia lost its preeminence through Mongol neglect and fell into a deep decline. The Ottoman Empire 's domination of the region began in the early 1500s and continued until Britain seized Mesopotamia from the Ottomans during World War I. Modern Political Contexts: The League of Nations, the international organization that preceded the United Nations, granted Britain a mandate over the area in 1920; Britain promptly renamed the country Iraq and installed a puppet monarchy. France , Britain, and the United States competed for dominance of the Middle East beginning after World War I, when massive oil reserves were discovered there. In 1945, the U.S. State Department described the petroleum of the region as "one of the greatest material prizes in world history." Though Britain's mandate ended in 1932 making Iraq an independent nation, the British continued to exert influence on Iraqi affairs, including a stake in national oil profits and considerable sway over the monarchy they had installed. The year 1958 saw Iraq's first modern revolution: King Faisal I was overthrown by Iraqi army officers and a republic was declared. In 1963, military officers and members of the socialist, pan-Arab Baath Party (Arabic for "resurrection") assassinated the premier, General Abdelkarim Qassem. A second revolution followed in 1968. In 1973, the Iraqi government fully nationalized the nation's oil industry and huge profits were realized, especially in light of the oil explosion of the 1970s. Saddam Hussein rose to power as president in 1980 after years of behind the scenes influence within the ranks of the Baath. The Baath Party continues to dominate contemporary Iraqi politics and government. The recent history of Iraq is fraught with almost unabated military conflict, at a great cost to the Iraqi government and people. In 1980, Iraq invaded neighboring Iran, and an eight-year long war caused egregious losses on both sides; a cease-fire was declared in 1988 and no clear winner emerged. Conflicts with its Kurdish minorities in the north and Shi'a groups in the south have lead the Iraqi government to take such steps as: the forced resettlement and dispersal of entire communities of Iraqis; the draining of marshland integral to the way of life of its occupants; and the use of armed forces to curb opposition. In 1990, Iraq invaded neighboring Kuwait after protracted disputes involving Iraqi debt to the Gulf state, border disputes, and accusations of illegal oil drilling. Allied forces from more than 30 nations ejected the Iraqi military from Kuwait, and Operation Desert Storm came to a halt in February 1991. In response to Iraq's invasion and occupation of Kuwait, the United Nations, led by the United States, effected a complete trade embargo on Iraq that has crippled its economy. This embargo, a form of international sanctions, legally prevents Iraq from exporting oil or importing any products, save for a small amount intended for humanitarian supplies ("Oil for Food") and reparations to Kuwait. The Impact of Sanctions: The sanctions have become the key factor preventing the Iraqi government from recovering from its costly conflicts, rebuilding its infrastructure, and providing for its population. The sanctions prevent Iraq from selling oil and, thus, sever the most significant part of the Iraqi economy. Since 1991, Iraq's economy has shrunk by two-thirds; inflation reached 135 percent in 1999. More than 150,000 Iraqi people died as a result of the Gulf War; more than 1 million more have perished as a result of the sanctions, which some have described as genocide. The mortality rate for young children has more than doubled since 1989. Iraq's health care, social infrastructure, employment, and its ability to extend educational opportunity to its citizens, a primary goal of the Iraqi government since the late 1960s, have all been paralyzed by the trade embargo. In 1989, Iraq had a nearly 100 percent primary school enrollment rate. Once on the threshold of the first world, Iraq's standard of living has been reduced to less than that of such developing nations as Bangladesh . Any consideration of the future of this nation must take into account the sanctions' devastating effect on the Iraqi people. Constitutional & Legal Foundations The educational system of Iraq is legally codified in the Provisional Constitution of 1970. In this code, following the precedent of the General Education Law of 1940, primary education is compulsory and universally guaranteed to the Iraqi people. In 1976, the Compulsory Education Law was promulgated, requiring children between the ages of 6 and 15 to attend primary school. Iraq is a signatory to the 1978 Convention on the Recognition of Studies, Diplomas and Degrees in Higher Education in the Arab States. The Iraqi government, embodied in the Revolutionary Command Council, has long made universal literacy and education a national priority; in the past free schooling was available from the primary to the graduate levels, as well as student nutrition, classroom materials, and the opportunity for graduate study abroad, all at government expense. The government highlights the eradication of illiteracy among Iraqi women as a main goal. Equal educational opportunities are offered to both genders, though some specifically target women, including literacy programs and home economics courses. The Iraqi government has passed detailed educational legislation in order to more closely hone in on areas of development and innovation. Such laws include the formation of parents and teachers' councils, schools for the gifted, teacher training centers, fine arts centers, guidelines for educational television, and the Boy Scout program. The remarkable successes of the government in the past are due to its commitment to various national planning strategies, including long and short-range plans, and its deep investment in the modernization of Iraqi society. Iraq emphasizes innovation and technology, including computers and media, as cornerstones of its educational system. The government also seeks to consolidate the relationship between education, labor, and production. After the implementation of economic sanctions in 1990, the Iraqi government's ability to continue such ambitious programs has been severely constrained. Only one percent of the funds earned through the "Oil for Food" initiatives embodied in United Nations Resolutions 983 and 1153 (which allow Iraq to sell more than $5 billion semi-annually for food and medicine) is allotted for education. Educational System—Overview In 1976, a number of Arab and international education organizations participated in the Baghdad Conference for the Eradication of Illiteracy. This meeting helped produce a comprehensive national campaign against illiteracy in the nation. Compulsory Education Law 92 was passed in the same year, requiring all children between the ages of 6 and 15 to attend school; the law also stipulates that the state must provide the facilities for such learning. Students in Iraq begin the school year in September and end in June of the following year. School is in session six days a week and closes on Friday, the Muslim Sabbath. The Iraqi educational system is largely influenced by Western educational systems, including the granting of leaving certificates or their equivalent and the use of standardized, national testing. Education in Iraq emphasizes Modern Standard Arabic, or fusha, which differs from spoken (Iraqi) Arabic. In the Kurdish Autonomous Region, Kurdish is the main language of instruction, with Arabic and English also used. English and French are the main foreign languages studied in Iraq. Some faculties in colleges and universities, like medicine and engineering, employ English as the language of instruction. Various English language courses are offered throughout Iraq. The most popular destinations for Iraqi graduate students studying abroad in the past have been the United States and the United Kingdom . School and general examinations are employed to assess the degree to which educational goals are being met among students. The Ministry of Education periodically assesses these methods through a special technical subcommittee, which is also tasked with the development of examinations. Passing the annual promotion exam is required in order to be promoted to the next grade level. The minimum passing grade is 50 percent on a 100 percent scale. Baccalaureate tests (national, standardized examinations) are administered in the sixth, ninth, and twelfth grades. The grading system used in secondary and higher education institutions is based on the 100 percent scale. In secondary schools, the minimum passing grade is 50 percent, while in higher education, it ranges from 50 to 59 percent. A supreme committee of the Ministry of Education administers an educational guidance program. Provincial committees are also a part of training guidance counselors. The program's aims are to overcome instructional and psychological problems that children face in school, to help them make educational progress, and to develop methods of social interaction. The government has highlighted religious education in recent years through a campaign to teach students about the Qur'an, the sacred text of Islam . The principles of the National Faith Campaign for the Teaching and Understanding of the Holy Qur'an are derived from the doctrines of the Qur'an itself, as well as the Sunnah (the sayings and actions of the Prophet Mohammad, as recorded by his disciples). The campaign's special curriculum starts from the first grade and ends in (preparatory) grade six. Preprimary & Primary Education For children aged four to five, preschools (nurseries) provide preliminary and kindergarten levels of education. Nursery and kindergarten levels teach children aged four to six years. Enrollment in nurseries and kindergartens is voluntary. Primary schools enroll students beginning at age 6 and ending at age 11; students graduate with a Primary Baccalaureate or Certificate of Primary Studies. The number of pupils in nurseries for the academic year 1997-1998 totaled 70,585, with 50.8 percent males and 49.2 percent females. The enrollment rate was 6.8 percent for this age group. The Basrah governorate has the highest enrollment, with 10.4 percent, while the Baghdad governorate had the lowest, with 1.4 percent. In 1991-1992, the enrollment rate for this age group was higher at 8.2 percent. In 1997 some 566,337 new students enrolled in grade one; they ranged in age from 5 to 10 years. Male enrollment in this group was 53.3 percent, while female enrollment totaled 46.7 percent. In 1997, approximately 12.5 percent of students in grade one had attended early childhood development programs. In 1997, a total of 3,029,386 Iraqi children were enrolled in primary school, with 55.4 percent male students and 44.6 percent females. In the same year, primary school teachers with teaching certifications numbered 111,956; they represented 78.9 percent of all primary teachers in the country. Primary school teachers with university degrees numbered 29,981, or 21.1 percent of all primary teachers. The pupil-teacher ratio is 21:1 nationwide, excluding the Kurdish areas. Repeaters & Dropouts: Repetition continues to be a major issue in Iraq. On the primary level, the repetition rate was 14.5 percent nationwide in 1997-1998 (excluding the Kurdish Autonomous Region). The repetition rates for primary school for the same year were: grade one, 13.2 percent; grade two, 13.2 percent; grade three, 12.0 percent; grade four, 13.7 percent; grade five, 22.7 percent; and grade six, 7.2 percent. The highest repetition rate was in grade five, with 26.3 percent of all male students and 19 percent of all female students repeating the grade. In 1997-1998, the mean rate of repetition for grades one to five equaled 17.0 percent, down from 20.1 percent in 1991-1992. The government aims to reduce the repetition rate to 4 percent by academic year 2005-2006. The rate of pupils who passed the promotion examination for grade four in 1997-1998 was 70.7 percent. Dropout or wastage rates are computed for both students and teachers. A total of 259,125 students dropped out of primary school in 1998-1999. Many professionals have left Iraq to escape the depressed economy and shattered national infrastructure brought about by the sanctions, while many students have dropped out of school to work or due to a lack of motivation. There is a high incidence of malnutrition, anemia, and fatigue and diarrhea among students; an absence of adequate heating and cooling in school buildings aggravates such health concerns. The numbers of pupil and student dropouts in 1997-1998 were as follows: primary, 72,598; intermediate, 33,390; preparatory, 3,645; vocational, 1,919; and teacher training, 509. The overall number of dropouts was 112,061. A total of 26,394 teachers and school staff quit by 1997-1998. The Ministry of Education reported a shortage of 624 teachers for the kindergarten level in 1998-1999, with a projected shortfall of 963 by 2005-2006. By the same academic year, the total primary teacher shortage is expected to reach 12,037 teaching professionals. The learning plan for the elementary stage in Iraq includes the following subjects for all grades one through six: Islamic education, Arabic language and calligraphy, mathematics, science, technical education, physical education, and singing and music. English is studied in grades five and six along with history, geography, and family education. Civics is studied in grades four through six while social education is studied in grades one through four. In grades one through three, students take a total of 32 classes, while those in grades four through six take 34 classes. In addition, the Christian religion is taught for two periods in schools where the majority of the student population is Christian. Agricultural education in rural schools is taught for two periods in grades four, five, and six. Workshops that train students in manual, technical, and athletic skills are arranged beyond regular school hours as extracurricular activities. In 1998, the number of school libraries totaled 6,594. Special education is provided to below average students by way of special classes annexed to various elementary schools in the governorates. In 2000, the number of classes ranging from grades one to four was reported to be 383, with 3,360 pupils and 463 teachers. The trade sanctions have had a deeply deleterious effect on all phases of education in Iraq. Approximately 40 percent of Iraq's schools, some 4,157 structures, were destroyed in the aftermath of the Gulf War; total damage to the educational infrastructure is estimated at 214,626,319 Iraqi dinars. The embargo prevents the purchase of materials to repair these buildings, though United Nations/UNESCO efforts have mended and updated some structures and provided some students with books and chalk. In 1998, some 3,981 school buildings still needed repair. In 1979-1980, the number of primary school buildings was 9,460—9,053 were government buildings and 407 were rented. In 1997-1998, there were 7,419 government buildings (153 were rented). The supply of textbooks is extremely limited; the Ministry of Education has implemented a plan where students use 50 percent new texts and 50 percent used texts, while utilizing a textbook exchange program between schools. Communicable diseases and malnutrition are rampant, preventing many children from being able to attend school. In 1995, only 41.5 percent of those enrolled in primary schools reached the fifth grade. Many students must drop out and take up jobs in order to support their families, or they simply lack the drive to continue their studies. Secondary Education Secondary education is divided into two three-year cycles. The intermediate cycle follows a common curriculum and culminates in the Third Form Baccalaureate or Certificate of Intermediate Studies; this level enrolls students from the ages of 12 through 14. The preparatory cycle follows the intermediate cycle. In the general academic schools, the preparatory cycle requires students to choose a specialization; one of two tracks is chosen after the fourth year in secondary school. Students choose scientific or literary studies, both leading to the adadiyah, or Sixth Form Baccalaureate. Vocational secondary education is divided into agricultural, industrial, veterinary, or commercial studies. Courses lead to a Vocational Baccalaureate. After the intermediate cycle, a student may also enroll in a teacher-training institute for a degree in primary education; the period of study is two years. The learning plan for the intermediate phase includes the following subjects for all grades one through three: Islamic education, Arabic language, English language, history, geography, civics, mathematics, technical education, and athletics/military education. In grades two and three, chemistry, physics, and biology are also studied. General science is studied in grade one, while health, algebra, and geometry are studied in grade three. In grades one through three, female students take a class called "Family Education for Girls." In this phase, all students in grades one through three take a total of 34 classes. During evening school, athletics and military training are eliminated. Vocational training is provided in some secondary schools, as an experimental plan, for two periods per week. Higher Education Higher education is provided by public and private universities, private colleges, and the 28 institutes operating under the auspices of the Commission of the Technical Institutes. Universities are legal entities in their own right and are controlled by the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research; an internal administrative council also administers each university. Apart from the private colleges, institutions are financed by the state. A four-year undergraduate phase follows secondary school, after which is added a tertiary phase for those wishing to pursue the Master's or doctoral degree. Most Bachelor's degrees are conferred after four years of study, while in architecture, dentistry, and pharmacy, the Bachelor's is earned after five years. In medicine, the duration of study is six years. The Master's degree requires one year of matriculation and one year of research. The Doctorate is conferred after a further three years' study beyond the Master's degree, with one year of coursework and two years of thesis preparation. Higher Diplomas are mainly conferred in medical fields and admission is based on a Bachelor's degree in the same field. A minimum 65 percent grade average is required. Some specialized institutes offer a two-year, Postgraduate Higher Diploma. Major universities in Iraq include the University of Baghdad, the University of Mosul , the University of Basrah, the University of Mustansiriyah and Salahaddin University, all of which grant the Bachelor's, Master's and Ph.D. degrees. Salahaddin University, formerly the University of Sulaymaniyya (founded in 1968) was established in the academic year 1982-1983. It is the largest of the three universities in the Kurdish Autonomous Area, situated in the provincial capital town of Arbil. In view of the economic sanctions and the concomitant state of financial resources in Iraq, a doctoral degree may now require eight years of study, rather than the usual three beyond the Master's degree. Iraq's professors and intellectuals have complained of being isolated from the international academic community since the embargo took effect in 1990; they are not invited to participate in international conferences, and their requests for research materials are denied. Academic materials as well as computers and other technology are banned under the trade embargo. Humanitarian supplies are slow to arrive and insufficient to meet the needs of the country. Administration, Finance, & Educational Research Kindergarten, primary, and secondary education are funded and supervised by wizaarat al-tarbiya, the Ministry of Education. The Ministry also administers vocational (industrial, agricultural, and commercial) and teacher's training programs. The Minister of Education leads the Ministry. According to Governmental Decree number 34 (1998), the Ministry of Education is composed of the following: the Minister's office; the offices of the under-secretaries; the legislative division; and 18 general directorates. Each is tasked with various subsets of the educational system, including planning, elementary education, educational technologies, computers, administration, financial affairs, and the production of educational materials. Committees under the direction of the Ministry of Education are responsible for functions such as general examinations, the development of educational media, program development, and the supreme board for scouts and girl guides. On the level of the muhaafatha (governorate), 11 general directorates across the country are responsible for the execution and monitoring of educational plans and the construction and maintenance of schools. University and postsecondary education are supervised and funded by the Ministry of Higher Education and Scientific Research, including graduate study abroad. The National Foundation of Technical Institutes directs vocational training centers for the education of skilled laborers. Similar vocational instruction projects are administered by the Ministry of Labor and Social Affairs; the Ministry of Industry and Military Industrialization; the Ministry of Health; the Ministry of Transport and Communications; and the Ministry of Petroleum. Iraq is home to a variety of international and pan-Arab educational organizations, including UNESCO's Regional Office for Education in Arab countries. It also hosted the Arabic Research and Studies Institute from the period of 1980-1990. In 1996, Iraq's primary education expenditures totaled 7 billion Iraqi dinars. The total educational budget for that year equaled 16 billion dinars. Public expenditure on primary education is expected to reach 18 billion dinars in the year 2000, while total projected allotments on all levels of public education are predicted to reach 27 billion dinars for the same year. In 1995-1996, educational allotments were distributed as follows: kindergarten, 2.8 percent; primary education, 64.0 percent; secondary education, 27.9 percent; and vocational training, 5.3 percent. Educational supervision is achieved through training of teachers and administrators, class visits, educational conferences, and instructional seminars. The Ministry of Education has allotted a segment of supervisors specifically for kindergartens and the elementary stage. Due to financial and infrastructure difficulties brought on by the trade embargo, Iraqi parents were asked to provide school books and equipment for their children in school beginning in 1999. In September 2000, the Iraqi government suspended free education. The education ministry set a scale of fees ranging from 2,000 dinars for primary school to 25,000 dinars for university matriculation. These rates cover one academic year. Attendance by both teachers and students has dropped off considerably as people struggle to work various jobs to survive. Teachers earn an average of 3,500 dinars a month, worth approximately US$1.70. Nonformal Education In striving to achieve its intended goals of eradicating illiteracy and reaching out to urban and rural women, the Iraqi government has embraced a variety of methods. Programs specifically geared to women include labor education, health education, and agricultural training. In 1994, a program jointly administered by UNICEF and the educational ministry was implemented to educate 7,000 girls in reading, writing, arithmetic, sewing, and health issues. This program especially targets girls who have dropped out of formal schooling and exceeded its aim with an enrollment of 7,768 in the year of its inception. During the summer of 1995, a seasonal program enrolled 4,245 students in the first session and 3,077 in the second. The educational ministry has also expanded vocational training through private institutes, allowing Iraqi students such options as printing, tailoring, and hairstyling; the Ministry of Education supervises these training programs. It has provided additional programs for slower learners, adult education classes, and even summer activities for students. In addition, professional syndicates participate in the process of nonformal education. Distance Education: The Ministry of Education's General Directorate produces various materials for use inside and outside the classroom, including cassette tapes, colorful visual aids, and flashcards for language learning. Cassettes are also used to teach mathematics and reading at all levels. These materials are distributed to Literacy Centers, spread throughout the country, for use in Arabic and English language projects. The government makes use of these materials in nonformal settings, such as distributing these materials to drivers in Baghdad and to rural women in the countryside, with the aim of reaching a broad spectrum of Iraqi society. Cassettes and teaching materials are specifically aimed at the lowest classes, those that experience the highest level of dropout, or wastage. They are designed to provide workers, women, peasants, and military personnel with additional educational opportunity, specifically via exercises and lessons that can be done after the workday has finished. These methods foster teamwork among adult students, who are encouraged to review their work with others, especially their children and families. For this reason, the cassette and visual aid system has been most effective with regard to Iraqi women. The education ministry sponsors a variety of educational television programs across a range of instructional levels. In 1977, a children's show called Simsim (sesame) was introduced in order to provide children too young to attend school a means of preparation for formal education, much like the American show Sesame Street. It presents reading, mathematics, and cultural material in an entertaining and lighthearted manner for a preschool audience. In 1997, Iraq devoted renewed energy to this method of teaching and exposure. Mathematics, reading, and culture are taught through programs that are broadcast twice a week to ensure the widest possible audience. Teaching Profession Training: The traditional teachers training program in Iraq has depended on independent training institutes in which future teachers enroll after the completion of the intermediate phase. Primary school teachers enroll in a five-year course after secondary intermediate school. Courses lead to a diploma. There also exist two-year training institutes to which students are admitted after completing the secondary phase. Most of these institutes have been converted into four-year teachers' colleges at the university level. The Colleges of Education functioning within the Universities of Baghdad, Mosul, Basrah, Al-Mustansiriyah, and Salahaddin train secondary school teachers. They offer a four-year Bachelor of Arts degree program. In 1992-1993, many central teachers training centers were converted into teachers colleges. Institutes that specialized in Islamic education, a significant part of modern Iraqi educational philosophy, were opened. The following describes the training activities of teachers, supervisors, educational specialists, and educational administration employees, in the context of primary and secondary education, during the period 1994-1995. In 1994, 43 courses in nurseries were taught to 195 trainees; in 1995 it was 37 courses to 1,023 trainees. In 1994, there were 904 primary education courses taught to 30,719 trainees, and in 1995 there were 1,017 courses taught to 35,470 trainees. In 1994, 504 secondary education courses were taught to 13,702 trainees; in 1995, 625 courses were taught to 19,013 trainees. In 1994, 11 vocational education courses were taught to 238 trainees; in 1995, nine courses were taught to 151 trainees. In the areas of education and specialization, 10 courses were taught to 208 trainees in 1994, while 11 courses were taught to 242 trainees in 1995. Teaching skills and pedagogical innovation are reinforced and developed throughout teachers' careers. The Ministry of Education prepares teachers' guidebooks in order to help them develop their teaching styles. Among the activities recommended for teachers are: encouraging students to utilize problem solving methods; teaching of undertaking simplified research and reports; working on individual and collective projects; and using discussions and the exchange of opinions as teaching tools. Summary Since the mid-to late 1970s, Iraq has made major strides in providing universal, free, or low-cost education to its population. In recent times, the Iraqi people have been among the best educated in the Middle East, with ample opportunities for remedial education, study abroad, and graduate study. The Ministry of Education and other government organizations, as well as private institutions and organizations, have developed a comprehensive system for the planning, implementation, and review of the Iraqi educational infrastructure. Special, ongoing attention has been devoted to the eradication of illiteracy and the education of women. People's schools continue to grant primary school certificates to adults, while women have been the greatest beneficiaries of rural literacy training and outreach programs. The modernization of the nation had, until, the early 1990s, largely depended—and succeeded—on the strengthening and energizing of the educational system. Since the outbreak of the Gulf War, Iraq's placement under international sanctions has drastically limited its ability to continue its ambitious educational and social programs. At the level of higher education, professors and academics complain of an "international boycott" that prevents them from accessing the latest materials and research sources. Government funds are unavailable for the construction of schools, hiring of faculty, purchase of textbooks and materials, and the continuation of the school nutrition program. Iraq has seen exponential rises in student absences and dropout rates, as well as teachers quitting to find other work. While the health and social infrastructures continue to deteriorate, costing thousands of lives on a monthly basis, education is often seen as the last target for humanitarian efforts. The future of Iraqi education and the nation itself appears to hinge largely on the elimination of the sanctions and the reconstruction of the country's infrastructure. Until then, any study of the country must reflect Iraq's potential as an educational superpower and the limits under which it must survive as a result of the international sanctions. Bibliography Al-Safi, Hashim Abuzeid. "Regional Study on Research Trends in Adult Education in the Arab States." The International Seminar on World Trends in Adult Education Research. Hamburg, Germany: UNESCO Institute for Education, 6 September 1994. Available from www.unesco.org . Ali, Dr. Said Ismail, ed. Illiteracy in the Arab Nations: The Prevailing Situation and Future Obstacles. (In Arabic) Amman, Jordan: UNESCO, 1991. Arnove, Anthony, ed. Iraq Under Siege: The Deadly Impact of Sanctions and War. Cambridge: South End Press, 2000. Aziz, Barbara Nimri. "Scientists Outside History." Natural History (September 1996): 14-17. The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The World Fact-book 2000. Directorate of Intelligence, 1 January 2000. Available from www.cia.gov . Clark, Victor. Compulsory Education in Iraq. Paris: UNESCO, 1951. "Ten Years of Curbs Tell on Iraq, Scraps Free Education." The Times of India, 3 September 2000. Available from www.timesofindia.com . UNESCO. The EFA (Education for All) 2000 Assessment. Country Reports: Iraq EFA Forum Secretariat, UNESCO. December 1999. Available from: http://www2.unesco.org/. "UNESCO is Participating in the United Nations 'Oilfor-Food' plan which Provides Humanitarian Assistance to Iraq." UNESCO News, 4 April 1997. Available from www.unesco.org . ——. Iraq: Education System. World Higher Education Database, 2000. Available from http://www.unesco.org . —Nader K. Uthman Major country of the Middle East . Iraq , with its current political boundaries, is a new country. It is a product of the twentieth century, formed in the aftermath of World War I. The term Iraq was adopted by the government in 1921. Historians disagree about the origin of the word. The most common interpretation is that it is derived from al-Raq al-Arabi, a term used in the Middle Ages to designate the southern delta region of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers from the al-Raq al-Ajami, the Persian Mountains. Before Iraq was established as a state, the Europeans referred to the area as Mesopotamia, a name that was given to the area by the ancient Greeks which means the land between two rivers. It corresponds roughly to the Ottomans' provinces of Baghdad , Basra , and Mosul . Geography and Population Iraq covers about 169,000 square miles and is surrounded by six countries— Kuwait , Saudi Arabia , Iran , Turkey , Jordan , and Syria . It is essentially a landlocked country. The country's access to the high seas is through two major ports, Umm Qasr on the Persian Gulf and Basra, which is located at the Shatt al-Arab, the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers. Geographically, the country is divided into four areas: the Syrian Desert in the west and southwest; the river valleys of the central and southeast areas, which contain the most fertile agricultural soil; the upland between the Upper Tigris and Euphrates Rivers; and the mountains of the north and northeast. The climate is subtropical, with long dry summers and a wide difference in temperatures between summer and winter. Rain falls mostly between the months of October and April, but not heavily. Iraq's population of about 24 million is a mixture of ethnic and religious communities. About 95 percent is Muslim , of which 60 percent are Shiʿite. Four percent are Christians of various denominations. There are a few other small religious communities of Yazidis, Sabeans, and Jews . About 80 percent of the population is Arab. They live in an area that stretches from Basra to Mosul including the western part of the country. The Kurds represent 18 percent of the population, and they live mainly in the mountains of the northern and eastern areas of the country. The majority of the Kurds are Sunni; a small minority are Kurdish Shiʿa called Fiyliaya. The Kurds of Iraq speak two different dialects of the Kurdish language—Sorani and Karmanji. Other small ethnic communities include the Turkomen, Assyrians, Yazidis, and Armenians. Arabic is the official language of Iraq; Kurdish is used in the Kurdish area in addition to Arabic. Baghdad, the capital of Iraq, is the largest city in the country, with a population of five million. Basra, the second largest city, has a population of more than a million and half, and is the gateway to the Persian Gulf. Mosul, in the north, is the third largest city, and has a population of more than a million. Kirkuk City, also in the north, has more than half a million people. It is situated among major oil reserves. In addition to these cities, Iraq is the site of several Shiʿite holy cities, including alNajaf, where Imam Ali is buried, and Karbala, where Imam Husayn is buried. Both cities are located on the Euphrates River southwest of Baghdad. Oil was discovered in large quantities in 1927 near Kirkuk City. The Iraqi Petroleum Company (IPC), a consortium of the British Petroleum Company, Shell, Mobil, Standard Oil of New Jersey (Exxon), and the French Petroleum Company, was formed to manage oil production. IPC and its subsidiaries obtained concessions from the Iraqi government and had total control over oil production. The concessions covered practically the entire land area of Iraq, and they lasted for many decades. For all intents and purposes, Iraq played no role in oil development from the time it was first discovered until the 1950s. Oil production was very limited before 1950, but it began to rise in the 1950s when the Iraqi government slowly but steadily gained control over it. The production increased significantly after Iraq nationalized its oil industry in 1972. Oil production reached its peak in 1979, reaching 3.5 million barrels a day, twice the amount produced in 1971, a year before the nationalization. Since then, the production has decreased as a result of the Iran-Iraq War (1980–1988), the Gulf Crisis and War of 1991, and the invasion of Iraq by U.S. forces in March 2003. Iraq has a proven oil reserve of more than 112 billion barrels, second only to the reserve in Saudi Arabia. Since the 1950s, oil has been the mainstay of the Iraqi economy and the major source of funds for social and economic development. Pre-Twentieth-Century History Although Iraq is a new country, it has an extraordinarily rich and complex history. Historians and archaeologists consider Iraq to be the cradle of civilization. It is associated with many ancient civilizations such as the Sumerians, the Akkadians, the Babylonians, the Chaldeans, and the Assyrians. It is the land of the biblical Garden of Eden and of the Hanging Garden of Babylon, the site of the first farming settlements and urban settlements and of the invention of writing and the wheel, and the home of Hammurabi (1800–1760 b.c.e.), the great lawgiver (author of the Code of Hammurabi). In 637 c.e. Islam poured into Iraq. In 750 c .e. the Abbasids triumphed and the center of the Islamic empire shifted from Damascus to Iraq. In 762 c.e. the second caliph Abu Jaʿfar al-Mansur (754–775 c.e.) founded the new city of Baghdad as the new capital of the empire. During the reign of Harun al-Rashid (786–810 c.e.) and his son Maʾmun (813–833 c. e.), the Abbasid Empire reached its peak in material splendor and intellectual advances. Baghdad enjoyed grand glory and prosperity as the center of Islamic culture. The city became an international trade center for textiles, leather, paper, and other goods from areas ranging from the Baltic to China . Baghdad also became a magnet for scientific and intellectual achievements. The famous Bayt alHikma Academy was established in 830 c.e. by the great patron of scholarship, Caliph al-Maʾmun. The academy included several schools, astrological observatories, libraries, and facilities for the translation of scientific and philosophical works from Greek, Aramaic , and Persian into Arabic. The empire began to disintegrate gradually, and in 1256 Baghdad and the Abbasid caliphs were destroyed by the Mongols . The Ottoman sultan, Süleiman the Magnificent, incorporated Iraq into his empire in 1534. Thereafter, except for a period of Persian control in the seventeenth century, Iraq remained under Ottoman rule until the Ottoman Empire came to an end at the end of World War I. Administratively, during the Ottoman rule, Iraq was divided into three provinces: Mosul, where most of the Kurds lived; Baghdad; and Basra, where most of the Arabs lived. During that period, Iraq was totally neglected and the economy was in a state of dis-array and confusion. In the second half of the nineteenth century a few Turkish governors, such as the reform-minded Midhat Paşa, introduced a few modern improvements such as the establishment of modern secular schools, reorganization of the army, creation of codes of criminal and commercial law, improvement of provincial administration, and a new system of transportation. The British occupied Iraq during World War I. After the war, the Treaty of Sèvres placed Iraq under a British mandate. In 1921 the British established a constitutional monarchy headed by Faisal I ibn Hussein, a member of the Hashimite House (House of Hashim) of Arabia and one of the leaders of the anti-Turk Arab Revolt of 1916. Early Nationhood On 13 October 1932 Iraq became independent and joined the League of Nations. Between 1932 and 1941 Iraq's political situation was unstable, marked by tribal and ethnic revolts, military coups, and countercoups. In 1941 a nationalistic government assumed power, angering the British and prompting them to reoccupy Iraq and to install a pro-British government. Between 1941 and 1958 Iraq was basically ruled by two British-oriented rulers: Nuri al-Saʿid, who assumed the office of prime minister several times; and Abd al-Ilah, the regent. From 1932 to 1958, Britain exercised significant influence over the ruling elite. During this time, modern secular education was expanded and became accessible to the general public in a limited way. Economic development was slow but gained some steam in the early 1950s when oil revenue increased. Political life was marred by corruption and manipulation of the election process and domination by a few personalities. After World War II , Iraq, like many other developing nations, experienced a rise in anti-imperial sentiment that demanded the reduction of British domination and the introduction of social and economic reform. These trends culminated in the nationalistic military coup of 14 July 1958. The coup was executed by the Free Officers, led by General Abd al-Karim al-Qasim, who stayed in power until February 1963. During the coup the king, the regent, and Nuri al-Saʿid were killed. This coup brought significant changes in Iraq's domestic and foreign policies. The Hashimite monarchy was replaced with a republican regime, and Iraq withdrew from the Baghdad Pact and began a foreign policy of nonalliance. The new regime initiated land reform and expanded education on all levels. It also challenged the existing profit-sharing arrangement with oil companies, and in December 1961 it enacted Public Law No. 80, which resulted in the expropriation of 99.5 percent of the IPC group's concession area that was not in production. This was also a period of political turmoil: There was an attempted coup in Mosul in 1959 and an attempted assassination of Qasim, and the Kurds launched armed rebellion against the government. The Rise of Saddam Hussein In February 1963 the Baʿth Party, along with nationalistic officers, seized power in a bloody coup. Nine months later, the Baʿth Party was kicked out of power by a coup led by Abd al-Salam Arif, one of the original Free Officers of the 1958 coup. On 17 July 1968 the Baʿth Party came back to power through a bloodless coup. This marked the ascendance to power of Saddam Hussein, which lasted until the U.S. invasion of Iraq in March 2003. From 1968 to 2003 Hussein dominated the political scene, even when he was vice president from 1968 to 1979. He was the undisputed leader, ruling Iraq with an "iron fist" and discouraging opposition through elimination, imprisonment, and the use of multiple security forces. For all practical purposes, all political activities outside of the Baʿth Party were outlawed. In the 1970s Iraq nationalized its oil industry. As the price of crude oil went up, the government invested a lot of money in improving the infrastructure of the country, its education system, and social services. The Kurdish revolt reached its peak in the mid-1970s due to the support it had received from Iran, Israel, and the United States . These countries viewed Iraq as a threat. During this period, Iraq advocated Arab nationalism, adopted anti-imperialism policies, and allied itself more with Soviet Union . Also, Iraq adopted a policy against the so-called reactionary regimes of the Gulf who were allies of the United States. Therefore, Iran, Israel, and the United States were interested in destabilizing the regime through the Kurdish revolt.The attempt to quell the Kurdish rebellion in the north was unsuccessful, and in 1975 Saddam signed a treaty with the shah of Iran in which Iraq agreed to share the Shatt al-Arab with Iran in return for the ending of Iran's support of the Kurds. Within a few weeks of concluding the agreement, the Kurdish revolt was quashed, and for more than a decade, the Kurdish region was relatively quiet. On 16 July 1979 Saddam formally assumed the presidency of Iraq. He began his presidency by eliminating a number of high-ranking members of the Baʿth Party, accusing them of plotting against him. Soon his relationship with Iran began to deteriorate in the aftermath of the Iranian Revolution (1979). A border skirmish between the two countries was used by Saddam to justify the invasion of Iran on 22 September 1980. Saddam erred in his assumption that the war was going to be quick; it lasted for eight years. Iraq was left with hundreds of thousands dead and wounded and a seriously damaged economy. Iranian bombardments of oil facilities in Iraq's south significantly impaired the oil industry, which was the mainstay of the Iraqi economy. The government shifted spending from projects of modern development to spending on the military to meet the requirements of the war. The Kurds resumed their revolt against the Iraqi government with the support of the Iranian government. By the time the Iran-Iraq War ended in July 1988, Iraq was $80 billion in debt to several countries, including Kuwait, Saudi Arabia, France , the Soviet Union, and Japan . Between 1988 and 1990, Saddam's government struggled to put the country back in order. After the war, Saddam turned against the Kurds. His forces savaged their villages for siding with Iran during the war, forcing many of the Kurds to leave the mountains for detention centers in other parts of the country. The drop in oil prices on the international front led to serious tensions between Iraq and Kuwait. Saddam accused both Kuwait and the United Arab Emirates of conducting an economic war against Iraq by intentionally flooding the oil market by exceeding their export quotas within the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). According to Saddam, the high output of these two countries kept prices low, leading to a big reduction in Iraqi oil revenue that was sorely needed to rebuild the country. The Kuwaiti government stubbornly refused to yield, and the U.S. ambassador to Iraq gave mixed messages—on the one hand declaring that any dispute between Arab countries was not a U.S. matter, and on the other joining Britain in encouraging Kuwait not to accommodate Iraq. Saddam's invasion of Kuwait on 2 August 1990 ultimately led to the first Gulf War, which was executed by the United States and its coalition on 17 January 1991. The war's code name was Operation Desert Storm, and it lasted for forty-three days. The United States and its allies flew more than 110,000 sorties that dropped a total of 99,000 to 140,000 tons of explosives on Iraqi targets—the firepower equivalent of five to seven of the nuclear bombs that were dropped on the Japanese city of Hiroshima during World War II. The war destroyed the infrastructure of Iraq, knocking out electricity grids, roads, bridges, communication systems, sewage and water purification systems, factories, and telephone systems. A United Nations (UN) report written shortly after the war stated that the destruction caused by the war returned Iraq to a preindustrial state. In the aftermath, both the Kurdish ethnic community in the north and the Shiʿite Muslim community in the south revolted against Saddam's regime. The Kurds hoped to establish an independent state in the north, and the Shiʿa hoped to topple Saddam's regime and replace it with a more sympathetic government. Despite Saddam's recent defeat in the war, he was able to muster enough power to crush both rebellions. He dealt with the rebels harshly, killing thousands of people and wounding many more. Hundreds of thousands of Kurds fled Iraq to the neighboring countries of Turkey and Iran. This massive flight prompted the United States, along with Britain and France, to impose a no-fly zone for Iraqi aircraft in the north. Also, the United States, Britain, and France established a Kurdish Autonomous Zone in Iraq, which Iraqi forces were not allowed to enter, and where Kurds ruled themselves. This new arrangement allowed hundreds of thousand of refugees to return to their homes and villages. The Kurdish zone, for all practical purposes, was independent. It had its own currency, taxes, and educational system. In this area, Kurdish was the primary language and Arabic was waning as the official language. On 6 August 1990, four days after the Iraqi invasion of Kuwait, the United Nations Security Council passed Resolution 661, imposing on Iraq the most repressive sanctions and embargo in the history of the organization. When the Gulf War ended, the United Nations Security Council passed several new resolutions concerning Iraq. Resolution 687, passed on 3 April 1991, continued the sanctions and the embargo on Iraq until it dismantled its weapons program, including all long- and medium-range missiles, and all chemical, biological, and nuclear facilities. The dismantling was to have been implemented by the Vienna-based International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA), which had been inspecting Iraq for any possible military use of its nuclear facilities since the 1970s, and the newly established UN Special Commission (UNSCOM) under the chairmanship of Rolf Ekeus, a Swedish diplomat. Resolution 713 established a permanent UN monitoring system for all missile test sites and nuclear installations in the Iraq. Resolution 986, passed in 1992, allowed Iraq to sell $1.6 billion worth of oil every six months, subject to renewal, for the purchase of food and medicine. About one third of the money raised through the sale of oil was designated for war reparations for Kuwait and payments to the UN for its operations in Iraq. Iraq agreed in principle to the first two resolutions, but it rejected the third one on the grounds that it did not allow Iraq to control the funds realized from the sale. But by 1996 the life of the Iraqi people was approaching destitution, and the government was forced to accept the terms of Resolution 986. In 1998 the sale limit was raised to $5.52 billion worth of oil every six months, and in 1999 to $8.3 billion. Iraq was not happy with UNSCOM's intrusive inspections, and there were confrontations between Iraqis and the inspection teams. The United States, the driving force behind the inspections, used these confrontations as grounds for bombing Iraq in 1993, 1996, and 1998. The last bombardment, codenamed Operation Desert Fox, lasted for four days. Before it began, Richard Butler, the second head of UNSCOM, withdrew the inspections teams without the authorization of the UN Security Council. The bombardment put the future of UNSCOM in doubt, and the inspectors did not return until 2002, and then under a different name. By the time of the 1998 confrontation, the UN had destroyed more than 95 percent of Iraq's weapons of mass destruction (Iraq claimed that it had destroyed the last 5 percent, but could not account for it). There were two reasons for the difficulties that the inspection teams faced: Iraq's concern that the inspection teams violated its sovereignty, and the U.S. govern-ment's misuse of some members of the inspection teams as spies. The sanctions and the embargo begun in 1990 had a dreadful impact on Iraqi society. They hit the sanitation and health-care systems hard, and also led to the breakdown of the electric system, which contributed to chronic problems with sewage and water treatment. The sanctions also contributed to inadequate diets, resulting in malnutrition and a proliferation of diseases, which led to a high mortality rate among children. Furthermore, the sanctions led to many social ills such as homelessness of children, increased crime rates, high divorce rates, a drop in the marriage rate, and the virtual destruction of the educational system. Thousands of schools were left in a state of disrepair. The sanctions weakened the oil industry, the mainstay of the Iraqi economy, because of a lack of spare parts and a lack of investment to update oil facilities. The sanctions lasted for almost thirteen years and contributed to the deaths of more than one million people, many of them children, women, and elderly people. Two UN chief relief coordinators—Denis Halliday in 1998 and Han von Sponeck in 2000—resigned their posts in protest of the continuation of the sanctions. The terrorist attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon on 11 September 2001 marked a turning point in U.S. policy toward Iraq. The foreign policy of the Republican administration of George W. Bush was controlled by neoconservatives who advocated a regime change in Iraq. Some of the planners of the new policy were behind the passage of the Iraq Liberation Act of 1998, in which the Congress allocated $100 million to help Iraqi opposition groups in their quest to remove Saddam from power. After 11 September, the neoconservatives pushed for the removal of Saddam by military means. The UN adopted Resolution 1441, which demanded that Iraq allow the weapons inspections teams to return. There were two teams—one from the International Atomic Energy Agency, headed by Muhammad El-Baradei from Egypt , and another from the United Nations Monitoring, Verification, and Inspection Commission (UNMOVIC), headed by Hans Blix from Sweden . The new resolution gave the inspectors more freedom to operate and conduct their activities inside Iraq, and it imposed more restrictions on Saddam's regime than previous resolutions had. Iraq agreed to the resolution and emphatically denied having any weapons of mass destruction, stating that it had destroyed all of them. However, the Iraqi government could not give a full accounting of the missing items. Both heads of the inspection teams asked for more time to finish their job. The United States and Britain refused to wait for UN consensus on the issue. The United States government continued to claim that Saddam had weapons of mass destruction and that he was a threat to U.S. and world security, and on 17 March 2003 the United States, along with Britain, initiated a military invasion against Iraq, defying world opinion. On 9 April 2003 Baghdad fell, and the occupation of Iraq began. The claims that Iraq possessed weapons of mass destruction, including biological, chemical, and nuclear weapons, turned out to be questionable. In May, under pressure from the United States, the UN Security Council adopted Resolution 1483, which legalized the result of the invasion (though most UN member nations had considered it to be illegal). On 16 October 2003 the UN adopted Resolution 1511, again under U.S. pressure, which authorized a multinational force under U.S. leadership to replace and reduce the burden on the U.S. occupying forces. see also arab revolt (1916); arif, abd alsalam; baghdad ; baghdad pact (1955); basra ; baʿth, al-; faisal i ibn hussein; gulf war (1991); hashimite house (house of hashim); hussein, saddam; iranian revolution (1979); iran – iraq war (1980–1988); iraq petroleum company (ipc); karbala; kirkuk; kurdish autonomous zone; kurdish revolts; kurds; midhat paŞa; mosul ; najaf, al-; sÈvres, treaty of (1920); shatt al-arab; tigris and euphrates rivers; united nations special commission (unscom); war in iraq (2003). Bibliography Graham-Brown, Sarah. Sanctioning Saddam: The Politics of Intervention in Iraq. London: I. B. Tauris, 1999. Mackey, Sandra. The Reckoning: Iraq and the Legacy of Saddam Hussein. New York: W. W. Norton, 2002. Tripp, Charles. A History of Iraq. Cambridge, U.K.: Cambridge University Press, 2000. ayad al-qazzaz G'shur Purtaghal (Candied Citrus Peels) .................... 101 1 GEOGRAPHIC SETTING AND ENVIRONMENT Iraq is located in southwestern Asia , in the heart of the Middle East . Its land area is comparable in size to California . There are four distinct land regions in Iraq. The Delta region is a broad plain in the southeast. To the west are the Steppe-Desert Plains, made up of sand and stony plains. The north region, between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, is a fertile area of grassy flatlands and rolling hills. The Zagros Mountains rise steeply in the northeast. The climate in Iraq is as varied as the different regions, ranging from tropical in the east and southeast, to dry and desert-like in the west. The north is pleasant during summer months and freezing in the winter months. On average, Iraq is a dry country, even in the fertile lands between the rivers. In the summer, a dry, dusty wind called the shamal blasts through the country with dust storms, lasting for several days. Since the country is so dry, there are few plants, except for the date palm, known for its fruit (dates). In fact, more than 80 percent of the world's date supply is grown in Iraq. 2 HISTORY AND FOOD Settled between the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, the area known as Iraq today was called Mesopotamia up until the end of World War I (1914–1918). In ancient Greek, Mesopotamia translates to "land between rivers." The first human civilization (called Sumer) is thought to have flourished here around 4000 B.C. Although the area received little rainfall, the soil around the rivers fertilized many different crops. The rich soil, commonly referred to as the "Fertile Crescent," produced crops such as leeks, onions, lentils, wheat, and barley. Grapes also grew plentifully and were used for wine. The native olive tree was valued for both its fruit and oil. Sumerian stone tablets dating to 2500 b.c. record the usage of figs, which when cooked, were used as sweeteners in place of sugar. 3 FOODS OF THE IRAQIS Iraqi food is so strongly influenced by its neighboring countries, Turkey and Iran , it is one of the few nations of the Middle East to lack a unique cuisine. Like the Turks , Iraqis like to stuff vegetables and eat a lot of lamb, rice, and yogurt. Like Iranians, they enjoy cooking fruits with beef and poultry. Beef with Fruit 4 cups cooked rice Procedure Place the dried fruits in separate bowls and pour boiling water over them. Let sit for about 15 minutes, then drain. In a frying pan, heat the oil and sauté the meat until browned. Add the prunes and cook on low, uncovered, for 20 minutes. Add the apples, apricots, seasonings, and tomato sauce. Stir well and cook uncovered for another 10 minutes. Serve hot over rice. Serves 8. Although Iraq may not have a distinct cooking style, there are several dishes native to the country. Masgoof is a whole-skewered fish barbequed on an outdoor grill. Iraqis cook almost every part of an animal, from the kidneys and liver, to the brain, feet, eyes, and ears.Pacha is a slowly cooked combination of sheep's head, stomach, feet, and other parts in a broth. A popular side dish, turshi, is a mixture of pickled vegetables. Wheat, barley, rice, and dates are the staple foods of Iraq. Sheep and goats are the most common meat, but lamb, cows, chickens, fish, and sometimes camels are eaten as well. The meat is usually cut into strips, then cooked with onions and garlic, or minced for stew and served with rice. For the majority of Iraqis who practice the Muslim religion (95 percent of Iraqis), eating pork is forbidden. Alcohol is also forbidden to Muslims, so Western soft drinks, ice water, tea, and coffee are drunk. Coffee and tea are served before and after, but never during, a meal. Iraqis usually drink their coffee with sugar and cream or milk. The rich, dark coffee prepared in Iraq is unique. The beans are ground, then heated and cooled nine times before the coffee is served. This is believed to remove all impurities from the imported coffee. 4 FOOD FOR RELIGIOUS AND HOLIDAY CELEBRATIONS The majority of Iraqis are Muslim, about 95 percent. Of those, 54 percent are Shi'ite, and 41 percent are Sunni. The difference between the Shi'ite and Sunni Muslims is a conflicting belief in authority dating back to the early history of the religion. The two groups, however, share the same Muslim beliefs and religious holidays. Ways to Enjoy Dates Mix with different nuts and chopped bananas for a snack. Cut up and use in cookie recipes in place of chocolate chips or raisins. The fast of Ramadan is celebrated the entire ninth month of the Muslim year. This means for the whole month, no food or water may be consumed from sunrise to sunset. Cooks (or people who are buying foods) may taste them, but they cannot be swallowed. Muslims believe fasting makes them stronger in their faith. They also believe it helps them understand how it feels to be poor and hungry. Families who can afford it slaughter a lamb and share the meat with the less fortunate. During Ramadan, Muslims rise before dawn to eat a meal called suhur (pronounced soo-HER). Foods containing grains and seeds, along with dates and bananas, are commonly eaten because they are considered slow to digest. This helps to ease hunger during the fast, which can be as long as 16 hours in the summer. At sunset, the day's fast is broken with iftar, a meal that traditionally starts with eating a date. The rest of the meal might include assorted mezze (appetizers) such as nuts or cooked fava beans, lentil soup, bread, and fresh fruit. Adas Bil Hamod (Lentils with Lemon Juice) Ingredients Procedure In a large pot, heat the butter over medium to high heat. Add onion, celery, and carrot and stir until soft. Add the lentils, water or stock, and salt. Bring to a boil, then reduce heat to medium. Stir. Let soup cook for 45 minutes to 1½ hours, or until lentils are soft, stirring occasionally. Add more water if the soup thickens too much. Add lemon juice and cumin to taste (optional). Serve with pita bread. Serves 6. At the end of Ramadan comes a three-day festival called Eid al-Fitr. Friends and family gather to pray and share a large meal. In some cities, fairs are held to celebrate the end of the fast. Eating pork is forbidden to Muslims, but other meats such as beef, lamb, and fish are served on elegant platters. Other common dishes may include kebabs, yalanchi (spicy rice stuffing for eggplants or other vegetables), and ma'mounia, a dessert that dates from the 800s. Yalanchi (Tomatoes Stuffed with Rice) Ingredients 2 to 2½ cups cooked rice Salt and pepper, to taste Procedure Preheat oven to 350°F. Cut a slice from the top of each tomato, about ¼- to ½-inch down. Cut the middle of the tops out (core) and finely chop the remaining tops. Scoop out tomatoes with a spoon and turn upside down on paper towels to drain. Throw the pulp and seeds away. Heat 2 Tablespoons oil in a large skillet over medium to high heat. Add onion and cook until soft, about 3 minutes. Stir frequently. Add chopped tomato tops, raisins, pine nuts, and cinnamon and mix well. Reduce heat to low and simmer, about 2 minutes. Remove from heat and add cooked rice. Season with salt and pepper and mix gently until well blended. Fill tomatoes with mixture and set side-by-side in a greased baking pan. Drizzle remaining oil on tomatoes so they are well greased. Bake in oven until tender but still firm, about 25 minutes. Serve warm or at room temperature for best flavor. Serves 6. Procedure Spread each pita lightly with butter. Top with a layer of jelly. Cut the pitas in half and serve. Khubaz is usually served as an accompaniment for salad. Serves 12. 5 MEALTIME CUSTOMS Hospitality is considered a highly admired asset to the Iraqis. Iraqis are known for being very generous and polite, especially when it comes to mealtime. Meals are more often a festive, casual experience than a formal one. Many Iraqis were raised to feed their guests before themselves, and to feed them well. Most Iraqis hosts feel that they are failing in their role as hosts if their guests have not tried all of their dishes. In fact, proper appreciation is shown by overeating. A typical Iraqi meal starts with a mezze (appetizer), such as kebabs, which are cubes of marinated meat cooked on skewers. Soup is usually served next, which is drunk from the bowl, not eaten with a spoon. For gadaa and ashaa, Arabic for lunch and dinner, the meals are much alike. A simple main course, such as lamb with rice is served, followed by a salad and khubaz, a flat wheat bread served buttered with fruit jelly on top. Other popular dishes include quzi (stuffed roasted lamb), kibbe (minced meat, nuts, raisins, and spices), and kibbe batata (potato-beef casserole). Kebabs ½ teaspoon ginger Procedure Measure soy sauce, oil, lemon juice, ginger, pepper, and garlic into a large mixing bowl. This is marinade; reserve about 3 Tablespoons of it to use later. Add the meat cubes to the marinade in the mixing bowl, and stir to coat all the meat thoroughly. Cover the bowl with plastic wrap and refrigerate several hours or overnight. Prepare vegetables. Remove meat from the refrigerator, pour off marinade, and throw away. Assemble 6 kebabs by alternating meat cubes, green pepper, tomatoes, and mushrooms on skewers. Brush with the marinade you set aside earlier. Cook outdoors on a charcoal or gas grill, or broil in the oven, 3 to 4 inches from the heat source for 5 to 7 minutes. Brush with marinade (as needed) during cooking to prevent drying. Sprinkle with salt and pepper before serving. Serves 6. Dot with butter on top and bake for 30 to 40 minutes, or until golden. Cut into squares to serve. Serves 8. Many Iraqi households keep pastries, desserts, and candies on hand for snacks and as gifts to visiting friends. Desserts are a favorite among the Iraqis. They can include shirini (pumpkin pudding) and baklava, a pastry made of honey and nuts layered between paper-thin sheets of dough. However, only fruits, not sweets, are eaten at the end of a meal. Candied lemon, grapefruit, or orange peels called g'shur purtaghal are very popular. Once the meal has ended, Iraqis say to one another "sahtayn," which means "two healths to you." G'shur Purtaghal (Candied Citrus Peels) Ingredients Cooking spray Procedure Using a sharp knife or vegetable peeler, carefully peel thin strips of grapefruit and orange rind (peel). Remove only the colorful part of the peel, leaving as much pith (the bitter white skin just under the peel) as possible. Save fruit for another use. Place the peels into a saucepan and cover with water. Bring to a boil and cook over medium to high heat, about 10 minutes. Drain in a strainer. Repeat this procedure 2 more times to remove the bitterness of the peel. Pour 1¼ cups water into medium saucepan. Add 1½ cups of the sugar and stir until dissolved. Bring to a boil. Reduce heat to medium and add peel. Simmer, stirring frequently, until the syrup is absorbed, about 45 minutes. Cover a cookie sheet with waxed paper and spray the waxed paper with the cooking spray. Arrange the peels on the papered cookie sheet and cool for at least 3 hours. Put remaining sugar into a plastic bag. Add the peels and shake until they are well covered. Place them an another piece of wax paper and let dry overnight. Serves 6 to 8 as a snack. 6 POLITICS, ECONOMICS, AND NUTRITION When Iraq, led by Saddam Hussein, invaded Kuwait in 1990, it set off the Gulf War. The 15 member countries of the United Nations Security Council agreed to stop trading with Iraq (this action is called "imposing economic sanctions"). The countries hoped that if they stopped trading with Iraq, Saddam Hussein would feel pressure to cooperate with the other countries of the world. Because of the sanctions, no food was allowed to be imported into Iraq. The people of Iraq, particularly children, did not receive enough nutrition as a result. About 15 percent of the population of Iraq is classified as undernourished by the World Bank. This means they do not receive adequate nutrition in their diet. Of children under the age of five, about 12 percent are underweight, and more than 22 percent are stunted (short for their age). 7 FURTHER STUDY Dosti, Rose. Mideast & Mediterranean Cuisines. Tucson , AZ: Fisher Books, 1993. Middle East. Melbourne, Oakland, CA: Lonely Planet Publications, 2000. Osborne, Christine. Middle Eastern Food and Drink. New York : Bookwright Press, 1988. St. Elias Church Ladies Guild. Cuisine of the Fertile Crescent. Cleveland , OH: St. Elias Ladies Guild, 1993. Weiss-Armush, Anne Marie. Arabian Cuisine. Lebanon : Dar An-nafaés, 1993. Web Sites Britannica.com. [Online] Available http://www.britannica.com/ (accessed April 6, 2001). Campaign Against Sanctions on Iraq. [Online] Available http://www.cam.ac.uk/societies/casi/guide/ (accessed April 6, 2001). Geocities.com. [Online] Available http://www.geocities.com/Athens/Ithaca/3291/index1.html (accessed April 6, 2001). IraqiOasis.com. [Online] Available http://www.iraqioasis.com/p4.html (accessed April 6, 2001). Refugee Service Center. [Online] Available http://www.cal.org/rsc/iraqi/ilife.html (accessed April 6, 2001). Cite this article 207.9 Background & General Characteristics The Republic of Iraq is home to the Hanging Gardens of Babylon, one of the seven ancient wonders of the world. Turkey borders Iraq to the north, Iran to the east, Kuwait and the Persian Gulf to the southeast, Saudi Arabia to the south and southwest, Jordan to the west and Syria to the northwest. In 2001 it was estimated Iraq had a population of 23.33 million. Seventy-seven percent of Iraqis are Arab, 19 percent are Kurds, and the remaining 4 percent are other ethnic groups. Iraq's Kurdish population lives in the northeastern highlands. Iraq's official religion is Islam . A little more than 50 percent of the population is Shiite Muslims but the Sunni Muslims, who make up a little more than 40 percent of the population, tend to dominate Iraq's governmental bureaucracy. Minority religions include Christianity and Judaism . More than 80 percent of the population speaks the country's official language, Arabic. English, Kurdish, Turkish and Assyrian are among the minority languages spoken in Iraq. Almost 42 percent of Iraq's population was below the age of 14 in 2001; 55.3 percent were 15 to 64 years of age; 3 percent were over the age of 65. Iraq's literacy gender gap is significant. Only 46 percent of Iraqi adult females are literate, while 66 percent of its adult male population is literate. Iraq's female illiteracy rate is the third highest in the world. Iraqi society is primarily urban, with more than 70 percent of Iraqis living in urban areas. In 2001 the country's major cities were Baghdad (with a population of about 4.87 million), Mosul (1.1 million) and Irbil, (1.04 million). Baghdad is the country's capital. Iraq was admitted to the League of Nations (the predecessor of the United Nations) after becoming a sovereign state in 1932. Iraq is a single political party republic and is governed by the Revolutionary Command Council. Saddam Hussein is president of the country, leader of the Ba'ath political party, prime minister and president of the Revolutionary Command Council, the country's highest governmental authority. Iraq's daily newspapers are Al-Baath Alryadi, Babil, Al-Iraq, Al-Jumhuriya, Al-Qadissiya, and Al-Thawra. Newspaper circulation was 20 per 1,000 persons in 1996. Individual newspaper circulation rates were not available. Economic Framework In modern times Iraq has been known for its repeated violations of basic human rights, particularly of its minority populations as well as those who express any sort of political opposition to its government. Before and after being admitted to the League of Nations, Iraq disputed the international boundaries set for it by League members. Consequently Iraq entered into numerous border conflicts with Iran. The most recent Iraq-Iran war ended in 1988. In 1990 Iraq invaded Kuwait, another area over which it claimed ancient political rights. Iraqi military forces were expelled from Kuwait by U.S.-led international forces in the 1991 military operation called Desert Storm. Immediately after the Desert Storm cease-fire, Iraq launched a military offensive against the Kurdish population residing in the Iraqi northern highlands. As part of the ceasefire conditions Iraq was to provide proof of the destruction of its biological, ballistic and nuclear weapons and development facilities. Iraq refused to allow UN weapons inspectors into the country and continued its abuse of Kurdish and other minority groups. As a result, the United Nations imposed import/export sanctions on Iraq in 1990. The UN sanctions prohibit exports from Iraq and imports to Iraq with the exception of medicine and other essential civilian needs not covered by the import ban. Under the UN's 1996 "food for oil" program, Iraq is permitted to sell set amounts of oil to fund the purchase of food, medicines and other humanitarian goods, and equipment to repair the civilian infrastructure. Since 1998 Iraq has been allowed to purchase equipment and spare parts for the rehabilitation of its oil industry. Due to Iraq's refusal to allow UN weapons inspectors into the country and its continued abuse of Kurdish and other minority groups, UN sanctions have continued. The UN Commission of Human Rights 2000 report indicated that women, children and men continued to be arrested and detained on suspicion of political or religious activities or because they were related to members of the opposition. According to the British Broadcasting Company (BBC), the Iraqi government and the Ba'ath Party control or own all print media in Iraq. The party and the government also control the broadcast media. Iraq's publishing and broadcast media consist of six daily newspapers, one television service, one radio service and one satellite. All are state controlled. Uday Hussein, son of the Iraqi president, heads an extensive media empire that supposedly includes more than a dozen weekly and daily newspapers as well as the most popular of the country's three television channels. Uday Hussein also heads the national press union. Opposition presses such as Al-Thawra and Al-Jumhuriya operate in the northern Kurdish enclaves and on the Internet . The U.S. government has operated Radio Free Iraq since 1998. Press Laws Criticism of Iraq's government is prohibited and a death penalty is imposed upon anyone, including journalists, criticizing Iraq's Revolutionary Command Council or the Ba'ath party. Censorship The Iraqi government censors all news. State-Press Relations The Committee to Project Journalists and the BBC independently report that Iraq's press is entirely controlled by the Iraqi state. According to BBC News, the media does not report views opposed to the Iraqi government. Reporters Without Borders reported that Iraqi security police arrested the editor-in-chief of an Iraqi daily newspaper in 1999 after he attempted to flee the country. The editor tried to flee Iraq because Uday Hussein had reportedly threatened him when he refused the position of manager of an Iraqi magazine. In 2001 the International Press Institute reported that about 50 Iraqi journalists fled the country due to governmental press controls. Attitude Toward Foreign Media Foreign media, if allowed into Iraq, is closely inspected and subject to expulsion. News Agencies The Iraqi News Agency (INA), located in Baghdad, is controlled by the Iraqi government and is Iraq's only news agency. The INA reduced its number of foreign offices from 48 to 15 in the period following the 1990 UN sanctions. Broadcast Media According to the U.S. Central Intelligence Agency, 13 television stations operated in Iraq in 1997. There were 75 televisions per 1,000 Iraqis in 1997, and 208 radios per thousand. Broadcast media, particularly radio, is the most widely used media in Iraq. According to the BBC, numerous alternative radio services are aimed at Iraq, including the U.S. government-backed Radio Free Iraq. Electronic Media In 2000 one Internet service provider (ISP) operated in Iraq. However, the government totally controlled access to the Internet. Numerous newspapers, such as Alef-Ba, Alwan, Al-Islam, Al-Iktisadi, Al-Ittehad, Al-Mawied, Nabdh Ashabab, Al-Raae, Al-Rafedain, Saut Alta-meem, and Al-Talabah, have Arabic language Web sites. The Iraq Daily and the Iraqi News Agency (INA) operate Web sites with English translations. The web address for INA is www.uruklink.net/iraqnews/. Education and Training Iraq's major universities are the University of Baghdad (36,000 students), the University of Mosul (20,000), the University of Basrah (18,000) and the University of Salahuddin (10,000). These Iraqi universities offer bach-elor's, master's and Ph.D. degrees. Iraq's major universities offer their courses in Arabic and in English. The University of Salahuddin, located in the northern Kurdish area, offers its courses in Arabic, English and Kurdish. In 2001 the University of Baghdad was the only university listing journalism as a course of study. Summary Freedom of the press does not exist in Iraq. All mass media elements are either owned and or controlled by the Iraqi government. Iraq's broadcast media provides the greatest market penetration since newspaper circulation was estimated at 20 per 1,000 Iraqis in 1996. The low literacy rate of Iraq's population may explain some of the country's low newspaper circulation rate. Significant Dates 1990: The UN imposes import/export sanctions on Iraq. 1996: The UN's "Food for Oil" program allows Iraq to sell oil to fund food, medicine and other humanitarian goods purchases and to purchase equipment to repair the civilian infrastructure. 1998: Radio Free Iraq (operated by the United States ) begins operation. Bibliography "Countries Ranked by Population." U.S. Census, International Data Base. Washington, DC, 2000. "Focus International: Human Rights in Iraq Deteriorate." Foreign & Commonwealth Office. London, England, November 2000. "Focus International: Iraq: Sanctions and the 'Oil for Food' Agreement." Foreign & Commonwealth Office. London, England, 1991. "Focus International: The Work of the United Nations Special Commission in Iraq." Foreign & Commonwealth Office. London, England, October 1998. "Iraq Annual Report 2002," Reporters Without Borders. Washington, DC, 2002. "Literacy and Non Formal Education Sector Estimates and Projections of Adult Illiteracy for Population Aged 15 years Old and Above by Country." UNESCO Institute for Statistics, January 2002. Metz, Helen Chapin, editor. "Iraq: A Country Study," Federal Research Division, U.S. Library of Congress. Washington, DC, 1988. "World Press Freedom Review," International Press Institute. Vienna, Austria, 2002. "Saddam Hussein's Iraq." U.S. Department of State. Washington, DC, September 1999. U.S. Central Intelligence Agency (CIA). The World Fact-book 2002. Washington, DC, 2002. Sandra J. Callaghan Official name: Republic of Iraq Area: 437,072 square kilometers (168,754 square miles) Highest point on mainland: Mount Ebrāhīm (3,600 meters/11,811 feet) Lowest point on land: Sea level Hemispheres: Northern and Eastern Time zone: 3 p.m. = noon GMT Longest distances: 730 kilometers (454 miles) from east-northeast to west-southwest; 984 kilometers (611 miles) from south-southeast to north-northwest Land boundaries: 3,631 kilometers (2,256 miles) total boundary length; Iran 1,458 kilometers (906 miles); Jordan 181 kilometers (112 miles); Kuwait 242 kilometers (150 miles); Saudi Arabia 814 kilometers (506 miles); Syria 605 kilometers (376 miles); Turkey 331 kilometers (206 miles) Coastline: 58 kilometers (36 miles) Territorial sea limits: 22 kilometers (12 nautical miles) 1 LOCATION AND SIZE Iraq is a Middle Eastern state located on the h2rsian Gulf between Iran and Saudi Arabia. The heartland of the country, which has been known since ancient times as Mesopotamia, is the area between Iraq's two great rivers, the Tigris and the Euphrates . With an area of 437,072 square kilometers (168,754 square miles), Iraq is slightly more than twice as large as the state of Idaho . Iraq is divided into eighteen provinces. 2 TERRITORIES AND DEPENDENCIES Iraq has no territories or dependencies. 3 CLIMATE Summer temperatures range from 22°C to 29°C (72°F to 84°F) minimum to 38°C to 43°C (100°F to 109°F) maximum—in the shade. Temperatures higher than 48°C (118°F) have been reported, with June through August usually the hottest months. Winter temperatures range from –3°C to about 16°C (27°F to about 61°F), but have been recorded below –14°C (7°F) in the western desert. Severe winter frost is frequent in the north. Ninety percent of the precipitation falls between November and April, mostly occuring from December through March. The months of May through October are dry. Mean annual rainfall is between 10 and 17 centimeters (4 and 7 inches). Rainfall is higher in the foothills southwest of the mountains (between 32 and 57 centimeters /12 and 22 inches), and in the mountains annual rainfall reaches 100 centimeters (39.4 inches). 4 TOPOGRAPHIC REGIONS In the north the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers pass through elevated terrain, but near the middle of the country the rivers enter a vast alluvial plain that extends to the Persian Gulf . Rugged, inhospitable mountains extend to the north and northeast; the Syrian Desert, which is almost completely uninhabited, blankets the west and southwest. 5 OCEANS AND SEAS Iraq has a short coastline on the Persian (Arabian) Gulf between Iran and Kuwait. Coastal Features Iraq's short Persian Gulf coast, which has no significant indentations or bays, consists entirely of the Shatt al Arab River Delta. 6 INLAND LAKES The many lakes in central Iraq are fed largely by the flooding of the Tigris and the Euphrates Rivers, as well as by streams and canals from these rivers. As a result, the lakes vary considerably in volume and area, depending on the flow of the rivers. In general, the largest are Ath-Tharthār, Ar-Razzāzah, and Hawr alHabbānīyah. South of Baghdad the lakes tend to be increasingly saline, reflecting the heavy silt content of the two great rivers and the poor drainage in this region. 7 RIVERS AND WATERFALLS The Euphrates is the longest river in the country. Originating in Turkey, it flows through Syria, where it receives several tributaries before entering Iraq. Once within Iraq, it has no permanent tributaries but is fed by the wadis of the western desert during the winter rains. The Tigris also rises in Turkey and flows through a brief section of Syria before entering Iraq. It has many tributaries in Iraq, all of which enter it from the northeast. The most important are the Great Zab, Little Zab, Uzaym, and Diyala. All of these join the Tigris above Baghdad except for the Diyala, which joins it about 36 kilometers (22 miles) below the city. After the Euphrates and Tigris Rivers converge, they are known as the Shatt al Arab, which flows for roughly 193 kilometers (120 miles) southeast to the Persian Gulf. The river forms the border between Iran and Iraq for about half its length. 8 DESERTS The area west and southwest of the Euphrates River is a part of the Syrian Desert, which also covers sections of Syria, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia. The region, sparsely inhabited by pastoral nomads, consists of a wide, stony plain interspersed with rare sandy stretches. A complicated pattern of wadis, which are watercourses that are dry most of the year, runs from the border to the Euphrates. Some wadis are more than 400 kilometers (248 miles) long and carry brief but torrential floods during the winter rains. 9 FLAT AND ROLLING TERRAIN The alluvial plain of Mesopotamia begins north of Baghdad and extends to the Persian Gulf. The Tigris and Euphrates Rivers lie above the level of the plain in many places, held within natural embankments. During the frequent flooding of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, they deposit a heavy coating of silt over a wide area, forming fertile farmland. 10 MOUNTAINS AND VOLCANOES The northeastern highlands begin just southwest of a line drawn from Mosul to Kirkūk and extend north to the borders with Turkey and Iran. High ground, separated by broad, undulating steppes, gives way to mountains ranging from 1,000 to nearly 4,000 meters (3,280 to 13,123 feet) near the Iranian and Turkish borders. The high mountains are an extension of the Zagros Mountains of Iran and include Iraq's highest peak, Mount Ebrāhīm (3,600 meters/11,811 feet). 11 CANYONS AND CAVES The Euphrates winds through a gorge 2 to 16 kilometers (1 to 10 miles) wide in the hilly Al Jazīrah region before reaching the plains at Ar Ramādi. The Shanidar Cave, in the Shanidar Valley of northern Iraq overlooking the Great Zab River, is a significant archaeological site where Neanderthal remains have been excavated. 12 PLATEAUS AND MONOLITHS Iraq derives its name from the Arabic term "cliff." West of the central river plain rises a plateau that extends into Syria, Jordan, and Saudi Arabia, reaching heights of about 1,000 meters (3,281 feet). Some of this plateau is revealed in exposed cliff rock, but the boundaries between Iraq and its western neighbors are physically indistinguishable. 13 MAN-MADE FEATURES During the twentieth century, Iraq built an extensive system of dams, barrages, canals, and irrigation systems to harness the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers for irrigation and help control their potentially disastrous seasonal flooding. Among the numerous reservoir sites are Samarra, Dukan, and Darband on the Tigris River, and Mosul and Al Hadithah on the Euphrates. Lake Al-Qādisīyah is a sizable reservoir on the Euphrates in the northwestern part of the country. In the 1990s, Saddam Hussein's regime channeled river waters away from the marsh-lands at the confluence of the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers into the Persian Gulf for military purposes, destroying the unique ecosystem of the region. A shallow canal, called Nahar al-Aaz (the Glory River), diverts water from the Tigris; another canal, the Mother-of-All-Battles River, channels water from the Euphrates; and a third one, named Saddam's River, carries agricultural runoff to the gulf. By 2001, this diversion had destroyed an estimated 90 percent of Iraq's wetlands. 14 FURTHER READING Books Cockburn, Andrew, and Patrick Cockburn. Out of the Ashes: The Resurrection of Saddam Hussein. New York : HarperCollins, 1999. Stark, Freya. Baghdad Sketches. Marlboro, VT: Marlboro Press, 1992. Tripp, Charles. A History of Iraq. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2000. Web Sites "Iraq." ArabNet. http://www.arab.net/iraq/iraq_contents.html (accessed April 24, 2003). Iraq History and Culture. http://home.achilles.net/~sal/iraq_history.html (accessed April 24, 2003). Pictures from Iraq. http://www.mit.edu:8001/activities/arab/multimedia/iraq-pictures.html (accessed April 24, 2003). Cite this article Iraqi Orientation Identification. Modern Iraq covers almost the same area as ancient Mesopotamia, which centered on the land between the Tigres and the Euphrates Rivers. Mesopotamia, also referred to as the Fertile Crescent, was an important center of early civilization and saw the rise and fall of many cultures and settlements. In the medieval era, Iraq was the name of an Arab province that made up the southern half of the modern-day country. In today's Republic of Iraq, where Islam is the state religion and claims the beliefs of 95 percent of the population, the majority of Iraqis identify with Arab culture. The second-largest cultural group is the Kurds, who are in the highlands and mountain valleys of the north in a politically autonomous settlement. The Kurds occupy the provinces of As Sulaymaniyah, Dahuk and Irbil, the area of which is commonly referred to as Kurdistan. Location and Geography. Iraq, in the Middle East , is 168,754 square miles (437,073 square kilometers), which is comparable to twice the size of Idaho . Iraq is bordered by Iran , Jordan , Kuwait , Saudi Arabia , Syria , Turkey , and the Persian Gulf . Baghdad was the name of a village that the Arabs chose to develop as their capital and is in the central plains. The northern border areas near Iran and Turkey are mountainous and experience cold, harsh winters, while the west is mostly desert. The differences in climate have influenced the economies of the various areas and ethnic groups, especially since a large part of the economy used to be agriculturally based. Demography. The estimated Iraqi population for 2000 is 22,675,617 people. Arabs comprise about three-fourths of the population, and Kurds compose about one-fifth. The remaining people are divided into several ethnic groups, including Assyrian, Turkoman, Chaldean, Armenian, Yazidi, and Jewish. Linguistic Affiliation. Almost all Iraqis speak and understand their official language, Arabic. Arabic, a Semitic language, was introduced by the Arab conquerors and has three different forms: classical, modern standard, and spoken. Classical Arabic, best known by scholars, is the written language of the Qur'an. Modern standard Arabic, which has virtually the same structure in all Arabic-speaking countries, is taught in schools for reading and writing. The spoken language is Iraqi Arabic, and is extremely similar to that which is spoken in Syria, Lebanon , and parts of Jordan. Those who go to school learn Modern Standard Arabic, and many that do not attend school are likely to at least understand it. The major differences between modern standard and Iraqi Arabic are changes in verb form, and an overall simplicity in grammar of the spoken Arabic. Kurdish is the official language in Kurdistan, and serves to distinguish Kurds from other Iraqis. It is not of Semitic origin nor an Arab or Persian dialect, but a distinct language from the Indo-European family. Other minority languages include Aramaic , Turkic, Armenian, and Persian. Symbolism. In the 1970s a cultural campaign was launched to influence a national consciousness based on Iraq's history, including the pre-Islam era and the former glory of Mesopotamia and Babylon. The goal was to focus on a new cultural life for modern Iraq and to emphasize Iraq's uniqueness, especially in the Arab world. Archaeological museums were built in several cities, which held exhibitions and educational programs especially for children, so that they were made aware of the historical importance of their culture and nation. In order to promote this center of attention on history, several ancient sites from the city of Babylon were reconstructed, such as the Ziggurat of Aqarquf, the ruins of Babylon, the temple of Ishtar, the southern fortress of Nebuchadnezzar , and the Greek amphitheater. The Iraqi flag is also an important national symbol, and is composed of three colored, horizontal sections, starting with red on the top, white, and black. On the white band there are three green five-pointed stars. During the Persian Gulf War in 1991, the phrase Allahu Akbar ( God is great) was added to the flag. The flag resembles other Arab countries' flags and demonstrates Iraqi faith in Allah and Arab unity. History and Ethnic Relations Emergence of the Nation. Starting from prehistory, the area of Mesopotamia has been under the control of several civilizations. In about 4000 b.c.e. the land belonged to the Sumerians, who built advanced irrigation systems, developed cereal agriculture, invented the earliest form of writing, a math system on which time in the modern world is based, the wheel, and the first plow. Literature was produced, including the first known recorded story, the Epic of Gilgamesh. Unlike their Egyptian counterparts who believed that all land belonged to the pharaoh, Sumerians believed in private property, still an important notion in Iraq today. When the Sumerian civilization collapsed in about 1700 b.c.e., King Hammurabi took over the area and renamed it Babylonia . Hammurabi, a great leader known for creating the first recorded legal code in history, united the Assyrians and Babylonians in harmony. Following several changes in power, Nebuchadnezzar II came to rule from 604 to 562 b.c.e., and restored Babylonia to its former glory. Babylon, which is about thirty miles (forty-eight kilometers) south of modern-day Baghdad, became the most famous city in the world, and boasted, among other things, the Hanging Gardens of Babylon. In 323 b.c.e. Babylonia became part of the Persian Empire, until Arab Muslims overtook it in 634 c.e. At the time of the invasion, the people of Mesopotamia were mostly Christian, and paid non- Muslim taxes to the invaders. As the Persians were eventually defeated, the people of Mesopotamia began to convert to Islam and intermarry with Arabs. In 762 c.e. the capital city of Baghdad was founded, and it became an important commercial, cultural, and educational center. It linked Asia to Mediterranean countries via trade; welcomed visitors, scholars, and commercial traders from all over the world; and produced incredible philosophical and scientific works by both Arab and Persian thinkers. The 1200s witnessed yet another invasion, and control went to the Mongols , who ruled until the 1400s. The Ottoman Turks took control in the sixteenth century, in a reign that lasted until the end of World War I. When the Ottoman Empire was defeated in that war, the League of Nations assigned Britain to set up the administration in Mesopotamia. The British defined the territory of Iraq, and in doing so paid little attention to natural boundaries and ethnic divisions. They set up the institutional framework for government and politics, which included installation of a monarchy and influence in writing the constitution. On 14 July 1958 the monarchy was overthrown, and Iraq was declared a republic. The following ten years were followed by much political instability. Then, on 17 July 1968, another coup d'état occurred, which brought to power the Baath Party, today's government leader. National Identity. Arab rule during the medieval period had the greatest cultural impact on modern Iraq. The dominating culture within Iraq is Arab, and most Arabs are Muslim. Iraqi Muslims are split into two groups, the Sunnis and the Shias (Shiites). The Sunnis, a majority in Islam, are a minority in Iraq, and the Shias, a minority in the Arab world, are the majority in Iraq. Between the Shia and Sunni Muslims, loyalty to Iraq has come to be a common factor. Though they have differing views, both Sunnis and Shias hold high leadership positions in the government (including the Sunni Saddam Hussein), as do some Christians . The Arab culture, as influenced by the conquerors in the seventh century, withstood many changes of power throughout the centuries, and managed to remain influential. In the nineteenth century, while the Ottoman Empire was focusing on the "Turkification" of its people, rebels in Mesopotamia were building their Arab nationalist movement. They were granted an opportunity to act during World War I, when the British agreed to recognize Arab independence in Mesopotamia if they helped fight against the Turks . Though Iraq was subject to British mandate rule following the defeat of the Ottoman Empire, Arab nationalism stood strong. For the next few decades, even after independence from Britain, the government's attitude wavered between being pro-British and Arab nationalist. Today Iraq stands firm in its belief in pro-Arab nationalism. Ethnic Relations. The largest minority in Iraq, the Kurds, continually battle with the majority Arabs, and the sparring between these two cultural groups has contributed to a survivalist mentality for the Kurds. The Turkomans, who populate the northern mountainous areas, also have had strained relations with the Kurds due to their historical role as buffers between Arab and Kurdish areas. Other cultural groups who are sometimes subject to the will of the Arab majority are the Yazidis, who are of Kurdish descent, but differ from the Kurds because of their unique religion. There are the Assyrians, who are direct descendents of the ancient Mesopotamian people and speak Aramaic. They are mainly Christian, and though they compose a significant minority in Iraq, the government does not officially recognize them as an ethnic group. Regarding relations with other countries, Iraq's Shias have been the traditional enemies of Persians for centuries; this contributed to Iraq fighting Iran in a costly war from 1980 to 1988 over a land dispute. The Iraqi Kurdish population is surrounded by fellow Kurds in the countries of Iran, Turkey, Syria, and Azerbaijan . Urbanism, Architecture, and the Use of Space Iraq's economy was once based on agriculture, which stipulated a large rural population. However, due to oil production, an economic boom hit Iraq in the 1970s, and with the change of economic basis, much of population migrated toward urban centers. Modern apartment and office buildings sprang up in Baghdad, and programs and services such as education and health care developed with the shift from rural areas to urban population centers. In addition to modernization, the influx of monetary resources allowed Iraq to do things for its cultural identity and preservation, especially in architecture. High priority was placed on restoring and building according to historic style, and the structures targeted included archaeological sites, mosques, and government buildings. Some of the traditional aspects of the architecture include rooms surrounding an open center or courtyard, and use of multiple colors, tiles, and arches. Food and Economy Food in Daily Life. Prior to the United Nations economic sanctions, the traditional diet included rice with soup or sauce, accompanied by lamb and vegetables. Today, because food is tightly rationed, most people eat rice or another grain sometimes with sauce. Both vegetables and meat are hard to come by. In rural areas it is customary for families to eat together out of a common bowl, while in urban areas individuals eat with plates and utensils. Food Customs at Ceremonial Occasions. It is traditional to sacrifice a lamb or a goat to celebrate holidays. However, today few Iraqis have the means to do this, and celebrations are now minimal. Basic Economy. Iraq's economy is currently in a difficult position. Following the 1991 Persian Gulf War, the United Nations imposed Security Council Resolution 687, which requires Iraq to disclose the full extent of its programs to develop chemical and nuclear weapons and missiles, and to eliminate its weapons of mass destruction. Until Iraq complies with these requirements, the United Nations attests that there will be an economic embargo and trade sanctions against Iraq. At first the resolution meant that Iraq could not assume trade relations with any foreign country. In 1996 the United Nations modified the sanctions and implemented the oil-for-food program, which allows Iraq to pump and sell a limited amount of oil for humanitarian purposes, with no direct exchange of cash, but rather with all transactions taking place through an offshore escrow account. Two-thirds of the proceeds are to be spent on food and medicine for the Iraqi people; the remaining third is to be directed to victims of Iraq's occupation of Kuwait. Prior to the sanctions, Iraq imported about 70 percent of its food. However, food shortages have forced people to grow their own, but given the severity of the economic situation of the country, it is difficult for Iraqis to find the means to do this. Items that are imported through the oil-for-food program are distributed to people in a food basket on the first of each month. The rations are estimated to last twenty to twenty-three days and include flour, tea, sugar, rice, beans, milk, cooking oil, soap, and salt. Land Tenure and Property. Private property was an important notion first introduced by the Sumerians during their control of Mesopotamia, and emerged again in the late nineteenth century. The reintroduction of private property had a major impact on Iraq's social system, as it went from a feudal society where sheikhs provided both spiritual and tribal leadership for the inhabitants, to one separated between landowners and sharecroppers. At present many people have sold or are selling their land to the government to purchase essentials such as food and medicine. Though private property does exist, fewer and fewer people can now claim it. Commercial Activities. Oil, mining, manufacturing, construction, and agriculture are the major types of goods and services produced for sale. Major Industries. Crude oil, refined petroleum products, and natural gas are products produced by the most important industry in Iraq. Other products and services include light manufacturing, food processing, textiles, and mining of nonmetallic minerals. Trade. Iraq may only legally trade with other countries through the oil-for-food program, wherein they are allowed to sell oil to buy basic food supplies. However, diplomatic reports have indicated that Iraq has been illegally exporting some of its medical supplies and food, purchased through the oil-for-food program, to Lebanon, Syria, and Jordan. Prior to the sanctions, Iraq's main exports were crude oil, refined petroleum products, natural gas, chemical fertilizers, and dates. Its major trade partners were Russia , France , Brazil , Spain , and Japan . Division of Labor. It is common for jobs to be assigned through knowing people in the government. Those who enter the military may have more opportunity locating work, as they are trained for jobs that are specifically needed in the country. Social Stratification Classes and Castes. Arabs, Kurds, and other ethnic groups each have their own social stratospheres, and no one ethnicity dominates another in a caste system. In terms of social class there is great disparity between rich and poor. Those who compose the high class in society of Iraq are essentially chosen by the government, since there is no opportunity to start a business or make a name for oneself without the endorsement of the government. The once-dominant middle class of the 1970s has deteriorated in the face of the economic crisis. These people, who are very well educated, now perform unskilled labor, if they have jobs at all, and have joined the ranking of the majority lower or poor class. Political Life Government. Iraq is a republic divided into eighteen provinces, which are subdivided into districts. There is a National Assembly elected every four years, and they meet twice annually and work with the Revolutionary Command Council (RCC) to make legislative decisions. The RCC holds ultimate authority over legislative decisions, and the chairman of the RCC is also president of the country. The president exercises all executive decision-making powers, and he as well as the vice presidents are elected by a two-thirds majority vote of the RCC. There is universal suffrage at age eighteen, and the popular vote elects 220 of the 250 seats in the National Assembly. The president chooses the remaining 30 seats, which belong to the three provinces of Kurdistan; he also appoints judges. Leadership and Political Officials. On 16 July 1979 Saddam Hussein became president of Iraq, and has been reelected since. He is also the prime minister, as well as chairman of the RCC. The Baath Party, which stands for Arab Socialist Resurrection, is the controlling party of the government and the most powerful political party. Its authority is the Regional Command, and the secretary general of the Regional Command is Saddam Hussein. Political activities are carried out through the Progressive National Front (PNF), which is an official organization of political parties. PNF participants include the Iraqi Communist Party, Kurdish political parties, and other independent groups. Politics that try to be exercised outside the framework of the PNF are banned. Though granted the right to vote for some positions, many Iraqis feel that elections are fixed. They also fear that they might vote for the "wrong" candidate and that they may be punished for doing so. It is a crime for any Iraqi to speak out against the government, and those who disagree with it place themselves and their families at great risk of being persecuted, as many citizens will turn in fellow Iraqis they feel are not loyal to the government or Saddam Hussein. Social Problems and Control. The head of the formal judicial system is the Court of Cassation, which is the highest court in the country. There are other levels of courts, and all judges are government-appointed. Personal disputes are handled by religious community courts, which are based on Islamic law. Normally punishment is swift for crimes, with no long court trials and with severe sentences. The crime rate has been traditionally low, but following the United Nations embargo, there has been an increase in crime, especially theft. In addition to crimes by the general public, many crimes by corrupt police and military forces have been reported, the most common being bribery and blackmail. Conditions in prisons are said to be extremely harsh. Prisoners are housed with more than twenty people in a cell meant for two, with no sanitation system, and no food is given unless brought by relatives. Other punishment practices include torture, often in front of family members, and execution. Military Activity. Current statistics about Iraq's military are not available, though it is believed to be one of the strongest in the world. In 1994 a report indicated that Iraq spent $2.6 billion (U.S.) on its military. Iraq has not officially stated that military service is compulsory, but another statistic from 1994 stated that most of the 382,000 service people were required to be in the military. The average length of service was eighteen to twenty-four months, and there were another 650,000 in the reserves. Regarding compensation, wages for those who fought in the Iran-Iraq War were generous. Journalists reported that families who lost a son in the fighting would receive compensation in such forms as an automobile, a generous pension for life, real estate, and loans with easy terms for repayment. It is estimated that current compensation to the military has changed, but no specific information is available. Social Welfare and Change Programs Before the Persian Gulf War, welfare benefits such as Social Security, pensions for retirees and disabled people, and money for maternity and sick leaves were available. Currently the only known welfare programs are food distribution and medical aid food. Some nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) have been involved, but unless the Iraqi government can direct NGO operations, they are not permitted to function. Nongovernmental Organizations and Other Associations The most important NGOs are those that are responsible for food rationing and distribution, medical aid, and rebuilding of water and sewage treatment facilities. Many of the NGOs, such as the World Food Program, are associated with the United Nations. Currently Iraqi leaders have been turning down humanitarian efforts and have refused offers of relief from private medical groups. They recently expelled representatives of the Middle East Council of Churches, and denied entry of a Russian envoy from the United Nations who was to investigate the cases of missing persons since 1990. The only NGOs Iraq allows are foreign antisanctions protesters, who bring in small amounts of aid but who are welcome principally because of the propaganda they provide. The presence of NGOs is different between the south and the three provinces of Kurdistan in the north. The Kurds welcomed NGOs in 1991, immediately following the Persian Gulf War, while they were not allowed in the South until 1996. Kurdistan hosts more than thirty NGOs, while in 1999 there were eleven in the south, with even fewer in 2000. Local Kurdish officials work with the United Nations to manage food, health, and economic programs, while the resources and control of the NGOs are restricted in the south. Due to the attitude toward NGOs as well as other contributing factors such as arable land, population, and availability of natural resources, the north is more productive agriculturally and economically and has a more advanced health system infrastructure. The south, under Iraqi control and closed to outside help, has suffered with more food, health, and economic problems. Gender Roles and Statuses Division of Labor by Gender. During the Iran-Iraq War, with so many men fighting in the military, women were required to study in fields and to work in positions normally filled by men. Many women joined the labor force as teachers, physicians, dentists, factory workers, and civil servants, with the majority performing unskilled labor. Women professionals, such as doctors, are normally pediatricians or obstetricians, so that they work with only women or children. Those drafted into the workforce during the Iran-Iraq War were also made to comply with about a one-third deduction from their salary to go toward the war effort. The Relative Status of Women and Men. The General Federation for Iraqi Women (GFIW) is a government organization for women with eighteen branches, one in each province. Its stated goal is to officially organize women, promote literacy and higher education, and encourage women in the labor force. The federation supported big legislative steps, such as a 1977 law that said a woman may be appointed an officer in the military if she has a university degree in medicine, dentistry, or pharmacy. However, it has had little impact on issues that affect women as individuals, such as polygamy, divorce, and inheritance. Many believe that the GFIW is not really functioning in the interests of women, but rather in the interests of the Baathist regime. Instead of trying to improve the situation of women in Iraq, the government seems to use the federation as a means to exercise control over them. In an address to the federation, Saddam said that an educated and liberated mother is one who will give back to the country conscious and committed fighters for Iraq. An underlying goal of the GFIW, whether it is stated or not, is to encourage women to "liberate" themselves through commitment to the Iraqi revolution. In politics Iraq was the first Arab country ever to elect a woman to a parliamentary position. Though an incredible advancement for women in the Arab world, many believe that rather than exercising real authority, she was put in power to falsely demonstrate the controlling regime as a progressive one. Today there are women in politics, though the legitimacy of their authority is often questioned. In Islam, the state religion, women do not hold any leadership roles. Many cannot go to the mosque to pray, and if they do, they are segregated from the men. It is largely due to Islamic influence that women do not enjoy the same social rights and privileges as men, and if gender reform is to take place, it will have to be within the context of Islamic law. Marriage, Family, and Kinship Marriage. In the past, arranged marriages were common. However, this practice is becoming more rare, and a law was passed that gave authority to a state-appointed judge to overrule the wishes of the father in the event of an early marriage. The Muslim majority traditionally views marriage as a contract between two families, as the family's needs are considered most important. In urban settings, women and men have more options in choosing their spouses, though the proposed spouse still must have parental approval. Partners often come from the same kin group, and though marriage between different ethnic groups is accepted, it is not too common. The ruling Baath regime considers marriage to be a national duty that should be guided and encouraged. Starting in 1982, women were forbidden to marry non-Iraqi men. If they were already married, they were prohibited from transferring money or property to their spouses. Following the Iran-Iraq War, the loss of men's lives was so severe that the government embarked on a campaign to increase the population. Government grants were given to men to marry war widows, and polygamy, once rare, became more common. Divorce is accepted, but usually is left solely as a decision of the husband. If the husband wishes to be divorced, it is normally without question or problem, while it is close to impossible for a woman to initiate a divorce proceeding. In the event of divorce, custody is supposed to be granted based on what is best for the child's welfare. Domestic Unit. Couples can live in either of two ways: with the husband's extended family, or as a nuclear family. At present, with economic hard-ships, families tend to live with extended households. The extended family unit consists of the older couple, sons, their wives and families, and unmarried daughters. Other dependent relatives also may make up part of this group, and the oldest male heads the group. He manages property and makes the final decisions regarding such things as the type of education the children receive, their occupations, and whom they will marry. In this living arrangement household and child-rearing tasks are shared among all female members of the larger families. If the couple can afford to live in a nuclear household, women, even though they work outside the home, retain all domestic and child-care responsibilities. The challenge of the woman's role in this situation is that there is no change in cooking methods or materials, and they are isolated from the help and emotional support of other female family members. Families often grow large, because the Iraqi government has stated that every family should have five children, as four children or fewer is considered a threat to national security. Considering the extreme hardships families now face in light of economic hardship and harsh living conditions, the goal of many is now to simply feed their families and preserve a semblance of some sort of home life. Inheritance. Based on the Islamic rule, a man inherits twice as much as a woman. The justification for this is that women are to be protected by their male relatives, so men need to be granted more means to provide. Normally, property and belongings are passed down through the family, split two-to-one between sons and daughters. Kin Groups. Large kin groups are the fundamental social units, and are of higher importance than ethnic, social class, and sectarian lines. Familial loyalty is considered an essential quality, and the family is mutually protective of each other. The kin group usually is organized through descent and marriage and involves three generations, many of whom live together. They often cooperate in areas such as agriculture and land ownership. If some family members live in nuclear families, they keep up practices such as depending on one another and asking the elders for advice. Individual status within the group is determined by the family's position and the individual's position within that group. Socialization Infant Care. Children are the mother's responsibility, and in extended domestic units other female members also take care of the children. Children normally imitate older siblings, and obedience and loyalty to elders are of vital importance. Boys and girls have different upbringings, as a boy's birth into the family is usually celebrated, while a girl's typically is not. The boy is thought to be more valuable to a family, given his potential to work, while the girl is considered more of a dependent. At puberty girls are separated from boys and have much less freedom than boys. Child Rearing and Education. The family holds an important role in teaching values, and they consider it their duty and feel responsible for other family members' behaviors. A good child is loyal, obedient, and does not question authority. The most important value impressed upon young girls and boys is premarital chastity. In addition, girls are taught ideas of weakness, naïveté, resignation, and passivity, while boys go with men at an early age to learn the worth of authority and dominance. In urban settings, more authority is found in schools rather than with the family. Schools teach about religion and values that stem from it. One present problem, however, is that differing values are taught in schools than are taught in families. State schools tend to emphasize national sovereignty, Arab unity, economic security, and socialism, while families usually focus on such values as love, people, generosity, and religion. Many families also fear that their children acquire violent views and habits such as spying while in school. Higher Education. Prior to the Persian Gulf War higher education was greatly prized, and the state used to pay for all of it, even literacy classes for adults. In the 1980s the literacy rate was about 80 percent, and there were several plans to build new universities and expand existing ones. During the Iran-Iraq War the government refused to recruit or draft university students, claiming that they would ensure the future of Iraq. However, the situation has gravely changed since the Persian Gulf War. No current literacy statistic is available, but in 1995 the rate was estimated to be 42 percent, a sharp drop from the previous decade. Also, there is no indication that the universities were ever expanded. Fewer women than men receive the highest levels of education. Etiquette In general, both adults and children keep to themselves and are not loud and boisterous, especially in public. Men commonly hold hands or kiss when greeting each other, but this is not the case for men and women. Respect is given to the elderly and women, especially those with children, as men give up their seats to them on buses and trains. Religion Religious Beliefs. Islam is the officially recognized religion of Iraq and is practiced by 95 percent of the population. Islam itself does not distinguish between church and state, so any distinctions between religious and secular law are the result of more recent developments. There are two forms of Muslims in Iraq, the majority Shias (Shiites) and the minority Sunnis. The Shias believe that the original twelve imams (Islamic leaders) were both spiritual and temporal leaders and that the caliph, or successor of Muhammad and leader of Islam, is selected through lineage and descent. The Sunnis believe that the imams were strictly temporal leaders and that the caliph should be elected. The Sunni sect is considered the orthodox branch of Islam. A small percentage of the population is Christian, divided into four churches: Chaldean, Nestorian, Jacobite (Syrian) Orthodox, and Syrian Catholic. The Yazidis, a cultural group living in the northern mountains, believe in a religion that combines paganism, Zoroastrianism, Christianity , and Islam. They are concentrated in the Sinjar Mountains in the north and are herders and cultivators. In the past they have been victims of persecution due to their religious beliefs and practices, of ten being called heretical. Religious Practitioners. There are five pillars of Islam: praise of Allah as the only God, with Muhammad as his prophet; prayer five times per day; almsgiving; fasting; and pilgrimage to Mecca . Muezzins invoke a call to prayer, reminding everyone it is either time to pray or to call them to the mosque, and imams lead the prayers. Imams are not required to go through formal training, but usually are men of importance in their communities and are appointed by the government. During Ramadan, men gather in homes or the marketplace to participate in readings of the Qur'an led by mumins (men trained at a religious school in An Najaf) or by mullahs (men apprenticed with older specialists). Christians are organized under a bishop who resides in Baghdad, and gather for Mass on Sundays. Rituals and Holy Places. Muslims gather at the mosque every Friday for afternoon prayer. Ramadan falls in the ninth month of the Muslim calendar, which is on a lunar cycle and thus falls during different times of the year. The month entails a period of fasting from all food, drink, and activities such as smoking and sexual intercourse during daylight hours. At night the fast is broken, and on the first day of the tenth month there is a celebration, Id al Fitr, to acknowledge the end of the fast. During Id al Adha, on the tenth day of the twelfth month, there is a sacrificial festival. Both this and the one following Ramadan last for three or four days, and people dress up, visit each other, exchange gifts, and also visit cemeteries. Death and the Afterlife. Funerals are very simple and somber events. People are buried on the day following their death, and are wrapped in a white cloth and placed in a plain box, if available. Whether the person is rich or poor, funerals are generally the same for everyone. Medicine and Health Care Health care is socialized, with a few private hospitals. The current situation of hospitals is dire, as they are tremendously understaffed, under-equipped, and overbooked. There has been a dramatic rise in disease since 1990, due to chemicals used in the fighting of the Persian Gulf War, and from malnutrition and bacterial disease exacerbated by conditions resulting from the economic embargo. In the 1980s Iraq was extremely advanced in health care, but lack of resources and education has compromised medical advancement, and in fact has caused it to regress. Doctors who could once cure many diseases through medicine or surgery are no longer able to do so due for lack of resources. Because Iraq was so advanced in medical expertise in the past, there was little reliance on traditional medicine. The current situation is disheartening for older physicians, because they are not able to do medical procedures that they have the capability to perform, and young physicians are no longer educated in the available techniques that older physicians know. The health care situation is rapidly deteriorating, and once-controlled diseases such as malnutrition, diarrhea, typhoid fever, measles, chicken pox, and cholera are reappearing in great numbers; in addition, there is a large increase in diseases such as leukemia and other cancers. Secular Celebrations The Anniversary of the Revolution is 17 July and the most important secular holiday. It was on this day in 1968 that the Baath Party took control of the Republic of Iraq. Other holidays celebrate Islamic feasts and include the day following the month-long fast of Ramadan (Id al Fitr), the sacrificial festival of Id al Adha, the birth of Muhammad, and a pilgrim's return from Mecca. The Arts and Humanities Support for the Arts. The government supports artists, provided they are chosen by the state and do works requested by the state. For example, all writers, when commissioned by the state, must include praise to Saddam Hussein in their work. In general, artistic forms of thought and expression have been banned. Private ownership of typewriters and photocopiers is prohibited, so that no independent writings may be published or distributed. In addition, publishing houses, distribution networks, newspapers, art galleries, theaters, and film companies are subject to state censorship and must register all writing equipment with authorities. The end result is that artists are unable to express themselves freely. Graphic Arts. Islamic art is very important, as are ceramics, carpets, and Islamic-style fashion design. In 1970 the Iraqi Fashion House opened, and design concentrated on the preservation of traditional attire and historical style. At present historical art, which is colorful and fine, has been reduced to art produced for function, such as sculptures of political figures and propaganda for the government. Performance Arts. Music festivals have been important, such as the Babylon International Music and Arts Festival (last held in 1987 and 1995). International orchestras and performance troupes were invited to perform in the restored sites of Babylon, and people from all over the world attended. At present due to the harsh and severe living conditions, there are no resources to allocate to performance arts. Bibliography Al-Khalil, Samir. Republic of Fear: The Politics of Modern Iraq, 1991. Al-Khayyat, Sana. Honor and Shame: Women in Modern Iraq, 1990. Baram, Amatzia. Culture, History, and Ideology in the Formation of Ba'thist Iraq, 1968–89, 1991. Calabrese, John, ed. The Future of Iraq, 1997. CARDRI (Committee Against Repression and for Democratic Rights in Iraq). Saddam's Iraq: Revolution or Reaction?, 1986. Chalian, Gerard, ed. A People Without a Country: The Kurds and Kurdistan, 1993. Crossette, Barbara. "Iraq Won't Let Outside Experts Assess Sanctions' Impact." New York Times, 12 September 2000. Fernea, Elizabeth and Robert. The Arab World: Personal Encounters, 1985. Fisher, W. B. The Middle East and North Africa 1995, 1994. Hazelton, Fran, ed. Iraq Since the Gulf War: Prospects for Democracy, 1994. Hopwood, Derek; Ishow, Habib; and Kozinowski, Thomas, eds. Iraq: Power and Society, 1993. Lewis, Bernard. The Middle East: A Brief History of the Last 2000 Years, 1995. Lukitz, Liora. Iraq: The Search for National Identity, 1995. Marr, Phebe. The Modern History of Iraq, 1985. Miller, Judith and Laurie Mylroie. Saddam Hussein and the Crisis in the Gulf, 1990. Roberts, Paul William. The Demonic Comedy: Some Detours in the Baghdad of Saddam Hussein, 1998. Simons, G.L. Iraq: From Sumer to Saddam, 1994. Taylor, Marisa. "The Great Iraqi Exodus: Arrival of Chaldeans at Border Part of 'Enormous' Migration." San Diego Union Tribune, 30 September 2000. Web Sites Hickey, Brian; Danielle LeClair; Brian Sims; and Jack Zylman. "Iraq Trip Report." Congressional Staffers Report, 16 March 2000, www.nonviolence.org/vitw/pages/94.htm Metz, Helen Chapin, ed. "Iraq: A Country Study." Federal Research Division, Library of Congress, May 1988. www.loc.gov (search "Iraq") Saleh. "Iraq History and Culture from Noah to the Present." www.achilles.net/~sal/iraq_history.html U.S. State Department. CIA World Factbook 2000: Iraq. www.odci.gov/cia/publications/factbook/geos/iz.html —Elizabeth C. Pietanza	Mesopotamia
First shown in 1976, which ITV series featured Gareth Hunt as the character Mike Gambit ?	Rome and Romania, Roman Emperors, Byzantine Emperors, etc. Home Page Sources Discussion of the period covered by this page, with sources on Roman and "Byzantine" history, upon which the actual tables and genealogies are based, may be found in " Decadence, Rome and Romania, the Emperors Who Weren't, and Other Reflections on Roman History ." One Roman source not mentioned there is the handy Who Was Who In The Roman World, edited by Diana Bowder [1980, Washington Square Press, Pocket Books, 1984]. That was the first book I ever saw that organized Roman Emperors into logical dynastic or event centered groups. Another source I have recently enjoyed is Justinian's Flea by William Rosen [Viking, 2007], not the least because it cites this very webpage [note 2:36, p.331]. Otherwise, it is a fine book with a good appeciation of Late Antiquity, and with some details that I have already added here. Other sources are given here at the points where they are used. This page is continued and supplemented by the material in "Successors of Rome: Scotia" , "Successors of Rome: Germania" , "Successors of Rome: Francia" , "Successors of Rome: The Periphery of Francia" , "Successors of Rome: Russia" , "The Ottoman Sultâns" , and "Modern Romania" . Related earlier history may be found at "Historical Background to Greek Philosophy" and "Hellenistic Monarchs" , and the "Consuls of the Roman Republic" . , that could be transliterated from Greek as "Doukas," is written "Ducas." The epithet of Basil II, "Bulgaroktonos," , "Bulgar Slayer," is rendered "Bulgaroctonus." This is contrary to increasing usage among Byzantinists and Classicists but is, as Warren Treadgold says [A History of the Byzantine State and Society, Stanford University Press, 1997, p. xxi], what the Romans would have done themselves when writing in the Latin alphabet -- and in fact used to be the academic practice, as we see examples of almost all such Latinized names in older scholarly and popular work. In the 19th century, a scholar disinclined to use Latin forms would simply give the words in Greek. It could be assumed that educated readers at least knew the Greek alphabet. No such assumptions could be made now. Since this page uses the Latin alphabet, and since the Roman Empire originally used Latin as its universal language, never forgotten in Greek Romania (however annoying or hostile contemporary "Latins" might become), Latinate forms are the practice here. Some say that this is a "detour" through Latin, but that is the historic and customary route by which Greek words came into English, which is a historic language of Latin Francia . In fact, the Greek versions of the names of significant figures should be given in Byzantine histories, but this is not done. Since standard Greek lexicons, like Liddell and Scott, do not have proper names, and probably would not have them for the Mediaeval period anyway, there is a serious lacuna in references sources for the history of Romania. And those who insist on transcribing rather than Latinizing Greek words and names must face the problem than transcription systems, discussed by Treadgold, are ambiguous, especially in the absence of accents, and usually do not enable the reader to reconstruct the Greek writing. Because of the problems with transcribing Greek, and because of the need for a reference with actual Greek words, Greek names and words are not being added extensively to this page. Exceptions to Latinization would be, (1) for Greek words that simply have Latin translations. Thus, Greek Rhômaîoi, "Romans," corresponds to Latin Romani -- not "Rhomaeoe." Latinization will occur, however, when the Greek word is part of a compound. For instance Tsar Kalojan of Bulgaria was called the "Roman Killer," , Rhômaioktónos. This would Latinize as Rhomaeoctonus. And (2) when Greek words are transcribed, not primarily for logical "use" in English (or even Latin) sentences, i.e. to indicate their referents, but to phonetically render Greek words from examples of Greek itself, as I have in fact just used Rhômaîoi, and Rhômaioktónos. The reference is thus first of all to the words, where we want to represent the Greek language (some of whose characteristics may be lost in Latin), rather to what the word (in Greek, Latin, or English) is used for. Transcription involves compromises. The practice elsewhere usually doesn't include accents, even through they are a proper part of Greek orthography -- and indeed were originated in order to write Greek. With accents, the use of the circûmflex to distinguish êta from epsilon and ômega from omicron (where the macron is not available in basic HTML) introduces an ambiguity; and where êta or ômega may otherwise take an ácute or gràve accent (which here have priority), another ambiguity is introduced. Issues of Greek pronunciation and spelling are examined elsewhere . The maps are originally those of Tony Belmonte, edited to eliminate references to "Byzantium" and with corrections and additions. Tony's historical atlas (with Tony) disappeared from the Web. It was painstakingly reassembled by Jack Lupic, but then his site has disappeared also. Corrections and additions are based on The Penguin Atlas of Ancient History (Colin McEvedy, 1967), The Penguin Atlas of Medieval History (Colin McEvedy, 1961), The New Penguin Atlas of Medieval History (Colin McEvedy, 1992), The Anchor Atlas of World History, Volume I (Hermann Kinder, Werner Hilgemann, Ernest A. Menze, and Harald and Ruth Bukor, 1974), and various prose histories. My graphics programs do not seem to be quite as sophisticated as Tony's, so maps I have modified may not look as professionally done as his originals. Other maps are not based on Tony's at all and may consequently look even less professional. I. FIRST EMPIRE, "ROME," 27 BC-284 AD, 310 years Trajan was most conspicuous for his justice, for his bravery, and for the simplicity of his habits. He was strong in body, being in his forty-second year when he began to rule, so that in every enterprise he toiled almost as much as the others; and his mental powers were at their highest, so that he had neither the recklessness of youth nor the sluggishness of old age. He did not envy nor slay any one, but honored and exalted all good men without exception, and hence he neither feared nor hated any one of them. To slanders he paid very little heed and he was no slave of anger. He refrained equally from the money of others and from unjust murders. He expended vast sums on wars and vast sums on works of peace; and while making very many urgently needed repairs to roads and harbors and public buildings he drained no one's blood for any of these undertakings... For these deeds, now, he took more pleasure in being loved than in being honoured. His association with the people was marked by affability and his intercourse with the senate by dignity, so that he was loved by all and dreaded by none save the enemy. Dio Cassius (c.150-235 AD), Roman History, Book LXVIII, Translated by Earnest Cary, Loeb Classical Library, Dio Cassius, VIII, Harvard U. Press, 1925, 2005, p.369-371. In the second century of the Christian era, the Empire of Rome comprehended the fairest part of the earth, and the most civilised portion of mankind. The frontiers of that extensive monarchy were guarded by ancient renown and disciplined valour. The gentle but powerful influence of laws and manners had gradually cemented the union of the provinces. Their peaceful inhabitants enjoyed and abused the advantages of wealth and luxury.... During a happy period (A.D. 98-180) of more than fourscore years, the public administration was conducted by the virtue and abilities of Nerva, Trajan, Hadrian, and the two Antonines. Edward Gibbon (1737-1794), The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume I, Modern Library, p.1 Now what shall I say of this, that whereas so many have borne the name of Caesar, there have appeared among them so few good [paucos bonos] emperors? For the list of those who have worn the purple [purpuratorum] from Augustus to the Emperors Diocletian and Maximian is contained in the public records. Among them, however, the best were Augustus himself, Flavius Vespasian, Titus Flavius, Cocceius Nerva, the Deified Trajan, the Deified Hadrian, Antoninus Pius and Marcus Antoninus, Severus the African, Alexander the son of Mamaea, the Deified Claudius, and the Deified Aurelian. The Scriptores Historiae Augustae (c.150-235 AD), Historia Augusta, Volume III, Translated by David Magie, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard U. Press, 1932, 1998, p.277-279. The "First Empire" is what often would be considered the entire history of the "Roman Empire." It is definitely the end of the Ancient World. If "Rome" means paganism, bizarre Imperial sex crimes, and the Pax Romana, then this would indeed be it. A later Empire that is Christian, more somberly moralistic, and more beset with war, sounds like a different civilization, which it is, and isn't. That the earlier civilization didn't "fall" but merely became transformed is a truth that both academic and popular opinion still hasn't quite come to terms with. If the decadence of pagan religion and despotic emperors was going to be the cause of the "fall" of Rome, then it certainly should have fallen in the Crisis of the Third Century . That it didn't would seem almost like a disappointment to many. But the greatest of the 3rd century Emperors, like Aurelian, don't get popular books, movies, and BBC television epics made about them. They begin to pass into a kind of historical blind spot. The Pax Romana seems real enough in certain places, but there were not many reigns without some major military action. As long as these were remote from Rome, people would have thought of it as peace. Once Aurelian rebuilt the walls around Rome, things had obviously changed. Indeed, perhaps Rome did "fall" in the Third Century, if by the "Roman Empire" we mean a state ruled, controlled, and centered in the City of Rome. Somewhere between Decius and Diocletian, that was lost. The Emperors ceased to live at Rome, there was not much happening there that influenced events, and even the Army was mostly recruited elsewhere. The Empire decentered and turned inside out, something that popular discourse and even many historians have failed to either recognize or acknowledge. A. "PRINCIPATE," 27 BC-235, 261 years 1. JULIO-CLAUDIANS A. Vitellius 69 The Roman Empire "officially" begins by tradition in 27 BC when Octavian receives the title "Augustus" -- which then becomes the name by which we know him. We might think that the Empire, Imperium, begins with Augustus becoming Emperor, Imperator, but that is not the case. Imperator simply means "commander," and this had long been in use with a specific meaning. An imperator was someone with a military command and imperium, which meant both military and civil authority in the area of his command. This made Julius Caesar essentially the dictator of Gaul , once he had conquered it. That was dangerous, indeed fatal, for the Republic; but in those terms Julius Caesar began the creation of the Roman Empire already as an "emperor." So, while we think of "Augustus" as the name of the first Emperor, it was simply a title, whose import was well remembered by subsequent Emperors. It accompanies the institutional changes that were effected or completed by Augustus. The institution thus created now gets called the "Principate," from Princeps, "Prince" (literally, "comes first"). The idea of the Principate is that the forms of the Republic are retained, and the Emperor superficially is simply still an official of the Republic. Augustus was not a king. He did not even hold the Republican office of Dictator, as Julius Caesar had. But Augustus otherwise assembled offices and authority sufficient to explain the power that he had actually obtained by force. In principle, Rome is still SPQR, Senatus Populusque Romanus, "the Senate and the People of Rome." This institution continues for some centuries, and there never was a subsequent question that the Emperor might become a King, as had been widely feared, expected, or desired with Julius Caesar. In time, the Emperor came to be regarded as superior to any mere king, as the reach and authority of many Emperors was indeed great beyond precedent or (local) comparison. While it seems natural and obvious to take Augustus as the successor to Julius Caesar and his new Imperial government as the successor to the Roman Republic, there was another way of looking at this. The astronomer Claudius Ptolemy (c.100-c.170 AD), who was concerned about the dating of astronomical observations, laid the foundation for all ancient chronology with the Canon of Kings , a list of rulers beginning with the Babylonian King Nabonassar in 747 BC. The Canon thus starts off with Babylonian Kings (and some Assyrians thrown in), jumps to Persian Kings in 538 BC, to Alexander in 332 BC, to the Ptolemies in Egypt in 305 BC, and finally to Augustus, at the death of Cleopatra, in 30 BC. It continues to the reign of Antoninus Pius. These particular connections occur because (1) the Babylonians had the most advanced astronomy of their age, (2) Babylonian records continued seamlessly into the Persian and Hellenistic periods, (3) elements of this, including considerable data, had been translated into Greek, and (4) Ptolemy himself operated in Alexandria, where these translated Babylonian records were freely available, where Greek astronomy itself reached maturity, and where Ptolemy had at hand the simplest calendar of the Ancient World, the Egyptian 365 day year , which continued to be used in astronomy until the introduction of Julian Day Numbers . Thus, we have the curious mixture of an astronomer whose name is in Latin and Greek, who lives in Egypt, and who uses the Era of a Babylonian King (Nabonassar) in conjunction with the Egyptian calendar. This all is striking for Ptolemy's willingness to use the best of all that was available to him -- though it may still surprise some, as we now know independently from Egyptian records, that the astronomy of the Egyptians themselves, except for (or perhaps because of) their year, had less to offer than the Babylonian. Thus, Augustus may be seen as more than a Roman ruler, as, indeed, the successor to the universal equivalents of the eponymous archons (the Athenian officials used for purposes of dating) for all of Middle Eastern, Mediterranean, and European civilization. From Antoninus Pius, the Canon could easily be continued with Roman Emperors all the way to 1453, using a clue of the numbering given by the Venerable Bede , who has Maurice as the 54th Emperor. Even the presence of the Latin Emperors present no anomaly, since Assyrian Kings were interpolated with Babylonian Kings. The last ephemeral Western Emperors , so important for the mythology of the "Fall" of Rome, were, of course, simply ignored by Bede. The Canon can then obviously be continued from 1453 with the Ottomans , who make for a succession in Constantinople in an even more seamless fashion than Augustus takes over from Cleopatra. The Canon of Kings, then, as a succession of Kings, will end in 1922, when no monarch conquers or replaces Mehmed VI. It is a moment, indeed, in the aftermath of World War I, when the idea of monarchy alone as a legitimate form of government, without popular and parliamentary qualifications, pretty much ends. The Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York City contains the Temple of Dendur, which was relocated from Egypt and opened on display in 1978. This was built in the reign of Augustus, around 15 BC. The cartouches on the temple mostly just contain the hieroglyphs , "Pharaoh," which seems like a very perfunctory way of representing the Roman Emperor as King of Egypt. High up on the gate, however, and around on the side, I have noticed more complete names, only parts of which I have been able to read, including , glyphs that clearly spell out "Caesar." So there was an effort here, as with the Ptolemies, to Egyptianize foreign rule, and a final era of overlap between Ancient Egypt and the later civilizations that, through Christianity and then Islam, erase the ancient religion, culture, and then language of Egypt. What remains of all of those, with the Christian Copts, is under physical assault by Islamists in modern Egypt even as I write. This map, for the year of the death of Augustus, is the last in the series prepared for the Hellenistic Age , the period that Augustus himself had terminated in 30 BC. Noteworthy are the surviving vassal kingdoms under Roman control: Armenia , the Bosporan Kingdom , Numidia , Judaea , Cappadocia , Emesa , Nabataean Petra , Commagene , Iberia , Thrace, and Palmyra. Edessa , at this point a Parthian vassal, will soon pass under Roman control. Palmyra will briefly play a signifiant role in Roman history in the Third Century . Armenia will often find itself pulled between Rome and Parthia, then Rome and Sassanid Persia , and subsequently several other larger political conflicts right down to our own day. The Principate is the period that fits everybody's main idea of the "Roman Empire." Caligula and Nero, and Robert Graves's version of Claudius, are objects of endless fascination, moralizing, guilty pleasure, and not-so-guilty pleasure. Whatever these emperors were actually like, this approach began with the Romans themselves, with Suetonius's list of Tiberius's sexual perversions, lovingly reproduced in Bob Guccione's silly movie Caligula (1979, 1991). Whether Tiberius was really guilty of anything of the sort is anyone's guess, but we don't hear much in the way of such accusations about subsequent Emperors, except for a select few, like Caracalla and Elagabalus. Meanwhile, Augustus had secured the Rhine-Danube frontier, and Claudius conquered most of Britain. Augustus originally wanted an Elbe-Danube frontier, but one of his armies (of three legions) was caught in a catastrophic ambush and destroyed. The Romans gave up on the Elbe permanently. Only Charlemagne , by the conquest of Saxony, would secure what Augustus had wanted. The shadow of the Republic persisted during this period, and someone like Claudius could still dream of restoring full Republican government. The year 69 pretty much ended these dreams, since the first free-for-all scramble for the throne revealed that the army, and only the army, would determine who would be Emperor. Strangely enough, despite the occasional anarchy, this would be a source of strength for the Empire, since the state always did the best with successful soldiers at its head. Unsuccessful soldiers faced the most merciless reality check (whether killed by the enemy or by their own troops); but purely civilian Emperors, like Honorius , could endure one disaster after another without their rule necessarily being endangered. The Roman Army under Augustus contained 28 Legions (Legio, Legiones), not counting the Praetorian Guard. At some 5500 men each, this gives a full strength Army of 154,000 men. However, this does not count the Auxilia, units like cavalry and others that consisted of those who are not Roman citizens (though they gained citizenship from service). The entire Army, therefore, was more like 300,000 men, less than half of what it would number in the Late Empire . In his attempt to extend Roman power to the Elbe, Augustus lost three Legions at the battle of the Teutoburger Wald in 9 AD. The numbers of the lost Legions were never used again (likewise with the Legions later disbanded for rebellion). All the Legions were originally simply numbered. Once they begin acquiring epithets (cognomen, cognomina), like Legio X Fretensis, we start getting more than one Legion with the same number, but with different epithets, e.g. Legio III Gallica, Legio III Cyrenaica, Legio III Augusta pia fidelis, Legio III Italica concors, and Legio III Parthica. This is a little confusing. The logic of the matter is that eventually the legions begin to be numbered in relation to their cognomen, not in the absolute count of the Army. Thus, Septimius Severus raised legions for his attack on the Parthians (195 AD), which quite logically are numbered Legio I Parthica, Legio II Parthica, & Legio III Parthica. Eventually there would also be Legio IV Parthica, Legio V Parthica, & Legio VI Parthica, but these were not raised by Severans. We find all the numbers used up to XXII (Legio XXII Primigenia pia fidelis), but then Trajan raised Legio XXX Ulpia Victrix. I suspect that he used "XXX" because 29 Legions already existed, despite the numbers used. Legions of the Roman Army The office of the Roman Consuls, and dating by them, continues under the Empire until Justinian . They can be examined on a popup page . The abbreviations used in the full names of the Emperors can be found elsewhere with the discussion of the tria nomina . Emperors are commonly known by particular parts of their names, or by nicknames, e.g. Caligula, "little boot," or Caracalla, "little hood" -- both names given them as children in the army camps of their fathers (Germanicus and Septimius Severus, respectively). The family of the Julio-Claudians seems like one of the most complicated in history. This chart eliminates many people in the family to focus on the descent and relation of the Emperors. Caligula and Nero are descendants of Augustus, through his daughter Julia (from his first marriage); but Claudius and Nero are also descendants of Mark Antony, who of course committed suicide, shortly before Cleopatra, rather than be captured after his defeat by Augustus. The use of crowns to indicate the emperors is at this point anachronistic, but it is convenient. The crown for Christian Roman Emperors, which of course will not occur until Constantine, is shown with a nimbus, like deified earlier Emperors, because they are always portrayed with halos, like Saints, and are said to be the "Equal to the Apostles," , isapóstolos. Indeed, not just Christians Emperors, but Empresses and their children are shown with halos. This is not something that ones sees in Western Europe. 4. KINGS OF NUMIDIA c.22 AD-40 Roman Province No less that four foreign cultures have been planted into North Africa over the centuries. The Kingdom of Numidia was originally promoted by Rome as an ally against the Carthaginians. In the Second Punic War (218-201), Masinissa went from fighting effectively for Carthage to an alliance with Rome. His cavalry is largely what enabled Scipio Africanus to defeat Hannibal at Zama in 202. He was then supported by the Romans in eliminating his Numidian rivals. However, when he wanted to marry the wife of the great Numidian king Syphax, the Carthaginian princess Sophonisba, the Romans demanded that she be handed over to them. Masinissa enabled her to poison herself instead. Rome supported Masinissa the rest of his life. He died shortly before Carthage itself was exterminated in 146. Numidian allies thus enabled Rome to overthrow the first foreign culture in North Africa, the Phoenician (or "Punic" to the Romans). The Numidians then, of course, discovered what being an "ally" of Rome really meant, and war resulted as later Kings tried to preserve their independence -- especially the War of Jugurtha (112-105). Like the native kingdoms of Anatolia, Numidia was soon converted into a Roman province, opening the way for the introduction of a Latinate culture. If no other events had intervened, North Africa today would probably boast its own Romance language, like Spanish or French. This, however, was not to be. The Vandals interrupted Roman rule, but not long enough to make any lasting difference, if Islam had not soon arrived. When it did, this became the most durably planted foreign culture, with a large colonial element, as the Fatimid Caliphs of Egypt later directed an invasion of ethnic Arab tribes -- in revenge for North African defection from the Fatimids, and from the Shi'ite cause. The last culture planted was that of France, beginning with the occupation of Algeria in 1830. Eventually, something like 30% of the population of Algeria was French colonials, who began to fight as the era of de-colonization threatened their position. This brought about the fall of the French Fourth Republic in 1958. Interestingly, the two greatest French Existentialist writers and philosophers were on opposite sides of the issue. Jean Paul Sartre had become a dogmatic Marxist who demanded Algerian independence at any cost, while Albert Camus, whose most famous book, The Stranger, is set in Algeria, could not so easily dismiss the poor French farmers who had lived in Algeria for nearly a century -- Camus also suspected that Sartre's doctrinaire leftism concealed a bit of collaboration with the Germans in World War II. The return of Charles de Gaulle to power in 1958 ushered in harsh medicine about Algeria. De Gaulle decided that France should cut her losses, and the colony was abruptly granted independence in 1962. This began a bitter exodus of the French colonials and the nauseating torture and massacre of all those Algerians who were associated with the colonial regime. The cycle of terrorism continues even today, as leftist ideology has collapsed into an unhappy civil conflict between military rule and Islamic fundamentalism, and frightened Algerians have increasingly fled....to France. Unfortunately, the French economy, with stupefying labor law, has created national double digit unemployment, far higher in the heavily Moslem immigrant community, which is then supported by the French welfare state in public housing projects that have become virtual No Man's Lands outside many French cities. The idle and resentful unemployed then turn to....Islamic fundamentalism. 5. LEADERS & KINGS OF JUDAEA Hasmoneans Agrippa II King, 50/53-100? Jewish Revolt & War, 66-73: Destruction of Jerusalem, 70 AD; Fall of Masada, 73; Revolt of Bar Kokhba, 132-135 The success of the great struggle of the Maccabees to free the Jews from the Seleucid Kings is still commemorated in the holiday of Hanukkah, based on an incident when the Temple was reconsecrated after the liberation of Jerusalem. Little oil was available for the Temple lamps, but what there was burned miraculously for eight days. The burning of candles for Hanukkah coincides, however, with similar fire rituals of many people at the darkest time of the year, in December, and Hanukkah has also taken on the gift-giving attributes of Christmas -- exemplifying the adaptation of religious rituals to several purposes. Explanations of Hanukkah often awkwardly refer to the "Syrians" instead of to the Seleucid Greeks -- but it would certainly seem more politic today to risk offending the Greeks than to have the modern Syrians, who had nothing to do with the Seleucids, feel accused of ancient tyranny. Modern Israel and Syria have enough recent issues to deal with. The hard won independence of Judaea fell within a century to Rome, which for a time, as elsewhere, tolerated a fiction of local rule -- the Herodian dynasty owed its power entirely to Roman favor. This did not mollify the Messianic hotheads, who inevitably sparked a rebellion that led to the final destruction of the Temple, the end, in a sense, of ancient Judaism, massacres and mass suicides, as at Masada, and the increasing Diaspora of Jews into the Roman world. Out of this also came the story of a peaceful Messiah, who had been executed and resurrected, whose cult eventually overwhelmed Rome itself, transforming Hellenistic Romanism into a culture of both Athens and Jerusalem. Jews themselves derived little enough benefit from this transformation, since Pauline Christianity had repudiated the ritual requirements of the Law and the new religion became increasingly estranged from the old. Once the new religion became the State Religion of Rome, the rigor with which Judaism had rejected the old gods now became public policy, to their own disability. Christianity never had the provision found in Islam, however grudging, for the toleration, within limits, of kindred religionists. The fate of Jews in Christendom, as of the basic attitude of Christianity to Judaism, thus became a matter of dispute. Where Christianity began as sect of Judaism, perhaps just a continuation of the Essenes described in detail by Josephus, some post-Pauline Christians wanted Judaism repudiated completely and the Hebrew Bible simply rejected. The most elaborate version of this turned up in Gnosticism , where the God of the Old Testament was reduced to a minor and malevolent deity. The "Jealous" God of Judaism was not regarded as having the right attitude to be the true Father of Jesus. The Orthodox decision in the matter was that the God of the Old Testament was indeed the God of the New Testament, the Jews were indeed the Chosen People, and that the Covenants with Abraham, etc. were not only valid in their own right but essential links to the New Covenant established by Jesus. No less an authority than St. Augustine said that Jews must be tolerated so that the Biblical prophecies of the Coming of Christ would be preserved by a disinterested, or even hostile, source. Augustine, interestingly, did not doubt that Jews could be trusted to faithfully preserve the Hebrew text of the Bible -- as they did. Now, Christianity granting a role for Judaism in Christianity is very patronizing to Judaism, but it did provide a ground for the toleration of Judaism, which no other principle at the time did (no one having heard of Liberal society). There were shameful exceptions to this toleration, but through the Middle Ages the overwhelming majority of Church authorities staunchly condemned attacks on the Jews. The Popes themselves even refuted, twice, the "blood libel" that Jews used Christian blood for Passover matzos (which would have been a grotesque violation of Jewish dietary laws anyway). The genealogy of the Hasmonaeans is from The Complete World of The Dead Sea Scrolls (Philip R. Davies, George J. Brooke, & Phillip R. Callaway, Thames & Hudson Ltd., 2002, p.42). The incestuous marriages of the children and grandchildren of Herod the Great, perhaps typical of a Hellenistic dynasty, like the Ptolemies , were very hard to understand. The chart in my edition of Josephus (The Jewish War, Penguin Classics, 1960, p.410) did not make things very clear, but then my colleague Don Smith helped straighten things out for me. There seems to be some question about the parentage of Herodias and Agrippa I -- with Davies, Brooke, & Callaway going for Aristobulus. Aristobulus and his brother Alexander, descendants of the Hasmonaeans through their mother, were both executed by Herod. Since Mediaeval Jews shared in the continuing trade and commercial culture of the Middle East, and were often its only representatives in impoverished and ruralized Latin Europe, they became fatefully associated in European eyes with the commercial and financial practices that Europeans at once needed, wanted, misunderstood, and resented. A similar problem later occurred all over again in Eastern Europe, where the Kings of Poland were eager to bring in a more sophisticated population, unwelcome in Western Europe, to develop the country and strengthen the throne. Such resentments in time found theoretical expression in Marx's view that the Jews embodied the archetype of grasping and exploitive capitalism. This made them class enemies, but that was soon enough converted into race enemies when Marxism mutated into Fascism and Naziism. Jews who thought they had escaped the class and race animus in the Soviet Union soon came to be suspected, purged, and, increasingly, murdered by Stalin, while Hitler, of course, decided to kill them all. This helped promote the idea, not surprisingly, that all Jews should return to Palestine and found a Jewish State, which is what happened. After 2000 years, however, the Zionists found that they didn't have a lot in common with the modern Arabic speaking population of the place they returned to -- rather than learn Arabic, they even decided to revive Hebrew, which was already dying out as a spoken language in the days of the Hasmoneans, and which some Jews refused to speak as being a sacred language (they still speak Yiddish). After sixty years, this conflict between Israel and Arab Palestinians has still not been resolved. By some estimates, e.g. Paul Johnson in his A History of the Jews [HarperPerennial, 1988], Jews constituted as much as 10% of the population of the Roman Empire. I am not familiar with the basis of this estimate, but I am familiar with the difficulty of estimating Roman population at all. I find so high a figure inherently improbable. Judaea, although the "land of milk and honey" in the Bible, is a pretty barren place. This is not going to support a large population, especially on the basis of ancient agriculture. That there should be as many Jews there as, for instance, Egyptians is impossible. Of course, a large part of the estimate is based on the Diaspora population. Even in the time of the Ptolemies , Alexandria already had a very large Jewish population. But that is a key point: the Diaspora population is mostly going to be urban; but the urban population of the Roman Empire is unlikely to have been more than 20% of the whole. Even today, 85% of the population of Tanzania, whose growth was ruined by the socialism of its post-independence government, is still in agriculture. If the population of the Empire was as much as 20% urban, and Jews were 10% of the population, then Jews would have to constitute nearly half of the population of every city, especially including Rome itself (with a population of a million or more people). That is nothing like the impression we get from the records, where so large a group in Rome would be felt on a constant basis. So this "10%" seems like a gravely inflated figure, though we may never have a really accurate one. I now see Lea Cline, of the American Academy in Rome (and evidently a graduate student in Classics from the University of Texas at Austin), saying that the Jewish population of Rome in the 1st century AD was probably about 30,000 people (I say literally saw her, on the "Naked Archaeologist"). The basis for this are records for the number of "synagogal communites" present in the city. Since, from records about numbers of bakeries, tenements, etc., the population of Rome can be estimated as at least a million people, this puts the Jewish population at no more than 3%. This sounds more like it, especially when the Jewish population of Rome is liable to reflect both an urban concentration of Roman Jews and the special concentration effected by the importance of the Roman capital itself -- Jews had been there since well into the Hellenistic Period. If it is impossible that the percentage of Jews in Rome could be lower than in the Empire as a whole, that gives us a good ground for evaluating the percentage given by Paul Johnson. The maps here begin with Rome at its height under Trajan. Trajan's occupation of lower Mesopotamia was impressive but brief. After taking Ctesiphon, the Parthian capital, "he conceived a desire to sail down to the Erythraean Sea" [i.e. the Persian Gulf -- Dio Cassius, Book LXVIII, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard U. Press, 1925, 2005, p.415]. Sailing down the Tigris to "the Ocean," he wished he were, like Alexander, on his way to India, "if I were still young" [p.417]. Indeed, he would die within the year (117 AD). Visiting Babylon in order to sacrifice to Alexander at the place of his death, "he mostly saw nothing but mounds and stones and ruins" [p.417]. It had been long since Babylon had been an important city. Putting down revolts in Mesopotamia, it is not clear how much Trajan really intended to retain, since he installed his own candidiate for Parthian King (Parthamaspates) in Ctesiphon. In any case, Trajan had added upper Mesopotamia, Armenia, and Dacia to the Empire. This, as it happened, involved all the most organized states on the borders of Rome, excepting only Kush . The Pax Romana thus was often a matter of war on the frontiers in order to preserve the peace within. But when Hadrian withdrew from some of Trajan's conquests, he was then troubled by the revolt of Bar Kochba in Judaea. 7. FLAVIANS & ANTONINES Decimus Clodius Albinus in Britain & Gaul, 193-197 The Flavians Vespasian and Titus were both great soldiers and, to the Roman historians, virtuous and admirable men. Unfortunately, Titus's brother Domitian was not quite of the same stamp, and then went on to reign longer than his father and brother. He was succeeded by a fraternity of soldiers who adopted each other to secure competent and peaceful succession. The "Five Good Emperors" (in boldface) became the ideal of generations, all the way to Gibbon, for peaceful and benevolent government. Trajan was the first Emperor born in the provinces (Spain) and briefly, with his Mesopotamian campaign, expanded the Empire to its greatest extent. In the Middle Ages, Trajan had such a powerful reputation for goodness that the story began to circulate that God had brought him back to life just so he could convert to Christianity. Dante even includes that in the Divine Comedy. Antoninus Pius became the only Roman Emperor in 1500 years to be called "the Pious," but we really know precious little about his reign. This may simply illustrate the principle that goodness and peace, the height of the "Pax Romana," is boring. , "To Rome" [cf. The Ruling Power: A Study of the Roman Empire in the Second Century After Christ Through the Roman Oration of Aelius Arisides, James H. Oliver, The American Philosophical Society, 1953]. This speech is not of much interest to Classicists and is rarely mentioned in treatments of the Roman Empire of this period, yet it expresses profound changes that are in the works. Aelius is a Greek who now has become wholeheartedly Roman. There is not a trace of irony or cynicism in his praise of Rome. After achieving some fame, Aelius later became friendly, at Smyrna where he settled, with Marcus Aurelius. Since "To Rome" is in Greek, as was the diary of Marcus, we see a growth in Greek literature which will flower in the Second Sophistic and which will begin to overshadow secular literature in Latin. Culturally, Rome is becoming increasingly Greek, a trend that will culminate in the Graecophone Romania of the Middle Ages, where "To Rome" will be much admired and studied both for its language and style and for its patriotic sentiments. Neither of these is particularly appealing either to Classicists or to most Byzantinists, for the virtues of its language and its loyalties tend to leave both cold: Classicists are disdainful of Attic Greek unless it was written in the 5th century BC, while Byzantinists are sometimes uncomfortable being reminded that "Byantines" to themselves were still , Rhômaîoi, Romans. Aelius thus represents the sort of cultural and historical reality about Rome that does not quite fit in with the accustomed narratives and consequently is generally ignored. The Pax Romana ended under Marcus Aurelius, the closest thing to a "philosopher king" until Thomas Jefferson , but also a very competent general, who smashed a major German invasion across the Danube, while consoling himself with Stoicism for the miseries of war, plague, and personal loss. Marcus's only real failure was to leave the Empire to his worthless son, Commodus -- dying in a place of modern note, Vienna (Vindobona). Hereditary succession, although eventually stabilized in Constantinople, would prove a dangerous principle at many moments in Roman history. The incompetence and viciousness of Commodus then set off his assassination and the second great free-for-all fight for the throne, in 193. This was not without its comic aspect, when the Praetorian Guard killed the disciplinarian Pertinax and literally put the throne up for sale. The wealthy Didius Julianus made the best bid but had no other ability to secure his rule. He was murdered as Septimius Severus, a notably humorless man, approached Rome -- and then also abolished (temporarily) the Guard. When Jerusalem fell to Titus in 70 AD, the Temple and most of the city were demolished. The furniture and sacred vessels of the Temple, including, Josephus says, the red curtains of the Inner Sanctuary, were carried off to Rome -- portrayed on the Arch of Titus. They remained there until 455, when the Vandals sacked the city and removed their loot to Carthage. When Belisarius overthrew the Vandals for Justinian in 533 and found the items from the Temple in Carthage, they were sent back to Constantinople . Since it has previously been noted that the Ark of the Covenant, despite Raiders of the Lost Ark (1981), was not carried off to Tanis, one might wonder what subsequently happened to it. Although Josephus speaks of Titus taking away "the Law," he describes nothing like the Ark. Later, Mediaeval sources (e.g. Mirabilia Urbis Romae, c.1143, The Marvels of Rome, Italica Press, New York, 1986, p.29) speak of the Ark having been in Rome, but this was long, long after the fact. It must not be forgotten, however, that the Temple had once before been destroyed, by Nebuchadnezzar , in 587 BC. It is not clear that anything of the Temple survived, and so the Ark could well have been destroyed then -- or concealed on the Temple Mount, where the Templars supposedly found it. The map shows the disposition of the Legions shortly after the end of the Jewish War. One Legion from the campaign, Legio X Fretensis, remains in Judaea, while the other two that were given to Vespasian at the beginning of the campaign, Legio V Macedonica and Legio XV Apollinaris, have returned to the stations on the Danube. Some sources say that there were four legions involved in the Jewish War, but I have found no indentification of what the fourth would have been. Britain, of course, has now been added to the Empire. My sources disagree on the station and numbering of some of the Legions. The revolt of Civilis in 69-70 led to the disbanding in 70 AD of four legions that participated in the revolt: Legio I Germana (or Germanica), Legio IV Macedonica, Legio XV Primigenia, and Legio XVI Gallica. These are indicated on the first map of the Army given above . Of particular interest in the disposition of the Legions in the reign of Antoninus Pius is Legio VI Victrix. On the first map above, it is to be found in Spain. Next it is on the Rhine. Now it is in the North of Britain. In the reign of Marcus Aurelius the Prefect of Legio VI Victrix will be one Lucius Artorius Castus. As discussed below , this man and his name -- Artorius -- may figure in the legends of King Arthur. Otherwise, we see that Dacia has been added to the Empire. The concentration of Legions around Judaea again is in the aftermath of Bar Kochba's Revolt (132-135). This figures in the mystery about Legio IX Hispana. Previously attested in Britain, Legio IX Hispana has disappeared from the list of legions by 165 AD. Much of what we hear about it is speculation. Since the legion had been posted in Britain, one notion is that it was wiped out by the Picts. We even see this in a recent movie, The Eagle [2011]. There is no evidence from the period, however, that any legion was wiped out in Britain. Equally speculative is the suggestion that Legio IX Hispana was among the units sent to suppress the Bar Kochba revolt and that it was wiped out there. Again, there is no evidence for either event. Instead, since the legion does disappear from the records and is never revived, which means that something bad must have happened to it, we might ask if there is any evidence that any legion was wiped out or disbanded during the period before 165 AD. Well, yes. In 161, the Parthians occupied Armenia and defeated the governor of Cappadocia, Aelius (or Marcus Sedatius) Severianus, at Elegeia on the Euphrates, wiping out his legion. Severianus, who had been assured of victory by a shady "prophet," Alexander of Abonutichus, commited suicide. The Parthians then defeated the governor of Syria, Attidius Cornelianus. This set off a Parthian War (161-166), for which the Emperor Lucius Verus was present in the East, even though the campaign was prosecuted by other generals, resulting in the sack and burning of Ctesiphon in 166. The identity of the legion of Aelius Severianus is not specified in the sources; but if we know that a legion was destroyed, and we know that Legio IX Hispana disappears from the record, when that only happens if a legion is wiped out in battle or disbanded because of rebellion, the inference seems reasonable that this was the legion. What other legion would have been wiped out at Elegeia? So speculation about the Picts or Bar Kochba seems superfluous. A curious footnote to the period of the Antonines is an entry in the Chinese History of the Later Han Dynasty , the . It is recorded that in the year 166 an embassy arrived in Lo-Yang from a ruler of , "Great Ch'in," named Andun. This had come up from Vietnam after, apparently, travelling by sea from the West. Andun looks like it might be "Antoninus," which could mean either Antoninus Pius or Marcus Aurelius, both of whom used the name. Thus, "Great Ch'in" is usually taken to mean Rome, and the embassy was sent to explore ways to redirect the silk trade around the route, the Silk Road through Central Asia, dominated by the Parthians . If so, nothing came of it. The possibility of any communication between the great contemporary Empires of Rome and the Han is tantalizing. My impression has been that Chinese attempts, like the embassy of 97 AD sent by Pan Ch'ao , to establish some communication overland were frustrated by the Parthians. Since we know that the Romans had knowledge of and trade with India and Ceylon , and that Chinese pilgrims like Fa-Hsien went by sea from India to China (399-414), it is not at all impossible or unlikely that some Romans, in the days of the Kushans in India, could have done what the Hou Hanshu says. The History was actually written in the 5th century, and the Chinese were aware that Iranians, which by then meant the Sassanids , were still frustrating attempts at direct trade with "Great Ch'in." 222-235 Persian War, Roman defeats but mutual losses, 230-232 It took a little time for Septimius to put down all the would-be Emperors in the provinces, but he did so with determination and ferocity. The virtues of nobility reputed to Trajan, of culture to Hadrian, of piety to Antoninus, and of philosophy to Marcus Aurelius were all missing in Septimius Severus. Born in North Africa, Punic ( Phoenician ) seems to have been the first language of Severus, and he never lost the accent. This makes it look like Severus was the first Roman Emperor who was not of ethnic Latin derivation. His marriage to the Syrian Julian Domna, of Emesa (Homs), also blew away previous Roman scruples about Roman rulers being associated with Eastern Princesses -- the memory of Cleopatra long put such unions in bad favor. Soon, few Emperors would be of demonstrable Latin derivation. Severus also doesn't seem to have considered anything other than hereditary succession, despite having a particularly nasty son, Caracalla, as the candidate. His attempt to balance Carcalla with his brother Geta simply got Geta murdered. Another factor, however, was the loyalty inspired in the troops to the family. Septimius had bluntly advised his sons, in the Greek we have from Dio Cassius: , , , Homonoeîte, toùs stratiôtas ploutízete, tôn allôn pántôn kataphroneîte, "Stick together [be of one mind]; enrich the soldiers; be contemptuous of [put out of mind] all the others" [Dio Cassius IX, Roman History, Books LXXI-LXXX, translated by Earnest Cary, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1927, 2001, pp.270-273]. Caracalla, although not sticking with his brother, maintained his popularity reasonably well, until he terrified enough soldiers to precipitate his inevitable murder. This led to the brief and unsuccessful reign of Macrinus (also a North African) and his son, until loyalty to the Severan family prevailed. Macrinus was the first Roman Emperor who never visited Rome during his reign. Meanwhile, the relatively successful campaign of Severus against Parthia, despite the subsequent Parthian defeat of Macrinus, may have weakened the regime enough to allow for the coup of the Sassanid Persians, who would be much more trouble for the Romans than the Parthians had ever been. Septimius Severus himself was one of the two Roman Emperors ( Constantius Chlorus was the other) to die (a natural death) at York (Eboracum) in Britain. The Severan "family" turned out to be the entirely matrilineal creation of Severus' sister-in-law, Julia Maesa, who brought her two grandsons, entirely unrelated to Severus, to the throne. The bizarre Elagabalus (sometimes "Heliogabalus"), styling himself the god of his grandmother's Emesan solar cult (and engaging gladiators in combats more amorous and carnal than Commodus had contemplated), and then the amiable and reasonably effective Alexander thus wrapped up the dynasty. Alexander was killed after the overdue reality check of battle, against the newly aggressive Sassanids (224-651). He was not that bad, but evidently not good enough for his own troops, who killed him and his mother -- that his mother was along with him on a military campaign probably seemed no better to the soldiers then than it does now. Elagabalus and his mother were also killed together. Elagabalus, indeed, seems to have been the last truly "fun" Roman Emperor in terms of the pagan sexual antics otherwise fondly remembered from Caligula. The transvestism and bi-sexuality of Elagabalus, however, may have gone beyond even Caligula. An intellectual revival took place in the time of the Severans. This is called the "Second Sophistic," and in its most general form it represents a revival of Greek literature, and a concern for the Greek literary heritage, after a temporary eclipse by Latin authors. The Second Sophistic was actually named by Philostratus, in his The Lives of the Sophists. The presence and influence of Philostratus at Court was a function of the interests of Julia Domna, his patron. He says that Julia attracted a circle of mathematicians and philosophers. However, this actually meant something more like "astrologers and sophists," and the revival, as philosophy, was more of a retrospective on ancient philosophy than a movement that contributed much that was original or of interest to it. Nevertheless, such an inspiration and preoccupation has been compared to similar concerns in the Renaissance . In retrospect, the Second Sophistic on its literary side is dated to the previous century, where we see a surge of Greek literature and a decline in Latin authors. It is not an accident that Cassell's New Latin Dictionary, of which I have the 1959 edition [Funk & Wagnalls, New York], only gives the vocabulary of classical authors from "about 200 B.C. to A.D. 100." Frederic M. Wheelock's Latin [Barnes & Noble, 1956, 1966; revised as Wheelock's Latin by Richard A. LaFleur, HarperResource, 2000] lists Tactitus (d.117) and Juvenal (d.127) as the last secular Latin authors. Their "Silver Age" is followed by "The Patristic Period," which lists Latin Fathers of the Church but refers to no secular literature and no secular authors in Latin until Dante(!). This implies that authors like Ammianus Marcellinus (d.395), Orosius (c.418), Boethius (d.524), and Cassiodorus (d.585), and Jordanes (c.551), were insignificant -- likewise for Isidore of Seville (d.636), who nevertheless is quoted by Wheelock (pp.211-212). But secular Latin authors did become rare after 100 AD, and both Orosius and (St!) Isidore had concerns that were as much religious as secular. Ammianus, a Greek himself, wrote his history in Latin out of worry that the genre might die out -- as it would, indeed, in its most sophisticated form, with him. Meanwhile, Greek literature, in turn, flowers, as we get Plutarch (d.120), Arrian of Nicomedia (c.87-c.145 AD, Consul 129), Pausanius (c.150), Lucian (d.180), Aelius Aristides (117-181), Dio Cassius (d.229), and others (not to mention the long tradition of Neoplatonic philosophers ) -- who are never confused with or obscured by the Greek Fathers -- through the rest of the history of Rome and Romania. A characteristic of the Second Sophistic, such as we see in Arrian, the 2nd century historian, philosopher, and official (he repelled the Alans from Cappadocia -- and he transcribed the teachings of Epictetus the Stoic ), and the others, is the movement to write in Attic Greek , rather than in the Koiné of the Hellenistic Period. This is usually dismissed as an affectation and a frivolity. Perhaps it was, but it is also directly comparable to the concern of Renaissance writers to restore the "purity" of Ciceronian Latin over the received Mediaeval Latin that had survived to their time. Renaissance writers are rarely belabored for affectation because of this. And indeed, where Greek and Latin are taught today, the student, as it happens, begins with Attic Greek and Ciceronian Latin. The focus on Attic Greek in education, which began with the Second Sophistic, thus continued straight through the Middle Ages and has been in full flood through all of modern education in Classical Greek. When Greek speaking refugees fled the Ottoman Conquest, they did not teach Italians the spoken Greek of their time but the Attic Greek whose example and literature they respected. Indeed, Renaissance scholars could not have read Thucydides or Plato otherwise. The "purity" of the Greek language remains the political issue in Modern Greece . More than an affectation, this Atticizing tradition accompanies the circumstance that the earliest and most interesting and some of the most important literature in these languages, especially for new scholars, is in the Attic and Ciceronian dialects -- from Thucydides and Plato to Caesar and Cicero himself. Preserving the archaic language meant that the authors could still be read in their own words. Perhaps Classicists are somehow annoyed that the Ancient and Mediaeval authors in Greek actually agree with them that the surpreme models of the Greek language are in Attic. These are the languages, our Classical languages of Western civilization, and their literature, that we do not want forgotten, if the root values and experience of our civilization are not to be forgotten. But their existence is in greater danger in our time than ever before: a Shakespeare with "little Latin and less Greek" is a scholar of Classics compared to most graduates of modern universities. Latin used to be taught in my high school, but now it is not even offered in the college where I taught for 22 years. One reason today for disparagement of the Second Sophistic, although this will not be an issue for Classicists, may in part be the antipathy in academic linguistics for written language and unconcern for the preservation of the literary heritage embodied in Classical Languages. This may accompany a self-hating, anti-Western bias that is often evident in both linguistics and other academic literature when the animus curiously tends to be focused on Greek and Latin rather than on Classical Arabic, Sanskrit , or Classical Chinese , whose preservation and use are generally exempted from criticism. The politically correct are happy to destroy their own tradition but sensitive (and cowardly) about doing this where accusations could be made of ethnocentrism, Eurocentrism, " Islamophobia ," or racism. The disposition of the Legions in the Severan Army now is looking pretty familiar. Warren Treadgold [Byzantium and its Army, 284-1081, Sanford, 1995, p.45] says that the Army of 235 AD contains 34 legions plus the Praetorian Guard. On the map above, I only show 33, as gleaned from maps in the sources cited. Treadgold estimates the total Army, legions plus auxiliaries, at around 385,000 men. In the sources given, the legions are only named by A.H.M. Jones [The Later Roman Empire, 284-602, Volume II, Johns Hopkins, 1986, pp.1438-1444]. Jones tentatively places Legio IV Italica in Mesopotamia, which would raise the total legions to 34, as in Treadgold. These are the last days of the Classic Army of the Principate. After the Crisis of the Third Century, the structure, constituents, and even command ranks of the Roman Army are going to be very different. The traditional legions persist by name, but they are absorbed into command structures where they eventually lose their old identity. It is noteworthy that in my sources on the Severan Army, the Legions are named by Jones and by Adrian Goldsworthy in The Complete Roman Army [Thames & Hudson, 2003], but neither Goldworthy nor the other sources cited on the map give the locations of the Severan Legions. Jones places them in the text, in the context of the Army of the Dominate. Recently, The Roman Army, the Greatest War Machine of the Ancient World, edited by Chris McNab [Osprey Publishing, 2010], does not have a list of any Legions, so the neglect of the Severan Army is less conspicuous. But the McNab book is curious in that the "Later Empire" is dated to begin in 200 AD, right in the middle of the reign of Septemius Severus, even though in the text the discussion of the Later Army begins with Alexander Severus or Constantine [p.206]. Thus the period the Severans is, after a fashion, cut out of the history altogether. No source, except Jones again, bothers with the Legions of the Army of the Dominate, which mulitply in number and are smaller than the Legions of the Principate but whose identity often continues, even in the place of their previous posting, as with the Legio II Augusta and Legio VI Victrix in Britain. Legions of the Roman Army So why the lacuna or the short shrift for the Severan Army? Well, it may be that Classicists are beginning to lose heart. Interest in the Empire declines, step by step, as we move away from the Julio-Claudians. The Antonines still draw a good bit of enthusiasm, with Marcus Aurelius and Commodus turning up in some Hollywood movies. But treatments like that are swamped by the popular representations of Caesar, Augustus, Tiberius, Caligula, Claudius, and Nero. And then, after Commodus, silence. Even the two hour History Channel special, "Roman Vice," ended with Nero, passing up the chance to treasure one of the most vicious Roman Emperors of all, Caracalla, and one of the bizarre, Elagabalus. Earlier popularizing authors may have shied away from the extremes of the behavior of Elababalus, who did things that used to be taboo in polite conversation; but that is no excuse now, when that should be one of the most appealing things about him. It is as though there is a sense of unease. The closer we get to Constantine, about whom feelings are so mixed, confused, and generally hostile, it is as though a force field begins to be felt that inhibits movement. The great drama of the Tetrarchy, with the extraordinary personalities and events involved, leaves modern historical fiction, and Hollywood, cold. The most that the public gets for the period are the tendentious, preposterous, and ahistorical speculations and misrepresentations of The Da Vinci Code. Even the straight historical treatments on the cable networks, which do remind us that people like Aurelian, Diocletian, Majorian, and Justinian at least exist, are usually no less tendentious, as I have occasion to note here. Rome and Romania Index B. CRISIS OF THE THIRD CENTURY, 235-284, 49 Years This map looks like it should be from the Fifth Century . The Goths, not yet divided, are here, but they come in part by boat, which we will not see with them later. The Franks here duplicate the later course of the Vandals , through Gaul, Spain, and North Africa, but without the same effects. Later, the Franks will not be a principal invader but will be the ultimate beneficiary of the invasions. The Alemanni also will be less active later, remaining in Germany and leaving their name as the word for "German" in Romance languages. Rome is weakened by revolt in the West and a Palyrmene takeover in the East. But in this era Roman institutions prove resilient enough to restore the status quo ante (with troubling strategic withdrawals). But the Germans remain across the Rhine and Danube, growing in numbers and sophistication. One might even say that all this was a dress rehearsal for the later invasions. In the theater, if the dress rehearsal goes poorly, the opening will go well. This is what happened. The Gallic Empire of Postumus began under Gallienus. Postumus, of course, probably would rather have overthrown the Emperor, but he was not able to defeat him and was otherwise involved with fighting Germans. In best Third Century tradition, he was killed by his troops. This form of succession continued until Tetricus and his son surrendered to Aurelian, on condition of their peaceful retirement. This episode echoes the attempt of the usurper Constantine "III" in the Fifth Century, though that failed to suppress the Germans in that era and merely served to absorb the attention of Roman forces that could have been better used, in conjunction with those of Constantine himself, against the common enemy. The Palmyrene Empire had a very different origin and course from that in Gaul. Odaenath, the King of Palmyra (c.260-266), was a Roman ally. After the capture of Valerian, he actually defeated and expelled the victorious Persians. This earned him Roman gratitude and titles, like Dux Romanorum. It also left him as the de facto ruler of the East. Odaenath was murdered and succeeded by his wife Zenobia, who then joins Cleopatra and Boudicca (Boadicea), if not Dido, in the ranks of the conspicuous and romantic female enemies of Rome. This grew gradually, as Roman weakness tempted Zenobia's ambition. When she moved into Egypt and Asia Minor in 269-270, trouble was definitely brewing, but it was her proclamation of her son Vaballathus as Emperor that brought Aurelian out against her. She was exhibited in Aurelian's Triumph but then allowed to live out her life on a pension in Rome. Palmyra became a Roman outpost. Today, its ruins are extensive, beautiful, and evocative, out in the emptiness of the Syrian desert, next to the Oasis and the small modern city. The Oasis gave the city its importance as an essential link in the caravan short-cut across the desert from Mesopotamia to Syria. Even greater enemies of Rome have far less to show for themselves today. Palmyra has entered modern history in the ugliest way. In 2015, the savage forces of the "Islamic State" (ISIS or ISIL) captured the town from the Syrian government. They executed the lead archaeologist of the site along with dozens of other people, apparently including women and children. And, like their previous action in Iraq, following the precedent of the Tâlibân in Afghanistan , they began to destroy ancient buildings, particularly temples. The impressive ruin of the Temple of Bêl, which stands by the road into both the ancient and the modern town, is shown in the photograph above. Its walls are all but intact. Above the recessed altar was a beautiful roseate ceiling. A stair within the walls led up to the top, affording an impressive view of the area. But the (literally) bloody fanatics of ISIS blew up the building and reduced it to rubble, so that nothing, apart from the entrance pylon, remains. This was a United Nations World Heritage Site, and one of the most evocative jewels of ancient history. It tells us whose these people, invoking Islam , really are. To be sure, their eagerness to cut the heads off civilian hostages, on camera, stamps them as evil in a way whose like may not have been seen since Auschwitz , but their contempt for the past, for history, for art, and for beauty staggers the mind in a unique way. They are openly proud of it, as even the Nazis never were for their crimes. Having visited Palmyra twice in 1970, my photographs are now perhaps significant historical records -- in a tradition going back to the Ruins of Palmyra, a survey by Robert Wood published in 1753. And since my photographs are all slides, they will need to be converted to digital format. It is extraordinary to now have vandalism of the city by people who seem to actually hate the past, even while they vainly hope that a revived Islam will give them the power that the Islamic world has otherwise been unable to achieve through conventional political and economic means. Or they may actually want nothing more than death and destruction, if this serves to bring on the Apocalypse. In those terms, they may have no positive goals at all. Maximinus I Thrax M. Aurelius Carinus 283-285 The chaos that had threatened in some earlier successions (in 69 and 193) now arrived in 238, when we can say that there were five Emperors in one year. Maximinus Thrax may have been the second Emperor who never visited Rome. He was on his way there, because the Senate had recognized the usurpation of the Gordians in Africa, when the Praetorian Guard murdered him at Aquileia. Meanwhile, of course, Gordian II had been killed in battle by a Maximinus loyalist, the governor of Numidia. Gordian I committed suicide. So neither Gordian made it to Rome either. The confused Senate elected the Senators Balbinus & Pupiens Co-Emperors. When the Guard murdered them in turn, only their nomination of Gordian III as Caesar provided for a reasonable succession. If only that were the end of problem. The complexity of the following period can only be appreciated, or even understood, by reviewing the " Crisis of the Third Century " chart. Few Emperors reigned long or died natural deaths. Gordian III's six years would count as lengthy for the period, but his murder would prove all too typical. The musical chairs of murders did not help prepare the Empire for increased activity by the Germans and Persians. Decius and Herennius were killed in battle by the Goths in 251 -- the only Roman Emperors to die in battle (against external enemies) besides Julian (against the Persians, 363), Valens (against the Goths again, 378), Nicephorus I (against the Bulgars, 811), and Constantine XI (with the fall of Constantinople to the Turks, 1453). These Emperors are now marked with a "killed in battle" icon -- . Valerian's relatively long and promising reign ended with the unparalleled ignominy of being captured by Shapur I -- the only Roman Emperor captured alive by a foreign enemy until Romanus IV in 1071. These Emperors are now marked with a "captured by foreign enemy" icon -- -- which is the Egyptian hieroglyph of a bound prisoner, used in words for "rebel" and "enemy." Some other rulers were also captured by foreign enemies -- the Latin Emperor Baldwin I (by the Bulgarians), the Emperor of Thessalonica, Theodore Ducas (by the Bulgarians), and the Prince of Achaea, William II (although he was captured, not by a foreign enemy, but by the forces of Nicaea ). Valerian was kept prisoner and subject to various humiliations until executed. His skin was then flayed (unless he had been flayed alive), stuffed, and kept for later display to Roman emissaries. In any case, this is what we are told by later Romans, such as Lactantius, and questions have been raised about the reliability of these accounts, for which there is no contemporary or Persian evidence. Valerian, however, certainly never returned home. Valerian's son Gallienus then endured one invasion and disaster after another, with the Empire actually beginning to break up. Nevertheless, Gallienus rebuilt the army and, excluding Senators from legionary commands, put in place the generals who, although his own murderers, conducted the reconstruction of the Empire. He thus now tends to get some credit, even with the apparent collapse around him. Despite a short reign (and a natural death), Claudius II began to turn things around by defeating the Goths, commemorated with a column that still stands (but is rarely seen in history books) in Istanbul. His colleague Aurelian then substantially restores the Empire, only to suffer assassination, initiating a new round of revolving Emperors. This finally ended with Diocletian, who picked up reforming the Empire, militarily, politically, and religiously, where Aurelian had left off. Amid all the other upheavals of this period, one that that escapes the notice of popular culture, and often that of historians also, is how the Empire ceases to be a possession of the City of Rome. The political structure of the Roman State turns inside out, with the City becoming a backwater and the provinces and the frontiers becoming the centers of political life. We begin to get the phenomenon of Emperors who rarely, or never, even visit the City. They certainly do not live there. For the time being, the equivalent of an administrative Capital of the Empire simply moves with the military camps of the Emperors. Once things settle down a bit in the following years, we begin to see new seats for the Court(s) and new administrative centers, from Nicomedia and Milan, to Antioch and Trier, Sirmium and York -- all culminating in the founding of Constantinople. Yet it is rare to vanishing to see this profound truth of Roman history ever asserted in a public voice; and we usually find even the historically literate laboring under the impression that the fate of the Empire hangs on events in the City, right down to the day when the barbarians burst in on the Last Emperor in 476. Of course, as we shall see, nothing of the sort happened in 476, and in fact nothing of significance happened at all in the City of Rome during that year. Not much in the way of dynasties in this period. Many Emperors, of course, wanted to associate their sons with them to arrange for their succession; but in the violent ends of most Emperors, the sons usually died with them. Gordian III, Gallienus, and Carinus are the principal exceptions, ruling in their own right after the death of fathers or, with Gordian, uncle and grandfather. The invasions and political troubles of the Third Century shook the religious and philosophical certainties upon which Rome had previously thrived. Exotic religious cults, like Mithraism and Christianity, now began to exert wide appeal; and a profound shift occurred in philosophy. We no longer hear much of Stoics or Epicureans, but whole new perspectives and concerns are ushered in by the mystical Egyptian Plotinus (d.270), who even enjoyed some Imperial patronage under Gordian III, Philip the Arab, and Gallienus. He makes the Second Sophistic look superficial indeed. With his return to the epistemology and metaphysics of Plato and Aristotle, Plotinus, as such the founder of Neoplatonism, picks up the mainstream of development of the Western philosophical tradition, which had somewhat detoured in the Hellenistic Period through revivals of Presocratic doctrine (Heraclitus for the Stoics, Atomism for the Epicureans). Plotinus's student, disciple, Boswell, and editor Porphyry (d.>300), who first enjoyed patronage from Aurelian, promoted Neoplatonic principles, wrote an introduction to Aristotle's logical works, the Isagoge, which became an indispensable text in the Middle Ages, and even began organizing the defense of traditional religion in his Against the Christians, whose arguments he gave in a presentation to the Emperor Diocletian, urging him to suppress the religion. But the Neoplatonic version of traditional religion now looks much more of a piece with Christian sensibilities than with things like the peculiar and archaic practices examined by Frazer in The Golden Bough. Constantine would later order Against the Christians burned. The cultural and intellectual sea change of the period, soon followed by Diocletian's reforms and then Constantine, usher in the distinctive world of Late Antiquity. Classicists start to become nervous and irritable. II. SECOND EMPIRE, EARLY "ROMANIA," 284 AD-610 AD, Era of Diocletian 1-327, 326 years Thus Constantine, an emperor and son of an emperor, a religious man and son of a most religious man, most prudent in every way, as stated above -- and Licinius the next in rank, both of them honoured for their wise and religious outlook, two men dear to God -- were roused by the King of kings, God of the universe, and Saviour against the two most irreligious tyrants and declared war on them. God came to their aid in a most marvellous way, so that at Rome Maxentius fell at the hands of Constantine, and the ruler of the East [i.e. Maximinus Daia] survived him only a short time and himself came to a most shameful end at the hands of Licinius, who at that time was still sane. Eusebius of Caesarea (c.260-c.339), The History of the Church [translated by G.A. Williamson, Penguin Books, 1965, p.368] L'altro che segue, con le leggi e meco, sotto buona intenzion che fé mal frutto, per cedre al pastor si fece greco: The next who follows, with the laws and me, with a good intention which bore bad fruit, made himself Greek, to cede [the West] to the Pastor. ora conosce come il mal dedutto dal suo bene operar non li è nocivo, avvegna che sia 'l mondo indi distrutto. Now he knows how the evil derived from his good action does not harm him, though the world should be destroyed thereby. Dante Alighieri (1265�1321), The Divine Comedy, Paradiso, XX:55-60 [Charles S. Singleton, Princeton, Bollingen, 1975, pp.224-225, translation modified], speaking of Constantine in the Heaven of Jupiter and of the "Donation of Constantine" (Constitutum Donatio Constantini) to the Pope -- a document later exposed (1440) by Lorenzo Valla (c.1407-1457) as a forgery. Rome, queen of the world, thy fame shall never perish, for Victory, being wingless, cannot fly from thee. Anonymous, "On [New] Rome," [The Greek Anthology, Volume III, Book 9, "The Declamatory Epigrams," Number 647, The Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1917, p.358-359] The "Second Empire" is a period of transformation whose beginning and end seem worlds apart. Even at the beginning, however, Classicists find themselves becoming uncomfortable, in large part because they are now rubbing shoulders with Byzantinists, Mediaevalists, and, worse, historians of religion and, gasp, even of the Church. In the Middle Ages, this was regarded as a triumphant period, when the Roman Empire was redeemed and ennobled with its conversion to and transformation by Christianity -- becoming a "Romania" whose name is now not even familiar as the name of the Roman Empire. In Modern thought, this construction tends to be reversed, with the superstition and dogmatism of Christianity dragging the Classical World down into the Dark Ages. At the same time, however, there is still a strong attraction to the idea of blaming the collapse of the Empire on the characteristics of pagan Roman society -- slavery, the Games, sexual license, corruption, etc. Since this is more or less the Christian critique of pagan society, we have the curious case of critics maintaining the perspective of Christian moralism even while rejecting Christianity as the appropriate response. This not entirely coherent approach also results in the doublethink of moral satisfaction with the "fall" of the (Western) Empire in 476 while carefully ignoring the survival and resurgence of the Empire in the East. The truth, as it happens, is one of continuity. The very same institutions, both Roman and Christian in sum and detail, that failed in the West in the face of the German threat, did just fine in the East, long outlasting, and in two dramatic cases defeating, the German successor kingdoms. Nevertheless, these were hard times, and worse lay ahead. What neither Trajan nor Constantine nor Justinian could have anticipated were the blows that would fall next. A. "DOMINATE," 284-379, 95 years 1. TETRARCHS [Domitius Alexander] Usurper 308-311, Africa Intrinsically one of the most interesting and important periods in Roman history, the Tetrarchy unfortunately suffers from the relative poverty of the sources we have for it. Despite the rich literature of the 4th century, Diocletian never got a Tacitus or Suetonius, and what Ammianus Marcellinus may have said about him is now lost. Part of this may be because history moved so quickly after Diocletian. He could still have been alive when Constantine legalized Christianity, and it was, of course, Constantine whom subsequent Christian writers wanted to glorify. But Diocletian created a system that was the closest to a constitutional order than Rome ever had. Its enemy was hereditary succession, which had triumphed in Constantine, if imperfectly, by the end of the period. So here, not just in religion, we have a turning point. The succession by appointment, adoption, or marriage of the Antonines is now seen for very nearly the last time. The complexity of this, and of events, can be seen, not just in the following genealogy, but in the Chart of the Tetrarchy . As the first Emperor with a very clearly Greek name -- , Dioclês, before being Latinized to Diocletianus (although we shouldn't forget the Greek name of Philip the Arab and his son) -- Diocletian foreshadows the later Greek character of the Empire. It is also from this point that the status of the Emperor is elevated far beyond that of a mere official to a being with semi-divine status, altering the form of government from the "Principate" to "Dominate," from Dominus, "Lord." The Roman Court now begins to adopt the structures and ritual of the Persian Court , where the Great King has always been semi-divine. The symbolic accouterments of the Emperor, like the Purple (Porphyrius) robe and red shoes, become fixed until the Fall of Constantinople. The fiction that the Emperor is actually a kind of Republican official is now gone -- although the ultimate executive offices of the Republic, the Consulates, survive until Justinian. He is a Monarch in form and substance. This elevation was simply transformed, not rolled back or abolished, by the Christianization of the office. Indeed, Christian Emperors, beginning with Constantine, would always be portrayed with halos, like saints, and were called the "Equal to the Apostles." European monarchs never went that far. At right is an extraordinary group in porphyry of the Tetrarchs. This was looted from Constantinople in 1204 and placed at a corner of St. Mark's Cathedral in Venice . Its origin was subsequently forgotten, and Peter Brown says it "was long mistaken for Christian crusaders, and even worshipped as statues of St. George!" [The World of Late Antiquity 150-750, HBJ, 1971, p.22]. Where it came from was recently proven when the foot that is obviously missing from the figure on the right was discovered in situ in Istanbul, before the Bodrum Camii (Jami-i, "its mosque"), previously the Myrelaion Church, in the original Philadelphion square [cf. Constantine, Roman Emperor, Christian Victor, by Paul Stephenson, The Overlook Press, New York, 2010, p.199]. In 305 Diocletian actually retired from office, going to live at his retirement villa (more like city) at Spalatum (Split) near Salonae (Solin) in Dalmatia (now Croatia ) -- see J.J. Wilkes, Diocletian's Palace, Split: Residence of a Retired Roman Emperor [Oxbow Books, Oxford, 1986, 1993]. This may have been at the urging of Galerius, who was eager for full power, and was taken with ill grace by Maximian, who tried to return to power twice and was finally killed (by Constantine). Diocletian's joy at his retirement, and the famous celebration of his cabbage, I discuss elsewhere as a paradigm of Epicureanism . Although Constantius Chlorus became the senior Augustus, both of the new Caesares are apponted by Galerius from among his own supporters. This was improper and involved passing over the competent sons of Constantius and Maximian (Constantine and Maxentius), apparently because Galerius didn't like either of them. It is hard to know why Constantius consented to these proceedings, and they proved to be the source of fatal conflict in the Tetrarchy. As it happened, Constantius died, and Constantine was presented by his troops as an Emperor fait accompli. Maxentius then revolted, dragged his father into it, and then at least co-opted Constantine to this development. By 308, Severus had been captured and killed moving against Maxentius, and Galerius had also failed to unseat him. Galerius then called a conference at Carnuntum on the Danube in Upper (Superior) Pannonia (just down the river from modern Vienna, Roman Vindobona). Diocletian was invited to the meeting was even offered the throne, but he declined it -- saying he would rather grow vegetables -- specifically his cabbages. This extraordinary forbearance on the part of Diocletian, especially his obvious determination to "cultivate his garden," ought to have made him a saint to Epicureans , especially later, Modern ones. Curiously, it did not. Thus, Diocletian seems to have the approval of neither Christians nor non-Christians. Possibly, secularists dislike him for the forms of the Dominate that prepared the way for the later Christian Monarchy. The result of the conference was the demotion of Constantine to Caesar (again), the appointment of Licinius as Augustus, the second retirement of Maximian, and the condemnation of Maxentius as an outlaw. The appointment of Licinius, who had never been a Caesar, was again an improper proceeding and reflected the custom of Galerius to use his own supporters, despite the implicit rules governing succession in the Tetrarchy. Constantine and Maximinus Daia were soon calling themselves Augusti anyway, and so the Tetarchy became a system of four equals, with Galerius preserving some precedence until his death. A noteworthy act at the conference at Carnuntum was the dedication of an altar to the god Mithras, as the fautor imperii, "protector of the Empire." Mithraism considered Mithras to be a sun god, associated and assimilated with Sol Invictus, the "Unconquered Sun," whose cult existed independently of Mithras and had been promoted since Aurelian. Mithraism, although popular in the Army (only men were initiated), was not an Imperial or prestige cult, until this dedication, Deo Soli Invicto Mithrae, "to the god Mithras the Unconquered Sun." We might see this as one of the last acts in the development of state paganism, before Constantine becomes a patron of Christianity and gods like Mithras disappear. Licinius was the presumptive Augustus of the West, but he never moved toward Italy or made any attempt to overthrow Maxentius. This was left for Constantine. Meanwhile, Maxentius had whipped up enthusiasm at Rome with the promise that, after a century, he would return the seat of Government there and would restore the withering Praetorian Guard to its status and privileges as the Life Guard of the Emperor. Enthusiasm faded, however, as Maxentius' status as a rebel isolated Italy and compelled him to raise taxes -- the City had treasured, as we might imagine, its tax exempt status. So Constantine was not unwelcome when Maxentius was defeated and killed. Constantine did, indeed, pay a bit more attention to Rome than the previous Tetrarchs; but then it would be Constantine (after Licinius had killed Maximinus Daia, and Constantine Licinius) who would found an entirely new Capital for the Empire at Constantinople. Rome itself would never return to its previous position, and Italy would continue to be ruled, as under Maximian, from Milan (and then Ravenna) [ note ]. One of the most famous aspects of Diocletian's rule is the famous "Edict on Maximum Prices" of 301 AD, which fixed prices of many basic commodities. Since Diocletian himself explains the law as needed to prevent some from profiteering off of the basic needs of others, this is turns out to be relevant to many modern debates. The " greed " of those who make a profit while prices rise is still a point of useful political appeal for many politicians and leftist activists. It looks, however, like prices, especially agricultural prices, were rising under Diocletian because the tax burden had become so large that many people simply abandoned their farms -- Diocletian also tried forbidding this. Since Dioceltian himself was not a sympathetic person to Christian writers, the charge of "greed" tends to get turned around, as the contemporary writer Lactantius, appointed by Diocletian himself as a professor of Latin literature in Nicomedia, the capital, says, "...Diocletian with his insatiable greed..." Lactantius' account of bureaucratic excess and behavior could apply in many modern situations: The number of recipients began to exceed the number of contributors by so much that, with farmers' resources exhausted by the enormous size of the requisitions, fields became deserted and cultivated land was turned into forest. To ensure that terror was universal, provinces too were cut into fragments; many governors and even more officials were imposed on individual regions, almost on individual cities, and to these were added numerous accountants, controllers and prefects' deputies. The activities of all these people were very rarely civil... [J.J. Wilkes, Diocletian's Palace, Split: Residence of a Retired Roman Emperor, op. cit., p.5] Not only now are there whole countries where the dependent classes exceed the numbers of the productive classes (e.g. Italy or France), but in the United States the fate of the Social Security system will probably be sealed when the number of beneficiaries exceeds the number of contributors. These modern systems, although voted in by popular majorities who like "free lunch" welfare politics, are run by bureaucrats whose behavior, of course, is "very rarely civil" either to contributors or beneficiaries. And modern bureaucrats are protected from accountability by "Civil Service" status and their own politically active and powerful public employee labor unions. Yet politicians rarely characterize or criticize such people for their own self-interest or greed, although this phenomenon is now well understood and described in Public Choice economics. While the behavior of the bureaucrats is understandable, the harshest truth is that, with sovereignty no longer invested in a autocrat like Diocletian, the ultimate "greed" today is derived from the voters. The map reflects some recent developments in scholarship. Previously, the Goths were regarded as already divided into the Visigoths and Ostrogoths , with the Ostrogoths developing an "empire" that was thought to have stretched all the way back to the Baltic Sea. This culminated under King Ermanaric (i.e. "King [riks] Herman," where "Herman" itself is from [h]er[i], "army," and man, "man"), who committed suicide when defeated and subjugated by the Huns around 370. Now it looks like, for all their divisions, the Goths were not divided, or identified, in the terms that later became familiar for the Kingdoms in Spain and Italy. Ermanaric was King of the Greuthungi, and it is unlikely that he ruled a domain that stretched to the Baltic. Indeed, it doesn't even look like it even reached the Don in the east. The Goths who were granted asylum on Roman territory in 376 were the Tervingi, led by Alavivus and Fritigern. After their revolt, however, the Greuthungi joined the Tervingi. With some other Gothic groups, these all became the Visigoths. The Ostrogoths developed later, around a core led by the Amal dynasty. These changes in view are now recently explained by Peter Heather in The Fall of the Roman Empire [Oxford, 2006]. Although the Huns subjugated all the Goths but the Visigoths, the Goths nevertheless exercised considerable cultural influence on them. Thus, we find Attila with a Gothic name, "Little Father." But while atta was the Gothic word for "father," it is curious that ata is still the Turkish word for "father." Indeed, adda was Sumerian for "father." Winfred P. Lehmann (A Gothic Etymological Dictionary, E.J. Brill, Leiden, 1986, p.46) explains these correspondences as a coincidence of "nursery words" -- "No need to assume borrowing in spite of earlier attestations, such as Hitt[ite] attas, which Puhvel [Hittite etymological dictionary, 1984] derives 'from infantile language'" [p.46]. This strikes me as a bit unsatisfactory, though perhaps no more than the alternative: that this is another fragment of evidence for a connection between Indo-European and Altaic languages, and Sumerian. 2. CONSTANTIANS Fl. Jovianus 363-364 If the Tetrarchy was a major turning point in Roman history, with Constantine we are right around the corner and looking down a very different avenue of time. Here is where the die-hard paganophile Romanists check out, and where the Byzantinists check in. But the changes that take place are mostly, as they had been for some time, gradual. Even Constantine's Christianity was a gradual affair. He did not actually convert until on his deathbed; and although he outlawed pagan sacrifice, he did not close the temples or otherwise show disrespect or hostility to the old gods, and in fact seems to have long still invoked Sol Invictus, the "Unconquered Sun" of Aurelian and Diocletian. He may have imagined a sort of syncretism such as had been common in the old religions but that was not going to be tolerated in Christianity -- indeed, an element of syncretism remains in the name of the Holy Day of the week for Christianity, "Sunday," which Constantine himself called "the day celebrated by veneration of the sun itself" (diem solis veneratione sui celebrem). Even if Constantine banned blood sacrifice (it is not clear that he did, but is often said to have), this reformed a practice of worship whose critique went back at least to Heraclitus, who marveled how spilled blood, otherwise polluting, could be thought clean and sacred . When Constantinople was built, the old acropolis was left alone. Indeed, it may have been left alone for much of the Middle Ages -- I am only aware of a couple of Mediaeval institutions in the area. One was the Church and Monastery of St. George of Mangana, which had a hospital attached. Another was a complex built by Alexius Comnenus with an orphanage and a home for old soldiers, the blind, and other disabled persons. It sounds like there was room for Alexius to build these institutions. In the Eighth century there is a reference to the Kynegion, an arena that survived from earlier Roman animal fighting shows. The comment in the Brief Historical Notes is that the ancient pagan statues in the arena still contain dangerous powers. A statue is supposed to have deliberately fallen on and killed a man named Himerios in the reign of Philippicus Bardanes [cf. Judith Herrin, Byzantium, The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire, Princeton & Oxford, 2007, p.123]. The astonishing thing is that any such statues should still have been there almost four hundred years after Constantine. In the same way, a statue of Athena is supposed to have still been standing on the acropolis when the Fourth Crusade arrived in 1203. Remarkably, this may have been the bronze statute of Athena Promachus which had stood in the open on the Acropolis at Athens, reportedly visible from out to sea, and was moved to the new city by Constantine (Anthony Kaldellis denies this, but without explanation; cf. The Christian Parthenon, Cambridge, 2009, p.106). The statue was finally only then thrown down because some thought that by her outstretched hand she was beckoning to the Crusaders. It is now hard to tell what may have been on the acropolis all that time because the site was finally put to a new use by the Ottomans , who built the great Topkapï Palace there. It is certainly the right place for such a building, and so one is a little surprised to learn that no secular building, as far as we know, was put there all the years of Romania. The impression is of much other Classical statuary in Constantinople. This is confirmed in a remarkable text, the Patria of Constantinople, according to Hesychios Illoustrios, from the 10th century, which details much in the way of the buildings, statues, and lore of Constantinople [Accounts of Medieval Constantinople, the Patria, translated by Albrecht Berger, Dumbarton Oaks, Harvard, 2013]. We learn from the Patria that a statue of Hera stood in the Forum of Constantine [p.51], and this is confirmed quite by accident. The matter comes up because the Latin Emperors pulled it down to melt it for the bronze. The source of our information, the contemporary historian Niketas Choniates, consequently called the Franks "these barbarians, haters of the beautiful." But they were just desperate for money, and they treated much other art the same way, even looting the metal roofs from many buildings. Unfortunately, when the Emperor Constans II had visited Rome in 663, also needing money, he stripped the bronze roof and ornaments from the Pantheon and other buildings, unintentionally creating the precedent for the Crusaders! But it turns out that Constans didn't take all the bronze from the Pantheon. Later, looking for bronze to make the altar canopy, the baldacchino, for St. Peter's Basilica, the great sculptor Gian Lorzenzo Bernini was given permission by Pope Urban VIII to "strip the ancient bronze cladding from the portico" of the Pantheon [Robert Hughes, Rome, A Cultural, Visual, and Personal History, Vintage, 2012, p.285]. So Constans had left some. Earlier, we get a similar revealing reference. Arethas of Patras , Archbishop of Caesarea in Cappadocia in the late 9th century (d.c.932), noted in the margin of his copy of the orations of Aristides (which we possess) that an ivory statue of Athena, mentioned by Aristides, must be the one still standing in the Forum of Constantine (like the statue of Hera) by the entrance to the Senate [cf. the Patria, p.51]. He adds that across the Forum from this statue is one of Thetis, with crabs decorating her hair [N.G. Wilson, Scholars of Byzantium, Duckworth, 1983, 1996, p.124 -- there is no reference to Thetis in the Patria]. We have no clue about the subsequent fate of these statues. The earliest mention of anything of the sort, by Lactantius again, is that Constantine had a dream where he was shown the "cypher of Christ," the Greek letters Chi and Rho, which he caused to be put on the shields of his soldiers. Later versions thus increase the dramatic and miraculous elements of the event, using what later would become the most symbolic of Christianity, the Cross. Using a Christian symbol in any form, however, and for any reason, would have been dramatic enough. What Constantine was like as a person and what his motives were in favoring Christianity is now a matter influenced more by modern debates than by the historical record. In this, the evaluation of Constantine is much like that of the Egyptian "heretic" King Akhenaton , about whose real personality there is little historical information. Was Akhenaton a mystical dreamer? A fanatic? An earnest reformer? A cynical manipulator? Similar questions can be asked about Constantine. Especially noteworthy are projections of Protestant anticlericalism back onto Akhenaton (good -- attacking the power of the priests of Amon) or Constantine (bad -- creating the power of Catholic priesthood). Less strictly Protestant, but its ideological successor, is the New Age naturalism and rationalism that favors the Gnostics as true and proper Christians and views Constantine as an oppressor who built his oppressive patriarchal, supernaturalistic, and clericalist ideology into the structure of the Catholic Church. This leads off into farcical conspiracy theories such as we see in The Da Vinci Code [2003], where little effort is expended on historical accuracy. In general, Mediaeval and Modern evaluations of Constantine are going to be broadly different. In the Middle Ages, Constantine, the initial great protector and patron of Christianity, was seen as one of the best of rulers, noble, good, wise, and pious. That he was made a Saint in the Eastern Church but not in the Western may have been due to a few too many murders in his resumé (his son Crispus, his wife Fausta, and his brother-in-law and co-ruler Licinius, who had been granted protection after his surrender) -- or to Papal disinclination to honor the founder of Constantinople, the seat of the Pope's Patriarchal rival . Nevertheless, we find Dante placing Constantine in favored glory in Heaven (The Divine Comedy, Paradiso, XX:55-60). His main complaint was that Constantine had made the Pope ruler of the Western Empire -- according to the fraudulent "Donation of Constantine " (Constitutum Donatio Constantini), a text used by the Papacy to bolster its claims to secular authority until exposed (1440) by Lorenzo Valla (c.1407-1457) as a forgery. Modern evaluations, in turn, may reflect the noted Protestant hostility towards the Catholic Church or the rationalistic critique of religion, and especially of its supernatural aspects, dating from the Enlightenment. The modern perspectives provided little reason to view Constantine either with admiration or even compacency, with the potential for real hostility to emerge. Thus, a recent British television series on Roman history dramatized Constantine in terms borrowed from the Godfather movies [1972, 1974, 1990]. As we see Constantine piously reading to the Ecumenical Council at Nicaea the new Creed (the Nicene ) formulated there, his men are off, in the best tradition of the Corleones, murdering Licinius (as they later would Licinius' young son, Constantine's own nephew). This seems to involve the judgment that Constantine was essentially a gangster, to whom religion was really no more than a cynical device in power politics. But before we get all weepy about Licinius, we should remember that in a bit of housecleaning he had murdered not only the wife, eight-year-old son, and seven-year-old daughter of Maximinus Daia, but also the widow, Prisca, of Diocletian, Valeria, the daughter of Diocletian and widow of Galerius (who, on his deathbed, had entrusted his old friend Licinius with her protection), her adopted son, and, just to be sure, the son of the hapless and probably otherwise forgotten Caesar and Augustus Severus. If Constantine executed this man, we might not exactly want to congratulate him, but we certainly cannot see Constantine's behavior as any worse. If Constantine was at all like the Corleones, this is no more than the way the Tetarchy worked, as least in its final stages. Right from the beginning, however, when Constantine, inspired by Christianity, finds success in battle, the principle has more to do with the ideology of Sol Invictus, who presides over military victory, than with the particular non-violent teachings of the "Prince of Peace." This might not strike many as very good Christianity, but it also true that Christianity never made pacifists or quietists of Christian rulers. Whether St. Louis or Abraham Lincoln , Christian rulers would always hope, like Joshua, for God's help in war. Unlike Akhenaton we do have extensive contemporary comment about Constantine, as well as letters and decrees from his own hand. According to Diana Bowder [Who Was Who in the Roman World, Washington Square Press, 1980]: Hot-tempered and generous, a man of action impatient with theological niceties or outraged by some flagrant example of oppression, superstitious like all his contemporaries but endowed with a grandiose sense of being God's vice-regent on earth, the founder of the Christian Empire is for us a vivid personality... A strong and effective ruler and reformer, he shares with Diocletian the main credit for the very existence of the later Roman Empire, and the long years of stable government in his reign made possible a genuine renaissance of civilian life and the fine arts. [pp.141-142] Of course, his foundation of Constantinople made possible, not only the very existence of the later Roman Empire, but the survival of Romania there right through the Middle Ages, until 1453. Various details are noteworthy, such as the introduction of the gold solidus (called in the West the bezant), a coin that became the "dollar of the Middle Ages" and survived undebased from the year 310 until at least 1034 -- 724 years. This compares favorably with the durability of other historical coinage. The British Pound Sterling was fixed at 113 grains of pure gold from 1717 to 1931 -- 214 years. So Constantine's coin beats it in duration by 510 years. Not bad. This is a tribute, of course, not so much to Constantine, but to the conscientiousness of his successors -- and to Constantine himself to the extent that he substantially founded their regime. With Constantine's personality, it seems of a piece with that of his fellow Tetrarchs, and the biggest mistake one could make is to construe it in terms of later theological controversies or with retrospecive ideals, whether Christian or rationalistic. There is an interesting variation in the pronunciation in English of Constantine's name. British usage tends to render the "i" as the customary long English vowel "i" -- the equivalent of the word "eye" or the first person pronoun "I." We could represent this as the "Constanteyen" Constantine. American usage tends to use the "Continental" version of the vowel "i," i.e. as in French, Spanish, or Italian. We could represent this as the "Constanteen" Constantine. Since in Latin "Constantine" is Constantinus (with all Continental vowels), Systems of Imperial Names Maximian forms that do not occur we already have the French device of replacing the Latin case ending with a simple "e" which then becomes silent. While there is obviously no "correct" pronunciation in this respect, it does strike me as affected when Americans use the British pronunciation. There is something else curious about Constantine's name. It is, as it happens, purely Latin in origin. The verb constô, "to stand firm... remain the same, unaltered," which gives us the English nouns "constant" and "constancy," underlies all the names of the dynasty: Constantius, Constantinus, Constans. The latter is simply the active participle of the verb. However, in Latin Europe, Francia , these names are only very rarely found -- except as variants, like "Constance," for women. In Romania, Russia , and Modern Greece , "Constantine" is quite common. We tend to think of it as a Greek name. To be sure, there were three Kings of Scotland named "Constantine," but this may have been based on the Gaelic element Conn, "chief," as in "Connor." So why was "Constantine" in such disfavor in the West? Perhaps for the same reason that the Latin Church does not recognize Constantine as a Saint -- it represented a kind of challenge to the Papacy . Until the end of Romania, there were many Emperors still named Constantine in Constantinople (eventually eleven of them, and six Patriarchs of Constantiople -- as well as two Patriarchs named "Constantius"), none of them happy to agree to claims of Papal supremacy and authority. A Latin priest thus might not have favored the name of a child that might remind him of this conflict. There was only one Pope (708-715, and one anti-Pope, 767-768) named "Constantine," well before the age of exaggerated Papal claims. Constantine's Empire went to his three sons, who might have shared it with their cousins, but killed most of them instead. The sons, however, ended up with no heirs themselves, and the last family member on the throne, Julian, was one of the cousins who had escaped the massacre. Julian, whose own writings have been preserved, is one of the better known but stranger figures of the century. Quixotically trying to restore paganism, he only seemed to demonstrate that the old gods were spent and nobody's heart was really in it anymore. Although apparently a fine enough military commander against the Franks, Julian's short reign ended with another Quixotic effort, against Persia. It was not so much the war itself as the ill conceived scale of the invasion, which left Julian all but stranded with his army, deep in Mesopotamia, with the Persians avoiding battle but constantly harassing him. Somehow this had not happened to Alexander , Trajan , Heraclius , or the forces of the Caliph Omar . It cost Julian his life, and his religious cause, since the Christian Jovian was then chosen by the Army. 3. VALENTIANS Fl. Eugenius] 392-394 W Revolt by Arbogast with figurehead Eugenius; restores Altar of Victory to Roman Senate; defeated at Frigidus River, 394 394-395 W Outlaws taking of auspices from entrails, 384; Closes pagan temples, including the Serapeum, the Temple of Apollo at Delphi, and the Temple of Vesta in Rome, 388-392; removes Altar of Victory from Roman Senate; divides Empire between Honorius & Arcadius Jovian did not last long (apparently killed by carbon monoxide poisoning from a charcoal heater -- still a danger in the modern world), and the Army chose another Christian. With Valentinian, and his brother Valens with whom he divided the Empire, the Christian nature of Romania was sealed. But the future seemed secure enough. Valentinian was vigorous and competent, even if his brother wasn't so much. Unfortunately, Valentinian died, apparently of a heart attack (or perhaps a cerebral hemorrhage) in a fit of anger over the insolence of some representatives from the Huns. With Valens as the senior Emperor, he didn't wait for assistance before moving to put down a revolt by the Visigoths, who had recently been admitted as refugees from the Huns but were now rising up against mistreatment by their hosts. The resulting battle was close and hard fought but turned into a catastrophic rout, with Valens himself falling. Gratian appointed Theodosius as the new Eastern Emperor to restore the situation (marrying him to his sister), which seems to have about the most useful thing he accomplished, before his murder. Meanwhile there was a fateful development in the governance of the West. When Valentinian died, Gratian had already been raised to the status of Augustus and clearly was the legitimate Emperor of the West. However, the Frankish Magister Militum Merobaudes raised Gratian's young brother Valentinian (II) to the Purple. There was no particular reason to repudiate this action, except that it was obviously a ploy by Merobaudes to create a puppet Emperor. The success of this coup was a chilling precursor to the eventual Fall of the Western Empire, whose final Emperors became the futile play things of Germanic commanders. Merobaudes confirmed his disloyal intentions at the death of Gratian, when he threw his support to the usurper Magnus Maximus. Theodosius defeated and killed both of them at Aquileia in 388. Valentinian II's own death drew Theodosius west (again) to put down the usurper Eugenius -- who, apparently for the first time now, was merely the hand-picked figurehead of the German Master of Soliders, Arbogast -- another death knell for the Western Empire. At the Frigidus River in 394 Theodosius put his Visigothic allies, faithfully honoring their treaty with the Empire, in the forefront of the battle. The slaughter of the battle, on a scale with Gettysburg, soured the Visigoths on the value of their cooperation. They would soon become a loose cannon within the Empire, shattering essential supports of Roman power as the tribe rolled around. Thus, things in the West went steadily down hill after Valentinian I, with a troubling weakness of the (Western) Throne in comparison to powerful Germanic soldiers. Although the Battle of Adrianople need not have fundamentally affected the strength of the Empire, it acquires great symbolic meaning in retrospect because of the more permanent damage subsequently done by the Visigoths and the profound weakening of the Empire that attended it. For the genealogy of the Valentinians, see that of the Theodosians below . It is in the reign of Valentinian II that we find the classic De Re Militari of Flavius Vegetius Renatus, the most important study of military science for many centuries. This is often favorably compared to the Chinese strategist Sun Tzu , but Vegetius provides us with a much more thorough and discursive treatment. Unlike Sun Tzu, however, Vegetius did not have the chance to direct armies himself, much less produce victories commensurate with the wisdom of his advice. Nor does he give us a military historian's analysis of the battles of his era, which would have included the Battle of Adrianople. This is a grave loss to history and military science, especially as it allows false lessons to be drawn from Adrianople (as discussed elsewhere ). A great earthquake on Crete in 365, which thrust up the coast some 20 feet, has recently become a matter of interest for modern geologists. An account of it by Ammianus Marcellinus includes what may be the first detailed description in history of the phenomenon of a tsunami, : ...the solid frame of the earth shuddered and trembled, and the sea was moved from its bed and went rolling back. The abyss of the deep was laid open; various types of marine creatures could be seen stuck in the slime, and huge mountains and valleys which had been hidden since the creation in the depths of the waves then, one must suppose, saw the light of the sun for the first time. [Ammianus Marcellinus, The Later Roman Empire, (A.D.354-378), Penguin Classics, 1986, p.333] Not realizing that the sea would come back, people wandered down to the revealed places. As the water "burst in fury" and surged up onto the land on its return, thousands were killed, towns were leveled, and "the whole face of the earth was changed" [ibid.]. As far away as Alexandria, the tidal wave tossed ships onto the tops of buildings; and Ammianus himself later inspected a decaying ship that had been carried inland ad secundum lapidem, "to the second milestone," near Mothone (or Methone) in the Peloponnesus. Edward Gibbon, contemptuous of the Late Empire and its historian, and apparently never having heard of such phenomena, didn't believe Ammianus: Such is the bad taste of Ammianus (xxvi.10), that it is not easy to distinguish his facts from his metaphors. Yet he positively affirms that he saw the rotten carcass of a ship, ad secundum lapidem, at Methone, or Modon, in Peloponnesus. [The Decline & Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume I, Modern Library, p.899]. Tsunamis are not so rare, however, that it is not in the living memory of many to have seen the seafloor bared or ships thrown about in just the manner described. In the massive 1883 volcanic eruption of Karakatoa (Krakatoa, Krakatau) in Indonesia , the Dutch steamship Berouw was lifted by a tsunami from its harbor in Sumatra and swept inland 3.3 km, i.e. two miles (ad secundum lapidem), up the Koeripan River, where it was permanently deposited in the jungle, at an elevation of 30 feet. Tsunamis of spectacular and deadly effect have recently occurred in Indonesia in 2004 and now in Japan in 2011 -- where, with live video from news helicopters, large ships were tossed some distance inland, and the draw down of the ocean was visible and photographed in Hawai'i and California. The response of some people in 2004 was to go out to collect the fish that were flopping around where the sea had left them stranded. The earthquake of 365 also came hard on the heels of a massive earthquake in Galilee in 363, whose effects can still be seen in walls that were thrown down in Petra , which may have been abandoned about this time. Damage from the earthquakes of 363 and 365 would have overlapped in Anatolia and around the eastern Mediterranean. The modern historian might do well to consider how the death and destruction of these great earthquakes may have weakened the resources of the area on the crucial eve of the struggle with the Visigoths. Rome and Romania Index B. CRISIS OF THE FIFTH CENTURY, 379-476, 97 Years The map shows the key incursions that would fatally undermine the Western Empire. After the death of Theodosius I, and the division of the Empire (for the last time) between Honorius in Milan (and then Ravenna, 402) and Arcadius in Constantinople, the Visigoths begin to roll around in the Balkans. The movement of the Visigoths began to resemble the literal effects of a "lose cannon" to destroy the structure of the Roman Empire, revealing the fatal failure of Theodosius to destroy, rather than temporary coöpt, the tribe. In the course of dealing with this, Stilicho evidently stripped the Rhine frontier of troops. When the Suevi, Alans, and Vandals crossed the frozen Rhine on New Year's Eve of 407, nothing stood in their way when they looted their way across Gaul and Spain. As they settled down in Spain, the Visigoths arrived in Italy. Later in 407, the usurper Constantine took his troops out of Britain, simultaneously to secure Gaul and to establish himself as Emperor. When Stilicho is murdered, his forces, largely German, disintegrate. Honorius, secure in Ravenna -- as Rome, after a fashion, burned -- was able to do nothing about the Visigoths or the other invaders, and he had to tell the British (410) they were on their own. Britain substantially drops out of history for a while. 1. THEODOSIANS, WEST [Petronius Maximus] 455 W Vandals invade Africa, 428, take Hippo, 430, repulsed from Carthage, 435; Suevi defeat Andevotus, Count of Spain, at the Jenil River, 438, take M�rida, 439, Seville, 441; Vandals take Carthage, 439; Visigoths provide troops for expedition against Vandals, and fleet of 1100 cargo & troop ships arrives from Constantinople in Sicily, but expedition cancelled, 441; Council IV, Chalcedon, Monophysitism condemned, 451; Attila the Hun halted at Châlons, 451; Aëtius stabbed to death by Valentinian, 454; Valentinian assassinated, Petronius elevated and killed, Rome sacked by Vandals, 455 Theodosius may have been called "Great" mainly for establishing Athanasian Orthodoxy and for actions against paganism like closing and sometimes destroying temples and ending the Olympic Games (which, however, seem to have continued in some form for another century). Otherwise, he did get the Goths under some kind of control and left the Empire, to all appearances, sound and prepared for the future. Unfortunately, there were two very serious problems. One was that the Goths remained a unified and aggressive tribe within the Empire, ready to begin rampaging again at any time. Another was that Honorius and Arcadius, the two sons between whom Theodosius divided the Empire, were young and inexperienced. Leaving the Army in the hands of the German Magister Militum Stilicho set the stage for all the evils of divided authority and palace intrigue. The result of this would be disaster. When the times called for a strong soldier Emperor, there wasn't one -- and there would not be one for some time, perhaps not until Heraclius . Feeling exposed to the Goths at Milan, Honorius moved his Court to Ravenna in 402. This was a fateful step. It made Ravenna the administrative capital of Italy for the rest of the history of the Western Empire, for the Kingdom of the Ostrogoths , and for the history of the "Byzantine" Exarchate in Italy, until its fall to the Lombards in 751. Ravenna was thus the capital of Italy for 349 years. This is usually overlooked in the tendentious narrative of the "Fall of Rome," as is the glorious art and architecture placed there, anomalously during what is represented as the "Dark Ages." The form of the Exarchate, with a corridor from Rome to Ravenna, subsequently became the Papal States , from 754 until 1870 -- 1116 years. Ravenna thus possesses a important place in general history and art history that is rarely addressed in popular or general academic culture. Despite the role of Ravenna, several of the last Western Emperors, with their political horizon reduced to Italy, did spend significant time at Rome. Valentinian III seems to have been there for eight years, about a quarter of his reign, including its last five years. Petronius Maximus (455) spent his whole, brief reign in Rome; and Anthemius (467-472) was killed there. Some scholars think this means that too much emphasis has been placed on Ravenna; but considering how little awareness there is of the city, its monuments, and its history, certainly in popular culture and in scholarship outside the specialty of Late Antiquity, it is hardly possible to say that anything sensible is served by deliberately placing less emphasis on it. Unfortunately, the military strength of Ravenna's position allowed Honorius to view the course of the Goths in Italy, and their siege of Rome, with some complacency. On the other hand, the time spent by Valentinian III at Rome, especially in his last years, may reflect growing concern at the threat from the Vandals . Since the government had originally been drawn to the North of Italy because of the threat to the frontiers, it is not surprising that attention would be pulled back to Rome because of a threat from Carthage. If this was Valentianian's thinking, it was a good idea but ended up collapsing in chaos. Valentianian killed Aëtius, was himself assassinated, and then his ephemeral successor, Petronius Maximus, was killed while fleeing the City, leaving the Vandals unopposed. Having botched the defense of Rome, the government of Avitus , drawing on the power of the Visigoths, returned to Ravenna and the North. Some uncertainty remains about exactly when Honorius moved to Ravenna. Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis says: At the time of the Visigothic invasion of Italy of 402, Honorius and his advisors seem to have felt that Milan was too hard to defend, and so the emperor moved to Ravenna; the first imperial decree to have been issued at Ravenna is dated December 6, 402. The year 402 appears in almost every modern account as a pivotal date in Ravenna's history, even though no contemporary authors mention such a transfer in that year. [Ravenna in Late Antiquity, Cambridge, 2010, p.46] In a footnote, Deliyannis cites Zosimus (d.circa 501), who "mentions Honorius's change of residence to Ravenna as happening in 408" [note 12, p.320]. However, although she leaves the impression that the date of 402 is based on the imperial edict (from the Theodosian Code), the Chronicle of Theophanes positively asserts that Honorious "moved to Ravenna, a coastal city in Italy" in the Annô Mundi year 5895, i.e. 402/403 AD [The Chronicle of Theophanes Confessor, Byzantine and Near Eastern History AD 284-813, Translated with Introduction and Commentary by Cyril Mango and Roger Scott with the assistance of Geoffrey Greatrex, Clarendon Press, Oxford, 1997, 2006, p.117]. We do not know, of course, the basis of the assertion of Theophanes, writing in the 9th century. It may have been in the very same imperial edict, or in historical sources now lost. Nevertheless, the date of the edict is not consistent with the (perhaps corrupt) date from Zosimus. Archbishops of Ravenna With the Goths running wild, and an alliance of German tribes crossing the frozen Rhine on New Year's Eve of 407, the institutions were not prepared to bounce back the way Rome had in the 3rd Century. The center of Roman resistance was the commander Stilicho, who had been entrusted with his office by Theodosius. But neither the Eastern Court nor Honorius liked the authority possessed by Stilicho. The result was, after being the only leader to resist the Germans, Stilicho was tried and executed. As earlier with the rebellion of the Visigoths, the Romans turned on the Germans in the Army; but the purge did not strengthen the Army, as later it would in the East under Leo. Instead, the surviving Germans decamped to the Visigoths; and, unlike with the Isaurians under Leo, there was no one to replace them. Honorius never contested any action of the Goths, who only left Italy when they ran out of steam. As with Stilicho, a similar characteristic moment came when the commander Aëtius, sometimes called "the Last Roman," who had defeated the Huns at Châlons-sur-Marne (Campus Mauriacus or the Catalaunian Plains, with substantial help from the Visigoths , whose King Theodoric I was killed), was murdered by the incompetent and jealous Emperor Valentinian III, with his own hand. Very personal. Valentinian's own murder, as the Vandals symbolically arrived to plunder Rome, then left the throne completely at the mercy of the next person to get control of the Army -- who would be the German Ricimer. Ricimer could not himself, as a German, become Emperor, so he could only retain power by keeping the Emperors as figureheads, or killing them. This was not a formula for retrieving the situation. The Theodosian dynasty thus ends in the West with a combination of triumph, betrayal, and chaos. One of the most interesting people in the diagram is the Empress Galla Placidia, the daughter of Theodosius I, wife of Athaulf, King of the Visigoths, wife of Constantius III, and mother of Valentinian III. According to J.B. Bury, she was buried at her own mausoleum in Ravenna, where "her embalmed body in Imperial robes seated on a chair of cypress wood could be seen through a hole in the back [of her sarcophagus] till A.D. 1577, when all the contents of the tomb were accidentally burned thourgh the carelessness of children" [History of the Later Roman Empire Vol. 1, Dover, 1958, pp. 263-264]. It seems that said children, holding a candle within the observation hole to look in, dropped it. It is remarkable that something of the sort had not happened earlier (as Howard Carter was lucky in 1922 that he did not drop the candle he held up, in the last days before electric flashlights, to first look into Tutankhamon's Tomb ). The idea of an observation port into a tomb may seem strange, but there is even such a feature in the tomb of Sir Richard Burton and his wife. Although the mausoleum and its decorations remain in excellent condition, some now question whether the Empress or any other Theodosians had ever been buried there. Deborah Mauskopf Deliyannis says, "When Galla Placidia died in Rome, she was probably [?!] buried in the imperial mausoleum at St. Peter's"; but she only cites a secondary source for this -- and I am otherwise unaware that there was an imperial mausoleum at St. Peter's. She does conclude that the sarcophagi in the "Mausoleum of Galla Placida" (always given in quotes) were indeed fifth century products contemporary with the building, and were intended for Theodosian burials by Placida herself. Exactly who was buried there, however, was a matter of later tradition and legend [op.cit. p.82]. Deliyannis, however, does not even discuss Bury's assertions: Into this charming chapel Placidia removed the remains of her brother Honorius and her husband Constantius, and it was her own resting place. The marble sarcophagus of Honorius is on the right, that of Constantius, in which the body of Valentinian III. was afterwards laid, on the left. [Bury, op.cit. p.263] Bury, unfortunately, also only cites secondary sources, while Deliyannis denies that there is any contemporary information about the burials, providing various versions of traditional assignments [cf. note 247, p.334]. We are thus left with more questions than answers in this matter. There is a certain logic, however, that Placida would be buried in the mausoleum that she arguably built herself. Mosaics in the mausoleum already show the books of the Bible bound in codices (sing. codex), i.e. familiar bound books rather than scrolls. Scrolls continued to be current for some time -- mosaics at Ravenna include figures standing side by side where one holds a scroll, the other a codex -- and it is probably difficult for people to think of "Romans" using books rather than scrolls; but this is not the only case where general perceptions fail to keep up with the changing times of Late Antiquity. Equally influential in the East was Empress St. Pulcheria Augusta, , sister of Theodosius II and (apparently celibate) wife of Marcian. She is supposed to have requested the transfer of the Hodêgêtria Icon from Jerusalem, although it is otherwise said to have actually been fetched by her sister-in-law, St. Aelia (Athenais) Eudocia Augusta, with whom here was some rivalry and inversely varying fortunes of political influence. Pulcheria was instrumental in the calling and conduct of both the Third Ecumenical Council at Ephesus (431), which condemned Nestorianism, and the Fourth at Chalcedon (451), which condemned Monophysitism. Her influence on subsequent Christian theology, and the problem of Schisms in the Church, was therefore immense. In conflict with the Patriarch Nestorius , soon to be exiled, she claimed the right to enter of the Holy of Holies of (the old) Sancta Sophia Church. This era of miserable collapse nevertheless contained instances of formidable intellectual development and important figures in the history of philosophy . St. Augustine of Hippo (395-430), whose name still evokes strong reactions even in our own day, and who died as the Vandals were besieging Hippo, still stands as the most prolific author in the Latin language, with 93 surviving works to his credit, not counting numerous sermons and letters. This is a positive embarrassment for Classicists, who are usually not very interested in Latin literature after 100 AD and who would rather think that the writing from Augustine's era was all by half-literate, ignorant, and bigoted Patristic Fathers writing in Vulgar Latin. Unfortunately for this conceit, Augustine himself, inspired by Cicero, was a student of Classical Latin rhetoric and taught it at Carthage, Rome, and Milan (the Capital, remember) before he ever thought of converting to Christianity. The study of Latin without the study of Augustine involves a certain self-imposed blindness. As with Constantine, there are curious alternatives in the pronunciation of Augustine's name. By analogy with Constantine, we might expect the alternatives "Augusteyen" and "Augusteen." I have never hear the former ever used. The later is the vulgar pronunciation, especially as used for the city of St. Augustine, Florida. Scholars, on the other hand, in both history and philosophy, seem to prefer "Augústin," with a short "i" and the accent on the second syllable, contrasting with the first syllable for "Aúgusteen." I find this perplexing, since the short "i" violates the ordinary rules of spelling in both British and American English, where a final "e" almost always indicates that the preceding vowel is long. If this is an affectation, I do not know how or when it got started. Meanwhile, another North African author, far less accomplished as a writer, nevertheless made an epochal contribution to the character of education in the Middle Ages. This was the obscure Martianus Capella. Capella, a pagan and apparently a practicing lawyer at Carthage, seems to have died before the Vandal invasion. His seminal contribution to learning, The Marriage of Philology and Mercury, created the system of the Seven Liberal Arts: the trivium (hence "trival"), of grammar, rhetoric, and logic, and the quadrivium, of arithmetic, geometry, astronomy, and music. Capella even included a system of astronomy in which Mercury and Venus orbited the sun. This later caught the attention of Copernicus . Capella was popularized by Cassiodorus and hence made his way into subsequent education, such as with Isidore of Seville -- who, like Capella, is often called an "Enyclopedist." Capella, however, may not have been entirely original. In the East, where versions of the Liberal Arts were also taught in Greek education, the tradition was that a similar list went back to the Sophist Hippias of Elis. The idea of the Liberal Arts has now rather shrunk, and instead of including things like logic, mathematics, and astronomy, one might often think, given current academic practice, that only rhetoric remains (with grammar itself rejected as "elitist"). So one is left with the question, "Which attitudes sound more like the ignorance of the Dark Ages?" Diocletian had begun creating a very different kind of Army in the Late Empire. The old Legions actually still exist, but they largely have been settled on the land as fixed frontier forces, the Limitanei, and the old legionary establishment has been reduced to 1000 men, with the number of legions accordingly multiplied -- for instance, only one legion had previously been stationed in Egypt, the Legio II Traiana, but there are eight by the time of the Notitia Dignitatum (II Traiana, III Diocletiana, V Macedonica, XIII Gemina, II Flavia Constantia, I Maximiana, I Valentiniana, & II Valentiniana, though this is not always the full legion). The frontier units are not shown on the map above, but their regional commanders are, the "Dukes" -- dux, "leader" (pl. duces). This is a title that will have a long history in the Middle Ages. The units that are shown on the map above are parts of the new Mobile Army, the Comitatenses, which were originally commanded by the Augusti and Caesares of the Tetrarchy -- hence, they "attend" or "accompany," comitor, the Emperors, as their "train, retinue," or "following," comitatus. An individual "companion" of an Emperor is a comes (pl. comites), or "Count," another title with a long history in the Middle Ages. In origin, however, a Count has a higher station than a Duke, the opposite of what we see much later. The sixth-century historian Agathias says that at one time the Army had a full strength of 645,000 men. This accords well with the data of the Notitia Dignitatum, which gives the whole establishment of the Army, apparently for the East in 395 AD and for the West circa 408 AD. Diocletian and Constantine, both accused of massively expanding the Army, thus produced a total force roughly twice as large as the Army of the Principate. There is no doubt that this was needed for the challenges of the Age -- indeed, it would prove inadequate to concentrate what would in fact be needed against the Visigoths and the other migrating German tribes. In the map at right we see the Limitanei and the Comitatenses for the Western Army. It is noteworthy that some differences have developed between the organization of the Western and the Eastern Armies. In the West, the regional commanders of the Mobile Army are Counts. Britain features both a Duke of Britain, on the frontier, and a Count of Britain, with a unit of the Mobile Army. The Count of Illyricum is in the Western Mobile Army, but the Master of Soliders of Illyricum is in the Eastern. In the Western Army, above the Counts are the units commanded by the "Master of Soldiers," Magister Militum (or "Master of Foot," Magister Peditum), and the "Master of Horse," Magister Equitum, of Gaul. These are the commanders-in-chief of the Western Army (distiguished by purple color), with the Master of Soldiers becoming the effective "Generalissimo" of the Western Empire. In the map at right for the East, we see the Limitanei and the Comitatenses for the Eastern Army. The units of the Eastern Mobile Army all are commanded by their own Master of Soldiers, with two units as "Soldiers of the Emperor's Presence." Since there are two of those, one might think there is one each for East and West. However, they apparently operated together and were part of the Eastern Army. Thus, the unity of the Eastern Army was focused more directly on the Emperor himself, which may have helped the Eastern Empire avoid the situation in the West where the Emperors became mere figureheads. It is noteworthy that the Counts in the East, of Isauria and Egypt, are both in areas behind the actual frontiers. The Count of Egypt commands an army that from its size could easily have belonged to the Comitatenses. The Count of Isauria commands in an area known for rebellion. He has such a small force, however (Legio II Isaura & Legio III Isaura -- Legio I Isaura Sagittaria was with the Mobile Army of the East), the rebellions cannot have been too serious. Perhaps the problem was more like banditry. Nevertheless, this is where Leo I would draw recruits, including his future son-in-law and Emperor Zeno, to replace the Germans in the Eastern Army. In the Notitia Dignitatum the Western Comitatenses have a slight numerical superiority over the Eastern, yet it was the Western Army that seems to evaporate after 407, especially in Gaul, which on paper was the greatest strength of any formation in the whole Army. Unfortunately, the Mobile Army as often was used for civil wars as for backing up the frontiers, and it was natural for Emperors to neglect the Limitanei and reinforce their own personal forces. This did not work out well, especially when the Western Army became the personal force, not of the Emperors, but of a Magister Militum who soon was usually a German, like Stilicho or Ricimer. Gradually, the Limitanei fade from historical view and hardly seem to exist at all by the time German tribes cross the borders en masse in the Fifth Century. Legions of the Roman Army On the map, the Visigoths have actually become allies of the Romans. In return for cleaning (most of) the Germans out of Spain, they are legally settled in Aquitaine. Two German tribes, however, are left unmolested. The Suevi establish themselves, for centuries, in Galicia, and the Asding Vandals cross over into Africa. Of all the blows the Roman power, the latter would prove to be one of the worst. Rome could no longer draw grain from North Africa. Much worse, the crafty Vandal King Gaiseric ("King Caesar") built a fleet after securing Carthage in 439. He then did what the Carthaginians so many centuries earlier had not been able to do: secure control of the seas. In 455 they did what Hannibal could only have dreamed of, arriving at Rome by sea, breaking into and looting the city, and carrying the booty back to Carthage. Meanwhile, around the same year, Hengest the Jute, followed by Angles and Saxons , founded the Kingdom of Kent . It is noteworthy that the Venerable Bede (Venerabilis Baeda, 673-735) numbered Theodosius II as the 45th and Marcian as the 46th Emperors since Augustus. This is considerably less than the count we might make now and it interestingly implies that Bede is using a tradition of a numbered list from which many ephemeral Emperors were excluded [ note ]. After Roman Britain disappeared from history, when the usurper Constantine "III" took his troops to Gaul, Bede's History of the English Church and People is just about the first that we then hear of it, three hundred years later, with one exception: St. Gildas "the Wise," whose De Excitio et Conquestu Britanniae, "The Ruin and Conquest of Britain," is the only contemporary account of the Gemanic invasion of Britain. Since Gildas was one of the Britons who fled to Brittany , he may be more an illustration, rather than an exception, to the loss of literacy in Britain. Gildas provides some key information, which we find repeated, sometimes word for word. in Bede. He says that Ambrosius Aurelius rallied the Britons against the Saxons. And the Saxons were stopped for a while, gaining a period of peace, after a defeat at Badon Hill, Badonicus Mons. Gildas says this was the year he was born, 44 years after the landing of the Saxons. Now, the first Germans to settle in Britain were the Jutes led by Hengest, in about 455. The Saxons came a little later, with Aelle & Cissa in 491. So if Gildas means Hengest, this puts Badon Hill in 499; but if he really means the Saxons, it would be more like 535. With various dates proposed for Badon Hill between 493 and 518, the 499 date looks more likely. With Gildas living until 570, it was just a century before the birth of Bede in 673. What events filled that time, and the vague years between 410, when Honorius told the Britons they were on their own, and Gildas, became strongly mythologized, especially around the figure of King Arthur. The first Life of Gildas was written in the 9th century, even later than Bede. Neither source mentions a King Arthur. We still just have Ambrosius Aurelius, whom Bede says won the battle of Badon Hill, altough Gildas actually does not say so. The Life does says, interestingly, that Gildas was born in the Kingdom of Strathclyde to the royal family, a son of King Caunus. This does not clearly match any name I have for Strathclyde, although "Cinuit" is close, in the right time frame. But the brother of Gildas, "Cuillum," the next King, doesn't match at all. Gildas is even supposed to have sojourned in Ireland , working for the High King Ainmere macSátnai O'Néill (566-569), before going to Rome, Ravenna, and back to Brittany. The next Life of Gildas is in the 12th century; and now Ambrosius Aurelius is replaced by King Arthur, with elements filled in from the rest of Arthurian legend. Where this all comes from is what piques our interest. I suspect that the vividness of the Arthur stories, like that of the Greek epics and of the Mahâbhârata in India, is an artifact of a literate society that for a time lost its literacy but remembered, after a fashion, what it was like. The literature on the problem of Arthur and Britain in this period is vast. Two of the more interesting recent books might be The Discovery of King Arthur by Geoffrey Ashe [Guild Publishing, London, 1985] and From Scythia to Camelot, A Radical Reassessment of the Legends of King Arthur, the Knights of the Round Table, and the Holy Grail by C. Scott Littleton and Linda A. Malcor [Garland Publshing, Inc, New York, 1994, 2000]. Littleton and Malcor made the significant discovery that the scene of Arthur's death in Mallory's Morte d'Arthur, where the sword Excalibur was thrown into a lake, occurs in almost identical terms in the legends of the Ossetians in the Caucasus -- the epic literature of the Ossetians had come in for particular study by the great historian of religion , Georges Dumézil (1898-1986). There is a possible connection, since the Ossetians are descendants of the Alans , and Marcus Aurelius had settled a tribe of Sarmatians, the Iazyges, cousins of the Alans, whom he had defeated in 175 and taken into Roman service, in the north of Britain, where many of them ended up at the evocatively named Bremetenacum Veteranorum, south of Lancaster. The Prefect of the legion to which the Iazyges were assigned, the Legio VI Victrix, was one Lucius Artorius Castus. "Artorius" looks like the Latin source of the name "Arthur." Littleton (who taught at Occidental College and, sadly, passed away in 2010) told me personally that we know about the career of Castus from funeral stelae about him that were discovered in Dalmatia. This intially gave me the impression that the stelae were a recent discovery. However, Littleton and Malcor's book cites them from the Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum, of 1873 [CIL: Inscriptiones Asiae Provinciarum Europae Graecarum Illyrici Latinae, Theodor Mommsen, #1919, Vol. 3, Part I: 303; Vol 3, Supplement: 2131, Reimer, Berlin]. A curious thing about this information is that a new book, The Complete Roman Legions, by Nigel Pollard and Joanne Berry [Thames & Hudson, 2012], which has detailed treatments of individual legions , lists known officers for some of them, and mentions one officer of Legio VI Victrix --the military tribune Marcus Pontius Laelianus -- nevertheless does not mention Castus in the same connection. Yet Pollard and Berry's reference for their knowledge of Laelianus is a funeral stela at Rome listed in the very same Corpus Inscriptionum Latinarum [p.94]! So either they have overlooked the inscriptions about Castus or, for some reason that they do not discuss, they have discounted their validity. Littleton and Malcon mention no disputes of that nature. So the vivid theory of Litteton and Malcor is that the legends of the Alans, brought by the Iazyges, are perpetuated by their descendants in the North of Roman Britain, folding in with their memory and reverence for their original Legionary commander, Lucius Artorius Castus, and eventually confused with the historical recollection of Ambrosius Aurelius and the Battle of Bandon Hill. For all we know, descendants of the Iazyges may have fought at Badon Hill. This all makes a nice picture; but there is nothing certain about the speculations and disputes over the Arthurian stories except that they will be endless [ note ]. 2. LAST WESTERN EMPERORS [names in brackets not recognized by East] WESTERN COMMANDERS Magistri Militum 476-493 deposes Orestes & Augustulus, 476; Nepos killed, 480; defeated, besieged, & killed by Theodoric , 489-493 The last twenty years of the Western Empire are mainly the story of the commander Ricimer. The last Western Emperor really worthy of the name was probably Majorian, who was a military man in his own right and operated with success in Gaul and Spain. The naval expedition he organized against the Vandals in 461 (one of some four attempts to put down the Vandals in this era) failed when Gaiseric, apparently with good intelligence, destroyed the Roman fleet in its ports in Spain. Majorian was murdered by Ricimer on returning to Italy. Henceforth, the Emperors were mainly puppets and operations were confined to Italy or the area of Arles in southern Gaul. More than the coup of Odoacer in 476, this signaled a real institutional change in the Western Empire. The German Ricimer would now hold the real power, with little better than figurehead Emperors. With Ricimer either unconcerned or distracted, the rest of the Western Empire fell by default to the Vandals, Visigoths, and Burgundians. A detached Roman pocket, intially under a commander, Aegidius, appointed by Majorian, remained in the north of Gaul until the Frankish King Clovis subjugated it in 486. Britain had been abandoned to illiterate mythology. Ricimer was once perusaded to accept an Emperor from the East, Anthemius, and to participate in another assault on the Vandals; but this was a disaster, and he ended his "reign" with another figurehead on the throne. Gundobad, a nephew of Ricimer, the killer of Anthemius, and shortly to be King of Burgundy (where he would outlive most of his contemporaries), succeeded Ricimer and briefly had his own figurehead on the throne. This was the Count Glycerius. Gundobad acquiesced in the installation of a new nominee of the Eastern Emperor -- Julius Nepos -- and decamped to Burgundy. As with the previous Eastern nominee, it is obvious that such Emperors only would have been effective if they had brought their own army. The first commander of Nepos, Ecdicius, was a son of the former Emperor Avitus. Ecdicius, however, was soon followed by a new commander, Orestes. There was now some difficulty, however, with the German troops of the Empire accepting a non-German commander. This problem reached a head when, rather than working together to get things organized again, Nepos was chased out to Dalmatia by Orestes, who assumed command and then put his own son, a child -- Romulus the "little Augustus" -- on the throne. The German troops wanted to be settled on the land in Italy, which Orestes resisted. So in 476, Orestes was killed and his son then deposed by the German Odoacer (who originally had been in the guard of Anthemius), who decided to do without a figurehead Emperor. This was the rather anticlimactic "Fall of Rome." Odoacer even returned the Western Regalia to Constantinople. Nepos, meanwhile, was still in Dalmatia. Odoacer was rid of him by 480, reportedly (in the historian Malchus) with the help of no less than Glycerius, who on his deposition had been appointed Bishop of Salonae -- hard by Nepos in Spalatum. Since Odoacer, de jure, was a faithful officer of the Emperor in Constantinople, one could say that the last institutional existence of the Western Empire surived until Odoacer was overthrown by the Ostrogoths in 493. The real difference, however, had come in 456, when Ricimer gained control of the army. His long tenure structurally prepared the way for the demise of the Western Empire. The pathetic and ephemeral "Little Augustus" Romulus, who wasn't even remembered as a Roman Emperor by later Mediaeval historians, such as the Venerable Bede , is now often dignified, with great portent and drama, as the "Last Emperor" (this would be in Chinese, where it could be used postumously for the last Emperor of a Dynasty, most notably the Ch'ing Dynasty). This is what we may get from writers who scrupulously, albeit fallaciously, remind us that the later Empire, when they are not calling it the "Byzantine Empire," was merely the "Eastern Roman Empire." They often forget the "Western" when talking about Augustulus as Emperor. The narrative is clearly that the Eastern Empire wasn't really Roman because to be "Roman" you need Rome, and Rome was in the West. That Augustulus never "ruled" from Rome, but from Ravenna, may then be forgotten as well. It would confuse the picture. The Last Roman Emperor must have been clinging to the Eternal City like a shipwrecked sailor to a raft. The best that can be said for this approach is that it is ahistorical, since for judgments about the Empire and Roman-ness at the time, the City was irrelevant. And, as we see from the cases of Anthemius and Nepos, the Eastern Emperor always retained some authority over who would be his Western colleague. The lapse of the Western Throne simply meant that authority over the Western Empire, however reduced or tenuous its existence, reverted entirely to Constantinople. The division of the Empire, which had never been more than a device and a convenience, despite the very different circumstances and institutional histories and fates of the two halves, lapsed and was completely forgotten -- until revived by Modern historians, who now don't understand what these f*ing Greeks were doing calling themselves "Romans." I fear that that is often about the level of their treatment. In 2007, we have a movie, The Last Legion, that is about Romulus Augustulus, Odoacer, et al. This is an extensively fictionalized and even silly version of events, where Romulus Augustulus flees to Britain and becomes, well, King Arthur -- with Ben Kingsley as some sort of Merlin. Since the project is clearly a fantasy, it does not merit much notice, except for the points that would give people the wrong idea about the era. The worst part of the story may be that it has it that Odoacer was a (filthy, wild) Goth attacking Rome (a former ally rather like Alaric). Odoacer was not a Goth, but from a lesser German tribe, the Sciri, and he was not attacking Rome, but simply a member of the (barbarized) Roman army. Odoacer in fact was eventually deposed (from Ravenna, of course) by Goths, the Ostrogoths under Theodoric. The distortion is certainly made to preserve the image of Rome (the City) being conquered by barbarian hordes. At the same time, we get the notion that Romulus Augustulus is somehow the descendant or heir of Julius Caesar. There is no evidence of this, Caesar himself had no descendants, and the other heirs were pretty much wiped out by 69 AD (though the movie actually says that the unrelated Tiberius was the last of the ruling Caesars!). The Eastern Empire does come in for mention in the movie, but only so that it can absurdly contribute a female warrior, played by an actress from India, to the defense of Rome. Hollywood (or, in this case, the Euro Italian-French-British co-producers) should save this stuff for the coming remake of Conan the Barbarian. Little is known about the Roman pocket in the north of Gaul . We hear about Aegidius, the magister militum per Gallias, apparently appointed by Majorian. In the Notitia Dignitatum, the commander of Roman forces in Gaul was the magister equitum, Master of Horses instead of Soldiers. Ordinarily, the Master of Horses would be a title inferior to Master of Soldiers. The title of the Master of Horse of Gaul, however, may mean that he was second in command for entire Western Army, a serious position indeed. Since the strength of the forces in Gaul was some 32,500 men, this reinforces that interpretation -- although we then wonder why such a force seems to have been so ineffective when the Alans, Vandals, and Suevi invaded on New Year's Day of 407. Bury speculates that Aegidius held both titles [J.B. Bury, History of the Later Roman Empire, Volume I, Dover Publications, 1958, p.333]. Aegidius did not accept the fall of Majorian or recognize Libius Severus, but he was preoccupied fighting the Visigoths until his death in 464. He was followed by someone we only know as the Count (comes) Paul. "Count" ("companion" of the Emperor) is actually a high title, but Bury supposes he must have also held the "Master" titles also. Ricimer appointed his own magister militum for Gaul, Gundioc, the King of Burgundy (434-473). Both Aegidius and Paul had the help of the Franks , who remained loyal Roman allies, against the Visigoths and Burgundians. That changed when a new Frankish King, Clovis (Chlodwig), succeeded his father in 481. Meanwhile, Paul had been followed by the son of Aegidius, Syagrius. The Franks actually called him rex Romanorum, a good indication that his realm and authority were seen as quite independent -- indeed, there was no longer a Western Emperor at that point. It is not known what Syagrius called himself. Clovis defeated him at Soissons in 486. Syagrius fled to the Visigoths, who returned him for execution by Clovis. This was the end of Roman Gaul, 546 years after Caesar had completed its conquest in 56 BC -- or perhaps 531 years since the defeat and capture of the rebel Vercingetorix in 52 BC (to be kept and later executed as part of Caesar's own Triumph). We see Vercingetorix surrendering in the 1899 painting by Lionel-Noël Royer above. Now the dominance of the Franks would begin, and in time Gaul would take their name . C. THE EAST ALONE, 476-518, 42 Years 1. LEONINES reforms coinage , 498 Leo I purged the Eastern Army of Germans and so turned the East away from the process of barbarization that had rendered the Western Army useless. A last chance to recoup things for the whole Empire came in 468, after Leo had gotten Ricimer to accept the Theodosian relative Anthemius as Western Emperor. A joint amphibious campaign was put together to recover Africa from the Vandals. This should have succeeded, but it failed through a combination of incompetence, treachery, and bad luck. Ricimer may not have really wanted it to succeed, and it wasn't long before he got rid of Anthemius. After Odoacer decided not to bother with a Western Emperor, Leo's Isaurian son-in-law, Zeno, found himself as the first Emperor of a "united" Empire since Theodosius I, but little was left of the West. Only Odoacer in Italy vaguely acknowledged the Emperor's suzerainty -- we don't know what allegiance to Constantinople, if any, remained in the Roman pocket in northern Gaul. Nothing was done about this at the time, and Anastasius, by temperament or by wisdom, concentrated on allowing the East to rest and build up its strength. Part of that involved reforming the coinage , which is one of the benchmarks for the beginning of "Byzantine" history. The economies of Anastasius left the treasury full (to the delight of Justinian); but taxes, of course, are not always popular. In 512 rioters called for , állon basiléa têi Rhômaníai, "another emperor for Romania!" Anatasius rode this out; and its principal interest for us may be the use of word , which is thus attested in popular language at the time. This is only important because of the practice of Byzantinists to ignore the word . On the map we see the classic form of the German successor Kingdoms of the Western Empire. By 493 Theodoric the Ostrogoth, invited by the Emperor Anastasius, had taken out Odoacer in Italy. This was just in time to save the Visigoths, who were defeated by the Franks in 507 and pushed out of Gaul. The result has the look of a nice balance of power, but there is no telling how long that might have lasted. What upset things was not any internal development, but a most unexpected revival and return of Roman power. In the beloved story of the "Fall" of Rome, this sequel is usually what gets overlooked. Also noteworthy as a benchmark for the beginning of "Byzantine" history in the time of the Leonines is the apparent disappearance of the traditional Roman tria nomina , the three names of praenômen, nômen, and cognômen, which have been given with previous Emperors. The last Emperor with three full names may have been Majorian, Julius Valerius Majorianus. In general, the Valentian and Theodosian Emperors only had two names, e.g. Valens, Fl. Valens, and Theodosius I & II, both Fl. Theodosius. From Marcian onward there is no evidence of any traditional Roman nomenclature, apart from the perfunctory addition of "Flavius" to many names -- and occasonally, we get a blast, as with Justinian , of multiple names. Amazing how well the Flavian gens survives over the centuries! Why is this happening? Well, even though it had been some time since the nômen had lost its connection to the actual ancestral gens (the clan), and all the names were becoming like titles, the system of the tria nomina still bore an essential connection to the Roman family cult of ancestor worship. No Confucian venerated ancestors in a household shrine more devoutly than the pious Roman. But this could not survive with the adoption of Christianity. A Christian receives a single Christian name. Indeed, it is a while before we get names, like Michael or John, that look more Christian than Roman and Greek, like Jovian, Leo, or Heraclius (still commemorating Heracles -- and so Hera); but the trend is obvious. Indeed, the names beginning with the Valentians aleady look like the pro forma addition of "Flavius" to the single basic name of the Emperors -- even of Aëtius, "Flavius Aëtius." Eventually we get the return of surnames, at first for nobility. The first Dynasty with a family name will be the Ducases in the 11th century. It took a few more centuries before surnames became common among European Christians of all classes. Another momentous transition is in architecture. The lovely temples of Classical antiquity, like jewels in the landscape, disappear. Christian churches of the period often look like piles of bowls or dark fruitcakes. Or we simply get the basilica, a Roman courthouse. Churches often are not even visible from a distance, because they may be packed around with other buildings. Why is this happening? Were Christians just anaesthetic ? No. The aesthetic was certainly changing, but the most important difference was just the difference in purpose between a temple and a church. A temple was the house of a god, with little space inside but for the god and a few priests. It was not supposed to contain a body of worshipers. The public side of the temple was the exterior, the visible sign of the god's presence. With a church, however, the purpose was not to house God, whose presence was ineffable, but to house the congregation, the ekklêsía, the "assembly" that gave its name in many modern languages for "church" (which itself seems to be from kyriakos, "of the Lord"). The public side of a church is thus the interior, not the exterior, and the outwardly ugliest early churches often contain marvelous inner spaces, with rich decoration. These quickly become awesome spaces, as in Sancta Sophia, for centuries the greatest church of Christendom. Roman domes could do what most Roman temples did not try to do. As it happens there was a precedent for this. Hadrian's Pantheon in Rome is undistinguished and unremarkable from the outside yet contains a wonderful interior under the largest dome of pre-modern engineering. The dome of Sancta Sophia is smaller but used more dramatically. The Pantheon is essentially one large, really nice room. Sancta Sophia holds a vast space -- the 184 foot rise of the dome on its piers can easily contain the 151 foot Statue of Liberty. Eventually, a form of church evolved that transformed the basilica into a building with a monumental external face and a monumental internal space. These would be the Romanesque and Gothic cathedrals, but it would be centuries before the technology could handle the spidery supports, of walls pierced with windows and held by buttresses, that both size and relatively lightness required. Then the basilica and the dome would be combined, to produce in the Renaissance the new largest church in Christendom, St. Peter's in Rome. But this would happen as culturally Francia surpassed Romania. The instructive comparison is with the practice in Islâm, where the purpose of a mosque was similar to that of a church. This can be seen in the Omayyad Mosque in Damascus, based on Syrian churches, which is all but invisible from the outside, hidden in the midst of the city, but contains two marvelous spaces, a courtyard and the lovely interior of the prayer hall, with mosaics as in churches of the time. On the other hand, a monument of the same era, the Dome of the Rock in Jerusalem , stands conspicuously like a pagan temple, high on the Temple Mount itself. But the purpose of the Dome is more like a temple. It was built less for a congregation than for the Rock itself, commemorating the Temple of Solomon and the site of the Prophet Muh.ammad's "dream journey" to heaven. Finally, the Ottoman mosques of Sinan (c.1500-1588), based on the model of Sancta Sophia, produce the monumental Islâmic equivalent of the cathedral. D. RETURNING TO THE WEST, 518-610, 92 years 1. JUSTINIANS Phocas 602-610 Senate in Rome ceases to meet, 602; Column of Phocas, last Imperial monument in the Forum of Rome, 608 Justinian, who had helped his stolid uncle Justin and then inherited the Empire from him, took the rested strength of the East and threw it, commanded by his great general Belisarius, against the Vandals and Ostrogoths . The Vandals, caught off guard, collapsed quickly, although with some close battles. In 540 the Ostrogoths surrendered to Belisarius, who had to rush East to meet a Persian invasion. He was too late. Khusro I had already sacked Antioch (540). Then in 541 the resistance of the Ostrogoths revived, and the plague hit the Empire. The campaign in Italy then took another 11 years, with men and money very short. Successful, if exhausted, the Romans were then able to secure part of southern Spain. Meanwhile Justinian had built the greatest church in Christendom, Sancta Sophia [ note ], codified Roman Law, and driven the last pagans, at Plato's Academy , out of business. This all wore out the Empire, but it could easily have recovered to new strength if further blows had not fallen. The Lombards invaded Italy in 568; and although they were unable to secure the whole peninsula, or the major cities (except in the Po valley), they became a source of constant conflict for most of the next two hundred years. Meanwhile, the Danube frontier had become very insecure. As early as 540 (again) Bulgars and Slavs were raiding into the Balkans. Maurice not only restored the frontier but crossed it to apply the "forward defense" of the Early Empire. Unfortunately, this hard campaigning became unpopular with the troops; and in 602 they murdered Maurice and his whole family. Under Phocas, things began to unravel. The Persians began the campaign that would net them the Asiatic part of the Empire, recreating the Persia of the Achaeminids, and the Danube frontier collapsed so completely that it would not be restored for almost four hundred years. Belisarius was the Duke of Marlbourgh of the 6th Century. There are several points of comparison. First, for the military genius of both of them, although Marlbourgh may have been more consistently successful, as Belisarius suffered some defeats and inconclusive campaigns. Second, just as Sarah Churchill was for long the close friend of Queen Anne, Belisarius's wife Antonina was similarly close to the Empress Theodora. Unlike Sarah, however, Antoninia was rumored to be unfaithful to Belisarius, and her relationship with Theodora does not seem to have soured as did Sarah's with Anne. Third, as Anne eventually turned on Sarah and then the Duke, Justinian was sometimes suspicious of Belisarius and withdrew his support. In 562 Belisarius was tried and imprisoned for "corruption," in what was certainly a political prosecution. Justinian then pardoned him, but the legend arose later that Justinian had blinded Belisarius and reduced him to begging. This would have been more extreme than what happened to Malborough; but since it does not seem to have been true, Malborough's prosecution and exile looks like the worse betrayal. The story of Justinian, Belisarius, and their wives is confused by the spleen of Procopius, whose Secret History vents his inexplicable animus against them all. Perhaps more historians, writing about their patrons -- and Procopius followed Belisarius for many years as his personal secretary -- feel this way but never express it. All of this, however, provides considerable grist for historical fiction, in which Belisarius and the others have often figured. Nevertheless, Belisarius is still not as well known as other generals in history, and the intrigues of Justinian's court, especially with strong and vivid women like Theodora, do not seem to have drawn the dramatic attention that one might expect -- perhaps because of a general neglect and estrangement from the Mediaeval history of Romania . Even so, television viewers of the popular series NCIS see the name of Belisarius every week, in the "Belisarius Productions" title of creator Donald Bellisario, whose name, of course (in Italian), itself recalls that of the great general. As noted above , when the treasures taken by Titus from Herod's Temple in Jerusalem were recovered from the Vandals in 533, they were sent back to Constantinople. According to Procopius, the treasures were being carried in the Triumph of Belisarius when a Jew recognized them and passed word to the Emperor that keeping them in Constantinople would be inauspicious. Their removal from Jerusalem had brought misfortune on Rome and then on the Vandals. So Justinian "became afraid and quickly sent everything to the sanctuaries of the Christians in Jerusalem" [Procopius, History of the Wars, II, Book IV, ix 5-10, translated by H.B. Dewing, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard U. Press, 1916, 2006, p.281]. There, if they indeed arrived, they disappear from history. There is no reason not to think that they would have been safely kept, but the city was then captured, looted, and destroyed by the Persians in 614. At that point many treasures, like the True Cross, were carried off to Ctesiphon (though returned after the victory of Heraclius in 628). There is no mention, however, of the fate of anything, generally or specifically, from the Temple in Jerusalem. Since the Jews of Jerusalem were said to have helped the Persians (some question this, since the Persians were persecuting their own Jews), it is possible they took charge of their own treasures, but there is no report of that, and no further historical report at all about the fate of the objects -- except perhaps for the fabulous stories about the Templars , who supposedly found many things in Jerusalem, though these reports are from much later and of an incredible character. The great Menôrâh of the Temple, described in detail by Josephus and shown on the Arch of Titus, is certainly not something to be easily overlooked. Procopius, unfortunately, does not detail which items were among the treasures recovered by Belisarius. If the Menôrâh was there, any Jew of Constantinople certainly would have recognized it quickly and easily. We are thus left with a considerable mystery, and it is a little surprising that there are not, at least, legends about the fate of the Temple items. One possibility concerns Procopius' reference to "the sanctuaries of the Christians." This could mean all sorts of things and generally has been interpreted at referring to the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. However, Justinian himself was building a large new church in Jerusalem, which actually came to the called the "New," Nea, Church. This was later demolished by the Arabs, but its substructure survives under the Jewish Quarter of Jersualem . That substructure includes a vast cistern, such as Justinian also built in Constantinople. This has suggested to some that crypts of the church may also survive, possibly with items like Temple treasures, which might have been hidden from both Persian and Arab invasions. By the time the Templars arrived in Jerusalem, they might not even have been aware that the Nea Church had existed -- the cistern was only discovered by Israeli archaeologists after 1967. It seems like a thin hope, but since the Arabs don't report finding any Temple treasures, and no Jewish source mentions taking possession of them, the Nea Church is the sole remaining lead. While we are mostly still looking at Latin names here -- Justinus, Justinianus, Tiberius -- and Justinian's first language was still Latin, or at least the Proto-Romance language spoken in the Balkans at the time, these are Emperors whose names will primarily be remembered in Greek. So I give the Greek versions. Also, while Justinian is remembered as a Saint in the Orthodox Church, the Latin Church had less use for him, despite its dependance on the Latin Law that Justinian codified. So there is little warmth in Francia for Justinian, and no rulers there ever used his name. The arrival of the Plague in Egypt in October 541 was the beginning of an epidemic that cost the City of Constantinople alone perhaps 200,000 citizens. The percentages of people who died in the Empire may compare with those of the Black Death in the 14th century, though by then the population of Europe had grown much larger. Justinian himself contracted the disease, but recovered. There is no doubt that this was the Bubonic plague. The historian Procopius describes it with clinical accuracy, especially the characteristic black swellings, the buboes -- a Greek word, , that Procopius uses, perhaps for the first time for this disease. But the Plague was not the only problem. The climate was changing -- this may indeed have precipitated the plague, providing more aggreeable conditions for rats and fleas. After what is now called the "Roman Warming," we get into the " Dark Ages Cooling ." The tree ring record of 540 in Ireland is that "the trees stopped growing." Procopius said that, "For the sun gave forth its light without brightness, like the moon, during this whole year [536], and it seemed exceedingly like the sun in eclipse, for the beams it shed were not clear nor such as it is accustomed to shed" [translated by H.B. Dewing, Procopius, History of the Wars, II, Book IV, xiv 5-6, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard U. Press, 1916, 2006, p.329]. Other records give similar accounts. The dimness of the sun may be from increased, thin cloud cover, from changes in solar output, volcanic debris, or other causes. Indeed, ice cores from Antarctica and Greenland show a sharp spike in volcanic gasses in 535. It is of such magnitude as to indicate a major eruption. Since the eruption of Mt. Tambora in 1815 resulted in a "year without summer," it is not hard to imagine the eruption of one of the major Indonesian volcanoes (or elsewhere) producing similar results for 535-536. The source of the volcanic signature was for long not identified, but it has now credibly been attributed to Mt. (or Lake) Ilopango in El Salvador, which seems to have experienced a cataclysmic eruption around 535 or 536. Thinking a lot about Indonesia, or the Aegean , for such eruptions, Ilopango is a bit startling. It also throws some light on Mayan history, since all life would have been exterminated in at least the area of modern El Salvador, and more, which was part of Mayan civilization. The eruption was at least as powerful as Krakatoa in 1883 or Pinatubo in 1991, but not as big as Tambora. It is not clear that the eruption alone would produce the effects seen over many years, for the weather would be colder and the growing season shorter for some time (as noted for 540). The worst effects of weather on Mayan civilization also seem to occur later. The eruption may have reinforced (or initiated) what was already a cooling trend. Whatever the cause, the climate would adversely impact the population at a time, on top of the deaths from the Plague (whose movement of rats may have been caused by the cooling), when the lack would gravely affect the fate of the Empire. Without the manpower to put down the Ostrogoths more swiftly and effectively, Justinian devastated Italy in a way that would not have otherwise been necessary and that had not been effected by the original "barbarian invasions" as such. Rome was briefly depopulated, not by the Visigoths in 410 or by the Vandals in 455, and certainly not by the Ostrogoths in 493, but by the more than decade of fighting that it took for the Roman reconquest, when the city changed hands at least three times and the aqueducts were cut in sieges. , basileía] is a beautiful shroud" [Procopius, History of the Wars, I, Book I, xxiv 37-38, translated by H.B. Dewing, Loeb Classical Library, Harvard U. Press, 1914, 2001, p.232-233]. In the same speech however, she did say, "I will not be separated from this Purple" -- , halourgís, specifically a purple robe [p.230-231 -- see the grammar of this statement]. The traditional misquotation thus deftly combines two actual quotations. This is one of the most famous statements ever about the "Purple" -- i.e. the Tyrian Purple , , porphýra, of Roman Imperial Robes -- although we also have the kind of stone, Porphyry, that was used in association with the Throne, both for statues of the Emperors and for structures like the lying-in pavillion for pregnant Empresses. Justinian, thus encouraged, or shamed, put down the revolt. Belisarius surrounded the Hippodrome and massacred everyone in it (perhaps 30,000 people!). Because of the damage done to the City, Justinian launched ambitious building projects, including that for the magnificient new Sancta Sophia. Around the year 550 we hear that a couple of Nestorian monks arrive from China with an interesting cargo. For all the earlier centuries of the Roman Empire, Romans had sent gold East through Central Asia and received back silk, the nature of which they were entirely ignorant. The route of this trade became known as the "Silk Road." From Roman authors we hear nothing about the destination of the gold or the source of the silk. From the Chinese history of the Later Han Dynasty , however, as noted above , we hear that a Roman embassy arrived in China in 166 AD, specifically to try and arrange an alternate route for the silk trade. This was never worked out. Eventually, Christian missionaries arrived in China. These were at first Nestorians, who had an advanced base as residents of Sassanid Iran , which monopolized the Western end of the trade. The first notice we have from the Chinese is the appearance of the Nestorians in the T'ang Court in 635 AD. This is in the century after the events of Justinian's reign, but it is possible, if not likely, that the missionaries were already in China, during the troubled Northern and Southern Empires period (266-589), before the T'ang Dynasty was consolidated and took note of them. In any case, the secrets of sericulture and the possession of the eggs of silkworms were closely guarded by the Chinese government. But the story we get is that the missionaries were able to smuggle out eggs inside bamboo canes. Traversing the Silk Road, they took them to Justinian. Cultivating the eggs and harvesting the silk proved successful; and so, at long last, Romania, despite the cultural decline of the Dark Ages, acquired its own domestic source of silk. The planting of mulberry trees ( ), upon which the silk worms feed, is supposed to have given the Peloponnesus its later Mediaeval name: , the Morea . The collapse of the Danube frontier against the Avars, substantively and symbolically beginning with the fall of Sirmium in 579, resulted, not only in Avar raids and conquests in the Balkans, but a flood of Slavic migration. This would permanently inundate the areas that would become Bulgaria , Serbia , Croatia , Bosnia , and Macedonia . At the time, however, Slavic incursions and settlements extended far down into Greece, over much of the Peloponnesus, and even, by 623, to Crete. Most of Greece was no longer Greek, something noted by travelers and historians for the next couple of centuries (589-807). In the course of this, many Greeks were massacred or deported by the Avars, but others fled. The inhabitants of Patras (Patrai) on the north coast of the Peloponnesus relocated to Rhegium in Calabria. Many Laconians, from the ancient area around Sparta , actually moved to Sicily. In 583, other Laconians, led by their Bishop, fatefully sought refuge on a small formidable island on the south-eastern peninsula of Laconia (which ends at Cape Maleas). Exarchs of Ravenna 728-751 Ravenna falls to Lombards , 751 Connected by a small spit of land at low tide to the mainland, subsequently built into a causeway, this became , Monembasia (or Monemvasia), "One Way In," the "Gibraltar of the East." The town and fortress would become a permanent Roman stronghold and naval base. Monembasia would change hands several times in the troubled times after the arrival of the Fourth Crusade and would finally survive as the last possession of the Despot, , of the Morea , the last piece of Romania and the Roman Empire, after the Fall of Constantinople , until ceded to the Papacy in 1461, the rest of Romania having fallen to the Turks. Above we see Monembasia at a later period, when it was under the control of the Venetians (1684). It remained a strategically important location until retaken by the Turks in 1715. With the return of Roman power to the West, new arrangements of government emerge. Justinian abolished the dioceses. The effective Imperial governers of Italy and Africa are the Masters of Soldiers of the Armies of Italy and Africa. By the time of Maurice, the Master comes to be called the Exarch ("out-ruler"), and Italy and Africa themselves are each an Exarchate. Exarchs of Carthage Ceuta, c.711 Kâhina defeated, 702; Carthage desroyed, 705; Arab Conquest of North Africa, 711 Still the capital of Italy under the Ostrogoths, Ravenna becomes a Roman capital again, not of a Western Empire, but just for the Exarchate. Justinian lavished classic artwork on the city which survives until today. Indeed, the most familiar portraits of Justinian and Theodora are from mosaics in the Church of San Vitale. The Exarchate continued until the fall of the city to the Lombards in 751. The list of Exarchs, from the time of Maurice to the Lombard conquest, covers 167 years -- the time from George Washington to Dwight Einsenhower . Archbishops of Ravenna In Africa, the Exarchate was centered at Carthage, which enters its last phase as a player in Roman history. With less to show for its life in this period, the city fell to the Arabs in 698 and 705. Afterwards, Carthage itself, although not deliberately destroyed as the Romans once did (but suffering greatly in the Arab attacks), simply fades from history. Nearby Tunis becomes the local metropolis -- perhaps in line with the Arab policy seen elsewhere of withdrawing capitals away from the immediate coast, although Tunis is nowhere near as removed as, for instance, Cairo (Fust.ât.). Note that Tunisia was the Roman province of Africa, which subsequently became Arabic , Ifrîqiyâ. The application of the term to the whole continent came later. I have not found anything like a complete list of the Exarchs of Carthage, although we know that the father of the Emperor Heraclius , called Heracltius the Elder, was Exarch when Heraclius sailed East to overthrow the Emperor Phocas in 610. He died soon after news arrived of his son's success. After Heraclius, the record gets very spotty. There are gaps and uncertainties in the list of Exarchs, and the dating is confused. It takes three invasions by forces of the Omayyad Caliphs to subdue North Africa. The Exarch was not always well supported by Constantinople, and also was not always loyal. The Exarch Gennadius II even went to Damascus to enter the service of the Caliph Mu'âwiya. It is not clear whether he became a Muslim, but he died on the way back to North Africa. A permanent Arab base was founded at , al-Qayrawân, in Tunisia. This appears to have been held through the period of conquest, regardless of setbacks. The setbacks began to come from the Berbers, who, not always happy with the Romans, began to resist the Arabs. With the loss of Roman Carthage in 698, a Berber Queen, al-Kâhina (Dahiyah), temporary dominates the land. But the Arabs keep coming, al-Kâhina is defeated, and the Berbers convert to Islam. Count Julian in Ceuta is the last Roman commander to fall. The office of the Roman Consuls, the chief executive officers of the Roman Republic , and dating by them, continued under the Empire until Justinian, who now replaces them with dating by Regal years. They can be examined on a popup page . As the end of an institution that began at the very beginning of the Republic, it is hard to exaggerate the symbolic importance of this event. The Roman state is now a monarchy in every detail -- although the Monarchs are overthrown with some frequency . Arab Conquest, 638 The Ghassanids were an Arab tribe occupying the hinterland behind Syria and Jordan. This was the area that had previously seen rule by the Nabataeans and then by Palmyra . Evidently it was difficult for the Romans to maintain direct rule over an area whose inhabitants might largely be pastoral and nomadic. Indirect rule ended up accomplished by an alliance with the Ghassanids. In the time of Justinian the Ghassanids became organized enough to be called a "kingdom" by historians, and they become an important part of Roman frontier defense in 529 when Justinian replaces the earlier Roman clients, the Salihids, with the Ghassanid al-Harith V, now the official Roman phylarch or ruler of the tribe (phylum). Such client kingdoms might be said to represent the first entry of the Arabs into Mediterranian history. If they constitute a pre-Islamic move north of Arab people, then both the Romans and the Persians converted the threat of nomadic encroachment into elements of the pre-existing balance of power between Romania and Persia. For the Persians , indeed, had their own client Arab tribe, the Lakhmids, who occupied the hinterland west of the Euphrates. The rivalry between Ghassanids and Lakhmids was not just as proxies for the Powers, but, as can be imagined, the two tribes had become rivals anyway, and there was also a religious dimension. The Ghassanids were Christians, and the Lakhmids had remained pagan. While the religion of the Ghassanids in general would be expected to be a unifying factor with respect to Rome, there developed a difficulty. The Ghassanids became Monophysites. Indeed, when al-Harith V nominated Jacob Baradaeus Bishop of Edessa, it led to the takeover of the Syrian Orthodox Church , henceforth the "Jacobite" Church, by Monophysites. This was not something that Justinian would let stand in the way of sensible policy, but he nevertheless made one crucial mistake. When al-Harith defeated the Lakhmids in 554, Justinian, chronically short of money, discontinued his subsidy to the Ghassanid ruler. This may also have happened because Justinian had just obtained the means of growing Silk -- silkworm eggs smuggled out of the Central Asia. This rendered the Arabian border and Arabia less important for Rome as a means of circumventing Persian control of the silk trade. The discontent of the Ghassanids with this dismissal of their importance would be magnified when later Emperors began a harassment like that inflicted on the Monophysite Coptic and the Syrian Orthodox Churches. Since the Ghassanids were rather like the keystone in the defensive arch based on Egypt and Syria, the disaffection of these populations seriously weakened the Roman frontier. This was already evident during the Persian invasion of 614-628, and nothing had been done to heal it by the time of the Arab invasion of 636. Soon the Ghassanids converted to Islam and disappeared from history. The list here is entirely from Bruce R. Gordon's Regnal Chronologies . An extensive discussion of the Ghassanids can be found in Justinian's Flea by William Rosen [Viking, 2007, pp. 242, 303, 306, & 318]. Despite the treatment of the Ghassanids in many Byzantine histories, which often give rulers of related states, I have not seen a list in any history. Since the names of the Ghassanids include the familiar Arabic patronynmic element, ibn, the genealogy of the dynasty could actually be constructed without too much difficulty. It will also be noted that brothers often rule simultaneously, as with the several sons of al-Harith II who begin ruling in 327. Al-Harith II himself, with the epithet "ibn Maria" and living in the time of Constantine, is likely to be the tribal chief who converted to Christianity. III. THIRD EMPIRE, MIDDLE "ROMANIA," EARLY "BYZANTIUM," 610 AD-1059 AD, Era of Diocletian 327-776, 449 years O, great-ruling [New] Rome, thou lookest from Europe on a prospect in Asia the beauty of which is worthy of thee. Marianus Scholasticus, "On the Palace called Sophianae," [The Greek Anthology, Volume III, Book 9, "The Declamatory Epigrams," Number 657, The Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1917, p.364-365] The Constantinopolitan city, which formerly was called Byzantium and now New Rome, is located amidst very savage nations. Indeed it has to its north the Hungarians , the Pizaceni, the Khazars , the Russians , whom we call Normans by another name, and the Bulgarians , all very close by; to the east lies Baghdad ; between the east and the south the inhabitants of Egypt and Babylonia; to the south there is Africa and that island called Crete, very close to and dangerous for Constantinople. Other nations that are in the same region, that is, the Armenians , Persians, Chaldeans , and Avasgi, serve Constantinople. The inhabitants of this city surpass all these people in wealth as they do also in wisdom. Constantinopolitana urbs, quae prius Bizantium, Nova nunc dicitur Roma, inter ferocissimas gentes est constituta. Habet quippe ab aquilone Hungarios, Pizenacos, Charzaros, Rusios, quos alio nos nomine Nordmannos appelamus, atque Bulgarios nimium sibi vicinos; ab oriente Bagdas; inter orientem et meridiem Aegipti Babiloniaeque incolas; a meridie vero Africam habet et nominatam illam nimium vicinam sibique contrariam insulam Crete. Ceterae vero, quae sunt sub eodem climate nationes, Armeni scilicent, Perses, Chaldei, Avasgi, huic deserviunt. Incolae denique civitatis huius, sicut memoratas gentes divitiis, ita etiam sapientia superexcellunt. Liutprand of Cremona (c.920-972), 949 AD, "Retribution," XI, The Complete Works of Liudprand of Cremona, translated by Paolo Squatriti [The Catholic Press of America, 2007, p.50]; Latin text, "Liudprandi Antapodosis," Die Werke Liudprands von Cremona, herausgeben von Joseph Becker [Scriptores Rerum Germanicarum, Hahnsche Buchhandlung, Hannover und Leipzig, 1915, pp.9-10; Reprint, University of Michigan Libraries, 2012]. Ghulibati-r-Rûm, fî 'adnâ-l-'ard.i, for "king," see Feudal Hierarchy . Once out of nature I shall never take My bodily form from any natural thing, But such a form as Grecian goldsmiths make Of hammered gold and gold enamelling To keep a drowsy Emperor awake; Or set upon a golden bough to sing To lords and ladies of Byzantium Of what is past, or passing, or to come. William Butler Yeats (1865-1939), "Sailing to Byzantium," alluding to the mechanical birds reported by Liutprand at the Macedonian court. To most people thinking of the "Roman Empire," we are well into terra incognita here. Yet in 610 the character and problems of the Roman Empire would not have been unfamiliar to Theodosius the Great. A Persian invasion was nothing new. How far it got, all the way to Egypt and the Bosporus, was. Meanwhile, the collapse of the Danube frontier was not now the doing of Germans but of Slavs and Steppe people -- the latter beginning with the Altaic Avars, whose kin would dominate Central Asia in the Middle Ages. The Persians were miraculously defeated; but before the Danube could be regained or the Lombards overcome in Italy, a Bolt from the Blue changed everything. The Arabs, bringing a new religion, Islâm , created an entirely new world, which both broke the momentum of Roman recovery and divided the Mediterranean world in a way whose outlines persist until today. Nevertheless, the Empire, restricted to Greece and Anatolia, rode out the flood. It must have been a hard nut, since the Arab Empire otherwise flowed easily all the way to China and the Atlantic. It was hard enough, indeed, that by the end of the "Third Empire" it had been in better health than any Islamic state. The promise of new ascendency, however, was brief, both for internal and external reasons. Meanwhile, there has been a cost paid, as we might expect, in prosperity and material culture. This is conspicuous in the coinage , where the previous style of low relief profile portraits is still typical in Justinian's day. However, we also start to get face on portraits, whose quality is less good. By the time of Heraclius, face on portraits are dominant, and soon exclusive, while their character ceases to be low relief and becomes cartoonish. This will improve again later, but the coinage will never have the photo-real quality that we expect in modern coinage and that was often present in the best work of the First Empire . That the gold coinage of the solidus still exists at all, however, is testimony to the fact that the prosperity and material culture of Romania never fell as far as it did in Francia . A. THE ADVENT OF ISLAM, 610-802, 192 years 1. HERACLIANS 715-717 Pergamum destroyed by Arab fleet, city abandoned, 715 With Heraclius, seldom has fortune and ability so blessed a ruler only to turn so completely against him in the end. Arriving from Africa, where his father (also Heraclius) was Exarch, Heraclius easily deposed the usurper Phocas but then almost helplessly watched the Persians conquer Syria and Egypt and raid through Anatolia as far as the Borporus (in 615). With Avars and Slavs pouring into the Balkans, the Roman Empire seemed doomed to complete collapse. But then in one of the most brilliant, but far more desperate, campaigns since Alexander, in 624-625 Heraclius audaciously invaded Persia itself. He even wintered with the army in the field. In 626 the Persians arrived at the Bosporus and their Avar allies at the walls of Constantinople, trying to draw Heraclius out of the field and with a chance of destroying his power at the source. Confident that Constantinople was impregnable, which it was, Heraclius was not distracted and in 627-628 devastated Persia and defeated a Persian army at Nineveh late in 627, which precipitated the overthrow of Shâh Khusro II by his own son (628), who sued for peace. Heraclius had received significant material aid from the Gök Turks, who were the parent of the Khazars , of long future Roman alliance. Heraclius betrothed his daughter Eudocia to the Khagan, who died (630) before the marriage could be effected. This seems to be the first of Roman relations with any Turks, and the first of at least three marriages that would be arranged with the Khazars. The peace restored the status quo ante bellum. In 629 Heraclius began to use the title of the defeated monarch, the traditional Persian "Great King." Thus Basileus, , the Greek word for "King," became the mediaeval Greek word for "Emperor" (although, actually, Procopius was already using it that way in the days of Justinian ) -- as Greek now (or hereabouts) replaces Latin as the Court language as well as the language of command in the Army. Similarly, , Basíleia, "Queen," becomes "Empress." The adjective , Basíleios, "Kingly," is also found as a proper name, especially of two Macedonian Emperors. With Basileus for "Emperor," the Latin word rex is borrowed, as , to use for mere kings as such. Latin military terms are transcribed, for instance, for dux, "duke," and for comes, "count"; and they continued in use through the history of Romania -- they went their own semantic way, of course, in the feudalism of Francia. There was already a sense that Autokrátor, , translated imperator, "commander," and it was typically coupled with Basileus, although not exclusively. Under Constans the structure of the Roman Army was fundamentally changed to deal with the new circumstances of the Empire. As the traditional units, largely familiar from the 5th Century, fell back from the collapsing frontiers, they were settled on the land in Anatolia, to be paid directly from local revenues instead of from the Treasury, whose tax base from Syria and Egypt had disappeared. The areas set aside for particular units became the themes ( , thema, "placement," plural, , themata, from the Greek verb , tithêmi, "to put" -- related to thesis). The Themes remained the military bedrock of Romania until the end of the 11th century and soon replaced the old Roman provinces as the administrative divisions of the Empire, with the commanding stratêgos, "general," becoming the military governor of his theme. The commander of the Opsician Theme, however, was a Comes, " Count ," in deference to the origin of the Theme from the Armies in the Emperor's Presence. Thus, the Army of the East, driven out of Syria, was settled in the Anatolic Theme, where it would guard the obvious route for invasion or raids from Syria: the Cilician Gates through the Taurus Mountains. Although invasions and raids there would be, the Arabs never did secure any conquests beyond the Gates. Where the Army of the East in the Late Empire numbered about 20,000 men, the forces of the Anatolic Theme varied from about 18,000 in 773 to 15,000 in 899 [Warren Treadgold, Byzantium and Its Army, 284-1081, Stanford, 1995, p.67]. As the remnants of the Late Roman Army were settled on the land (like the earlier Limitanei), there were also standing forces that accompanied the Emperor, like the old Comitatenses. There were already two such units in the Late Empire, the Scholae and the Excubitors -- the latter had been created by Leo I in 466 as a force of Isaurians to use, under its commander Zeno, against the Germans in the Eastern Army. These would be organized by Constantine V into the core of a new Standing or Mobile Army, the Tagmata (singular, tagma, "regiment"), and would eventually grow into a large army in its own right. In 899, the Tagmata together numbered about 28,000 men, while the entire Army, Themes and Tagmata combined, added up to about 128,000 men [Treadgold, op.cit.]. This was less than half of the Augustan Army and not even a quarter of Constantine's; but considering that the Empire is reduced to the lower Balkans and Anatolia, it is proportionally still robust, especially in an Age when a paid military establishment was impossible in most of Europe. As with the decline of the Limitanei, the late Macedonian Emperors began to neglect the Thematic forces and rely on the Tagmata, which soon filled with mercenaries. Some mercenaries could be quite faithful, like the Saxon refugees from Norman England who served in the Varangian Guard for more than three centuries (the Egklinovaraggoi). This worked reasonably well while there was money. But when the finances collapsed, loses could not be made good, or the more mercenary warriors retained. This led to fiascoes like the hire of the Catalan Company (1303), who mutinied (1305) and seized the Duchy of Athens (1311). Even under the Palaeologi , landed frontier forces (now the akritai, ) remained the best investment but were imprudently neglected, with disastrous consequences. After Constantine IV withstood the first Arab siege of Constantinople, burning the Arab fleet with the famous and mysterious "Greek Fire" (which sounds like nothing so much as napalm, since it could burn under water), it looked like the Empire would survive. With the last member of the dynasty, Justinian II, we have a curious experiment in humanity and an extraordinary story as the sequel. When Justinian was deposed in 695, instead of being killed, his nose was cut off -- as had that of Heraclonas in 641. Hence his epithet, , Rhinotmetus, "Cut Nose." It was expected that this would disqualify him from attempts at restoration. It didn't. Justinian fled to the Khazars, where he arranged a marriage with the Khagan's sister, giving her the Christian name "Theodora." The Emperor Tiberius III, however, pressured the Khazars to expel Justinian, which before long they did. Justinian now fled to the Bulgars, who decided to support him and in 705 showed up with him and their army before Constantinople. Unable to enter the City, there was then not much the Bulgars could do. Justinian, however, was able to sneak inside; and he apparently had sufficient support to depose Tiberius and regain the Throne, a most unlikely Odyssey. His Khazar wife then joined him and gave birth to a son, curiously named Tiberius. After another unpopular reign, Justinian was then deposed again and, with his son, killed. The curious experiment in humanity, of course, was that when first deposed Justinian was not killed but just mutilated. When it developed that this was not enough to bar him from being restored, henceforth deposed Emperors, or other politically threatening persons, would be blinded. This was more effective (although the blind Isaac II was restored by the Fourth Crusade), though now it may not seem particularly more humane than execution. Otherwise, the end of the dynasty demonstrates one drawback of the new themes: They represented such military force that the strategus, their commander, was continually tempted to revolt. This problem was soon addressed simply by dividing the themes into smaller ones. Another noteworthy aspect of the initial overthrow of Justinian II were the slogans that were voiced by popular protests. A very curious cry, repeated (with suitable substitutions) over the centuries was, Anastaphêi tà ostéa Ioustinianoû, , "Let the bones of Justinian be dug up!" Since Justinian was not dead or buried, it is curious how people should be calling for his exhumation. The expression may have originated in earlier circumstances, now lost. As it happens, one Pope, Formosus (891-896), was actually exhumed and put on trial, in what was then aptly called the "Cadaver Synod." This does not seem to have happened with any Roman Emperors, but this "dig up his bones" expression caught on as a way to call for the overthrown of Emperors. Another call also became traditional, which was simply to shout , anaxíos, "Unworthy!" We can all understand that. The maps of Romania now become much smaller. Egypt, Palestine, Spain, and North Africa are gone forever. Footholds in Italy and the Balkans remain. Greece and the Balkans would be recovered in time, but everything in Italy would eventually be lost also. For the time being, the heartland of the Empire will be Asia Minor. Although this would provide the resources for revival, even for colonization back into Greece, it was still open to Arab raids. They could not be precluded for a couple of centuries. 2. KHAZARS, Zachariah c.860's The Khazars are an extremely important part of Roman history, entering it with a bang, as allies of Heraclius against Persia and operating in conjunction with him in or near the Caucasus. Ziebel is supposed to have occupied Georgia , beseiging Tiflis (Tbilisi) with Heraclius himself in 627 and then taking the city, with great massacre, in 628. The Khazars subsequently endured as Roman allies down to the height of Middle Romanian power in the days of Nicephorus Phocas , but fading quickly thereafter. The Khazars were of Turkic derivation, speaking a poorly attested Altaic language, apparently closely related to Hunnic, Bulgar (Bolghar), and the surviving modern Chuvash. Titles familiar from Bulgar, Mongolian , Persian, or Turkish as , Khagan, Qaghan, or , Khân, and , Beg or Bey, occur here as "Khagan" or "Xak'an" and "Bek." Byzantine histories do not give any lists of Khazar rulers, but Bruce R. Gordon's Regnal Chronologies comes through with most of the information I am able to use here. The Khazar realm began as the westernmost reach of the Gök (or Kök) Turkiut Great Turkish Khanate, which extended across Central Asia. This vast but poorly documented realm broke up into Eastern and Western halves in 553/554. Beks, in Kerch, ?-1016 The Khazars were a further fragment of this, at the Westernmost end, around the Lower Volga, ruled by a branch of the ruling Ashina Dynasty. Exactly when the Khazars become independent of the Western Khanate is obscure, and the Khagan Ziebel who helped Heraclius, may or may not be identical to Tun[g] Yabgu (or Yabghu) Khagan (or Xak'an) of the Western Khanate. This Khagan is reported by Moses Dasxuranci as delivering an ultimatum to the Shâh Khusro II circa 627: If you will not retreat from the king of the Romans and surrender to him all the lands and cities which you have taken by force and return all of the prisoners of his country now in your hands, together with the wood of the Cross which all Chrisian nations worship and honor; if you will not recall your troops from his territory, the king of the north, the lord of the whole world, your king and the king of kings, says to you: "I shall turn against you, governor of Asorestan, and shall replay you twofold for each deed committed against him. I shall swoop upon your lands with my sword as you descended upon his with yours. I shall not spare you, nor shall I delay to do to you what I said I shall do." [Walter E. Kaegi, Heraclius, Emperor of Byzantium, Cambridge, 2003, p.158] Substantial help was provided for Heraclius, but not to this degree, and without even Heraclius acknowledging pretentions that sound more like those of Genghis Khan . In 695, Justinian II was deposed, mutilated, and exiled to the Crimea. Before long, however, he escaped to the Khazars, where he contracted to marry the sister, then baptised "Theodora," of the Khagan Busir. Although Theodora was soon pregnant, Busir had second thoughts about harboring Justinian and estranging the new Emperor, Tiberias III. Justinian was forced to flee again, this time to the Bulgar Qaghan Tervel. In 705 Tervel marched on Constantinople to restore Justinian. The Emperor was able to enter the City with a small number of men through the previously broken Aqueduct of Valens, and resistance collapsed. Tervel was given the rank of Caesar, and the Khazar Khagan obligingly sent his sister and her new son to Constantinople. The Khagan Barjik defeated and destroyed an Arab army of the Caliph Hishâm outside Ardebil in Iran in 730, but he was then defeated and killed at Mosul a year later. With the Arabs then raiding into the Khazar homeland, in 733 the Emperor Leo III cemented the Roman-Khazar alliance by marrying his son, the future Emperor Constantine V, to the daughter, Tzitazk, of the Khazar Khagan, named as "Bihar." Baptized "Irene," her son would be the Emperor Leo IV, "the Khazar." Justinian's Khazar son had not become Emperor, but now two Emperors of the Syrian dynasty would have Khazar blood. The line of Ashina Khagans now becomes shrouded in an obscurity even greater than what we previously had to contend with -- the "Tarkhan" of the 840's may even be a confusion, since the name actually can be a military rank. Instead, we begin to get indications of leadership falling on generals, the "Beks," who gradually overshadow or even replace the Khagans. Thus, it is the Bek Hazer Tarkhan whose army was destroyed by the Omayyads at Itil in 737. This led to a short occupation and forced Islamization of the Khazar homeland -- forced Islamization because the Khazars were still pagan and thus had no rights as "People of the Book." Under Islamic Law, their choice was conversion or death. The means and spirit of resistance not lacking among the Khazars, Arab control was thrown off around 740. This experience, however, led to one of the most significant events in all of Khazar history: the Conversion of the nation to Judaism. This may have happened as early as 740, or at late as 861. The earlier date corresponds to the rule of the Bek Bulan Sabriel, while the later date involves association with St. Cyril . The story is that the Khazars entertained appeals and arguments from representatives of all the major religions, Judaism, Christianity, and Islam, before making their decision. Choosing Judaism may have involved a desire to remain independent of both Christian and Islamic powers. St. Cyril's visit was probably a bit late. The existence of the Jewish Khazars immediately suggests that the subsequent Jews of Russia may be their descendants, However, modern Russian Jews have spoken Yiddish and look to be immigrants from Germany into areas of Poland that were subsequently annexed to Russia. In the same way, genetic studies tend to link Russian Jews with Jews elsewhere. On the other hand, Russians Jews often have red hair, which does not look like something of Middle Eastern origin but has historically occurred in Central Asia. Genghis Khan himself is often said to have had red hair. Also, we know that in 529 the Sassanid Shâh (or Crown Prince; he wasn't Shâh until 531) Khusro I expelled Jews from Persia and that they fled north of the Caucasus. It is therefore possible that the Khazars converted to Judaism in part because there were Jews among them, with whom they had been or were then actually intermarrying. Bruce Gordon says that Khazar Jews were known to be present in Kiev and to have emigrated to places as diverse as Spain, Egypt, Iraq, Hungary, Poland, and the Crimea, where they intermarried with other Jews. This would imply a Khazar element in much of World Jewry. With all these possibilities, the questions about the Khazars and their Judaism are certain to continue. Gordon mentions that the list of Bulanid Beks, who may have become the Khazar Khagans, is derived from a list sent by the Bek Joseph to Hisdai ibn Shaprut, a Jewish Vizir to the Omayyad Caliph 'Abdur-Rah.mân III (912-961) in Spain. Joseph refers to himself as the "King of the Khazars." Joseph's state, however, was in its last days. Sviatoslav I of Kiev attacks the Khazars in 965 and by 969 took the capital, Itil, on the Volga. Sviatoslav's attack was no more than a raid -- he was unable to establish any control of the area. Meanwhile, however, new nomads had arrived, the Cumans, who push the Khazars off the Steppe, until they disappear in the obscure realms of the Caucasus. Gordon gives two rulers from Khazar successor states that survived in the area, which brings Khazar history down to 1016, in the reign of the Emperor Basil II -- although there are apparent references to them even later. The rise of Russia and new movements of nomads in Central Asia would soon give Romania new allies and new formidable and deadly enemies. 4. ISAURIANS (SYRIANS) 792-802 Council VII, Nicaea II, Iconoclasm condemned, 787; Black Sea freezes, winter of 800-801 While Leo III held off another Arab siege of Constantinople, the position of Romania in the West deteriorated. With Africa gone, it became harder to project authority into Italy and harder to resist the Lombards. John Julius Norwich (A History of Venice, Vintage, 1989) links the election of the first Doge of Venice with Leo's prohibition of images; but the election was in 727, during a tax revolt, not in 730, when Leo did prohibit images, alienating the Western Church. The prohibition of religious images began the Iconoclasm controversy. One way to understand it is to realize that the conflict between Islâm and Christendom was not just a contest of arms but, mutatis mutandis, an ideological struggle. Christians were not being accused, to be sure, of oppressing the workers, but they were being accused of being polytheists (because of the Trinity) and idolaters (for making and venerating images). Indeed, some Islâmic attitudes are familiar from later religious ideological conflict, since disgust and condemnation of a priesthood and celibacy, not to mention the use of images, could later draw sympathy from Protestantism. The Thousand and One Nights derives great humor from the notion that the incense burned by Christians (but not, of course, by later Protestants) was made from the dung of bishops. Since Leo III is considered to have come from either Syria or the nearby Isauria, his concern about this issue is supposed to have resulted from his sensitivity to the effect of Islâmic charges on the previously Christian populations of the areas, like Syria, conquered by Islâm. Conversions did not have to be effected by force, which was prohibited by the Qur'ân anyway, but by powerful persuasion (and, easily understood in modern terms, tax incentives). So Leo, a sort of proto-Protestant, decided to clean up Christianity's act. This did not find any traction in the West, however. The Latin Church felt no sting from Islâmic ideology. Leo's successes against the Arabs, obvious evidence of the favor of God, became associated with Iconoclasm. After images were restored by Irene, and military reverses seemed to follow, the favor of God was apparently withdrawn. The final Iconoclast period (815-843) was of such mixed military fortunes, with a serious defeat in 838, that worries about the favor of God faded, as Papal support for images had never faltered. A geologically significant event occurred with the eruption of the volcanic island of Thera (Santorini) in 726. The volcano had been active since 718, but the eruption of 726 blew ash as far away as Macedonia. This may have been the largest eruption in Europe since Mt. Vesuvius in 79 AD. Such an event may have contributed to Leo's sense that the Wrath of God had been provoked and that something like Icoclasm was the proper response. In the longer view of history, the most striking thing about the event is its echo of the great eruption of Thera that is now dated to have been between 1627 and 1600 BC (right at the end of the Egyptian Second Intermediate Period ). This wiped out what seems to have been a very large city of the Minoan Civilization on Thera. With ash, earthquakes, and tsunamis affecting Crete, the eruption may have delivered a devastating blow to that Civilization, which then limped on in part through its Greek, Mycenaean adaptation. Memory of the event may account for the stories of Atlantis related by Plato . Today Thera is a popular tourist destination, though the bay of the caldera is too deep for ships to anchor. Recently (April 6, 2007), the cruise ship Sea Diamond sank in the bay, with the loss of two passengers. The final fall of Ravenna to the Lombards in 751 led to the intervention of the Franks in Italy, at the urging of the Pope. Romania would never return to Central or Northern Italy. Nevertheless, the form of the Exarchate of Ravenna across central Italy, a corridor held between the Lombards in the north and those in the south, survived as the "Donation" of the Frankish King Pepin to the Pope -- the Papal States , whose history ran from 754 to 1870, 1116 years. Thus, although politically insignificant after 751, Ravenna nevertheless casts a kind of shadow deep into modern history -- including the name that, as a Roman capital, the city gives to the surrounding region, Romagna -- a word that looks like "Romania" where the "i" has patalalized the "n," the equivalent of Romaña, as we might write it in Spanish. Even as late as 1500 AD, as we see on the map below (Historical Atlas of the World, Barnes & Noble, 1970, 1972, p.49), the Archbishop of Ravenna has jurisdiction over an area of Northern Italy still coextensive with the historic Romagna. But it was in Bologna, the largest city of the region, where the Pope last crowned a Holy Roman Emperor, Charles V , in 1530. Note that Modena and Parma are separate states in the Renaissance. , "Copronymus," "Name of Dung" -- certainly one the harshest, crudest epithets in the history of royalty. Nevertheless, Constantine's reign may be regarded as generally successful, and the epithet is simply due to his persecution, including torture and execution, of those opposed to Iconclasm. In another proto-Protestant move, Constantine began forcing monks and nuns, strong supporters of icons, to marry. Otherwise, there were military successes against the Bulgars and even Arabs, where the Abbasid Revolution disrupted the attention of the Caliphate. Constantine also began developing mobile military units, the tagmata (singular, tagma, from tassein, "to arrange, put in order" or "to draw up in order of battle" -- "regiment" would thus be an appropriate translation), in addition to the landed thematic forces that had become fundamental to Roman military power. The units were commanded by a Domestic (Domesticus), except the Watch, whose commander was a Drungarius. This represented the first steps back to a paid professional army and so is a sign of a reviving economy. The Empire, however, would never be able to remain strong without the themes, and their collapse at the end of the 11th century would be the end of Romania as a hegemonic power. Eventually the Tagmata consisted of the Scholae ("Schools"), the Numera ("Number," feminine of Latin Numerus, used for a military unit), the Walls (Teichistai, or tôn Teicheôn, "of the Walls"), the Excubitors ("Sentinels"), the Optimates (Latin "the Best"), the Watch (Vigla, familar from "Vigil" in English, or Arithmos, equivalent to Numerus in meaning), the Hicanati ("Able Ones"), the Immortals (Athanatoi, named for the elite unit of Achaemenid Persia , who members were replaced as soon as they fell), and, finally, the Varangian Guard. The Scholae were Guard units founded by Constantine. The Numera and Walls were garrison troops for Constantinople, doubtlessly dating from the foundation of the City. The Excubitors had been created by Leo I with Isaurian recruits as part of his plan to purge the Army of Germans. All these units had rather withered until Constantine V, who recreated them as his own personal force after the revolt of Count Artabasdos (741�743) of the Opsician Theme. The status of the Optimates, which began as a fighting force with the other Tagmata, soon became a support unit, providing and supervising transport and logistics. Its commander remained a Domesticus, but it was settled on land, like a Thematic army, in the Optimakôn ("of the Optimates") Theme on the Asian side of the Bosporus, where other Tagmata units might be quartered. The Optimates thus are best regarded as a Thematic force that nevertheless is dedicated to the support of the Tagmata. The next Tagma added to the Army was the Watch, created by the Empress Irene from drafts of Thematic soldiers because the Scholae and others were strongly Iconoclast in sentiment and were interfering with her plans to Retore the Icons. There is some confusion about the names here. The Watch (Vigla) was also called the Arithmos, "Number," which was equivalent to Latin Numerus, and sometimes seems to be confused with the Numera Tagma. Thus, Warren Treadgold says that under Constantine V the "senior tagmata, the Scholae, Excubitors, and Watch" were cavalry units, while the "junior tagmata, the Numera, Walls, and Optimates," were infantry [Byzantium and its Army, 284-1081, Sanford, 1995, p.28]. He also adds that the Hicanati, created by Nicephorus I, were "a fourth cavalry tagma" [p.29]. If we need merely switch the Watch and Numera in Treadgold's account, we also have the problem that the third force of infantry would then still not exist until the Empress Irene. The Watch (or Treadgold's Numera), however, may have existed in some form before Irene. From its name, it does sound like part of the garrison force of Constantinople, since it has always been the job of a Watch, before the existence of police forces, to patrol cities at night to enforce the law and the peace. Irene may have transformed the Watch into a proper tagma, as Constantine V did with the original units he took in hand. The final tagmata, the Immortals and the Varangian Guard , would added by the Macedonians . As Frankish power waxed, the Pope took the step of crowning the Frankish King Charles as Emperor in 800. This was during the reign of Irene, who had taken the throne exclusively for herself, the only Empress ever to do so, by having her son Constantine VI blinded (he died, too). Although Irene restored the images and reconciled the Eastern and Western Churches, the Pope decided to arrogate the authority of crowning a proper, male Emperor to himself (later justified with the fraudulent "Donation of Constantine" document, by which Constantine I had supposedly given the entire Western Empire to the Pope). While Charlemagne even offered to marry Irene, who could have regarded him as only the rudest of barbarians, this all signaled a fundamental parting of the ways between the Latin Europe of Pope and Franks ( Francia ) and the Greek Europe of Romania. Note the parallels between the reign of Irene and that of the slightly earlier Empress Wu (685-705) of T'ang Dynasty China. Because she did restore the Icons, Irene was later venerated as far away as the St. Catherine's Monastery at Mount Sinai -- although by then Sinai had been lost to Romania for almost two hundred years. She does not seem to have gotten as much credit closer to home, perhaps because Iconoclasm returned for a while. 5. DOGES (DUKES) OF VENICE, 727-1797 Orso (Ursus) Ipato Venice Falls to Napoleon Bonaparte , 1797 Venice was the "Most Serene Republic" (Serenissima Repubblica di Venezia), or the "Queen of the Adriatic." The title of Doge derives from that of a late Roman commander of a military frontier, Dux ("leader," in Greek, duce in Modern Italian). This is cognate to English " Duke ." The Doges were always elected, from a variety of families, as their names indicate. Over time their powers were increasingly limited, as Venice evolved into an oligarchic Republic. The Duke of Venetia at first would have been like many other Romanian officials in Italy, such as the Dukes of Naples , but Constantinople rarely had occasion or ability to exert direct rule over Venice, so over time the city drifted into independence, competition, and eventually belligerence. The name "Venice" is derived from the name of the Roman province that embraced the whole area, Venetia. The principal city of Venetia was Aquileia. Although sacked by the Goths, the Huns, and the Lombards, Aquileia remained the most important city of the region for most of the Middle Ages. However, in the troubled times, people would flee the mainland to barrier islands along the coast or to islands in the lagoons behind them. Aquileia itself thus acquired a counterpart, Grado, on the nearby barrier island. To the west, a community formed on Rialto Island in the much larger lagoon seaward from Padua. Farming or building on such islands was a challenge. Earth needed to be brought in or dredged up to fill plots created from woven grasses. Substantial buildings required foundations of logs driven down into the muddy soil. Eventually this allowed a large city to rise on the Rialto. As its strength grew, the Rialto became powerful and preeminent and took on the name of the whole province -- Venetia, Venezia, Venice. The power of Aquileia was reduced by Austria, and finally the city itself was annexed by Venice in 1420. The Patriarchate that had been seated at Aquileia, and then had been divided with Grado, ultimately moved to Venice alone. Since 1451, Venice has been the seat of the Patriarchs of Venice, whose story can be examined in a separate popup . Although it is commonly thought that the mainland was abandoned in the 5th century and the whole population moved permanently to places like the Rialto, this does not seem to have been the case. It was a more gradual process, and the success of Venice may have been due to the realization that it provided defense, not against barbarian invasions, but in the face of the Frankish Emperors and other mainland powers. Venice, indeed, would be immune to conquest until Napoleon. Venice was briefly in the power of Franks . According to Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus , the Venetians told King Pepin, "We want to be servants of the emperor of the Romans, and not of you" [De Administrando Imperio, Greek text edited by Gy. Moravcsik and translated by R.J.H. Jenkins, Dumbarton Oaks, Center for Byzantine Studies, 1967, p.121]. Eventually the Venetians agreed to pay tribute, but it steadily declined to a merely nominal sum. The list of Doges is taken from Byzantium and Venice, A Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations, by Donald M. Nicol [Cambridge University Press, 1988, 1999], and Storia di Venezia Volume II, by Eugenio Musatti [4th edition, Fratelli Treves Editori, Milano, 1937]. A complete list can also be found in A History of Venice, by John Julius Norwich [Vintage Books, 1989]. After the Schism of the Eastern and Western Churches (1054), there came to be growing religious hostility between Venice and her metropolis. However, Venice never quite fit in to the political system of Francia . For a while, as noted, the Republic paid tribute to the Carolingians but quickly enough shook off any obligation. Playing Constantinople and the West against each other, Venice never really acknowledged the authority of the Frankish or German Emperors and in time was relatively safe in its lagoon from attempts to impose imperial authority, whether from East or West. With the decline of Romania, Venice largely pursued its affairs at the expense of Constantinople and only came to be pushed out of the area altogether by the Ottomans . When Alexius Comnenus signed a pact with Venice in 1082, the Republic became a partner with the now beleaguered Constantinople. During the honeymoon period we get the completion of St. Mark's Cathedral -- a mature Romania seeding its culture into the maturing Venice. The honeymoon didn't last. The pact gave Venice a choke hold on the trade of Romania and on naval power in Romanian waters -- on at least one occasion Venetians burned Roman warships on the stocks before they could be completed. Although Alexius didn't have much choice at the time, this led to retaliation later. Manuel I arrested all Venetians in 1171 and little but hostile relations followed -- even peaceful exchanges revealed tragic inequality, as when the Imperial Crown Jewels were pawned with Venice in 1343. The fall of Constantinople to the Fourth Crusade in 1204 was largely engineered by the Doge Enrico Dandolo, who was actually buried in Sancta Sophia. By the settlement with the Crusaders, Venice was ceded 3/8 of the Empire, and the Doge henceforth styled himself quartae partis et dimidiae totius imperii Romaniae Dominator ("Lord of a quarter and a half [of a quarter] of the whole Empire of Romania"). Norwich interestingly translates this as "Lord of ... the Roman Empire" (p.147), but the phrase was imperium Romaniae, "Empire of Romania," not imperium Romanum, "Roman Empire." Venice was obviously not claiming 3/8 of the Empire of Trajan, but of the much reduced mediaeval Romania (this looks like part of the conspiracy of ignore the word "Romania" in Roman and "Byzantine" studies). This fragmentation of Romania helped Venice maintain her advantages, but it weakened the whole in the face of the eventual Ottoman threat. Venice could neither hold off the Turks nor support a local state strong enough to do so. When the Emperor Michael VIII Palaeologus took Constantinople back from the Crusaders, he conferred commercial advantages, not on Venice, but on her hated rival, Genoa , which, of course, had been Roman until lost to the Lombards in 642. This confirmed that Italy rather than Romania would be the center of trade and naval power in the Christian Mediterranean. Genoa was even granted the city of Galata, just across the Golden Horn from Constantinople itself, in 1267. As the Turks fatally invested Constantinople in 1453, it was Genoa rather than Venice that contributed to its defense -- though Galata itself remained neutral. The most famous Venetian of the 13th century, and possibly of all history, was Marco Polo (c.1254-c.1324). Polo's business travels with his father and uncle to the China of Qubilai Khan might have gone unrecorded, like the stories of many other such travelers, if he had not been taken prisoner by the Genoese in 1298. Languishing in prison in Genoa, Polo began telling his story to a fellow prisoner. This happened to be the Pisan writer Rustichello (or Rusticiano), who thought that Polo's tales might make a good book and wrote it up, in French. This Divisament dou Monde, "Description of the World," soon to be called Il milione, "The Millions," was more a catalogue of places than a narrative of travels. Nevertheless, it was a sensation -- though people had trouble believing the numbers and scale of the places and domains described. One story about Polo himself is that he was questioned about just this on his deathbed. He replied, "I haven't told the half of it." Now that we know independently about the Mongol Empire , even this anecdote has the ring of truth. China alone was vast beyond the reckoning of 13th century Europe. Although serious questions have been raised about some of Polo's claims, details of his story, like the custom of the Chinese of making offerings to the dead by burning paper money or paper copies of other things, are still familiar and unique features of Chinese culture. The legend that Marco introduced noodles from China is now commonly discounted, but there is little doubt that someone did that in this era. The Romans were not eating pasta, but at some point we realize that the Italians are. If we then ask where such a preparation existed previously, the answer is China -- something probably as old as Chinese history and still the traditional alternative to rice in any Chinese (or Japanese, etc.) restaurant. As it happens, there are indications that noodles had already come down the Silk Road and been passed on through Islâm; but nothing was to stop Polo from bringing his own noodles, to unknown local effect. What seems extraordinary about Venice now is how a mere city had become a Great Power, contending on terms of equality, if not superiority, with all of Romania. The tail wagging the dog indeed. And while Venice was never the equal of Turkey, it was for long one of the major belligerents contesting Ottoman advances. What this reveals is the stark difference in wealth between the cash economy of a commercial republic (Venice began minting gold Ducats in 1284) and, on the one hand, the poverty of subsistent kingdoms, like other Western European states and, on the other hand, the fractured economy of Romania, which had previously perpetuated commercial traditions. Venice was soon joined by other Italian cities, like Pisa and then Genoa , in exercising the power made possible by their wealth. As commercial life began to grow in the North, the Italians began to lose their advantage. After Flanders and the Netherlands became centers of trade and manufacture, the Dukes of Burgundy first benefited from this wealth, then the Hapsburgs , and finally the Netherlands as an independent power. The latter eventuality is especially revealing. The Netherlands was a commercial republic again as Burgundy and the Hapsburg domains had not been. What's more, Amsterdam became the center of European banking, with that preeminence passing from, as it happened, the cities of Northern Italy (remembered in "Lombard Street" in the City of London). The next financial centers, of Europe and the World, would be London and then New York. In the course of all that history, the apparent power of the Italian cities was punctured like a balloon in 1494, when King Charles VIII of France invaded Italy. This is one of the events regarded as marking the end of the Middle Ages. It certainly revealed the comparative disadvantage into which the Italian powers had fallen. A nice recent movie about this period was Dangerous Beauty (1998), about a popular courtesan who ends up in a tug-of-war between Venetian nobility and the (rather unwelcome in Venice) Holy Inquisition. We happen to notice in the course of the movie that Venice has been expelled from Cyprus by the Turks (1571). Just as bad or worse for Venice's position was the Age of Discovery. The Italian cities had grown strong on the trade of the Levant, and the new Atlantic powers wanted very much to have a way to avoid their mediation, let alone that of Turkey and Mamlûk Egypt , in the transfer of goods from India and further East to Europe. Columbus, therefore, was out to make an end run. Since he ran into the Americas instead of Asia, this diverted Spanish energies, but for Portugal Vasco da Gama did the job of getting to India around Africa in 1498. This eliminated Italy or the Turks from any central position in world trade. They could only fade, in the most literal sense, into back-waters. The Ottomans briefly tried to project their power into the Indian Ocean, occupying Yemen , pressing upon Ethiopia , and even sending to aid to the distant Sultân of Acheh in Sumatra; but the effort, like other Ottoman initiatives, soon petered out. If the power of Venice began to fade in the 15th and 16th centuries, she was nevertheless one of the intellectual centers of the Renaissance . No one had a greater role in this than Aldus Manutius (Teobaldo Mannucci, d.1515), who founded the Aldine Press and, with help of a large staff of Greek expatriates, created printed editions of a large part of Greek literature, often in the convenient octavo pocket editions that he popularized. He was personally motivated to see to it that Greek literature should not only be preserved in printed editions but be made available to all. In 1502, he founded a "New Academy," devoted entirely to Greek, with its business, rules, titles, etc. all conducted or rendered into Greek -- which was also the case in Manutius' own household. Indeed, the members of the Academy, who would include Erasmus , even adopted Hellenized names. The results of his publishing business, besides the pocket editions, included the Italic style of typeface and the formulation of modern punctuation, including the semicolon. Thus, Venice, which had done so much to destroy the power and civilization of Romania, nevertheless played a significant role in preserving its heritage. We must reflect on the irony of this. The decline of the Turks in the 17th century allowed a brief Venetian resurgence, whose most striking event, however, was probably the destruction of the Parthenon in 1687, when a Venetian cannonball detonated an Ottoman powder magazine -- the ruin of the Acropolis was not produced by the Goths , the Huns, or any event of the Middle Ages, but by modern warfare. By that time a city state was going to be no match for the colonial and maritime powers that were rapidly becoming modern nation states. Venice lapsed into a kind of 18th century version of Las Vegas, a curiosity and a diversion -- and Las Vegas has now reciprocated with the Venetian Hotel . It was such a Venice that produced the memorable career of Giovanni Casanova (1725-1798), who saw the best and the worse of the City, from its marvelous entertainments and his own famous seductions to its terrible prisons and secret tribunals. After invading Italy and defeating the Austrians, Napoleon had to exert little enough power to eliminate what had become an anchronism. The French were a little puzzled by the hostility of the Venetians to their occupation, since the rousing Republican rhetoric of the French didn't have the effect they expected -- but it was in a place that was, well, already a Republic. Napoleon, indeed, might have taken some lessons from the venerable and terrifying Venetian system of secret police and hidden inquisitorial courts. One of the sights of Venice, the "Bridge of Sighs," is a covered way that secretly transported prisoners back and forth from their star chamber trials to their hopeless cells. However hostile to the French, the spirit of Venetian independence was soon forgotten, and it was the Sardinian Kingdom of Italy that detached Venice from Austria in 1866. The Venice of the subsequent period appears in Thomas Mann's Death in Venice (Der Tod in Venedig, 1912), which has been described as, "a symbol-laden story of aestheticism and decadence ..." Venice was just the place for that. On the other hand, the art of Venice, in music -- as with Antonio Vivaldi (1680-1743) -- painting -- as with Titian, Tiziano Vecilli (1477-1576) -- and architecture, is an enduring and vivid monument. Part of this is a hint of the lost beauty of Constantinople, since St. Mark's Cathedral, crowned with four great horses from the Hippodrome and countless other treasures looted from Constantinople in 1204, is a copy of the vanished Church of the Holy Apostles, the burial place of Constantine and his successors (whose site is now occupied by the Fatih Jamii, the mosque, institute, and burial place of Meh.med II , the Conqueror [Fâtih.] of Constantinople). Although decorated with loot, the present church was completed earlier, in 1094 (or 1071), with the help of artisans from the still friendly Emperors. The Rialto Bridge across the Grand Canal, the Campanile bell tower (campana, "bell"), the Lido barrier island, and other structures and sites have now contributed their names, if not their images or functions, in countless modern landscapes. Oxford University has its own Bridge of Sighs, at Hertford College (right), though it apparently was never used for the same purpose as the Venetian (mercifully). In fact, although it is labelled the "Bridge of Sighs" on all maps of Oxford, it is not called that in the College, simply "the Bridge"; and it looks more like Venice's Rialto Bridge than the Bridge of Sighs. Cambridge University also has a Bridge of Sighs , across the Cam River, at St. John's College (left). The Campanile on the Berkeley campus of the University of California (the Sather Tower, below right), on the other hand, almost identical in appearance to the one in Venice, houses a fine carillon, a sort of organ with bells instead of pipes. The Venetian Hotel in Las Vegas reproduces several of the landmarks of Venice, although not St. Mark's. P.J. O'Rourke, in a humorous comparison of the hotel and the city, points out that the Rialto Bridge at the hotel has safety features to prevent children from falling through the bridge railings. In Venice itself, perhaps deprived of the American Tort Bar, it seems to be the responsibility of parents to keep their children from falling off the bridge into the Grand Canal. Poised between Francia and Romania, Venice thus preserves much of the beauty and atmosphere that was lost and forgotten after successive catastrophies to Constantinople. The City ended up itself as something out of its time, a Mediaeval Republic in an age of nation states, even as now it is rather like a living museum, slowly sinking into the lagoon that originally gave it refuge. Indeed, the low muddy islands in the lagoon, once a redoubt, now are Venice's greatest peril. With zero elevation, the City is vulnerable to high seas, high tides, and any significant changes in sea level. Pumping out ground water under the City, long the simplest source of fresh water, threatened to leave it permanently awash. That danger was soon recognized and attempts have even been made to restore the water, though that is more difficult. However, the weight of buildings on the mud itself means they slowly sink; and, even worse, the whole geological province on the East side of Italy is being suppressed by tectonic forces. The continually threatened rises in sea level from global warming then sound like the final straw. Barriers may soon seal off the lagoon from the Adriatic during storms or high water, but this raises the problem of discharging the waste water brought down from inland cities. Any durable solution promises to be difficult, expensive, and perilous to the traditional character of the City. Rome and Romania Index B. REVIVAL AND ASCENDENCY, 802-1059, 257 years 400 years after the opportunity might have originally presented itself, a German finally claimed the title of Roman Emperor. This was the Frank Charlemagne, in a move legitimized by the Pope and by the reign of a woman, Irene, in Constantinople. For a while, Francia looked larger and much more powerful than Romania, but institutionally it was nowhere as sound or durable. The Empire of Charlemagne fragmented among his heirs and lapsed into feudalism , a system for government without cash or literacy. Meanwhile, Romania, with institutional continuity, commercial culture, and education, began to recover its strength, despite some severe blows continuing to fall. 1. NICEPHORANS 813-820 Iconoclasm restored, 815; first Varangian (Viking) raids in Anatolia, 818 The reigns of Irene and Nicephorus I begin what Warren Treadgold calls The Byzantine Revival, 780-842 [Stanford U. Press, 1988]. Despite the loss of most of Europe and continuing Arab raids into Anatolia, the population and the economy of the empire were actually growing, and Nicephorus was able to start transplanting colonies of people from the east back into Greece. This soon led to the recovery of most of the Greek peninsula. It is hard to know how much this means Modern Greeks are descendants, not just of Greeks, but of Phrygians , Galatians , Isaurians, and other ancient (and extinct) inhabitants of Anatolia, as well as Slavs who had migrated into Greece and become assimilated. There is also the complication that colonists from Greece and the Balkans had previously been moved to Anatolia, to compensate for losses from Arab raiding. So people, of various sorts, who had begun in Europe, and then moved to Asia, grew into populations that then were transplanted back into Europe. Very confusing; and not something that leaves clear ethnic footprints. Perhaps DNA testing can sort it out. Unfortunately for Nicephorus, and his evocative "Bearer of Victory" name, the "revival" was not without its setbacks. Nicephorus ended up killed in battle against the Bulgars , becoming one of the small number of Roman Emperors dying in battle against a foreign enemy. His skull was made into a drinking cup up by the Bulgar Khan Krum. His son Stauracius, proclaimed Emperor after the battle, turned out to be paralyzed from a spinal wound. His attempt to vest the throne in his wife Theophano (reportedly an Athenian relative of Irene), was foiled by his sister Procopia and her husband Michael Rhangabé. Michael then was inactive and indecisive and was overthrown by Leo the Armenian, an in-law of the subsequent Amorian dynasty. It would be some time before the Bulgars could be seriously defeated, much less subdued. Until then, it would be impossible to restore the Danube border. the Drunkard 842-867 Final repudiation of Iconoclasm, body of Constantine V exhumed & burned, 843; Varangians attack Constantinople, 860; Arab army annihilated, Amir of Melitine killed, at Poson, 863 (Theophilus II) 867 In this period, aptly called the "Second Dark Age," the Arabs took to the sea -- which they had done before, but not previously in a sustained and systematic way. With the simultaneous advent of the Vikings, this made both Franks and Romans vulnerable in North and South. Crete was lost for over a century, and fighting began on Sicily that would last for more than 50 years and result in the permanent loss of the island. Now we also find the last of Iconoclasm laid to rest, though one will note even today that the Orthodox Churches prefer Icons rather than sculpture in the round for sacred images. The resolution of this conflict removed a point of friction between the Western and the Eastern Churches. It did reveal, however, how easily such conflict could arise. The later (1054) Schism of the Churches would be over apparently much more trivial issues -- the real issue, of course, was simply authority. The military successes of Iconoclast Emperors came to a dramatic end in 838, when the Caliph Mu'tas.im invaded Anatolia, defeated and very nearly captured Theophilus, and then destroyed the Emperor's own home town, Amoricum, enslaving the population. When Theophilus died young, leaving only a young son, the Empress Theodora, as Regent, moved to end Iconoclasm. At a Council in 843, on the first Sunday in Lent, the Iconoclast Patriarch John the Grammarian was deposed and the Iconophile Methodius installed as Patriarch . The Icons were restored. Orthodox Churches still commemorate the restoration of the icons on the first Sunday of Lent, which is called the "Sunday of Orthodoxy." Since Orthodox Churches use the Julian Calendar, this day can be more than a month after the first Sunday of Lent on the Gregorian calendar. This period sees a turn of the tide against the Arabs. In 838 the Caliph al-Mu'tas.im (833-842) raided Anatolia, as the Arabs had been doing about annually for a long time, but this time in such force as to defeat the Romans in battle at Dazimon and then to sack the cities of Ancyra (Angora, now Ankara) and Amoricum (now Konya). Since Amoricum was the home of the present Empeor Theophilus, this was particularly humilating. A few years later, the subsequent Caliph, al-Wâthiq (842-847), began to execute prisoners from these cities who refused to convert to Islâm. Since the Romans had their own Arab prisoners, an exchange was suggested, and accepted. In 845 embassies between the Caliph and the new Emperor Michael III, or his Regent mother, Theodora, were exchanged to negotiate the prisoner exchange. The Arab historian at.-T.abarî, in his Annales (edition in Leiden, 1883-1884), relates details of the embassies, and we see him use an Arabic title for the Roman Emperor. The Roman ambassadors are themselves called , rusulu S.âh.ibi-r-Rûm, the "messengers of the Emperor of the Romans," one of whom seems to have been the future Patriarch Photius . See the discussion of the expression for "Romans." So here the word for "Emperor" is (irregular or "broken" plural , s.ah.âbah), which is familiar, as "Sahib," in countless movies about India and Africa. It is an important word in Arabic. S.âh.ib can mean "owner, possessor, master, lord," etc., as it does here, or it can mean "companion, comrade, friend, follower" (comes in Latin). Thus, , as.-S.ah.âbah, are the "Companions" of the Prophet Muh,ammad. These are the most important personages in the history of Islâm apart from the Prophet himself. Also noteworthy is the term , "messengers," where the singular, , rasûl, is found in the expression , rasûlu-llâh, i.e. Muh.ammad as the "Messenger of God," which is used in the Confession of Faith. Not long after these events, in 863, another raiding Arab army, led by the Amir of Melitine, was annihilated, and the Amir killed, in battle at Poson. This was not the end of Arab raiding, but it did mean that the Romans were now getting the upper hand, and the period of Arab raiding and domination was coming to an end. One reason for this is the improvement and maturity of the new Army. By the time of the Amorians, the Army has settled into its classic form and is much improved in numbers, organization, and effectiveness. The loss of Sicily and Crete is not encouraging, but the heartland of Anatolia is being defended with increasing success, and the lost territories in the Balkans are now being recovered and resettled. Bulgaria stands in the way in that direction and will eventually be dealt with. By 878 Sicily will be lost forever (although Rometta holds out until 965). It is possible that it could have been recovered, but now the remoteness of the command, and eventual disloyalty of the Norman mercenaries, will snuff out such a hope. This is the army with which the Macedonians will eventually defeat and conquer Bulgaria, pass through the Cilician Gates, recover Antioch, and invade Syria. Later, when the Thematic forces are neglected, the mobile army, the Tagmata, will prove insufficient, as the Moble Army alone had earlier in the Fifth Century . The arrival of the Varangians (839), which meant the Vikings who had come down the rivers of Russia , added a new element to Roman history. Constantinople became to them Miklagarð, or Mikligarð (Mikligarðr with the nominative ending), but often rendered Miklagard, Miklagarth, or Miklegarth -- the "Great City." Here the element mik- is cognate to mag- in Latin magnus and meg- in Greek megas, both "great." Curiously, there is an archaic adjective in English, "mickle," meaning "great" or "large," which is this very same word. A cognate survives in recent English, the humble word "much." The other element, gard (Old Norse garðr), "enclosed," is cognate to English "garden" and "yard" (and the name "Garth") as well as to gorod and grad, "city," in Russian -- as in Tsargrad, , for Constantinople (the final "soft" sign, , was in Old Church Slavonic but is lost in modern Russian). We see this element in Midgard, or Miðgarðr, "Middle Earth," the realm of men in Old Norse and in Tolkien's The Lord of the Rings. The "Great City" (we could say "Mickleyard" with English words) could not have been more appropriate, since Constantinople was the largest city in Europe until at least the 13th century, as it was the center of the only real cash economy in Europe perhaps until the 11th century. Relations with the Varangians rocked back and forth between war and trade, mainly depending on what the Norsemen thought they could get away with -- they would be prepared for both. The contact in 839 was an embassy, which had encountered sufficient difficulties coming down the rivers of Russia that it requested the good offices of the Emperor in negotiating passage back by way of the Frankish realm of Louis the Pious . Louis already knew about Viking raids and was suspicious that these travelers, although vouched for by Constantinople, were nevertheless of their kind. Assured (falsely) that they were not, the embassy was allowed to pass. Soon, Varangians would have little fear of traversing Russia and would begin raiding Roman territory and even attacking Constantinople. As it happened, the Norsemen were rather less successful against the Romans than they were against the Franks, and bouts of attacks were usually followed by treaties -- where such reconciliation was rarely necessary in the West. To the Varangians, the Roman Emperor becomes in Old Norse the Stólkonungr, the "Great King," with "great" in this case borrowed from Old Russian (as in Stolnyi Knyaz, the "great prince " of Kiev -- stolnyi does not have this meaning in Modern Russian), and "king" (konung) familiar from other Germanic languages (e.g. German könig). This echoes Megas Basileus in Greek, the translation of the title of the Great Kings of Persia and the origin of the use of Basileus for "Emperor" in Mediaeval Greek. We are approaching the point in European history where the remaining pagan peoples of Europe will be assimilated to Christian civilization. Bulgaria will lead the way, but it will soon be following by Hungary, Poland, Russia, and Scandinavia. The Pechenegs (or Patzinaks), a Turkic steppe people, will remain pagans until they are swept from history by the Cumans and Mongols. On the east edge of the map is the Khanate of the Khazars , also Turkic, who actually converted to Judaism. They would be Roman allies until disappearing in the 11th century. Shown on the map are the tracks of several raids by the Magyars into Francia. It is striking how far afield they go. A more intimate picture is provided elsewhere for Burgundy . 3. BULGARIA BEFORE ROMAN CONQUEST Asparukh Bulgaria annexed by Basil II , 1018 Although today the Bulgarians are thought of as simply a Slavic people, like the Russians or Serbs, they were originally a nomadic Turkic steppe people, more like the Huns or Mongols. The first title of their leaders here, qaghan, is recognizably more Mongolian than the form more familiar from Turkish, khân. The Slavs, who had breached the Danube with the Avars, but who had little in the way of indigenous political organization, then came under the control of the Bulgars, the next nomadic group to pop off the end of the steppe. A related people, the Khazars , who remained on the Lower Volga, became long term Roman allies against the Bulgars. Other related peoples, the Patzinaks and Cumans, followed the Bulgars off the steppe and into the Balkans, though not permanently south of the Danube. After the Cumans, the Mongols were the last steppe people to come into Europe. Through the Middle East, of course, the Turks (and the Mongols) came off the steppe and ultimately, permanently, into Azerbaijan, Anatolia, and Thrace. Fans of Robert E. Howard's (1906-1936) classic pulp fiction character Conan the Barbarian, will find the name of the Bulgar Qaghan Krum somewhat familiar -- it is rather like Conan's own personal god, "Crom." Krum, indeed, seems very Conan-like. Not only was the Emperor Nicephorus killed in battle, but Krum took his skull and turned it into a drinking cup. This sounds like "barbarism" indeed -- though Lord Kitchener (1850-1916) may have had something similar in mind when he removed the body of the Sudanese Mahdi from his tomb, after taking Khartoum in 1898. More recently, readers of Harry Potter and the Goblet of Fire [J.K. Rowling, Arthur A. Levine Books, Scholastic, Inc., 2000] will remember that the champion Bulgarian Quidditch player was none other than Viktor Krum. What happened to the Bulgars was assimilation. The Patzinaks pushed them off the steppe, they began to speak the language of their Slavic subjects, and they began to aspire to the civilization, if not the throne, of Constantinople. The conversion of the Bulgars, indeed, was a complicated political act, with sophisticated negotiations that played the Popes off the Emperors. Greek influence ended up predominating, but the Bulgars continued jealous of their autonomy -- the precedent of an autocephalous Church set the pattern for other Orthodox Churches, as in Russia , created under Roman auspices. The Qaghan Boris took the Christian name Michael (though both names would be used in the future), but retained a status comparable to the Roman Emperor. The newly developed Cyrillic alphabet, based on the "glagolitic" alphabet invented for Moravia by Sts. Cyril (Constantine, 827-869) and Methodius (826-885), was used for the Slavic language of the new Bulgarian national Church. This language, Old Church Slavonic or Old Bulgarian, is the oldest attested Slavic language and retains features apparently ancestral of most modern Slavic languages -- although different texts also display influence (or emergent features) from the local languages, Czech, Bulgarian, and Serbian, in the areas where it was used. At right is the Cyrillic alphabet of Old Church Slavonic. I have used some letters in the modern form rather than with the more traditional appearance, which is more obviously Greek. Various modern Cyrillic alphabets, which can be examined under the treatment of the Slavic languages, often employ different selections of letters from the full original alphabet -- although there is the possibility that some letters were later contributed, again, by local languages, like Serbian (cf. S.C. Gardiner, Old Church Slavonic, Cambridge, 1984, 2008, pp. 13-14). It will be noted that this alphabet contains more dedicated palatalizing vowels than the modern languages that continue to use this device. An interesting case is the way "u" is written. Old Church Slavonic writes the Greek digraph . We also see the ligature for "iu," which affixes an "i" an drops the "y." This is the only such ligature still used in modern Cyrillic alphabets, despite the presence of no less than five of them in Old Church Cyrillic -- the available ligature is replaced by in Russian, Bulgarian, etc., although I imagine that the latter may be a modification of the former. Since the Greek digraph is redundant, modern Cyrillic alphabets simply write "u" with . The signs and , which apparently were vowels in Old Church Slavonic, of uncertain quality (as the vocalization of Old Church Slavonic is disputed), have now either become markers of "solf" and "hard" consonsants, as in Russian, or have been dropped, as in Serbian. These are divergent strategies that both go back to Old Church Slavonic. We also get nasalized vowels in Old Church Slavonic, and , marked with tildes here (the IPA diacritic), but elsewhere with a subscript hook, as in Polish, where such nasals survive. The first step merely left it leaderless, as John Tzimisces took Emperor Boris II off to Constantinople. A new state was organized in the west, however, by the sons of the Bulgar governor Count Nicholas. These "Sons of the Count," Cometopuli, eventually got an Emperor back after Boris and his brother Romanus escaped captivity. Boris was accidentally killed, so Romanus became the (largely figurehead) ruler. After Romanus died, the Cometopulus Samuel succeeded him. The Emperor Basil II, after humiliating defeat by the Bulgars in his youth, then smashed and annexed this state, with a ferocity that that might have made Krum (or Conan) proud. Samuel is supposed to have dropped dead when he saw that Basil had blinded all the survivors of the Bulgarian army (leaving every tenth man with one eye to lead the rest) -- although the later references to this are now often doubted. Bulgaria would not reemerge until the Asen brothers led it to independence in 1186. After the Turkish conquest, modern Bulgaria did not emerge until 1878. Lists of Bulgarian rulers can be found in various Byzantine histories, but the genealogy here only comes from the Erzählende genealogische Stammtafeln zur europäischen Geschichte, Volume II, Part 2, Europäiche Kaiser-, Königs- und Fürstenhäuser II Nord-, Ost- und Südeuropa [Andreas Thiele, R. G. Fischer Verlag, Part 2, Second Edition, 1997, pp.156-159]. 4. MACEDONIANS Isaac I Comnenus 1057- 1059 The greatest dynasty of Middle Romania begins with the Empire still losing ground. Raids by the Arabs, Vikings, and now Magyars are giving all of Europe a very bad time. Only the 10th Century would see a gradual recovery, as Slavs, Norsemen, and Magyars all became settled and Christianized, though the Normans remained vigorous and aggressive in both North and South, i.e. conquering England and expelling Romania from Italy . Much of the good work of the Dynasty was accomplished by in-laws during the minority of the legitimate heirs, though the culmination came when one heir, Basil II, came of age and completed the conquests himself. Although traditionally called the "Macedonian" dynasty, Basil I was probably Armenian, like several of the other Emperors-by-marriage. But, ironically, the dynasty may actually descend from Michael III rather than from Basil. Basil had been induced to marry Michael's mistress; and although the marriage continued even after Basil had overthrown Michael, the first children may still have been Michael's. One of the most successful Emperor-Regent-in-laws, Nicephorus II Phocas, unintentionally played an important part in the history of Armenia. After reconquering Cilicia and Tarsus, in the Taurus and Anti-Taurus Mountains, and expelling the local Muslims in 965, Nicephorus encouraged Christians from Syria and Armenia to settle the area. Subsequently, when the Turks poured into Anatolia after the epic defeat at Manzikert in 1071, the Christians of the Taurus were relatively safe in the mountains, and the Turkish flood washed around them. This led to the creation of the durable Kingdom of Lesser Armenia (1080-1375). The Armenians of Lesser Armenia were then probably the Christians of the Middle East with the best relations with the Crusaders , including intermarriage. It is now not often noted, but Lesser Armenia became such a center of Armenian life at the time that the Armenian Patriarchate relocated there from Armenia. From 1058 to 1441, this was the only Armenian Patriarchate. Even the reestablishment of Patriarchs in Armenia did not interrupt the line of succession in Cilicia, which henceforth became know as the Great House of Cilicia . This succession continues to the present and even remained in the Taurus, long after the extinction of the Armenian Kingdom, until 1930, when the Patriarchs joined Armenian refugees in Lebanon , where they remain. In the years of the isolation of Soviet Armenia, the center of international Armenian life was this Patriarchate in Lebanon. This is now obscured by the independence of Armenia in 1991 and the emigration of many Armenians from the former Soviet Union into the West. Their culture, influenced by the corruption of Soviet life, and even their language (Eastern rather than Western Armenian), is distinct from that of the Lebanese Armenians who used to dominate, for instance, Armenian immigration to the United States. In the early days of the dynasty we get a benchmark on the survival of Classical and later Greek literature. The Bibliotheca of the Patriarch of Constantinople Photius (858-867, 877-886) contains 280 reviews. Even Edward Gibbon refers to this as "a living monument of erudition and criticism" [The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume III, Modern Library, p.297]. It is not a catalogue of existing literature, or of a particular library, not even that of Photius, but a treatment of works familiar to Photius, apart from the mainstream of general education, that Photius is recommending to his brother Tarasius. Thus, popular authors like Homer, Plato, Aristotle, or the Greek playwrights (except for some lost plays of Aeschylus!) are missing from the list. Photius' treatment ranges from brief descriptions and evaluations to long summaries and discussions. Of the 386 works mentioned by Photius, 239 are theological. Nevertheless, only 43% of the text actually focuses on them. The majority of the text (in a book whose modern edition in Greek is 1600 pages long) is thus secular. For example, in addressing A History of Events After Alexander (in ten books) by the Roman historian Arrian of Nicomedia (an early member of the Second Sophistic ), we get a long summary of those very events , which are often obscure enough that every description helps. Although much of Arrian survives, and his Anabasis Alexandri is the best account of the campaigns of Alexander, all we have of A History of Events After Alexander is Photius' summary. We also have Arrian to thank for transcribing in the Encheiridion or "Handbook," the teachings of the Roman Stoic philosopher Epictetus, whose student he was. Our benchmark is that about half of the works mentioned by Photius, like the Events, are now lost. It is distressing to think of what survived, despite the Dark Ages, and then what later disasters may have cost us -- when the City was sacked by the Fourth Crusade and then the Ottomans (where we hear of bonfires of books, although this may be a slander). It is hard to imagine an undisturbed Constantinople being subsequently so careless with its literary heritage. At no other Court of the age could visitors have found the nobility quoting Homer, as we see below. [cf. Photius, The Bibliotheca, A selection translated with notes by N.G. Wilson, Duckworth, London, 1994.] Photius, whose Bibliotheca was only part of his literary output, was a major political figure and himself was responsible for the mission of Sts. Cyril (Constantine, 827-869) and Methodius (826-885) to convert the Slavs. The climax of Mediaeval Romania came with the Emperor Basil II Bulgaroctonus, , "Bulgar Slayer" (Bulgarentöter in German). He also happened to be ruling at the turn of the first Millennium, which is of some interest as we have now seen the year 2000. Christendom had been having a bad time for several centuries, but things were looking up in 1000. After a long minority with in-laws ruling as co-regents, Basil defeated and captured an entire Bulgarian army in 1014. He blinded every prisoner, except for one eye left to every tenth man, so they could lead their fellows home. The Tsar Samuel is supposed to have dropped dead when he beheld the mutilated men returning. There is no contemporary record of this mass blinding, and its historicity is now often questioned. Whether anything quite like this happened or not, however, Bulgaria only lasted four more years before being annexed. Meanwhile, the Varangians had created a powerful state at Kiev ; and, as the "Rus," their name came to be attached to it -- giving us in Greek, "Russia" in Latin. The alternation of war and trade that had characterized Roman relations with the Varangians, and which led to sharp defeats of Russia by John Tzimisces, took a greater turn toward friendship in Basil's day with the conversion of St. Vladimir to Christianity (989). Part of this process involved the marriage of Basil's sister Anna to Vladimir, and the provision by Russia of mercenaries for what now became the Emperor's "Varangian Guard." The Guard became the loyal shock troops and Life Guard of the Emperor, and are usually identifiable in historical accounts, even if not named as such, by their description as , pelekophóroi (pelekyphóroi in Attic Greek), "axe bearers," from the single bladed axe ( , pélekys), with a handle up to six feet long, that they carried as their primary weapon (seen in the image at right from the history of John Scylitzes, c.1057). There also seems to have been some identification of this weapon with the fasces carried by the Lictors of the Roman Republic . Indeed, the appearance of the great axes on the battlefield came to signal the personal presence of the Emperor (although Varangians at first were often detailed to fight with other forces, as in Italy). After the formation of the Varangian Guard, it quickly no longer became a matter of mercenaries provided by Russia. The fame of the unit spread quickly, and soon individual recruits were arriving , not just from Russia (and now of Slavic and not just Varangian origin), and not just from the immediate source of Russian Varangians, Sweden, but from as far away as Norway, Denmark, and even Iceland -- all the Norse lands, which by this point had converted to Christianity. Since all these places were outside the limits of Classical geography, we find Anna Comnena characterizing all the Varangians, including the English ones, as from "Thule," . This was conformable to ideas in geographers like Strabo, who refers to "Thule, the most northerly of the Britannic Islands," "six days sail north of Britain," although he expressed some skepticism about its existence. Thus, Gibbon speaks of "the British island of Thule," which now sounds very odd [The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, Volume III, Modern Library, p.368]. "Six days sail north of Britain," however, which was the formula of the Greek explorer Pytheas, might very well get us from Britain to Norway. The Norse recruits included the very interesting Harald Hardråde (or Haraldr Sigurðarson, Haraldr Harðráði), the subsequent King of Norway who would die in 1066 at Stamford Bridge , while invading England. The deeds of Harald and others would be recounted in the Icelandic Sagas, often written much later with fabulous or fanciful additions, but with sufficient detail to pin down their historical origins. Also, numerous rune stones have been found in Sweden, often at churches for the now Christian Swedes, that stand as cenotaphs or commemorative monuments to men who left for Romania (Grikland, Kirkium, etc., "Greece") and never came back. Some were installed before leaving by the men themselves. Some, of course, may have been for traders rather than members of the Varangian Guard, but a few mention deaths fighting in Serkland, i.e. Islamic lands (where the "Saracens" are), or in Lakbarþland, i.e. Langobardia, " Italy ." In time, the Norse recruits apparently obtained their own church in Constantinople, at least in part dedicated to St. Olaf (or Olof, Olav) of Norway, Harald's brother, perhaps enshrining a sword that was supposed to have been his. Indeed, the 15-year-old Harald was present at the battle of Stiklestad in 1030, where Olaf was killed -- with reports of miracles immediately following. Harald fled with 500 retainers all the way to Constantinople, perhaps carrying such a relic of Olaf that could have been enshrined in the church. In King Harald's Saga, we have Olaf appearing in visions to help Harald; and the Norse church is said to have been constructed on the spot of such a vision [cf. The Varangians of Byzantium by Sigfús Blöndal and Benedikt S. Benedikz, Cambridge University Press, 1978, 1981, 2007; Snorri Sturluson, King Harald's Saga, Penguin, 1966, 2005, p.61]. While a companion of Hardråde eventually settled in Iceland, we also have the account of a native Icelander, Bolli Bollason (or Bollasson), as recounted in the Laxdaela Saga. Bollason's sojourn in Romania was quite early, in the 1020's, and he is said to be the first West Norseman in the Varangian Guard. When he returned home, fitted out with a red cape and gold trim on his weapons, reportedly, "Wherever he went, women paid heed to nothing but gazing at Bolli and his grandeur" [Peter Frankopan, The First Crusde, The Call from the East, Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, 2012, p.28], by which he became known as "Bolli the Elegant." It is noteworthy that while the legend and the romance of the Vikings is still a part of popular culture (I was entranced by The Vikings [1958], which I saw at Holloman Air Force Base in 1962), and most people retain an image of Viking barbarians fighting, looting, slaughtering, drinking, and raping (this is romance?), such awareness promply shuts down when the Norsemen convert to Christianity. Presumably, they stop the looting and raping, and the reaction, as from Hollywood, is "You're no fun anymore!" (except for a movie like Ingmar Bergman's Virgin Spring [1960]). But even as Christians, many Swedes, Danes, Norwegians, and Icelanders were still looking for a good fight; and to find it they traveled to the greatest and most famous Christian monarch: The Emperor of the Romans. Since they kept doing that for centuries, the word of mouth about their experiences must have been positive. It was a good fight, if not always a successful one. The map shows Romania in 1000 AD, at the Millennium, with the height of Middle Romanian power rapidly approaching. The extent of Bulgaria is open to question. Some sources say it stretched to the Black Sea. Whatever, it will soon be erased. Having experienced the Millennium of the year 2000 in our day, we have the movie, End of Days (Universal, 1999), with Arnold Schwarzenegger personally battling Satan, who is said to be released every thousand years (a somewhat loose reading of the Book of Revelation). This would mean that a similar difficulty occurred in 999, as well as 1999. Arnold wasn't around then, but Basil II was -- not only a great warrior but an Emperor who maintained a monk-like celibacy, and who was seen by most Christians as the principal defender of Christendom, as the Emperors had been since Constantine. Somebody missed a bet for a good movie, or at least a flashback, about that -- End of Days itself could have had a flashback explaining how Satan was easily thwarted in 999 by the undiminished wisdom, strength, and preparedness of Basil, Pope Sylvester II (this was before the Schism), and the Patriarch Sergius II of Constantinople. The monks of the "Holy Mountain," Hágion Óros, Mt. Áthôs, could be brought into any story of the Millennium. The Great Laura Monastery, the first of many in this most sacred place, the Mt. Hiei, , of Orthodox Christianity, had recently been built (961-963) by St. Athanasius. Tradition holds with some earlier foundations, and several small hermitages, as well as individual hermits in caves and elsewhere, certainly had been there for some time; but the Great Laura is the first for which there is contemporary historical documentation. Áthôs is the most north-eastern of three peninsulas that extend out into the Aegean Sea from the larger peninsula of the Chalcidice. There are still 20 active monasteries on the Mountain, with a number of smaller settlements and institutions. The road from the mainland ends at Uranopolis (or Ouranoupoli, one now usually sees spellings that reflect modern Greek pronunciation -- I have Latinized many of the names, but the spelling of the monasteries especially reflects this trend). From there one (men only) must take a boat down to Daphne. From Daphne a road, recently built, goes up to Caryes (Karyes, Karyai), the town that is the administrative center of the Mountain, on the land of the Koutloumousiou Monastery. Although most Greek churches operate under the authority of the autocephalous Greek Orthodox Church, Mt. Áthôs is still under the direct jurisdiction of the Patriarch of Constantinople , i.e. the "Ecumenical" Patriarch in Istanbul. Over the years, monasteries were founded, not just by Greeks, but by Georgians , Serbs, Bulgarians, Russians, and even Italians. The Italians are now gone (there being the Schism and all), but there are also (modern) Romanians present, though they do not have their own monastery. Mt. Áthôs thus unites all the Orthodox Churches who share the theology of Constantinople. The mysticism of the theology of Mt. Áthôs contrasts with the humanism of Mistra -- this is discussed elsewhere in relation to the Renaissance . Sadly, the great triumph of Romania was short-lived. The last Emperors of the Dynasty, all by marriage, squandered the strength of the State, debased the coinage, and neglected the thematic forces that had been the military foundation of Romania for four hundred years -- in part by now ignoring, as Basil II had not, the alienation of the land of thematic soldiers to large landowners who did not have the same military obligations. This was a kind of creeping feudalism, which Romania had previously avoided. Full feudalism has quashed, ironically, because of the Turkish conquest. What was left of the Army, the Imperial guards of professionals and mercenaries, could not be relied upon in all circumstances, as Machiavelli would have warned, especially after the finances of the state were messed up. Before things had gone that far, however, we see that the attempt of Michael V, at the death of his uncle (?) Michael IV, to depose the Empress Zoë provoked a popular revolt. This included the Varangian Guard, which may have actually been commanded at the time by Harald Hardråde (1042). According to King Harald's Saga, Harald led the Guard to seize and blind Michael (whom it confuses with his successor, Constantine IX). This personal loyalty to Zoë, and her sister Theodora, was the best tribute to the faltering Macedonian dynasty. Most symbolically, the breach between the Eastern and Western Churches in 1054 was the one that became permanent and henceforth separated the One Holy Roman Catholic and Apostolic Church into the Pope's Latin Church , usually called "Roman Catholic," and the Patriarch of Constantinople's Greek Church , traditionally called "Greek Orthodox" -- along with the other autocephalous "Orthodox" Churches (Russian, Bulgarian, Serbian, Romanian, etc.). There had been similar estrangements earlier, which had always been patched up without much in the way of hard feelings. This was the expectation at the time; and the handling of the matter was so casual that later, when it became apparent that the breach was becoming permanent, the original documents could not even be found. The estrangement in religion came at a very bad time. When the Turks invaded Anatolia and the Crusading forces arrived from Francia , the Schism was a source of constant irritation and mistrust. It provided some rationalization for the seizure of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade ; and later, when the Churches were apparently reconciled by the Palaeologi , it left most Greeks so disaffected that their support for their own government was compromised. Thus, for centuries, Christian forces were divided and weakened in the continuing confrontation with Islâm. Here we see the confusion over the paternity of Leo VI. The greatest controversy of Leo's reign, however, was over his own marriages. He disliked his first wife, from an arranged marriage. She and their daughter died in the early years of his reign. He was then able to marry his long time mistress, Zoë. After delivering their daughter Anna, however, who would later marry Louis of Burgundy , Zoë soon died. This created a problem. Unlike Henry VIII , whose problem was that he wanted divorces, Leo's problem was that in the Greek Orthodox Church second marriages, even after the death of a spouse, were discouraged and third marriages strongely condemned. While theoretically there was no provision for raison d'état, we can imagine the overriding need to provide an Heir for the Dynasty. The Patriarch, successor to Leo's own brother Stephen , granted a dispensation. His new wife, Eudocia, then died in childbirth, followed shortly by the infant son. Now Leo really had a problem. St. Basil had said that fourth marriages were the equivalent of polygamy, "a practice bestial and wholly alien to humankind." Leo therefore took a mistress, Zoë Carbonopsina ( , Zoë of the " Coal Black Eyes"), who then in 905 gave birth to a son, destined to be Constantine VII -- ironically the Porphyrogenitus, , Porphyrogénnêtos, "Born in the Purple" (I love this in German -- der Purpurgeborene), who nevertheless had been born a bastard. The Patriarch, now Nicholas I Mysticus, refused to baptize the boy unless Zoë was expelled from the Palace. She was. But Constantine was still a bastard, so Leo brought Zoë back and got a priest to marry them and legitimize the Heir. The result was considerable furor. Leo cleverly played the Photian and Ignatian factions of the Greek Church off each other and meanwhile appealed to Pope Sergius III . The Latin Church had no problem with serial marriages, just with divorce. So, in 907, with Sergius' belessing, Leo deposed Patriarch Nicholas (who would subsequently be restored), and installed Euthymius I, who was persuaded to agree with the Papal ruling (more or less). Thus, where Henry VIII broke with the Pope ( Clement VII ), and abolished the whole Church of Rome in England, in pursuit of a male heir, Leo's own pursuit was consummated by the timely help of the Pope, when the Greek and Latin halves were still One Roman Catholic Church (Una Romana Catholica Ecclesia), against the Patriarch. Leo did not long outlive the controversy. Subsequently, in the minorities of Constantine VII, Basil II, and Constantine VIII, we see multiple reigns from Imperial in-laws. Romanus I almost derailed the dynasty; but John I and Nicephorus II were extremely vigorous and successful in retrieving Romanian fortunes and territory, progress finally to be sealed by the adult Basil. This great Basil, however, had remained celibate and irresponsibly failed to provide for the future of the family -- so unlike Charles II of England, who not only arranged key marriages for his nieces, Mary and Ann, but had ironically, as a Catholic sympathizer himself, required that they be raised and married Protestant, thereby securing a Protestant succession in Britain after the inevitable disaster of his foolish Catholic brother James II. This may have been Basil's greatest failing as a ruler. After the death of Constantine VIII, only Theodora and Zoë, whom Basil had allowed to become nuns, remained of the Dynasty. Zoë endured three marriages to provide male sovereigns. These in-laws were as bad for the Empire as the earlier ones had been good. After the death of Constantine Monomachus, whom Zoë predeceased, Theodora briefly reigned alone at the end of the line. Note the marriage of Maria Argyropoulaina to a son of the Doge of Venice. This was arranged by Basil II well before the marriage of Romanus III Argyrus to Zoë. Maria is supposed to have introduced the fork to Venice when arriving there with Giovanni in 1004 or 1005 [cf. Judith Herrin, "Venice and the Fork," Byzantium, The Surprising Life of a Medieval Empire, Princeton & Oxford, 2007, pp.203-205]. The genealogy of the Macedonians is supplemented here with an abbreviated tree showing the major foreign marriages of the Dynasty. The marriage of Constantine VII to the daughter of Hugh of Arles is shown above, but there are four other marriages noted here. Two of them are not attested by all sources. Leo VI did have a daughter Anna (by his second wife), and marrying her to Hugh's predecessor in Burgundy, while his son married Hugh's daughter, produces a reasonable reciprocity; but marrying a true Porphyrogenita (still Porphyrogénnêtos -- in Greek a compound, although feminine, retains the second declension ending, -os, otherwise used for masculines -- a scruple not observed in Latin), a "Born in the Purple" Princess, to a barbarian king (which is what Louis III would have seemed to most), is something that some sources say was inconceivable, which is why all that the Emperor Otto II got was merely the niece of an Imperial in-law, John Tzimisces. Theophano was no Porphyrogenita (though some sources can be found referring to her as John's own daughter, or even as a daughter of Romanus II). Constantine VII himself asserted that a Porphyrogenita could not be married to a foreign prince -- although he then made an exception for the Franks. The most significant exception, however, would be St. Vladimir , who certainty did marry the Porphyrogenita sister, Anna, of Basil II and Constantine VIII. Since this attended the conversion of Russia to Christianity (989), with the material contribution of Russian (Varangian) troops to the Roman Army, it could well have been thought worth the price. , chmshkik, "red boot," which sounds like an epithet that John might have picked up, perhaps as a child (like Caligula's "little boot"). This is also transcribed as chmushkik, although there is no "u" ( , the digraph, like Greek , that we see in Gurgen) written there in Armenian, which otherwise may be using a vocalic "m." In any case, there is no good evidence or certainty about this identification or its meaning. It remains one of the more curious names found among the Emperors of Romania. But John's given name is also noteworthy. As I have commented above , actual Christian Biblical names have been relatively rare among Christian Roman Emperors, with the Macedonians as no exception.. This is especially striking with the name "John," (Iôánnês, Latin Johannes), which is a supremely Chistian Biblical name but previously here has only occurred with a usurper in the 5th century . Until recently in the United States and Britain, "John" and "Mary" were the most common given names. But here, beginning with Tzimisces and some Michaels ( ), Biblical names start becoming more common. There will eventually be eight Johns and Michaels each, with the occasional Thomas, , Isaac, , and David, , with some names less familiar in English, like Manuel, (from Emmanuel, in Greek and Spanish, a name for the Messiah, i.e. Jesus). We may think of George, , as a Christian name, but it only became so because of St. George, , whom I discuss below , and it was never the name of in Emperor in Constantinople -- although, like Peter, , not unusual elsewhere, as we shall see. The final marriage here is the potentially the most interesting but also somewhat problematic. Brian Tompsett's Royal and Noble Genealogy gives a sister "Irene" for the Empresses Zoë and Theodora, who is said to have married Vsevolod of Kiev , grandson (by an earlier marriage) of St. Vladimir [still listed this way as of June 2011]. I have not seen a single Macedonian genealogy that lists such an "Irene." This is of great interest because their son, , Vladimir II Monomakh, was the grandfather of Ingeborg of Novgorod, who married (1118) Knut Lavard Eriksson, the father of King Valdemar the Great of Denmark (1157-1182). Through the intermarriages of the subsequent royalty of Denmark, we get connections to many of the rulers of Europe. Thus, it is sometimes said that Queen Elizabeth II of England is a descendant of the Emperor Basil I. But that would only be true if Irene really was a Macedonian. Other sources have a slightly different claim. The Royal Families of Medieval Scandinavia, Flanders, and Kiev, by Rupert Alen and Anna Marie Dahlquist [Kings River Publications, Kingsburg, CA, 1997], says that Irene (or Irina) was "a daughter of Constantine IX Monomach" [p.160]. That is a lot different. Constantine was the Empress Zoë's third husband. She was already 64 when they married, so there is not much chance that Irene was her child, but Constantine was a widower (twice), and it is not surprising that he would have previous children, although Byzantine histories don't seem to bother addressing the issue. Vladimir II is called , "Monomakh," which thus sounds like a tribute to his Roman grandfather. Constantine IX's parentage for Irene is confirmed by the Erzählende genealogische Stammtafeln zur europäischen Geschichte, Volume II, Part 2, Europäiche Kaiser-, Königs- und Fürstenhäuser II Nord-, Ost- und Südeuropa [Andreas Thiele, R. G. Fischer Verlag, Part 2, Second Edition, 1997, p.81] and Volume III, Europäiche Kaiser-, Königs- und Fürstenhäuser, Ergänzungsband [Andreas Thiele, R. G. Fischer Verlag, Second Edition, 2001, p.218]. This gives us a much more reasonable picture. It does mean that Queen Elizabeth is not a descendant of Basil I (or Michael III, whatever); but she is a descendant of Constantine IX Monomachus, as can be seen on this popup . The genealogy also shows the descent of Elizabeth from Harold II of England, who was killed by the Normans at the Battle of Hastings in 1066. Harold's daughter Gytha, has it happens, married Vladimir Monomakh. Pages at Wikipedia give the wife of Vsevolod and the mother of Vladimir Monomakh as an "Anastasia ( ) of Byzantium," with the gloss that her parentage with Constantine IX "is not attested in any reliable primary source." I do not see the name "Anastasia" in any of my print references, as discussed above. Also, while I am not familiar with the primary sources for these issues (and the matter does not seem to be clearly addressed in the Greek histories), I am curious what the difference would be between a "reliable primary source" and whatever other primary sources would have addressed the marriages of Vsevolod. However, if Irene/Anastasia was not the daughter of Constantine IX, my fundamental questions would then be (1) who such a person would have been to have come from Byzantium to marry the son of a Prince of Kiev, and (2) how her son would then (coincidentally?) end up with the name or epithet "Monomakh" ( , )? This would all be exceedingly curious, to say the least. What makes the most sense at this point is that Constantine IX was Vladimir II's grandfather, with the marriage of Vsevolod arranged in 1046, after the attack on Constantinople in 1043, by Yaroslav I the Wise of Kiev (1019-1054). This Russian attack in 1043 is a matter of some interest. It may have been coincidence, opportunism, or coordination that it coincides with the revolt of George Maniaces in the same year. It was pressed forward despite the death of Maniaces from a wound and the end of his revolt. Rejecting an offer to buy off the attack, Monomachus set the Roman fleet to engage the Russians. With the help of Greek Fire, the Russian fleet was routed. This may be the last example of a decisive victory by the Roman Navy before, later in the century, the fleets of the Italian cities begin to dominate the Mediterranean and replace the Romans. The sequel of the battle is obscure, but we can speculate that the marriage of Constantine's daughter was part of the restoration of the previous good relations with the Russians. Harald Hardråde was still in the Varangian Guard in 1043, and we might even imagine him participating in the battle. King Harald's Saga, with some confusion of reigns and dates, has Harald escaping from Constatinople after kidnapping an otherwise unattested niece, Maria, of the Empress Zoë. A Viking kidnapping and carrying off a princess would not be so remarkable, but we are then told that before crossing the Black Sea, Harald dropped her off with a guard to escort her back to Constantinople. This makes me wonder. Could such a strange story reflect the circumstance that Harald himself escorted Irene/Anastasia to Kiev between 1044-1046? He arrived back in Norway to claim the throne in 1047. An escort job would thus nicely coincide with the period of his transit home. All this would dramatically tie together the events of a striking naval battle in the Bosporus (1043), the marriage of Vsevelod to a Roman princess (1046), and the fateful reign of Harald in Norway (1047-1066), culminating in the events (1066) that precipitate the entry of Englishmen into the Varangian Guard. I recommend this story to Hollywood, which has often featured Istanbul in its movies but never Constantinople. Nothing like Roman ships, "dromonds," , galleys with lateen sails, throwing flames on Viking longboats has ever been seen on film -- as I expect that Hollywood film-makers are entirely ignorant of the historical circumstances where that would have happened [ note ]. , "No blame" [or "It were no shame," Twelve Byzantine Emperors, Penguin, 1966, p.185]. This was a quotation from a line in the Iliad (3:156), where the Trojan elders see Helen come out on the wall and say to themselves: "Small blame that Trojans and well-greaved Achaeans should for such a woman long time suffer woes; wondrously like is she to the immortal goddesses to look upon." [3:156-158, Loeb Classical Library, A.T. Murray translation, Harvard, 1924, 1988, p.129] Maria was sharp enough to note the whispered comment, but she had to ask about its meaning. For us, it reveals the education of the Constantinopolitan Court, in perhaps the only city in Europe in the 11th century where Homer was going to be read and taught. The potential for ongoing confusion over the genealogy of the Macedonians is evident in The Varangians of Byzantium by Blöndal and Benedikz [ op.cit. ]. Thus, they say: In June [1043], when a large fleet under the command of Vladimir (Monomakh), son of Jaroslav, assailed the City, the Byzantines met it in the Bosphorus and defeated the combined force of Russians and Scandinavians, largely thanks to the use of Greek fire. [p.104] This seems to confuse the eldest son of Yaroslav the Wise, Vladimir (sometimes even "II"), who died in 1052, with Vladimir II Monomakh, the grandson of Yaroslav and Constantine IX. The statement in its own terms is peculiar in the use of an epithet, "Monomakh," that echoes that of the Roman Emperor, in the name of a Russian leading an attack on that very Emperor. This is unlikely on its face -- or that someone named after the Emperor would already be old enough to have such a command (Vladimir Monomakh was born in 1053). Instead, it is more reasonable that the marriage that produces Vladimir Monomakh was the result of the peace that followed the defeat of the Russian attack. Blöndal and Benedikz do not try to explain the anomalies that their identification generates. A very brief non-dynastic interlude concludes the period. Isaac I was the first of the Comneni and can be found on the genealogy of the Comneni below . Era of Diocletian 776-1170, 394 years And therefore I have sailed the seas and come To the holy city of Byzantium. William Butler Yeats (1865-1939), "Sailing to Byzantium" Romania, furthermore, is a very wide land with rugged, stony mountains. It extends south to Antioch and is bounded by Turkey on the east. All of it was formerly under Greek rule, but the Turks now possess a great part of it and, after expelling the Greeks, have destroyed another part of it. In the places where the Greeks still hold fortresses, they do not pay taxes. Such are the servile conditions in which the Greeks hold the land which French strength liberated when the Franks conquered Jerusalem. Odo de Deuil, La Croisade de Louis VII, roi de France, Volume IV, edited by Henri Waquet, Documents relatifs à l'histoire des croisades, Volume 3, Paul Guethner, Paris, 1949, pp.54-55, translated by James Brundage, The Crusades: A Documentary History, Marquette University Press, 1962, pp.111-112 Then followed a scene of massacre and pillage: on every hand the Greeks were cut down, their horses, palfreys, mules, and other possessions snatched as booty. So great was the number of killed and wounded that no man could count them. A great part of the Greek nobles had fled towards the gate of Blachernae; but by this time it was past six o'clock, and our men had grown weary of fighting and slaughtering. The troops began to assemble in a great square inside Constantinople. Then, convinced that it would take them at least a month to subdue the whole city, with its great churches and palaces, and the people inside it, they decided to settle down near the walls and towers they had already captured.... Our troops, all utterly worn out and weary, rested quietly that night. But the Emperor [ Alexius V ] Murzuphlus did not rest; instead, he assembled his forces and said he was going to attack the Franks . However, he did not do as he had announced, but rode along certain streets as far away as possible from those occupied by our army, till he came to a gate called the Golden Gate through which he escaped, and so left the city. Geoffroy de Villehardouin (d.1218), "The Conquest of Constantinople," Chronicles of the Crusades, Penguin, 1963, p.91 Then out spake brave Horatius, The Captain of the Gate: "To every man upon this earth Death cometh soon or late. And how can man die better Than facing fearful odds, For the ashes of his fathers, And the temples of his gods" Thomas Babington Macaulay, Lays of Ancient Rome, "Horatius [at the Bridge]," 1891, XXVII Let's go, men, against these barbarians! The Emperor Constantine XI Dragases , his last words, the Fifth Military Gate of Constantinople, May 29, 1453; Greek Text, Laonikos Chalkokondyles, The Histories, Volume II, Translated by Anthony Kaldellis, Dumbarton Oaks Medieval Library, Harvard University Press, 2014, p.192 "Then we must go higher. We must go to him whose office is to put down tyrants and give life to dying kingdoms. We must call on the Emperor." "There is no Emperor." "No Emperor..." began Merlin , and then his voice died away. He sat still for some minutes wrestling with a world which he had never envisaged." C.S. Lewis, That Hideous Strength, 1945, Scribner, 2003, p.290 The "Fourth Empire" begins with a blow, from an Islâm reinvigorated by the Turks, which represents not only a further diminution of the Empire, but a portent of the actual collapse and end of the Empire altogether. The catastrophic defeat at Manzikert alienated much of what had for long been the heartland of the Empire, Anatolia. It was a mortal wound, never to be made good; but the Empire nevertheless twice managed to struggle back up into at least local ascendancy, first under the Comneni and then under the Palaeologi. The Comneni had help, of a very dangerous sort, in the form of the Crusaders . Defeat by the Turks was not the cruelest cut of the period. That was when the Crusaders, manipulated by Venice , took Constantinople in 1204. With the Latins, the Empire fragmented into multiple Greek and non-Greek contenders: Nicaea, Epirus, Trebizond, Bulgaria, and Serbia, not to mention the Turks . While the Palaeologi, building on the success of Nicaea, reestablished Greek rule, only Epirus of the other successor states came back under Imperial control. The Empire of Michael VIII did seem to have a chance, but a new Turkish state, of the Ottomans , soon surged into dominance. It took more than a century for the Ottomans to scoop up all the spoils, but, like a slow motion car crash, the outcome has a horrible inevitability. Rome and Romania Index A. THE ADVENT OF THE TURKS, 1059-1185, 126 years 1060 AD -- Romanian territory is intact, but the military and financial foundations of Roman power have been undermined. The coinage is debased for the first time since Constantine. Resources have been wasted absorbing Armenia, and the forces of the Armenian themes have been disbanded. Local Islamic states are no threat, but the Seljuks are on the way. 1. DUCASES Botaniates 1078-1081 The Ducases had the misfortune of suffering the most catastrophic defeat of Roman arms since the Arabs won Palestine and Syria at Yarmuk in 636: The defeat by the Seljuk Turks at Manzikert in 1071, a battle lost more to treachery than to military superiority. And Romanus IV Diogenes became the only Roman Emperor besides Valerian to be captured in battle by an external enemy. Romanus was luckier than Valerian, in that he was treated with dignity and even kindness by the Sultân Alp Arlsan , and even released; but he was unlucky, as the Sultân himself ruefully appreciated, that he would return to a situation where he had already been deposed as Emperor. Defeated by the forces of the Caesar John Ducas, uncle of the new Emperor, Michael VII, Romanus (a mere in-law) eventually surrendered on terms of civil treatment -- but nevertheless died when the Caesar soon ordered him blinded. The picture of the respectful consideration of the Turk and the ferocious brutality of the Romans leaves an impression, like the earlier treatment of the Goths , both sorrowful and bitter. While there is no reason to doubt the sincerity of Alp Arlsan's Islâm, his Court and that of his successor, Malik Shâh, under the influence of their great Vizir, Nizâm al-Mulk, displays an intellectual power and cosmopolitan expansiveness that is well represented by the mathematician, astronomer, and poet 'Umar Khayyâm (d.1122). Is the Rubaiyat cynical or merely worldly? It is hard to say. Whatever it is, one wonders to what extent some attitude of the sort can be discerned in the behavior of the Sultân. Nevertheless, it is something that passes quickly. The greatest philosopher of the era, and one of the greatest philosophers of the Middle Ages, al-Ghazâlî (1058-1111), nevertheless fiercely attacked and effectively snuffed out the tradition of Greek philosophy in the Central Islâmic lands. Thus, the damage was done to Romania, but intellectually Islâm itself was now headed into decline. What had hitherto been the heartland of Romania in Anatolia, now became a bleeding wound to Turkish conquest, never to be recovered. Simultaneously, the Normans won, for all time, the last Roman city in Italy -- Bari. In 31 years (1040-1071), Romania had been finally expelled from Italy, 535 years after Belisarius had landed against the Ostrogoths. But from now on, we find that dynasties are identified by surname -- Ducas, , Comnenus, , Lascaris, , and Palaeologus, . Even Epirus and Trebizond are ruled by Ducases and Comneni, respectively. Within the dynasties, we find as in-laws the names Vatatzes, , among the Lascarids, and Cantacuzenus, , among the Palaeologi. The origin of the names is various, with Ducas itself from the Latin rank of dux ( q.v. ), used in Greek as . Some of these names we see today, not the least of which being the feminine surname become a given name, , "Angelina." Cantacuzenus turns up among the Phanariot Princes of România . Monomach, , which means "fighting in single combat," has the look of a sobriquet; but, born by Constantine IX, it is unlikely to have been earned by him personally. So it appears to be his surname, earned by an ancestor, as it will be born by his Russian grandson . The Ducas genealogy is given both here and below with the Comneni . The marriages of Constantine, the son of Michael VII, and his second wife, Anna Comnena, are of particular interest. The intermarriage of the Ducases with the Normans of Italy might have made for some political differences -- had the young bride, Helen, lived. By about the time of Manzikert, there were interesting new recruits to the Varangian Guard. Where Harald Hardråde had failed to conquer England in 1066, William the Conqueror , within days of the Norwegian defeat, would succeed at Hastings. The Norman Conquest spelled the dispossession of the native Saxon nobility, who then began to seek their fortunes elsewhere . Many of them consequently were drawn to the Varangian Guard. Having lost England to Normans/Vikings, Englishmen served the Empire that had withstood them. They would continue to do so for more than three centuries -- the first reference to Englishmen in the service of Romania was in 1080, the last in 1404 -- 324 years. Indeed, now we see references that 4350 English emigrants in 235 ships arrived at Constantinople in 1075 [Chronicon universale anonymi Laudunensis], or that the English arrived in 350 ships and were in part settled in a Nova Anglia, a "New England" far from Plymouth Rock [according to the Icelandic Jarvardar Saga]. According to Geoffroy de Villehardouin, there were still "Englishmen and Danes" defending Constantinople when the Fourth Crusade arrived in 1203. After the Greek recovery of the City by the Palaeologi in 1261, we have some indication that the surviving Varangian Guard may have been entirely English. In 1272 Michael VIII Palaeologus wrote a letter mentioning the Englishmen in his service, now called the , Egklinováraggoi (sing. , Egklinováraggos -- Enklinobarangi in Latin, sing. Enklinobarangus) [cf. Sigfús Blöndal and Benedikt S. Benedikz, op.cit., p.172]. Like the Norsemen, the English Varangians seem to have had their own church in Constantinople, dedicated to Saints Nicholas and Augustine of Canterbury (the Apostle to the English). Under subsequent Palaeologi, however, they fade from history. One might wonder, however, why go all the way to Constantinople? Was the Varangian Guard really that big a deal? Well, part of the problem for a sort of European Ronin (masterless warrior in a feudal system) is that, in the absence of cash economies, nobody was hiring mercenaries. If Englishmen wanted to be hired to fight after 1066, they needed to go to where there was a paid, professional military. In Christian Europe, that was still only in Constantinople -- still only the Tagmata. A noteworthy exception to this was in the South of Italy , where a cash economy existed, mainly because of its inclusion in the economic sphere of Romania. Cities like Naples had conducted trade with Constantinople both during their time as Roman possessions, after being recovered from the Ostrogoths, and then as they slowly drifted out of the control of Constantinople. They also conducted trade with Islâmic states, especially after the Aghlabids had conquered Sicily. This often scandalized other Christians. But it was even worse when they began to hire Muslim mercenaries. An Englishman, of course, might belong to the Varangian Guard but be fighting in Southern Italy nevertheless. There they would have met other mercenaries with whom they were not likely to have friendly relations: Normans who had come from Normandy looking for their own fortunes. The Norman mercenaries in Roman service had gone over to local rebels in 1040. When the English arrived, they found themselves actively fighting kinsmen of their old enemies, in Italy, Epirus, and Greece. These Normans were able to expel the Romans from Italy, recover Sicily from Islam, and then create a united Kingdom of Naples and Sicily . This resulted in the economic decline of the South Italian commercial cities. As the trade they had pioneered moved North, other Italian cities became wealthy enough to hire their own mercenaries. These become the famous mercenary Condottiere of the Renaissance. According to a recently released book, The Varangian Guard, 988-1453, by Raffaele D'Amato [Men-at-Arms, Osprey Publishing, Oxford, UK, & Long Island City, NY, 2010]: ...in Dobroudja [on the Black Sea], a short-lived Anglo-Saxon settlement called by the Varangians 'Nova Anglia' was created at the end of the 11th century... The chronicler Ordericus Vitalis recorded that 'the English were much distressed by their loss of liberty... A number of them, with the fresh bloom of youth upon them, went to distant lands.' [p.13] D'Amato says that one of the English exiles in Romania was "the pretender Edward Atheling" [p.13]. I do not know who this would be. There does not seem to be such a person as listed in the genealogies of either the Erzählende genealogische Stammtafeln zur europäischen Geschichte, Volume II, Part 1, Europäiche Kaiser-, Königs- und Fürstenhäuser I Westeuropa [Andreas Thiele, R. G. Fischer Verlag, Third Edition, 2001, p.264] or the The Mammoth Book of British Kings and Queens [Mike Ashley, Carroll & Graf Publishers, Inc., New York, 1998, 1999, p.468, 491-498]. We find "Edward the Exile" and "Edgar the Atheling", but no "Edward Atheling." Edward the Exile was sent into exile, hopefully to his death, by Canute. He didn't die and did spend time at the Hungarian Court (where he married the daughter, Agathe, of King St. Stephen I ). Recalled by Edward the Confessor, he was murdered, perhaps by partisans of Harold Godwinsson, and then his young son Edgar was made Heir Apparent. That was in 1057, so Edward could not have gone into exile after 1066. Too young to rule, Edgar was pushed aside by Harold in 1066. After Harold's death, Edgar was proclaimed King but then in short order surrendered to William. Edgar is the best candidate for exile in Romania, but that does not seem to be what happened. He was the obvious Pretender to the English Throne and spent many years at the Scottish Court (where King Malcolm married Edgar's sister Margaret) and elsewhere, stirring up trouble for the Normans. Eventually, he was pardoned by King Henry I and spent his remaining years, in increasing obscurity, on an English estate. However, according to the Mammoth Book [p.498], Edgar did go on Crusade in 1099. This may have involved some contact with Romania and so may be the source for D'Amato's (confused) reference. The long history of the English Varangians, as with the original and continuing Norse Varangians, accompanies the long decline of Romania. As declines go, 400 years is not what anyone would think of as abrupt or precipitous, but it was continuing and unreversed. The Varangian role has its melancholy aspect, as the Scandinavians and English are unable to prevent that decline, and as local Roman sources of wealth and manpower obviously undergo progressive decay in effectiveness. But there also is an aspect to it of great romance and nobility. In the last centuries of the Roman Empire, essential help came through the interest and devotion of individual foreign warriors, both from the most distant of old Roman possessions, Britain, and from peoples and lands, in the North, that had really been off the map and beyond the knowledge of Augustus, Trajan, or even Justinian. It is the sort of thing for which there really should be some small monuments in London, Oslo, Stockholm, or Copenhagen, in tribute to their countrymen who took the long trip to fight in the defense of Constantinople, over so many years. Yet, with the history of participation in the Varangian Guard largely forgotten, and the whole existence and history of "Byzantium" so generally ignored or despised, it is not clear who would have the interest to build such monuments and to commemorate such measures of devotion to the last Emperors in successon to Augustus and Constantine, and to what for long was still the greatest City of Christendom. It is a pity. As noted above, before the time of the English Varangians, relations of their Norman conquerors had themselves briefly served the Emperor Michael IV. Two of the original de Hauteville brothers from Normandy were in a group of 300 Normans under George Maniaces in Italy in 1037-1038. The eldest de Hauteville brother, William, earns his sobriquet "Iron Arm" by defeating the Amir of Syracuse in single combat in 1037. The disaffection and defection of the Normans, and their transformation of one of the Lombard revolts (1040), such as Romania had previously been able to defeat, would then drive Romania out of Italy by 1071, spelling the final alienation of Italy, retrieved by Belisarius in 536, from Constantinople (after 535 years) -- but then it also led to the recovery of Sicily from Islam (1061-1091), specifically from the Zirid Amirs of Tunisia, and the reunion of all Southern Italy into one Kingdom (1130). This brought the South of Italy into the history of Francia for the first time -- in the 13th century, under the German Emperor Frederick II , it could even be said to briefly be the center of that history, as Frederick made Palermo his capital. Catastrophe. The heartland of the Empire in Anatolia is completely overrun. Italy is lost to the Normans, forever. Only the Balkan European possessions, secured not long before, enable Romania to endure and recover, somewhat -- with the dangerous help of the Crusaders. Armenians, recently settled in Cilicia, are surrounded, although this will be the origin of the Kingdom of Lesser Armenia that will endure until 1375. The triumphant Normans meanwhile have invaded Sicily, which they will permanently recover from Islam. 2. SELJUK SULT.ÂNS OF RÛM Süleyman I ibn Qutalmïsh Deposed by Mongols , 1307 The first Turkish and Moslem state in Anatolia ironically began against the wishes, virtually in rebellion against, the Seljuk Great Sult.ân Malik Shâh (1073-1092), who was even negotiating with Alexius Comnenus for the withdrawal of the Turks from the region and whose troops actually killed Süleyman I. However, even the Great Sult.ân was finally in no position to force such a withdrawal, Roman resistance was so weak that Süleyman had no difficulty establishing his capital at Nicaea, and all help from the Sejuks ended with the death of Malik Shâh. The best that Alexius could do was to recover Nicomedia and hold on to it. Meanwhile, even western cities like Ephesus were falling. The Sult.âns then styled themselves the rulers of Rûm , i.e. "Romania." This list is from Clifford Edmund Bosworth's The New Islamic Dynasties [Edinburgh University Press, 1996]. While this is the traditional understanding of the role of Süleyman, a very different interpretation is now offered by Peter Frankopan [The First Crusde, The Call from the East, Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, 2012]. In these terms, Süleyman was the ally of Alexius Comnenus who maintained the Roman position in Asia Minor and was the duly appointed governor, not the conqueror, of Nicaea. This explains some other puzzling aspects of the reign of Alexius, which is where the Turkish mercenaries came from that he used against the Normans in the Balkans, and why the Roman position in Anatolia seemed to suddenly collapse in the early 1090's (after the death of Malik Shâh), when everyone assumed that it had already collapsed after Manzikert, before Alexius even came to the throne. Süleyman was killed, not by forces loyal to Malik Shâh, but by the very rebels that he, Alexius, and Malik Shâh were all attempting to suppress. Süleyman was even upbraided by his enemies for disloyalty to Islâm. While this thesis explains a lot, it leaves a number of things on the table. The role of Süleyman and the presence of the rebels, who were troubling to all, does mean that there is a substantial Turkish presence in Anatolia after Manzikert, so the traditional picture of many Turks overrunning the area cannot be entirely abandoned. That Alexius was able to form alliances with Turkish forces, including the Seljuk Sult.ân himself and now perhaps Süleyman also, bespeaks a clever strategic and diplomatic accommodation to the situation, which maintained the Roman position for some years; but it also means that with the removal of Alexius's allies, that position could collapse quickly. Süleyman's own son, Kilij Arslan, had been kept hostage by Malik Shâh (either against the good behavior of Süleyman or, perhaps more likely, because of the non-cooperative attitude of Kilij Arslan himself). With the death of the Sult.ân, he escaped and made his way to Nicaea, to assume the authority of his father, but this time independently of both Emperor and Sult.ân -- his later treaty with Alexius did not mean any compromise to the independence of Rûm that had now been established. The rapid collapse of Anatolian Romania thus testifies to the leverage that the Turkish presence in Anatolia had already created. Without help, Alexius could hold little beyond Nicomedia in the whole area -- although some Christian towns were still holding out when the Crusaders arrived, most dramatically and durably with the Armenians in Cilicia , where the domain outlasted the Sultanate of Rûm itself. Frankopan explains that the traditional picture of Roman collapse in Anatolia was due to Anna Comnena, who wanted to make it look like the losses in the regions were due to the predecessors of Alexius and were not events of his own reign. The Turkish position was secure until defeat by the First Crusade in 1097. Then Alexius was able to recover the western cities. The Turks fell back on Iconium (Konya), which became their capital for the rest of the history of the Sultanate of Rûm. Although sacked by Frederick Barbarosa on the Third Crusade (1190), Konya was lost forever to Romania. The Sultanate already, however, seemed to have lost its edge. The devastating defeat of Manuel Comnenus at Myriocephalum (1176) was not followed up, and the subsequent decline of Romania was mainly from internal weakening and fragmentation (readying it for the Fourth Crusade). The Sultanate was then defeated by the Mongols in 1243 and spent the rest of its history in vassalage. The final fall, in 1307, coincided with a very fragmented, but vigorous, period of new Turkish states -- the Oghullar , , or "sons" of Rûm. Osmanli Oghullarï Part of his vigor may have resulted from an influx of refugees from the Mongols. The Beys of Aydïn captured Ephesus in 1304, but the most serious portent for the future was the capture of Prusa (Bursa) in 1326 by the Ottomans . This quickly spelled the end of Romania in Asia, and by 1354 the Ottomans had a foothold in Europe. Only Tamerlane delayed the ultimate Ottoman conquest. A curious feature of the relationship of Constantinople to the Sult.âns of Rûm was its often cordial and almost friendly tone. Alexius Comnenus employed Turkish mercenaries and once, when he happened to capture the harîm of the Sult.ân, he promptly returned the women with his apologies. As I have noted, this sort of relationship to the Turks may have begun with in the early days with Süleyman I. To the Crusaders, these dealings with the Infidel were surest proof of Greek duplicity and treachery. What was going on, however, is illuminated by a comment of Kenneth W. Harl [in his video lectures, The World of Byzantium, for The Teaching Company, 2001] and by the description of Byzantine strategy and diplomacy in The Grand Strategy of the Byzantine Empire, by Edward N. Luttwak [Belknap, Harvard University Press, 2009]. Harl's comment was that Alexius saw the Turks as a new Bulgaria, which could be Christianized, domesticated, and then absorbed into the Empire, just as Bulgaria had been. This is consistent with the strategy described by Luttwak, one of whose key points was that the Empire did not aim at the extermination of its enemies, as the Rome of Trajan might have done. This was (1) too difficult and exhausting given the reduced power of Romania, (2) dangeorus when a battle could be lost as well as won, with hell to pay, and (3) futile when the elimination of one enemy would simply open the door for the next enemy in the queue, who is liable to be more aggressive and more alien than the previous one. Thus, while Anatolia had not been overrun in quite the same way before, the Balkans had. Over centuries, the inundation of the Slavs, Avars, and Bulgars had gradually been overcome and absorbed, with decisive military action only at the end. Premature attempts in that form, as in the days of Nicephorus I , had been disasters. And there was nothing new about the Turks. Romania had found good allies in the Turkish Khazars for three centuries, and we have seen Emperors marry Khazar women. Alexius knew that the Empire was in a bad way, but that had happened before. All it would take was patience. And Alexius would have some reason for hope. There had been Turkish converts to Christianity, even groups of them, who had come over to the Empire. After the First Crusade had driven the Seljuks back from their high water mark, the borders began to settle and they did not seem to pose the same kind of threat. Diplomacy and familiarity could begin to work their magic. Unfortunately, there were some features of the situation that told against the traditional strategy. The Turks were, indeed, recent converts to Islâm, but nevertheless this already gave them the sort of sophisticated religious system that the Slavs and Bulgars had not possessed. Christianity did not represent sophistication and civilization in comparison to Islâm as it had to the others. Also, religious influence continued to arrive from the central Islâmic lands, while Christian proslytizing was not tolerated. Roman and Christian culture thus had less of a chance of domesticating the Turkish threat. Indeed, the Bulgars themselves had not been entirely assimilated and were not regarded as "Romans" either by the Romans or by themselves. The potential for Bulgarian revival was great and would eventually come to pass . Most importantly, there were subsequent waves of Turkish immigration, reinvigorating the Turkish presence. The Mongols were bumping more Turks off the steppe just as the Huns had originally bumped inconvenient numbers of Germans into the Empire centuries earlier. But the Turks were both too strong and too weak. The Seljuks of Rûm were complacent enough that they took no real advantage of Manuel's defeat at Myriocelphum (a premature Roman push), but then they were staggered and subjugated by the Mongol defeat in 1243. This meant that the new waves of arriving Turks ended up creating new, vigorous states, the Oghullar, with whom domestication would need to start all over again, instead of being absorbed into a durable and familiar state of Rûm. Figures like John Cantacuzenus did try to start over again, even intermarrying with the Ottomans , but by then the situation of the Empire was so diminished (with the Bulgars, Vlachs, and Serbs going their own way), and that of the Turks so enhanced (still driven by undiminished Islâmic Jihâd), that there was little chance left for things to go over time as they had with the Bulgars. Instead, it was the Turks who tamed and absorbed Romania. 3. COMNENI Isaac Comnenus Emperor on Cyprus , 1185-1191 With the Turks at Nicaea (whether friendly or hostile, as discussed above ), the Normans ready to land in the west, the currency debased, the army dispersed, and the treasury empty, Alexius Comnenus had his job cut out for him. The results were satisfactory enough, but a couple of the desperate measures that the desperate times called for would have unfortunate long term consequences. The trade privileges given to Venice in 1082 eventually made Roman trade, and even the Navy, the plaything of Italian city states. Calling on the West for military aid against the Turks had the very unexpected result of Pope Urban II calling in 1095 for a "Crusade" to liberate the Holy Land and Jerusalem from Islâm. It is usually said that Alexius wrote a letter to the Pope asking for aid and that this inspired Urban to call for the Crusade. We also have a letter that Alexius is supposed to have written to Count Robert II of Flanders , whose father, Robert I, had recently (1089) been on pilgrmage to Jerusalem and evidently developed a relationship with Alexius on the way. Historians have been suspicious of the received text of the letter to Robert, but the problem may be the good Latin of the letter and its reference to losses to the Turks in Anatolia. Since the letter apparently dates from around 1093, the losses, which were thought to have occurred earlier, sound anachronistic. However, Peter Frankopan has recently argued that the situation in Anatolia actually did not deteriorate badly until that point, so that there is no anachronism in the letter [The First Crusade, The Call from the East, Belknap Press, Harvard University Press, 2012, p.60] -- its Latin would just be a function of competent translators in Constantinople. As it happened, Alexius developed a better relationship with Robert II than with most of the Crusaders on the First Crusade. Robert I had already sent Alexius 500 Flemish knights, who fought in Anatolia and in the Balkans for the Emperor. When the Robert II passed through Constantinople on the way home from Jerusalem, Alexius bestowed on him a relic that was supposed to be an arm of St. George. This special relationship between Constantinople and Flanders foreshadows, sadly, the later election of Count Baldwin IX of Flanders as Latin Emperor after the Fourth Crusade takes the City in 1204 -- "sadly" because the friendship with Alexius was replaced by the hostile conquest of his descendants, the Angeli, while the tenure and the fate of the Flemish in Constantinople was not edifying. Most of the Crusaders passing through Constantinople gave Alexius a very bad feeling. The possibility of what actually happened a century later, when the Fourth Crusade took Constantinople, was already very real. So Alexius bundled them as quickly as possible into Asia, where they defeated the Turks, making it possible to drive them out of western Anatolia together. This was of great material help to Romania, but the Turks remained based at Iconium (Konya). The Roman Army (with the thematic apparatus long gone) was never up to the task of dislodging them entirely. That this could have been done was revealed when Frederick Barbarosa , passing through on the Third Crusade, broke into Konya and sacked it (1190). That he died shortly thereafter steals the thunder from this act, but it is noteworthy. Meanwhile, the greatest military successes of the Comneni, by Manuel I, when his suzerainty was acknowledged by Lesser Armenia, Antioch, and even Jerusalem, were undone by a devastating defeat in 1176 at Myriocephalum ("Ten Thousands Heads"). Shortly thereafter Serbia breaks away, beginning a process of disintegration that would never be entirely reversed. The Englishmen in the Varangian Guard of Alexius I were not entirely able to escape their Norman nemesis. At the battle of Dyrrhachium in 1082, where Normans from Sicily under Robert Guisgard de Hauteville were trying to establish a beachhead in what is now Albania, a promising start turned into a rout of the Roman army, with many of the English Varangians, who had advanced impetuously beyond the rest of the army, slaughtered by the Normans. Nevertheless, despite this painful setback, and some others, Alexius finally was able to win the war and, with the help of the Venetians and even Seljuks, eject the Normans. The death of Guisgard in 1085 ended the threat, as the Normans otherwise concentrated on recovering Sicily from Islam -- though there was no love lost when Guisgard's son Bohemond passed through Constantinople on the First Crusade (he then became the first Prince of Antioch , violating an agreement to return the city to Romania). According to Raffaele D'Amato [op.cit., p.10], after the defeat of Manuel I at Myriocephalum in 1176 and considerable losses there to the Varangians, some English Varangians went home with a letter from the Emperor to King Henry II of England, saying, "We have also felt it a pleasure that it so happened that some of the chief men of your nobility were with us, who will, at your desire, inform you on all the circumstances [of the battle]." One thing this record demonstrates is that English recruits to the Guard were no longer merely dispossessed Saxons. Some "chief men" of Henry's own Norman nobility were drawn to the Guard. Indeed, there is direct evidence of this in a letter that St. Anslem (d.1109), of all people, wrote to a young Norman knight named William who was thinking of joining the Guard. His brother had already done so, and Anslem wanted William to become a monk. There is even a report that a "recuitment bureau" existed in London for the Guard [cf. Peter Frankopan, op.cit., p.87, reference to "Les Sceaux byzantins de Londres" by J.C. Cheynet, 2003]. We may reflect that even if William did join the Guard, he could not have lived long enough to have been at Myriocephalum, but he might have known Alexius I. This is why the tradition went on for centuries, long after 1066. Anthony Kaldellis says that the letter to Henry II is "a source has has been underutilized by modern historians" [Ethnography After Antiquity, Foreign Lands and Peoples in Byzantine Literature, University of Pennsylvania Press, 2013, p.29]. Indeed, multiple standard Byzantine histories do not even mention it. Even better, we hear about the letter from a contemporary, Gerald of Wales, who recounts how King Henry responded to Manuel's inquiries "about the geographical conditions, way of life, and things worth seeing in the island of Britain" [ibid.]. Gerald apparently contributed information about Wales to the response. Asking about "things worth seeing" seems like a much more Modern, rather than Mediaeval, sort of curiosity. Norse recruits to the Varangian Guard continued as Alexius entertained Scandinavian monarchs on Crusade or pilgrimage, particularly the Kings Eric I the Evergood of Denmark and Sigurð I the Crusader of Norway . Alexius at first distrusted Eric, as he did all the Crusaders, and had him camp outside Constantinople. We are told, however, that his spies reported Eric urging the Danish Varangians to serve the Emperor faithfully. Eric was then invited into the City and honored -- at least according to the Norse sources. Unfortunately, the pious King never made it to Jerusalem but died and was buried on Cyprus. Alexius is remembered in the Icelandic Sagas as Kirjalax, evidently from Kyrios Alexios, "Lord Alexius." The name was also used, confusingly, for subsequent Comneni. The positive reputation of Alexius in Scandinavia thus stands in noteworthy contrast to what it became in Latin Western Europe, where the conflicts of the First Crusade resulted in a smear campaign against Alexius on behalf of some of the Crusaders, particularly Bohemond of Antioch, who wanted to put his own machinations in the best light. Bohemond was successful in that and became widely regarded as the principle hero of the First Crusade, even though he had dropped out and failed to accompany the Crusaders to the capture of Jerusalem. A remarkable, if ironic, public relations triumph. On April 5, 1106, an event of serious ill omen occurred. The statue of Constantine I that had stood on a porphyry column in his Forum since the founding of the City, fell off in a storm. We have an account of this from The Patria description of Constantinople, associated with the appearance of a comet, which was also considered a thing of ill omen: This statue fell from the column and caused the death of the men and women who happened to be there, about ten in number, on the fifth of April of the fourteenth indiction, in the year [ Anno Mundi ] 6614 (1106), the twentieth year of the reign of the lord Alexios Komnenos... About the third hour, it became dark and a violent southern wind blew fiercely, for a comet, which is called the Spear, had caused this turbulence of the air. It appeared in the evening of the Friday of the first week, on the ninth of February of the fourteenth indiction, in the year 6614, and then stayed. [Accounts of Medieval Constantinople, The Patria, translated by Albercht Berger, Dumbarton Oaks Medieval Library, Harvard University Press, 2013, p.27] Apparently, no attempt was ever made to restore or replace the statue, and the fate of its remains is unknown. The column stands until today, now with iron brands around it, and with the appearance of having been once burned, which is now the name by which it is known -- the "Burnt Column." The loss of his central monument of the City even now has a ring of downfall to it, although the city will endure, in reduced circumstances, for another three and a half centuries. In Manuel I's day, in 1153, we also get recruits to the Varangian Guard from the Crusading force of the Earl of Orkney . Raffaele D'Amato says [op.cit. p.14] that the Earl, coming by sea, had six of his 15 ships split off at Gibraltar and go to Constantinople. D'Amato does not say which Earl of Orkney this was. That is a problem, since there were two Earls, cousins Ragnald III (1137-1158) and Harald II the Old (1139-1206), ruling simultaneously. I suspect that the Earl in question was Ragnald III, since we find Ragnald's more closely related cousin, Erlend III, becoming Earl in 1154 (1154-1156). This looks like something that would happen while Ragnald was away on Crusade. This speculation is confirmed by The Mammoth Book of British Kings & Queen [op.cit., pp.453-455], where Erlend III took advantage of Ragnald III's absence on Crusade to usurp his domain, with the permission of King Eystein III of Norway (the suzerain of Orkney at the time). Harald II withstood this move, but when Eystein III bestowed the entire County on Erlend, because Harald had been appointed by Ragnald without Royal permission, Erlend was able to eject Harald. Ragnald then returned from Crusade in 1155; and he and Harald combined forces to defeat and kill Erlend. The Mammoth Book does not mention any of Ragnald's men joining the Varangian Guard; but it does say that, returning from Palestine, Ragnald wintered in Constantinople, visiting the Emperor Manuel. If D'Amato is right, that six of Ragnald's ships left at Gibraltar to join the Guard, it does not sound like there would have been much hard feeling, for the Earl to be a guest of Manuel later on. Most of it was written after she was banished to a convent by her brother, John II, whom she apparently had tried to assassinate. This particularly intense form of sibling rivalry was in part the result of Anna's expectation that she would be closer to the seat of power, i.e. that the Emperor would be her husband. The birth of John spoiled this, and Anna, perhaps a feminist before her time, never accepted the wisdom of his succession. She blamed him for subsequent disasters; but, since the Alexiad doesn't cover his reign, she never quite says what these disasters were. The real disaster, Myriocephalum, happened after her death to her nephew, Manuel I. One reference to the Alexiad that I remember from childhood, that Anna says her father didn't trust the Crusaders because they didn't have beards and smelled of horses, I have been unable to find in the text. I was long under the impression that the Alexiad made Anna the first woman historian. She certainly has that honor in the West. However, I now discover that there was an earlier woman historian in China. Pan Chao completed the great History of the Former Han Dynasty after her brother, Pan Ku, was executed, leaving the work incomplete. This was during the Later Han Dynasty , a thousand years before Anna. Since Pan Chao's other brother, Pan Ch'ao, commissioned an embassy to Rome in 97 AD, unfortunately unsuccessful, we do have a tenuous historial link between the two women. From the few and questionable foreign marriages of the Macedonians , with the Comneni we find a large number of well attested ones, many with Crusaders but one making connections as distant as Spain. I was aware of few of these until a correspondent, Ann Ferland, began to point them out. The marriage of Maria of Montpellier, whose mother was Eudocia Comnena, to King Peter II of Aragon led to all subsequent Kings of Aragon and of Spain . A great deal of European Royalty, right down to the present, thus would be descendants of Alexius I Comnenus. The presence of the Venetians and the web of foreign marriages both attest to closer ties and increasing traffic, and not just of Crusaders, between Constantinople and the West. For instance, the Emperor Manuel (1143-1180) made a gift of a copy of Ptolemy's Almagest to King William I (1154-1166) of Naples and Sicily. This apparently was conveyed on a diplomatic mission by Henricus Aristippus (d.c.1162), who saw to the translation of the work, while he himself tried his hand at translating the Meno and Phaedo. The manuscript of the Almagest was inherited by Charles of Anjou , who then donated his library to the Papacy in 1266. The modern Vatican Library was not founded until 1475, and previous collections were often dispersed. Thus, the manuscript of the Almagest subsequently ended up in the Biblioteca Marciana in Venice. While interest in Greek and in doing translations may not be too surprising in the South of Italy, we see the first signs of it further north. Thus, James of Venice (c.1130/70) and Burgundio of Pisa (c.1110-1193) acquired manuscripts, traveled to Constantinople, and began turning out translations. This is still 300 years before the Renaissance proper, when such activities went into high gear, with much greater interest, Greek refugees, and the aid of the printing press. People like Burgundio and their pioneering efforts thus tend to be forgotten, but the later work probably owes them a debt that is now hard to estimate. 4. LESSER ARMENIA Mamlûks , 1375 The Kingdom of Armenia in the Taurus Mountains of Cilicia is called "Lesser" Armenia in contrast to the "Greater Armenia" of the Armenian homeland to the northeast. After Nicephorus II Phocas recovered the area from the Arabs in 965 and ordered all Moslems to leave, Christians from Syria and Armenia were encouraged to settle and garrison the land. Nicephorus himself even welcomed "schismatic," Armenian Orthodox Monophysites from Armenia, but this tolerance would not always continue and some friction was inevitable between many Armenians and the Imperial (the, strictly speaking, "Roman Catholic") Church. After the Seljuk breakthrough, more Armenians fled from the east, bringing the Patriarch with them, as the Turks overran Anatolia. The Armenians in the Taurus found themselves on their own and began organizing their own domains. When the Crusaders passed through, they were welcomed and aided. A daughter of Constantine I was married to Joscelin I , Count of Edessa, ushering in a long history of association and intermarriage between the Armenians and the Crusader states. Indeed, Armenian nobility were the only group in the Levant that the Crusaders seemed to regard as equals and whom they married on equal terms. The Armenians began to adopt Frankish customs, including feudal law, dress, and knighthood. This made Lesser Armenia rather like a Crusader State itself, and so it is shown on the map. The urge to adopt the Latin Rite in the Armenian Church, and to seek union with Rome, was promoted by the Armenian Monarchy but fiercely resisted by the Church and the populace. The history of Lesser Armenia puts to shame the antipathy in "liberal" opinion against the Crusades. The Armenians, surrounded and repeatedly attacked (until today) by militant Islâm, expose the hypocrisy of the anachronistic and tendentious characterization, by naive fools or vicious Lefists , of the Crusades as "imperialism," while Islamic Conquest, whether in the 7th century, the 11th, the 15th, or any other time, is itself ignored, rationalized, or excused. This is a living and crucial issue in our own day of Islamic Terrorism , when the Left has in effect joined forces with Mediaeval savagery in Iran , Iraq, Lebanon, Afghanistan, or Gaza -- and now Egypt and Libya -- in the Marxist cause of attacking capitalism and liberal democracy. Christians are under renewed attack in the Middle East, especially in Iraq and Egypt; but the "liberal" press, which never worries much about the murder of Christians or Jews by Muslims, continues to ignore such developments. This list of kings is mainly based on M. Chahin, The Kingdom of Armenia [Dorset Press, New York, 1987, 1991]. However, Steven Runciman, in his A History of the Crusades, Volume III, The Kingdom of Acre and the Later Crusades [Cambridge, 1951, 1987], gives a more complete family tree, abstracted below. Runciman, maddeningly (but characteristically), gives not a single date; but he does give a number of figures who account for the numbering of the Constantines and Thoroses in the dynasty. According to Chahin's list, these were not reigning kings, but, even if not, they were numbered as members of the dynasty. Or they may have been co-regents unrecognized by Chahin. On the other hand, Constantine IV and V are not listed by Runciman in the dynastic tree because they were both usurpers. "Peter of Cyprus" listed by Chahin is Peter I of Cyprus. Constantine V offered him the throne but then decided to keep it for himself when Peter was assassinated. This information is supplemented by Warren Threadgold's A History of the Byzantine State and Society [Stanford, 1997]. Chahin fails to mention, for instance, the capture of Leon I and his sons (including Thoros II) by the Emperor John II Comnenus. On the other hand, while Runciman and Chahin agree that the early Rupenids were "princes," without a royal title until 1198, Threadgold says that they began calling themselves "kings" in 1099. Since none of them give the actual terms they were using, perhaps just in Armenian, it is hard to know why there is this disagreement. Of greatest interest in the genealogy is when the house of Lesser Armenia makes reciprocal marriages with the Lusignan dynasty of Cyprus. This begins with the children of Leon III and Hugh III of Cyprus. Two sons and three daughters of Leon III married children of Hugh III. The result is that the succession of Lesser Armenia actually passes to to Lusignan. Such a close connection might have protected the Armenians, if Cyprus had been enough of a power to resist the Mamlûks, which, at least on land, it was not. The Kingdom of Lesser Armenia was the last independent Armenian state until the former Soviet Republic of Armenia became independent in 1991. As Armenians had relocated to Cilicia, so did the Patriarch of Armenia (in 1062). This line continued even after the fall of the Kingdom in 1375. In 1441, however, a new Patriarch was elected in Armenia. Sometimes it is said that the Patriarchate moved back to Armenia; but this is not true, since Patriarch Gregory IX (1439-1446) remained where he was, as Giragos (1441-1443) was installed in Armenia. The Cilician line continued, as it does down to the present, as the Great House of Cilicia . It relocated to Lebanon in 1930 because of continued attacks on Armenians in Turkey. As noted above, the Kings of Lesser Armenia promoted union with Rome, which was otherwise very unpopular. Six pro-Latin Patriarchs were assassinated; but there was still an Armenian delegation that accepted the union of the Churches at the Council of Florence in 1439. Eventually a Schism resulted, and in 1737 a line of Catholic Patriarchs began. By 1749, these Patriarchs were already seated in Lebanon, where the Maronite Church was already in communion with Rome. Historic Armenia Index The Empire has recovered as much as it is ever going to, and actually seems in relatively good shape, with deference all the way from Jerusalem to Hungary. But the heartland of the Themes is long gone. The Sultânate of Rûm is a nut that cannot be cracked -- the true seed of doom for Romania. And Roman trade and shipping is now dominated by Venice, just one of the states of Francia that now rivals or surpasses Romania in economic development. What had always been the key to Roman success, control of the sea , which had previously been lost at times to the Vandals and the Arabs, now is lost forever to Italian states. B. THE LATIN EMPIRE, 1185-1261, 76 years 1. ANGELI d.1204 Constantinope falls to Fourth Crusade, 1204 The worst and most disastrous dynasty in Roman history. Alexius IV brings in the Fourth Crusade, with impossible promises, to restore his incompetent father, and only succeeds in losing Constantinople to a foreign enemy for the first time ever. This may qualify as the true "Fall of Rome." The damage was bad enough, with many treasures and archives destroyed or carted off to Venice. Unlike the Goths at Rome in 410, the Crusaders stuck around for 60 years, with steadily decreasing success. As on the eve of the advent of the Goths in the 4th century , a massive earthquake affected the region in 1202 on the eve of the Fourth Crusade. This was centered in Galilee and the damage was principally inflicted through Syria and Palestine, which would only indirectly have affected Romania. However, the earthquake was so large (perhaps a 7.6 or greater) that Anatolia was also affected, while the effects of a tsunami could have extended into the Aegean. It is thus difficult to say how this might have damaged the strength of Romania when faced with the arrival of the Crusaders. Of course, one might think that damage to the resources of the Islamic states in the Levant would have made this an idea moment for the Crusaders to arrive there, but the Venetian plan against Constantinople had already seized the agency of the Crusade. In 1195, Isaac II, or the new Emperor Alexius III, sent three Varangians on a mission to Scandinavia to seek recruits for the Varangian Guard -- this is revealing when previously Danish and Norwegian monarchs had themselves come to Constantinople. We are told that Hreiðarr sendimaðr (i.e. "the Messenger") went to Norway (to King Sverre), Pétr illska went to Denmark (to King Canute VI the Pious), and Sigurðr grikker ("the Greek") Oddsson went to Sweden (to Knut I or Sverker II). Hreiðarr had the toughest time that we know of, since Sverre, anticipating war, had no warriors to spare. Allowed to recruit among farmers and merchants, it is not clear that Hreiðarr, who became embroiled in local events, ever returned to Constantinople. On the other hand, Pétr may have returned with the actual Danes who were subsequently observed by Geoffroy de Villehardouin in 1203. There are many stories about Sigurðr Oddsson, but it is not clear whether his mission was successful. Since there are references to Englishmen but not to Scandinavians in the Varangian Guard of the Palaeologi , this may be last the time when Norse warriors actively traveled to Constantinople [cf. Blöndal and Benedikz, op.cit. , pp.218-222]. Alexius III, having fled the Crusaders who installed Alexius IV and restored Isaac II, takes up residence at Mosynopolis in Thrace. Alexius V Mourtzouphlos, part of the popular reaction again the Crusaders and their friends, Alexius IV and Isaac II, conducted the last defense of the City but then fled. He sought refuge with Alexius III, who was, after all, his father-in-law, but who, however, had him blinded and expelled. Captured by some French Knights and returned to Constantinople, Mourtzouphlos was thrown to his death from the Column of Theodosius. Alexius III ultimately tries to get the Turks to defeat the Lascarids and install him at Nicaea. Unfortunately, Theodore Lascaris personally killed the Sultân of Rûm in single combat. Alexius is captured, blinded, and sent to a monastery. He dies, forgotten, some time after 1211. The Angeli continue the foreign marriages of the Comneni. One is particularly noteworthy. Irene Angelina, , daughter of the Isaac II, married a son of Frederick Barbarossa, Philip of Swabia , who contended with Otto of Brunswick for the German Empire. They had no sons; but the marriages of their four daughters are among the most interesting in European history. In a reconciliation of Philip's feud, the oldest daughter, Beatrice, married Otto himself. But they had no children. The younger daughters, Kunigunde, Marie, and Elizabeth, married King Wenceslas I of Bohemia , Duke Henry III of Lower Lorraine and Brabant , and King & St. Ferdinand III of Castile and Leon , respectively. All of these marriages produced children with living modern descendants, especially among the Hapsburgs and the royal family of Spain, as can be traced at the linked genealogies. Since Isaac himself was a great-grandson of Alexius I Comnenus, this means that a large part of modern European royalty, through this connection alone, have been descendants of the Angeli and Comneni. My impression is that Roman Imperial descent for recent royalty has often been claimed through the Macedonians, but the only certain line, as we have seen , may be from Macedonian in-laws. On the other hand, descent from the Comneni and Angeli appears to be well attested and with multiple lines. Another fruitful line will be from Maria Lascarina, , who married Bela IV of Hungary . Since the Lascarids themselves derive from Anna Angelina, , daughter of Alexius III, and Maria's mother, that connects up to the whole Comneni-Angeli house. Maria's son, Stephen V of Hungary, had a daughter, Katalin, who married the Serbian King Stephen Dragutin, who had a daughter the married a Bosnian Ban , with many descendants. This line all the way to the Hapsburgs can be examined on a popup . 2. BULGARIA, ASENS 1279-1284?, d.<1302 Asens replaced by Terters In 1204, the Pope recognized Kalojan as "King of the Bulgarians and the Vlachs" (Geoffroy de Villehardouin, calling him "Johanitza," even says "King of Wallachia and Bulgaria"). Indeed, the Asen brothers, founders of the dynasty, were themselves Vlachs, i.e. modern Romanians . This is therefore not a purely ethnic Bulgarian state. It also came close to succeeding to the throne in Constantinople, though later overpowered by the Mongols , Serbia and, of course, the Ottomans . The principal setback to the Bulgarian state was the Mongol invasion of 1242, which itself was almost an afterthought as the Mongols abandoned the conquests of Poland and Hungary in 1241 and were returning to Russia. The Chingnizids needed to go to Mongolia to elect a new Great Khan . What followed for Bulgaria was a period of internal conflict, between members of the Asen dynasty and outsiders. Two unrelated usurpers, Constantine Tich and Ivaljo, figure in the table above. Another unrelated figure, however, Ivan Mytzes, becomes an Asen in-law and the father of the last Asen Emperor, John III. This is a confused period, with pretenders contending and dates uncertain. John III fled to the Mongols and then to Constantinople. He was succeeded in Bulgaria by his erstwhile minister, George Terter. The list of Bulgarian rulers is from various Byzantine sources, including the only source of the genealogy here, which is the Erzählende genealogische Stammtafeln zur europäischen Geschichte, Volume II, Part 2, Europäiche Kaiser-, Königs- und Fürstenhäuser II Nord-, Ost- und Südeuropa [Andreas Thiele, R. G. Fischer Verlag, Part 2, Second Edition, 1997, pp.160-162]. Although John III lost Bulgaria, his descendants figured in affairs in Constantinople for some time. Since his granddaughter married the Emperor John VI Cantacuzenus, whose daughter Helena married the Emperor John V, all the subsequent Palaeologi are his descendants. 3. LATIN EMPERORS AT CONSTANTINOPLE Baldwin I of Flanders Philip III titular Emperor 1364-1373 While the conquest and sack of Constantinople have rightly been regarded as one of the worst cases of vandalism and betrayal in world history, a stab in the back against the state and the civilization that had been the repository and guardian of Classical, Western, and Christian culture during most of the Middle Ages, and an insult by Latin and Frankish Western Europe against the Greek and Orthodox East, one thing must be admitted: This was not what the Crusaders had in mind. It wasn't their idea or their intention. The whole project had been initiated by the future Alexius IV Angelus, looking to restore his father, cooked up in detail by Venice , and then conducted from beginning to end by the Doge Enrico Dandolo. The betrayal it represents, then, was of a more intimate character, since Venice was in origin, culture, and tradition one of Romania's own. In the most attenuated sense, it was still a de jure possession of Constantinople. The Crusaders, who thought that getting to Outremer by sea would be easier than marching overland, did not reckon on the scale of demands for payment by Venice, or on the cynical manipulations that would follow. Pope Innocent III wasn't too happy about it either, and the Crusaders earned excommunication for fighting Christians, for Venice, rather than Moslems, for Christendom. However they got to Constantinople, of course, they still didn't need to sack the City. We can blame them for that. In the end, of course, the blame doesn't matter -- and some of it should be shared by Alexius IV anyway. The damage was done. There would be hell to pay, and several modern conflicts in the Balkans and between Turkey and her neighbors are arguably still the result. Nevertheless, the demonology of blame has some modern significance. If Venice is ignored and significant spleen directed at the Crusaders, there may be a particular reason for this, derived from a sort of anachronistic hostility that is directed at the Crusades in general: Where we see them condemned as imperialism, euro-centrism, racism, xenophobia , or the oppression of the Third World -- terms that would have been incomprehensible to anyone in the 13th century -- something is going on that owes little to history and much to modern ideology. To Islamic Fascism , its enemies are always "Crusaders," whether or not they are even Christians. To the Leftist sympathizers of Islamic Fascism, the Crusaders are simply viewed through the prism of their own Marxism and "anti-imperialist" Leninism . The effect also exemplifies moralistic relativism , with the Islamic Conquest of the Middle East itself ignored, complacently accepted, or approved, while any counter-attacks to that Conquest, which is what the Crusades were, are viewed with furious moral indignation. The double standard is blatant and shameless -- its very incoherence is not even an embarrassment to the post-modern deconstructionists who think that logical consistency is itself Euro-centric oppression. Thus, reactions to the Fourth Crusade, as to all the Crusades, may be more of a mirror to the present than an understanding of the past. The destruction and theft effected by the Crusaders was probably a greater loss to civilization than almost anything that had happened to Romania during the Dark Ages. Yet there are two sides to the story, which we see in the account of Michael Choniates (c.1140-1220), the last Orthodox Archbishop of Athens before the city was taken by the Crusaders in 1205. He was forced to abandon his library, which then seems to have mostly been destroyed. We know that he had copies of Aitia and Hekale by Callimachus, which otherwise now only survive in fragments. Thus, Michael said, "Sooner will asses understand the harmony of the lyre and dung-beetles enjoy perfume than the Latins appreciate the harmony and grace of prose" [N.G. Wilson, Scholars of Byzantium, Duckworth, 1983, 1996, p.205]. This sounds rather like the chracterization of the Regents of the University of Texas by J. Frank Dobie (1888-1964), that they knew as much about academic freedom as an Arkanas razorback hog did of Keats' "Ode on a Grecian Urn." But some of the library seems to have been dispersed rather than destroyed, as a friend of Choniates wrote him about some books he had recovered. But the most interesting comment is a complaint from Choniates that the price of books has been rising because "booksellers were doing a great trade with Italians" [ibid.]. The Latins buying the books were probably not the same ones who had been destroying them, and we have already seen above that Italians were beginning to acquire and translate Greek literature in the 12th century. Indeed, we know something of the Latins who were buying books. The Dominican friar William of Moerbeke (c.1215-c.1286) traveled around Romania, acquiring manuscripts and translating them himself. In 1280 he became the Latin Archbishop of Corinth, which placed him in the middle of things. His buying and translating activities may have even been at the personal request of his fellow Dominican Thomas Aquinas , who of course was himself from the South of Italy. This was after the time of Choniates, but it does mean that the buying about which he was complaining continued through the century. At the same time, we know that King Manfred (1250-1266) of Naples and Sicily was actually commissioning translations of Aristotle from Bartholomew of Messinia. The translations are supposed to have been sent to the University of Paris, where Aquinas (1224-1274) might have inspected them himself [ibid. pp.226-227]. Otherwise, we think of Aquinas using translations of Aristotle that were made from Arabic editions. Amid all the damage done by the Crusaders, there thus was also already a salvage operation in effect. The disorders of the Fourth Crusade or the Turkish Conquest were probably not the safest or most efficient ways to supply Francia with Greek literature, but what we now thankfully have is the result. But the Latins who were out buying books were not the same ones trying to run a government from Constantinople. Without the sources of taxation, and before long reduced to the environs of the City, the Latin Emperors were desperate for money. This is why we hear of them melting down bronze statues and stripping the metal roofs off of buildings, activities I have previously noted . The conquest of Constantinople by the Fourth Crusade did not result in the establishment of the authority of the Latin Emperors over the whole of the previous Empire. Greek authority was maintained in three major locations, at Nicaea , at Trebizond , and in Epirus , and a couple of minor locations, at Rhodes, later to fall to Venice, and at the fortress of Monembasia in the Peloponnesus (Morea), which fell in 1248. All three major Greek rulers eventually proclaimed themselves emperors, which means that at one point four rulers were claiming the Imperial dignity within the old Empire -- not to mention the Bulgarian and Serbian Tsars who also wanted to inherit it. The Emperor at Nicaea was the one to return to Constantinople, but the Emperor at Trebizond was the last to fall to the Turks. Besides the 3/8 of the whole retained by Venice , including Adrianople and Gallipoli, the Latin Empire ended up included three significant feudal dependencies, all subjugated and organized by the leader of the Fourth Crusade, Boniface the Margrave of Montferrat : the Kingdom of Thessalonica (1204-1224), with Boniface himself as king, the Duchy of Athens (1205-1456), and the Principality of Achaea (1205-1432). Kings of Thessalonica 1207-1224, d.1230/9 Thessalonica taken by Epirus , 1224 Boniface was denied the Imperial throne by the Venetian votes, apparently because it was thought that he might make too strong an Emperor. Instead, Baldwin IX, Count of Flanders , was elected Emperor. Baldwin's reign would be short and pathetic, but one does have to say: this is a long way from Bruges. Flanders itself, inherited by Baldwin's daughters, would continue to play a role in European history far out of proportion to its size, as its wealth contributes to the power of the Dukes of Burgundy and then the Hapsburgs . The Latin Emperors could have used some of that wealth. Their fragment of Romania had a similarly reduced tax base, and the Venetians dominated trade with an immunity to taxation. The result was that classical bronzes were melted down for the metal, and even the copper and lead roofs of churches were stripped and sold. None of the damage of the conquest was made good, while regular maintenance of walls and structures was neglected. The Greeks recovered a depreciated and degraded city in 1261. Boniface himself was killed in 1207 and the Kingdom of Thessalonica turned out to be the most short-lived of the Crusader states in Romania, falling to Epirus. In 1311 the Duchy of Athens was seized by the Catalan Company, which had mutinied against the Palaeologi. The Principality of Achaea eventually got mixed up with the Anjevians and finally was inherited, much too late, by the Palaeologi in 1432; but the Duchy of Athens never returned to the control of Greek Romania. It fell to Meh.med II in 1456. After the restoration of Greek rule in Constantinople, a claim to the Roman throne passed down through the descendants of Baldwin II. Charles of Anjou , who had his own designs on Romania, married a daughter to Baldwin's son Philip. Later, Charles' grandson Philip married the heiress, Catherine of Valois, of the claim. None of these claimants, however, ever had much of a chance of returning to Constantinople. Many of them, however, were also Princes of Achaea , where their succession and genealogy are given in detail. The nimbus is not used for the Latin Emperors in the genealogy because, as Roman Catholics, they would have acknowledged Papal supremacy to a degree that the Orthodox Emperors in Constantinople never would. Latin Emperors could not be "Equal to the Apostles." 4. DESPOTS OF EPIRUS 1335-1337, 1340, & 1355-1359 Epirus absorbed by Andronicus III , 1337, 1340 In the scramble for a Greek successor to the Angeli, Epirus was in a good position, from which considerable progress was made. Thessalonica was the second city of the Empire, and its capture reasonably prompted Theodore Ducas to proclaim himself Emperor. From there, however, things only went down hill. Theodore was himself defeated and captured by the Bulgarians, which would add him to the number of Valerian and Romanus IV if we considered him a proper Emperor of Romania. But the chance of that dimmed further when Theodore's successors were defeated by Nicaea, reduced to despots, and then Thessalonica itself fell to Nicaea. Noteworthy in the genealogy is the marriage of Anna Angelina Ducaena, , to Prince William II "Great Tooth" of Achaea . Their daughter became the Heiress of Achaea. However, the marriage of , Helene, to Manfred of Sicily had no issue. These marriages represented the alliance of Epirus with Sicily and Achaea, which came to a bad end at Pelagonia in 1259. William himself was captured. Epirus itself proved difficult for either Nicaea or the Palaeologi to subdue and rule, so the despots continued there for a while, subsequently under some rulers unrelated to the Ducases, including a couple of Orsini, from a noble family of the City of Rome that contributed a number of Popes and was usually involved in the domestic disputes, rising to the level of civil wars, among the Roman nobility. How they came to be involved in Eprius, I cannot say. By the time Andronicus III was able to annex the territory, the Empire as a whole was too far gone for it to have helped very much. 5. EMPERORS AT TREBIZOND Trebizond falls to Meh.med II , 1461 A very poor excuse for an "empire," Trebizond spent much of its existence in vassalage to the Mongols and Turks who ruled the plateau behind it. It started, however, with an heir to the Comneni and a reasonable ambition of moving on to Constantinople. After realistic chances of that past, Trebizond ended up with the dubious honor of being the last of the Greek states to fall to the Ottomans, in 1461. Lists of the Emperors of Trebizond can be found in various Byzantine histories, but the genealogy here only comes from the Erzählende genealogische Stammtafeln zur europäischen Geschichte, Volume III, Europäiche Kaiser-, Königs- und Fürstenhäuser, Ergänzungsband [Andreas Thiele, R. G. Fischer Verlag, Second Edition, 2001, pp.235-236]. In the genealogy of the Comneni of Trebizond, there are noteworthy marriages to Kings of Georgia . There is also the interesting episode of Irene, daughter of Andronicus III Palaeologus , briefly succeeding her husband Basil as ruling Empress. She was then succeeded by her sister-in-law Anna. Most extraordinary is a marriage at the end of line. A daughter, Theodora, of Emperor John IV married Uzun H.asan, a Khan of the White Sheep Turks (1457-1478), the very Khan who conquered the Black Sheep Turks in 1469 and created a regional state that stretched from Eastern Anatolia, where the White Sheep Turks originated, into Eastern Irân. This continued until the Safavids came to power in 1508. 6. LASCARIDS John IV 1258-1261 Sicilians & Epirotes defeated, William II of Achaea captured, Battle of Pelagonia, 1259; William ransomed with the Morea , 1261 The Lascarids at Nicaea were perhaps the best placed to move on Constantinople, except that they were at first on the wrong side of the Bosporus. Meanwhile, the legitimacy of the regime as the successor to the Angeli was reinforced when the Patriarch of Constantinople relocated to Nicaea, as well as by the dramatic moment when Theodore I killed the Sultân of Rûm in battle. The Asiatic base of the Lascarids was remedied, mainly by John Ducas Vatatzes, who defeated the Greek rivals at Thessalonica and creating a state that straddled Europe and Asia. This created the kind of stranglehold on Constantinople that the Turks would duplicate later. See the Angeli for the genealogy of Anna Angelina, , daughter of Alexius III. Maria Lascarina, , daughter of her and Theodore I, married Bela IV of Hungary , from which derives multiple lines of descendants. The marriages of the daughters of Theodore II, Maria, , to Constantine Tich of Bulgaria , and Irene, , to Nicephorus I of Epirus , do not seem to have been fruitful. Constantinople was regained on a chance betrayal to the Nicaean general and Regent, Michael Palaeologus. Once in power in Constantinople, Michael disposed of the actual Nicaean heir, John IV. The Lascarids, who were actually mostly the family of John Ducas Vatatzes, thus only served to obtain the restoration of Greek Romania for the Palaeologi. C. THE LAST DAYS, 1261-1453, 192 years 1. SERBIA Regent, 1458-1459, d.1473 annexed by Turkey, 1459 The Golden Age of Serbia. Independence from Romania and then the passing of the most vigorous days of Bulgaria meant an opportunity for a Serbian bid for the Imperium. This opportunity was seized by Stephan Dushan, who ended up with most of the western Balkans and was crowned Tsar of the Serbs and Romans by the autocephalous Serbian Patriarch whom he had just installed (1346) at Pec. His long reign, however, was not quite long enough, and his death set off the kind of internal dissentions that had ruined many another state in Romania. The power of Serbia was broken, and the only Tsar succeeding to the first received the epithet "the Weak," and unrelated Princes soon inherited the Kingdom. Then, all too soon, the Ottomans arrived. Defeats in 1371 and 1389 crushed Serbia. The agony of the Battle of Kosovo in 1389, the "Field of the Blackbirds," still echoes today in the fierceness of the attachment of modern Serbs for the area, now largely populated by Albanians. As it happened, the Sult.ân Murâd I died at Kosovo, but his son, Bâyezîd the "Thunderbolt," was, if anything, even more vigorous than his father. In 1396 Bâyezîd destroyed a Crusade, led by the King of Hungary and future Emperor Sigismund, at Nicopolis (Nikopol). Not even Bâyezîd's defeat and capture by Tamerlane (1402) revived Serbian prospects. The dynasty of Stephan Dushan is followed by two families of princes. Stephen Lazar and his son endured the Turkish defeat and conquest and were reduced to despots. They were followed by the Bronkoviches, father and son. The wife of Lazar III Brankovich, Helene, was a daughter of Thomas Palaeologus (d.1465), Despot of the Morea and brother of the last Roman Emperor, Constantine XI . After the death of Lazar, Helene was Regent of Serbia until the Turkish annexation. Lists of Serbian rulers can be found in various Byzantine histories, but the genealogy here only comes from the Erzählende genealogische Stammtafeln zur europäischen Geschichte, Volume II, Part 2, Europäiche Kaiser-, Königs- und Fürstenhäuser II Nord-, Ost- und Südeuropa [Andreas Thiele, R. G. Fischer Verlag, Part 2, Second Edition, 1997, pp.143-149]. 3. BULGARIA, TERTERS disintegration of state, 1385; Ottoman vassalage, 1387, 1388, Conquest, 1396 The second Bulgarian dynasty of the period was always at a disadvantage, ground between the Mongols, Serbs, Hungary, and the Ottomans. Ottoman conquest and annexation came in the same year (1396) as the Sult.ân Bâyezîd's defeat of a Crusade, led by the King of Hungary and future Emperor Sigismund, at Nicopolis (Nikopol), where John Sracimir was killed. Over time, the Turks clearly regarded Bulgaria as strategically more important than Serbia or the Romanian principalities, and no local autonomy was allowed at all until the Russo- Turkish War of 1876-1878 and the Congress of Berlin (1878) forced it. Even then Bulgaria was divided and full independence did not come until 1908. Meanwhile, a fair number of Bulgarians had converted to Islâm. Since they were regarded as traitors by Christian Bulgarians, many of them migrated to Turkey, where they still live. The list of Bulgarian rulers is from various Byzantine sources, including the only source of the genealogy here, which is the Erzählende genealogische Stammtafeln zur europäischen Geschichte, Volume II, Part 2, Europäiche Kaiser-, Königs- und Fürstenhäuser II Nord-, Ost- und Südeuropa [Andreas Thiele, R. G. Fischer Verlag, Part 2, Second Edition, 1997, pp.162-163]. 5. PALAEOLOGI 1428-1460, d.1465 Principality of Achaea inherited, 1432; Mistra, Morea, falls to Meh.med II, 1460; last piece of Romania, the fortress of Monembasia, ceded to the Pope , 1461; daughter Zoë marries Ivan III of Russia, 1472; Thomas dies at Rome, 1465 Michael Palaeologus restores the Greeks to Constantinople, and for a time Romania acted as a Great Power again, fending off Charles of Anjou , with Genoa now replacing Venice as commercial agents and Italians-of-choice in Constantinople. But it was a precarious position. Michael himself sowed the seeds of disaster by confiscating land from the tax exempt akritai, (sing. akritês, ), the landed frontier (ákron, ) fighters of Bithynia. This weakened defenses that Andronicus II weakened further with military economies, failing to follow the maxim of Machiavelli that the first duty of a prince is war. Once the Ottomans broke the Roman army in Bithynia (1302), they, and other Turks, quickly reduced Roman possessions in Asia to fragments, never to be recovered. Bithynia (Prusa, Nicaea, and Nicomedia) became the base of Ottoman power, with Prusa, as Bursa, the Ottoman capital. there were 14th century banners that would have evolved into a proper flag for Romania, given the chance. We find a field with a Cross, like many Crusader banners and flags, with the addition of curious devices, which look like images and mirror-images of something between the letter B, the letter E, and broken links of a chain. These are sometimes said to have already been used by Constantine I and have been variously interpreted. One interpretation that is seen is to take them as B's which abbreviate Basileus Basileôn Basileuôn Basileusin, "King of Kings ruling over Kings." However, Basileus in Mediaeval Greek meant the Emperor, not "king," while the Latin word rêx was used for actual kings. So this formula would have to be employing anachronistic usages of basileus. That's possible, but the Rhômaioi could also find something of the sort offensive. So this looks like a retrospective and speculative interpretation. Another possibility is that they are stylized forms of Crescent Moons, originally symbolic of the divine patroness of Byzantium, the goddess Artemis. The stylized forms have been inherited in the arms of Serbia , and crescents are used as a Serb national symbol, seen at left -- something that has probably become a sign of terror to non-Serbs in Croatia, Bosnia, and Kosovo. If it was the Crescent that was originally used in Constantinople, this may have been directly inherited by Turkey . A Crescent is now commonly taken as symbolic of Islâm, but this may not antedate the Turkish flag. The star on the Turkish flag is sometimes said to be Romanian also, symbolizing the Virgin Mary, but it does not occur on the earliest Turkish flags. However, Whitney Smith [Flags Through the Ages and Across the World, McGraw-Hill, 1975] shows a flag identified only as "medieval Russian" that shows a cross with four crescents and four stars also [p.174]. The crescents are oriented differently, but this design seems too elaborate not to have Roman antecedents. The banner that Whitney Smith shows for Romania itself [p.45] has the flag with the distinctive devices quartered with a simple red cross on white. One does not find this banner, or other Roman symbols, shown or discussed in the standard Byzantine histories . This seems peculiar, and Smith gives no reference for his banner. Wikipedia does cite a Spanish atlas circa 1350, the Conoscimento de todos los Reinos. If we do not know of it from Greek sources, that is probably why it does not figure in the Byzantine histories. I would like to know more about the history and meaning of such a banner. The red cross on white came to be identified as the Cross of St. George ( ), which is how we see it as the flag of England -- something that is coming into increasing use today, when England often has sports teams separate from Scotland (which uses the Cross of St. Andrew). But St. George has been widely popular and is the patron of many places, including Barcelona, Portugal, Beirut, Georgia in the Caucasus, and various other states and cities. While the red on white Cross was used by Genoa and some other Italian cities, there is the complication that St. George is not the Patron Saint of Genoa (although this is sometimes said to be the case, as I have been doing previously) -- that is John the Baptist. The Genoese cross is thus perhaps not originally the Cross of St. George at all -- although there is a story about the red cross and St. George being brought back from the First Crusade (1099), which is possible. Wikipedia says that ships from London began using the red Cross on white in the Mediterranian in 1190 precisely to benefit from the protection of Genoa -- the Doge was paid an annual tribute for the privilege of this use. Since Genoa became the ally of Constantinople under the Palaeologi, I wonder if the banner actually reflects that alliance. In modern custom, the upper corner by the staff, the canton, is the key quarter, so the quartering we see could be something used in the first place by the Genoese. There is the issue of just how and when the red cross on white becomes associated with St. George. The Saint, as a native of Lydda in Palestine, was popular in the Orthodox Churches (a cave near Beirut is still pointed out as the site of his slaying the dragon, although other places also claim that distinction), and the earliest known depiction of him slaying the dragon is from 11th century Cappadocia, but I am not otherwise aware of him being particularly iconic for the identity of Romania or Constantinople -- as I have noted, Byzantine histories have little discussion of such symbols. And "George," , is not originally a Christian name but derives from the name of Zeus Georgus, ("earth worker"), i.e. Zeus the patron of farmers. The crosses in general are artifacts of the Crusades , and the particular popularity of St. George in the West was itself the result of Crusaders bringing his cult and legend back with them. In a 1188 meeting between Richard the Lionheart and the King Philip II Augustus of France, red on white was chosen for the Crusaders of France and white on red for those of England, but this was apparently a random assignment and did not involve any preexisting attachment of France, or of these colors, for St. George (see more about this elsewhere ). And these assignments persisted for some time. In the St. Louis Cathedral in New Orleans, the body of St. Louis, who died in 1270, is still shown draped in the red on white. Since St. George was not the patron of Genoa, the association of the red cross with the Saint is more likely to originate at the source with the Crusaders. It is noteworthy that the church of the English Varangians in Constantinople was dedicated to St. Nicholas and St. Augustine of Canterbury. One would have expected a church of English warriors to involve St. George, if St. George was already associated with England. He wasn't. Nevertheless, I do find positive statements at Wikipedia that in England St. George had along been revered and the red cross on white had long been associated with him even before the Third Crusade, and that the white cross on red was assigned by the Pope to England but then switched with France at the 1188 meeting between Richard and Philip II. This is inconsistent with my other sources (e.g. Whitney Smith, Znamierowski, or elsewhere at Wikipedia), does not seem to be attested by the evidence, as noted below, and in general is not consistent with the understanding that the use of crosses originated with the Crusades (at a time when national flags or settled national colors did not exist), involved variable colors for many years, and that the veneration of St. George was brought back by the Crusaders. I worry that claims for the antiquity of the specifically English "Cross of St. George" are ahistorical, nationalistic, and fantastical in motivation. Since the red on white cross, as a symbol of St. George, has become distinctive of England, I begin to wonder to what extent it actually reflects the history of English involvement with Romania. Indeed, if the Cross of St. George here originated with Crusaders in the East, its interpretation as an English symbol could well have been due to the English Varangians themselves, who would have fought under it for many years and picked up the cult of St. George just as the Crusaders did. It is attested that by 1277, the English cross had settled on the red on white coloring, and this was at the time of perhaps the heyday of English Varangians under Michael VIII -- who wrote the letter mentioning them in 1272. Whitney Smith says that the red cross was not really prominent for another century [p.182], while The Penguin Dictionary of Saints [1965, 1983] says that George "may have been named the national patron when King Edward III founded the Order of the Garter under his patronage, c.1348" [p.146]. I might therefore entertain the speculation that what became the traditional coloring of the English Cross of St. George, and its identity as the Cross of St. George, might actually have been derived from a Romanian even more than from a Genoese source. This would be a monument unlike any other to the history of the English involvement in Constantinople. Since most histories of England ignore the very existence of English Varangians, the connection of the Cross of St. George to them falls into a kind of secret history. Raffaele D'Amato [op.cit. p.12] says that one of the last references to the English Varangians was a letter written by John VII (who was Regent, 1399-1403, for his uncle Manuel II) to King Henry IV of England in 1402, speaking of them helping in the Turkish siege of Constantinople, 1394-1402. D'Amato adds that "'Axe-bearing soldiers of the British race' are referred to by Byzantine envoys in Rome as late as 1404..." This is apparently the last reference to English Varangians. If Michael VIII was also writing to a King of England about English Varangians in 1272, which is possible but is not stated by Blöndal and Benedikz or by D'Amato, this would have been Henry III -- which means that Emperors wrote to Kings Henry II, Henry III, and Henry IV about English subjects in the Varangian Guard. That would be a nice touch. Even without Michael VIII, we do see a history of the Emperors expressing concern to Kings of England about the presence and activities of Englishmen in Romania. And there certainly may have been other communications whose record has not survived. ), i.e. Anatolia. The Ottomans, however, do not seem to have used the dicephalic Eagle. Alternatively, Donald M. Nicol [Byzantium and Venice, a Study in Diplomatic and Cultural Relations, Cambridge University Press, 1999, p. 249] says, the dicephalic Eagle was adopted by Andronicus II to symbolize the division of authority with his grandson, Andronicus III -- though it far outlasted that particular division. However, it looks like dicephalic eagles long antedate this and are found in Hittite , Armenian , and even Seljuk iconography, with the latter perhaps suggested by remaining Hittite images in Anatolia. The earliest use in Romania seems to have been with Isaac Comnenus . Eagles have been used by many (including the United States and modern Romania ) to imply Roman antecedents; but the double headed eagle, despite the low level of power to which the Palaeologi had fallen, was adopted in particular by the Holy Roman Empire (followed by Austria ) and by Russia , and subsequently by Serbia (as we see at left, with the devices discussed above), Montenegro , Armenia , Albania , and others. In direct continuity with Romania, it is also used by the Patriarchate of Constantinople . Although the eagle had disappeared from much Communist iconography, it has returned since the Fall of Communism. One Communist regime that continued to use it even on its flag, was Albania, to commemorate George Castriota (Gjergj Kastrioti), or Skanderbeg, who drove the Turks out of Albania between 1443 and 1463 (note in the genealogy below that Skanderbeg's son John marries a Palaeologina, ). that had been extensively planted there for silk worms and sericulture, after silkworm eggs were smuggled from China in the days of Justinian . After the Fourth Crusade, the last of the Morea, the fortress of Monembasia , , had fallen to the Latins in 1248. But then Monembasia and Laconia were returned in 1261 as ransom for William II de Villehardouin (1246-1278), Prince of Achaea , who had been captured in battle in 1259. On Mt. Taygetos, to the west above the ancient city of Sparta , the castle (castrum, ) of Mistra, , Mystrás (or , Mistrás, or , Myzêthrâs) had been founded by Prince William in 1248. Under the Palaeologi, this grew into a complex of buildings and became a surprising center of art and learning as well as the capital of the Despotate. Indeed, one could even say that the Renaissance began there, since many of its scholars, with their books, fled the Turkish Conquest to Italy, which was ready for them. The Morea became a kind of Viceroyalty under the Cantacuzeni Despots ( ). Under the Palaeologi, starting in 1383, the Despot, (sometimes more than one), was usually a son or brother of the Emperor. The last Emperor, Constantine XI, began as a Despot of Morea. He very nearly acquired Athens in 1435. Unfortunately, in 1446 he had to endure a raid by Ottoman Emir Murâd II , which broke through the Hexamilion Wall across the Isthmus of Corinth with cannon fire, an omninous portent of what the Ottomans could do at Constantinople in 1453. Murâd enslaved 60,000, apparently in retaliation for the Crusade of Varna in 1444. Constantine's brother, the last Despot, Thomas, married the Heiress of Achaea and came into possession of the Principality and all the Peloponnesus in 1432. By then there was little time left for further successes. The last thing left to Thomas by the Ottomans was, again, the fortress of Monembasia. Thomas never took the obvious step of declaring himself the new Emperor in succession to his brother, and he turned over Monembasia to the Pope in 1461 (or 1460). The Pope thus became, as Popes had long desired, the ruler of all the Roman Empire. The Pope sold the fortress to Venice in 1463 (or 1464). It remained with Venice, 1463-1538, fell to the Ottomans, and then was recovered by Venice, 1684-1715. The long slumber of Ottoman possession was then followed by that of modern Greece in 1821. The Fall of Constantinople, on May 29, 1453, is one of the most formative, epochal, colorful, and dramatic episodes in world history. As the final end of the Roman Empire, it was a much more revolutionary and catastrophic change than the "fall" of the Western Empire in 476, in which power remained in the same hands of the current magister militum. That the greatest Christian city of the Middle Ages should pass to Islâm held a symbolism that was lost on none. But the defenders had little active help from a Europe that four hundred years earlier had launched armies all the way to Jerusalem. The most active help was from an unofficial Italian contingent from Genoa (which officially did not want to break relations with the Ottomans), led by the accomplished soldier Giovanni Giustiniani Longo. Giustiniani was perhaps militarily the most effective leader of the defense. When he was wounded and left the walls, one is then not surprised to learn that the city fell on that day. As the last Emperor's name, Constantine XI, recalls the founder of the city, Giustiniani's name echoes the Emperor, Justinian, who recovered Genoa itself from the Ostrogoths. But it was only the introduction of cannon that made the breach in the Long Walls possible at all. The seige of Constantiople began on April 6, 1453. It was not the first effort by the Turks to take the City, but it would be much better prepared to do so, with the enthusiasm and determination of the young Sultan Mehmet II . The City could not be entirely sealed off from outside help, and ships occasionally were able to come and go. Short of defenders, a major setback for the Romans was when the Turks avoided the chain across the Golden Horn by dragging their ships overland behind Galata into the previously safe harbor. At that point, the City was under assault from three sides instead of just two. The seige would then last 53 days, with a fatal breach finally opened by Mehmet's cannons in the previously impregnable Triple Land Wall. For a while, the breach was miraculously repaired by frantic activity every night, to the astonishment of the Turks. But this ended up being more cosmetic than structural, and in the end the equivalent of string and duct tape were not enough. The elite Janissaries (Turkish Yeniçeri, "new soldiers") poured through. May 29th, a Tuesday ( Julian Day 225 1915), would then be remembered in Islâm as 20 Jumâdâ l-ûlâ, (i.e. the "first" Jumâdâ), 857 AH, on the Islamic calendar . Because of the high drama and significance of all this, it is a little puzzling that there has never been, to my knowledge, a Hollywood movie about the event. The closest may have been the brief prologue to Bram Stoker's Dracula [1991], by Francis Ford Coppola, where we see the Cross thrown down from the dome of Sancta Sophia and a Crescent appear in its place. One problem with doing the story may be in great measure because of the scale of the location. The Theodosian Land Walls of Constantinople are 6.5 kilometers long, almost 4 miles. Since the ruins of the walls could not be used, and the whole length could not be built (as the whole Alamo was build by John Wayne for The Alamo), other devices would be necessary. With computer graphic effects, a portion of the Wall could be built with the rest filled in digitally, the way the top half of the Coloseum was filled in for Gladiator. And models could be used. With the older technology, this would have looked very cheesy. However, models now can look much, much better -- the models for Lord of the Rings (2001) even came to be called "big-atures" instead of "miniatures" they were so large. CG and models would also work for another problem, which would be showing the general situation of the city between the Sea of Marmara, the Bosporus, and the Golden Horn. A live shot of the modern buildings would not help. But the whole thing could be done digitally, or live shots could be digitalized and edited, to remove modern buildings and render mediaeval ones. This would also help with scenes in Sancta Sophia. The movie would have to show church services there, but my understanding is that these are not allowed in the modern building, even though it is now a secularized museum rather than the mosque it became at the Conquest (there is a small Islamic chapel, but not a Christian one). No problem. All we need is a photograph, and Industrial Light and Magic can put Constantine XI and the whole gang right into it with all the paraphernalia of the Greek Orthodox Church. Even so, it is questionable how interested Hollywood will ever be, even after Gladiator, and even when the legendary material, like the Virgin Mary retrieving her Icon, or the various versions of the death of Constantine, simply cry out for cinematic representation. With the present conflicts involving Islâm , some might consider the whole topic inflammatory; and it is very possible that Turkey would not allow location filming for such a movie. While there may or may not be surviving Imperial Palaeologi (see below), Constantine XI lives on in legend. When the Turks had manifestly broken through, at the Fifth Military Gate -- subsequently called the Hücum Kapïsï, "Assault Gate" in Turkish -- and the Fall of the City was imminent, the Emperor is said to have thrown off the Imperial Regalia and disappeared into the thick of the fight. He is reported to have shouted, , "Let's go, men, against these barbarians!" [Greek Text, Laonikos Chalkokondyles, The Histories, Volume II, translated by Anthony Kaldellis, translation modified, Dumbarton Oaks Medieval Library, Harvard University Press, 2014, p.192] -- the last words of the Roman "Last Emperor." In Chinese, this could be , "Last Emperor, Last Injunction" (or "last will") -- , "last words," is an expression that we do not seem to see in Chinese. There is no doubt that Constantine died. A body was later identified and a head displayed, but some doubt remains about the identification. A story arose that Constantine sleeps under the Golden Gate (like Barbarossa under the Kyffhäuser), or that an angel turned him into marble, with a similar placement below that Gate, or that he would reenter the City through the Gate; and we get legendary details such as the awakening of the Emperor would be "heralded by the bellowing of an ox" [Donald M. Nicol, The Immortal Emperor, Cambridge University Press, 1992, p.104]. Generations of Turkish governments took these stories with sufficient seriousness that the central entrance of the Golden Gate remains bricked up to this very day -- like the Golden Gate in Jerusalem , through which the Messiah is supposed to enter the City. In 1717, Mary Wortley Montagu, the wife of the British Ambassador, reported that the Turkish government had seized an Egyptian mummy that had been bought by the King of France . Since the mummy was then placed in the "Seven Towers," the fortress built around the Golden Gate, this seems to indicate a belief, or fear, by the government that this had been the body of Constantine XI, to be used as a talisman for the defeat of the Turks or the reconquest of Constantinople. This same story was later related to the French consul F.C.H.L. Pouqueville, who was held prisoner in the fortress from 1799 to 1801, and who claimed to have actually found the mummy there and carried off its head [ibid. p.103]. I don't know what Pouqueville is supposed to have done with the head. A similar legend concerns Sancta Sophia. We find a version of it in, of all places, one of Anne Rice's vampire fictions: "...as the Turks stormed the church, some of the priests left the altar of Santa Sofia [sic]," he said. "They took with them the chalice and the Blessed Sacrament, our Lord's Body and Blood. They are hidden this very day in the secret chambers of Santa Sofia, and on the very moment that we take back the city, on the very moment when we take back the great church of Santa Sofia, when we drive the Turks out of our capital, those priests, those very priests will return. They'll come out of their hiding place and go up the steps of the altar, and they will resume the Mass at the very point where they were forced to stop." [The Vampire Armand, 1983, Ballantine Books, 1999, p.110] It is not at all difficult to imagine that Sancta Sophia was built with secret passages or chambers. Justinian might even seem negligent if he had not done that. A similar legend is that three priests or monks sleep in the crypt of the Gül Camii mosque, which had been the church of St. Theodosia or the Virgin of the Roses (Gül Camii actually means the "Rose, its mosque"), and that Christian vistors could hear them say that "the time and the hour had not yet come" [Nicol, op.cit., p.105]. Whether deathless priests wait for the liberation of the churches and the City is a more demanding idea than that of secret passages, although perhaps not much more demanding than the changes in politics and demography that would be necessary for Constantinople to be restored to Christendom -- a Christendom, or at least a European Christendom, that these days seems to have lost faith, confidence, and will far more than contemporary Islâm . Indeed, one wonders if Francia can be identified as "Christendom" at all anymore. The hostility of intellectuals to the religion, often with their craven accommodation to militant Islâm, and their anti-Semitism, is one of the more remarkable and disturbing characteristics of the modern European moral climate. Vladmir Putin , creating an aggressive dictatorship in Russia, seems intent on recreating the Russian Empire, perhaps with Tsarist ambitions against Turkey -- although, busy conquering the Ukraine , Putin has given no hint of that yet. As confident as the Europeans are demoralized, Putin is treated with similar complacency and appeasement. , Hodêgêtria Icon (the Virgin who "Shows the Way," by pointing at Christ), was kept at the Hodegon Monastery and displayed in a procession every week. This was supposed to have been painted by St. Luke and in 439 brought to Constantinople from Jerusalem by the Empress , St. Aelia Eudocia Augusta . At the time of the Siege in 1453, it had been moved to the Church of St. Savior in Chora (subsequently the Kariye Mosque), to be closer to the Walls. What we hear is that after the breakthrough, the Turks stormed the Church and chopped up the Icon for souvenirs. The Hodegetria motif, however, was be much reproduced, even in later Italian art. The , Blachernitissa (or Blacherniotissa) Icon, in bas relief, and the , Maphórion, the Robe or Veil of the Virgin, were kept at the Church of the Virgin Mary at Blachernae ( ), near the Walls. Blachernae, (Regio XIV of Constantinople), was originally a suburb of Constantinople settled by Vlachs , . Eventually it was enclosed by the Walls of the City. By the time of the Palaeologi, the Blachnerae Palace had become the principal residence of the Emperors. The icon and relic had been brought out to protect the City during sieges -- the Maphórion is supposed to have repulsed the Avars in 626. Both disappeared with the Fall of the City -- although there is no mention of them after the Church burned in 1434, which means they may already have been destroyed. Nevertheless, one story is that Constantine XI was praying to the Icon the night before the City fell, and as he watched, it was taken up to Heaven. He therefore knew what was going to happen the next day. It is a shame that this marvelous scene has not been reproduced in a movie or documentary. Later, an icon turned up at Mt. Athôs that was believed, one way or another, to be the Blachernitissa. However, this icon was of a Hodegetria form, with the Virgin pointing to Christ, and the original Blachernitissa is thought to have shown the Virgin orans, i.e. with hands lifted in prayer, as we see on the seal at left. The surname Palaeologus survives today, but it is not clear that any modern Palaeologi are descendants of the Imperial family. In the genealogy, we see considerable intermarriage outside the Empire, even to Tsars of Bulgaria. The marriage of Zoë-Sophia to Ivan III of Moscow is the one most filled with portent, but the last Russian Tsar to be their descendant was Theodore I (1584-1598). John Julius Norwich (Byzantium, The Decline and Fall, Knopf, 1996, pp.447-448) notes that there is buried in St. Leonard's church in Landulph, Cornwall, England a "Theodore Paleologus" (d.1636) from Italy, who is said to have been a direct descendant of John, son of Thomas, Despot of the Morea. However, Thomas is not known to have had a son John, and so the claim of descent, regardless of any other merits, is questionable. Theodore had a son Ferdinand, who died in Barbados in 1678. Ferdinand had a son "Theodorious," who returned to England and died in 1693, leaving a daughter, "Godscall," whose fate is unknown. What John Norwich seems to have missed is that there were undoubted lines of Palaeologi (Paleologhi) in Italy, descended from the Emperor Andronicus II, whose second wife was Yolanda, the Heiress of the Margraves of Montferrat. While Andronicus's eldest son succeeded in Constantinople, his son by Yolanda, Theodore, succeeded to Montferrat. The main line of the Palaeologi of Montferrat continued until the death of the Marchioness Margaret in 1556. But branch lines continued much longer, perhaps even to the 20th century. This is covered in the Erzählende genealogische Stammtafeln zur europäischen Geschichte, Volume II, Part 2, Europäiche Kaiser-, Königs- und Fürstenhäuser II Nord-, Ost- und Südeuropa [Andreas Thiele, R. G. Fischer Verlag, Part 2, Second Edition, 1997, pp.260-261], which, however, only indicates that the lines continue after the 16th century. The Theodore buried in Cornwall could very well have simply gotten confused about his genealogy. He might have been a genuine Paleologo from Italy. Maurice Paléologue (1859-1944) was a French diplomat. His name derived from his birthplace, in Romania, where, illegitimate, he was given the surname of his maternal grandmother, Zoë Paleologu. There is no evidence that the Romanian Paleologus were descendants of Greek Palaeologi. Because Paléologue was the French Ambassador to Russia, 1914-1917, we see his name in Cyrillic : . I cannot say if this version of the name in Russian simply transcribes the French name or if it is actually the Russian form of Greek Palaiologos. 6. ROMÂNIANS Wallach, as in Wallachia (or Walachia), is a cognate of the English words "Welsh" and "Wales." We get the same word in German, as Welsch or Walsch, from Old High German Walah or Walh, and apparently from a Proto-Germanic Walchaz. In Old English it was Wealh or Walh. In Mediaeval German, we see Walen used to mean Italy in the description of the titles of the Holy Roman Emperor by the Sachsenspiegel -- Saxon Mirror, a legal text of 1230 -- the Emperor is the Here der Walen, the "Lord of Italy." We see that word today in the names of the Walensee (or Wallensee) and Walenstadt in Switzerland, where it means, what? the "lake of the Italians" or the "city of the Italians"? Well, probably not. The intriguing Imperial general of the Thirty Years War , Albrecht von Wallenstein, looks like he has a name related to this root -- although it may only be a derivative of Waldstein, with "wood," Wald, instead of Walen. While we are accustomed to apply the words " Wales " and "Welsh" to the land and inhabitants of what had been Roman Cambria (Welsh Cymru), the use in Old English applied to all the Celtic Britons that Germans found where they invaded and settled. Thus, the laws of the Saxon King Ine (688-726, d.728) of Wessex refered to all Britons as "Welshmen" (Wealhcynn, i.e. "Welsh-kin"). So this would encompass those we now identify as the Britons of Strathclyde , the Welsh, the Cornish, and the Bretons , along with Celts who remained under the rule of the invaders (as in Wessex), whose names are often distinguished by a wal[h] element, as in "Wallace" or "Walsh," and who may have lived with pockets of Britons in places like "Walcot" or "Walden." Even the humble walnut is the Old English wealhhnutu, the "Welsh/foreign nut." Were there really no walnuts in Germany? Welschen originally was a German word for Celts -- perhaps from the name of the Celtic tribe, the Volcae, in Latin -- and then the Romano-Celts and then just for Romans. WALLACHIA 1600 Continues under Ottoman Control; Lines of Princes Continued In Switzerland , the Walen place names commemorate the presence of Romance speakers at the boundary or within the area taken over by German speakers -- though the area around the Walensee is now overwhelmingly German speaking. In Switzerland we do have Italian speakers, but there is also a separate Romance language, Romansh, part of the Rhaeto-Romance group (Rätoromanische Sprache -- named after the Roman province of Raetia). Welsch can mean different things in different places. In Swiss German, it tends to mean the French language in Switzerland (which, in French, is Romand spoken in Romandie -- a dialect of Franco-Provençal or Arpitan). In increasingly archaic Standard German (it is not listed in my Cassell's German Dictionary), it can mean, indeed, Italian. And, as we have seen, the very similar English "Welsh" will mean the Celtic speaking Britons of Wales, although this has been reduced from its previous applications. Wealh in Old English apparently was used to indicate pockets of British settlement after the conquest of the Angles, Saxons, etc., as in the place-names Walcot, Walden, Walford, and Wallington. We also have English and Scots surnames, like Wallace, Walsh, and Waugh, that have the root (cf. A Dictionary of Surnames, Patrick Hanks and Flavia Hodges, Oxford University Press, 1988, pp.563-564, 568). As a Scots name, "Wallace" goes back to the Britons of Strathclyde . We get Valland used in Icelandic for France ( Francia Occidentalis ). Even now, Walloon -- Waalsch in Dutch or Flemish -- is used for French speakers in Belgium. This Germanic word for Romans seems to have been left, perhaps by the Goths, in the Balkans. It turns up as Vlach in Czech, one of many words for the Romance language, and its speakers, in Slavic languages. The Latin form "Blachus" and the Greek , Vlakhos, also occur. We see surnames in Polish, Wloch, Russian, Volokhov, (the Uralic language) Hungarian, Olasz, etc. In modern parlance, the convention for some time was that Romance speakers south of the Danube spoke "Vlach" and those north of the Danube spoke "Romanian." "Romanian" is now also coming to be used for the languages (Arumanian, etc.) south of the Danube also, with "Daco-Romanian" used to specific the north of the Danube language. The Principalities of Wallachia and Moldavia are the first Vlach/Romanian states that we see north of the Danube. They appear in the period after incursions from nomadic Steppe empires ceased. They were never subject to the Roman Emperors in Constantinople, and they occupied territories that had been abandoned by the Roman Empire in the Third Century , or never occupied by it in the first place. The arrival of the Turks subjected them to Ottoman suzerainty, but this was of varying rigor. The lines of Princes continued, but by 1711 the Sult.ân began to sell the seats to Greek tax farmers, a destructive practice that continued until 1821. The most famous person in these lines is certainly Prince Vlad the Impaler of Wallachia. In legend and horror, one might almost say romance, this cruel man has grown into the paradigmatic vampire, Count Dracula, though his home has been slightly relocated, from Wallachia to Transylvania and the Carpathian Mountains (between Transylvania and Moldavia). For a while, I was under the impression that Prince Vlad Dracul (1436-1442, 1443, 1447) was Vlad the Impaler. However, a Romanian correspondent straightened me out, that Prince Vlad the Impaler was not Vlad Dracul but instead the subsequent Prince Vlad T,epesh (1448, 1456-1462, 1476, also Vlad "Draculea, Dracula"), his son. The correspondent also pointed out the interesting career of Iancu de Hunedoara (János Hunyadi) as Prince of Transylvania and Regent of Hungary, for which links have been installed. My confusion about Vlad may have been due to Andreas Thiele's Stammtafeln zur europäischen Geschichte, Volume II, Part 2, Europäiche Kaiser-, K�nigs- und F�rstenhäuser II Nord-, Ost- und S¨deuropa [R. G. Fischer Verlag, Second Edition, 1997, p.139]. Thiele lists a unnamed sister of Hungarian King Matthias Corvinus (Latin corvinus, crow or raven-like), and so a daughter of Iancu de Hunedoara, who married Vlad II Dracul, whose death is given as 1476, i.e. the year of the death of Vlad III (when he was assassinated and his head taken to Constantinople). I do not see this sister attested in other sources, and the children of Vlad II were the result of more than one marriage and several mistresses. The sister of Corvinus, if she existed, may have been lost in the shuffle and in any case is unlikely to have been the mother of the significant sons of Vlad II. Vlad the Impaler's career had many ups and downs. In exile in Hungary, he was imprisoned by Corvinus, for as much as ten years (1462-1472), although the Hungarians then helped him return to Wallachia in 1476. The association of Vlad with vampires has now drawn Corvinus into that legend, as we see in the Underworld [2004, 2006, 2009] movies -- although without the slightest reference to the real history of Matthias or de Hunedoara. Vlad's practice of impaling enemies and prisoners was not his own bright idea. The Turks, with whom Vlad was a hostage, 1442-1447, practiced impalement; and we even hear about impalement in Islamic courts in India under the Moghuls . But Vlad is supposed to have employed the practice to excess, to the point where once even Meh.med II reportedly turned back from Wallachia in horror at the thousands or tens of thousands of bodies that Vlad had impaled along the Danube. As with Iancu de Hunedoara, Vlad III was often successful against the Turks. After Meh.med II was driven from Wallachia, he supplied Vlad's younger brother, Radu cel Frumos, with troops and money to exploit local rivalries, undermine Vlad, and replace him, which he did. Meanwhile Stephen III of Moldavia (1457-1504) and Skanderbeg (1443-1463) continued to defeat the Ottomans and slow their advance in the Balkans. Recently, G.J. Meyer says of Vlad: The West owed him as it owed Stephen, an immense debt. The two kept whole Ottoman armies tied up for decades. [The Borgias, The Hidden History, Bantam, 2013, p.48] Nor does Meyer neglect de Hunedoara or Skanderbeg. Unfortunately, the genius of these leaders did not outlive their generation. The death of Stephen in 1504 meant that barely another twenty years would pass before the Ottomans would be in Hungary, preparing to stay there for a century and a half. The title of these rulers was Voivode, a word that we even find in Bram Stoker (Dracula, Penguin Books, 1897, 1993, p.309). This term no longer appears in convenient Romanian or Hungarian dictionaries, for any of its meanings (c.f. NTC's Romanian and English Dictonary, Andreí Bantas, NTC Publishing Group, 1995; Hippocrene Concise Dictionary, Hungarian, Hungarian-English, English-Hungarian, Géza Takács, Hippocrene Books, 1996; or Hippocrene Standard Dictionary, English-Hungarian Dictionary, T. Magay & L. Kiss, Hippocrene Books, 1995). Those meanings began with "duke" or "prince" and ultimately declined to merely "governor," which would have been appropriate to Wallachia or Moldavia under the Turks. This word is actually Slavic, and is thus discussed under Eastern Europe , but its ultimate origin was the Roman title (dux, "leader") in Greek, stratêlatês ("army," stratos, "leader," elaunein, "to lead"), which was also the source of German Herzog . The Vlach language of the Principalities, not a written language in the Middle Ages, came to be written in the Cyrillic alphabet . The unified country itself became first "Roumania" or "Rumania," later further Latinized into "România," and soon the Cyrillic alphabet was traded in for the Latin alphabet, as the Roman roots of the people were increasingly emphasized. The issue of România and the Vlach language and people is discussed further in " The Vlach Connection and Further Reflections on Roman History ." In contrast to the original Romania, i.e. the Roman Empire (Imperium Romanum), the north-of-the-Danube state might usefully be characterized as "Lesser Romania" (Romania Minor) on analogy to " Lesser Armenia " in the Taurus; but this would probably be considered insulting by modern Românians. Perhaps "Later Romania" (Romania Posterior, Recentior) would be better, like the Later Han Dynasty -- making the Empire into the "Former Romania" (Romania Prior), like the Former Han Dynasty . However, since Armenia is rarely called "Greater Armenia" in contrast to Lesser Armenia, we might simply leave România as România and make the contrast with "Greater Romania" (Romania Maior) as the Roman Empire, where clarity is needed. The map shows all the territories that ultimately were assembled into modern România. Transylvania, although predominately Romanian speaking, was part of Hungary all through the Middle Ages right down to the end of World War I. Bessarabia also became part of România at that time, was subsequently annexed to the Soviet Union, and now is the independent, and painfully impoverished, nation of Moldova. The list of Princes here is taken from the Regentenlisten und Stammtafeln zur Geschichte Europas, by Michael F. Feldkamp [Philipp Reclam, Stuttgart, 2002, pp.142-144 & 259-261]. Copyright (c) 1996, 1998, 1999, 2000, 2001, 2002, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012, 2013, 2014, 2015, 2016 Kelley L. Ross, Ph.D. All Rights Reserved Rome and Romania, 27 BC-1453 AD, Note 1 In some Greek cities (including Byzantium), it was illegal for men not to wear beards. The Hellenophile Marcus Aurelius wore a beard, a style that kept coming back every so often -- neither Constantine nor Justinian wore a beard -- until it became permanent with the Greek speaking Emperors of the Middle Ages. Return to Text Rome and Romania, 27 BC-1453 AD, Note 2 There is a series of books that works something like this. The Osprey Publishing [Oxford, New York] "Men-at-Arms" series divides all this history up between five small books (about 40 pages each). The first two are explicitly titled "The Roman Army," and the last two "Byzantine Armies." Michael Simkins authors the first two [1984, 1979], and Ian Heath the last two [1979, 1995]. The titles seem to reflect some differences in thinking. The "Roman" books are, first, "from Caesar to Trajan," and then "from Hadrian to Constantine." The "Byzantine" books use dates, first "886-1118" (the death of Basil I to that of Alexius I), and then "AD 1118 to 1461" (i.e. to the fall of Trebizond). There is a rather large gap between the "Roman" and the "Byzantine" books, which is then filled with "Romano-Byzantine Armies 4th-9th Centuries," by a third author, David Nicolle [1992]. This book covers a vast amount of time and very different conditions, from Late Antiquity, including the Army of the Notitia Dignitatum, through the Arab Conquests to the beginning of the Macedonian Dynasty. The two "Roman" books have common illustrator, Ron Embleton, while all the others are illustrated by Angus McBride. The impression we get from this is of two different centers of history, the "Roman" and the "Byzantine," which have a bit awkwardly and even tenuously been bridged with a treatment that reminds us, at last, that we are dealing with a continuous story. Yet this middle book covers events that call out for detailed treatment, from the German invasions and the Battle of Adrianople, to the Arab Conquest, to the development of the Themes and Tagmata, through the Arab Sieges of Constantinople and the use of Greek Fire. It is odd to see all that shoved together in the same small brief format as with all these books. It makes this part of the publishing project look more like an afterthought, which perhaps it is. Return to Text Rome and Romania, 27 BC-1453 AD, Note 3 I've tried various ways to represent the events of the Tetrarchy. The Chart of the Tetrarchy provides timelines for all the legitimate Emperors and the significant usurpers also. The animation at right runs through nine different phases of the history, showing the legitimate Emperors (i.e. with mutual recogniation), until Constantine alone is left. But it begins when there are four Emperors, in 393, and the amount of time for each phase bears some relation to its actual duration, which makes it a little difficult to study each combination (without stopping the animation with the ESC key). The most striking thing about the history, however, is that the Tetrarchy begins with Diocletian alone and ends with Constantine alone. The diagram below illustrates this circumstance the most vividly. It also illustrates two key features of the history of the Tetrarchy: (1) After the retirement of Diocletian and Maximinian, the appointment of new Emperors seems to have been usurped by Galerius, so that Severus, Maximinus II Daia, and Licinius were all protégés or even relatives of Galerius. This anomaly introduced an inequality between the Augusti and also a geographical anomaly, in that Severus and Lincinius were appointed to be Western Emperors, but neither ever established himself in the West. Severus was killed trying to do so, and it is not clear that Licinius ever tried. (2) The untimely death of Constantius Chlorus led to the proclamation of his son, Constantine, by their troops in Britain. Constantine was thus a usurper; but, perhaps considering the difficulty of removing him, Galerius recognized him as a Caesar. But this provoked a reaction from Maxentius, son of Maximian, who had been passed over in 305 and rather resented it. Now, he is not going to stand by while the son of Constantius is elevated, but not him. So he rebels, and brings his father out of retirement with him. He even forms an alliance with Constantine, who marries his sister. Thus, the bottom of the diagram is red, as it were, with rebellion. At the death of Galerius in 311, there are no new appointments; so as Constantine gets rid of Maximian and Maxentius, Lincinus gets rid of Maximinus Daia, and then Constantine does the same for Lincius, the Tetrarchy is whittled down to its Last Man Standing. Meanwhile, there has been a revolution in religion, and Constantine has established both Christianity and a new Capital, Constantinople. It is a real roller coaster, which is a bit what the diagram looks like -- a wild ride of just forty years from the beginning of Diocletian's reign in 284 to Constantine achieving sole rule in 324. The Roman Empire is profoundly transformed. Return to Text Rome and Romania, 27 BC-1453 AD, Note 4 Bede identifies several Emperors by number. This includes Claudius, #4, Marcus Aurelius, #14, Diocletian, #33, Gratian, #40, Arcadius, #43, Honorius, #44, Theodosius II, #45, Marcian, #46, and Maurice, #54. This numbering works if we eliminate three of the four Emperors of 69 AD, the ephemeral Emperors of 193 and 218, a couple of them from the Third Century , most of the Tetrarchy and Constantian coregents, and, most importantly, all of the Western Emperors after Honorius. The latter is especially striking because Bede mentions Valentinian III: "In the year of our Lord 449, Marcian became Emperor with Valentinian and fourty-sixth successor to Augustus" [Bede, A History of the English Church and People, Penguin Classics, translated by Leo Sherley-Price, 1955, 1964, p.55]. Since Theodosius II was already identified as the 45th Emperor, there is no number left for Valentinian (Emperor since 425), let alone Constantius III or John, who had been legitimate Emperors of the West. From Marcian to Maurice, the numbers only work if we then ignore all the rest of the Western Emperors , out of nine of which four were even recognized by the East. So Bede doesn't recognize any. As it happens, it looks like Bede has gotten his numbered list from Orosius, who wrote the Historiarum Adversum Paganos Libri VII, "Seven Books of Histories Against the Pagans" (or the Hormesta). This was written around 418 AD and thus ends in the reigns of Honorius and Theodosius II. It was a popular book in the Middle Ages, with almost two hundred surviving manuscripts, which is extraordinary, with translations into several languages, including English and Arabic -- where the latter made it accessible to Ibn Khaldûn . It does not have much favor, however, with modern historians, and is not issued in popular editions (such as Penguin Classics). Unlike Bede, Orosius sometimes discusses the nature of his numbering, for instance that Constantius II was the 35th Emperor "along with his brothers, Constantine and Constans," but they receive no number in their own right. One curious detail is that Claudius is "the third Emperor after Augustus," where Bede has him as the 4th Emperor, but both Orosius and Bede number Diocletian as #33. It looks like Orosius may have shifted from the number of the Emperor "after Augustus" to a numbering beginning with Augustus as the first, while Bede has the whole sequence regularized in the latter form. But there are also some actual disagreements. To Orosius, Gratian was the 39th Emperor (40th for Bede), Arcadius and Honorius, the 41st (43th and 44th for Bede). So Bede is not mechanically reproducing the assignments of Orosius [cf. Seven Books of History against the Pagans, Liverpool University Press, 2010]. This is a matter of some interest that I have never seen discussed. Although writing in the 7th and 8th centuries (673-735), in the days of multiple Anglo-Saxon kingdoms in Britain , Bede nevertheless had a strong sense of the continued existence of the Roman Empire. He knows that the Empire is now centered in Christian Constantinople, and his awareness of this is strong enough that it actually erases the existence of the last Western Emperors. The idea common now that the Roman Empire fell in 476, wouldn't have made sense to Bede. He didn't even recognize the Emperor who "fell," Romulus Augustulus, as a successor of Augustus (neither did the East, for that matter). Ephemeral and puppet Emperors (whether in the 2nd or 5th centuries) don't make the cut in his reckoning. This is of a piece with most of the rest of Mediaeval opinion and perception, East and West. Since the Schism of 1054 between the Latin and the Greek Churches had not occurred yet, Bede would have seen the contemporary Emperor (a late Heraclian , mostly) invested with all the aura and authority of Constantine the Great. Return to Text Rome and Romania, 27 BC-1453 AD, Note 5 The 2004 movie King Arthur uses some of Littleton and Malcor's information to rework the Arthur legend into something like real history. However, its use of it, and of other history, although meriting an A for effort, involves some confusions and anachronisms. In the movie, the Iazyges are called "Sarmatians," which they were, but the more general name obscures the unique experience of the Iazyges in being settled and assimilated as Roman soldiers. Indeed, that circumstance is ignored, as the movie shows the Sarmatians apparently still living out on the steppe (in yurts) and somehow still obliged in the 5th century to furnish draftees to the Roman army. The Romans, however, were never in any position to send press gangs out onto the steppe, and such a foray in the 5th century, through Germans and Huns, is unbelievable. Nor is there any reason why Sarmatians well beyond Roman borders should pay any attention to obligations assumed three centuries previously. But the plot of the movie requires that the Saramatians feel exiled during their service in Britain. Instead, the Iazyges, men, women, and children, would have all been settled in Britain; the veterans all would have been given Roman Citizenship as the reward of their service; and by the fourth century they would have felt as Roman and/or British as anyone. The yearning of Arthur's men to go home is thus a purely fictional device. That Arthur himself still bears the name of Artorius Castus, his ancestor, is a fictional device also, but actually a rather clever and not impossible one. The background offered in the movie about Sarmatian service in the Roman army leaves out that this involved the war fought by Marcus Aurelius featured in the movie Gladiator. A tribute to Gladiator might have been made but isn't. Instead, we get a gross anachronism, as the shields of what would have been Marcus's army in 175 AD already bear the Chi-Rho symbol of Constantine's Christianity. This may have just been a matter of economy in the prop department, where all the shields were prepared for the 5th century army. However, even this was a mistake, since we know from the Notitia Dignitatum that there were a great many designs used on Roman shields in the Christian Empire, including, remarkably, the first attested instance of the Chinese swirling Yin-Yang symbol. Shields were unique and distinctive to the units. Beyond this, almost all the history in the movie is confused. The Western Emperor is not even mentioned, and the Pope is portrayed as directing political and military events. This is what Mediaeval Popes wanted to do, but it has nothing to do with the 5th or 6th centuries, when the Popes had no such power and would not have imagined that they did. Actual Italian Romans are portrayed unpleasantly, which creates a distinction (and a conflict) that wouldn't have existed in Late Antiquity. In general, Romans were Romans -- the movie perpetuates the idea that "Rome" meant the City, when this limitation was long gone. More importantly, the Romans never deliberately withdrew from Britain, and certainly not as late or as callously as shown in the movie. The usurper Constantine (407-411) stripped Britain of legions in order to invade Gaul and seize the Throne. When he was defeated, Honorius had to inform the British that, with the Suevi, Vandals, and Alans raging across Gaul and Spain, the forces simply did not exist to re-garrison Britain. Since the battle of Badon Hill is supposed to have happened eighty to a hundred years later, there is a fair bit of history that the movie reduces, in effect, to a couple of days. Finally, we have Saxons so confused or foolish as to land in Britain north of Hadrian's Wall. This would not have done them much good (as is obvious in the movie) and was way, way out of their way. The Saxons, Angles, and Jutes all crossed the North Sea and landed well south of the Wall. Only Vikings from Norway would later show any interest in the future Scotland . Finally, an early sequence in the movie has Arthur venturing north of the Wall to retrieve a Roman settler. What is this guy doing there? And how could his estate survive, surrounded by hostile Picts, especially when he treats the locals with appalling cruelty? This doesn't pass minimal standards of credibility. The latter device may have some historical connection. We are told that St. Patrick wrote a letter to Ceretic (or Coroticus), a Briton or Roman governing the local tribe of the British Damnonii, complaining about his practice of selling Irish captives as slaves to the Picts. Ceretic was the beginning of the British Kings of Strathclyde . This is the right era, since Ceretic is supposed to have reigned c.450's-470's, while St. Patrick died in 461, and the right place, north of Hadrian's Wall. If this is what the movie is referring to, it fails to distinguish between Britons, Picts, and Irish; and Ceretic is certainly in no need of being rescued by Romans for cruelty to those he ruled. The cruelty would have been to one set of pagans (i.e. the Irish in Scotland, the Scots, who were still pagan until converted by St. Columba [d.597], although St. Patrick was meanwhile converting the Irish in Ireland) being sold to another set of pagans (the Picts). Although St. Patrick's solicitude for the Irish anywhere is understandable, Christians in general did not worry about enslaving pagans -- which is why the word "slave" is derived from "Slav," who were enslaved long before they converted to Christianity. The peculiar or anachronistic devices in the movie all serve to create dramatic tension and conflict, which is well within understandable poetic license. In this it is perhaps moderately successful, but some distortions seem gratuitous, especially the negative impression left of Christianity. Pagans were generally tolerated at the time (not tortured or starved to death), but the Army and probably the Britons were overwhelming Christian. That Arthur found himself on the wrong side of one of the obscure contemporary theological disputes is a cute touch (based on the British monk Pelagius, whose teaching was condemned in 418) but is obviously introduced merely as a device to alienate him from the Church and from Rome. This fits the plot of the movie but cannot have had much to do with the substantive problems facing 5th century Britons. The matter in dispute, free will versus predestination, was never wholly settled to the complete denial of one or the other. Indeed, Catholic orthodoxy was more favorable to free will than Protestants like John Calvin would be later. Rome and Romania, 27 BC-1453 AD, Note 6 Sancta Sophia is Latin for "Saint Sophia" or, since sophía is Greek for " wisdom ," "Sacred Wisdom." This is not the form of the name usually seen. Justinian spoke Latin, but in time Greek became the Court language at Constantinople. In Greek the Church was Hágia Sophía, , which locally would have been the name used from the beginning. As Mediaeval Greek developed, however, the "h" ceased to be pronounced and the "g" softened into a "y." This later pronunciation is even preserved in the Turkish name of the Church, Aya Sofya. For many years, the version I seem to remember seeing was Santa Sophia, which would have to be Italian. Because of the later Italian influence in Romania, this version of the name certainly would have been used. Or, I may have just been seeing "St. Sophia" and thought of it as Santa because of living amid all the Spanish place names in California , where sancta has also become santa (e.g. Santa Barbara, Santa Maria, Santa Cruz, etc.). As it happens, it must be the case that I was seeing "Santa Sophia," because I see it now, in the Fourteen Byzantine Rulers by Michael Psellus [translated by E.R.A. Sewter, Penguin, 1966]. In the translator's introduction we've got "Santa Sophia" on page 10. Rome and Romania, 27 BC-1453 AD, Note 7 The declension of seems anomalous. Procopius uses as the accusative plural [History of the Wars, Book III, xi, 16, Loeb Classical Library, Procopius, Volume II, Harvard U. Press, 1916, 2006, p.104], which would correspond to the nominative plural that I use above. However, I would expect the accusative plural to be (and so the nominative plural ), based on the Third Declension paradigm of [A New Introduction to Greek, Chase and Phillips, Harvard U. Press, 1965, p.18]. The retension of the omega in the stem would make sense if were a participle based on the contract verb (which contracts to ); but the accent and the endings are inconsistent with it being a participle -- the accusative plural would be . The only explanation I can think of is that the alpha from that verb was in some sense retained in the noun, and the omega is still the result of a contraction. This theory may be supported by a term for "galley" that is used by Constantine VII Porphyrogenitus, which is [De Administrando Imperio, Greek text edited by Gy. Moravcsik, Dumbarton Oaks Texts, 1967, 2008, p.246]. So we have a fixed root in .	i don't know
Which snooker player who reached the semi final of the 2013 World Snooker Championship Was born in Chester in 1982 ?	Ricky Walden - ChesterChron Sport Ricky Walden Ricky Walden is a Chester-born professional snooker player. He has won two ranking titles - the 2008 Shanghai Masters and 2012 Wuxi Classic - and reached the semi-finals of the 2013 World Championship.	Ricky Walden
Which TV series, launched in 1978 saw Bob Hoskins as Arthur Parker, a sheet music Salesman attempting to make his dreams fit the promises of the lyrics he carries ?	Ricky Walden - ChesterChron Sport Ricky Walden Ricky Walden is a Chester-born professional snooker player. He has won two ranking titles - the 2008 Shanghai Masters and 2012 Wuxi Classic - and reached the semi-finals of the 2013 World Championship.	i don't know
What seven letter name is given to the cold, dry Northerly wind that blows on the Mediterranean Coast of France, particularly concentrated on the Rhone Valley ?	��ࡱ�>�� [@ ��h\bjbj44 JbViVi��N��$RzRzRzP�z��{,\H@�\|�\|�\|�\|�\|�}T ��ǀ`�=�=�=�=3 >4=A4qD$�IR�Kz�D��d �}�}d d �D��\|�\|�H�<�<�<d f"��\|��\|�=�<d �=�<��<�=��=�\|�\| �Z \|�`�Rz�/. �=�=,H0\H�=hL�;�hL�=��hL��=$'�V2}��#�<q�� 5�/'�'�'��D�DDsRz�<"RzChapter 4: Mountain Climate Climate is the fundamental factor in establishing a natural environment, it sets the stage upon which all physical, chemical, and biological processes operate. This becomes especially evident at the climatic margins of the earth, i.e., desert and tundra. Under temperate conditions, the effects of climate are often muted and intermingled so that the relationships between stimuli and reaction are difficult to isolate, but under extreme conditions the relationship becomes more evident. Extremes constitute the norm in many areas within high mountains; for this reason, a basic knowledge of climatic processes and characteristics is a prerequisite to an understanding of the mountain milieu. The climate of mountains is kaleidoscopic, composed of myriad individual segments continually changing through space and time. Great environmental contrasts occur within short distances as a result of the diverse topography and highly variable nature of the energy and moisture fluxes within the system. While in the mountains, have you ever sought refuge from the wind in the lee of a rock? If so, you have experienced the kind of difference that can occur within a small area. Near the margin of a species' distribution, such differences may decide between life and death; thus, plants and animals reach their highest elevations by taking advantage of microhabitats. Great variations also occur within short time spans. When the sun is shining it may be quite warm, even in winter, but if a passing cloud blocks the sun, the temperature drops rapidly. Therefore, areas exposed to the sun undergo much greater and more frequent temperature contrasts than those in shade. This is true for all environments, of course, but the difference is much greater in mountains because the thin alpine air does not hold heat well and allows a larger magnitude of solar radiation to reach the surface. In more general terms, the climate of a slope may be very different from that of a ridge or valley. When these basic differences are compounded by the infinite variety of combinations created by the orientation, spacing, and steepness of slopes, along with the presence of snow patches, shade, vegetation, and soil, the complexity of climatic patterns in mountains becomes truly overwhelming. Nevertheless, predictable patterns and characteristics are found within this heterogeneous system; for example, temperatures normally decrease with elevation while cloudiness and precipitation increases, it is usually windier in mountains, the air is thinner and clearer, and the sun�s rays are more intense. The dynamic effects of mountains also have a major impact on regional and local airflow patterns that impact the climates of adjacent regions. Their influence may be felt for hundreds or thousands of kilometers, making surrounding areas warmer or colder, wetter or drier than they would be if the mountains were not there. The exact effect of the mountains depends upon their location, size, and orientation with respect to the moisture source and the direction of the prevailing winds. The 2,400 kilometer long (1,500 mi.) natural barrier of the Himalayas permits tropical climates to extend farther north in India and southeast Asia than they do anywhere else in the world (Tang and Reiter 1984). One of the heaviest rainfall records in the world was measured at Cherrapunji, near the base of the Himalayas in Assam. This famous weather station has an annual rainfall of 10,871 mm (428 in.). Its record for a single day is 1,041 mm (41 in.) as much as Chicago or London receives in an entire year (Kendrew 1961)! On the north side of the Himalayas, however, there are extensive deserts and the temperatures are abnormally low for the latitude. This contrast in environment between north and south is due almost entirely to the presence of the mountains, whose east west orientation and great height prevent the invasion of warm air into central Asia just as surely as they prevent major invasions of cold air into India. It is no wonder that the Hindus pay homage to Siva, the great god of the Himalayas. EXTERNAL CLIMATIC CONTROLS Mountain climates occur within the framework of the surrounding regional climate and are controlled by the same factors, including latitude, altitude, continentality, and regional circumstances such as ocean currents, prevailing wind direction, and the location of semi-permanent high and low pressure cells. Mountains themselves, by acting as a barrier, affect regional climate and modifying passing storms. Our primary concern is in the significance of all these more or less independent controls to the weather and climate of mountains. Latitude The distance north or south of the equator governs the angle at which the sun's rays strike the earth, the length of the day, thus the amount of solar radiation arriving at the surface. In the tropics, the sun is always high overhead at midday and the days and nights are of nearly equal length throughout the year. As a result, there is no winter or summer; one day differs from another only in the amount of cloud cover. There is an old adage, "Night is the winter of the tropics." With increasing latitude, however, the height of the sun changes during the course of the year, and days and nights become longer or shorter depending on the season (Fig. 4.1). Thus, during summer solstice in the northern hemisphere (June 21) the day is 12 hours, 7 minutes long at Mount Kenya on the equator; 13 hours, 53 minutes long at Mount Everest in the Himalayas (28�N lat.); 15 hours, 45 minutes long at the Matterhorn in the Swiss Alps (41�N lat.); and 20 hours, 19 minutes long at Mount McKinley in Alaska (63�N lat.) (List 1958). During the winter, of course, the length of day and night at any given location are reversed. Consequently, the distribution of solar energy is greatly variable in space and time. In the polar regions, the extreme situation, up to six months of continuous sunlight follow six months of continuous night. Although the highest latitudes receive the lowest amounts of heat energy, middle latitudes frequently experience higher temperatures during the summer than do the tropics. This is due to moderate sun heights and longer days. Furthermore, mountains in middle latitudes may experience even greater solar intensity than lowlands, both because the atmosphere is thinner and because the sun's rays strike slopes oriented toward the sun at a higher angle than level surfaces. A surface inclined 20� toward the sun in middle latitudes receives about twice as much radiation during the winter as a level surface. It can be seen that slope angle and orientation with respect to the sun are vastly important and may partially compensate for latitude. The basic pattern of global atmospheric pressure systems reflects the role of latitude in determining climatic patterns (Fig. 4.2). These systems are known as the equatorial low (0� 20� lat.), subtropical high (20� 40� lat.), polar front and subpolar lows (40� 70� lat.), and polar high (70� 90� lat.). The equatorial low and subpolar low are zones of relatively heavy precipitation while the subtropical high and polar high are areas of low precipitation. These pressure zones create the global circulation system (Fig. 4.2). General circulation dictates the prevailing wind direction and types of storms that occur latitudinally. The easterly Trade Winds have warm, very moist convective (tropical) storms, which seasonally follow the direct rays of the sun. The subtropical highs have slack winds and clear skies year round. The subpolar lows and polar front are imbedded in the Westerlies, bringing cool, wet cyclonic storms and large seasonal temperature fluctuations. The cold and dry Polar Easterlies develop seasonally, dissipating in the summer season. The distribution of mountains in the global circulation system has a major influence on their climate. Mountains near the equator, such as Mount Kilimanjaro in East Africa, Mount Kinabalu in Borneo, or Mount Cotopaxi in Ecuador, are under the influence of the equatorial low and receive precipitation almost daily on their east-facing windward slopes. By contrast, mountains located around 30� latitude may experience considerable aridity; as do the northern Himalayas, Tibetan highlands, the Puna de Atacama in the Andes, the Atlas Mountains of North Africa, the mountains of the southwestern United States, and northern Mexico (Troll 1968). Farther poleward, the Alps, the Rockies, Cascades, the southern Andes, and the Southern Alps of New Zealand again receive heavy precipitation on westward slopes facing prevailing Westerlies. Leeward facing slopes and lands down wind are notably arid. Polar mountains are cold and dry year round. Altitude Fundamental to mountain climatology are the changes that occur in the atmosphere with increasing altitude, especially the decrease in temperature, air density, water vapor, carbon dioxide, and impurities. The sun is the ultimate source of energy, but little heating of the atmosphere takes place directly. Rather, solar radiation passes through the atmosphere and is absorbed by the earth�s surface. The earth itself becomes the radiating body, emitting long-wave energy that is readily absorbed by CO2, H2O and other greenhouse gases in the atmosphere. The atmosphere, therefore, is heated directly by the earth, not by the sun. This is why the highest temperatures usually occur near the earth�s surface and decrease outward. Mountains are part of the earth, too, but they present a smaller land area at higher altitudes within the atmosphere, so they are less able to modify the temperature of the surrounding air. A mountain peak is analogous to an oceanic island. The smaller the island and the farther it is from large land masses, the more its climate will be like that of the surrounding sea. By contrast, the larger the island or mountain area, the more it modifies its own climate. This mountain mass effect is a major factor in the local climate (see pp. 77 81). The density and composition of the air control its ability to absorb and hold heat. The weight or density of the air at sea level (standard atmospheric pressure) is generally expressed as 1013 mb (millibars, or 760 mm [29.92 in.] of mercury). Near the earth, pressure decreases at a rate of approximately 1 mb per 10 m (30 mm/300 m (1 in./1,000 ft.) of increased altitude. Above 5,000 m (20,000 ft.) atmospheric pressure begins to fall off exponentially. Thus, half the weight of the atmosphere occurs below 5,500 m (18,000 ft.) and pressure is halved again in the next 6,000 m (Fig. 4.3). The ability of air to hold heat is a function of its molecular structure. At higher altitudes, molecules are spaced farther apart, so there are fewer molecules in a given parcel of air to receive and hold heat. Similarly, the composition of the air changes rapidly with altitude, losing water vapor, carbon dioxide, and suspended particulate matter (Tables 4.1 and 4.2). These constituents, important in determining the ability of the air to absorb heat, are all concentrated in the lower reaches of the atmosphere. Water vapor is the chief heat absorbing constituent, and half of the water vapor in the air occurs below an elevation of 1,800 m (6,000 ft.). It diminishes rapidly above this point and is barely detectable at elevations above 12,000 m (40,000 ft.). The importance of water vapor as a reservoir of heat can be seen by comparing the daily temperature ranges of a desert to that of a humid area. Both areas may heat up equally during the day but, due to the relative absence of water vapor to absorb and hold the heat energy, the desert area cools down much more at night than the humid area. The mountain environment responds in a similar fashion to that of a desert, but is even more accentuated. The thin pure air of high altitudes does not effectively intercept radiation, allowing it to be lost to space. Mountain temperatures respond almost entirely to radiation fluxes, not on the temperature of the surrounding air (although some mountains receive considerable heat from precipitation processes). The sun's rays pass through the high thin air with negligible heating. Consequently, although the temperature at 1,800 m (6,000 ft.) in the free atmosphere changes very little between day and night, next to a mountain peak, the sun's rays are intercepted and absorbed. The soil surface may be quite warm but the envelope of heated air is usually only a few meters thick and displays a steep temperature gradient. In theory, every point along a given latitude receives the same amount of sunshine; in reality, of course, clouds interfere. The amount of cloudiness is controlled by distance from the ocean, direction of prevailing winds, dominance of pressure systems, and altitude. Precipitation normally increases with elevation, but only up to a certain point. Precipitation is generally heaviest on middle slopes where clouds first form and cloud moisture is greatest, decreasing at higher elevations. Thus, the lower slopes can be wrapped in clouds while the higher slopes are sunny. In the Alps, for example, the outer ranges receive more precipitation and less sunshine than the higher interior ranges. The herders in the Tien Shan and Pamir Mountains of Central Asia traditionally take their flocks higher in the winter than in summer to take advantage of the lower snowfall and sunnier conditions at the higher elevations. High mountains have another advantage with respect to possible sunshine: in effect, they lower the horizon. The sun shines earlier in the morning and later in the evening on mountain peaks than in lowlands. The same peaks, however, can raise the horizon for adjacent land, delaying sunrise or creating early sunsets. Continentality The relationship between land and water has a strong influence on the climate of a region. Generally, the more water dominated an area is, the more moderate its climate. An extreme example is a small oceanic island, on which the climate is essentially that of the surrounding sea. The other extreme is a central location on a large land mass such as Eurasia, far removed from the sea. Water heats and cools more slowly than land, so the temperature ranges between day and night and between winter and summer are smaller in marine areas than in continental areas. The same principle applies to alpine landscapes, but is intensified by the barrier effect of mountains. We have already noted this effect in the Himalayas between India and China. The Cascades in the Pacific Northwest of the United States provide another good example. This range extends north south at right angles to the prevailing westerly wind off the Pacific Ocean. As a result, western Oregon and Washington have a marine dominated climate characterized by moderate temperatures, cloudiness, and persistent winter precipitation (Schermerhorn 1967). The eastern side of the Cascades, however, experiences a continental climate characterized by hot summers and cold winters with low precipitation. In less than 85 km (50 mi.) across the Cascades the vegetation changes from lush green forests to dryland shrubs and grasses (Price 1971a). This spectacular transect provides eloquent testimony to the vast differences in climate that may occur within a short horizontal distance. The presence of the mountains increases the precipitation in western Oregon and Washington at the expense of that received on the east side. Additionally, the Cascades inhibit the invasion of cold continental air to the Pacific side. At the same time, their obstruction of mild Pacific air allows the continental climate to extend much closer to the ocean than it otherwise would (Church and Stephens 1941). It must be stressed that the significance of mountains in accentuating continentality depends upon their orientation with respect to the ocean and prevailing winds. Western Europe has a climate similar to the Pacific Northwest, but the east west orientation of the European mountains allows the marine climate to extend far inland, resulting in a milder climate throughout Europe. The effect of continentality on mountain climate is much like that on climate generally. Mountains in the interior of continents experience more sunshine, less cloudiness, greater extremes in temperatures, and less precipitation than mountains along the coasts. This would seem to add up to a more rigorous environment, but there may be extenuating circumstances. The extra sunshine in continental regions tends to compensate for the lower ambient temperatures, while the greater cloudiness and snowfall in coastal mountains tend to make the environment more rigorous for certain organisms than is suggested by the moderate temperatures of these regions. The fact that trees generally grow to higher altitudes on continental mountains than coastal mountains is a good, if rough, indication of the importance of these compensating circumstances to regional mountain climate and ecology (see pp. 277 82). People, too, find that the bright sunshine typical of high mountain slopes can make the low air temperatures of the alpine environment tolerable. During the winter in the Alps, for instance, when it is cloudy and rainy in the surrounding lowlands and foggy in the lower valleys, the mountain slopes and higher valleys may bask in brilliant sunshine. It is for this reason that lodges and tourist facilities in the Alps are generally located higher up on the slopes and in high valleys. Health resorts and sanatoriums also take advantage of the intense sunlight and clean dry air of the high mountains (Hill 1924). Barrier Effects Several examples of how mountains serve as barriers have already been given. The Himalayas and Cascades are both outstanding climatic divides that create unlike conditions on their windward and leeward sides. All mountains serve as barriers to a greater or lesser extent, depending on their size, shape, orientation, and relative location. Specifically, the barrier effect of mountains can be grouped under the following subheadings: (1) damming, (2) deflection and funneling, (3) blocking and disturbance of the upper air, (4) forced ascent, and (5) forced descent. Damming Damming of stable air occurs when the mountains are high enough to prevent the passage of an air mass across them. When this happens, a steep pressure gradient may develop between the windward and leeward sides of the range (Stull 1988). The effectiveness of the damming depends upon the depth of the air mass and the elevation of the lowest valleys or passes (Smith 1979). A shallow, ground hugging air mass may be effectively dammed, but a deep one is likely to flow through higher gaps and transverse valleys to the other side. In the Los Angeles Basin of southern California, for example, the San Gabriel, San Bernardino, and San Jacinto Mountains act as dams for marine air blowing from the Pacific Ocean. As the automobile-based culture of southern California pollutes the air, the pollution can only be vented as far east as the towns of San Bernardino and Riverside at the base of the mountains. In the absence of a strong wind system, the pollution can build up to dangerous levels as the air stagnates behind the mountain barrier. Deflection and Funneling When an air mass is dammed by a mountain range, the winds can be deflected around the mountains if topographic gaps exist. Deflected winds can have higher velocities as their streamlines are compressed, the so-called �Bernoulli-effect� (Davidson et al. 1964; Chen and Smith 1987). In winter, polar continental air coming down from Canada across the central United States is channeled to the south and east by the Rocky Mountains. Consequently, the Great Plains experience more severe winter weather than does the Great Basin (Church and Stephens 1941; Baker 1944). Similarly, as the cold air progresses southward, the Sierra Madre Oriental prevents it from crossing into the interior of Mexico. The east coast of Mexico also provides an excellent example of deflection in the summer: the northeast trade winds blowing across the Gulf of Mexico cannot cross the mountains and are deflected southward through the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, where they become northerly winds of unusual violence (Hurd 1929). Maritime air from the northeastern Pacific is deflected north and south around the Olympic Mountains (Fig. 4.4). To the north of the Olympics where wind is also deflected south from the Vancouver Island Ranges, these winds converge into a topographic funnel of the Strait of Juan de Fuca, resulting in much higher wind speeds (Ramachandran et al. 1980). A similar phenomenon occurs around the Southern Alps of New Zealand, with winds funneled through Cook Strait between the islands (Reid 1996; 1997; Sturman and Tapper 1996). These perturbations to the local airflow influence transit storms, making local forecasts difficult. The same funneling effect occurs over mountain passes as winds are deflected around peaks or ridges on either side of the pass. In the Los Angeles Basin example given above, the San Gorgonio Pass (750 m) is the lowest divide through the damming mountains. Wind speeds average 7.2 m/s and are very consistent, resulting in very active aeolian processes and a booming wind power generating industry (Williams and Lee 1995). Blocking and Disturbance of the Upper Air High pressure areas prevent the passage of storms. Large mountain ranges such as the Rockies, Southern Alps and Himalayas are very efficient at blocking storms, since they are often the foci of anti-cyclonic systems (because the mountains are a center of cold air), the storms must detour around the mountains (Kimurak and Manins 1988; McCauley and Sturman 1999). In addition to the effect of blocking, mountains cause other perturbations to upper air circulation and subsequent effects on clouds and precipitation (Chater and Sturman 1998). This occurs on a variety of scales: locally, with the wind immediately adjacent to the mountains; on an intermediate scale, creating large waves in the air; and on a global basis, with the larger mountain ranges actually influencing the motion of planetary waves (Bolin 1950; Gambo 1956; Kasahara 1967; Carruthers and Hunt 1990; Walsh 1994) and the transport momentum of the total circulation (White 1949; Wratt et al. 1996). Disturbance of the air by mountains generally creates a wave pattern much like that found in the wake of a ship. This may result in the kind of clear air turbulence feared by airline pilots (Alaka 1958; Colson 1963) or it may simply produce lee waves with their beautiful lenticular (standing wave) clouds, associated with mountains the world over (Fig. 4.41; Scorer 1961). An area of low precipitation occurs immediately lee of the Rocky Mountains: the area immediately to the lee is frequently cloud-free and receives low precipitation, while regions farther east are cloudy and wetter. This pattern corresponds to an intermediate-scale wave whose trough is located close to the lee of the mountains and whose ridge is located over the eastern United States (Reiter et al. 1965; Dirks et al. 1967 Durran 1990; Czarnetzki and Johnson 1996). Mountains have additional influence on the location and intensity of the jet streams, which have vastly important effects on the kind of weather experienced at any particular place and time. The jet streams may also split to flow around the mountains; they rejoin to the lee of the range, where they often intensify and produce storms (Reiter 1963; Buzzi et al. 1987). In North America these storms, known as "Colorado Lows" or "Alberta Lows," reach their greatest frequency and intensity in the spring season, sometimes causing heavy blizzards on the Great Plains and Prairie provinces. The tornadoes and violent squall lines that form in the American Midwest also result from the great contrasts in air masses which develop in the confluence zone to the lee of the Rockies (McClain 1958; Henz 1972; Chung et al 1976). The splitting of the jet streams by the Himalayas has the effect of intensifying the barrier effect in this region and produces a stronger climatic divide. In addition, the presence of the Himalayas reverses the direction of the jet streams in early summer. The Tibetan Highlands act as a "heat engine" in the warm season, with a giant chimney in their southeastern comer through which heat is carried upward into the atmosphere. This causes a gradual warming of the upper air above the Himalayas during the spring, which weakens and finally eliminates the subtropical westerly jet. The easterly tropical jet then replaces the subtropical jet during the summer. Thus, the Himalayas are intimately connected with the complex interaction of the upper air and the development of the Indian monsoon (Flohn 1968; Hahn and Manabe 1975; Reiter and Tang 1984; Tang and Reiter 1984; Kurtzbach et al. 1989). Forced Ascent When moist air blows perpendicular to a mountain range, the air is forced to rise; as it does, it is cooled. Eventually the dew point is reached, condensation occurs, clouds form, and precipitation results (see p. 94). This increased cloudiness and precipitation on the windward slope is known as the orographic effect (Browning and Hill1981). Some of the rainiest places in the world are mountain slopes in the path of winds blowing off relatively warm oceans. There are many examples and could be given from every continent, but the mountainous Hawai�ian Islands will serve as an illustration. The precipitation over the water around Hawai�i averages about 650 mm (25 in.) per year, while the islands average 1,800 mm (70 in.) per year. This is largely due to the presence of mountains, many of which receive over 6,000 mm (240 in.) per year (Nullet and MacGranaghan 1988). At Mount Waialeale on Kauai, the average annual rainfall reaches the extraordinary total of 12,344 mm (486 in.), i.e., 12.3 m (40.5 ft.)! This is the highest recorded annual average in the world (Blumenstock and Price 1967). In the continental United States, the heaviest precipitation occurs at the Hoh Rain Forest on the western side of the Olympic Mountains in Washington, where an average of 3,800 mm (150 in.) or more is received annually as storms are funneled up valleys oriented towards winter storm tracks (Fig. 4.4; Phillips 1972; Collie and Mass 1996). Forced Descent Atmospheric pressure conditions determine whether the air, after passing over a mountain barrier, will maintain its altitude or whether it will be forced to descend. If the air is forced to descend, it will be heated by compression (adiabatic heating) and will result in clear, dry conditions. This is a characteristic phenomenon in the lee of mountains and is responsible for the famous foehn or chinook winds (see pp. 114 19). The important point here is that the descent of the air is induced by the barrier effect and results in clear dry conditions that allow the sunshine to reach the ground with much greater intensity and frequency than it otherwise would. This can produce "climatic oases" in the lee of mountain ranges, e.g., in the Po Valley of Italy (Thams 1961). Although heavy precipitation may occur on the windward side of mountains where the air is forced to rise, the leeward side may receive considerably less precipitation because the air is no longer being lifted (it is descending) and much of the moisture has already been removed. The so-called rainshadow effect is an arid area on the leeward or down-wind side of mountains. To the lee of Mount Waialeale, Kauai, precipitation decreases at the rate of 3,000 mm (118 in.) per 1.6 km (1 mi.) along a 4 km (2.5 mi.) transect to Hanalei Tunnel (Blumenstock and Price 1967). In the Olympic Mountains, precipitation decreases from the windward side to less than 430 mm (17 in.) at the town of Sequim on the leeward, a distance of only 48 km (30 mi.) (Fig. 4.4; Phillips 1972). Since both of these leeward areas are maritime, they are still quite cloudy; under more continental conditions, there would be a corresponding increase in sunshine as precipitation decreases, especially where the air is forced to descend on the leeward side. MAJOR CLIMATIC ELEMENTS The discussion so far has covered the more or less independent climatic controls of latitude, altitude, continentality, and the barrier effect of mountains. These factors, along with ocean currents, pressure conditions, and prevailing winds, control the distribution of sunshine, temperature, humidity, precipitation, and local winds. The climatic elements of sunshine, temperature, and precipitation are essentially dependent variables reflecting the major climatic controls (Thompson 1990). They interact in complex ways to produce the day to day weather conditions experienced in different regions. In mountains, these processes frequently occur on small enough scales to be invisible to standard measurement networks used in weather forecasting, while their impact can be serious. Solar Radiation The effect of the sun becomes more exaggerated and distinct with elevation. The time lag, in terms of energy flow, between stimulus and reaction is greatly compressed in mountains. Looking at the effect of the sun in high mountains is like viewing its effects at lower elevations through a powerful magnifying glass. The alpine environment has perhaps the most extreme and variable radiation climate on earth. The thin clean air allows very high solar intensities, and the topographically complex landscape provides surfaces with a range of different exposures and shadowing from nearby peaks. Although the air next to the ground may heat up very rapidly under the direct rays of the sun, it may cool just as rapidly if the sun's rays are blocked. Thus, in the sun's daily and seasonal march through the sky, mountains experience a continually changing pattern of sunshine and shadow, influencing the energy flux in the ecosystem (Saunders and Bailey 1994; Germino and Smith 2000). The factors to consider are the amount of sunlight received, the quality or kinds of radiation, and the effect of slopes upon this energy. Amount of Solar Radiation The most striking aspect of the vertical distribution of solar radiation in the atmosphere is the rapid depletion of short wavelength energy at lower elevations. This attenuation results from the increased density of the atmosphere and the greater abundance of water vapor, carbon dioxide, and particulate matter near the earth�s surface (Tables 4.1 and 4.2). The atmosphere acts as a filter, reducing the intensity of some wavelengths and screening out others altogether. Consequently, the amount of energy reaching the surface at sea level is only about half that at the top of the atmosphere (Fig. 4.5). High mountains protrude through the lower atmospheric blanket and thus have the potential for receiving much higher levels of solar radiation, as well as cosmic ray and ultraviolet radiation (Solon et al. 1960). The first, and very vital, screening of solar energy takes place in the stratosphere where most of the ultraviolet radiation from the sun is absorbed by the ozone layer. Greenhouse gases absorb infrared solar radiation, but visible light passes through to the surface except when there is cloud-cover. The visible light is scattering as it strikes molecules of air, water, and dust. Scattering is a selective process, principally affecting the wavelengths of blue light. Have you ever noticed how much bluer or darker the sky looks in high mountains than it appears at lower elevations? That is because there is more water and pollutants at lower altitudes, scattering light of other wavelengths, which dilutes the blue color (Valko 1980). Clouds, of course, are the single most important factor in controlling variable receipt of solar energy at any given latitude and in mountains (Saunders and Bailey 1994). Because of the atmospheric filtering of solar radiation, the more atmosphere the sunlight passes through, the greater the attenuation. Consequently, the sun is most intense when it is directly overhead (90�) and its rays concentrated in the smallest area. When the sun is only 4� above the horizon, solar rays have to penetrate an atmosphere more than twelve times as thick as when the sun is directly overhead. This explains why it is possible to look directly at the orange ball of the sun at sunrise and sunset without being blinded. Since mountains stand above the lower reaches of the atmosphere, the solar radiation is much more intense since it has passed through less atmosphere (Fig. 4.6). Table 4.3 gives values for daily global radiation received at different elevations in the Austrian Alps. Solar intensity increases with altitude under all conditions, but the greatest differential between high and low-level stations occurs when skies are overcast. In summer, when skies are clear, there is 21% more radiation at 3,000 m (10,000 ft.) than at 200 m (650 ft.); but when skies are overcast, there is 160% more radiation at the higher elevation. Overcast skies are much more efficient at filtering out shortwave energy, so less reaches the lower elevation (Geiger 1965). The solar constant is defined as the average amount of total radiation energy received from the sun at the top of the atmosphere on a surface perpendicular to the sun's rays (Fig. 4.5). This is approximately 1365 Wm-2 (2 calories per square centimeter per min). At midday under clear skies the total energy flux from the sun in high mountains may approach the solar constant. Angstrom and Drummond (1966) have calculated the theoretical upper limit on high mountains to be 1263 Wm-2 (1.85 cal. cm-2 min-1), but several field investigations have recorded readings even slightly above the solar constant (Turner 1958a; Gates and Janke 1966; Bishop et al. 1966; Terjung et al. 1969a, b; Marcus and Brazel 1974). Turner (1958a) measured instantaneous values as high as 1529 Wm-2 (2.25 cal. cm-2 min-1) in the Alps, 112% of the solar constant! The additional radiation comes from sunlight reflected from cloud bottoms and snow on higher slopes. Quality of Solar Radiation The alpine environment receives considerably more ultraviolet radiation (UV) than low elevations. If only wavelengths shorter than 320 m�m. are considered, then alpine areas receive 50% more UV during summer solstice than does sea level (Caldwell 1980). Later in the year, when the sun is lower in the sky (and therefore passes through denser atmosphere), alpine areas receive 120% more UV than areas at sea level (Gates and Janke 1966). The relatively greater quantity of UV received at high elevations has special significance for human comfort and biological processes. A proverb in the Andes says, �Solo los gringos y los burros caminan en el sol� (�Only foreigners and donkeys walk in the sunshine�). This saying indicates the respect the Andeans give to the efficacy of the sun at high altitudes (Prohaska, 1970). UV has been cited for a number of harmful effects, ranging from the retardation of growth in tundra plants (Lockart and Franzgrote 1961; Caldwell 1968; Runeckles and Krupa 1994) to cancer in humans (Blum 1959). UV is mainly responsible for the deep tans of mountain dwellers and the painful sunburns of neophytes who expose too much of their skin too quickly. The wavelengths responsible for sunburn occur primarily between 280 and 320 m�m, while those responsible for darkening the skin occur between 300 and 400 m�m. Wavelengths less than 320 m�m are known to cause skin cancer and weaken the immune system (Chapman and Werkema 1995). UV has been increasing in alpine areas in recent decades, apparently a response to the depletion of stratospheric ozone (Blumenthaler and Ambach 1990). Effect of Slopes on Solar Radiation The play of the sun on the mountain landscape is like a symphony. As the hours, days, and seasons follow one another, the sun bursts upon some slopes with all the strength of crescendo while the shadows lengthen and fade into diminuendo on others. The melody is continuous and ever-changing, with as many scores as there are mountain regions, but the theme remains the same. It is a study of slope angle and orientation. The closer to perpendicularly the sun's rays strike a surface, the greater their intensity. The longer the sun shines on a surface, the greater the heating that takes place (Anderson 1998). In mountains, every slope has a different potential for receiving solar radiation. This amount can be measured if the following data are known: latitude, time of year (height of sun), time of day, elevation, slope angle, and slope orientation (Gamier and Ohmura 1968, 1970; Swift 1976; Baily et al. 1989; Bowers and Bailey 1989; Huo and Bailey 1992). The basic characteristics of solar radiation on slopes are illustrated in Figure 4.7. This very useful diagram shows the situation for one latitude at four times of the year, at four slope orientations. They do not include the effects of clouds; diffuse sky radiation, or the receptiveness of different slopes to the sun's rays. The diagram also fails to reveal the shadow effects caused by the presence of ridges or peaks above a location. Most mountain slopes receive fewer hours of sunshine than a level surface, although slopes facing the sun may receive more energy than a level surface (this is particularly true at higher latitudes). In the tropics, level surfaces usually receive a higher solar intensity than slopes because the sun is always high in the sky. Whatever the duration and intensity of sunlight, the effects are generally clearly evident in the local ecology (Fig. 4.8). In the northern hemisphere, south-facing slopes are warmer and drier than north facing slopes and, under humid conditions, are more favorable for life. Timberlines go higher on south facing slopes, and the number and diversity of plants and animals are greater (Germino and Smith 2000). Humans take advantage of the sunny slopes. In the east west valleys of the Alps most settlements are located on south facing slopes. Houses are seldom found within the mid winter noonday shadow area, although they may go right up to the shadow line (Fig. 4.9; Garnett 1935, 1937). In spring north facing slopes may still be deep in snow while south facing slopes are clear. As a result, north facing slopes have traditionally been left in forest while south facing slopes are used for high pastures (Fig. 4.10). The environmental differences are so great between the sunny and shady sides of the valley that each mountain speech or dialect in the Alps has a special term for these slopes (Peattie 1936). The most frequently used are the French adret (sunny) and ubac (shade). East- and west facing slopes are also affected differently by solar radiation. Soil and vegetation surfaces are frequently moist in the morning, owing to higher humidity at night and the formation of dew or frost. On east facing slopes the sun's energy has to evaporate this moisture before the slope can heat appreciably. By the time the sun reaches the west facing slope, however, the moisture has already evaporated, so the sun's energy more effectively heats the slope. The driest and warmest slopes are, therefore, those that face toward the southwest rather than strictly south (Blumer 1910). Cloud cover, which varies latitudinally, from season to season, and according to time of day, can make a great deal of difference in the amount of solar energy received on slopes. During storms the entire mountain may be wrapped in clouds; even during relatively clear weather, mountains may still experience local clouds. In winter, stratus clouds and fog are characteristic on intermediate slopes and valleys, but these frequently burn off by midday. In summer, the mornings are typically clear but convection clouds (cumulus) build by mid-afternoon from thermal heating. Consequently, convection clouds result in east facing slopes receiving greater sunlight while stratus clouds, as described above, allow greater sun on west facing slopes. As clouds move over mountains, build and dissipate through each day, they have a marked effect upon the amount and character of radiation received. Mountains are composed of a wide range of surface types, snow, ice, water, grassy pastureland, extensive forests, desert shrub, soils, and bare bedrock. This extensive variety of surface characteristics affects the receipt of incoming solar radiation (Miller 1965, 1977; Goodin and Isard 1989; Tappenier and Cernusca 1989). The effects of two factors, groundcover and topographic setting, will illustrate this. Dark colored features, including vegetation, absorb rather than reflect radiation, receiving increased amounts of energy. Snowfields, glaciers, and light colored rocks have a high reflectivity (albedo), so that much of the incoming shortwave energy is lost. If the snow is in a valley or on a concave slope, reflected energy may bounce from slope to slope, increasing the energy budget of the upper slopes. The opposite occurs on a mountain ridge or convex slope, where the energy is reflected back out into space. Consequently, valleys and depressions are areas of heat build up and generally experience greater temperature extremes than do ridges and convex slopes. Reflected energy is an important source of heat for trees in the high mountains (Martinec 1987; 1989). Snow typically melts faster around trees because the increased heat is transferred, as longwave thermal energy, to the adjacent surface (Pl�ss and Ohmura 1997). On a larger scale, the presence of forests adds significantly to the heat budget of snow-covered areas. The shortwave energy from the sun can pass through a coniferous forest canopy, but very little of it escapes again to outer space. The absorbed energy heats the tree foliage and produces higher temperatures than in open areas. This results in rapid melting rates of the regional snowpack (Miller 1959; Martinec 1987). Variation in the components of the surface energy budget provides the main driving force of regional differences in climate. In particular, the relative magnitude of sensible and latent heat fluxes reflects the influence of prevailing weather systems, as well as playing an important role in determining atmospheric temperature and moisture content (McCutchan and Fox 1986; Bailey et al. 1990; Kelliher et al. 1996). These factors in turn have an influence on the development of local wind systems. The surface energy budgets can vary significantly in mountains due to the effects of both complex topography and surface characteristics. When snow or ice are present, energy must first be partitioned to ablation before temperatures rise, and once the snow melts there are large changes in albedo (Cline 1997). These variations affect both the distribution of incoming and outgoing radiation, influencing net radiation, soil heat flux, sensible and latent heat; and producing a range of topo- and microclimates (Barry and Van Wie 1974; Green and Harding 1980; Fitzharris 1989; Germino and Smith 2000). Temperature The decrease of temperature with elevation is one of the most striking and fundamental features of mountain climate. Those of us who are fortunate enough to live near mountains are constantly reminded of this fact, either by spending time in the mountains or by viewing the snowcapped peaks from a distance. Nevertheless, there are many subtle and poorly understood characteristics about the nature of temperature in mountains. Alexander Von Humboldt was so struck by the effect of temperature on the elevational zonation of climate and vegetation in the tropics that he proposed the terms tierra calienfe, tierra templada, and tierra fria for the hot, temperate, and cold zones. These terms, commonplace in the tropics today, are still valid for this region. Their extension to higher latitudes by others, however, under the mistaken assumption that the same basic kinds of temperature conditions occur in belts from the equator to the poles has been unfortunate. This simplistic approach is still used in some textbooks. Vertical Temperature Gradient Change of temperature with elevation is called the environmental or normal lapse rate. De Saussure, who climbed Mount Blanc in 1787, was one of the first to measure temperature at different elevations. Since his time many temperature measurements have been made in mountains throughout the world, and almost every one of them has been different (Tabony 1985). The lapse rate varies according to many factors. Nevertheless, by averaging the temperatures at different levels, as well as those measured in the free air by balloon, radiosonde, and aircraft, average lapse rates have been established, ranging from 1�C to 2�C (1.8�F to 3.6�F) per 300 m (1,000 ft.) (McCutchan 1983). Aside from purposes of gross generalization, however, average lapse rates have little value in mountains. There is no constant relationship between altitude and temperature. Instead, the lapse rate changes continually with changing conditions, particularly the diurnal heating and cooling of the earth�s surface. For example, the vertical temperature gradient is normally greater during the day than at night, and greater during the summer than in winter. The gradient is steeper under clear than cloudy conditions, steeper on sun exposed slopes than shaded ones, and steeper on continental mountains than on maritime mountains (Peattie 1936; Dickson 1959; Tanner 1963; Yoshino 1964a, 1975; Coulter 1967; Marcus 1969). There is also a difference between the characteristics of free air temperature and that measured on a mountain slope (McCutchan 1983; Richner and Phillips 1984; Pepin and Losleben 2002). Of course, the higher and more isolated a mountain peak is, the more closely its temperature will approach that of the free atmosphere (Schell 1934, 1935; Eide 1945; Samson 1965). Table 4.4 shows data for the average de crease of temperature with changing eleva tion in the Alps, and Figure 4.11 illustrates the temperature changes with elevation in the southern Appalachians of the United States. The temperatures shown are averages, with some interpolation between stations; the actual decrease with elevation is much more variable. A station located on a sunny slope will have a temperature regime different from that of a shaded slope (Fig. 4.23). The disposition of winds and clouds is equally important, as is the nature of the slope surface whether it is snow-covered, wet or dry, bare or vegetated (Green and Hardy 1979; 1980). A convex slope has qualities of heat retention different from those of a concave slope. A high valley will heat up more during the day (and cool down more at night) than an exposed ridge at the same elevation. Nevertheless, broad averages will smooth out the extremes and individual differences, generally showing a steady and progressive decrease in temperature with increase in elevation. Mountain Mass (Massenerhebung) Effect Large mountain systems create their own surrounding climate (Ekhart 1948). Similar to the continentality effect, the greater the surface area or land mass at any given elevation, the greater effect the mountain area will have on its own environment. Mountains serve as elevated heat islands where solar radiation is absorbed and transformed into long-wave heat energy, resulting in much higher temperatures than those found at similar altitudes in the free air (Flohn 1968; Chen et al. 1985; Rao and Endogan 1989). Accordingly, the larger the mountain mass, the more its climate will vary from the free atmosphere at any given altitude. This is particularly evident on some of the high plateaus, where treeline and snowline often occur at higher elevations than on isolated peaks at the same elevation. On the broad general level of the Himalayas, at 4,000 m (13,100 ft.) it seldom freezes during summer, while on the isolated peaks at 5,000 m (16,400 ft.) it seldom thaws (Peattie 1936; Tang and Reiter 1989; Brazel and Marcus 1991). An excellent example of the heating effect of large high altitude land masses is the Mexican Meseta (Fig. 4.12). Radiosonde data indicate higher temperatures in the free atmosphere over the plateau than over the Pacific and Gulf coasts up to an elevation of almost 6,000 m (20,000 ft.). The mean annual temperature over the central plateau at 3,000 m (10,000 ft.) is about 3�C (5.4�F) warmer than that over coastal stations (Hastenrath 1968). This is largely due to the heating effects of the sun on the larger land mass exposed at higher elevations. In establishing the relationships between mountain mass and the heat balance, continentality, latitude, amount of cloud cover, winds, precipitation, and surface conditions must all be considered. A persistent cloud cover during the summer can prevent a large mountain mass from showing substantial warming. Also, the presence of a heavy snow cover can retard the warming of a mountain area in spring because of surface reflectivity and the amount of initial heat required to melt the snow. The high Sierra Nevada of California are relatively warm compared with other mountain areas, in spite of heavy snowfalls (Miller 1955). This is partially because the extreme clarity of the skies over this region in late summer allows maximum reception of solar energy. In general, the effect of greater mountain mass on climate is somewhat like that of increasing continentality. The ranges of temperature are greater than on small mountains, i.e., the winters are colder and the summers warmer, but the average of these temperatures will generally be higher than the free air at the same altitude. The effective growing climate, especially, is more favorable at the soil surface than in the free air, owing to higher soil temperatures. This is particularly true when there is a high percentage of sunshine (Peattie 1931; Yoshino 1975). Generally, the larger the mountain mass, the higher the elevation at which vegetation grows. The most striking example of this is found in the Himalayas, where plants reach their absolute highest altitude (Zimmermann 1953; Webster 1961; Chen et al. 1985). In the Alps (where the influence of mountain mass, Mussenerhebung, was first observed) the timberline is higher in the more massive central area than on the marginal ranges (Imhof 1900, in Peattie 1936, p. 18). At a more local level, the effects of mountain mass on vegetation development can be observed in the Oregon Cascades. Except for Mount McLoughlin in southern Oregon, timberline is highest and alpine vegetation reaches its best development in the Three Sisters Wilderness area, where three peaks join to form a relatively large land mass above 1,800 m (6,000 ft.) (Price 1978). On the higher but less massive peaks of Mount Hood and Mount Washington a few kilometers to the north, the timberline is 150-300 m (500 1,000 ft.) lower and the alpine vegetation is considerably more impoverished. The development of vegetation involves more than climate, of course, since plant adaptations and species diversity are related to the size of the gene pool and other factors (Van Steenis 1961). Nevertheless, vegetation is a useful indicator of environmental conditions and a positive correlation between vegetation development and mountain mass can be observed in most mountain areas (see pp. 266 67). An interesting practical consequence of the mountain mass effect is that rice, basically a tropical plant, can grow at higher altitudes in the subtropics than in the tropics. Rice cultivation goes up to 2,500 m (8,250 ft.) in the high interior valleys of the Himalayas (Fig. 4.13) but only reaches about 1,500 m (5,000 ft.) in the humid tropics. The lower tropical limits are due to the lower cloud level, whereas the higher elevations reached in the Himalayas are due to the greater mountain mass and reduced cloudiness, permitting greater possible sunshine, higher temperatures, and a longer growing season than would otherwise be expected. In general, the upper limit of rice cultivation corresponds closely to the limit of frost during the growing season. At the highest levels in the Himalayas, rice seedlings are germinated and grown inside the houses, since it takes eight months for complete production at this elevation but the growing season is only seven months long (Uhlig 1978). Temperature Inversion Temperature inversions are ubiquitous in landscapes with marked relief, and anyone who has spent time in or around mountains is certain to have experienced their effects. Inversions are the exception to the general rule of decrease in temperature with elevation. During a temperature inversion the lowest temperatures occur in the valley and increase upward along the mountain slope. Eventually, however, the temperatures will begin to decrease again, so that an intermediate zone, the thermal belt, will experience higher night temperatures than either the valley bottom or the upper slopes (Yoshino 1984). Cold air is denser and therefore heavier than warm air. As slopes cool at night, the colder air begins to slide down slope, flowing underneath and displacing the warm air in the valley. Temperature inversions are best developed under calm, clear skies, where there is no wind to mix and equalize the temperatures and the transparent sky allows the surface heat to be rapidly radiated and lost to space (Blackadar 1957). Consequently, the surface becomes colder than the air above it, and the air next to the ground flows downslope. These slope winds are further explored on pp. 34. The cold air will continue to collect in the valley until an equilibrium between the temperatures of the slopes and the valleys has been established. If the valley is enclosed, a pool of relatively stagnant colder air may collect, but if the valley is open there may be a continuous movement of air to the lower levels, leading to the development of pollution problems (Whiteman and KcKee 1978; Nappo et al 1989). The depth of the inversion depends on the characteristics of the local topography and the general weather conditions, but it is generally not more than 300 600 m (1,000 2,000 ft.) in depth. Figure 4.14 demonstrates a temperature inversion in Gstettneralm, a small enclosed basin at an elevation of 1,270 m (4,165 ft.) in the Austrian Alps, about 100 km (62 mi.) southwest of Vienna. Because of the local topographic situation and the "pooling" of cold air, this valley experiences some of the lowest temperatures in Europe, even lower than the high peaks (Schmidt 1934). The lowest temperature recorded at Gstettneralm is 51�C ( 59.8�F) while the lowest temperature recorded at Sormblick at 3,100 m (10,170 ft.) is 32.6�C ( 26.7�F). As might be expected, distinct vegetation patterns are associated with these extreme temperatures. Normally, valley bottoms are forested and trees become stunted on the higher slopes, eventually being replaced by shrubs and grasses still higher up, but the exact opposite occurs here. The valley floor is covered with grass, shrubs, and stunted trees, while the larger trees occur higher up. An inversion of vegetation matches that of temperature (Schmidt 1934). A similar vegetative pattern has been found in the arid mountains of Nevada, where valley bottoms support sagebrush, while higher up is a zone of pinyon and juniper woodland. Higher still the trees again disappear (Billings 1954). The pinyon/juniper zone, the thermal belt, is sandwiched between the lower night temperatures of the valley bottom and those which occur higher up on the slopes. Human populations have taken advantage of thermal belts for centuries, particularly in the cultivation of frost susceptible crops such as vineyards and orchards. In the southern Appalachians of North Carolina, the effect of temperature inversions is clearly displayed by the distribution of the fruit orchards (Cox 1920,1923; Dickson 1959; Dunbar 1966). During the winter, the valleys are often brown with dormant vegetation, while the mountain tops at 1,350 m (4,430 ft.) may be white with snow. In between is a strip of green that marks the thermal belt. Frost is common in the valley, but in the thermal belt they cultivate a sensitive Isabella grape which has apparently grown for years without danger from frost (Peattie 1936). A similar situation exists in the Hood River Valley of Oregon, on the north side of Mount Hood. Cherries are grown on the slopes of this valley in a sharply delimited thermal belt between the river and the upper slopes. With increased demand, more fruit trees are being planted in marginal areas, but their success is questionable, since the risk of frost is much greater. Temperature Range The temperature difference between day and night and between winter and summer generally decreases with elevation (Fig. 4.15; Linacre 1982). This is because of the relatively greater distance from the heat source, the broad level of the earth's surface. Like the analogy of a marine island and the dominating influence of the ocean, the higher and more isolated a mountain, the more its temperature will reflect that of the surrounding free air. Temperature in mountains is largely a response to solar radiation. The free air, however, is essentially non responsive to the heating effects of the sun, particularly at higher altitudes. A mountain becomes heated at the surface but there is a rapid temperature gradient in the surrounding air. As a result, only a thin boundary layer or thermal shell surrounds the mountain, its exact thickness depending on a variety of factors (e.g., solar intensity, mountain mass, humidity, wind velocity, surface conditions, and topographic setting). Ambient temperatures are normally measured at a standard instrument shelter height of 1.5 m (5 ft.). Such measurements generally show a progressive decline in temperature and a lower temperature range with elevation (Table 4.4; Figs. 4.11, 4.15). There is a vast difference between the temperature conditions at a height of 1.5 m (5 ft.) and immediately next to the soil surface, however. Paradoxically, the soil surface in alpine areas may experience higher temperatures (and therefore a greater temperature range) than the soil surface of low elevations, due to the greater intensity of the sun at high elevations (Anderson 1998). At an elevation of 2,070 m (6,800 ft.) in the Alps, temperatures up to 80�C (176�F) were measured on a dark humus surface near timberline on a southwest facing slope with a gradient of 35� (Turner 1958b). This is comparable to the maximum temperatures recorded in hot deserts! At the same time, the air temperature at a height of 2 m (6.5 ft.) was only 30�C (86�F), a difference of 50�C (90�F). Such high surface temperatures may occur infrequently and only under ideal conditions, but temperatures somewhat less extreme are characteristic, and demonstrate the vast differences that may exist between the surface and the overlying air (Fig. 4.16). The soil surface in the alpine tundra will almost always be warmer during the day than the air above it. It may also become colder at night, although the differences are far less at night than during the day. The low growth of most alpine vegetation may be viewed as an adaptation to take advantage of these warmer surface conditions. In fact, several studies have shown that tundra plants may suffer more from high temperatures than from low temperatures (Dahl 1951; Mooney and Billings 1961). Temperature ranges vary not only with elevation, but on a latitudinal basis as well. The contrast in daily and annual temperature ranges is one of the most important distinguishing characteristics between tropical and mid latitude or polar climates. The average annual temperatures of high tropical mountains and polar climates are similar. The average annual temperature of El Misti in Peru at 5,850 m (19,193 ft.) is 8�C (18�F), which is comparable to many polar stations. The use of this value alone is grossly misleading, however, since there are vast differences in the temperature regimes. Tropical mountains experience a temperature range between day and night that is relatively greater than any other mountain area, due to the strongly positive heating effect of the sun in the tropics. On the other hand, changes in temperature from month to month or between winter and summer are minimal. This is in great contrast to middle latitude and polar mountains, which experience lower daily temperature ranges with latitude, but are increasingly dominated by strong seasonal gradients. Knowledge of the differences between these temperature regimes is essential to an understanding of the nature and significance of the physical and biological processes at work in each latitude. Figure 4.17a depicts the temperature characteristics of Irkutsk, Siberia, a subpolar station with strong continentality. The most striking feature of this temperature regime is its marked seasonality. The daily range is only 5�C (9�F), while the annual range is over 60�C (108�F). This means that during winter, which lasts from October to May, the temperatures are always below freezing, while in summer they are consistently above freezing. The period of stress for organisms, then, is concentrated into winter. An alpine station at this latitude would have essentially the same temperature regime except for a relatively longer period with negative temperatures and a shorter period with positive temperatures. More poleward stations would show an even smaller daily temperature range (Troll 1968). Such a temperature regime stands in great contrast to that of tropical mountains. Figure 4.17b shows the temperature characteristics of Quito, Ecuador, located on the equator at an elevation of 2,850 m (9,350 ft.). The isotherms on the graph are oriented vertically, indicating very little change between winter and summer, but with a marked contrast between day and night. The average annual range is less than 1�C (1.8�F), while the average daily range is approximately 11�C (19.8�F). This beautifully demonstrates the saying, "Night is the winter of the tropics"; night is indeed the only winter the humid tropics experience. This is particularly true if the station is high enough for freezing to occur. The lower limit of frost is determined principally by latitude, mountain mass, continentality, and the local topographic situation. In the equatorial Andes it exists at about 3,000 m (10,000 ft.). This elevation decreases with latitude; the point where frost begins to occur in the lowlands is normally taken as being the outer limits of the tropics. In North America the frost line runs through the middle of Baja California and eastward to the mouth of the Rio Grande, although it is highly variable from year to year. The frost line in tropical mountains is much more sharply delineated. In Quito, Ecuador, at 2,850 m (9,350 ft.), frost is practically unknown. The vegetation consists of tropical evergreen plants which blossom continuously; farmers plant and harvest crops throughout the year. By an elevation of 3,500 m (11,500 ft.), however, frost becomes a limiting factor (Troll 1968). At an elevation of 4,700 m (15,400 ft.) on El Misti in southern Peru, it freezes and thaws almost every day of the year. The fundamental relationships between these disparate freeze thaw regimes are demonstrated in Figure 4.18. Each of the sites selected has a similar average annual temperature of 8�C to 2�C (18�F to 28�F) but the daily and annual ranges are markedly different. Yakutsk, Siberia, experiences strong seasonality, with a frost free summer period of 126 days, but in winter the temperatures remain below freezing for 197 days. Alternating freezing and thawing take place during 42 days in the spring and fall. At Sormblick in the Alps, the winter season is much longer (276 days), with a very short summer during which freezing and thawing can occur at any time. El Misti, however, is dominated by a freeze thaw regime that operates almost every day throughout the year. This type of weather has been characterized as "perpetual spring": the sun melts the night frost every morning and the days are quite pleasant. The twelve-hour day adds to the impression of spring (McVean 1968). It can be seen that these different systems provide greatly contrasting frameworks for the survival of plants and animals, as well as for the development of landscapes. Humidity and Evaporation Water vapor constitutes less than 5% of the atmosphere but it is by far the single most important component with regard to weather and climate. It is highly variable in space and time. Water vapor provides energy for storms and its abundance is an index of the potential of the air for yielding precipitation; it absorbs infrared energy from the sun and reduces the amount of shortwave energy reaching the earth; it serves as a buffer from temperature extremes; and it is important biologically, since it controls the rate of chemical reactions and the drying power of the air. The moisture content of the atmosphere decreases rapidly with increasing altitude. At 2,000 m (6,600 ft.) it is only about 50 percent of that at sea level; at 5,000 m (16,400 ft.) it is less than 25%; and at 8,000 m (26,200 ft.) the water vapor content of the air is less than 1% of that at sea level (Table 4.2). Within this framework, however, the presence of moisture is highly variable. This is true on a temporal basis, between winter and summer, day and night, or within a matter of minutes when the saturated air of a passing cloud shrouds a mountain peak (McCutchan and Fox 1986; Huntington et al. 1998). It is also true on a spatial basis, between high and low latitudes, a marine and a continental location, the windward and leeward sides of a mountain range, or north and south facing slopes. The general upward decrease in water vapor content, and the variations that occur, are illustrated by the east and west sides of the tropical Andes (Fig. 4.19). The contrast in absolute humidity between these two environments is immediately apparent, although the difference decreases with elevation and probably disappears altogether above the mountains. Imata, Salcedo, and Arequipa on the west have only about half the water vapor content of stations on the east (Cerro do Pasco, Pachachaca, Huancayo, Bambamarca). Values similar to those at Arequipa occur at elevations 2,000 m (6,600 ft.) higher on the east side (e.g., at Pachachaca). During the wet season, however, the absolute humidity at Arequipa may be two to three times higher than during the dry season. This corresponds to an elevational difference of up to 3,000 m (10,000 ft.). The decrease in water vapor with altitude may seem somewhat difficult to explain, since it is well known that precipitation increases with elevation. The two phenomena are not directly related, however. Precipitation results from the lifting of moist air from lower elevations upward into an area of lower temperature. Increasing precipitation does create a more humid environment in mountains, at least for part of the year and up to certain elevations, but eventually signs of aridity increase. Aridity at high elevations is due, in part, to lower barometric pressure, stronger winds, porous well drained soils, and the intense sunlight. The greater aridity of high elevation is evident from the plants and animals, many of which have adapted to a dry environment. Thick, corky bark and waxy leaves are common in alpine plants (Isard and Belding 1986). Mountain sheep and goats and their cousins, the llama, guanaco, alpaca, chamois, and ibex, are all able to live for prolonged periods on little moisture. Geomorphologically, aeolian processes become increasingly important in higher landscapes, and the low availability of moisture is reflected in soil development (Litaor 1987). One of the physiological stresses reported by climbers on Mount Everest is a dryness of the throat and a general desiccation. The establishment of sanatoriums in alpine areas to utilize the intense sunlight and clean, dry air was mentioned earlier (Hill 1924). Air dried meat is a provincial dish in the high Engadine, and pemmican and jerky were both important in the mountains of western North America. In the Andes, an ancient method exists for the production of dried potatoes (chuho) in the high dry air above 3,000 m (10,000 ft.). Permanent settlement of the higher elevations apparently depended upon the development of this technique of food preservation (Troll 1968). Mummification of the dead was practiced in the Andes and in the Caucasus. The lower absolute humidities and the tendency toward aridity at higher altitudes suggest greater evaporation rates with elevation. However, this may not be true, since the few studies of alpine evaporation have conflicting results (reviewed in Barry, 1992). Several studies do indicate an increase of evaporation with elevation (Hann 1903; Church 1934; Matthes 1934; Peattie 1936; Henning and Henning 1981; Sturman and Tapper 1996). For example, Matthes (1934), in discussing the development of the dimpled surfaces (sun cups) of snowfields above 3,600 m (12,000 ft.) in the Sierra Nevada of California, states that ablation (the combined processes of wasting away of snow and ice) is caused entirely by evaporation, since melting does not occur at this elevation. Two years of water balance data from a high elevation (2,800-3,400 m) lake in the Sierra Nevada show that evaporation accounts for 19-32% of the ablation (Kattelman and Elder 1991). Snowfall contributed 95% of the precipitation and 80% of the evaporative (sublimation) losses came from snowcover. Similar results were reported from the alpine zone of the White Mountains of California (Beatty 1975). However, other studies in the have shown that evaporation does not exceed 10% of the total ablation (Kehrlein et al. 1953). Whichever of these observations is accepted as being the more general, it should be noted that these particular alpine areas are exceptionally, if not uniquely, dry environments, with high solar intensities, strong winds, and persistent subfreezing temperatures (Terjung et al. 1969a; LeDrew 1975). The bulk of investigations on snowfields and glaciers in other regions have tended to show that evaporation is relatively unimportant in total ablation. In some cases, evaporation may actually inhibit ablation, owing to the heat it extracts (Howell 1953; Martinelli 1960; Hoinkes and Rudolph 1962; Platt 1966). In addition, long term studies of evaporation in measurement pans and lakes at different elevations in the western United States have shown that evaporation decreases with elevation (Fig. 4.20; Shreve 1915; Blaney 1958; Longacre and Blaney 1962; Peck and Pfankuch 1963). Evaporation and the factors that control it in a natural environment are exceedingly complex (Horton 1934; Penman1963; Gale 1972; Calder 1990). The rate depends upon temperature, solar intensity, atmospheric pressure, the available quantity of water (soil moisture), the degree of saturation of the air, and wind. One of the problems in measuring the rate of evaporation is the availability of moisture. In a lake or evaporating pan, the available moisture is for all practical purposes unlimited, but this is not true for most surfaces in high mountains. Rainfall is generally lost to the surface by drainage through porous soil or by runoff on steep slopes. As a result, there is frequently little surface moisture available for evaporation, no matter how great the measured rates are from an evaporation pan. For this reason, the determination of evapotranspiration, the loss of water to the air from both plant and soil surfaces, has become an increasingly attractive approach (Thomthwaite and Mather 1951; Penman 1963; Rao et al. 1975; Henning and Henning 1981). The single most important factor in controlling the decrease of evaporation with elevation is temperature, both of the evaporation surface and of the air directly above it (Konzelman et al. 1997; Huntinton et al. 1998). While it is true that soil surfaces exposed to the sun at high elevations may reach exceptionally high temperatures, this is a highly variable condition (Anderson 1998; Germino and Smith 2000). During periods of high sun intensity and high soil temperatures, the potential for evaporation may be considerable, especially when the wind is blowing (Isard and Belding 1986). Generally, however, the lower temperatures of higher altitudes are more than sufficient to compensate for the decreasing water vapor content and lower barometric pressure, so that the vapor pressure gradient is likewise decreased (Bailey et al. 1990). In other words, the relative humidity (ratio of water vapor in the air to the maximum amount it could hold at that temperature) increases with decreasing temperature, and it is the relative humidity that really determines the rate of evaporation. This is illustrated by the surprising fact that the water vapor content of the air in the Sahara Desert is two to three times greater than that over the Rocky Mountains during clear summer weather. Owing to the higher temperatures in the Sahara, however, the relative humidity is usually not more than 20 30%, compared to 40 60% for the Rockies. Consequently, the evaporation rate in the Sahara far exceeds that of the Rockies, even though there is more actual moisture in the desert. An inverse relationship exists between air temperature and relative humidity. This can be seen by comparing measurements taken in mountains during day and night, and at various slope exposures (Fig. 4.21). The greatest contrasts occur on south facing slopes in the northern hemisphere. Under the higher temperatures that prevail during the day, relative humidity varies very little with elevation, although it is lowest in the valley bottom. At night there is considerable contrast because of the temperature inversion that develops in the valley, resulting in lower temperatures and high relative humidities. The lowest relative humidity occurs immediately above the temperature inversion, in the thermal belt, where temperatures are higher (Hayes 1941). The difference in relative humidity between the two slopes gradually decreases with elevation. Local wind circulation can also greatly affect water vapor content: descending air brings dry air from aloft, while ascending air carries moist air upward from below. At night colder air tends to descend through air drainage, but during the day the slopes are warmed and the air rises. Under these conditions, the normal inverse temperature/relative humidity relationship may be overridden. Even though the summit air is cool at night, the motion of the descending air lowers the relative humidity. During the day, however, when temperatures are higher and relative humidity would normally decrease, it may actually increase, because the valley breezes carry moist air up the mountain slopes. This frequently results in afternoon clouds and precipitation (Schell 1934). Precipitation The increase of precipitation with elevation is well known. It is demonstrated in every country of the world, even if the landforms involved are only small hills. In many regions an isohyetal map with its lines of equal precipitation will look similar to a topographic map composed of lines of equal elevation (Fig. 4.22). Of course, the data on which most precipitation maps are based are scanty, so that considerable interpolation may be necessary, particularly in the areas of higher relief (Peck and Brown 1962; Kyriakidis et al. 2001). Precipitation does not always correspond to landforms. In some cases, maximum precipitation may occur at the foot or in advance of the mountain slopes (Reinelt 1968; Barry 1992). In some regions and under certain conditions, valleys may receive more rainfall than the nearby mountains (Sinclair et al. 1997). In many higher alpine areas, precipitation decreases above a certain elevation, with the peaks receiving less than the lower slopes. Wind direction, temperature, moisture content, storm and cloud type, depth of the air mass and its relative stability, orientation and aspect, and configuration of the landforms are all contributing factors in determining location and amount of precipitation (Sinclair 1994; Ferretti et al. 2000; McGinnis 2000; Drogue et al. 2002). The complex topographic arrangement and often high relief of mountains creates complex meso- and micro-scale three-dimensional circulation and cloud formations, leading to complex spatial patterns of precipitation within mountainous regions (Bossert and Cotton 1994; Cline et al. 1998; Garreaud 1999; Germann and Joss 2001; 2002). Great variations in precipitation occur within short distances; one slope may be excessively wet while another is relatively dry. The terms "wet hole" and "dry hole" may be used in this regard. Jackson Hole, Wyoming, is located in a protected site at the base of the Grand Tetons. The mountains receive 1,400 mm. (55 in.) but Jackson Hole, only 16 km (10 mi.) away, receives 380 mm (15 in.). The most fundamental reason for increased precipitation with elevation is that landforms obstruct the movement of air and force it to rise. This is part of a complex of processes known as the orographic effect (from the Greek oros, meaning "mountain," and graphein, "to describe"). Forced ascent of air is most effective when mountains are oriented perpendicular to the prevailing winds; the steeper and more exposed the slope, the more rapidly air will be forced to rise. As air is lifted over the mountains it is cooled by expansion and mixing with cooler air at higher elevations. The ability of air to hold moisture depends primarily upon its temperature, warm air can hold much more moisture than cold air. The temperature, the pressure, and the presence of hygroscopic nuclei in the atmosphere tend to concentrate the water vapor in its lower reaches. This is why most clouds occur below 9,000 m (30,000 ft.), and why those that do develop higher than this are usually thin and composed of ice particles and yield little or no precipitation. When the air holds as much moisture as it can (relative humidity is 100%), it is said to be saturated. Condensation is a common process in saturated air, and the temperature at which condensation takes place is called the dew point. Ground forms of condensation, i.e., fog, frost, and dew, are caused by cooling of the air in contact with the ground surface, but condensation in the free atmosphere, i.e., clouds, can only result from rising air. The key to forming clouds and creating precipitation, therefore, is rising air. This may be brought about by one of several ways. The driving force may be convection (thermal heating), where the sun warms the earth's surface and warm air rises until clouds begin to form. Such clouds may grow to great size since they are fed from below by relatively warm, moist rising air, until the moisture content within the clouds becomes too great and it is released as precipitation. Convectional rainfall is best displayed in the humid tropics where water vapor is abundant, but it occurs in all climates. The air may also be forced to rise by the passage of cyclonic storms, where warm and cold fronts lift moist, warm air over cooler, denser air. This takes place primarily in the middle latitudes in association with the polar front (Fig. 4.2). Although both of these processes can operate without the presence of mountains, their effectiveness is greatly increased on windward sides of mountains and decrease on leeward sides. For example, a passing storm may drop a certain amount of precipitation on a plains area, but when the storm reaches the mountains, a several-fold increase in precipitation typically occurs on the windward side, while a marked decrease generally takes place on the leeward side. One has only to compare the distribution of world precipitation with the location of mountains to see their profound influence (Fig. 4.22). Almost every area of heavy rainfall is associated with mountains. In general, any area outside the tropics receiving more than 2,500 mm (100 in.) and any area within the tropics receiving more than 5,000 mm (200 in.) is experiencing a climate affected by mountains. The examples of Cherrapunji, Assam; Mount Waialeale, Hawai�i; and the Olympic Mountains were given earlier. Many others could be added: Mount Cameroon, West Africa, the Ghats along the west coast of India, the Scottish Highlands, the Blue Mountains of Jamaica, Montenegro in Yugoslavia, and the Southern Alps of New Zealand. The list could go on and on. The reverse is also true, for to the lee of each of these ranges is a rain shadow in which precipitation decreases drastically (Manabe and Broccoli 1990; Broccoli and Manabe 1992). The western Ghats receive over 5,000 mm (200 in.) but immediately to their lee on the Deccan Plateau the average amount of precipitation is only 380 mm (15 in.). The windward slopes of the Scottish Highlands receive over 4,300 mm (170 in.) but the amount decreases to 600 mm (24 in.) on the lowlands around the Moray Firth. The Blue Mountains on the northeast side of Jamaica face the Trade Winds and receive over 5,600 mm (220 in.), while Kingston, 56 km (35 mi.) to the leeward, receives only 780 mm (31 in.) (Kendrew 1961). Mountains, therefore, not only cause increased precipitation, but also have the reciprocal effect of decreasing precipitation. Despite these useful generalities, many local and regional variations occur within mountains. The complex local topography creates funneling effects that can increase atmospheric moisture content and precipitation, even downwind from the funnel (Sinclair et al. 1997). High peaks or ridges within a range can create �mini-rain-shadow� zones even in the center of a range (Garreaud 1999). The central portion of the north Cascades Range in Washington receives ~100 cm less precipitation than the surrounding ridges (Kresch 1994). Significant quantities of precipitation can fall on the leeside of mountains due to spillover effects (Sinclair et al. 1997; Thompson et al. 1997; Chater and Sturman 1998). Many precipitation maps of mountainous regions do not indicate this internal variability due to the lack of data points and interpolation between existing station data using generalized elevation-precipitation relationships (Kyriakidis et al. 2001). Additionally, seasonal and interannual variability of storm tracks and storm intensities can create non-elevational precipitation patterns (Lins 1999). The movement of air up a mountain slope, creating clouds and precipitation, may be due simply to the wind, but it is usually associated with convection and frontal activity. Rising air cools at a rate of 3.05�C (5.5�F) per 300 m (1,000 ft.) (dry adiabatic rate) until the dew point is reached and condensation occurs (Fig. 4.39). Thereafter, the air will cool at a slightly lower rate (wet adiabatic rate) because of the release of the latent heat of condensation. If, upon being lifted, the air has a high relative humidity, it may take only slight cooling to reach saturation, but if it has a low relative humidity it may be lifted considerable distances without reaching the dew point. Conversely, if the air is warm, it often takes considerable cooling to reach dew point but then may yield copious amounts of rainfall, whereas cool air usually needs only slight cooling to reach dew point but also yields far less precipitation. After the air has passed over the mountains precipitation decreases or may cease as the air descends. As air descends it gains heat at the same rate at which it was cooled initially 3.05�C per 300 m (5.5�F per 1,000 ft.), since it is being compressed and moving into warmer air (Fig. 4.39). Such conditions are not conducive to precipitation. The orographic effect involves several distinct processes: (1) forced ascent, (2) blocking (or retardation) of storms, (3) the triggering effect, (4) local convection, (5) condensation and precipitation processes, and (6) runoff. Forced Ascent Forced ascent is the most important precipitation process in mountains; after all, rainfall increases with elevation and is greater on windward than on leeward slopes. The process may be most clearly seen in coastal mountains, like the Olympics, that lie athwart moisture laden winds. Other processes contribute to the total precipitation, of course, and differentiation among them is difficult. In order to explain the amount and distribution of rainfall caused strictly by forced ascent it is necessary to consider the atmospheric conditions from three different perspectives (Sawyer 1956; Sarker 1966; Browning and Hill 1981). First is the large scale synoptic pattern that determines the characteristics of the air mass crossing the mountains, its depth, stability, moisture content, wind speed, and direction (Sinclair 1994; McGinnis 2000). Second is the microphysics of the clouds, the presence of hydroscopic nuclei, the size of the water droplets, and their temperature, which will determine whether the precipitation will fall as rain or as snow or will evaporate before reaching the ground (Andersson 1980; Meyers et al 1995; Uddstrom et al. 2001). Third, and most important, is the air motion with respect to the mountain (Bates, 1990; Bossert and Cotton 1994; Tucker and Crook 1999). Will it blow over, or around, the mountain? This will determine to what depth and extent the air mass at each level is lifted. It is not realistic, for example, to assume that the air is lifted the same amount at all levels. The solution to these problems involves atmospheric physics and the construction of dynamic models (Myers 1962; Sarker 1966, 1967; Sinclair 1994; Thompson et al. 1997; Susong et al. 1999; Drogue et al. 2002). The simplest system is that of coastal mountains with moisture laden winds approaching from the ocean. As the air is lifted from sea-level, the resulting precipitation is clearly due to the landforms (Colle and Mass, 1996). Exceptions may occur in areas where the mountains are oriented parallel to the prevailing winds and/or where the frontal systems resist lifting. In southern California, for example, precipitation is often heavier in the Los Angeles coastal lowlands than in the Santa Inez and San Gabriel mountains due to the blocking of storms. The orographic component of precipitation increases only when the approaching air mass is unstable; under stable conditions, the wind will flow around the mountains (which are oriented east west), so there is no significant orographic lifting and the precipitation is due entirely to frontal lifting. The mountains apparently receive less rainfall than the lowlands under these conditions because the shallow cloud development does not allow as much depth for falling precipitation particles to grow by collision and coalescence with cloud droplets before reaching the elevated land. The situation becomes even more complex in interior high elevation areas where there is more than one source region and storms enter the area at various levels in the atmosphere. Such a situation exists in the Wasatch Mountains of Utah (Williams and Peck 1962; Peck 1972a; Sassen and Zhao 1993). It has long been known that precipitation in this region is highly variable; the valleys may receive greater amounts than the mountains during any given storm or season (Clyde 1931). The average over a period of years, however, does show an increase with elevation (Price and Evans 1937; Lull and Ellison 1950). The greater precipitation in valleys is apparently associated with certain synoptic situations, particularly when a "cold low" is observed on the upper air charts. These occur as closed lows on the 500 millibar pressure chart, i.e., at a height of about 5,500 m (18,000 ft.), and are associated with large-scale upward (vertical) movement of air which is not displayed in normal cold or warm front precipitation (Schultz et al. 2002). Under these conditions, precipitation may occur with relatively little dependence on orographic lifting, compared to other storm types (Williams and Peck 1962). Blocking of storms By retarding or hindering the free movement of storm systems, mountains can cause increased precipitation (Kimura and Manins 1988). Storms often linger for several days or weeks as they slowly move up and over the mountains, producing a steady downpour (Kimura and Manins 1988; Gan and Rao 1994). This is best displayed in the middle latitudes with high barrier mountains. Winter storms linger with amazing persistence in the Cascades and in the Gulf of Alaska before they pass across the mountains or are replaced by another storm. Storms of similar character in the Great Plains travel much more rapidly, since there are no restrictions to their movement. The countries surrounding the Alps are ideally located with respect to storm blocking. Switzerland frequently experiences lingering torrential rains during the summer (Bonacina 1945; Chen and Smith 1987). In northern Italy, between the Alps and the Apennines, heavy and persistent rains are associated with the "lee depressions" caused by the interception of polar air by the Alps (Grard and Mathevet 1972; Pichler and Steinacker 1987). The Triggering Effect Although little mention has so far been made of it, one important variable influenc ing the amount of precipitation is the stabil ity of the air, that is, its resistance to vertical displacement. This is controlled primarily by temperature. When there is a low environmental lapse rate, i.e., less than 1.4�C per 300 m (2.5�F per 1,000 ft.), as there frequently is at night in mountains, the air is stable. Stable air resist lifting in mountains will often move down slope. During the day, when the sun warms the slopes and the surface air is heated, the environmental lapse rate increases and the air will have a tendency to rise, fre quently producing afternoon clouds. When the lapse rate exceeds the dry adiabatic rate of 3.05�C per 300 m (5.5�F per 1,000 ft.), a condition of absolute instability prevails. Under these conditions even slight lifting of the air by a landform is enough to "trigger" it into continued lifting on its own accord. If it then begins to feed upon itself through the release of latent heat of condensation, it can yield considerable precipitation (Bergeron 1965; Thornthwaite 1961; Revell 1984). As a result of this effect, thunderstorms can develop, even on small hills in the path of moist unstable air (Schaaf et al. 1988). Local Convection Clouds commonly form over mountains during the day, especially in the summer, when nights and early mornings are clear but by mid-morning clouds begin to build, often culminating in thunderstorms with hail and heavy rain (Fuquay 1962; Baughman and Fuquay 1970; Flohn 1974). This has been well documented for the base of the Colorado Rockies, where the higher peaks of the Front Range provide a "heated chimney effect" in the initiation of thunder and hailstorms (Harrison and Beckwith 1951; Beckwith 1957; Banta and Schaaf 1987). Mountains serve as elevated heat-islands during the day, since their surfaces can be warmed to a similar temperature as surrounding lowlands (Raymond and Wilkening 1980). As a consequence, the air at a given altitude is much warmer over the mountains than over the valley (MacCready 1955). The lapse rate above the peaks, therefore, is considerably greater than in the surrounding free air, resulting in actively rising air. Glider pilots have long taken advantage of this fact (Scorer 1952, 1955; Ludlam and Scorer 1953). Airline pilots, on the other hand, make every effort to avoid the turbulence associated with unstable air over mountains (Reiter and Foltz 1967, Colson 1963,1969). Rarely, given weak synoptic conditions, local mountain convection can become organized into a meso-scale convective complex (Tucker and Crook 1999). These strong storms can reinforce themselves, spawning severe thunderstorms and even tornadoes (mountainadoes). Clouds and thunderstorms initiated in the Front Range frequently drift eastward, continuing to develop as they move onto the plains, and producing locally heavy precipitation (Chung et al. 1976; McGinley 1982). A study in the San Francisco Mountains north of Flagstaff, Arizona, suggests that clouds may increase in volume by as much as ten times after drifting away from a mountain source (Glass and Carlson 1963; Banta and Schaaf 1987). Most of the clouds observed in this area were small cumuli that eventually dissipated once removed from their supply of moist, rising air, but a large cumulonimbus could maintain itself independently of the mountains and result in storms at some distance away. Fujita (1967) found that there was a ring of low precipitation about 24 km (15 mi.) in diameter encircling these mountains, with an outer ring of heavier precipitation. During the day the rainfall is over the mountains but at night it falls over the lowlands because the mountains are relatively cold. A "wake effect" due to wave action created by airflow over the mountains may be partly responsible for the inner ring of light precipitation (Fujita 1967). A similar phenomenon occurs adjacent to the Rockies, on the Great Plains, where there is a second peaking of thunderstorm activity in the early evening (Bleeker and Andre 1951). Well-studied mountain convection phenomena are found in the San Francisco and Santa Catalina Mountains of Arizona. A number of studies have traced the initiation and development of convection and cumulus clouds over the range (Braham and Draginis 1960; Orville 1965; Fujita 1967). Figure 4.23 shows the change in temperature and moisture content over the Santa Catalina Mountains from early morning to midmorning. Note that the south facing slopes show considerably more thermal convection than the north facing slopes. On this particular day the base of the clouds was about 4,500 m (15,000 ft.), so the sun was not blocked and could continue to shine on the slopes to feed the thermal convection (Braharn and Draginis 1960). The height of the cloud base is very important to the development of convection in mountains, since once the sun is blocked the positive effect of solar heating is eliminated. The height of the cloud base is also critical to the distribution of precipitation, as is demonstrated in the San Gabriel Mountains, California (see p. 95). If the cloud base is below the level of the peaks, as it usually is in the winter, when forced ascent occurs, cloud growth and precipitation will take place mainly on the windward side. In summer, however, the base of convection clouds is generally much higher. Mountains, as sites of natural atmospheric instability, are ideal areas for artificial stimulation of precipitation. The considerable efforts that have been made in this regard have met with varied success, depending upon technique and local atmospheric conditions (Mielke et al. 1970; Chappell et al. 1971; Hobbs and Radke 1973; Grant and Kahan 1974; Deshler et al. 1990; Meyers et al. 1995; Long and Carter 1996). Most of the projects have been aimed at increasing the snowpack for runoff during the summer. This appears to be a desirable objective, but the ecological implications of such undertakings are far reaching (Weisbecker 1974; Steinhoff and Ives 1976). For example, the Portland General Electric Company of Portland, Oregon, hired a commercial firm during the winter of 1974/75 to engage in cloud seeding on the eastern side of the Cascades. The objective was to increase the snowpack in the Deschutes River watershed, where they have two dams and power-generating plants. Considerable success was apparently achieved, but problems arose when residents of small towns at the base of the mountains were suddenly faced with a marked increase in snow. There were new problems of transportation and of snow removal, as well as other hardships for the local people. Greater snowfall meant greater profits for the power company but it also meant greater expenses for the local people. Objections were raised in the courts, and the project was eventually halted. The positive effects of such programs must always be balanced against the negative. In our efforts to manipulate nature we are made increasingly aware of how little we understand the effects of our actions on natural systems. This is especially true of the mountain environment (Steinhoff and Ives 1976). Condensation Processes The presence of fog or clouds near the ground may result in increased moisture. Water droplets in fog and clouds are usually so small that they remain suspended, and even a slight wind will carry them through the air until they strike a solid object and condense upon it. You have experienced this, if water droplets have ever formed on your hair and eyebrows as you passed through a cloud or fog. Fog drip and rime deposits, which form at subfreezing temperatures, are responsible for an appreciable amount of the moisture in mountains, since elevated slopes are often in contact with clouds. Clouds. Cloud cover is generally more frequent and thicker over mountains than over the surrounding lowlands (Uddstrom et al. 2001). Forced lifting of moist air mass over the topographic barrier is the primary cause, although it may be augmented by convective processes. A slowing of storm movement by the blocking effect also leads to an increase in cloud water-content (Pedgley 1971). Cloud type in mountain areas is primarily determined by synoptic characteristics. In middle and high latitudes, stratiform clouds are common, especially during winter in the absence of convection. These clouds often envelope the ground as hill fog. Middle latitude summers, continental, subtropical, and tropical areas typically have cumulus clouds associated with convection. A problem relating to cloud data from mountain stations is the clouds often engulf the observer, obstructing the view of the cloud forms. Likewise, cloud tops can be below the station. A number of cloud forms are unique to mountain environments (Ludlam 1980). All of them are stationary clouds, which continually dissipate on the lee edge of the cloud and reform on the upwind edge, thus appear to remain in the same location for long periods. A cap or crest cloud forms over the top of an isolated peak or ridge. They resemble a cumulous cloud, although are often streamlined, or have streamers of cirrus forms. They sit near or just below the summit level, appearing like a hat atop the peak. Banner clouds are cap cloud which extent downwind from the peak like a flag waving in the wind. This form is sometimes difficult to distinguish from streamers of snow blowing from summits. Lenticular clouds are lens-shaped clouds formed in regular spaced bands parallel to the mountain barrier on the lee side (Figs. 4.39-4.42). These streamlined cloud features form by the interaction of high velocity winds with the mountain barriers (see p. 119). Stratification of humidity in the atmosphere can result in multi-storied lenticular clouds, forming a �pile of plates� or �pile of pancakes� (Fig. 4.42). These sometimes eerie looking clouds might be responsible for the �flying saucer� scare of the 1950s, which originated from a sighting of �a disc-shaped craft skimming along the crest of the Cascades Range in Washington� (Arnold and Palmer, 1952). Fog Drip. Fog drip is most significant in areas adjacent to oceans with relatively warm, moist air moving across the windward slopes. In some cases, the moisture yield from fog drip may exceed that of mean rainfall (Nagel 1956). The potential of clouds for yielding fog drip depends primarily upon their liquid content, the size of the cloud droplet spectrum, and the wind velocity (Grunow 1960; Vermeulen et al. 1997). The amount that occurs at any particular place depends upon the nature of the obstacles encountered and their exposure to the clouds and wind. For example, a tree will yield more moisture than a rock, and a needle-leaf tree is more efficient at "combing" the moisture from the clouds than a broadleaf tree (Cavelier and Goldstein 1989; Vermeulen et al. 1997). A tall tree will yield more moisture than a short one, and a tree with front line exposure will yield more than one surrounded by other trees. The tiny fog droplets are intercepted by the leaves and branches and grow by coalescence until they become heavy enough to fall to the ground, thereby increasing soil moisture and feeding the ground water table. If the trees are removed, of course, this source of moisture is also eliminated. Many tropical and subtropical mountains sustain so called "cloud forests," which are largely controlled by the abundance of fog drip (Cavelier and Goldstein 1989). Along the east coast of Mexico in the Sierra Madre Oriental, luxuriant cloud forests occur between 1,300 2,400 m (4,300 7,900 ft.). The coastal lowlands are arid by comparison, as is the high interior plateau beyond the mountains. Measurements in both of these drier areas show little increase in available moisture due to fog drip, whereas on the middle and upper slopes the process boosts moisture by more than 50% at one site located at 1,900 m (6,200 ft.), the increase over rainfall was 103% (Vogelman 1973). These cloud forests were at one time much more extensive, but they have been severely disturbed by humans and are now in danger of being eliminated. On the northeast slopes of Mauna Loa, Hawai�i, at 1,500 2,500 m (5,000 8,200 ft.), above the zone of maximum precipitation, fog drip is likewise a major ecological factor in the floristic richness of the forests. During a twenty eight week study, fog drip was found to provide 638 mm (25.3 in.) of moisture at an elevation of 1,500 m (5,000 ft.); and at 2,500 m (8,200 ft.) it provided 293 mm (11.5 in.), which was 65% of the direct rainfall (Fig. 4.24; Juvik and Perreira 1974; Juvik and Ekern 1978). The contribution of fog drip on middle and upper mountain slopes in the lower latitudes is clearly a major factor in the moisture regime. The relationship between the cloud forest and fog drip is essentially reciprocal. The trees cause additional moisture in the area. At the same time, the trees apparently need the fog drip in order to survive. This is particularly true in areas with a pronounced dry season, at which time fog drip provides the sole source of moisture for the plants. In the middle latitudes, fog drip is less critical to the growth of trees, but it can still be important (Grunow 1955; Costin and Wimbush 1961; Vogelmann et al. 1968). This can be seen in the mountains of Japan, where there is heavy fog at intermediate altitudes (Fig. 4.25). Rime Deposits. Rime is formed at subfreezing temperatures when supercooled cloud droplets are blown against solid obstacles, freezing on them (Hindman 1986; Berg 1988). Rime deposits tend to accumulate on the windward side of objects (Fig. 4.26). The growth rate is directly related to wind velocity. In extreme cases the rate of growth may exceed 2.5 cm (1 in.) per hour, although a typical rate is usually less than 1 cm (0.4 in.) per hour (Berg 1988). Rime deposits can reach spectacular dimensions and, by their weight, cause considerable damage to tree branches, especially if followed by snow or freezing rain. Trees at the forest edge and at timberline frequently have their limbs bent and broken by this process; power lines and ski lifts are also greatly affected (Fig. 4.26). One study in Germany measured a maximum hourly growth of 230 g per m (8.1 oz. per 3.3 ft.) on a power-line cable (Waibel 1955, in Geiger 1965). The stress caused by this added weight may cause a power failure if the supporting structures are not properly engineered. Rime accumulation is a severe obstacle to the maintenance of mountain weather stations because instruments become coated, making accurate measurements extremely difficult. Some instruments can be heated or enclosed in protected housing, but the logistical problems of accurately monitoring the alpine environment are very great. The U.S. Weather Bureau Station on Mount Washington, New Hampshire, where rime forming fogs are frequent and the wind is indefatigable, exemplifies the problems encountered (Smith 1982). This mountain has been nominated as having the worst weather in the world (Brooks 1940). It is foggy over 300 days a year, or about 87% of the time; wind velocities there average 18 m/sec. (40 mph) with frequent prolonged spells of 45 m/sec. (100 mph) and occasional extremes of over 90 m/sec. (200 mph) (Pagliuca 1937; Smith 1982). Few investigations have been made concerning the moisture contribution of rime. It is known to be generally somewhat less than fog drip, but it may nevertheless be significant. A study in the eastern Cascades of Washington indicates that timbered areas above 1,500 m (5,000 ft.) receive an added 50 125 mm (2 5 in.) of moisture per year from this source (Berndt and Fowler 1969). Considerably greater amounts have been measured in Norway (Table 4.5). Rime is found primarily in middle latitude and polar mountains, although it also occurs at the highest elevations in the tropics. Like fog drip, it is most effective on forest covered slopes that provide a large surface area for its accumulation. At very high altitudes and at latitudes where total precipitation is low, rime deposits on glaciers and snowfields may constitute the primary source of the water taken from the air. Zone of Maximum Precipitation Precipitation is generally thought to increase only up to a certain elevation, beyond which it decreases (Lauer 1975; Miller 1982). The argument is that the greatest amount of precipitation will usually occur immediately above the cloud level because most of the moisture is concentrated here. As the air lifts and cools further, the amount of precipitation will eventually decrease, because a substantial percentage of the moisture has already been released on the lower slopes (Miniscloux et al. 2001). In addition, the decreased temperature and pressure at higher elevations reduce the capacity of the air to hold moisture. The water vapor content at 3,000 m (10,000 ft.) is only about one third that at sea level. Forced ascent also plays a part, since the air, seeking the path of least resistance, will generally move around the higher peaks rather than over them. The concept of a zone of maximum precipitation was developed over a century ago from studies in tropical mountains and in the Alps (Hann 1903). Other studies seemed to confirm the concept and its application to other areas (Lee 1911; Henry 1919; Peattie 1936; Lauer 1975). The elevation of maximum precipitation varies geographically, depending upon the synoptic setting (Barry 1992; McGinnis 2000). Tropical mountains tend to have precipitation maxima at lower elevations, with the maximum zone rising with decreasing annual totals (Fig. 4.28). In middle latitudes, the general trend is for precipitation to increase with elevation, often to the highest observation station (Schermerhorn 1967; Hanson, 1982; Alpert, 1986; Marwitz 1987). Using precipitation and accumulation data for western Greenland, a zone of maximum precipitation was found at ~2,400 m at 69�N latitude and lowering northward to ~1,500 m at 76�N (Ohmura 1991). The existence of such a zone has been challenged, as calculations of the amount of precipitation necessary to maintain active glaciers in high mountains and observations of relatively heavy runoff from small alpine watersheds seem to call for more precipitation in certain mountain areas than climatic station data would indicate (Court 1960, Anderson 1972; Slaymaker 1974). Currently, the situation is moot, the problem being one of measurement. There are very few weather stations in high mountains, and even where measurements are available, their reliability is questionable (Sevruk 1986; 1989). As one author says, "Precipitation in mountain areas is as nearly unmeasureable as any physical phenomenon" (Anderson 1972, p. 347). This is particularly true at high altitudes with strong winds. Not surprisingly, many studies have shown that wind greatly affects the amount of water collected in a rain gauge (Fig. 4.27; Court 1960; Brown and Peck 1962; Hovind 1965; Rodda 1971). Considerable effort has been made to alleviate this problem by the use of shields on gauges, by location in protected sites, by use of horizontal or inclined gauges, and by the use of radar techniques (Storey and Wilm 1944; Harrold et al. 1972; Peck 1972b; Sevruk 1972; Rango et al. 1989). To measure snow is even more difficult, since the wind not only drives falling snow but redistributes it after it is on the ground (Goodinson et al. 1989). Correction factors have been developed for certain types of gauges (Goodinson et al. 1989; Sevruk 1989; Kyriakidis et al. 2001). There are also problems in storage and melting of snow for water equivalency, as well as the losses due to evaporation. The major problem, however, is accurate monitoring of snowfall. Small clearings are used in conifer forests, and above timberline snow fences are increasingly being used to enclose and shield the gauges. This still does not guarantee accurate measurements, but shielded gauges (whether for rain or snow) do record greater amounts of precipitation than unshielded gauges in the same location (Goodinson et al. 1989). For example, the University of Colorado has since 1952 operated a series of weather stations in the Front Range of the Rocky Mountains (Marr 1967; Marr et al. 1968a, b). The measured precipitation amounts from the two highest sites above treeline increased abruptly in 1964 when snow fences were erected around the recording gauges. Before the gauges were shielded, the average annual amount was 655 mm (25.8 in.); it jumped to 1,021 mm (40.2 in.) and 771 mm (30.3 in.), respectively, after the snow fence was installed (Barry 1973). The data now show an absolute increase in precipitation with increasing elevation (Table 4.6). More reliable instrumentation in the Alps has led to similar results, at least up to an elevation of 3,000 m (10,000 ft.) (Flohn 1974; Schmidli et al. 2002). Studies of snow accumulation at still higher elevations, in the Saint Elias Mountains, Yukon Territory, indicate decreasing amounts beyond 3,000 m (10,000 ft.), although there is a steady increase at lower elevations at least up to 2,000 in (6,000 ft.) (Murphy and Schamach 1966; Keeler 1969; Marcus and Ragle 1970, Marcus 1974b). Snow accumulation in alpine watersheds can be investigated more thoroughly by collecting depth and density data from snow pits, which can be converted to water equivalent (�strem and Brugman 1991). In North America, an extensive network of over 1,200 snow courses are surveyed on a monthly by the Natural Resources Conservation Service (NRCS, formally the Soil Conservation Service) of the U.S. Department of Agriculture (NRCS 1997). Snow courses are where depth and density is measured manually to estimate annual water availability, spring runoff, and summer streamflows. In more remote locations of the western United States, a network of over 650 automated snow reporting stations have been installed. The SNOTEL (Snow Telemetry) network uses an air filled pillow attached to a pressure gauge to measure snowpack weight, which is transmitted via VHF signals to a data collection station (NRCS 1997). Combining field measurements of snow-water-equivalency with topographic data (slope and aspect) and net radiation, estimates of watershed snowpack water content can be modeled (Elder et al. 1989; Susong et al. 1999). Another problem with precipitation analysis in mountains is that many weather stations are located in valleys. Uncritical use of these data may lead to erroneous results (Benizou 1989). Valleys oriented parallel to the prevailing winds may receive as much or more precip itation than the mountains on either side, while valleys oriented perpendicular to the prevailing winds may be "dry holes" (Collie and Mass 1996; Neiman et al. 2002). In addition, local circulation systems between valleys and upper slopes may result in val leys being considerably drier than the ridges (see p. 111). For example, in parts of the Hindu Kush, Karakoram, and Himalayas, many valleys are distinctly arid (Schwein furth 1972; Troll 1972b). These contrast sharply with the adjacent mountains, where large glaciers exist. Some glaciologists have estimated an average annual precipitation of over 3,000 mm (120 in.) for the glacial area, compared to 100 mm (4 in.) in the valleys, data that seem to support the idea of a steady increase of precipitation with elevation (Flohn 1968, 1969a, 1970). On the other hand, it is argued that little precip itation is required to maintain a glacier under such low temperatures, owing to the relatively small losses to be expected through ablation (Hock et al. 2002). Several studies have pro vided evidence for a zone of maximum pre cipitation at about 2,000 m (6,600 ft.) along the southern slope of the Himalayas (Dhar and Narayanan 1965; Dalrymple et al. 1970; Khurshid Alam 1972). The high, sheltered inner core of the Himalayas is arid (Troll 1972c). In the tropics, decrease of precipitation above a certain elevation is much better es tablished (Fig. 4.28; Lauer 1975). The precipitation falls principally as rain, with snow or rime on the highest peaks, and tropical mountains experience considerably less wind than in middle lati tudes. As a result, simple rainfall measure ments are more dependable. The zone of maximum precipitation varies according to location. In the tropical Andes and in Cen tral America it lies between 900 1,600 m (3,000 5,300 ft.) (Hastenrath 1967; Weischet 1969; Herrmann 1970). Mount Cameroon in West Africa near the Gulf of Guinea receives an annual rainfall of 8,950 mm (355 in.) on the lower slopes but less than 2,000 mm (80 in.) at the summit. The zone of maximum precipitation occurs at 1,800 m (6,000 ft.) (Lefevre 1972). In East Africa, measurements on Mount Kenya and Mount Kilimanjaro show an increase up to the montane forest belt at 1,500 m (5,000 ft.) and then a sharp decrease (Fig. 4.28). The maximum zone receives about 2,500 mm (100 in.) but less than 500 mm (20 in.) falls on the summit areas. The effects of low rainfall, high sun intensity, and porous soils give the alpine belt a desert like appearance, although both summit areas support small glaciers (Hedberg 1964; Thompson 1966; Coe 1967). Desert like conditions exist at the summits of many tropical mountains (Fig. 4.29). On the islands of Indonesia and on Ceylon the zone of maximum precipitation varies between 900 1,400 m (3,000 4,600 ft.) (Domr�s 1968; Weischet 1969), while it lies between 600 900 m (2,000 3,000 ft.) in Hawai�i (Blumenstock and Price 1967; Juvik and Peffeira 1974; Nullet and McGranaghan 1988). The decrease immediately above the zone of maximum precipitation is counteracted somewhat by the presence of fog drip, however, since this is a zone of frequent cloudiness (Fig. 4.24). The vertical distribution of precipitation illustrates yet another environmental distinction between tropical and extratropical mountains. The presence of a zone of maximum precipitation is well established for the tropics, but is less defined in the middle latitudes. Although there are insufficient measurements to settle the question categorically, evidence from mass balance studies on glaciers, runoff from mountain watersheds, and improved methods of instrumentation seem to indicate that precipitation continues to increase with altitude in middle latitudes at least up to 3,000 3,500 m (10,000 11,000 ft.). The decrease beyond moderate elevations in the tropics is explained by the dominance there of convection rainfall, which means that the greatest precipitation occurs near the base of the clouds. Where forced ascent is important the level may be somewhat higher, but it does not vary over a few hundred meters. In many tropical areas an upper air inversion composed of dry, stable air tends to restrict the deep development of clouds. This is the case on Mount Kenya and on Kilimanjaro, as well as on Mauna Loa and Mauna Kea in Hawai�i (Juvik and Perreira 1974; Ramage and Schroeder 1999). The continued increase of precipitation with elevation in the middle latitudes is somewhat more difficult to explain. The water vapor content of the air decreases at the higher levels just as it does in the tropics. Precipitation in middle latitude mountains is caused primarily by forced ascent rather than convection, however. Orographic lifting becomes stronger as the wind grows stronger, and wind velocity increases markedly in middle latitudes. Apparently, this factor is more than enough to compensate for the absolute decrease in water content. The water vapor transport is at its maximum in the westerlies at about the 700 millibar level, i.e., at 3,000 m (10,000 ft.). Consequently, it is postulated that precipitation continues to increase at least up to this level (Havlik 1969). In tropical mountains, however, the wind tends to decrease with elevation above 11000 m (3,300 ft.), so the decrease in water content of the air becomes more effective and precipitation decreases beyond this point (Weischet 1969; Rohn 1974). Runoff Mountain surface runoff is related to topographic, biotic, pedologic, and particularly the climatic characteristics of a watershed (Miller 1982; Alford 1985). In particular, seasonality of precipitation inputs, temperatures, snowpack characteristics, and non-precipitation water sources (i.e. groundwater and glaciers) are important variables in determining the amount of water flowing down a mountain stream (Martinec 1989; Lins 1999; Peterson et al. 2000). Globally, mountain runoff displays significant temporal and spatial variation. The temporal heterogeneity arises from the intraannual, interannual, and secular changes in temperature, precipitation and other climatic factors (Rebetez 1995; Lins 1999). Spatial heterogeneity is due to climatic, topographic, biotic, land-use, and pedologic variability within and between mountains, making generalities about mountain hydrology difficult. The two generalities of mountain hydrology are the generation of flood events and the influences of snowpack meltwater. Steep slopes, generally thin soils and generally high rain intensities in mountains often result in elevated rates of overland flow compared lowlands (Miller 1982; Dingman 1993). During lingering or moisture-ladened storms the delivery rate of runoff to main rivers can exceed the channel capacity and a flood results. Flooding typically occurs with regular intervals for a particular watershed, determined by its hydrologic characteristics (Castro and Jackson 2001). While floods can cause damage to mountain valleys, often their impacts are felt more strongly in the lowlands adjacent to the mountains, where flood magnitude is often larger due to the cumulative flow of many tributaries. Snow meltwater has four principal impacts on watershed hydrology: lowering stream temperature, sudden contributions to discharge resulting from rapid melting (rain on snow events), an increase in melt-season discharge and decrease in snow-accumulation season discharge, and a decrease in annual and especially seasonal variations in runoff (Male and Gray 1981). The changes in average seasonal discharge due to snowmelt are illustrated in Figure 30. Differences in discharge in these side-by-side mountainous watersheds of the same size are due to elevational effects on snowfall (Bach in review). During the month of October, the beginning of the wet season, both basins have similar discharges. Between November and about April two differences become apparent in the flow characteristics. The higher elevation basin discharge becomes smaller in volume and less variable than the lower basin (Fig. 4.30). The decrease in volume is due to more precipitation falling in the form of snow and accumulating in the upper basin, while rain falls throughout the winter in the lower basin and runs off. The greater temporal variability (as indicated by the wiggles in the line) in the lower basin is due to the chaotic timing of storms throughout the period of record. In March, temperatures begin to warm and the snowmelt season begins, a few weeks earlier in the lower basin (Fig. 4.30). The variability of discharge decreases in both basins (lines become smoother), indicating a change from storm event dominated runoff to temperature driven snowmelt runoff (Peterson et al. 2000). The peak in the snowmelt flood of the lower basin occurs about one month earlier and is only 70% the size of the upper basin, reflecting the difference in snowpack volume. These runoff characteristics are further exasperated by the presence of glaciers in the watershed (Fountain and Tangborn 1985). Besides the daily to weekly variations caused by storm events, and the seasonal variations through out a year, streamflow regimes in mountains are prone to interannual and secular variations related to large-scale patterns of climate variations such as the El Ni�o/Southern Oscillation (Trenberth 1999). The type of climatic variations vary around the globe, but generally result in extreme weather and climate conditions such as flooding, droughts, different storm frequency and precipitation, or changes in snowmelt season (Karl et al. 1999). Global warming is likely to increase the frequency and magnitude of these climatic variations and their impacts on the hydrological system (Barry 1990; Trenberth 1999). High-elevation snowsheds are important to the regional water supply, as they provide water for domestic, industrial and agricultural users; recreation; hydroelectric power; habitat; and produce flood hazards. Rapid population growth, increasing environmental concerns, and resulting changes in the character of water demands have led to increased competition for water even under normal flow conditions. Water management practices, storage infrastructure, and patterns of use are tuned to the expected range of variation in surface runoff and groundwater availability (Robinson 1977). The abundant surface water supply from mountainous regions has promoted a historic reliance on this resource in adjacent lowlands. Effective water development planning and policy making must recognize how changes in upper watershed conditions will impact lowland water resources (Hulme et al. 1999). New reservoirs and water transfer systems require considerable lead time to plan and construct. Such structures will be necessary to deal with changing water supplies conditions that will exist in the future. Winds Mountains are among the windiest places on earth. They protrude into the high atmosphere, where there is less friction to retard air movement. There is no constant increase in wind speed with altitude, but measurements from weather balloons and aircraft show a persistent increase at least up to the tropopause where, in middle latitudes, the wind culminates in the jet streams. Similar increases occur in mountains, although the conditions at any particular site are highly variable. Wind speeds are greater in middle latitudes than in tropical or polar areas, in marine than in continental locations, in winter than in summer, during the day than at night, and, of course, the velocity of the wind is dependent on the local topographic setting and the overall synoptic conditions (Smith 1979; Gallus et al. 2000). The wind is usually greatest in mountains oriented perpendicular to the prevailing wind, on the windward rather than the leeward side, and on isolated, unobstructed peaks rather than those surrounded by other peaks. The reverse situation may exist in valleys, since those oriented perpendicular to the prevailing winds are protected while those oriented parallel to the wind may experience even greater velocities than the peaks, owing to funneling and intensification (Ramachandan et al. 1980). Table 4.7 lists the mean monthly wind speeds during the winter for several representative mountain stations in the northern hemisphere. Mountains greatly modify the normal wind patterns of the atmosphere (Smith 1979; Bossert and Cotton 1994). Their effect may be felt for many times their height in both horizontal and vertical distance. The question of whether the wind speed is greater close to mountains or in the free air has long been problematic. The two basic factors that affect wind speeds over mountains operate in opposition to on another. The vertical compression of airflow over a mountain causes acceleration of the air, while frictional effects cause a slowing. Frictional drag in the lowest layers of the atmosphere is caused by the interaction of air with individual small-scale roughness elements (i.e. vegetation, rocks, buildings or landforms < 10 m dimensions) and by influence of larger topographic features and vegetation canopies (Richard et al. 1989; Taylor et al. 1987; 1989; Walmsley et al. 1989). It is generally believed that the wind near mountains is greater, because of compression and forcing of the air around the peak like water around a rock in a stream (Schell 1935, 1936; Conrad 1939; Ryan 1977; Woodbridge et al. 1987; Taylor et al. 1989). However, studies in the Alps indicate that the wind speed on these mountain summits averages only about one half that of the free air (Wahl 1966; Davies and Phillips 1985). Both of these situations may in fact occur; much depends upon the stability of the air mass and the size and configuration of the mountain. Generally, the more stable the air, the greater the compression, because the air will resist lifting in its passage, and this will result in increased wind speeds near the surface (Lee et al. 1987). On the other hand, if the air is unstable, it will tend to rise on its own accord as it is forced up over the mountain, and this will result in greater wind speeds aloft. The vertical velocity gradient of the wind is largely a function of the interplay between compressional and frictional effects (Gallus et al. 2000). Compression tends to create greater velocities near the surface, decreasing upward, whereas friction tends to cause lower velocities near the surface, increasing upward (Carruthers and Hunt 1990). Consequently, the wind speeds in any given mountain area may have very different distributions in time and space (Schell 1936). The sharpest gradient in wind speed usually occurs immediately above the surface. Wind speed doubles or triples within the first few meters, but the vegetation and surface roughness make a great difference in the absolute velocity (Fig. 4.31). At a height of 1 m (3.3 ft.) the wind speed in a closed-forest immediately below timberline is less than half that in the open tundra just above timberline (Richard et al. 1989). The low lying foliage of alpine vegetation does not produce much frictional drag on the wind, so the wind can reach quite high velocities close to the ground. There is nevertheless a sharp gradient within the first few centimeters of the surface, and most alpine plants escape much of the wind (Warren Wilson 1959). A reciprocal and reinforcing effect is operative here: taller vegetation tends to reduce the wind speed and provide a less windy environment for plants, while low-lying alpine vegetation provides little braking effect, so the wind blows freely and becomes a major factor of stress in the environment. Under these conditions the presence of microhabitats becomes increasingly important. Surface roughness caused by clumps of vegetation and rocks creates turbulence and hence great variability in wind speed near the surface (Fig. 4.32). In the illustration, wind speed at a height of 1 m (3.3 ft.) above the grass tussock is 390 cm/sec., while closer to the ground it is 50 cm/sec. on the exposed side of the tussock and 10 cm/sec. on the lee side (Fig. 4.32a). Similar conditions exist with the eroded soil bank, except that wind speeds are higher on the exposed side and there is more eddy action and reverse flow to the lee. The restriction of the vegetation to the lee of the soil bank is largely due to the reduced wind speed there (Fig. 4.32b). The wind follows a similar pattern across the rock, with small eddies developing in depressions and to the lee (Whalsley et al. 1989). A mat of vegetation occupies the center depression where wind speeds are less (Fig. 4.32c). Wind is clearly an extreme environmental stress; in many cases it serves as the limiting factor to life. What may be the two most extreme environments in mountains are caused by the wind: late lying snowbanks, where the growing season is extremely short, and windswept, dry ridges. Both of these environments become more common and more extreme with elevation, until eventually the only plants are mosses and lichens or perhaps nothing at all (but see p. 292). Trees on a windswept ridge may be �flagged� with the majority of branch growth on the protected lee-side (Yoshino 1973; Fig. 8.17 and 8.18). In the extreme conditions within the krummholz (crooked wood) zone, trees take on a prostate cushion form (Fig. 8.19) The redistribution of snow by the wind is a major feature of the alpine environment. The wind speed necessary to pick snow up from the surface and transport it, depends upon the state of the snow cover, including temperature, size, shape and density of the snow particles and the degree of intergranular bonding (Tabler 1975). For loose, unbound snow the typical velocity is about 5 m/s, while a dense bonded snow cover requires velocities in excess of 25 m/s. Blowing snow can abrade surfaces, causing erosion to snow cover and flagging trees. Once the wind velocity lowers, the snow is deposited into dune-like features called drifts. Drifts are found in the lee-eddy of obstacles of all sizes (e.g trees, ridges, fences; Fig. 4.27). To control blowing snow, snow fences and other barriers are specially engineered to maximize deposition, and carefully placed to reduce the hazard of blowing snow or drifts (Ring 1991). In mountains, snow redistribution by wind is strongly affected by meso- and micro-scale topography and vegetation (F�hn 1980; Meister 1987; Tesche 1988). Topographic traps fill in with snow, where it may survive late into spring or summer due to its depth and temperature inversions. The deposition of drifts is an important component to alpine water storage and spring runoff (Elder et al. 1989). Many glaciers have a significant component of their accumulation from snow blown over crests (F�hn 1980; Pelto, 1996). There are two overall groups or types of winds associated with mountains. One type originates within the mountains themselves. These are local, thermally induced winds given distinct expression by the topography. The other type is caused by obstruction and modification of winds originating from outside the mountain area. The first type is a relatively predictable, daily phenomenon, while the second is more variable, depending as it does on the vagaries of changing regional wind and pressure patterns. Local Wind Systems in Mountains Winds that blow upslope and upvalley during the day and downslope and downvalley at night are common. Albrecht von Haller, author of Die Alpen, observed and described these during his stay in the Rh�ne Valley of Switzerland from 1758 to 1764. Since then many studies (summarized by Defant 1951; Geiger 1965; and Rohn 1969b; Barry 1992) have been made on thermally induced winds. The driving force for these winds is differential heating and cooling which produces air density differences between slopes and valleys and between mountains and adjacent lowlands (McGowan and Sturman 1996a). During the day, slopes are warmed more than the air at the same elevation in the center of the valley; the warm air, being less dense, moves upward along the slopes. Similarly, mountain valleys are warmed more than the air at the same elevation over adjacent lowlands, so the air begins to move up the valley. These are the same processes that give rise to convection clouds over mountains during the day and provide good soaring for glider pilots (and birds). At night, when the air cools and becomes dense, it moves downslope and downvalley under the influence of gravity. This is the flow responsible for the development of temperature inversions. Although they are interconnected and part of the same system, a distinction is generally made between slope winds, and larger mountain and valley wind systems (Fig. 4.33). Slope Winds. Slope winds consist of thin layers of air, usually less than 100 m (330 ft.) thick. In general, the upslope movement of warm air during the day is termed anabatic flow, and the downslope movement of cold air during the night is referred to as katabatic flow, or a gravity or drainage wind. The upslope flow of air during the day is associated with surface heating and the resulting buoyancy of the warm air (Vergeiner and Dreiseitl 1987). The wind typically begins to blow uphill about one half hour after sunrise and reaches its greatest intensity shortly after noon (Fig. 4.33a). By late afternoon the wind abates and within a half hour after sunset reverses to blow downslope (Fig. 4.33c). Katabatic winds in the strict sense are local downslope gravity flows caused by nocturnal radiative cooling near the surface under calm, clear-sky conditions, or by the cooling of air over a cold surface such as a lake or glacier. The extra weight of the stable layer, relative to the ambient air at the same altitude, provides the mechanism for the flow. Since slope winds are entirely thermally induced, they are better developed in clear weather than in clouds, on sun exposed rather than on shaded slopes, and in the absence of overwhelming synoptic winds. Local topography is important in directing these winds; greater wind speeds will generally be experienced in ravines and gullies than on broad slope (Defant 1951; Banta and Cotton 1981; McKee and O�Neal 1989). Downslope winds form better at night and during the winter, when radiative cooling dominates the surface energy system (Horst and Doran, Barr and Orgill 1989). The down slope flow of cold air is analogous to that of water, since it follows the path of least resistance and always gravitates toward equilibrium, but water has a density 800 times greater than air (Bergen 1969). Even with a temperature difference of 10�C (18�F), the density of cold air is only 4% greater than warm air, unlike the rapid flow of water due to gravity, the displacement of warm air by cold air is a relatively slow process (Geiger 1969). Katabatic winds begin periodically as the layer of air just above the surface cools, then slides downslope (Papadopoulos and Helmis 1999). The cycle is repeated when the radiative cooling rebuilds the downslope pressure gradient. This pulsating downslope flow depends on the temperature difference between the katabatic layer and the valley temperature (McNider 1982). Surges of cold air are commonly observed on slopes greater than 10�, and are referred to as �air avalanches� (Scaetta 1935; Geiger 1969). A final steady velocity will be achieved once a certain temperature has been reached (Papadopoulos and Helmis 1999). Further down a drainage basin a steady velocity will be reached, maintained, and increased through out the night as individual slope winds accumulate down basin in a similar fashion to tributaries in a stream (Neff and King 1989; Porch et al. 1989). Closed basins, even created by dense forest cover, can trap the cold air creating cold pockets or �frost hollows� (Thompson 1986; Neff and King 1989). These temperature inversions can reach 30�C below the ambient atmosphere, persisting for weeks to months, effectively trapping atmospheric contaminants until sufficient winds can clear the air (Geiger 1965; McGowan and Sturman 1993; Iijima and Shinoda 2000). These have obvious significance for a number of human activities, such as agriculture, forestry, tourism and air pollution. In the wine producing regions of Germany, hedges are frequently planted above the vineyards to deflect cold air from upslope (Geiger 1969). Upslope winds form best during the day and during the summer when surfaces are radiatively warmed (Banta 1984; 1986). The upslope wind does not rise far above the ridge tops since it is absorbed and overruled by the regional prevailing wind. The upward movement of two slope winds establishes a small convection system in which a return flow from aloft descends in the center of the valley (Figs. 4.32, 4.33; cf. Fig. 4.33a). This descending flow brings from aloft drier air that has been heated slightly by compression and thus is strongly opposed to cloud formation. For this reason the dissipation of low lying fog and clouds generally takes place first in the center of the valley (Fig. 4.34). If the valley is deep enough, the dry descending air can produce markedly arid zones. In the dry gorges and deep valleys of the Andes of Bolivia and in the Himalayas, the vegetation ranges from semi desert shrubs in valley bottoms to lush forests on the upper slopes where clouds form (Troll 1952, 1968; Schweinfurth 1972). Mountain and Valley Winds. The integrated effects of slope generated flows produce mountain and valley winds, blowing longitudinally up and down the main valleys, essentially at right angles to the slope winds (Whiteman 1990; Clements 1999). They are all part of the same system, however, and are controlled by similar thermal responses. The valley wind (blowing from the valley toward the mountain) is interlocked with the upslope winds, and both begin after sunrise (Buettner and Thyer 1962, 1965; Banta 1984; 1986; Fig. 4.33b). Valley winds involve greater thermal contrast and a larger air mass than slope winds, however, so they attain higher wind speeds. In the wide and deep valleys of the Alps, the smooth surfaces left by glaciation allow maximum development of the wind. The Rh�ne Valley has many areas where the trees are wind shaped and flagged in the upvalley direction (Yoshino 1964b). Mountain winds (blowing from the mountains down valley) are associated with the nocturnal downslope winds and can be very strong and quite cold in the winter (Porch et al. 1989; Whiteman 1990; Fig, 4.31d). As with slope winds, a circulation system is established in mountain and valley winds. The return flow from aloft (called an anti-wind) can frequently be found immediately above the valley wind (Bleeker and Andre 1951; Defant 1951). This concept was formerly only theoretical, but study of valley winds near Mount Rainier, Washington, using weather balloons, clearly identified the presence of anti-winds (Fig. 4.35; Buettner and Thyer 1965). This wind system beautifully demonstrates the three dimensional aspects of mountain climatology: next to the surface are the slope and mountain valley winds; above them is the return flow or anti-wind; and above this is the prevailing regional gradient wind (McGowan and Sturman 1996a; Clements 1999). During clear weather all of these may be in operation at the same time, each moving in a different direction. Other Local Mountain Winds. An important variant of the thermal slope wind is the glacier wind, which arises as the air adjacent to the icy surface is cooled and moves downslope due to gravity. The glacier wind has no diurnal period but blows continuously, since the refrigeration source is always present. It reaches its greatest depth and intensity at mid afternoon, however, when the thermal contrast is greatest. At these times the cold air may rush downslope like a torrent. During the day the glacier wind frequently collides with the valley wind and slides under it (Fig. 4.36). At night it merges with the mountain wind that blows in the same direction (Defant 1951). In mountains like the Rockies or Alps, with small valley glaciers, the glacier winds are fairly shallow, but when glaciers are as extensive as they are in the St. Elias Mountains or the Alaska Range, the wind may be several hundred meters in depth (Marcus 1974a). Glacier winds have a strong ecological effect, since the frigid temperatures are transported downslope with authority and the combined effect of wind and low temperatures can make the area they dominate quite inhospitable. In a valley with a receding glacier, these winds can entrain the unconsolidated till, sand-blasting vegetation and rocks (into ventifacts) down valley (Bach 1995). Another famous local wind in mountains is the Maloja wind, named after the Maloja Pass in Switzerland between the Engadine and Bergell valleys (Hann 1903; Defant 1951; Whipperman 1984). This wind blows downvalley both day and night and results from the mountain wind of one valley reaching over a low pass into another valley, where it overcomes and reverses the normal upvalley windflow. This anomaly occurs in the valley with the greater temperature gradient and the ability to extend its circulation into the neighboring valley across the pass. Thus, the wind ascends from the steep Bergell Valley and extends across the Maloja Pass downward into the Engadine Valley to St. Moritz and beyond. A similar situation exists in the Davos Valley, Switzerland (Flohn 1969b). A related phenomenon occurs in coastal areas where a strong sea breeze moves inland and over low passes in such a way that the wind blows down the lee mountain slope during the day. This is well developed on the asymmetric escarpments of the Western Ghats in India. In the equatorial Andes, cool air from the Pacific moves inland in a shallow surface layer overflowing the lower passes into the valleys beyond, producing relatively cool flows down the east side of the range (Lopez and Howell 1967). In some cases these winds are forced up the opposite slopes in a hydraulic jump phenomenon (Gaylord and Dawson 1987), producing afternoon rainfall (Fig. 4.37). Other examples of local winds could be given, since every mountainous country has its own peculiarities, but those mentioned suffice to illustrate their general nature. Mountain Winds Caused by Barrier Effects As mentioned earlier in the chapter, mountains can act as barriers to the prevailing general circulation of the atmosphere. The barrier effect introduces turbulence to the winds, increasing and decreasing speeds, changes directions, and modifies storms (reviewed earlier). Once the wind passes over the mountain crest however, it will do one of two things: flow down the lee-side or stay lifted in the atmosphere (Durran 1990). Most commonly the wind will fall down the lee-side of mountains under the influence of gravity. These surface winds are sometimes collectively termed fall winds, but are known by a variety of local terms because they have long been observed in many regions downwind from mountains, and have associated with them distinct weather phenomenon. When the winds leave the surface in a hydraulic jump, they often travel through the atmosphere in a wave motion, producing unique cloud-forms. Foehn Wind. Of all the transitory climatic phenomena of mountains the foehn wind (pronounced "fern" and sometimes spelled f�hn) is the most intriguing. Many legends, folklore, and misconceptions have arisen about this warm, dry wind that descends with great suddenness from mountains. The foehn, known in the Alps for centuries, is a feature common to all major mountain regions formed as synoptic winds blow over a mountain crest and down the lee-side (Barry 1992). In North America it is called the "Chinook;" in the Argentine Andes the "zonda;" in New Zealand the "Canterbury north wester;" in New Guinea the �warm braw;� in Japan the �yamo oroshi;� in the Barison Mountains of Sumatra the �bohorok;� the �halny wigtr� in Poland; the �autru� in Romania; other mountain regions have their own local names for it (Brinkman 1971; Forrester 1982). The �Santa Ana� of southern California forms in a similar fashion (Kasper 1981). The foehn produces distinctive weather: gusts of wind, high temperatures, low humidity, and very transparent and limpid air (Brinkman 1971; Pettre 1982). When viewed through the foehn, mountains frequently take on a deep blue or violet tinge and seem unnaturally close and high, because light rays are refracted upward through layers of cold and warm air. The bank of clouds that typically forms along the crest line is associated with the precipitation failing on the windward side. This bank of clouds remains stationary in spite of strong winds and is known as the foehn wall (when viewed from the lee side). The following is an early naturalist's description of the foehn in Switzerland: In the distance is heard the rustling of the forests on the mountains. The roar of the mountain torrents, which are filled with an unusual amount of water from the melting snow, is heard afar through the peaceful night. A restless activity seems to be developing everywhere, and to be coming nearer and nearer. A few brief gusts announce the arrival of the foehn. These gusts are cold and raw at first, especially in winter, when the wind has crossed vast fields of snow. Then there is a sudden calm, and all at once the hot blast of the foehn bursts into the valley with tremendous violence, often attaining the velocity of a gale which lasts two or three days with more or less intensity, bringing confusion everywhere; snapping off trees, loosening masses of rock; filling up the mountain torrents; unroofing houses and barns a terror in the land. (Quoted in Hann 1903, p. 346) The primary characteristics of the foehn are a rapid rise in temperature, gustiness, and an extreme dryness that puts stress on plants and animals and creates a fire hazard (Ives 1950; Brinkman 1971; Marcus et al. 1985; Spronken-Smith 1998). Forests, houses, and entire towns have been destroyed during foehn winds clock up to 195 km/h (Reid and Turner 1997). For this reason, smoking and fires (even for cooking) have traditionally been forbidden in many villages in the Alps during the foehn. In some cases special guards (F�hnw�chter) were appointed to enforce the regulations. In New Zealand foehn winds commonly entrain glacial sediments causing dust storms and degrading grasslands (McGowan and Sturman 1996b). The foehn is purported to cause various psychological and physiological reactions, including a feeling of depression, tenseness, and irritability, and muscular convulsions, heart palpitations, and headaches. The suicide rate is said to rise during the foehn (Berg 1950). These symptoms have rarely been observed in North America, and medical explanations remain elusive. In spite of its disadvantages, the foehn is generally viewed with favor, since it provides respite from the winter's cold and is very effective at melting snow (Ashwell and Marsh 1967), a fact reflected in many local sayings from the Alps: "if the foehn did not interfere, neither God nor his sunshine would ever be able to melt the winter snows"; "The foehn can achieve more in two days than the sun in ten"; "The wolf is going to eat the snow tonight" (De La Rue 1955, pp. 36 44). In North America, the value of the chinook for the Great Plains was poignantly illustrated by the painting "Waiting for a Chinook," by Charles M. Russell. During the winter of 1886, cattle and sheep died by the thousands in Montana in one of the worst snowstorms on record. Russell, a cowboy on a large ranch there, received a letter from his alarmed employers in the East, asking about the condition of their stock. Instead of writing a reply, he made a watercolor sketch of a nearly starved steer standing in deep snow unable to find food, with coyotes waiting nearby (Fig. 4.38). The picture soon became famous and so did Russell; "Waiting for a Chinook" remains his best known painting (Weatherwise 1961). The causes of the foehn are complex. One of the early explanations in the Alps was that the warm dry wind came from the Sahara Desert. The wind was usually from the south, so this seemed a perfectly logical solution, until one day somebody climbed to the side of the mountain from which the foehn was coming and found that it was raining there, a very unlikely effect for a Saharan wind to produce! The Austrian climatologist Julius Hann (1866, 1903) is given credit for the true explanation. When air is forced up a mountain slope, it is cooled at the dry adiabatic rate, 3.05�C per 300 m (5.5�F per 1,000 ft.) until the dew point is reached and condensation begins. From this point on, the air is cooled at a lower rate (wet adiabatic rate) of approximately 1.7�C (3�F) (Fig. 4.39). On the lee side of the summit, precipitation ceases and the air begins to descend. Under these conditions, the air is warmed at the dry adiabatic rate, 3.05�C per 300 m (5.5�F per 1,000 ft.) the entire length of its descent. Consequently, the air has the potential for arriving at the valley floor on the leeward side warmer than its original temperature at the same elevation on the windward side (Fig. 4.39). While this general model has been widely demonstrated, many foehn winds involve site specific processes (Barry 1992). The foehn develops only under specific pressure conditions (Hoinka 1985; McGowan and Sturman 1996b). The typical situation is a ridge of high pressure on the windward side and a trough of low pressure on the leeward, creating a steep pressure gradient across the mountain range. Under these conditions the air may undergo the thermodynamic process just described in a relatively short time. In order for there to be a true foehn, however, the wind must be absolutely warmer than the air it replaces (Brinkman 1971). Either side of the mountains may experience a foehn, depending upon the orientation of the range and the development of the pressure systems. In the Alps there is a south foehn that affects the north side of the mountains and comes from the Mediterranean, and a north foehn that comes from northern Europe and affects the south side of the Alps. Because of its original warmth, the south foehn is much more striking and more frequent than the north foehn, which has to undergo much greater warming to make itself felt (Defant 1951). Similarly, in western North America most chinook winds occur on the east side of the mountains, because of the prevailing westerly wind and its movement over the Pacific Ocean, which is considerably warmer in winter than the continental polar air characteristic of the Great Basin and High Plains. Chinooks do occur, although less frequently, on the western side of the mountains (Ives 1950; Cook and Topil 1952; McClain 1952; Glenn 1961; Longley 1966,1967; Ashwell 1971; Riehl 1974; Bower and Durran 1986). Bora, Mistral, and Similar Winds. Like the foehn, these winds descend from mountains onto adjacent valleys and plains but, unlike the foehn, they are cold. Compressional heating occurs, but it is insufficient to appreciably warm the cold air that blows from an interior region in winter across the mountains to an area that is normally warmer. These winds and others like them are basically caused by the exchange of unlike air across a mountain barrier. The �bora� is a cold, dry north wind on the Adriatic coast of Dalmatia. It reaches its most intense development in winter and originates from high pressure, cold continental air in southwestern Russia that results in air movement southward across Hungary and the Dinaric Alps (Smith 1987; Durran 1990). Ideal conditions for the bora exist when a southerly wind has brought exceptionally warm conditions to the Adriatic coast, and relatively large temperature and pressure differentials exist between the coast and the interior. Under these conditions, the cold continental air may move down the pressure gradient, steepened by the presence of the mountains, with extraordinary violence (Yoshino 1975; Pettre 1982). It frequently reaches gale force, especially when channeled through narrow valleys and passes. The bora has been known to overturn haywagons, tear off roofs, and destroy orchards. It is even claimed that it once overturned a train near the town of Klis (De La Rue 1955). The �mistral� occurs in Provence and on the French Mediterranean coast (Jansa 1987). It is caused by the movement of cold air from high pressure areas in the north and west of France toward low pressure areas over the Mediterranean between Spain and Italy in the Gulf of Lyon. It is as violent as the bora, or more so, since it must pass through the natural constriction between the Pyrenees and the western Alps (Defant 1951). The mistral was known in ancient times. The Greek geographer Strabo called it "an impetuous and terrible wind which displaces rocks, and hurls men from their chariots" (De La Rue 1955, p. 32). Its effects extend throughout Provence and may be felt as far south as Nice. Like the bora, the mistral poses a major problem for fruit production, and great expenditures of human labor have gone into constructing stone walls and other windbreaks to protect the orchards (Gade 1978). The greatest wind velocities occur in the Rh�ne Valley, where wind speeds of over 145 km (90 mi.) per hour have been recorded. Although the bora and mistral are the most famous, similar cold dry winds occur in many mountain areas (Forrester 1982). The �bise� (breeze) at Lake Geneva between the Alps and the French �Jura� is of the same type, and numerous examples could be cited from the large mountain gaps and passes of Asia (Flohn 1969b). �Helm� winds blow down from the Pennine Chain in north-central England, often creating rolls of clouds. �Sno� winds fill the fjords of Scandinavia during winter and the �oroshi� blows near Tokoyo (Yoshino 1975). In North America, the "northers" of the Gulf of Tehuantepec, Mexico, are a similar phenomenon (Hurd 1929). Another example is the exchange of the cold air during winter between the east and west sides of the Cascade Mountains along the Columbia River Gorge (recently term the �Coho� wind) and the Fraser River Valley. This is most pronounced when an outbreak of cold Arctic air moves southward and banks up against the east side of the Cascades, causing great temperature and pressure contrasts between the cold continental air and the relatively warm Pacific air. At these times cold air is forced through these sea level valleys at high velocities and brings some of the clearest and coldest weather of the winter to the cities of Vancouver, British Columbia, and Portland, Oregon (both located at valley mouths). At other times the cold air may force the warm coastal air aloft and produce locally heavy snowfall. The most dominant feature, however, is the cold and ferocious wind that leaves its mark on the landscape in the brown and deadened foliage of needle-leaf trees and in the strongly flagged and wind-shaped trees on exposed sites (Lawrence 1938). Lee Waves. The behavior of airflow over an obstacle depends largely on the vertical wind profile, the stability structure, the shape of the obstacle and the surface roughness (Stull 1988; Barry 1992; Romero et al 1995). When wind passes over an obstacle, its normal flow is disrupted and a train of waves may be created that extends downwind for considerable distances (Figs. 4.26 and 4.39). The major mountain ranges produce large amplitude waves that extend around the globe (Hess and Wagner 1948; Gambo 1956; Nicholls 1973; Vosper and Parker 2002). On a smaller scale, these waves take on a regional significance reflected in their relationship to the foehn, in distinctive cloud forms, in upper air turbulence and downwind climate (Scorer 1961, 1967; Reiter and Foltz 1967; Wooldridge and Ellis 1975; Smith 1976; Durran 1990; Reynolds 1996; Reinking et al 2000). The amplitude and spacing of lee waves depends on the wind speed and the shape and height of the mountains, among other factors. An average wavelength is between 2 40 km (1 25 mi.), the vertical amplitude is usually between 1 5 km (0.6 3 mi.), and occurs at altitudes of 300 7,600 m (1,000 25,000 ft.) (Hess and Wagner 1948; Durran 1990). Wind speeds within lee waves are quite strong, frequently exceeding 160 km (100 mi.) per hour (Scorer 1961). The most distinctive visible features of lee waves are the lenticular (lens shaped) or lee wave clouds that form at the crests of waves (Fig. 4.41). These are created when the air reaches dew point and condensation occurs as the air moves upward in the wave (Ludlam 1980). The clouds do not form in the troughs of the waves, since the air is descending and warming slightly (Fig. 4.40). The relatively flat cloud bottoms represent the level of condensation, and the smoothly curved top follows the outline of the wave crest. The clouds are restricted in vertical extent by overlying stable air (Vosper and Parker 2002). Lenticular clouds are relatively stationary (hence the name "standing wave clouds"), although the wind may be passing through them at high speeds. Lee wave clouds frequently develop above one another, as well as in horizontal rows (Fig. 4.41; cf. Fig. 4.40). They typically consist of 1 5 clouds and extend only a few kilometers downwind, but satellite photography has revealed series of 30 40 clouds extending for several hundred kilometers (Fig. 4.43; Fritz 1965; Bader et al. 1995). Much of the early knowledge about lee waves was acquired by glider pilots who found to their surprise that there was often greater lift to the lee of a hill than on the windward side. The pilots had long made use of upslope and valley winds, but by this method could never achieve a height of more than a couple of hundred meters above the ridges. In southern England, the members of the London Gliding Club had soared for years in the lift of a modest 70 m (230 ft.) hill, never achieving more than 240 m (800 ft.). After discovering the up-currents in the lee wave, however, one member soared to a height of 900 m (3,000 ft.), thirteen times higher than the hill producing the wave (Scorer 1961). German pilots were the first to explore and exploit lee waves fully. In 1940, one pilot soared to 11,300 m (37,400 ft.) in the lee of the Alps. The world's altitude record of 13,410 m (44,255 ft.) was set in 1952 in the lee of the Sierra Nevada of California. This range has one of the most powerful lee waves in the world, owing to its great altitudinal rise and the clean shape of its east front (Scorer 1961). Another aspect of lee waves is the development of rotors. These are awesome roll-like circulations that develop to the immediate lee of mountains, usually forming beneath the wave crests (Fig. 4.40). The rotor flow moves toward the mountain at the base and away from it at the top (Tampieri 1987). It is marked by a row of cumulus clouds but, unlike ordinary cumulus, they may contain updrafts of 95 km (60 mi.) per hour (Fig. 4.44). The potential of such a wind for damage to an airplane can well be imagined. The height of the rotor clouds is about the same as that of the crest cloud or foehn wall. The rotating motion is thought to be created when the lee waves reach certain amplitude and frictional drag causes a roll-like motion in the underlying air (Fig. 4.40; Scorer 1961, 1967). Several other kinds of turbulence may be associated with lee waves, particularly when the wave train produced by one mountain is augmented by that of another situated in the right phase relationship (Fig. 4.45). In some cases they cancel each other; in others they reinforce each other. Wind strength and direction are also important, since a small change in either one can alter the wave length of two superposed wave trains so that they become additive and create violent turbulence (Scorer 1967; Lilly 1971; Lester and Fingerhut 1974; Neiman et al 2001). One example of this is where the energy in standing waves is caused to "cascade" down from a wavelength of 10 km (6 mi.) to only a few hundred meters (Reiter and Foltz 1967). Microclimates In addition to the climatic characteristics reviewed above, it should be emphasized there are substantial variations in climates over very short distances within mountains. Mountain environments are exceedingly spatially complex in terms of vegetation types and structures, geology, soils, and topography. All vary in composition (i.e. species, canopy characteristics or rocktypes), and variations occur across a range of slopes and aspects. The climate over each of these surfaces, or microclimate, can differ significantly due to the variations net radiation, soil and air temperature; humidity, precipitation accumulation (amount and form) and soil moisture; and winds (Barry and Van Wie 1974; Green and Harding 1980; Fitzharris 1989). Large differences in temperature, moisture and wind can be found within a few meters, or even centimeters (Turner 1980; McCutchan and Fox 1986). The thin atmosphere at high elevation means surfaces facing the sun on a clear day can warm dramatically, but shaded surfaces remain cold (Fig. 4.23; Germino and Smith 2000). Other effects may arise according to valley orientation with respect to the mountain range, valley cross-profile, and the affect of winds and cold air drainage. The effect of aspect in generating slope winds can exceed the influence of elevation on wind velocity and temperature (McCutchan and Fox 1986). The mosaic of microclimates determines the local variability in ecosystem processes. The distribution of vegetation zones, and even individual species may follow the distribution of microclimates (Fig. 4.8; Canters, et al 1991; Roberts and Gilliam 1995; Parmesan 1996). A simple classification using solar receipt, wind exposure, depth of winter snow cover and density and height of vegetation cover, can help to characterize alpine microclimates (Turner 1980). On this basis the following general microclimates can be differentiated: Sunny, windward slope � solar radiation and windspeeds high Sunny, lee slope � solar radiation high, windspeeds low Shaded, windward slope � solar radiation low, windspeeds high Shaded, lee slope � solar radiation and windspeeds low. Certainly there are gradients between these categories. Precipitation and runoff inputs with alter the soil moisture regime of each site, but generally the list goes from dry to moist. Vegetation creates its own microenvironment by creating shade and windbreaks (Fig. 4.32). In association with wind regime is a recurring pattern of snow accumulation in the lee of obstacles. These snowdrifts add to soil moisture during the melt season, and protect trees from freezing in winter (Wardle 1974). The resolution of most weather station networks in mountains is far too coarse to capture the spatial variability of climates in mountains. Maps of climatic variables are often interpolated from existing meager data sets, using assumed or empirical relationships with elevation (Peck and Brown 1962; Kyriakidis et al. 2001). These models are unable to demonstrate local deviations in trends, and when combined with map scale, microclimates are typically eliminated from most maps of mountains. Likewise, vegetation maps of mountainous areas rarely show the small patches of vegetation that occurs in microclimatic habitats. While these features may be un-mappable, they are certainly observable in mountains, adding to the spender of multifaceted mountain environment. Climate Change and Variability Variability of climatic phenomenon is an important natural component of earth's climate system. Climatic variability (occurrence of certain climatic events) is different than climatic change, which is a permanent change in climatic conditions. However, changes in variability are a likely result of climatic change. The middle and high latitudes inherently have very variable climates since they are influenced by large seasonal changes in energy. The equatorial region experiences little variability, as it has nearly the same energy fluxes year round. Reflecting the complexity of the climate system, most regions of the world show different patterns and magnitudes of variability and trends through time (Karl et al. 1999). All temporal climate records demonstrate some degree of interannual variability (e.g. Karl et al. 1999; Liu and Chen 2000; Kane 2000; Peterson and Peterson 2001). Every mountain location has its record high and low temperature, snowfall, rain event, drought, and wind speed. While these extreme events are rare, they often occur with a greater frequency, and with more extreme magnitudes in mountainous regions, than in lowlands (Frei and Schar 2001). Extreme storm events are exasperated by the topographic setting of mountains, producing even higher precipitation totals, lower temperatures, and higher wind velocities. Extreme precipitation events in mountains are of significance because they lead to hazards, such as downstream flooding, soil erosion and mass-movements on slopes (Ives and Messerli 1989; Rebetez et al. 1997). Temperature, precipitation and the resulting runoff variations are often related to distant forcing mechanisms such as the El Ni�o/Southern Oscillation (Dettinger and Cayan 1995; Cayan et al. 1998; 1999; Diaz et al. 2001; Clare et al. 2002; Rowe et al. 2002). Several other periodic, yet chaotic perturbations to the climate system have been linked to increased climatic variability (McCabe and Fountain 1995; Mantua et al. 1997; Fowler and Kilsby 2002). Among the regional differences in variability, the following consistent temporal trends emerge in data sets over the last century: the number of extremely warm summer temperatures has increased a small amount, the number of extremely cold winter temperatures has clearly decreased (with fewer frost days), and mean summer season precipitation has increased, especially an increase in heavy precipitation events (Karl et al. 1999). All of these general trends have temporally reversed during the period of record. So while variability is expected, changes in frequency of occurrence of extreme events is recognized as a signal of ongoing climate change (NAST 2001). Climate changes are well-documented to have occurred in the geologic past, as illustrated by the glacial and inter-glacial climates of the Pleistocene (COHMAP 1988; Petit et al. 1999). General scientific consensus states that the climate is currently changes, namely warming due to anthropogenic inputs of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere (IPCC 2001; NAST 2001). Different magnitudes of warming, and even cooling, are predicted for different mountainous regions of the world (IPCC 2001). Precipitation, in particular, is predicted to both increase and decrease in different regions due to changes in general circulation (Schroeder and McGuirk 1998). Climate models in mountainous regions, however, tend to be rather poor, due to coarse resolution, topographic smoothing and local effects not captured by the models (Brazil and Marcus 1991; Sinclair 1993). In mountains, higher temperatures would cause both a higher percentage of annual precipitation to fall as rain (i.e. higher snowlines), as well as accelerate summer ablation (Barry 1990; Groisman etal. 1999). Characterizing the exact climatic impacts to any mountain site is difficult. We can however, demonstrate that past, and likely future climatic changes and variations are likely to have major impacts in mountain environments. Mountain and glacier environments are especially sensitive to climate changes and variability (Barry 1990; Willis and Bonvin 1995). Many climate changes have been detected in mountain records (e.g. Shrestha et al. 1999; Cayan et al. 2001; Pepin and Loaleben 2002). Changes in winter precipitation and summer temperatures will alter the rate and extent to which snowlines migrate up and down slope and contribute to glacier mass-balance and runoff (Rebetez 1995; Clare et al. 2002). Seasonal snow packs in the Northern Hemisphere have significantly declined over recent years (Cayan 1996; Robinson and Frei 2000). Glaciers are likely to experience negative mass, which will contribute more water to melt-season runoff and cause the glacier to retreat. Glacier recession will have an impact on local climatic conditions, such and energy and moisture exchanges and the generation of local winds. Measurements of alpine glacier mass-balances globally have documented retreats in recent decades (Haeberli et al. 1989; Marsten et al. 1989; Harper 1993; Bedford and Barry, 1995; Chambers 1997; Cogley and Adams 1998; McGabe and Fountain, 1995; Pelto 1996; Rabus and Echelmeyer 1998; McCabe et al. 2000). As a result, downstream runoff characteristics (i.e. seasonality and magnitude) may change appreciably over the next several decades. If glaciers entirely disappear from mountains, than melt-season, especially late melt-season discharge will decrease substantially (Fig. 4.30). Glaciers are estimated to provide 6-20% of annual runoff in some rivers (Aizen et al. 1995; Bach in review). Even climate changes in non-glacierized, low mountains can have a significant impact on municipal water supplies (Frie et al. 2002). Land-use changes in mountains, especially urbanization, logging and hydrolake development can have significant impacts upon the regional and microclimates in mountains (Goulter 1990; Roberts and Gilliam 1995; McGowan and Sturman 1996a). These environmental disturbances can have long-term influences on climates since they change the surface characteristics and energy and moisture fluxes. Hydrolakes have been found to moderate temperatures, increase atmospheric water vapor content and precipitation, and increase windiness by decreasing surface roughness and developing their own wind systems (Goulter 1990; McGowan and Sturman 1996a). Since many organisms living in mountains survive near their tolerance range for climatic conditions, even minor climatic changes could have a significant impact on alpine ecosystems (Grabher et al. 1994; Graumlich 1994; Parmesan 1996; Peterson 1998; Gottfried et al. 1998; Mizuno 1998; NAST 2001). Vegetation zones will migrate altitudinally in response to warming temperatures, possibly eliminating some biomes, although the adaptations will likely be more complex (Rochefort et al. 1994; Neilson and Drapek 1998). Treelines in many mountainous regions have been responding to recent temperature changes (MacDonald et al. 1998; Kullman and Kjallgren 2000; Marlow et al. 2000; Pallatt et al. 2000; Peterson and Peterson 2001; Klasner and Fagre 2002). Trees are invading into meadows (Rochefort et al. 1994; Gavin and Brubaker, 1999; Wearne and Morgan 2001). Complex topography will result in habitat fragmentation and the creation of barriers to migration, making it difficult for some species to adapt and allowing others, often evasive species, to expand their range. There is a chance that Quaking Aspen and Engleman Spruce of the North American western mountains might not survive under projected climate changes (Hansen et al. 2001). In response to the habitat changes, wildlife also migrates to find appropriate climatic niches (Happold 1998; Hansen et al. 2001; Wang et al. 2002). Because of microclimatic complexity, populations or individuals could readily be insolated on individual slopes or peaks, as the mountain environment increases in fragmentation (Fig. 4.8; Neilson and Drapek 1998). Since this climate shift is occurring rapidly, some species may not be able to adapt or migrate quickly enough (Grabher et al. 1994). It is probable that some alpine and cold-water fish species will not survive climatic changes, and new water temperatures will allow for the invasion of non-native fish species (Grimm et al. 1997). Pacific salmon, which migrate to and spawn in some mountains, have experienced population fluctuations related to climate (Mantua et al. 1997; Downton and Miller 1998). In the Columbia River systems, the projected impacts of global warming are warmer water temperatures and earlier snowmelt peak flows, which are likely to further impact the beleaguered salmon population and related ecosystems (Miller 2000) Cut from bibliography Asp, 1956 Bolin 1950 Hales 1933 Hough 1945 Lawrence 1939 Lynott 1966 Gallimore and Lettau, 1970 Gutman and Schwerdtfeger 1965 Miller 1977 Montieth 1965 Suzuki 1965 Tanner and Fuchs 1968 A. H. Thompson 1967 Add to Biblio Aizen, V.B. E.M. Aizen, and J.M. Melack 1995. 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(Adapted from several sources) Fig. 4.4 The influence of the Olympic Mountains on the wind field and precipitation. The arrows are flow lines indicating wind direction. Distance between the flow lines indicates relative speed, the closer they are to one another the faster the wind in that region. Notice that the flow lines are evenly spaced over the Pacific Ocean. As they are deflected through the Strait of Juan de Fuca, the wind speed increases. Also notice that winds are funneled up the western valleys of the Olympics, concentrating moist air and increasing precipitation at the Hoh Rain Forest (3800 mm), while Sequim only receives 430 mm in the rain shadow. (Author) Fig. 4.5. Spectral distribution of direct solar radiation at the top of the atmosphere and at sea level. Calculations are for clear skies with the sun directly overhead. Also shown is the spectral distribution of cloud light and sky light. The graph is plotted on a wave number scale in cm 1 that is the reciprocal of the wavelength and is directly proportional to the frequency of light, to allow display of the full spectrum (a wavelength plot has difficulty including the visible and infrared together). The total area under the upper curve is the solar constant, 2.0 cal. cm-2 min-1 (1365 W/m2). (After Gates and Janke 1966, p. 42) Fig. 4.6. Spectral transmissivity of the atmosphere at 4,200 m (14,000 ft.) and at sea level for latitude 40�N at summer and winter solstice. The attenuation shown here is for clear skies and is due entirely to ozone absorption. When the effects of dust, water vapor, and other impurities are included, the difference in transmissions between high and low elevations becomes considerably greater. (After Gates and Janke 1966, p. 45) Fig. 4.7. Direct solar radiation (Cal. cm 2 hr 1) received on different slopes during clear weather at 50� N. lat. Three slopes are shown: north, south, and east-facing (west would be a mirror image of east), for summer and winter solstice and equinox (vernal is a mirror image of autumnal). The lefthand side of each diagram shows the distribution of solar energy on a horizontal surface (0� gradient) and is therefore identical for each set of 3 in the same column. The righthand side of each diagram represents a vertical wall (90� gradient). The top of each diagram shows sunrise and the bottom shows sunset. As can be seen, the north- and south facing slopes experience a symmetrical distribution of energy, while the east and west reveal an asymmetrical distribution. Thus, on the east facing slope during summer solstice the sun begins shining on a vertical cliff at about 4:00 a.m and highest intensity occurs At 8:00 a.m. By noon the cliff passes into shadow. The opposite would hold true for a west facing wall: it would begin receiving the direct rays of the sun immediately past noon. The bottom row of diagrams illustrates a south -facing slope. During equinox days and nights are equal, so the distribution of energy is equal. During winter solstice the sun strikes south facing slopes of all gradients at the same time (sunrise), but during summer the sun rises farther to the northeast, so some time elapses before it can shine on a south facing slope. This difference in time increases with steeper slopes: for example, a 30� south facing slope would receive the sun at about 5:00 a.m. and would pass into shadow at about 6:30 p.m., while a 60� south facing slope would receive the sun at 6:30 a.m. (11/2 hrs. later) and the sun would set at 5:30 p.m. (1 hr. earlier). On a north facing slope (top row of diagrams) during summer, slopes up to 60� receive the sun at the same time, but if the slope is greater than 60% the sun cannot shine on it at noon; hence the "neck" cut out of the righthand margin. Steep north facing slopes at this latitude would only receive the sun early in the morning and late in the evening. During the winter solstice only north facing slopes with gradients of less than 15� would receive any sun at all. (After Geiger 1965, p.374) Fig. 4.8. Topo- and micro-climatic influences of slope and aspect on vegetation types. The northern hemisphere example is given where more solar receipt on south-facing slopes warms temperatures to where forest is replaced by grass. North-facing slopes are shaded and cooler with more soil moisture retention and thicker forests. On a larger scale, forests move down valleys following moisture and cooler temperatures created by cold air drainage. (After Kruckeberg 1991) Fig. 4.9. Settlement in relation to noonday shadow areas during winter in the upper Rh�ne Valley, Switzerland. (From Garnett 1935, p. 602) Fig. 4.10. View of an east west valley near Davos, Switzerland, showing settlement and clearing on the sunny side (south facing), while the shady side (north-facing) is left in forest. (Larry Price) Fig. 4.11. Mean annual temperature with altitude in the southern Appalachian Mountains. Dots represent U.S. Weather Bureau First Order Stations in Tennessee and North Carolina. Temperatures were calculated for period 1921 1950. (Adapted from Dickson 1959, p. 353) Fig. 4.12. Distribution of mean annual temperature (�C) in a transect across the Mexican Meseta from Mazatlan to Veracruz. The temperature over the plateau at 3,000 m (10,000 ft.) is about 3�C (5.4�F) higher than over the coastal stations, owing to greater heating of the elevated land mass. (Adapted from Hastenrath 1968, p.123) Fig. 4.13. Rice terraces on steep slopes in the Himalayas, near the upper limit for rice cultivation. Most are dry terraces; those in lower left are fed by a spring in the slope and are used for growing wet rice. A village is situated among the dry terraces in the upper part of the slope. The somewhat muted terraces to the right are apparently former terraces that have been abandoned. (Harold Uhlig, University of Giessen) Fig. 4.14. Cross section of an enclosed basin, Gstettneralm, in the Austrian Alps, showing a temperature inversion in early spring. Elevation of valley bottom is 1,270 m (4,165 ft.). Note increase in temperature (�C) with elevation above valley floor, especially the rapid rise directly above the pass. This results from the colder air flowing into a lower valley at this point. (After Schmidt 1934, p. 347) Fig. 4.15. Diurnal temperature range at different elevations on Mount Fuji, Japan. The difference between high and low altitudes is much more exaggerated in winter (left) than in summer (right). (After Yoshino 1975, p. 193) Fig. 4.16. Vertical profile of soil and air temperatures (�C) under clear skies on a well drained alpine tundra surface at 3,580 m (11,740 ft.) in the White Mountains of California. Note the tremendous gradient occurring immediately above and below the soil surface. The slightly higher temperatures at a depth of 25 30 cm (10 12 in.) are a result of the previous day's heating and are out of phase with present surface conditions. (After Terjung et al. 1969a, p. 256) Fig. 4.17. Daily and seasonal temperature distribution in a subarctic continental (a) and alpine tropical (b) climate. The opposite orientation of the isotherms reflects the fundamental differences in daily and seasonal temperature ranges in the two contrasting environments. The subarctic continental station (a) experiences a small daily temperature range (read vertically) but a large annual range (read horizontally). Conversely, the high altitude tropical station (b) experiences a much greater daily temperature range than the annual range. (Adapted from Troll 1958a, p. 11) Fig. 4.18. Freeze thaw regimes at different latitudes and altitudes. Frost free days indicate the number of days when freezing did not occur, ice days are those when the temperature was continually below freezing, and frost alternation days are the days when both freezing and thawing occurred. Note that the greatest number of these occur in tropical mountains. (Adapted from Troll 1958a, pp. 12 13) Fig. 4.19. Average annual absolute humidity (mass of water vapor per unit volume, g/m3) with elevation on the humid eastern and arid western side of the tropical Andes. Horizontal lines provide a measure of the annual range of the monthly means of absolute humidity. The extremes are largely a reflection of the wet and dry seasons. Profiles are calculated as a function of height, according to starting values at Lima and Amazonas, based on empirical formulas obtained from observations in the Alps. The tropical station data indicate that the decrease in vapor density with height is less pronounced than in middle latitudes. (Adapted from Prohaska 1970, p. 3) Fig. 4.20. Mean annual evaporation from reservoirs at different elevations in the Sierra Nevada of central California. (After Longacre and Blaney 1962, p. 42) Fig. 4.21. Diagrammatic representation of daily changes in relative humidity with altitude on northand south facing forested slopes during August in the mountains of northern Idaho. Dotted line represents the altitude where minimum relative humidities occur at different times during the twenty four hour cycle. Note that both the highest and lowest relative humidities occur in the valley bottoms, where the greatest temperature extremes are also found. (Adapted from Hayes 1941, p. 17) Fig. 4.22. Annual average precipitation. Fig. 4.23. Cross-section of atmosphere above the Santa Catalina Mountains near Tuscon, Arizona, on a summer day in 1965. Measurements were made by flying transects across the range in an instrument-equipped airplane. Profiles show changes in mixing ratio (a measure of humidity) and temperature (�K) at the different altitudes before sunrise (6:15 AM) and after sunrise (10:41 AM). Note that considerable warming, increased humidity, and increased instability of the air, all develop after sunrise, especially on the south side of the range. This leads to convectional lifting, cloud formation, and localized precipitation over the mountains. (After Braham and Draginis 1960, pp. 2-3) Fig. 4.24. Contribution of fog drip to precipitation during twenty eight week study period (October 1972 to April 1973) on the forested northeast slopes of Mauna Loa, Hawai�i. Numbers show precipitation totals in millimeters. Those in parentheses indicate fog drip. Percentages are the relative amounts contrib uted to the total by fog drip at each station. (After Juvik and Perreira 1974, p. 24) Fig. 4.25. 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(Dots represent data from weather stations at various altitudes.) The elevation of greatest cloudiness is 1,500-2000 m (5,000 6,000 ft.), where clouds develop almost daily, especially in August. This is caused by the inflow of cool marine air at these levels. The actual height of maximum cloudiness varies from one season to another and from one mountain range to another. (After Yoshino 1975, p. 205) Fig. 4.26. Rime accumulation on newly constructed Palmer ski lift at 2,380 m (7,800 ft.) on the south side of Mount Hood, Oregon. The heavy rime resulted in discontinuation of lift construction until the following summer. (Bob McGown, December 1977) Fig. 4.27. The effects of a precipitation gauge on surface wind flow. In the first case (a) the wind may tend to speed up next to the gauge since it must travel farther to get around the obstacle. The lower illustrations (b and c) show that turbulence caused by surface roughness may result in upflow or downflow at the gauge orifice, depending on its location with respect to surrounding topography and wind direction. The lee-eddy created in each situation is a location of snow and dust deposition due to slow (reversed) wind speeds. (Adapted from Peck 1972b, p. 8) Fig. 4.28. Generalized profiles of mean annual precipitation (cm) vs. elevation (m) in the tropics. The shaded area shows the zone of maximum precipitation. (Adapted from Lauer 1975) Fig. 4.29. The "alpine desert" at 4,400 m (14,500 ft.) on Mount Kilimanjaro. View is toward the east from the saddle between Kibo and Mawenzi (pictured). (O. Hedberg, 1948, University of Uppsala) Fig. 4.30.� Influence of snowpack and glacier cover on runoff is illustrated by data from side-by-side basins of the same size, but different elevations. Water year (Oct. - Sept.) hydrographs showing mean (1938-1999) daily discharge� for high elevation and low elevation subbasins of the Nooksack River, Washington. The high elevation, North Fork has a mean elevation of 1311 m, 6% glacier cover, and a mean annual discharge of 22.0 m3/s. The lower elevation, Soutth Fork has a mean elevation of 914 m, no glacier cover, and a mean annual discharge of 20.8 m3/s.� (Daily discharge data from U.S.G.S, figure by author) Fig. 4.31. Wind velocity with height above a tundra surface. Note how wind speed increases with distance above the ground, one reason why alpine plants grow so close to the ground. (From Warren Wilson 1959, p. 416) Fig. 4.32. Wind behavior in relation to microtopography in the Cairngorm Mountains, Scotland. The stippled area represents vegetation. Vertical scale is roughly equivalent to the horizontal. (a) Air movement across a grassy tussock. (b) The movement of air over a rock with a depression occupied by vegetation. (c) A wind eroded bank. Note the eddies that develop to the lee of small obstacles: wind speed is greatly reduced in these areas and vegetation is better developed. (Adapted from Warren Wilson 1959, pp. 417 18) Fig. 4.33. Schematic representation of slope winds (open arrows) and mountain and valley winds (black arrows). (a) and (b) Day conditions. (c) and (d) Night conditions. (After Defant 1951, p. 665, and Hindman 1973, p. 199) Fig. 4.34. Valley fog in the Coast Range of northern California beginning to dissipate as slope winds strengthen and the return flow develops in the center of the valley. Top photo taken at 9:58 A.M.; bottom photo taken at 10:07 A.m. (Edward E. Hindman, U. S. Navy) Fig. 4.35. Graphic representation of slope and valley winds. The view on the left is looking upvalley at midday. Slope winds are rising along the slopes, while the valley wind and anti-wind are moving opposite each other, up and down the valley. The illustration on right provides a vertical cross section of the same situation, viewed from the side. The valley wind and anti-wind essentially establish a small convection system. The regional gradient wind is shown blowing above the mountains. If the regional wind is very strong, of course, it may override and prevent development of the slope and valley winds. (Adapted from Buettner and Thyer 1965, p. 144) Fig. 4.36. Idealized cross section of wind movement in a valley with a glacier near its head. Glacier wind is shown moving downslope in a thin zone immediately next to the ice. Valley wind blows upslope and rides over the glacier wind. At elevations above the mountains the regional gradient wind may be blowing in still another direction. (After Geiger 1965, p. 414) Fig. 4.37. Diagrammatic representation of typical late afternoon weather conditions along the western slopes of the Colombian Andes, 5�N Lat. The Andes provide a barrier to the prevailing easterly wind flow, allowing a thin layer of cool, moist Pacific air to move inland. This causes much cooler conditions and also transports moisture for the formation of clouds as it moves over the ridges. In the Cauca Valley, thunderstorms often result from air flowing down the slopes of the western Andes with enough velocity so that it is forced up the adjoining slopes of the central Andes. This produces a "hydraulic jump" that provides the impetus for cloud formation and thunderstorm activity. (After Lopez and Howell 1967, p. 31) Fig. 4.38. "Waiting for a Chinook," by Charles M. Russell. This small watercolor was sent in a letter to Russell's employers in 1886 to announce the emaciated condition of their cattle. (Courtesy of Montana Stockgrowers Association) Fig. 4.39. Diagrammatic representation of classical development of a foehn (chinook) wind. Temperatures at different locations are based on the assumption that air at the base of mountain on windward side is 10�C (50�F). By the time the air has undergone the various thermodynamic processes indicated in its journey across the mountains it reaches the base on the leeward side at 18.1�C (64.6�F). (Author) Fig. 4.40. Lee waves resulting from air passing across a mountain barrier. Lee wave clouds often form at the ridge of the waves. Rotors may develop nearer the ground in the immediate lee of the mountain. (Adapted from Scorer 1967, p. 93) Fig. 4.41. Lee wave clouds forming over the Front Range of the Colorado Rockies. View is toward the west, so wind is southwesterly (from left to right). (Robert Bumpas, National Center for Atmospheric Research) Fig. 4.41. Multi storied lee wave clouds forming to the lee of the Front Range of the Colorado Rockies. Formation of lenticular clouds above one another in this fashion indicates different wave amplitudes and increasing instability of the air. (Robert Bumpas, National Center for Atmospheric Research) Fig. 4.43. Satellite photo of the northwestern United States, showing extensive lee wave cloud development from the lee of the Cascades in Washington and Oregon through the intermountain west of Idaho and Utah. Photo was taken 8 December 1977 from a weather satellite at an attitude of 4,320 km (2,700 mi.) at 40�N. lat. and 140�W long. Resolution, or size of features which may be identified, is 1.6 km (1 mi.). (National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration) Fig. 4.44. Photograph of a rotor along the east face of the Sierra Nevada, California. This powerful roll like circulation of the air is operating beneath the flat, thin clouds. Dust is being lifted from the floor of Owens Valley to a height of 4,800 m (16,000 ft.). (Robert Symons, courtesy of R. S. Scorer) Fig. 4.45. Air current over mountains, showing superposition of lee wave trains. The mountain ridge (indicated by dashed line of mountain form) produces a certain wave pattern (dashed streamline) and the other mountain (solid line) produces a different wave pattern (continuous streamline). Together the mountains have the effect of creating an obstacle (indicated by the continuous line). In the upper diagram the wavelength is such that the wave trains cancel out; in the lower diagram the amplitude is doubled. Since the wavelength is determined by the flow of air across the ridge, the same air stream could produce either large amplitude lee waves or none at all, depending on its direction. (After Scorer 1967, p. 76) Table 4.1. Average density of suspended particulate matter in the atmosphere with changing elevation (Landsberg 1962, p. 114). Table 4.2. Average water-vapor content of air with elevation in the middle latitudes (Landsberg 1962, p. 110). Table 4.3. Average daily global radiation totals (cal. cm-2 d-1) received on a horizontal surface at different elevations in the Austrian Alps. Data include diffuse and reflected energy as well as direct solar radiation (Geiger 1965, p. 444). Table 4.4.Temperature conditions with elevation in the eastern Alps (after Geiger 1965, p. 444). Table 4.5. Accumulation of rime deposits near Haldde Observatory, Norway. The larger amounts at Talviktoppen and Store Haldde are due to higher wind velocity and cloud frequency at these elevations (Kikler 1937, in Landsberg 1962, p. 186). Table 4.6. Average annual precipitation at four ridge sites in a transect up the Front Range of the Colorado Rockies during 1965 1970 (Barry 1973, p. 96). Table 4.7. Mean monthly wind speeds during winter at selected mountain weather stations, in order of decreasing velocity. Readings were taken above tree-line or in treeless areas but anemometers were located at various heights above the ground (after Judson 1965, p. 13). Table 4.4. Mean Air Temperature Annual Number of (�C) Frost Continuous Elevation Annual Frost Free AlternationFro�9�9�=�=�>�>�A�A�B�B�C�C�D�D.G0G�H�H�K�K"L#L�L�L�M�M�M�M�� $�L�L�L�L�M�N1OwO�O�Q�QRXUZ^Z\\\\ \!\#\$\%\P\d\e\f\g\h\��Ŀ��࢜��slhd�h�vtha ha6�]�%ha0J6�BCJOJQJ]�ph�� ha0JBCJOJQJph�� h�vt0J ha0Jjha0JUU!haCJOJQJaJmH nH u ha\� haCJOJQJ\�mH nH uhaCJOJQJ\� haCJOJQJmH nH u haCJHOJQJmH nH u �M�N�N1OvOwO�OQQQQ0Q\|Q�Q�QXX-XPXrX�� $ �` �$ �` �$ ��$ �# @\�t � 8h��$@\ � ��$� �# @\�t � 8h��$@\st January July Year Range Days Days Days 200 1.4 19.5 9.0 20.9 272 67 26 400 2.5 18.3 8.0 20.8 267 97 1 600 3.5 17.1 7.1 20.6 250 78 37 Soo 3.9 16.0 6.4 19.9 234 91 40 1,000 3.9 14.8 5.7 18.7 226 86 53 1,200 3.9 13.6 4.9 17.5 218 84 63 1,400 4.1 12.4 4.0 16.5 211 81 73 1,600 4.9 11.2 2.8 16.1 203 78 84 1,800 6.1 9.9 1.6 16.0 190 76 99 21000 7.1 8.7 0.4 15.8 178 73 114 2,200 8.2 7.2 0.8 15.4 163 71 131 2,400 9.2 5.9 2.0 15.1 146 68 151 2,600 10.3 4.6 3.3 14.9 125 66 174 2,8W 11.3 3.2 4.5 14.5 101 64 200 3,000 12.4 1.8 5.7 14.2 71 62 232 Table 4.7 Elevation Monthly Wind Speed (mph) Location Nov. Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar.Apr. Mount Fuiiyama, Japan 3,776 42 42 47 37 43 34 Mount Washington, N.H. 1,909 25 36 39 49 41 36 Jungfraujoch, Switzerland 3,575 27 29 25 24 26 25 Niwot Ridge, Colo. 3,749 21 25 26 24 ZZ 21 Pic du Midi, France 2,860 15 19 20 17 20 17 Sonnblkk, Austria 3,106 22 16 is is is 15 Berthoud Pass, Colo. 3,621 is 15 17 17 16 17 Mauna Loa, Hawai�i 3,399 is 12 19 15 13 10 PAGE 90 Draft: Chap. 4 Mt. Climate by A. 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Which darts player who won the world BDO Title in 2008 was born in Denbigh in 1983 ?	Frenchwoman \| Article about Frenchwoman by The Free Dictionary Frenchwoman \| Article about Frenchwoman by The Free Dictionary http://encyclopedia2.thefreedictionary.com/Frenchwoman See also: Rulers of France since 987 (table) Rulers of France since 987 (including dates of reign) Robert II (the Pious), son of Hugh Capet, 996–1031 Henry I, son of Robert II, 1031–60 Philip I, son of Henry I, 1060–1108 ..... Click the link for more information. France (frăns, Fr. fräNs), officially French Republic, republic (2005 est. pop. 60,656,000), 211,207 sq mi (547,026 sq km), W Europe. France is bordered by the English Channel (N), the Atlantic Ocean and the Bay of Biscay (W), Spain and Andorra (SW), the Mediterranean Sea (S), Switzerland and Italy (SE), and Germany, Luxembourg, and Belgium (NE). The natural land frontiers are the Pyrenees, along the border with Spain; the Jura Mts. and the Alps, along the border with Switzerland and Italy; and the Rhine River, which is part of the border with Germany. France's capital and largest city is Paris Paris , city (1999 pop. 2,115,757; metropolitan area est. pop. 11,000,000), N central France, capital of the country, on the Seine River. It is the commercial and industrial focus of France and a cultural and intellectual center of international renown. ..... Click the link for more information. . Land Although France's old historic provinces were abolished by the Revolution, they remain the country's basic geographic, cultural, and economic divisions. These provinces mirror France's natural geographic regions and, despite modern administrative centralization, retain their striking diversity. The heart of France N of the Loire River is the province of Île-de-France, which occupies the greater part of the Paris basin, a fertile depression drained by the Seine and Marne rivers. The basin is surrounded by the provinces of Champagne Champagne , historic region and former province, NE France, consisting mainly of Aube, Marne, Haute-Marne, and Ardennes depts., which form that modern region of Champagne-Ardenne. ..... Click the link for more information. and Lorraine in the east; Artois Artois , region and former province, in Pas-de-Calais dept., N France, near the English Channel, between Picardy and Flanders. Arras is the chief city. Largely agricultural, it contains diverse industries, and occupies part of the once-productive Franco-Belgian coal basin. ..... Click the link for more information. , Picardy, French Flanders (see Nord Nord , department (1990 pop. 2,533,000), N France, bordering on the North Sea and Belgium. Lille is the capital. ..... Click the link for more information. dept.), and Normandy Normandy , Fr. Normandie , region and former province, NW France, bordering on the English Channel. It now includes five departments—Manche, Calvados, Eure, Seine-Maritime, and Orne. Normandy is a region of flat farmland, forests, and gentle hills. ..... Click the link for more information. in the northeast and north; Brittany, Maine Maine , region and former province, NW France, S of Normandy and E of Brittany. It now comprises the departments of Mayenne and Sarthe and parts of Loire-et-Cher, Eure-et-Loir, and Orne. Le Mans, the historic capital, is an important industrial and commercial center. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Anjou Anjou , region and former province, W France, coextensive roughly with Maine-et-Loire and parts of Indre-et-Loire, Mayenne, and Sarthe depts. Angers, the historic capital, and Saumur are the chief towns. ..... Click the link for more information. in the west; and Touraine Touraine , region and former province (until the French Revolution), W central France, centering around Tours (the historic capital) and drained by the Loire, Cher, and Vienne rivers. Roughly coextensive with Indre-et-Loire dept. ..... Click the link for more information. , Orléanais Orléanais , region and former province, N central France, on both sides of the Loire River. Orléans, the historic capital, Chartres, and Blois are the chief cities. The region includes Loiret, Loir-et-Cher, and parts of Eure-et-Loir and Yonne depts. ..... Click the link for more information. , Nivernais Nivernais , region and former province, central France. It roughly coincides with Nièvre dept. Drained by the Loire and the Yonne, it is a hilly plateau, rising to the Morvan Mts. in the east. It has metallurgical, chemical, and livestock industries. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Burgundy in the south. Further south are Berry Berry , former province, central France. Bourges, the capital, and Châteauroux are the chief towns. Cattle are raised on the Champagne Berrichonne, a semiarid plateau that covers most of the region. The valleys of the Indre and the Cher rivers are rich farming areas. ..... Click the link for more information. and Bourbonnais Bourbonnais , former province, central France, in the northern part of the Massif Central. It was approximately the same area as today's Allier dept. It is a largely arid plateau (except for the fertile Limagne area in the west). ..... Click the link for more information. . Further east, between the Vosges Mts. and the Rhine, is Alsace; S of Alsace, along the Jura, is Franche-Comté. South-central France is occupied by the rugged mountains of the Massif Central, one of the country's major natural features. It comprises the provinces of Marche Marche , region and former province, central France, on the NW margin of the Massif Central. It is coextensive with Creuse dept., much of the Haute-Vienne dept., and parts of Vienne, Indre, and Charente depts. Guéret is the chief town. ..... Click the link for more information. , Limousin, Auvergne, and Lyonnais Lyonnais , region and former province, E central France, now divided into the Rhône and Loire depts. It included Lyonnais proper (the region around Lyons, its capital), which Philip IV acquired c. ..... Click the link for more information. . To the E of the Rhône River, which divides the Massif Central from the Alps, are Savoy Savoy , Fr. Savoie, Alpine region of E France. The boundaries of old Savoy have changed with time, but presently the region comprises the departments of Savoie and Haute-Savoie. ..... Click the link for more information. , Dauphiné Dauphiné , region and former province, SE France, bordering on Italy. It is now divided into three departments, Haute-Alpes, Isère, and Drôme. In the east the Alps culminate in the Barre des Écrins; their magnificent scenery attracts many tourists. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Provence Provence , region and former province, SE France. It now encompasses Var, Vaucluse, and Bouches-du-Rhône depts. and (in part) Alpes-de-Haute-Provence and Alpes-Maritimes depts. ..... Click the link for more information. . The French Alps have some of the highest peaks in Europe, including Mont Blanc. The Rhône valley widens into a plain near its delta on the Mediterranean; part of the coast of Provence forms the celebrated French Riviera Riviera , narrow coastal strip between the Alps and the Mediterranean, extending, roughly, from La Spezia (Italy) to Hyères (France). Famous for its scenic beauty and for its mild winter climate, and dotted with fashionable resorts, hotels, and villas, the Riviera is a ..... Click the link for more information. . Languedoc Languedoc , region and former province, S France, bounded by the foot of the Pyrenees, the upper Garonne River, the Auvergne Mts., the Rhône, and the Mediterranean. ..... Click the link for more information. extends from the Cevennes Mts. to the Mediterranean coast W of the Rhône. Corsica lies off the Mediterranean coast. The southwestern part of France comprises the small Pyrenean provinces of Roussillon Roussillon , small region and former province, S France, bordering on Spain along the Pyrenees and on the Mediterranean. It is now roughly coextensive with Pyrénées-Orientales dept. Perpignan is the historical capital. ..... Click the link for more information. , Foix Foix , town (1990 pop. 10,466), capital of Ariège dept., S France, on the Ariège River at the foot of the Pyrenees. It is an administrative and tourist center with some small industry. ..... Click the link for more information. , Béarn Béarn , former province, SW France, in the Pyrenees. It is now the inland part of Pyrénées-Atlantiques dept. Its valleys are well cultivated, and cattle are bred. Pau replaced Orthez as the capital in the 15th cent. ..... Click the link for more information. , and French Navarre Navarre , Span. Navarra , province (1990 pop. 527,318), N Spain, bordering on France, between the W Pyrenees and the Ebro River. Pamplona is the capital. Land and Economy Navarre province forms the autonomous region of Navarra. ..... Click the link for more information. and the vast provinces of Gascony Gascony , Fr. Gascogne, region of SW France. It is now coextensive with the departments of Landes, Gers, and Hautes-Pyrénées and parts of Pyrénées-Atlantiques, Lot-et-Garonne, Tarn-et-Garonne, Haute-Garonne, Gironde, and Ariège. ..... Click the link for more information. and Guienne Guienne, Fr. Guyenne , region of SW France. The name referred to different territories at different times. Guienne as it existed from the time of Henry IV (late 16th–early 17th cent. ..... Click the link for more information. . The last two constitute the great Aquitanian plain, drained by the Garonne and Dordogne rivers, which flow into the Bay of Biscay. The central section of the west coast, between the Gironde estuary and the Loire, is occupied by the provinces of Saintonge Saintonge , region of W France, on the Bay of Biscay. It is now part of the Charente-Maritime dept. Cattle and sheep raising, dairying, and the manufacture of cognac from grapes grown along the Charente River are the major occupations; oysters are harvested along the coast. ..... Click the link for more information. , Angoumois Angoumois , region and former province, W France, now coextensive with most of Charente dept. Angoulême is the historic capital and chief city. In the region is the Charente valley, with its excellent vineyards; the brandy made from their grapes is named for Cognac, the ..... Click the link for more information. , Aunis Aunis , small region and former province, W France, on the Atlantic coast. It is now part of the Charente-Maritime and Deux-Sèvres depts. and includes the islands of Ré and Oléron. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Poitou Poitou , region and former province, W France, stretching from the Atlantic coast eastward beyond the Vienne River. It now includes three departments—Vendée in the west, Deux-Sèvres in the center, and Vienne in the east, as well as small areas of several ..... Click the link for more information. . Since 1972 France has been administratively divided into 22 regions, many of which correspond to the nation's historical provinces. These regions are: Alsace Alsace , Ger. Elsass, region and former province, E France. It is separated from Germany by a part of the Rhine River. It comprises the departments of Bas-Rhin, Haut-Rhin, and the Territory of Belfort (a department created after the Franco-Prussian War when the rest of ..... Click the link for more information. , Aquitane, Auvergne Auvergne , region and former province, S central France. The area is now occupied chiefly by the departments of Puy-de-Dôme, Allier, Haute-Loire, and Cantal. The Auvergne Mts. ..... Click the link for more information. , Basse-Normandie, Bourgogne ( Burgundy Burgundy , Fr. Bourgogne , historic region, E France. The name once applied to a large area embracing several kingdoms, a free county (see Franche-Comté), and a duchy. The present region is identical with the province of Burgundy of the 17th and 18th cent. ..... Click the link for more information. ), Bretagne ( Brittany Brittany , Breton Breiz, Fr. Bretagne, region and former province, NW France. It is a peninsula between the English Channel (N) and the Bay of Biscay (S) and comprises four departments, Ille-et-Vilaine, Côtes-d'Armor, Finistère, and Morbihan. ..... Click the link for more information. ), Centre, Champagne-Ardenne, Corse ( Corsica Corsica , Fr. Corse, island (1990 pop. 251,000), 3,352 sq mi (8,682 sq km), a region of metropolitan France, SE of France and N of Sardinia, in the Mediterranean Sea. Ajaccio, the capital, and Bastia are the chief towns and ports. ..... Click the link for more information. ), Franche-Comté Franche-Comté or Free County of Burgundy, region and former province, E France. It is coextensive with Haute-Saône, Doubs, and Jura depts. Dôle was the capital until 1676; Besançon was the later capital and remains the chief city. ..... Click the link for more information. , Haute-Normandie, Île-de-France Île-de-France , region and former province, N central France, in the center of the Paris basin, a fertile depression where the Marne and Ouse rivers join the Seine. ..... Click the link for more information. , Languedoc-Roussillon, Limousin Limousin , region and former province, S central France, in the arid, hilly country W of the Auvergne Mts. It comprises the depts. of Corrèze, Creuse, and Haute-Vienne. ..... Click the link for more information. , Lorraine Lorraine , Ger. Lothringen, region and former province, NE France, bordering in the N on Belgium, Luxembourg, and Germany, in the E on Alsace, in the S on Franche-Comté, and in the W on Champagne. ..... Click the link for more information. , Midi-Pyrenees, Nord-Pas-de-Calais, Pays de la Loire, Picardie ( Picardy Picardy , Fr. Picardie, region and former province, N France, on the English Channel. It includes the Somme, Oise, and Aisne depts. and has three main geographical regions: the plateau north of Paris, which is an important wheat and beet area; the Somme River valley, with ..... Click the link for more information. ), Poitou-Charentes, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, and Rhone-Alpes. France also has a number of overseas departments, territories, and countries which, legally, are part of the French Republic. The overseas departments are Martinique Martinique , overseas department and administrative region of France (2005 est. pop. 433,000), 425 sq mi (1,101 sq km), in the Windward Islands, West Indies. Fort-de-France is the capital. The department and the island of Martinique are coextensive. ..... Click the link for more information. , Guadeloupe Guadeloupe , overseas department and administrative region of France (2005 est. pop. 449,000), 687 sq mi (1,779 sq km), in the Leeward Islands, West Indies. The department comprises the neighboring islands of Basse-Terre and Grande-Terre (Guadeloupe proper) as well as ..... Click the link for more information. , Réunion Réunion , island and overseas department of France (2005 est. pop. 777,000), c.970 sq mi (2,510 sq km), one of the Mascarene Islands, in the Indian Ocean c.430 mi (690 km) E of Madagascar. Saint-Denis (the capital) and Le Port (the leading port) are the chief cities. ..... Click the link for more information. , and French Guiana French Guiana , Fr. La Guyane française, officially Department of Guiana, French overseas department (2005 est. pop. 195,000), 35,135 sq mi (91,000 sq km), NE South America, on the Atlantic Ocean. ..... Click the link for more information. . The overseas countries and territories are New Caledonia New Caledonia, Fr. Nouvelle Calédonie, officially Territory of New Caledonia and Dependencies, internally self-governing dependency of France (2014 pop. 268,767), land area 7,241 sq mi (18,760 sq km), South Pacific, c.700 mi (1,130 km) E of Australia. ..... Click the link for more information. , French Polynesia French Polynesia, officially Overseas Lands of French Polynesia, internally self-governing dependency (2002 pop. 245,516) of France, consisting of 118 islands in the South Pacific. The capital is Papeete, on Tahiti. ..... Click the link for more information. , Wallis and Futuna Islands Wallis and Futuna Islands , officially Territory of the Wallis and Futuna Islands, French overseas territory (2008 pop. 13,484), 106 sq mi (274 sq km), S Pacific, W of Samoa and NE of Fiji. ..... Click the link for more information. , and the French Southern and Antarctic Territories. Mayotte Mayotte , island (2005 est. pop. 194,000), 144 sq mi (374 sq km), French departmental collectivity, Indian Ocean, in the Comoro chain. Mamoudzou is the capital and largest city. The land is gently rolling, with some mountains of ancient volcanic origin and deep ravines. ..... Click the link for more information. is a departmental collectivity, and St. Pierre and Miquelon Saint Pierre and Miquelon , French territorial collectivity (2005 est. pop. 7,000), 93 sq mi (241 sq km), consisting of nine small islands S of Newfoundland, Canada, in the Gulf of St. Lawrence. The capital is Saint Pierre on the island of the same name. ..... Click the link for more information. is a territorial collectivity. People About 75% of the population live in urban areas. Until the end of World War II the population increase in France was perhaps the lowest in Europe, but in postwar decades the rate has increased. The mingling of peoples over the centuries as well as immigration in the 20th cent. has given France great ethnic diversity. A large influx of predominantly North African immigrants has had a great effect on the cities, especially Paris and Marseille. French is the nation's language. There are also a number of regional dialects, which are largely declining in usage. Alsatian, a German dialect, is spoken in Alsace and in parts of Lorraine. A small number speak Flemish, a Dutch dialect, in French Flanders. In Celtic Brittany, Breton is still spoken, as is Basque in the Bayonne Bayonne , town (1990 pop. 41,846), Pyrénées-Atlantiques dept., SW France, in Gascony, on the Adour River near its entrance into the Bay of Biscay. Despite a shifting sandbar at the mouth of the Adour, it is a seaport, exporting sulfur, oil, and natural gas. ..... Click the link for more information. region, Provençal in Provence, Catalan at the eastern end of the Pyrenees, and Corsican on the island of Corsica. Roman Catholicism is by far the largest religion in France, nominally professed by about 85% of the population, although only an estimated 5% are churchgoers. With growing immigration from Asia, Turkey, and North Africa, France also has a large Muslim population, estimated at 3 to 5 million. There are smaller numbers of Protestants and Jews. Separation of church and state was made final by law in 1905. Economy France is one of the world's major economic powers. Agriculture plays a larger role than in the economies of most other industrial countries. A large proportion of the value of total agricultural output derives from livestock (especially cattle, hogs, poultry, and sheep). The mountain areas and NW France are the livestock regions. The country's leading crops are wheat, sugar beets, corn, barley, and potatoes, with the most intensive cultivation N of the Loire; the soil in the Central Massif is less fertile. Fruit growing is important in the south. France is among the foremost producers of wine in the world. The best-known vineyards are in Burgundy, Champagne, the Rhône and Loire valleys, and the Bordeaux Bordeaux , city (1990 pop. 213,274), capital of Gironde dept., SW France, on the Garonne River. Bordeaux is a major economic and cultural center, and a busy port accessible to oceangoing ships from the Atlantic through the Gironde River. ..... Click the link for more information. region. The centers of the wine trade are Bordeaux, Reims Reims or Rheims , city (1990 pop. 185,164), Marne dept., NE France, in Champagne. The center of the champagne industry, Reims is situated amid large vineyards. Before the champagne industry took on its present proportions in the 18th cent. ..... Click the link for more information. , Épernay Épernay , town (1990 pop. 27,738), Marne dept., NE France, on the Marne River. It is, next to Reims, the largest manufacturing center for champagne wine and the headquarters of some of the oldest firms, notably Moët. ..... Click the link for more information. , Dijon Dijon , city (1990 pop. 151,636), capital of Côte-d'Or dept., E France, the old capital of Burgundy. It is a transportation hub and industrial center with food, metal-products, and electronics industries. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Cognac Cognac , city (1990 pop. 19,932), Charente dept., W France, in Angoumois, on the Charente River. The French brandy to which Cognac gives its name has been manufactured and exported from the city since the 18th cent. ..... Click the link for more information. . France's leading industries produce machinery, chemicals, automobiles, metals, aircraft, electronics equipment, textiles, and foods (especially cheeses). Advanced technology industries are also important. Coal, iron ore, bauxite, and other minerals are mined. Tourism is an important industry, and Paris is famous for its luxury goods. Nuclear energy furnishes 75% of all electricity produced in France. In addition to the Paris area, important industrial cities are, in the northeast, Metz Metz , city (2010 est. pop. 127,000), capital of Moselle dept., NE France, on the Moselle River. It is a cultural, commercial, and transportation center of Lorraine, an industrial city producing metals, machinery, tobacco, clothing, and food products, and the home of one of ..... Click the link for more information. , Strasbourg Strasbourg , Ger. Strassburg, city (1990 pop. 255,931), capital of Bas-Rhin dept., NE France, on the Ill River near its junction with the Rhine. It is the intellectual and commercial capital of Alsace. ..... Click the link for more information. , Roubaix Roubaix , city (1990 pop. 98,179), Nord dept., N France, in French Flanders. Part of the Lille urban area, Roubaix, with adjacent Tourcoing, is one of the largest textile (chiefly wool) centers in France; a national textile school is there. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Lille Lille , city (1990 pop. 178,301), capital of Nord dept., N France, near the Belgian border. With its central position in NW Europe, Lille became a great commercial, cultural, and manufacturing center, long known for its textile products—notably lisle (the name is derived ..... Click the link for more information. ; in the southeast, Lyons Lyons, Fr. Lyon , city (1990 pop. 422,444), capital of Rhône dept., E central France, at the confluence of the Rhône and Saône rivers. As an economic center and a densely populated metropolis it is second only to Paris. ..... Click the link for more information. , Saint-Étienne Saint-Étienne , city (1990 pop. 201,569), capital of Loire dept., SE France, in the Massif Central. The metropolitan region occupies much of what was once a major coal-mining and steelmaking district. Manufactures include ribbons (famous since the 15th cent. ..... Click the link for more information. , Clermont-Ferrand Clermont-Ferrand , city (1990 pop. 140,167), capital of Puy-de-Dôme dept., central France, in Auvergne, on the Tiretaine River. One of the population and industrial centers of the Massif Central, it is home of the Michelin and other tire factories, and of important ..... Click the link for more information. , and Grenoble Grenoble , city (1990 pop. 153,973), capital of Isère dept., SE France, at the foot of the Alps on the Isère River at the confluence of Drac River. It is the hydroelectric center of France and has an important nuclear-research center. ..... Click the link for more information. ; in the south, Marseilles Marseilles , Fr. Marseille, city (1990 pop. 807,726), capital of Bouches-du-Rhône dept., SE France, on the Gulf of Lions, an arm of the Mediterranean Sea. It is the second largest city of France and one of its most important seaports; an underground canal (see Rove ..... Click the link for more information. , Toulouse Toulouse , city (1990 pop. 365,933), capital of Haute-Garonne dept., S France, on the Garonne River. France's fastest growing region, it is one of France's great cultural and commercial centers. ..... Click the link for more information. , Nice Nice , city (1990 pop. 345,674), capital of Alpes-Maritimes dept., SE France, on the Mediterranean Sea. Nice is the most famous resort on the French Riviera. Although the economy depends mainly on the tourist trade, the electronics industry as well as other manufactures are ..... Click the link for more information. , and Nîmes Nîmes , city (1990 pop. 133,607), capital of Gard dept., S France, in Cévennes. An important market town and rail hub, its products include machinery, textiles and clothing, and tinware. An old Gallic town, it became Roman c.120 B.C. ..... Click the link for more information. ; and in the west, Bordeaux and Nantes Nantes , city (1990 pop. 252,029), capital of Loire-Atlantique dept., W France, on the Loire River. It is an important industrial and shipping center with its ocean port at Saint-Nazaire. ..... Click the link for more information. . Other important cities are Orléans Orléans, city (1990 pop. 107,965), capital of Loiret dept., N central France, on the Loire River. A commercial and transportation center, it has food-processing, tobacco, machine-building, electrical, pharmaceutical, chemical, and textile industries. ..... Click the link for more information. , Tours Tours , city (1990 pop. 133,403), capital of Indre-et-Loire dept., W central France, in Touraine, on the Loire River. It is a wine market and a tourist center, with metallurgical, chemical, electrical, clothing, and printing industries. ..... Click the link for more information. , Troyes Troyes , city (1990 pop. 60,755), capital of Aube dept., NE France, on the Seine River. It is an industrial town. Hosiery is the main product. Troyes became an episcopal see in the 4th cent. and the capital of Champagne in the 11th cent. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Arles Arles , city (1990 pop. 52,543), Bouches-du-Rhône dept., S central France, in Provence, on the Rhône River delta. Arles is an important railroad, shipping, agriculture, and industrial center with varied manufactures. ..... Click the link for more information. . France has an extensive railway system, the Société Nationale des Chemins de Fer Français (SNCF). The first of a number of high-speed rail lines (TGVs) was completed in 1983, linking Paris and Lyons. Subsequent lines connected Paris to several other French cities, as well as Belgium, the Netherlands, Germany, and, via the Channel Tunnel Channel Tunnel, popularly called the "Chunnel," a three-tunnel railroad connection running under the English Channel, connecting Folkestone, England, and Calais, France. The tunnels are 31 mi (50 km) long. There are two rail tunnels, each 25 ft (7. ..... Click the link for more information. , Great Britain. The government at one time had majority ownership in many commercial banks, some key industries, and various utilities, including the telephone system. The government has since reduced its holdings in many companies, although it still controls energy production, public transportation, and defense industries. Leading exports are machinery and transportation equipment, aircraft, plastics, chemicals, pharmaceuticals, iron and steel, and beverages. Leading imports are machinery and equipment, vehicles, crude oil, aircraft, plastics, and chemicals. Germany, Belgium, Italy, Spain, Great Britain, and the United States are the main trading partners. The chief ports are Rouen Rouen , city (1990 pop. 105,470), capital of Seine-Maritime dept., N France. Situated on the Seine near its mouth at the English Channel, Rouen functions as the port of Paris, handling an enormous volume of traffic. ..... Click the link for more information. , Le Havre Havre, Le , city (1990 pop. 195,932), Seine-Maritime dept., N France, in Normandy, at the mouth of the Seine River on the English Channel. It was founded in 1517 as Le Havre-de-Grâce by Francis I. Le Havre became a major seaport in the 19th cent. ..... Click the link for more information. , Cherbourg Cherbourg , city (1990 pop. 28,773), Manche dept., NW France, in Normandy, on the English Channel, at the tip of the Cotentin peninsula. It is a naval base and seaport, and a major industrial center where submarines, oil tankers and platforms, electronics, and metals are ..... Click the link for more information. , Brest Brest , city (1990 pop. 153,099), Finistère dept., NW France, on an inlet of the Atlantic Ocean. It is a commercial port, an important naval station, and the seat of the French Naval Academy. ..... Click the link for more information. , Saint-Nazaire Saint-Nazaire , city (1990 pop. 66,087), Loire-Atlantique dept., W France, at the mouth of the Loire River on the Bay of Biscay. Saint-Nazaire is an important seaport (mainly for trade with the Antilles and Central America) and a great shipbuilding and industrial center with ..... Click the link for more information. , Nantes, Bordeaux, Toulon Toulon , city (1990 pop. 170,167), Var dept., SE France, in Provence, on the Mediterranean Sea. An important commercial port and industrial center, Toulon is France's principal naval center on the Mediterranean; shipbuilding and ship repairing are major industries. ..... Click the link for more information. , Dunkirk Dunkirk , Fr. Dunkerque, town (1990 pop. 71,071), Nord dept., N France, on the North Sea. It is a leading French port with daily ferry service to Ramsgate and Dover, England. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Marseilles. Government Since the Revolution of 1789, France has had an extremely uniform and centralized administration, although constitutional changes in 2003 now permit greater autonomy to the nation's regions and departments. The country is governed under the 1958 constitution (as amended), which established the Fifth French Republic and reflected the views of Charles de Gaulle de Gaulle, Charles , 1890–1970, French general and statesman, first president (1959–69) of the Fifth Republic. The World Wars During World War I de Gaulle served with distinction until his capture in 1916. In The Army of the Future (1934, tr. ..... Click the link for more information. . It provides for a strong president, directly elected for a five-year term; an individual is limited to two terms as president. A premier and cabinet, appointed by the president, are responsible to the National Assembly, but they are subordinate to the president. The bicameral legislature consists of the National Assembly and the Senate. Deputies to the 577-seat National Assembly are elected for five-year terms from single-member districts. The 348 senators are elected for six-year terms from each department by an electoral college composed of the deputies, district council members, and municipal council members from the department, with one half of the Senate elected every 3 years. France's 22 administrative regions (see above under Land) each have a directly elected regional council, primarily responsible for stimulating economic and social activity. The regions are further divided into 96 departments (not including the four overseas departments), which are governed by a locally elected general council, with one councilor per canton. Further subdivisions are districts (arrondisements), cantons, and communes. The districts and cantons have little power. The communes, however, are more powerful because they are responsible for municipal services and are represented in the national government by the mayor. History Ancient Gaul to Feudalism Some of the earliest anthropological and archaeological remains in Europe have been found in France, yet little is known of France before the Roman conquest (1st cent. B.C.). The country was known to the Romans as Gaul Gaul , Lat. Gallia, ancient designation for the land S and W of the Rhine, W of the Alps, and N of the Pyrenees. The name was extended by the Romans to include Italy from Lucca and Rimini northwards, excluding Liguria. ..... Click the link for more information. . It was inhabited largely by Celts Celt or Kelt . 1 One who speaks a Celtic language or who derives ancestry from an area where a Celtic language was spoken; i.e., one from Ireland, the Scottish Hebrides and Highlands, the Isle of Man, Wales, Cornwall, or Brittany. ..... Click the link for more information. , or Gauls, who had mingled with still older populations, and by Basques Basques , people of N Spain and SW France. There are about 2 million Basques in the three Basque provs. and Navarre, Spain; some 250,000 in Labourd, Soule, and Lower Navarre, France; and communities of various sizes in Central and South America and other parts of the world. ..... Click the link for more information. in what became the region of Gascony. Some of the Gallic tribes undoubtedly were Germanic. Settlements on the Mediterranean coast, notably Marseilles, were established by Greek and Phoenician traders (c.600 B.C.), and Provence was colonized by Rome in the 2d cent. B.C. The conquest of Gaul by Julius Caesar (58–51 B.C.; see Gallic Wars Gallic Wars , campaigns in Gaul led by Julius Caesar in his two terms as proconsul of Cisalpine Gaul, Transalpine Gaul, and Illyricum (58 B.C.–51 B.C.). Caesar's first campaign was to prevent the Helvetii (who lived N of the Lake of Geneva) from crossing the Roman ..... Click the link for more information. ) became final with the defeat of Vercingetorix Vercingetorix , d. 46 B.C., leader of the Gauls, a chieftain of the Arverni. He was the leader of the great revolt against the Romans in 52 B.C. Julius Caesar, upon hearing of the trouble, rushed to put it down. ..... Click the link for more information. . Early in the course of the following five centuries of Roman rule Gaul accepted Latin speech and Roman law, developed a distinct Gallo-Roman civilization, and produced many large and prosperous cities. Lugdunum (Lyons) was the Roman capital. Christianity, introduced in the 1st cent. A.D., spread rapidly. From the 3d cent., however, the internal decline of the Roman Empire invited barbarian incursions. Among the Germanic tribes that descended upon fertile Gaul, the Visigoths Visigoths (West Goths), division of the Goths, one of the most important groups of Germans. Having settled in the region W of the Black Sea in the 3d cent. A.D., the Goths soon split into two divisions, the Ostrogoths and the Visigoths. ..... Click the link for more information. , Franks Franks, group of Germanic tribes. By the 3d cent. A.D., they were settled along the lower and middle Rhine. The two major divisions were the Salian Franks in the north and the Ripuarian Franks in the south. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Burgundii were the most important. Rome and its governors in Gaul sought, by alliances, to play the barbarians off against each other. Thus Aetius defeated (A.D. 451) the Huns under Attila with the help of the Franks. But in 486 (10 years after the traditional date for the fall of Rome) the Franks, under Clovis I Clovis I , c.466–511, Frankish king (481–511), son of Childeric I and founder of the Merovingian monarchy. Originally little more than a tribal chieftain, he became sole leader of the Salian Franks by force of perseverance and by murdering a number of relatives. ..... Click the link for more information. , routed Syagrius, last Roman governor of Gaul. Clovis, who had made himself ruler of all the Franks, then defeated the Visigoths and, after accepting Christianity (496), conquered the Alemanni. He extinguished the Arian heresy (see Arianism Arianism , Christian heresy founded by Arius in the 4th cent. It was one of the most widespread and divisive heresies in the history of Christianity. As a priest in Alexandria, Arius taught (c. ..... Click the link for more information. ) and founded the dynasty of the Merovingians Merovingians, dynasty of Frankish kings, descended, according to tradition, from Merovech, chief of the Salian Franks, whose son was Childeric I and whose grandson was Clovis I, the founder of the Frankish monarchy. ..... Click the link for more information. —but he failed to provide for the unity of Gaul when, as was customary, he divided his lands among his sons at his death. Throughout the 6th and 7th cent., Gaul was torn by fratricidal strife between the Merovingian kings of Neustria Neustria , western portion of the kingdom of the Franks in the 6th, 7th, and 8th cent., during the rule of the Merovingians. It comprised the Seine and Loire country and the region to the north; its principal towns were Soissons and Paris. ..... Click the link for more information. and of Austrasia Austrasia , northeastern portion of the Merovingian kingdom of the Franks in the 6th, 7th, and 8th cent., comprising, in general, parts of E France, W Germany, and the Netherlands, with its capital variously at Metz, Reims, and Soissons. ..... Click the link for more information. , the two realms that ultimately emerged from Clovis's division and were united only for brief periods under a sole ruler. Especially after Dagobert I Dagobert I , c.612–c.639, Frankish king, son and successor of King Clotaire II. His father was forced to appoint Dagobert king of the East Frankish kingdom of Austrasia at the request of Pepin of Landen, mayor of the palace, and Arnulf, bishop of Metz, who effectively ..... Click the link for more information. (d. 639), Merovingian rule sank into indolence, cruelty, and dissipation. Gaul was depopulated, the cities were left in ruins, commerce was destroyed, and the arts and sciences were ignored. In the 8th cent. the only remnant of Roman civilization, the church, was threatened by extinction when the Saracens invaded Gaul. In the meantime a more rigorous dynasty, the Carolingians Carolingians , dynasty of Frankish rulers, founded in the 7th cent. by Pepin of Landen, who, as mayor of the palace, ruled the East Frankish Kingdom of Austrasia for Dagobert I. ..... Click the link for more information. , had come to rule Austrasia as mayors of the palace in the name of the decadent Merovingian kings, and had united (687) Austrasia with Neustria. In 732, the Carolingian Charles Martel Charles Martel [O.Fr.,=Charles the Hammer], 688?–741, Frankish ruler, illegitimate son of Pepin of Heristal and grandfather of Charlemagne. After the death of his father (714) he seized power in Austrasia from Pepin's widow, who was ruling as regent for her grandsons, and ..... Click the link for more information. decisively defeated the Saracens between Poitiers and Tours. His son, Pepin the Short Pepin the Short (Pepin III), c.714–768, first Carolingian king of the Franks (751–68), son of Charles Martel and father of Charlemagne. Succeeding his father as mayor of the palace (741), he ruled Neustria, Burgundy, and Provence, while his brother Carloman (d. ..... Click the link for more information. , dethroned the last Merovingian in 751 and proclaimed himself king with the sanction of the pope. Pepin's son was Charlemagne Charlemagne (Charles the Great or Charles I) [O.Fr.,=Charles the great], 742?–814, emperor of the West (800–814), Carolingian king of the Franks (768–814). ..... Click the link for more information. . Crowned emperor of the West in 800, Charlemagne expanded his lands by conquest. He gave his subjects an efficient administration, created an admirable legal system, and labored for the rebirth of learning, piety, and the arts. But his son, Emperor Louis I Louis I or Louis the Pious, Fr. Louis le Pieux or Louis le Débonnaire, 778–840, emperor of the West (814–40), son and successor of Charlemagne. He was crowned king of Aquitaine in 781 and co-emperor with his father in 813. ..... Click the link for more information. , could not maintain the empire he inherited. At Louis's death (840), his three sons were fighting each other. In 843 the brothers, Charles II Charles II or Charles the Bald, 823–77, emperor of the West (875–77) and king of the West Franks (843–77); son of Emperor Louis I by a second marriage. ..... Click the link for more information. (Charles the Bald), king of the West Franks, Louis the German Louis the German, c.804–876, king of the East Franks (817–76). When his father, Emperor of the West Louis I, partitioned the empire in 817, Louis received Bavaria and adjacent territories. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Emperor Lothair I Lothair I , 795–855, emperor of the West (840–55), son and successor of Louis I. In 817 his father crowned him coemperor. He was recrowned (823) at Rome by the pope and issued (824) a constitution, proclaiming his right to confirm papal elections. ..... Click the link for more information. , redivided their territories (see Verdun, Treaty of Verdun, Treaty of, the partition of Charlemagne's empire among three sons of Louis I, emperor of the West. It was concluded in 843 at Verdun on the Meuse or, possibly, Verdun-sur-le-Doubs, Soâne-et-Loire dept., E France. ..... Click the link for more information. ). Charles was recognized as the ruler of the lands that are now France. The Carolingians had only superficially transcended the economic, social, and political fragmentation of the land. The weakness of central authority was a major reason for the development of feudalism feudalism , form of political and social organization typical of Western Europe from the dissolution of Charlemagne's empire to the rise of the absolute monarchies. The term feudalism is derived from the Latin feodum, ..... Click the link for more information. and the manorial system manorial system or seignorial system , economic and social system of medieval Europe under which peasants' land tenure and production were regulated, and local justice and taxation were administered. ..... Click the link for more information. . Raids by Norsemen Norsemen, name given to the Scandinavian Vikings who raided and settled on the coasts of the European continent in the 9th and 10th cent. They are also referred to as Northmen or Normans. ..... Click the link for more information. , beginning in the late 8th cent., contributed to the decline of royal authority; in 885–86, the Norsemen even besieged Paris. The authority of the kings was increasingly usurped by feudal lords. Among the most powerful of these were the dukes of Aquitaine Aquitaine , Lat. Aquitania, former duchy and kingdom in SW France. Julius Caesar conquered the Aquitani, an Iberian people of SW Gaul, in 56 B.C. The province that he created occupied the territory between the Garonne River and the Pyrenees; under Roman rule it was ..... Click the link for more information. and of Burgundy and the counts of Flanders Flanders , former county in the Low Countries, extending along the North Sea and W of the Scheldt (Escaut) River. It is divided among East Flanders and West Flanders provs., Belgium; Nord and Pas-de-Calais depts., France; and (to a small extent) Zeeland prov., the Netherlands. ..... Click the link for more information. , of Toulouse, of Blois Blois , town (1990 pop. 51,549), capital of Loir-et-Cher dept., central France, in Orléanais, on the Loire River. A commercial and industrial center with an outstanding trade in wines and brandies, it is also one of the most historic towns of France. ..... Click the link for more information. , and of Anjou. In 911 the Norse leader Rollo Rollo or Hrolf , c.860–c.932, first duke of Normandy. As leader of the Norman pirates settled at the mouth of the Seine, he attacked (910) Paris and Chartres. ..... Click the link for more information. was recognized as duke of Normandy. The Birth of France When the Carolingian dynasty died out in France, the nobles chose (987) Hugh Capet Hugh Capet , c.938–996, king of France (987–96), first of the Capetians. He was the son of Hugh the Great, to whose vast territories he succeeded in 956. After the death of Louis V, last Carolingian king of France, the nobles and prelates elected him king, setting ..... Click the link for more information. as king. It is from this date that the history of France as a separate kingdom is generally reckoned (see table entitled Rulers of France since 987 Rulers of France since 987 (including dates of reign) Robert II (the Pious), son of Hugh Capet, 996–1031 Henry I, son of Robert II, 1031–60 Philip I, son of Henry I, 1060–1108 ..... Click the link for more information. for a listing of the kings of France and subsequent French leaders). The early Capetians Capetians , royal house of France that ruled continuously from 987 to 1328; it takes its name from Hugh Capet. Related branches of the family (see Valois; Bourbon) ruled France until the final deposition of the monarchy in the 19th cent. ..... Click the link for more information. were dukes of Francia, a small territory around Paris, and were without power in the rest of France. By unremitting effort they gradually extended their domain, razed the castles of robber barons, and held their own against the great feudatories. Louis VI Louis VI (Louis the Fat), 1081–1137, king of France (1108–37). He succeeded his father, Philip I, with whom he was associated in government from c.1100. He firmly established his authority within the royal domain, suppressing brigandage by robber barons and besieging ..... Click the link for more information. (reigned 1108–37) brought this process into full force, and it was continued by Louis VII Louis VII (Louis the Young), c.1120–1180, king of France (1137–80), son and successor of King Louis VI. Before his accession he married Eleanor of Aquitaine. ..... Click the link for more information. (1137–80). In the 11th cent. the towns had begun regaining population and wealth. Drawing together for their common defense (see commune commune , in medieval history, collective institution that developed in continental Europe after the fall of the Roman Empire. Because of the importance of the commune in municipal government, the term is also used to denote a town itself to which a charter of liberties was ..... Click the link for more information. ), the townspeople won increasingly advantageous charters from the king and from their feudal lords. Commerce revived, and the great fairs of Champagne made France a meeting place for European merchants. The Cluniac order Cluniac order , medieval organization of Benedictines centered at the abbey of Cluny, France. Founded in 910 by the monk Berno and Count William of Aquitaine, the abbey's constitution provided it freedom from lay supervision and (after 1016) from jurisdiction of the local bishop. ..... Click the link for more information. and the revival of theological learning at Paris (which was to make the Sorbonne Sorbonne , first endowed college in the Univ. of Paris, founded by Robert de Sorbon (1201–74), chaplain of Louis IX, and opened in 1253 for the purpose of providing quarters for theology students who were not friars. ..... Click the link for more information. the fountainhead of scholasticism scholasticism , philosophy and theology of Western Christendom in the Middle Ages. Virtually all medieval philosophers of any significance were theologians, and their philosophy is generally embodied in their theological writings. ..... Click the link for more information. ) gave France tremendous prestige in Christendom. This rebirth reached its height in the 13th cent. and was aided by the leading role that France played in the Crusades Crusades , series of wars undertaken by European Christians between the 11th and 14th cent. to recover the Holy Land from the Muslims. First Crusade Origins In the 7th cent., Jerusalem was taken by the caliph Umar. ..... Click the link for more information. . The crusaders established the French ideal of chivalry—personified in Louis IX Louis IX or Saint Louis, 1214–70, king of France (1226–70), son and successor of Louis VIII. His mother, Blanche of Castile, was regent during his minority (1226–34), and her regency probably lasted even after Louis reached his majority; she was his ..... Click the link for more information. (St. Louis)—in most of Europe. French courtly poetry and manners became European models. In England, French manners and culture also predominated among the nobles because of the Norman Conquest (1066). The fact that the Norman English kings were also French nobles, holding or claiming vast fiefs in France, brought the two nations into centuries of conflict. When Henry II Henry II, 1133–89, king of England (1154–89), son of Matilda, queen of England, and Geoffrey IV, count of Anjou. He was the founder of the Angevin, or Plantagenet, line in England and one of the ablest and most remarkable of the English kings. ..... Click the link for more information. , king of England and duke of Normandy, married (1152) Eleanor of Aquitaine Eleanor of Aquitaine , 1122?–1204, queen consort first of Louis VII of France and then of Henry II of England. Daughter and heiress of William X, duke of Aquitaine, she married Louis in 1137 shortly before his accession to the throne. ..... Click the link for more information. , the divorced wife of Louis VII of France, Eleanor brought as her dowry extensive areas in France. Louis's successor, Philip II Philip II or Philip Augustus, 1165–1223, king of France (1180–1223), son of Louis VII. During his reign the royal domains were more than doubled, and the royal power was consolidated at the expense of the feudal lords. ..... Click the link for more information. (Philip Augustus; 1180–1223), clashed repeatedly with Henry's sons, Richard I and John. Defeating John in 1204 and again, resoundingly, at Bouvines Bouvines , village, Nord dept., N France, in Flanders. In a battle there in 1214, Philip II of France defeated the joint forces of King John of England, Emperor Otto IV, and the count of Flanders, establishing the power of the French monarchy. ..... Click the link for more information. (1214), Philip soundly established the military prestige of France. During Philip's reign a greater France emerged. The crusade against the Albigenses Albigenses [Lat.,=people of Albi, one of their centers], religious sect of S France in the Middle Ages. Beliefs and Practices Officially known as heretics, they were actually Cathari, Provençal adherents of a doctrine similar to the Manichaean dualistic ..... Click the link for more information. (begun 1208) netted the crown the huge fiefs of the counts of Toulouse in S France, and the royal domain (directly subject to the king) now formed the larger part of the kingdom. Philip made the royal authority felt throughout the land. Paris was rebuilt. Louis IX (1226–70) organized an efficient and equitable civil and judicial system. Under Philip IV Philip IV (Philip the Fair), 1268–1314, king of France (1285–1314), son and successor of Philip III. The policies of his reign greatly strengthened the French monarchy and increased the royal revenues. ..... Click the link for more information. (1285–1314), the royal administration was improved even more. Philip failed to incorporate Flanders into his holdings, as the Flemish crushed the French at Courtrai (1302). To meet his revenue needs Philip taxed the clergy, summoning the first national States-General States-General or Estates-General, diet or national assembly in which the chief estates (see estate) of a nation—usually clergy, nobles, and towns (or commons)—were represented as separate bodies. ..... Click the link for more information. (1302) to support his policy. He also destroyed the wealthy Knights Templars Knights Templars , in medieval history, members of the military and religious order of the Poor Knights of Christ, called the Knights of the Temple of Solomon from their house in Jerusalem. ..... Click the link for more information. . Papal objections to these moves led to the Babylonian Captivity (1309–77) of the popes (see papacy papacy , office of the pope, head of the Roman Catholic Church. He is pope by reason of being bishop of Rome and thus, according to Roman Catholic belief, successor in the see of Rome (the Holy See) to its first bishop, St. Peter. ..... Click the link for more information. ). Philip's son, Louis X Louis X, Fr. Louis le Hutin [the quarrelsome], 1289–1316, king of France (1314–16), son and successor of Philip IV. His reign was dominated by his uncle, Charles of Valois, and was distinguished by his concessions to the barons in the form of charters. ..... Click the link for more information. , ruled briefly (1314–16); he was succeeded by two brothers, Philip V Philip V (Philip the Tall), c.1294–1322, king of France (1317–22), son of King Philip IV. He became regent in 1316 on the death of his brother Louis X, who was survived by his pregnant wife and infant daughter. ..... Click the link for more information. (1317–22) and Charles IV Charles IV (Charles the Fair), 1294–1328, king of France (1322–28), youngest son of Philip IV, brother and successor of Philip V. Charles continued his brother's work of strengthening the royal power. ..... Click the link for more information. (1322–28). Within a few years after the death of Charles IV, who was also without a male heir, progress toward national unification was halted, and for more than a century France was rent by warfare and internal upheaval. The Making of a Nation In 1328, Philip VI Philip VI, 1293–1350, king of France (1328–50), son of Charles of Valois and grandson of King Philip III. He succeeded his cousin Charles IV, invoking the Salic law to set aside both Charles's daughter and King Edward III of England, the son of Charles's sister. ..... Click the link for more information. (1328–50), of the house of Valois Valois , royal house of France that ruled from 1328 to 1589. At the death of Charles IV, the last of the direct Capetians, the Valois dynasty came to the throne in the person of Philip VI, son of Charles of Valois and grandson of Philip III. ..... Click the link for more information. , a younger branch of the Capetians, succeeded to the throne. The succession was contested by Philip's remote cousin, Edward III Edward III, 1312–77, king of England (1327–77), son of Edward II and Isabella. Early Life He was made earl of Chester in 1320 and duke of Aquitaine in 1325 and accompanied his mother to France in 1325. ..... Click the link for more information. of England (grandson of Philip IV), who in 1337 proclaimed himself king of France. Thus began the dynastic struggle known as the Hundred Years War Hundred Years War, 1337–1453, conflict between England and France. Causes Its basic cause was a dynastic quarrel that originated when the conquest of England by William of Normandy created a state lying on both sides of the English Channel. In the 14th cent. ..... Click the link for more information. (1337–1453), actually a series of wars and truces. It was complicated by many secondary issues, notably civil troubles in Flanders and the War of the Breton Succession Breton Succession, War of the, 1341–65, an important episode of the Hundred Years War. Duke John III of Brittany died in 1341 without heirs. The succession was contested by his half-brother, John de Montfort, who was backed by Edward III of England, and by Charles of ..... Click the link for more information. . The French defeats at Crécy Crécy , officially Crécy-en-Ponthieu , village, Somme dept., N France. A nearby forest is popular for camping. At Crécy, on Aug. 26, 1346, Edward III of England defeated Philip VI of France in the Hundred Years War. ..... Click the link for more information. (1346) and Poitiers Poitiers , city (1990 pop. 82,507), capital of Vienne dept., W central France, on the Clain River. The ancient capital of Poitou, it is now an industrial, agricultural, and communications center. ..... Click the link for more information. (1356), the epidemic of the Black Death, the Parisian insurrection under Étienne Marcel Marcel, Étienne , d. 1358, French bourgeois leader, provost of the merchants of Paris. In the States-General of 1355 he and Robert Le Coq bargained for governmental reforms with the French king, John II, who needed funds for the English war. ..... Click the link for more information. (1357–58), the Jacquerie Jacquerie [Fr.,=collection of Jacques, which is, like Jacques Bonhomme, a nickname for the French peasant], 1358, revolt of the French peasantry. The uprising was in part a reaction to widespread poverty during the Hundred Years War. ..... Click the link for more information. (peasant revolt) of 1358, and the pillaging bands of écorcheurs plunged France into anarchy and forced John II John II (John the Good), 1319–64, king of France (1350–64), son and successor of King Philip VI. An inept ruler, he began his reign by executing the constable of France (whose office he gave to his favorite, Charles de La Cerda) and by appointing dishonest and ..... Click the link for more information. (1350–64) to accept the humiliating Treaty of Brétigny Brétigny, Treaty of , 1360, concluded by England and France at Brétigny, a village near Chartres, France. It marked a low point in French fortunes in the Hundred Years War. ..... Click the link for more information. (1360). Under Charles V Charles V (Charles the Wise), 1338–80, king of France (1364–80). Son of King John II, Charles became the first French heir apparent to bear the title of dauphin after the addition of the region of Dauphiné to the royal domain in 1349. ..... Click the link for more information. (1364–80), however, Bertrand Du Guesclin Du Guesclin, Bertrand , c.1320–80, constable of France (1370–80), greatest French soldier of his time. A Breton, he initially served Charles of Blois in the War of the Breton Succession. ..... Click the link for more information. recovered (1369–73) all lost territories except Calais and the Bordeaux region. Charles VI Charles VI (Charles the Mad or Charles the Well Beloved), 1368–1422, king of France (1380–1422), son and successor of King Charles V. During his minority he was under the tutelage of his uncles (particularly Philip the Bold, duke of Burgundy), whose policies drained ..... Click the link for more information. (1380–1422) became insane in 1392, although he had lucid intervals. Rivalry for power at court led to the terrible strife between Armagnacs and Burgundians Armagnacs and Burgundians, opposing factions that fought to control France in the early 15th cent. The rivalry for power between Louis d'Orléans, brother of the recurrently insane King Charles VI, and his cousin John the Fearless, duke of Burgundy, led to Louis's murder ..... Click the link for more information. . In 1415, Henry V Henry V, 1387–1422, king of England (1413–22), son and successor of Henry IV. Early Life Henry was probably brought up under the care of his uncle, Henry Beaufort. ..... Click the link for more information. of England revived the English claim, renewed the war, and crushed the French—unaided by the Burgundians—at Agincourt Agincourt , modern Fr. Azincourt, village, Pas-de-Calais dept., N France. There, during the Hundred Years War, Henry V of England with some 6,000 men defeated a French army six times that size on Oct. 25, 1415. ..... Click the link for more information. . In 1420, Charles VI made Henry V his heir, disinheriting his son, the dauphin, later Charles VII Charles VII (Charles the Well Served), 1403–61, king of France (1422–61), son and successor of Charles VI. His reign saw the end of the Hundred Years War. Although excluded from the throne by the Treaty of Troyes, Charles took the royal title after his father's death ..... Click the link for more information. (see Troyes, Treaty of Troyes, Treaty of, 1420, agreement between Henry V of England, Charles VI of France, and Philip the Good of Burgundy. Its purpose, ultimately unsuccessful, was to settle the issues of the Hundred Years War. ..... Click the link for more information. ). The dauphin nevertheless assumed the royal title in 1422, but his authority extended over only a small area. The English now held most of France, including Paris. Powerful Burgundy, under Philip the Good Philip the Good, 1396–1467, duke of Burgundy (1419–67); son of Duke John the Fearless. After his father was murdered (1419) at a meeting with the dauphin (later King Charles VII of France), Philip formed an alliance with King Henry V of England. ..... Click the link for more information. , was allied with England. In 1428 the English besieged the key city of Orléans. At this hour appeared Joan of Arc Joan of Arc, Fr. Jeanne D'Arc (zhän därk), 1412?–31, French saint and national heroine, called the Maid of Orléans; daughter of a farmer of Domrémy on the border of Champagne and Lorraine. ..... Click the link for more information. , who helped relieve Orléans, rallied the dauphin's followers, and in 1429 stood by the dauphin's side as he was crowned at Reims. In 1435, Burgundy, although exacting exorbitant concessions, allied itself with France (see Arras, Treaty of Arras, Treaty of. 1 Treaty of 1435, between King Charles VII of France and Duke Philip the Good of Burgundy. Through it, France and Burgundy became reconciled. Philip deserted his English allies and recognized Charles as king of France. ..... Click the link for more information. ). In 1453 the English lost their last hold on French soil outside Calais Calais , city (1990 pop. 78,836), Pas-de-Calais dept., N France, in Picardy, on the Straits of Dover. An industrial center with a great variety of manufactures, it has been a major commercial seaport and a communications center with England since the Middle Ages. ..... Click the link for more information. . It was left for Louis XI Louis XI, 1423–83, king of France (1461–83), son and successor of Charles VII. Early Life As dauphin Louis was almost constantly in revolt against his father. ..... Click the link for more information. (1461–83) to destroy the power of the last great feudal lords and to incorporate into the royal domain almost all of present France. He was aided by the downfall (1477) of Charles the Bold Charles the Bold, 1433–77, last reigning duke of Burgundy (1467–77), son and successor of Philip the Good. As the count of Charolais before his accession, he opposed the growing power of King Louis XI of France by joining (1465) the League of Public Weal. ..... Click the link for more information. of Burgundy and by the extinction of the Angevin Angevin [Fr.,=of Anjou], name of two medieval dynasties originating in France. The first ruled over parts of France and over Jerusalem and England; the second ruled over parts of France and over Naples, Hungary, and Poland, with a claim to Jerusalem. ..... Click the link for more information. dynasty. Brittany was united with France shortly afterward (see Anne of Brittany Anne of Brittany, 1477–1514, queen of France as consort of Charles VIII from 1491 to 1498 and consort of Louis XII from 1499 until her death. The daughter of Duke Francis II of Brittany, she was heiress to his duchy. ..... Click the link for more information. ), and the larger part of the fiefs held by the Bourbon Bourbon , European royal family, originally of France; a cadet branch of the Capetian dynasty. One branch of the Bourbons occupies the modern Spanish throne, and other branches ruled the Two Sicilies and Parma. ..... Click the link for more information. family was confiscated in 1527. Under the reigns (1483–1560) of Charles VIII Charles VIII, 1470–98, king of France (1483–98), son and successor of Louis XI. He first reigned under the regency of his sister Anne de Beaujeu. After his marriage (1491) to Anne of Brittany, he freed himself from the influence of the regency and prepared to conquer ..... Click the link for more information. , Louis XII Louis XII, 1462–1515, king of France (1498–1515), son of Charles, duc d'Orléans. He succeeded his father as duke. While still duke, he rebelled against the regency of Anne de Beaujeu and was imprisoned (1488), but was released (1491) by his cousin King Charles ..... Click the link for more information. , Francis I Francis I, 1494–1547, king of France (1515–47), known as Francis of Angoulême before he succeeded his cousin and father-in-law, King Louis XII. Wars with the Holy Roman Emperor ..... Click the link for more information. , Henry II Henry II, 1519–59, king of France (1547–59), son of King Francis I. His robust physique contrasted with his weak and pliant disposition. Throughout his reign he was governed by Anne de Montmorency, by his mistress Diane de Poitiers, and by François and Charles ..... Click the link for more information. , and Francis II Francis II, 1544–60, king of France (1559–60), son of King Henry II and Catherine de' Medici. He married (1558) Mary Queen of Scots (Mary Stuart), and during his brief reign the government was in the hands of her uncles, François and Charles de Guise. ..... Click the link for more information. , France proved its amazing recuperative powers despite the heavy drain imposed on its resources by the Italian Wars Italian Wars, 1494–1559, series of regional wars brought on by the efforts of the great European powers to control the small independent states of Italy. Renaissance Italy was split into numerous rival states, most of which sought foreign alliances to increase their ..... Click the link for more information. (1494–1559). The superficially brilliant reign of Francis I (1515–47) was taken up with almost constant warfare against the Hapsburg Charles V; however, this period also saw the spread of the Italian Renaissance into France (see French art French art, the artistic production of the region that constitutes the historic nation of France. See also French architecture. Early History Artistic remains in France date back to the Paleolithic age (see Paleolithic art), and abundant examples attest to the art ..... Click the link for more information. ; French literature French literature, writings in medieval French dialects and standard modern French. Writings in Provençal and Breton are considered separately, as are works in French produced abroad (as at Canadian literature, French). ..... Click the link for more information. ). The first phase of the struggle between France and the house of Hapsburg ended with the triumph of Hapsburg Spain in the Treaty of Cateau-Cambrésis Cateau-Cambrésis, Treaty of , 1559, concluded at Le Cateau, France, by representatives of Henry II of France, Philip II of Spain, and Elizabeth I of England. It put an end to the 60-year conflict between France and Spain, begun with the Italian Wars, in which Henry VIII ..... Click the link for more information. (1559). The Reformation and its Aftermath Beginning in the reign of Francis I, the Reformation gained many adherents in France (see Huguenots Huguenots , French Protestants, followers of John Calvin. The term is derived from the German Eidgenossen, meaning sworn companions or confederates. Origins Prior to Calvin's publication in 1536 of his Institutes of the Christian Religion, ..... Click the link for more information. ). In 1560 religious conflict flared up in the first of the ferocious civil wars (see Religion, Wars of Religion, Wars of, 1562–98, series of civil wars in France, also known as the Huguenot Wars. The immediate issue was the French Protestants' struggle for freedom of worship and the right of establishment (see Huguenots). ..... Click the link for more information. ) that tore France asunder during the reigns (1560–89) of the last Valois kings, Charles IX Charles IX, 1550–74, king of France. He succeeded (1560) his brother Francis II under the regency of his mother, Catherine de' Medici. She retained her influence throughout his reign. ..... Click the link for more information. and Henry III Henry III, 1551–89, king of France (1574–89); son of King Henry II and Catherine de' Medici. He succeeded his brother, Charles IX. As a leader of the royal army in the Wars of Religion (see Religion, Wars of) against the French Protestants, or Huguenots, Henry, then ..... Click the link for more information. . The Catholics, led by the ambitious Guise Guise , influential ducal family of France. The First Duke of Guise The family was founded as a cadet branch of the ruling house of Lorraine by Claude de Lorraine, 1st duc de Guise, 1496–1550, who received the French fiefs of his father, René II, duke ..... Click the link for more information. family, eventually formed the Catholic League League or Holy League, in French history, organization of Roman Catholics, aimed at the suppression of Protestantism and Protestant political influence in France. ..... Click the link for more information. and obtained Spanish support against the Protestant Henry of Navarre, the legal heir of Henry III. Navarre was supported by some moderate Catholics as well as by the Protestants. He defeated the League but had to accept Catholicism before being allowed to enter (1594) Paris. Ruling as Henry IV Henry IV, 1553–1610, king of France (1589–1610) and, as Henry III, of Navarre (1572–1610), son of Antoine de Bourbon and Jeanne d'Albret; first of the Bourbon kings of France. ..... Click the link for more information. , he became the first Bourbon king of France. With his great minister, Sully Sully, Maximilien de Béthune, duc de , 1560–1641, French statesman. Born and reared a Protestant, he fought in the Wars of Religion under the Huguenot leader Henry of Navarre (later King Henry IV of France). Before 1606 he was known as baron de Rosny. ..... Click the link for more information. , he made France prosperous once again and encouraged French explorers in Canada. Religious freedom and political security for Protestants were promulgated in the Edict of Nantes (1598; see Nantes, Edict of Nantes, Edict of, 1598, decree promulgated at Nantes by King Henry IV to restore internal peace in France, which had been torn by the Wars of Religion; the edict defined the rights of the French Protestants (see Huguenots). ..... Click the link for more information. ), but after Henry's assassination (1610) by a Catholic fanatic the rights of the Huguenots were steadily reduced. Under his successor, Louis XIII Louis XIII, 1601–43, king of France (1610–43). He succeeded his father, Henry IV, under the regency of his mother, Marie de' Medici. He married Anne of Austria in 1615. ..... Click the link for more information. (1610–43), and in the minority of Louis XIV, two great statesmen successively shaped the destiny of the kingdom—Cardinal Richelieu Richelieu, Armand Jean du Plessis, duc de (Cardinal Richelieu) , 1585–1642, French prelate and statesman, chief minister of King Louis XIII, cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. ..... Click the link for more information. and Cardinal Mazarin Mazarin, Jules , 1602–61, French statesman, cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church, b. Italy. His original name was Giulio Mazarini. After serving in the papal army and diplomatic service and as nuncio at the French court (1634–36), he entered the service of France ..... Click the link for more information. . They led France to victory in the Thirty Years War Thirty Years War, 1618–48, general European war fought mainly in Germany. General Character of the War There were many territorial, dynastic, and religious issues that figured in the outbreak and conduct of the war. ..... Click the link for more information. (1618–48), which France entered openly in 1635, joining the Protestant allies against the Hapsburg powers, Austria and Spain. Austria was defeated in 1648 (see Westphalia, Peace of Westphalia, Peace of, 1648, general settlement ending the Thirty Years War. It marked the end of the Holy Roman Empire as an effective institution and inaugurated the modern European state system. ..... Click the link for more information. ), Spain in 1659 (see Pyrenees, Peace of the Pyrenees, Peace of the, 1659, treaty ending the warfare between France and Spain that, continuing after the Peace of Westphalia, which ended the Thirty Years War, had been complicated by French intervention in the revolt of the Catalans (1640–52) and by Spanish ..... Click the link for more information. ). At home, Richelieu destroyed the political power of the Huguenots, and Mazarin overcame the nobles in the wars of the Fronde Fronde , 1648–53, series of outbreaks during the minority of King Louis XIV, caused by the efforts of the Parlement of Paris (the chief judiciary body) to limit the growing authority of the crown; by the personal ambitions of discontented nobles; and by the grievances of ..... Click the link for more information. . Louis XIV Louis XIV, 1638–1715, king of France (1643–1715), son and successor of King Louis XIII. Early Reign After his father's death his mother, Anne of Austria, was regent for Louis, but the real power was wielded by Anne's adviser, Cardinal Mazarin. ..... Click the link for more information. (1643–1715), aided by the genius of Jean Baptiste Colbert Colbert, Jean Baptiste , 1619–83, French statesman. The son of a draper, he was trained in business and was hired by Cardinal Mazarin to look after his financial affairs. ..... Click the link for more information. (d. 1683) and François Louvois Louvois, François Michel Le Tellier, marquis de , 1641–91, French statesman, minister during the reign of King Louis XIV. After 1654 he was associated in office with his father, Michel Le Tellier, and from 1666 he functioned as war minister, officially replacing his ..... Click the link for more information. , completed Richelieu's and Mazarin's work of centralization. Raising the position of the king to a dignity and prestige hitherto unknown in France, Louis XIV made France the first power in Europe and his court at Versailles Versailles , city (1990 pop. 91,029), capital of Yvelines dept., N central France. It was an insignificant rural hamlet when Louis XIII constructed a small retreat there in 1623. ..... Click the link for more information. the cynosure of Europe. But his many wars undermined French finances, and his persecution of the Huguenots (the Edict of Nantes was revoked in 1685) caused serious harm to the economy as thousands of merchants and skilled workers left France. His successes in the War of Devolution Devolution, War of, 1667–68, undertaken by Louis XIV for the conquest of the Spanish Netherlands. On her marriage to Louis, Marie Thérèse, daughter of Philip IV of Spain, had renounced her rights of inheritance in return for a large dowry. ..... Click the link for more information. (1667–68) against Spain and the Dutch War (see Dutch Wars Dutch Wars, series of conflicts between the English and Dutch during the mid to late 17th cent. The wars had their roots in the Anglo-Dutch commercial rivalry, although the last of the three wars was a wider conflict in which French interests played a primary role. ..... Click the link for more information. ) of 1672–78 inspired all Europe with fear of French hegemony and resulted in the diplomatic isolation of France. The War of the Grand Alliance Grand Alliance, War of the, 1688–97, war between France and a coalition of European powers, known as the League of Augsburg (and, after 1689, as the Grand Alliance). ..... Click the link for more information. (1688–97) against Louis XIV began to turn the tide; the War of the Spanish Succession Spanish Succession, War of the, 1701–14, last of the general European wars caused by the efforts of King Louis XIV to extend French power. The conflict in America corresponding to the period of the War of the Spanish Succession was known as Queen Anne's War (see French and ..... Click the link for more information. (1701–14), although it did not end with a clear victory over France, marked the end of French expansion in Europe. The reign of Louis XIV saw the height of French power in America. France, at the end of Louis's reign, was exhausted from its attempt at primacy; yet its latent strength and wealth were so great that it recovered prosperity within a few years. The Ancien Régime and Attempts at Reform Louis XV Louis XV, 1710–74, king of France (1715–74), great-grandson and successor of King Louis XIV, son of Louis, titular duke of Burgundy, and Marie Adelaide of Savoy. ..... Click the link for more information. (1715–74) inherited a unified France, but a France still burdened by the remnants of feudalism. The "absolute" power of the king was hedged in by a stupendous multitude of dusty charters and special privileges—often granted to remove the recipients from national politics—held by families, guilds, monopolies, communes, and provinces, and by the clergy and nobles. Taxes, although onerous, were raised inefficiently and inequitably, partly by the farmers general (see farming farming, in the history of taxation, collection of taxes through private contractors. Usually, the tax farmer paid a lump sum to the public treasury; the difference between that sum and the sum actually collected represented his profit or loss. ..... Click the link for more information. , in taxation), partly by the state. Commerce, based on mercantilism mercantilism , economic system of the major trading nations during the 16th, 17th, and 18th cent., based on the premise that national wealth and power were best served by increasing exports and collecting precious metals in return. ..... Click the link for more information. , was hampered by restrictive regulations, monopolies, and internal tariff barriers. Rural overpopulation outstripped the stagnant agricultural productivity. Colbert had reorganized the administration by curtailing the power of the provincial governors and by reestablishing the administrative units called intendancies, originated by Richelieu. The intendants were trusted civil servants who carried out the policies of the central government, but their capacity to break down local privilege was limited. In several provinces, notably Brittany, the local assemblies of the three estates retained the power to thwart reforms. A more significant stronghold of aristocratic privilege and vested interests was the parlement parlement , in French history, the chief judicial body under the ancien régime. The parlement consisted of a number of separate chambers: the central pleading chamber, called the Grand-Chambre; the Chambre des Requêtes ..... Click the link for more information. ; the parlements skillfully related their special interests to the still popular ideal of local liberty. The ever-expanding bourgeoisie as well as the large body of landowning farmers, however, were finding the remnants of feudal dues, services, and other customs increasingly intolerable. Economic reform became the rallying cry of the physiocrats physiocrats , school of French thinkers in the 18th cent. who evolved the first complete system of economics. They were also referred to simply as "the economists" or "the sect." The founder and leader of physiocracy was François Quesnay. ..... Click the link for more information. and their disciples such as Turgot Turgot, Anne Robert Jacques , 1727–81, French economist, comptroller general of finances (1774–76). The son of a rich merchant, he showed precocious ability at school and at the Sorbonne. ..... Click the link for more information. . Many philosophers of the Enlightenment Enlightenment, term applied to the mainstream of thought of 18th-century Europe and America. Background and Basic Tenets The scientific and intellectual developments of the 17th cent. ..... Click the link for more information. , notably Voltaire Voltaire, François Marie Arouet de , 1694–1778, French philosopher and author, whose original name was Arouet. One of the towering geniuses in literary and intellectual history, Voltaire personifies the Enlightenment. ..... Click the link for more information. , looked hopefully to the monarchy for administrative rationalization, but the crown's sporadic attempts at reform, particularly of finances, were hindered by the parlements. Operating under a system of outworn privilege, the wealthiest country in Europe was ruled by a government perennially on the verge of bankruptcy. The honest administration (1726–43) of Cardinal Fleury Fleury, André Hercule de , 1653–1743, French statesman, cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. Tutor of the young Louis XV, he became, at the age of 73, chief adviser to the king and virtual ruler of France (1726–43). ..... Click the link for more information. had barely extricated France from the disastrous failure of the Mississippi Scheme Mississippi Scheme, plan formulated by John Law for the colonization and commercial exploitation of the Mississippi valley and other French colonial areas. In 1717 the French merchant Antoine Crozat transferred his monopoly of commercial privileges in Louisiana to Law, who, with ..... Click the link for more information. (1720), when Louis XV plunged into the War of the Austrian Succession Austrian Succession, War of the, 1740–48, general European war. Causes of the War The war broke out when, on the strength of the pragmatic sanction of 1713, the Austrian archduchess Maria Theresa succeeded her father, Holy Roman Emperor Charles VI, as ruler ..... Click the link for more information. (1740–48) and the Seven Years War Seven Years War, 1756–63, worldwide war fought in Europe, North America, and India between France, Austria, Russia, Saxony, Sweden, and (after 1762) Spain on the one side and Prussia, Great Britain, and Hanover on the other. ..... Click the link for more information. (1756–63). Not only was the treasury drained, but France lost its empire in India and North America. Turgot's reforms, instituted early in the reign of Louis XVI Louis XVI, 1754–93, king of France (1774–92), third son of the dauphin (Louis) and Marie Josèphe of Saxony, grandson and successor of King Louis XV. In 1770 he married the Austrian archduchess Marie Antoinette. ..... Click the link for more information. (1774–92), were cut short in 1776, when he was dismissed. Seeking to avenge its defeat by Britain in the Seven Years War, France supported the American Revolution (1775–83). Financially, however, the war was a disaster for France. The Revolution and Napoleon I In 1788, after neither Calonne Calonne, Charles Alexandre de , 1734–1802, French statesman, controller general of finances (1783–87). Faced with a huge public debt and a steadily deteriorating financial situation, Calonne adopted a spending policy to inspire confidence in the nation's financial ..... Click the link for more information. nor Loménie de Brienne Loménie de Brienne, Étienne Charles , 1727–94, French statesman, cardinal of the Roman Catholic Church. He was archbishop of Toulouse (1763–88) and of Sens (1788) and a member of the French Academy. ..... Click the link for more information. could get the necessary financial measures enacted, Necker Necker, Jacques , 1732–1804, French financier and statesman, b. Geneva, Switzerland. In 1750 he went to Paris and entered banking. He rose rapidly to importance, established a bank of his own, and became a director of the French East India Company. ..... Click the link for more information. was called back to office to attempt to repair the irreparable, and the States-General were convoked for the first time since 1614. Thus began the upheaval that shook Europe from 1789 to 1815 (see French Revolution French Revolution, political upheaval of world importance in France that began in 1789. Origins of the Revolution Historians disagree in evaluating the factors that brought about the Revolution. ..... Click the link for more information. ; French Revolutionary Wars French Revolutionary Wars, wars occurring in the era of the French Revolution and the beginning of the Napoleonic era, the decade of 1792–1802. The wars began as an effort to defend the Revolution and developed into wars of conquest under the empire. ..... Click the link for more information. ; Directory Directory, group of five men who held the executive power in France according to the constitution of the year III (1795) of the French Revolution. They were chosen by the new legislature, by the Council of Five Hundred and the Council of Ancients; each year one director, chosen ..... Click the link for more information. ; Consulate Consulate, 1799–1804, in French history, form of government established after the coup of 18 Brumaire (Nov. 9–10, 1799), which ended the Directory. Three consuls were appointed to rule France—Napoleon Bonaparte (see Napoleon I), Emmanuel Joseph Sieyès, ..... Click the link for more information. ; Napoleon I Napoleon I , 1769–1821, emperor of the French, b. Ajaccio, Corsica, known as "the Little Corporal." Early Life The son of Carlo and Letizia Bonaparte (or Buonaparte; see under Bonaparte, family), young Napoleon was sent (1779) to French military schools at ..... Click the link for more information. ). The States-General were transformed into the National Assembly (1789); a constitutional monarchy was created (1791); war with much of Europe began, accompanied by violence and the growth of radical factions in France (1792); the king and queen were beheaded (1793); Robespierre Robespierre, Maximilien Marie Isidore , 1758–94, one of the leading figures of the French Revolution. Early Life A poor youth, he was enabled to study law in Paris through a scholarship. ..... Click the link for more information. presided over the Reign of Terror Reign of Terror, 1793–94, period of the French Revolution characterized by a wave of executions of presumed enemies of the state. Directed by the Committee of Public Safety, the Revolutionary government's Terror was essentially a war dictatorship, instituted to rule the ..... Click the link for more information. (1793–94) until his own execution. A reaction ushered in the Directory (1795–99), terminated by Napoleon Bonaparte's coup. Napoleon made himself emperor (1804) and led his armies as far as Moscow. After his defeat at Waterloo (1815) virtually nothing remained for France from the Napoleonic conquests except the basis for a powerful legend. But Napoleonic administration and law (see Code Napoléon Code Napoléon or Code Civil , first modern legal code of France, promulgated by Napoleon I in 1804. The work of J. J. Cambacérès and a commission of four appointed by Napoleon I in 1800 was important in making the final draft. ..... Click the link for more information. ) left a permanent impact on France. From the ancien régime there reemerged the church (1801 Concordat with the Vatican) and an aristocracy less affluent and shorn of its feudal privileges but still influential. Royalism, Reform, and the Birth of Modern France The French Revolution and Napoleon established a uniform, modern administrative system, gave land tenure to the peasants, and left to the bourgeoisie a political heritage that they quickly reclaimed. The Congress of Vienna (1814–15; see Vienna, Congress of Vienna, Congress of, Sept., 1814–June, 1815, one of the most important international conferences in European history, called to remake Europe after the downfall of Napoleon I. ..... Click the link for more information. ) restored the borders of 1790 and recognized Louis XVIII Louis XVIII, 1755–1824, king of France (1814–24), brother of King Louis XVI. Known as the comte de Provence, he fled (1791) to Koblenz from the French Revolution and intrigued to bring about foreign intervention against the revolutionaries. ..... Click the link for more information. as France's legitimate sovereign. The king granted a moderately liberal charter but took France into the reactionary Holy Alliance Holy Alliance, 1815, agreement among the emperors of Russia and Austria and the king of Prussia, signed on Sept. 26. It was quite distinct from the Quadruple Alliance (Quintuple, after the admission of France) of Great Britain, Russia, Austria, and Prussia, arrived at first in ..... Click the link for more information. . His successor, Charles X Charles X, 1757–1836, king of France (1824–30); brother of King Louis XVI and of King Louis XVIII, whom he succeeded. As comte d'Artois he headed the reactionary faction at the court of Louis XVI. ..... Click the link for more information. (1824–30), was the champion of the ultraroyalists. Charles's efforts to restore absolutism led to the July Revolution July Revolution, revolt in France in July, 1830, against the government of King Charles X. The attempt of the ultraroyalists under Charles to return to the ancien régime provoked the opposition of the middle classes, who wanted more voice in the government. ..... Click the link for more information. of 1830, which enthroned Louis Philippe Louis Philippe , 1773–1850, king of the French (1830–48), known before his accession as Louis Philippe, duc d'Orléans. The son of Philippe Égalité (see Orléans, Louis Philippe Joseph, duc d'), he joined the army of the French Revolution, ..... Click the link for more information. . The July Monarchy was a frank plutocracy run by the upper bourgeoisie. Under the "citizen king," France conquered Algeria (1830–38). The regime became increasingly autocratic, disregarding the plight of the new urban proletariat. Brought low by the unpopularity of the ministry of Guizot Guizot, François , 1787–1874, French statesman and historian. The son of a Protestant family of Nîmes, he was educated at Geneva. He began a legal career in Paris in 1805, but soon took up literary work and later became a professor of modern history at the ..... Click the link for more information. and by economic depression (1846–47), it fell in the February Revolution February Revolution, 1848, French revolution that overthrew the monarchy of Louis Philippe and established the Second Republic. General dissatisfaction resulted partly from the king's increasingly reactionary policy, carried out after 1840 by François Guizot, and partly ..... Click the link for more information. of 1848. The revolution was at first distinctly radical, but the bourgeoisie triumphed in the June Days June Days, in French history, name usually given to the insurrection of workers in June, 1848. The working classes had played an important role in the February Revolution of 1848, but their hopes for economic and social reform were disappointed. ..... Click the link for more information. . In Dec., 1848, Louis Napoleon Bonaparte, nephew of Napoleon I, was elected president of the Second Republic. In 1852, by a coup, he extended his term and then proclaimed himself emperor as Napoleon III Napoleon III (Louis Napoleon Bonaparte), 1808–73, emperor of the French (1852–70), son of Louis Bonaparte (see under Bonaparte, family), king of Holland. Early Life ..... Click the link for more information. . He emulated his uncle's autocratic regime at home and carried on a confused foreign policy with unrewarding wars (in Russia, Italy, and Mexico). The Second Empire was, however, a period of colonial expansion (in Senegal and Indochina) and of material prosperity. In 1869, Napoleon instituted a more liberal regime with a parliamentary government. But the empire ended disastrously in the Franco-Prussian War Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, 1870–71, conflict between France and Prussia that signaled the rise of German military power and imperialism. It was provoked by Otto von Bismarck (the Prussian chancellor) as part of his plan to create a unified German ..... Click the link for more information. (1870–71), in which Alsace and Lorraine were lost to Germany until 1918. The Third Republic (1870–1940) was proclaimed after Napoleon III was captured by the Prussians. After the bloody suppression of the Commune of Paris Commune of Paris, insurrectionary governments in Paris formed during (1792) the French Revolution and at the end (1871) of the Franco-Prussian War. In the French Revolution, the Revolutionary commune, representing urban workers, tradespeople, and radical bourgeois, engineered ..... Click the link for more information. (1871) by the right-wing provisional government under Adolphe Thiers Thiers, Adolphe , 1797–1877, French statesman, journalist, and historian. After studying law at Aix-en-Provence, Thiers went (1821) to Paris and joined the group of writers that attacked the reactionary government of King Charles X. ..... Click the link for more information. , Marshal MacMahon MacMahon, Marie Edmé Patrice de , 1808–93, president of the French republic (1873–79), marshal of France. MacMahon, of Irish descent, fought in the Algerian campaign, in the Crimean War, and in the Italian war of 1859. ..... Click the link for more information. , a royalist sympathizer, was elected president (1873). But for the intransigence of Henri, comte de Chambord (the legitimist pretender), France might again have become a monarchy. A republican constitution was finally adopted in 1875. As the various parties combined, separated, and recombined into political blocs, new cabinets followed in quick succession. The 1880s witnessed the expansion of railroads and public education; the latter revived the age-old quarrel in France between church and state. In 1905, after other issues had been added to the dispute, church and state were separated by law. After the rapid rise and fall (1888–89) of General Boulanger Boulanger, Georges Ernest , 1837–91, French general and reactionary politician. He served in North Africa and Indochina, and in the Franco-Prussian War. Later, he was briefly commander of French troops in Tunisia. ..... Click the link for more information. , the stability of France was once more shaken by the Dreyfus Affair Dreyfus Affair , the controversy that occurred with the treason conviction (1894) of Capt. Alfred Dreyfus (1859–1935), a French artillery officer and graduate of the French military academy. ..... Click the link for more information. (begun 1894), which discredited monarchists and reactionaries and brought anticlerical, moderate leftists to power. Socialism, led by Guesde Guesde, Jules , 1845–1922, French socialist, whose original name was Basile. Exiled for his support of the Paris commune, he became a confirmed Marxist after 1876 and, with Paul Lafargue, led in advocating socialism in France and a policy of noncompromise with the existing ..... Click the link for more information. and Jaurès Jaurès, Jean , 1859–1914, French Socialist leader and historian. A brilliant student and teacher, he entered the chamber of deputies in 1885 and subsequently became a Socialist. ..... Click the link for more information. , was now a major political force but was weakened by internal dissensions. In foreign policy the years before 1914 were marked by continued colonial expansion in Africa (Morocco, Tunisia, West Africa, Madagascar) and Indochina, bringing conflict with Great Britain (see Fashoda Incident Fashoda Incident , 1898, diplomatic dispute between France and Great Britain. Toward the end of the 19th cent., while Britain was seeking to establish a continuous strip of territory from Cape Town to Cairo, France desired to establish an overland route from the Red Sea to the ..... Click the link for more information. ) and with Germany (see Morocco Morocco , officially Kingdom of Morocco, kingdom (2005 est. pop. 32,726,000), 171,834 sq mi (445,050 sq km), NW Africa. Morocco is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea (N), the Atlantic Ocean (W), Western Sahara (S), and Algeria (S and E). ..... Click the link for more information. ). Eventually, France, England, and Russia allied themselves to balance the German-Austrian-Italian combination (see Triple Alliance and Triple Entente Triple Alliance and Triple Entente , two international combinations of states that dominated the diplomatic history of Western Europe from 1882 until they came into armed conflict in World War I. ..... Click the link for more information. ). The World Wars In World War I, France bore the brunt of the ground fighting in the west. Clemenceau Clemenceau, Georges , 1841–1929, French political figure, twice premier (1906–9, 1917–20), called "the Tiger." He was trained as a doctor, but his republicanism brought him into conflict with the government of Napoleon III, and he went to the United States, ..... Click the link for more information. was France's outstanding leader. At the Paris Peace Conference (see Versailles, Treaty of Versailles, Treaty of, any of several treaties signed in the palace of Versailles, France. For the Treaty of Versailles of 1783, which ended the American Revolution, see Paris, Treaty of, 1783. ..... Click the link for more information. ) France obtained heavy German reparations and the right to occupy the left bank of the Rhine for 15 years. When reparations payments were defaulted, France occupied the Ruhr Ruhr , region, c.1,300 sq mi (3,370 sq km), W Germany; a principal manufacturing center of Germany and formerly known as one of the world's greatest industrial complexes. In the 1980s the coal and steel industries declined, leading to serious unemployment. ..... Click the link for more information. (1923–25). Outstanding among French political figures of the 1920s were Poincaré Poincaré, Raymond , 1860–1934, French statesman, president of France (1913–20); cousin of Jules Henri Poincaré. A member of the chamber of deputies from 1887, he held numerous cabinet posts from 1893 to 1906. ..... Click the link for more information. , Herriot Herriot, Édouard , 1872–1957, French statesman and man of letters. After beginning an academic career he turned to politics. A moderate leftist, anticlerical, and antimilitarist, he rose to leadership of the Radical Socialist (Radical) party, a dominant party in ..... Click the link for more information. , and Briand Briand, Aristide , 1862–1932, French statesman. A lawyer and a Socialist, he entered (1902) the chamber of deputies and helped to draft and pass the law (1905) for separation of church and state. ..... Click the link for more information. . By the middle of the decade relations with Germany had improved (see Locarno Pact Locarno Pact, 1925, concluded at a conference held at Locarno, Switzerland, by representatives of Great Britain, France, Germany, Italy, Belgium, Czechoslovakia, and Poland. ..... Click the link for more information. ). The depression of the 1930s was aggravated by the immobile economic policies of the government, and political complacency was rocked by the Stavisky Affair Stavisky Affair , financial and political scandal that shook France in 1934. Serge Alexandre Stavisky, a swindler associated with the municipal pawnshop of Bayonne, sold huge quantities of worthless bonds. ..... Click the link for more information. (1934). The Popular Front, a coalition led by Léon Blum Blum, Léon , 1872–1950, French Socialist leader and writer. Well established in literary circles, he entered politics during the Dreyfus Affair and rose to party leadership. ..... Click the link for more information. , of Socialists, Radical Socialists, and Communists, won the elections of 1936; Popular Front governments (1936–38) enacted important social and labor reforms before being overturned by conservative opposition. After Blum's fall, Édouard Daladier Daladier, Édouard , 1884–1970, French politician, a Radical Socialist. After World War I he was a member of successive French cabinets. He was premier from Jan. to Oct., 1933, and again from Jan. to Feb. ..... Click the link for more information. assented to the appeasement policy toward Nazi Germany, Fascist Italy, and Spain favored by Britain and made France a party to the Munich Pact Munich Pact, 1938. In the summer of 1938, Chancellor Hitler of Germany began openly to support the demands of Germans living in the Sudetenland (see Sudetes) of Czechoslovakia for an improved status. In September, Hitler demanded self-determination for the Sudetenland. ..... Click the link for more information. (1938). After the outbreak (1939) of World War II he was replaced by Paul Reynaud Reynaud, Paul , 1878–1966, French statesman and lawyer. He held several cabinet posts, and after Nov., 1938, as minister of finance in the cabinet of Édouard Daladier, he pursued an extremely deflationary policy. ..... Click the link for more information. . In May–June, 1940, France was ignominiously defeated by Germany. Marshal Pétain Pétain, Henri Philippe , 1856–1951, French army officer, head of state of the Vichy government (see under Vichy). In World War I he halted the Germans at Verdun (1916), thus becoming the most beloved French military hero of that conflict. ..... Click the link for more information. became head of the Vichy government (see under Vichy Vichy , city (1990 pop. 28,048), Allier dept., central France, on the Allier River. Vichy's hot mineral springs made it one of the foremost spas in Europe, with a casino (now a convention center) and grand hotels. ..... Click the link for more information. ) of unoccupied France (other Vichy leaders were Laval Laval, Pierre , 1883–1945, French politician. Elected (1914) to the chamber of deputies as a Socialist, he held various cabinet posts and in 1926 became a senator as an Independent, moving away from his leftist affiliations. ..... Click the link for more information. and Darlan Darlan, Jean François , 1881–1942, French admiral. A career naval officer, he became commander of the French navy in 1939 and joined the Vichy government (see under Vichy) in 1940 as minister of the navy. After the fall of Pierre Laval, Darlan was made (Feb. ..... Click the link for more information. ), which became a German tool, while Gen. Charles de Gaulle proclaimed, from London, the continued resistance of the "Free French." The Allied invasion (Nov., 1942) of North Africa resulted (1943) in the establishment of a provisional Free French government at Algiers and in the complete German occupation of metropolitan France. De Gaulle's government moved to Paris after the city was liberated (Aug., 1944). By the end of 1944 the Allies, with heroic aid from the French resistance, had expelled the Germans from France. German occupation had been costly and oppressive. Thousands had been executed and hundreds of thousands made slave laborers in Germany. The liberation campaign itself caused much destruction. Although reduced in power and prestige, France became one of the five great powers in the United Nations and shared in the occupation of Germany. De Gaulle became provisional president. The Fourth Republic and Postwar France The Fourth Republic was officially proclaimed in 1946; the new constitution reorganized the empire as the French Union French Union, 1946–58, political entity established by the French constitution of 1946. It comprised metropolitan France (the 90 departments of continental France and Corsica); French overseas departments, territories, settlements, and United Nations trusteeships; French ..... Click the link for more information. and was otherwise quite similar to that of the Third Republic. In the immediate postwar years the Communists, notably Maurice Thorez Thorez, Maurice , 1900–1964, French Communist leader. The son of a coal miner, Thorez himself worked in the mines. He early joined the Socialist party and in 1920 became one of the original members of the French Communist party. ..... Click the link for more information. , a major figure in the PCF and a fixture in government throughout the Fourth Republic and into the Fifth, the moderate Mouvement Républicain Populaire, founded by Georges Bidault Bidault, Georges , 1899–1983, French political leader. An influential columnist (1932–39), he was imprisoned (1940–41) in World War II and then joined the French underground, becoming its leader. ..... Click the link for more information. , and the Socialists were the strongest of the many political parties; the pattern of short-lived coalitions reappeared. Banks and major industries were nationalized. American aid (see Marshall Plan Marshall Plan or European Recovery Program, project instituted at the Paris Economic Conference (July, 1947) to foster economic recovery in certain European countries after World War II. The Marshall Plan took form when U.S. Secretary of State George C. ..... Click the link for more information. ) helped rebuild the shattered economy. To further economic recovery and begin the political integration of Europe, France participated in creating the institutions of what has become the European Union European Union (EU), name given since the ratification (Nov., 1993) of the Treaty of European Union, or Maastricht Treaty, to the European Community (EC), an economic and political confederation of European nations, and other organizations (with the same member nations) ..... Click the link for more information. , most notably the European Economic Community (Common Market). French military resources were committed to the West by joining the North Atlantic Treaty Organization North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO), established under the North Atlantic Treaty (Apr. 4, 1949) by Belgium, Canada, Denmark, France, Great Britain, Iceland, Italy, Luxembourg, the Netherlands, Norway, Portugal, and the United States. ..... Click the link for more information. (NATO). France sent thousands of soldiers to Indochina Indochina, Fr. Indochine, former federation of states, SE Asia. It comprised the French colony of Cochin China and the French protectorates of Tonkin, Annam, Laos, and Cambodia (Cochin China, Tonkin, and Annam were later united to form Vietnam). The capital was Hanoi. ..... Click the link for more information. in an attempt to defeat the nationalist-Communist movement led by the Vietnamese Ho Chi Minh Ho Chi Minh , 1890–1969, Vietnamese nationalist leader, president of North Vietnam (1954–69), and one of the most influential political leaders of the 20th cent. His given name was Nguyen That Thanh. In 1911 he left Vietnam, working aboard a French liner. ..... Click the link for more information. . The effort collapsed with the French defeat at Dienbienphu Dienbienphu or Dien Bien Phu , former French military base, N Vietnam, near the Laos border. It was the scene in 1954 of the last great battle between the French and the Viet Minh forces of Ho Chi Minh in Indochina. The French occupied the base by parachute drop in Nov. ..... Click the link for more information. (May, 1954). Pierre Mendès-France Mendès-France, Pierre , 1907–82, French statesman. A lawyer and economist, he entered (1932) the chamber of deputies as a Radical Socialist. In World War II he was a pilot in the Free French forces. ..... Click the link for more information. came to power, determined to end French involvement. French withdrawal from Indochina was agreed upon at the Geneva Conference. Subsequently Morocco and Tunisia also achieved independence. But the war for independence in Algeria Algeria , Arab. Al Djazair, Fr. Algérie, officially People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, republic (2005 est. pop. 32,532,000), 919,590 sq mi (2,381,741 sq km), NW Africa, bordering on Mauritania, Western Sahara, and Morocco in the west, on the ..... Click the link for more information. destroyed the Fourth Republic. When a right-wing French military coup in Algeria (1958) threatened to spread to metropolitan France, de Gaulle was invited back to power. Gaullist France De Gaulle established the Fifth Republic and became its first president in Dec., 1958. The French Union was transformed into the French Community French Community, established in 1958 by the constitution of the Fifth French Republic to replace the French Union. Its members consisted of the French Republic, which included metropolitan France (continental France, Corsica, Algeria and the Sahara), the overseas territories ..... Click the link for more information. , and most of France's African holdings became independent by 1960. Algerian independence was negotiated despite a terrorist campaign by the Secret Army Organization (OAS) of extremist French soldiers. De Gaulle aimed at restoring France's prestige in world affairs. France became a nuclear power (1960). France blocked Britain's entrance into the European Economic Community and for a time (1965) boycotted the Market's meetings. Diplomatic recognition was extended (1964) to Communist China. In 1966, de Gaulle withdrew French forces from the integrated command of NATO and forced all U.S. and NATO forces to leave France, although he proclaimed adherence in the event of an "unprovoked attack." In the spring of 1968 widespread student demonstrations against France's obsolete educational system were joined by striking workers and farmers. De Gaulle dissolved the national assembly and, blaming the Communists for the disorders, won a great electoral victory (June, 1968). The Gaullist party won the first absolute majority in the assembly in French history. But de Gaulle resigned in Apr., 1969, after his proposals for regional reorganization and for revision of the senate were defeated in a referendum. The Contemporary Era Georges Pompidou Pompidou, Georges Jean Raymond , 1911–74. French political leader, president of France (1969–74). Georges Pompidou taught school and then served in World War II until the fall (1940) of France, when he returned to teaching. ..... Click the link for more information. , a Gaullist, was elected president in June, 1969. He preserved de Gaulle's independent foreign policy but made innovations domestically, especially in devaluing the franc. In 1971, he reversed French policy and declared support for Britain's entrance into the European Community. Pompidou died suddenly in 1974 and was succeeded as president by Valéry Giscard d'Estaing Giscard d'Estaing, Valéry , 1926–, French political leader, president of France (1974–81); b. Germany. A member of the national assembly at the age of 29, he was deputy finance minister (1959–62) and finance minister (1962–66) in Charles de ..... Click the link for more information. , his finance minister, who defeated Socialist leader François Mitterrand Mitterrand, François Maurice , 1916–96, French political leader, president of France, 1981–95. Initially a supporter of Pétain's Vichy government during World War II, he joined the Resistance in 1943. ..... Click the link for more information. in a close presidential runoff election. Discontent with inflation and unemployment, dissension within the right wing between Giscard and RPR leader Jacques Chirac Chirac, Jacques René , 1932–, French political leader, president of France (1995–2007), b. Paris. He attended the National School of Administration, joined the civil service, and began his political career in 1961 working for Premier Georges Pompidou. ..... Click the link for more information. , and austerity measures imposed by Giscard combined to aid the Socialist party, and Mitterrand won the 1981 presidential election. Mitterrand quickly dissolved the national assembly, and it became predominantly Socialist after new elections. To placate the Communist party, with which the Socialists had been allied since 1977, four Communist ministers were added to the cabinet. Many large industries (steel, nuclear energy, armaments), private banks, and insurance companies were nationalized, and minimum wage and social security benefits were increased. However, by 1982 the economic situation had worsened, in part because of decreased exports and pressure on the franc; the government devalued the franc, imposed a wage and price freeze, and granted tax concessions to business. In 1984 Mitterrand re-formed the government, excluding the Communists. In 1986 a right-wing coalition won a majority in Parliament, and Jacques Chirac was appointed prime minister. He began a policy of privatizing state-owned companies. In the 1988 presidential election a right-wing candidate, Jean-Marie Le Pen Le Pen, Jean-Marie , 1928–, French politician. He graduated from law school, was elected (1956) a parliamentary deputy, and criticized President de Gaulle's Algerian policy. From 1972 to 2011 he led the extreme right-wing National Front (FN). ..... Click the link for more information. , ran on an extreme anti-immigration platform and won a significant portion of first-round votes. Mitterrand, however, was reelected in the second round, defeating Chirac. In 1991 France agreed to sign the 1968 Nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty. Mitterrand turned increasingly to foreign affairs and pursued a more moderate economic program. Nonetheless, in the 1993 elections, with the Socialists devastated by rising unemployment and corruption scandals, conservative parties captured nearly 85% of the seats in the national assembly, and Édouard Balladur Balladur, Édouard , 1929–, French political leader, b. Turkey. He moved to France as a child and grew up in Marseille. A Gaullist and member of the Rally for the Republic, he served under Premier Georges Pompidou in the 1960s and was finance minister under ..... Click the link for more information. , a Gaullist, became premier. The new government slashed interest rates and followed other policies aimed at stemming France's continuing recession. In 1995, Chirac was elected president, defeating Balladur and a Socialist candidate; he appointed Alain Juppé Juppé, Alain , 1945–, French politician, b. Les Landes. A member of the Gaullist Rally for the Republic (RPR), he entered the Inspection des Finances in 1972. ..... Click the link for more information. as prime minister. France was beset by a host of problems in 1995, including severe floods and terror bombings; the government faced international criticism for its nuclear testing in the South Pacific, which it resumed after a three-year moratorium; and the country was paralyzed late in the year by a long transportation workers strike. The strike action was one of many that followed the announcement by Premier Juppé of a comprehensive plan to overhaul the massive social security system and to raise taxes—actions aimed at helping to reduce the budget deficit and enable France to qualify for European monetary union, which was achieved in 1999 (see European Monetary System European Monetary System, arrangement by which most nations of the European Union (EU) linked their currencies to prevent large fluctuations relative to one another. It was organized in 1979 to stabilize foreign exchange and counter inflation among members. ..... Click the link for more information. ). Chirac ended nuclear testing in 1996 and announced plans for scaling back French military deployment and phasing in an all-volunteer force. Following parliamentary elections in 1997, Socialist Lionel Jospin Jospin, Lionel Robert , 1937–, French politician, premier of France (1997–2002). He studied at the elite École Nationale d'Administration (1961–65) and worked (1965–70) in the foreign ministry. ..... Click the link for more information. became prime minister. In late 2000, Chirac was accused of involvement in a 1980s kickback scheme that provided funds for political parties when he was mayor of Paris, but he denied any knowledge of the scheme. The charges created political difficulties for Chirac but did not greatly affect his popularity. The Socialist parliament in 2001 approved a bill giving Corsica limited autonomy. The move was originally intended to end separatist violence there, but the year actually saw an increase in attacks, and the law was subsequently ruled in large part to be unconstitutional. In the 2002 presidential and parliamentary elections Chirac won a resounding victory. Jospin, who ran against Chirac for the presidency, failed to make it into the runoff, where Chirac's opponent was the right-wing nationalist Jean-Marie Le Pen. Jospin resigned as premier, and Chirac went on the win the presidency. The Socialists suffered a further setback in the national assembly elections, when the center-right alliance, the Union for the Presidential Majority (UMP; subsequently the Union for a Popular Movement), won three fifths of the seats. Jean-Pierre Raffarin Raffarin, Jean-Pierre , 1948–, French politician. From a political family, he began his career in business and served as a spokesman for a labor minister in the late 1970s before returning to the private sector. ..... Click the link for more information. was appointed premier by Chirac. In 2002–3, as the Bush administration pushed for the abandonment of UN weapons inspections in Iraq and for the UN approval of the use of force to oust Iraqi president Saddam Hussein and disarm Iraq, President Chirac became one of the strongest international opponents of war. France threatened to veto any resolution that explicitly authorized the use of force, which led to acrimonious relations with the United States and Great Britain. France's strong stand, which was also supported by Germany, also led to divisions in the European Union and NATO, whose member governments disagreed on whether to use force against Iraq. A referendum in July, 2003, calling for approval of a new Corsican assembly with limited autonomy (made possible by amendments to the constitution) failed to pass; the government had supported the measure in hopes of undercutting Corsican separatists. The following month an estimated 11,000 people, largely elderly, died as a result of a persistent heatwave in which temperatures in parts of the country rose to above 104&degF; (40&degC;). Local and regional elections in Mar., 2004, resulted in a clear victory for the Socialists. The vote was seen as rejection of the government's moves to make changes in the French social welfare system, with its generous welfare, health-care, and pension benefits. The government subsequently also suffered losses in the September elections for the senate. In May, 2005, voters rejected the proposed new constitution for the European Union, resulting in a further embarrassment for the government, and Premier Raffarin resigned. Dominique de Villepin Villepin, Dominique de (Dominique Marie François René Galouzeau de Villepin) , 1953–, French diplomat and government official, b. Rabat, Morocco. Of aristocratic descent, he graduated (1980) from the prestigious École nationale d'administration and ..... Click the link for more information. , who had been interior minister, succeeded Raffarin as premier. In Oct., 2005, following strident comments by Interior Minister Sarkozy Sarkozy, Nicolas (Nicolas Paul Stéphane Sarkozy de Nagy-Bocsa) , 1955–, French politician, president of France (2007–12), b. Paris. The son of a minor Hungarian aristocrat who immigrated to France and married the daughter of Greek immigrants, Sarkozy became a ..... Click the link for more information. on urban violence linked to immigrants, and the accidental deaths of two black youths who were trying to hide from the police, nighttime riots by persons of African and Arab descent occurred in suburbs of Paris, spread to other Parisian suburbs, and in November spread to many other places in France. The government declared a state of emergency, which lasted for the rest of 2005, but provocative comments by some officials continued to feed immigrant resentment. The riots, which highlighted the alienation and poverty of the French of non-European descent, did not end until after mid-November. A new national crisis arose in early 2006 when Villepin pushed through changes to French labor law that would make it easier to fire workers under age 26 during their first two years with a company. A series of demonstrations and strikes against the law occurred in Mar.–Apr., 2006. Although the law was enacted, in a setback for Villepin, he subsequently announced that it would be replaced by new legislation designed to reduce youth unemployment. Charges that Villepin had targeted (2004) Sarkozy for investigation by the secret service in an attempt to smear his party rival brought calls for Villepin to resign, but Chirac continued to support the premier. (Villepin was acquitted of the charges in 2010.) Sarkozy secured the UMP nomination for president in Jan., 2007, while the Socialists had earlier nominated Ségolène Royal Royal, Ségolène (Marie-Ségolène Royal) , 1953–, French politician, b. Dakar, Senegal. A graduate of the École Nationale d'Administration (1980) who worked as a special assistant (1982–88) to President François Mitterrand, she ..... Click the link for more information. , the first woman to be a major party candidate for the office. Sarkozy led the crowded field after the first round in Apr., 2007, and soundly defeated Royal in the runoff in May. After taking office, Sarkozy appointed François Fillon Fillon, François , 1954–, French political leader, b. Le Mans. A moderate conservaetive, he has served as an assembly deputy (1981–2002, 2007–) and a senator (2004–7) from Sarthe as well as in local elected posts. ..... Click the link for more information. , a former education and labor minister, as premier. The UMP was expected to gain seats in the subsequent June parliamentary elections, but the party actually lost seats. It nonetheless retained a solid majority in the National Assembly. Proposed pension benefit changes and civil service job cuts led to a nine-day transport workers strike and shorter walkouts by other workers in Nov., 2007. Disenchantment with the economy and with Sarkozy's personal style and his very public divorce and remarriage since becoming president contributed to Socialist gains in the Mar., 2008, local elections. Sarkozy won parliamentary approval in July, 2008, for constitutional amendments that limiting a person to two terms as president and increasing some of parliament's powers. In 2009, France decided to return its forces (except its nuclear forces) to NATO's military command. Though France weathered the 2008–9 global recession better than most European nations, the weak French economy and increasing unemployment contributed to a significant Socialist-led coalition win in regional elections in Mar., 2010. In October the government secured legislation changing the pension system (including raising the retirement age, a measure that was partially reversed in 2012) in order to reduce public deficits and debt; the changes sparked months of protests that culminated in October with a series of crippling strikes and protests. The recession at times strained relations with Germany when the two leading eurozone nations disagreed over how to respond to its effects (both initially and in the early 2010s when soaring budget deficits affected Greece and some other eurozone nations), but Sarkozy generally supported the reliance on government austerities as a response to the eurozone fiscal crisis. The Socialists and their allies did well again in the Mar., 2011, local elections, largely repeating their 2010 success, and in September they won control of the French Senate for the first time since the Fifth Republic was established. The 2012 presidential elections resulted in a victory for the Socialists as François Hollande Hollande, François Gérard Georges, 1954–, French lawyer and politician, president of France (2012–), b. Rouen. He attended the elite National School of Administration (ENA) and Paris Institute of Political Studies (Sciences Po). ..... Click the link for more information. defeated Sarkozy after a runoff (May); Hollande named Socialist Jean-Marc Ayrault Ayrault, Jean-Marc , 1950–, French politician. The son of a textile worker, he graduated (1971) from Nantes Univ. Obtaining (1972) his teaching diploma, from 1973 to 1986 he taught German at Saint-Herblain in W France, and also served as the town's mayor from 1977 to 1989. ..... Click the link for more information. premier. In the June legislative elections, the Socialists and their allies won a majority of the seats in the National Assembly. In mid-2013 the new government enacted a number of labor reforms; a modest overhaul of the pension system's funding was passed in late 2013. A poor showing by the Socialists in the Mar., 2014, local elections led to Ayrault's resignation, and Hollande named Interior Minister Manuel Valls to succeed him. The Socialists also fared poorly in the Mar., 2015, local elections. A Jan., 2015, an deadly attack in Paris, on a satirical magazine notorious for its cartoons of the Prophet Muhammad and on a kosher grocery store, was claimed by Al Qaeda Al Qaeda or Al Qaida [Arab.,=the base], Sunni Islamic terrorist organization with the stated goals of uniting all Muslims and establishing a transnational, strict-fundamentalist Islamic state. ..... Click the link for more information. . A coordinated series of bombings and attacks in Paris on November 13, by terrorists associated with the Islamic State Islamic State (IS), Sunni Islamic militant group committed to the establishment of an Islamic caliphate that would unite Muslims in a transnational, strict-fundamentalist Islamic state. ..... Click the link for more information. , killed 130 persons and injured several hundred. A state of emergency was declared while security forces sought those terrorists who had escaped and also raided sites associated with the perpetrators and planners. In the first round of the subsequent regional elections (Dec., 2015), the National Front made record gains, but the party placed third after the final round of voting, which was won by the Republicans (the renamed UMP). July, 2016, saw another attack in which dozens were killed and hundreds injured, as a Tunisian man drove a truck through a Bastille Day crowd in Nice. Bibliography A classic geographic study is J. Brunhes, Géographie humaine de la France (2 vol., 1920–26), and E. E. Evans, France (1966), is also useful. J. Michelet Michelet, Jules , 1798–1874, French writer, the greatest historian of the romantic school. Born in Paris of poor parents, he visualized himself throughout his life as a champion of the people. ..... Click the link for more information. is still regarded by many as the greatest of French historians. Among more recent general histories of France, those edited by E. Lavisse Lavisse, Ernest , 1842–1922, French historian. He was for many years a professor at the Sorbonne. His early works deal chiefly with the history of Prussia, particularly Frederick the Great. ..... Click the link for more information. and by G. Hanotaux Hanotaux, Gabriel , 1853–1944, French historian and statesman. Twice minister of foreign affairs (1894–95, 1895–98), he greatly furthered the Franco-Russian rapprochement. ..... Click the link for more information. are outstanding. A monumental multivolume work is F. Funck-Brentano, ed., National History of France (tr., 10 vol., 1916–36). The many authors of classic historical works on France include, for the medieval period, M. L. Bloch Bloch, Marc , 1886–1944, French historian and an authority on medieval feudalism. He taught at the Univ. of Strasbourg from 1919, became professor at the Sorbonne in 1936, and was cofounder of the journal Annales. ..... Click the link for more information. , C. V. Langlois, F. Lot, A. Luchaire Luchaire, Achille , 1846–1908, French historian. He edited, in collaboration with Berthold Zeller, L'Histoire de France racontée par les contemporains (65 vol., 1880–90), a collection of excerpts from original sources. ..... Click the link for more information. , and Fustel de Coulanges Fustel de Coulanges, Numa Denis , 1830–89, French historian. His masterly study, La Cité antique (1864, tr. The Ancient City, 1874), stressed the influence of primitive religion on the development of Greek and Roman institutions. ..... Click the link for more information. ; for the 17th cent., Voltaire Voltaire, François Marie Arouet de , 1694–1778, French philosopher and author, whose original name was Arouet. One of the towering geniuses in literary and intellectual history, Voltaire personifies the Enlightenment. ..... Click the link for more information. ; for the French Revolution and Napoleon I, H. Taine Taine, Hippolyte Adolphe , 1828–93, French critic and historian. A brilliant student, he gained recognition with the publication of his doctoral thesis, Essai sur les fables de La Fontaine (1853). ..... Click the link for more information. , A. Aulard Aulard, Alphonse , 1849–1928, French historian. He was the first professional historian of the French Revolution, and he devoted his life to this study. A professor at the Univ. ..... Click the link for more information. , G. Lefebvre Lefebvre, Georges , 1874–1959, French historian, an authority on the French Revolutionary period. From 1937 to 1945 he held the chair of French Revolutionary history at the Sorbonne, and he founded the Institut d'histoire de la Révolution française. ..... Click the link for more information. , A. Mathiez Mathiez, Albert , 1874–1932, French historian, an authority on the French Revolution. He studied under Aulard, whose scientific method he adopted, although it led him to different conclusions. ..... Click the link for more information. , and F. Masson Masson, Frédéric, 1847–1923, French historian, an authority on Napoleon I and his family. His work is uncritically laudatory with regard to Napoleon himself; his admiration, however, did not deter his severe indictment of Napoleon's relatives in ..... Click the link for more information. ; for the history of the working class and of commerce, É. Levasseur Levasseur, Émile (Pierre Émile Levasseur) , 1828–1911, French economist. He was noted especially for his historical approach to the study of economics. ..... Click the link for more information. ; for cultural history, A. Rambaud Rambaud, Alfred Nicolas , 1842–1905, French historian and politician. He served in the administration of Jules Ferry, was elected senator (1895), and was minister of public instruction (1896–98). Rambaud taught at the universities of Caen, Nancy, and Paris. ..... Click the link for more information. . See also A. Cobban, A History of Modern France (3 vol., 3d ed. 1966–67); D. M. Pickles, The Fifth French Republic (3d ed. 1966) and France (2d ed. 1971); J. M. Hughes, To the Maginot Line (1971); M. Marrus and R. Paxton, Vichy France and the Jews (1981); H. R. Kedward and R. Austin, ed., Vichy France and the Resistance: Ideology and Culture (1985); P. Pinchemel, France: A Geographical, Social, and Economic Survey (1987); M. Larkin, France since the Popular Front (1988); W. J. Adams, Restructuring the French Economy (1989); P. Benedict, ed., Cities and Social Change in Early Modern France (1989); C. Flockton and E. Kofman, France (1989); R. Aldrich and J. Connell, ed., France in World Politics (1989); E. Weber, The Hollow Years: France in the 1930s (1996); F. Giles, The Locust Years: The Story of the French Republic, 1946–1958 (1996); P. Burrin, France under the Germans (1997); D. Roche, France in the Enlightenment (1999); J. Jackson, France: The Dark Years, 1940–1944 (2001); J. P. Bury, France, 1814–1940 (6th ed. 2003); J. Jackson, The Fall of France (2003); C. Jones, The Great Nation (2003); G. Robb, The Discovery of France: A Historical Geography from the Revolution to the First World War (2007); W. Beik, A Social and Cultural History of Early Modern France (2009); E. Berenson et al., ed., The French Republic (2011); F. Brown, For the Soul of France: Culture Wars in the Age of Dreyfus (2009) and The Embrace of Unreason: France, 1914–1940 (2014). France Sadoul, G. Vseobshchaia istoriia kino, vols. 1, 3, 6. Moscow, 1958–63. (Translated from French.) Clair, R. Razmyshleniia o kinoiskusstve. Moscow, 1958. (Translated from French.) Leprohon, P. Sovremennye frantsuzskie kinorezhissery. Moscow, 1960. (Translated from French.) Frantsuzskoe kinoiskusstvo: Sb. statei. Moscow, 1960. Daquin, L. Kino—nasha professiia. Moscow, 1963. (Translated from French.) Iutkevich, S. Frantsiia—kadr za kadrom. Moscow, 1970. Bazin, A. Chto takoe kino? Moscow, 1972. (Translated from French.) France Official name: French Republic Capital city: Paris Internet country code: .fr (territories’ codes are French Guinea .gf, Guadeloupe .gp, Martinique .mq, and Reunion .re) Flag description: three equal vertical bands of blue (hoist side), white, and red; known as the “Le drapeau tricolore” (French Tricolor), the origin of the flag dates to 1790 and the French Revolution; the official flag for all French dependent areas National anthem: “La Marseillaise” by Rouget de Lisle National emblem: Gallic rooster National motto: “Liberté, Egalité, Fraternité” (Liberty, Equality, Fraternity) Geographical description: The continental territory is considered “metropolitan France” and is located in western Europe, bordering the Bay of Biscay and English Channel, between Belgium and Spain, southeast of the United Kingdom; bordering the Mediterranean Sea, between Italy and Spain. Locations of French territories are as follows: French Guiana: Northern South America, bordering the North Atlantic Ocean, between Brazil and Suriname Guadeloupe: Caribbean, islands between the Caribbean Sea and the North Atlantic Ocean, southeast of Puerto Rico Martinique: Caribbean, island between the Caribbean Sea and North Atlantic Ocean, north of Trinidad and Tobago Reunion: Southern Africa, island in the Indian Ocean, east of Madagascar Total area: 212,741 sq. mi. (551,000 sq. km.) Climate: metropolitan France: generally cool winters and mild summers, but mild winters and hot summers along the Mediterranean; occasional strong, cold, dry, north-tonorthwesterly wind known as mistral French Guiana: tropical; hot, humid; little seasonal temperature variation Guadeloupe and Martinique: subtropical tempered by trade winds; moderately high humidity; rainy season (June to October); vulnerable to devastating cyclones (hurricanes) every eight years on average Reunion: tropical, but temperature moderates with elevation; cool and dry (May to November), hot and rainy (November to April) Nationality: noun: Frenchman(men), Frenchwoman(women); adjective: French Population: Total including territories: 63,718,187; metropolitan France only: 60,876,136 (July 2007 CIA est.) Ethnic groups: Metropolitan France: Celtic and Latin with Teutonic, Slavic, African, Indochinese, and Basque minorities Territories: African, European, mixed African and European, East Indian, Chinese, Amerindian Languages spoken: French 100% (declining dialects and languages in metropolitan France include Provencal, Breton, Alsatian, Corsican, Catalan, Basque, Flemish; French and various Creole patois spoken in territories) Religions: metropolitan France: Roman Catholic 83-88%, Muslim 5-10%, Protestant 2%, Jewish 1%, unaffiliated 4%; territories: Roman Catholic, Protestant, Hindu, Muslim, Buddhist, and others Legal Holidays:	i don't know
Holding the position from 1979 to 1983, who was the first Chancellor Of The Exchequer Under Margaret Thatcher ?	History of Baroness Margaret Thatcher - GOV.UK GOV.UK Baroness Margaret Thatcher Conservative 1979 to 1990 Born 13 October 1925, Grantham, Lincolnshire Died Conservative Major acts Housing Act 1980: gave security of tenure, and the right to buy homes, to tenants of local authorities and other bodies. Baroness Margaret Thatcher, the 'Iron Lady', was the first female British Prime Minister and the longest serving PM for over 150 years. Margaret Thatcher’s father, a shopkeeper and Mayor of Grantham, was a major influence in her childhood. She was educated at the local grammar school and studied Chemistry at Oxford University, where she became president of the university Conservative association. Thatcher read for the Bar before being elected as the Conservative MP for Finchley in 1959. She held junior posts before becoming Shadow Spokesperson for Education, and entered the Cabinet as Education Secretary in 1970. In Opposition she stood against Edward Heath for the party leadership in 1975 and won. Her victory was considered a surprise by many. In 1979, the Conservative Party won the General Election and Thatcher became PM, taking over from James Callaghan. Her first 2 years in office were not easy - unemployment was very high, but the economy gradually showed improvement. She brought more of her supporters into the Cabinet, and added to her reputation by leading the country to war against Argentina in the Falkland Islands. The Conservatives went on to win the 1983 election by an overwhelming majority, helped by a divided opposition. Her government followed a radical programme of privatisation and deregulation, reform of the trade unions, tax cuts and the introduction of market mechanisms into health and education. The aim was to reduce the role of government and increase individual self-reliance. She also became a familiar figure internationally, creating a famous friendship with US President Reagan and gaining the praise of Soviet leader Gorbachev. One great difficulty during her time in office was the issue of Europe. Her long-serving Foreign Secretary, Sir Geoffrey Howe resigned in November 1990 in protest at her attitude to Europe. His resignation speech brought about events which were to lead to her exit from 10 Downing Street later that month. Michael Heseltine challenged her for the leadership, and while he failed to win, he gained 152 votes – enough to make it evident that a crucial minority favoured a change. Thatcher was eventually persuaded not to go forward to the second ballot, which was won by her Chancellor of the Exchequer, John Major . She left the House of Commons in 1992, and was appointed a life peerage in the House of Lords in the same year, receiving the title of Baroness Thatcher of Kesteven. In 1995 she was appointed as Lady Companion of the Order of the Garter, the highest order of Chivalry in the UK. Her writings include 2 volumes of memoirs: The Downing Street Years and The Path to Power. Thatcher died on 8 April 2013 at The Ritz Hotel in London, after suffering a stroke. She received a ceremonial funeral including full military honours, with a church service at St Paul’s Cathedral. More from the GOV.UK History of Government blog	Geoffrey Howe
Holding the position from 1993 to 1997, who was the last Chancellor Of The Exchequer Under Margaret Thatcher ?	John Harris talks to past chancellors of the exchequer about their time in office \| Politics \| The Guardian Share on Messenger Close Times may be grim and getting grimmer, but things could be worse. We could, for example, be living in the mid-to-late 1970s, when Woolworths managed to remain in business but the world was reeling from quadrupling oil prices, the lights regularly went out, and around the corner were mass unemployment and social breakdown. Denis Healey, defence secretary in the Labour government of the 60s, became chancellor of the exchequer in March 1974, serving for five years under two prime ministers, Harold Wilson and James Callaghan. His Tory predecessor had been the late and long-forgotten Anthony Barber, the humble servant of Edward Heath, whose most notable contribution to history was the Barber Boom, a mess of - and some of this may sound familiar - inflation, ramped-up government borrowing and a banking crisis. To make life even more painful, the Labour party was starting to tear itself apart, and Healey was bedevilled by out-of-control trade unions. When I meet Healey, now 91, at his Sussex home and reel off all these problems, he casts his mind back and cracks a smile worthy of the gallows. "To put it in a polite way," he says, "it was a fucking disaster." Aside from a brief upswing in 1978, his time at the Treasury was one long firefight. The insanity of it all is captured by an occasion in 1976 when Healey was en route to Heathrow, to fly to Hong Kong for a meeting of Commonwealth finance ministers. That day, the pound was falling fast and, rather than be out of contact for 17 hours, he had his ministerial car turned round and went back to work. He awoke the next morning to hear that the British workforce of Ford had gone on strike, and - to quote from his memoirs - "for the first and last time in my life, for about 12 hours, I was close to demoralisation." I suggest that he must have lost a lot of sleep. "Yes, I did. Not only that, but I went to bed, as I always wrote in my diary, dog tired." You also think the job made you ill. "Yes," he says. "I got shingles." And that being chancellor made you deaf. "Yes. A little bit." And you got colds and flu a lot more. "That's right." You also say the job affected your teeth. "Well, I can now put my teeth on my nose." Just to prove it, he calmly removes his false front teeth and does exactly that. "I found it physically exhausting and very worrying," he says. "Shingles was the best example of that, because it's a nervous illness." Trying to break out of all this doom, I wonder whether the job had its positive aspects. Were there things about life at the Treasury that made it enjoyable? Healey gives a mirthless laugh. "No. I wouldn't say so. The great thing about Defence was, I went to the most wonderful and interesting parts of the world. But the Treasury's just bloody hard work." So what kept you going? "Energy and determination, really. I wanted to make a success of the job. It was very tiring, but I'd been in the army for five years in the war, so I'd learned to put up with things." To be chancellor of the exchequer is to walk in the footsteps of giants: Gladstone, Disraeli, Lloyd George, Churchill. Given that no policy will fly without money, the job brings dizzying power, and close involvement in every aspect of government. All this is dramatised by the annual, very British ritual that is Budget Day: the red box held aloft, a long Commons speech, and the country on tenterhooks about tax, spending and the price of fags, booze and fuel. But then there is the downside. As Alistair Darling well knows, it is a quirk of the British system of government that the prime minister retains the title of First Lord of the Treasury. As the Brown/Blair years proved, even supposedly clearcut agreements about who does what will never resolve the endless tensions between numbers 10 and 11. The chancellor is a victim of a particularly thorny problem: that despite having the whip hand over his colleagues' spending requests, he must ultimately defer to the man - or woman - next door. As Healey puts it, "If the chancellor is really making a cock of it, then the prime minister must stop him. But if the prime minister makes a cock of it, the chancellor has to resign." Worse still, he - and thus far it has only been he - is effectively in command of a huge army of producers and consumers who may not just ignore his orders, but respond in the exact opposite way. He will constantly find himself navigating between the demands of economic stability, and the cruder imperatives of politics (essentially, that elections demand tax cuts and low interest rates). The forecasts on which decisions are based will often turn out to be wildly wide of the mark, leaving yesterday's inspired decision looking like today's great mistake. A crisis of some kind will never be far away. Oh, and the hours are cruel, and the chancellorship has long been known as the loneliest job in government. Really: who'd want it, least of all at a time like this? For the past few months, I have been meeting ex-chancellors. The record-breaking length of the current PM's time at the Treasury, and the Tories' dominance of the 80s and 90s, have led to the Tory-Labour ratio coming in at four to one - so as well as meeting Healey, I've sat in a Mayfair boardroom with Norman Lamont , taken tea at the House of Lords with Nigel Lawson, and shared the company of Kenneth Clarke and Geoffrey Howe. Some describe no end of anxieties, and the fretful business of pulling policy levers with precious little certainty about what will happen next. But some - all Conservatives, which may say something about a certain kind of Tory insouciance - claim they never lost sleep through their time at the Treasury, nor viewed their job with anything other than calm level-headedness. When Jim Callaghan's Labour government was defeated by Margaret Thatcher's Tories in May 1979, she and her allies were gifted with one of those rare occasions when the balance of political forces allowed the people at the core of a government to do exactly what they wanted - and in the vanguard of their revolution was Geoffrey Howe. He remains a hero to all his Tory successors. Nigel Lawson and Ken Clarke name him as their most admired postwar chancellor; Lamont demurs only because he is torn between Howe and Lawson. "He took over the kind of thing that George Osborne will be taking over," Clarke says, "and he did lots of necessary things in the teeth of all the accepted wisdom, and he was right." At 30 years' distance, the eye-watering ferocity of Howe's decisions as chancellor is incredible. In keeping with the Tories' belief that it was better to tax spending than earnings - which, of course, meant the poor paying proportionally more than the rich - his first budget increased VAT, in most cases from 8% to 15%. In 1981, there came that great slaying of postwar conventions: rising joblessness and social strife would have to be tolerated in the cause of tackling inflation. Moreover, these were the days when budgets contained small acts of class war: in 1980, for example, Howe announced that benefits paid to the families of people who went on strike would be cut by £12 a week, and made liable to tax. I spend 90 minutes talking to him in a windowless anteroom close to the House of Lords. We discuss it all: his fateful arrival at the Treasury ("I was very anxious - it was a hugely exciting, frightening, important moment"), the occasion when the Thatcher government lifted controls on foreign exchange and the worry kept him up all night, and one of the great ironies of the Thatcher years: that for all her branding as the resolute, not-for-turning Iron Lady, he and Lawson regularly found that she would fret about the possible fallout from some of their most radical moves and propose what amounted to half-measures (before Lawson dropped the top rate of tax from 60% to 40%, for example, she suggested 50% would be more sensible). "Margaret was always more sensitive to the electoral consequences," says Howe, now 82. "Caution was quite frequent with her." So was behaviour that bordered on the imbalanced, as one story from the period proves. In late 1981, her government was feeling the pinch. Manufacturing capacity had fallen by a fifth, there had been a summer of riots and unemployment was nearing three million. It was time for the chancellor's autumn statement, and yet more bad news: rises in housing rents and prescription charges, and another upping of National Insurance, to pay for the ever-lengthening dole queues. Presentation was all-important. There is a famous door that links numbers 10 and 11 Downing Street, and as Howe and his aides worked on the speech, through it came the prime minister, spoiling for a fight. "We were drafting the statement," Howe says, "and she felt it was wrong, I forget in what respect. She came back in at 10 or 11 o'clock at night after a dinner engagement and behaved very intemperately... much worse than usual." In his memoirs, he recalls Thatcher "playing to the gallery outrageously". At one point, he says, she turned to him and shouted, "If this is the best you can do, I'd better send you to hospital and deliver the Statement myself." Trying to put it all in context, he compares his 15-year spell as one of Thatcher's closest allies to a marriage, and says, "Some people put the cap on the toothpaste and some don't." His successor, Nigel Lawson, served as chancellor between 1983 and 1989, a time of momentous happenings: the frenzy of deregulation that included the Big Bang, the Thatcher era's iconic privatisations, successive cuts in income tax, and the so-called Lawson Boom, in which credit exploded and house prices ballooned, thus laying the ground for the recession of the early 90s. It all ended with the falling-out with Thatcher that defined his last 18 months in office, and warfare between numbers 10 and 11 over something that now looks rather arcane: his determination to keep sterling's rate within a ceiling of three deutschmarks to the pound, and his associated belief that the UK should join the European system of fixed exchange rates that preceded the euro. Thatcher, encouraged by her quietly notorious economic adviser Alan Walters (who died, aged 82, a fortnight ago), was having none of it, a position dramatised by the infamous quotation that sealed Lawson's fate: "I must prevail." Lawson is now an admirably youthful-looking 76, around five stone lighter than during his time at the Treasury, and these days chiefly famed for his lonely war against the consensus on climate change (his book An Appeal To Reason, subtitled A Cool Look At Global Warming, was published last year). His falling-out with Thatcher, he says, was "grim - it didn't do me any good, it didn't do her any good, and it didn't do the government any good." On occasion, he tells me, Thatcher's behaviour was "bizarre", and the accusation in her memoirs that he ended up running exchange-rate policy in secret is "a lie". Trying to heal wounds 20 years on, he says, would be pointless - so on the occasions when the two now meet, the conversation amounts to "only politesse, nothing of substance." He comes to life when he talks about what might be called The Chancellor's Condition. "If I wasn't incurring resentment among a number of the spending ministers," he says at one point, "it would mean I wasn't doing my job." Later on, he acknowledges that he has "always been, to some extent, a loner". By way of underlining his habit of wilful isolation, I remind him of an off-the-record judgment from an old Tory colleague: "For years, Nigel ignored everybody, and he was the best chancellor we ever had." "As chancellor, you have to have a curious combination of traits," he says. "You have to be both thick-skinned and sensitive. You can't let things get to you - but on the other hand, you have to be extremely sensitive to what's happening in the country, and what your colleagues' feelings are. But you don't want to show it; that would be a big mistake. "The other thing about me in particular," he goes on, "is that I never thought there would be any circumstances in which I would be prime minister. Perhaps it was a mistake, but I didn't - like many chancellors do - go around cultivating people and ingratiating myself in the hope that one day I would get their support for the top job. That meant that when I was engaged in an argument in cabinet, I was less likely to get support." Towards the end of our conversation, Lawson comes up with one more requirement for a successful chancellor: "Never lose sleep over anything." This, I suggest, is surely impossible - did he never wake in the dead of night, worrying? "No," he shoots back. "I am really very good at switching off." Lawson finally went on his way in October 1989, and John Major began 13 months at the Treasury in which he managed to convince Margaret Thatcher to agree to Britain's membership of the ERM. Her acquiescence was one of many signs of the increasing weakness that led to her being toppled, whereupon Major became Tory leader, and his job was handed to Norman Lamont. Lamont's spell at the Treasury (whose ambience, he says, suggested a "Russian psychiatric hospital") amounts to a cautionary tale about the perils of high office. His unfortunate place in modern history was sealed by a pantomimic run of stories, gleefully chewed over by the red-top press: the renting of a flat he owned to an S&M prostitute known as Miss Whiplash, the discovery by the Sun that he was in arrears on his credit card, the entirely made-up story of a mysterious late-night trip to a branch of Threshers in Paddington - and that memorable occasion, six months after his sacking, when he took the stage at the British Comedy Awards, and Julian Clary put his career on hold by telling the host - Jonathan Ross, appropriately enough - that he'd been backstage, "fisting Norman Lamont". Rather more auspiciously, it is one of the more notable details of his time at the Treasury that his close advisers included David Cameron, described in Lamont's memoirs as a "brilliant Old Etonian with a taste for the good life" - a description he proves very reluctant to flesh out, aside from the observation that "he liked jetskiing". "Some of what happened was ridiculous," Lamont says now. "The credit card story was ridiculous too: £200 overdrawn - so what?" He sighs. "A lot of the tabloid silliness was just a product of the frustration people felt with the recession." What truly did for Lamont's reputation, of course, was Black Wednesday: that high-velocity run of events on September 16 1992 that saw millions tumbling through the foreign exchange markets, interest rates springing from 10% to 15% in a matter of hours, and Britain exiting the European exchange rate mechanism. Sixteen years on, he denies that he felt much anxiety. "It was just clinical," he says. "The patient was dead." Lamont is a fascinating interviewee: wryly funny, only too aware of the fact that though politics attracts those who seek power, events can render them impotent victims. When it comes to his legacy, he seems ambivalent: "I've always regarded the job of being chancellor as one in which you're likely to be pretty unpopular," he tells me. But he's also very keen to make his case. The day after we meet, he emails me a document full of tributes to his time in the job, from a selection of journalists and economists, who salute his blazing of a trail that led to independence for the Bank of England, and the tax hikes in his last budget - most infamously, the introduction of VAT on fuel - that improved the state of the public finances. "Hopefully," says his accompanying note, "history will be written more by people like them than the tabloids." Thus far, fate has been much kinder to Lamont's successor, Kenneth Clarke. Credited with beginning the decade of economic sunshine in which Gordon Brown made hay, he is still an MP, and seemingly tipped each week for a return to frontline Tory politics (after pre-Christmas suggestions that he might take George Osborne's job as shadow chancellor, at the time of writing, fevered speculation surrounded his possible appointment as shadow business secretary). Having already taken care of health, education and the Home Office, Lamont's sacking led to him being shunted to the Treasury by John Major in May 1993 - whereupon he got to work on the public finances by introducing the biggest tax rises in at least two decades. There were, he admits, "slight qualms of self-doubt: 'Am I going to make a pig's ear of this? Am I going to destroy my reputation by being overwhelmed?' " On the whole, however, he says he arrived in his last government job brimming with enthusiasm and ambition. "There was an air of crisis," he says. "Black Wednesday wasn't long behind us. It was just about possible to say we were coming out of recession. But the thing I was convinced would dominate my life - and it did - was the fact that we had a huge and growing budget deficit that was burgeoning out of control. So I realised that I was going to have to put up taxes and control public spending much more toughly, which was going to be tricky. I knew it was tin-hat time, not least because we'd just fought an election on tax cuts, which I told my colleagues at the time was a foolish platform. I had privately said, 'Whoever wins this election is going to be putting taxes up, not cutting them' - something one might repeat in 2008." Two weeks after we meet, George Osborne and David Cameron serve notice of new Tory proposals for tax cuts - in which context, what Clarke says next might definitely give the two pause for thought: "Anybody who stands at the next election on a platform of tax cuts is asking for trouble." By comparison with some of his predecessors, Clarke seems to have been a rather laid-back kind of chancellor, as proved by two episodes in particular. In 1996, the Treasury was sent into a spin when the entire contents of the budget were leaked to the Daily Mirror - but Clarke's response was calmly to ask for the advice of a lawyer and go for a curry. The previous year, when Barings merchant bank crashed thanks to unauthorised dealing by the infamous Nick Leeson, his civil servants frantically did their best to find someone to buy the remains - and their boss, characteristically, was unimpressed. "I wasn't quite sure what we were supposed to be doing. We were just sitting there trying to look important." That day, Clarke's beloved Nottingham Forest were playing at Queens Park Rangers, the team supported by his private secretary. Their west London ground was only a short drive away. "So off we went to the football." What made Clarke's breezy approach to the job all the more unlikely was the wider political picture: the Tory party ripping itself to shreds amid an insurgent Labour party. There again, within Major's fragile position, there lurked good reason for him to feel safe. "I felt confident because I thought I could keep John's confidence. And I also thought my independence was fairly well-assured because I'd succeeded a chancellor he'd sacked. I don't think any prime minister has ever sacked two." For the past three decades, we have lived under the dominance of the ideas that Thatcher and Howe pioneered, Lawson and Lamont stuck to, and even that not-exactly-Thatcherite chancellor Ken Clarke happily embraced: deregulation, easy access to credit, mortgages for all, the letting loose of the City, and no return to the days when governments rescued ailing businesses. Until recently, Brown, Blair and the other creators of New Labour were no exception. It's an old Tory line, but it nails the essential point: as Geoffrey Howe tells me, "The importance of what we achieved was the transformation of the Labour party. That was the scale of our success." Now, these men have watched as the old rules have suddenly been shaken. Banks have been nationalised; there is talk of state aid for what remains of the British car industry; the name of John Maynard Keynes is back in fashion. All this might suggest the passage of the Tory old guard into irrelevance, though of late, the Conservative ex-chancellors have reportedly been tapped for advice by the new generation, including Norman Lamont who has recently been giving advice to his former aide David Cameron - a matter, he says, of "one or two meetings". Clarke, for what it's worth, has denied suggestions that he might be in line for Osborne's current job, though if some strange realignment of the universe happened and he faced our current problems as chancellor, he says it would be with relish. "The challenge would excite me," he says. "And because it's so desperately important, what's going on... The idea of being able to sit at the table where the decisions are being taken to tackle the problem and improve the situation - that's what you go into politics for." Clarke - who, despite being 68, recently claimed he was in "mid-career" - has yet to publish any memoirs, which looks like a wise move. There are, after all, passages from ex-Tory chancellors' autobiographies that now look very shaky. In Nigel Lawson's, for example, the credit binge and "banking fever" of the late 80s are written about as an adjustment to deregulation from which lasting lessons would be learned: as he puts it, a "once-for-all occurrence". But it wasn't, was it? "No," Lawson says. "I was wrong about that. I saw it coming some time ago - the same sort of thing that had happened during my time, only worse." By way of explaining how we got to where we are, Lawson directs me to a speech he recently made in the Lords, which mentions "the folly of the bankers who, whether out of ignorance or greed... threw prudence to the wind". Howe talks about people in the financial markets "taking reckless decisions, and allowing themselves to incur debts on a scale that should never have been undertaken." Lamont focuses on "a housing bubble, a credit bubble, financial innovation, too much leverage in the banking system, people unloading assets off-balance sheet". They each make equally unsurprising mention of the failures of financial supervision under Gordon Brown's chancellorship, and the perils of the government's ballooning budget deficit. But their great omission comes when I ask what they make of the idea that the current economic whirlwind was let loose under their watch. Read Lawson's autobiography and it's all there: a 10-point breakdown of the Thatcher period's great bonfire of regulation that includes the end of mortgage lending guidance, the legislation that allowed building societies to turn themselves into banks (among those who did were Northern Rock, Bradford & Bingley and the Halifax - those who remained as building societies have been nowhere near as troubled by the financial crisis) and the Big Bang. Isn't that where all this began? "I don't think there's anything in that at all," he says. "I think all those aspects of deregulation were absolutely right. That's not to say that there are not both advantages and disadvantages - it's just that the advantages outweigh the disadvantages." Lamont makes much the same point. Only once does one of the Tory ex-chancellors come close to considering that our current problems might have started when they were in charge: I suggest to Geoffrey Howe that Britain's love affair with consumer debt decisively began in the Thatcher years, and he suddenly goes quiet. "That may be," he says. "I haven't really thought about it." Thankfully, one surviving ex-chancellor has detailed the obvious connections between out-of-control high finance and the politics that took root in the 80s - and he did so in rather visionary terms, in a memoir titled The Time Of My Life, published no less than 20 years ago. Back then, wrote Denis Healey, "most western governments followed the lead set by President Reagan and Mrs Thatcher in removing the restrictions which had hitherto prevented the various financial institutions... from competing with one another for the same type of business." This, he said, "led to cut-throat competition" between the big financial corporations, who "lent money on paper-thin margins, often in areas they did not understand". And there was more. "As if this was not enough," he wrote, "the desire to hedge against unpredictable changes in exchange rates and interest rates led to a feverish rash of new financial instruments, starting with swaps, futures, options, and options on futures." One page later, there comes the coup de grâce: "Most of the new activities spawned by the financial revolution... assume that all trees grow up to the sky - that there will never be another recession. If the United States does have a recession, even one as modest as in the Carter years, its whole financial system could collapse like a pack of cards." Sitting in the drawing room of his Sussex home, Healey listens to it all, then turns to me with the happily fatalistic look of someone who has lived through no end of economic and political turnabouts. "Well, isn't it true?" he says. "There you are." For an ex-chancellor, the irony must be sweet indeed: here, for once, is an economic forecast that turned out to be right on the money.	i don't know
"Which UK number one single of 1969 had the opening lyrics ""You talk like Marlene Dietrich And you dance like Zizi Jeanmaire"" ?"	mudcat.org: 'Where do you go to my Lovely' - Discuss 'Where do you go to my Lovely' - Discuss DigiTrad: From: Little Hawk Date: 30 Jan 06 - 05:39 PM This strikingly overwrought song was recorded by Peter Sarstedt in 1969, and I used to hear it on the radio a lot back then and in the early 70's. I always used to wonder why the writer had such a sense of grievance about the rags-to-riches girl described in the story. After searching around on the Net some, I see that the song most likely referred to Sophia Loren. Why would Peter Sarstedt have been that concerned about Sophia Loren? Anybody got any thoughts on that? As for Sarstedt, I am unaware of anthing else he ever recorded at this point. It certainly was an unusual song, and the FM stations in Toronto just loved it back then. From: Little Hawk Date: 30 Jan 06 - 05:42 PM I'll say this: it's preferable to "I've Never Been To Me". That one could gag a tiger shark. Date: 30 Jan 06 - 05:47 PM WHERE DO YOU GO TO (MY LOVELY) ? (Sarstedt) You talk like Marlene Dietrich And you dance like Zizi Jeanmaire Your clothes are all made by Balmain And there's diamonds and pearls in your hair, yes there are You live in a fancy apartment Off the Boulevard Saint-Michel Where you keep your Rolling Stones records And a friend of Sacha Distel, yes you do But where do you go to my lovely When you're alone in your bed Tell me the thoughts that surround you I want to look inside your head, yes I do I've seen all your qualifications You got from the Sorbonne And the painting you stole from Picasso Your loveliness goes on and on, yes it does When you go on your summer vacation You go to Juan-les-Pins With your carefully designed topless swimsuit You get an even suntan on your back and on your legs And when the snow falls you're found in Saint Moritz With the others of the jet-set And you sip your Napoleon brandy But you never get your lips wet, no you don't But where do you go to my lovely When you're alone in your bed Won't you tell me the thoughts that surround you I want to look inside your head, yes I do Your name, it is heard in high places You know the Aga Khan He sent you a racehorse for Christmas And you keep it just for fun, for a laugh a-ha-ha-ha They say that when you get married It'll be to a millionaire But they don't realize where you came from And I wonder if they really care, or give a damn Where do you go to my lovely When you're alone in your bed Tell me the thoughts that surround you I want to look inside your head, yes I do I remember the back streets of Naples Two children begging in rags Both touched with a burning ambition To shake off their lowly-born tags, so they try So look into my face Marie-Claire And remember just who you are Then go and forget me forever But I know you still bear the scar, deep inside, yes you do I know where you go to my lovely When you're alone in your bed I know the thoughts that surround you 'Cause I can look inside your head (na na-na-na na na-na-na na-na na na na na) (na na-na-na na na-na-na na-na na na na na) Date: 30 Jan 06 - 06:05 PM And YOU can think about THIS at 3:00 AM. (Bob Lind) You might wake up some mornin' To the sound of something moving past your window in the wind And if you're quick enough to rise You'll catch a fleeting glimpse of someone's fading shadow Out on the new horizon You may see the floating motion of a distant pair of wings And if the sleep has left your ears You might hear footsteps running through an open meadow Don't be concerned, it will not harm you It's only me pursuing somethin' I'm not sure of Across my dreams with nets of wonder I chase the bright elusive butterfly of love You might have heard my footsteps Echo softly in the distance through the canyons of your mind I might have even called your name As I ran searching after something to believe in You might have seen me runnin' Through the long-abandoned ruins of the dreams you left behind If you remember something there That glided past you followed close by heavy breathin' Don't be concerned, it will not harm you It's only me pursuing somethin' I'm not sure of Across my dreams with nets of wonder I chase the bright elusive butterfly of love [Instrumental Interlude] Across my dreams with nets of wonder I chase the bright elusive butterfly of love Date: 30 Jan 06 - 06:40 PM Nancy Sinatra These Boots Were Made For Walking You keep saying you've got something for me. something you call love, but confess. You've been messin' where you shouldn't have been a messin' and now someone else is gettin' all your best. These boots are made for walking, and that's just what they'll do one of these days these boots are gonna walk all over you. You keep lying, when you oughta be truthin' and you keep losin' when you oughta not bet. You keep samin' when you oughta be changin'. Now what's right is right, but you ain't been right yet. These boots are made for walking, and that's just what they'll do one of these days these boots are gonna walk all over you. You keep playin' where you shouldn't be playin and you keep thinkin' that youï¿½ll never get burnt. Ha! I just found me a brand new box of matches yeah and what he know you ain't HAD time to learn. Are you ready boots? Start walkin'! Date: 30 Jan 06 - 06:45 PM Run Joey Run Daddy please don't, it wasn't his fault, he means so much to me Daddy please don't, we're gonna get married...just you wait and see. She called me up, late last night, she said Joe, don't come over My dad and I just had a fight, and he stormed out the door I've never seen him act his this way, my God, hes going crazy He says he's gonna make you pay, for what we've done, he's got a gun, so Run Joey Run Joey Run Daddy please don't, it wasn't his fault, he means so much to me Daddy please don't, we're gonna get married...just you wait and see. I got in my car and I drove like mad, till I reached Julie's place She ran to me, with tears in her eyes, and bruises on her face All at once, I saw him there, sneaking up behind me, WATCH OUT! Then Julie yelled, he's got a gun, and she stepped in front of me Suddenly, a shot rang out, and I saw Julie falling I ran to her, I held her close, when I looked down, my hands were red, and heres the last words Julie said... Daddy please don't, it wasn't his fault, he means so much to me Daddy please don't, we're gonna get married.....aaahhh..ahhhh ahhhh....ahhhhh From: Peace Date: 30 Jan 06 - 07:47 PM Once had a long involved coversation with a chair in 1968. It was upholstered to start with, but when it ate the cushions I decided the chair had to go. It didn't want to go. That's when the trouble started. I was living in an apartment the fourth floor of a building on Delancey Street in New York City's Lower East Side. There would have been no problem if the gas stove hadn't leaked and created a foul-smelling odor that was making all the cockroaches crazy. The cat had been sleeping for three days when the buzzer announced the presence of my best friend who'd been out shopping dressed up like Mickey Mouse. The--wait a minute. This is the wrong thread. Sorry. From: David C. Carter Date: 31 Jan 06 - 10:15 AM The gentleman in question has got 4Cds onAamazon!They go from about $3-thru $16, and he apparently had another hit with a song entitled-Frozen Orange Juice,which made Nï¿½10 in the charts!He comes from India,and is 1 of 3 brothers.All this is on a site.However,it doesn't say if his"music" was ever Boot-Legged!I certainly don't have any.We get him on the radio here quite often.If you're out driving, and you got the radio going and he comes on....well,if you can switch stations in time, you just may be able to avoid a collision or running off the road. Cheers Date: 31 Jan 06 - 11:42 AM Where did Peter Sarstedt go to, you wanted to know, Little Hawk ? He was interviewed in an "After They Were Famous" TV programme here in the UK a few years ago, looking not very different from the way he looked back in the 1960s. He explained that his sudden disappearance from the music business was because of his very bad stammer (which he has now overcome). He just couldn't cope with media interviews. This TV programme was a few years ago now, and he said then that he was hoping to make a comeback. Dare I say, I actually liked that song - and, like Susanne, I was also "beguiled by the walrus moustache" and all that French stuff. But, if you're looking for a truly dire song to add to the above list, how about this one, so awful that I will only risk putting the first line of it in black and white: "See the tree, how big it's grown...." eeeeeeeeeeeeeek From: GUEST,Dave Roberts, Salt Town poets Date: 31 Jan 06 - 12:23 PM I offer the following in the hope of putting at least one of Mr Sarstedt's works into a historical and social context. When 'Frozen Orange Juice was released (circa 69/70) it had as its b-side a risque little number called 'Take Off Your Clothes', the kind of thing that the BBC would never normally have countenanced broadcasting in a million years. However one lunchtime, on the evocatively titled 'Radio One Club', a cool, hip, beeb 'deejay' put the wrong side of the record on by mistake. For a while western civilisation teetered on the edge of an abyss, questions were asked in the house and our own dear Mrs Mary Whitehouse (q.v.) suffered the worst fit of the vapours in her illustrious career. But the BBC apologised, so that was all right. The only other thing I can remember about Mr S is the annoying way many people had of pronouncing his name, as 'Sarztit'. Oh, and brother Robin's hit was, I think, 'My Resistance Is Low'. I hope this is of help. Date: 31 Jan 06 - 06:35 PM Where do you go to, my Doris, by Les Barker, some time in the 70s. He turned it round to be about inverted snobbery, and how everybody was desperately trying to prove working-class roots. The references are to Manchester, and other places in North West England. Eddie Waring - TV rugby football commentator; St Michael - brand name of Marks and Spencer clothes shops; Jimmy Frizzell - manager of Oldham Athletic football club; Colin Bell - Manchester City footballer; Domestos - household bleach. Bramhall - posh area. Oldham - not posh. You'll have to work out the rest yourself. And you know the saddest part? This isn't copy-and-paste. I've just typed it all out. From memory. *** Well, you talk just like Eddie Waring, and you dance like Yogi Bear. Your clothes are all made by St Michael, and there's dandruff and bugs in your hair, Yes there are, oh aye, itchy coo You live in a council penthouse, off the boulevard, Newton Heath, Where you play your Rolling Stones records by the light of Cliff Richard's teeth, Yes you do, oh aye, itchy coo But where do you go to, my Doris, when you get on a train? Are you seeing a smoothy in Salford, or a dirty old man in Dean Lane? I've seen both your qualifications, you got at Oldham Tech - Needlework and marine boiler maintenance, and your O-levels come up to your neck. Yes they do, oh aye, itchycoo When you go on summer vacation you're found on Blackpool sands, In your carefully designed topless swimsuit, you look just like one of the lads, Yes you do, oh aye, itchy coo And when the snow falls you're found in Widnes, with the others of the jet set. You sip your Domestos and soda, and down it in one for a bet, Yes you do, oh aye, itchy coo But where do you go to, my Doris, when you get on a bus? Are you seeing a playboy in Failsworth? Is it all over for us? Your name it is heard in high places - you know Jimmy Frizzell. He bought you a tortoise for Christmas, and you race it against Colin Bell And it wins, yes it does, itchy coo They say that when you get married, it'll be to a millionaire. You'd better move out of Oldham - won't meet many round there, No you won't, will you 'eck, itchy coo But where do you go to, my Doris, when you drive off in your car? Are you having an an affair with a golfer who thinks half-past-ten's about par? I remember the back streets of Bramhall, two children playing a game Each with inverted ambition to shake off a middle-class name Yes they did, oh aye, itchy coo So look into my eyes, darling Doris, and remember who you are - You think you're a working-class scrubber, bt you've got a stockbroker papa, Yes you have, oh aye, itchy coo I know where you go to, my Doris, when you go anywhere at all. You're not having fish suppers in Oldham, but muffins and tea in Bramhall. Date: 31 Jan 06 - 07:27 PM See these earlier threads: 1999: LyrRequest:Where do you go to my Lovely? 1999: Marie Claire'?/Lyric req (includes full lyric, including the "missing" verse mentioned above) 1997: WHERE DO YOU GO TO, MY LOVELY? (Sarstedt) (posted with mishearings, and the rather creepy comment "enjoy" attached. I've always hated that.) Several parodies, mostly of less interest than the original, are included. Mind you, it was I who posted the full lyric. I still have the LP, come to that. Bought it when it first came out; I was 14 or 15. The album was pretentious, self-important and, ultimately, rather shallow: just right for adolescents, in fact. Sarstedt's postscript on the sleeve says it all, really (capitals as in the original): "BOB DYLAN STRAIGHTENED ME OUT. OSCAR BROWN JR GAVE ME THE IMPORTANCE OF A SONG. THE WORLD GIVES ME AMMUNITION AND LOVE GIVES ME A REASON TO CARRY ON. I AM YOUR FRIEND." Oh well. It was 1969. Date: 01 Feb 06 - 01:21 AM A partial answer for you Little Hawk: Sasha Distel is (or was) a singer Balmain refers to Pierre Balmain who was (and is) an 'Haute Coutour' designer of clothing Zizi Jeanmarie (born Renee) was the Prima Ballerina of the Ballet de Paris / Ballet de Champs Elysees in the 1950's. Such was her appeal and fame as such that she also starred in a couple of Hollywood movies in the 1950's as well - most notably as 'Doro' in Danny Kaye's film Hans Christian Andersen. In all she went on to make a further 7 film and television movies the last being in 1991 (a telemovie). As for Sarstedt's referring to Sophia Loren as the "My Lovely" in the song I have heard from many sources that this is indeed so though I have never bothered to find out why - I shall investigar=te and see if I can locate a reference. (one unsubstantiated version is that the song is from the perspective of a childhood playmate who occupied a very intimate (in the Platonic sense of the word) position close to Loren while growing up in Naples (BTW - anyone ever been to Naples? No wonder she left! It's dirty and horrible and UGLY driving around its streets - however, from across the Bay of Naples the city appears quite pretty - I guess the further you are from it, the more its appeal grows). It may have even BEEN a sibling - though I thought she was an only child. Finally Little Hawk - What the HELL did you do to Peace? I've had several VERY friendly discussions with that person (and even a couple of CD's - thanks P!) and here you are getting flamed every time Peace answers you. Mind you I think Peace has the upper hand at present - those have been some truly SAD lyrics thrown (up) at you: Just pray Peace never sends you the lyrics to "Sunny" aaaaaaaaarrrrrrrrrrrrgggghh! From: pavane Date: 01 Feb 06 - 02:32 AM When I was at college in 1969, Peter Sarstedt was a guest at our folk club, in the week where he got to No 1 in the charts. I was impressed by the fact that he still turned up to honour the booking. He popped up on a TV chat show not too long ago, and was discussing how "Where do you go to" was his "Pension" song, stil bringing in a regular income. (It is one of the very few pop song to use an accordeon) One act I didn't go to see at the club the same year was a young duo called "Tyrannosaurus Rex". Never heard of them and didn't fancy the name! Date: 01 Feb 06 - 12:45 PM Well, I'd be a bit annoyed if I was Sophia. Muttley, Peace and I are getting along fine. It's one of those "flame your pal on the forum" things, that's all. It's a joke. I read some biographical material about Sophia Loren on the Net. Interesting. She had a tough start in life, dealing with poverty, war, and privation. She seems to have been a very determined young woman, parlaying a beauty contest win into a hugely successful career in film. If you want to see an almost interminable movie from the early part of her Hollywood career, which includes the worst miscasting in HISTORY (Frank Sinatra as a Spanish freedom fighter in early 1800's Spain, fighting the Napoleonic occupation army...ha! ha!)...watch "The Pride and the Passion" (1957). Loren plays her part (standard passionate Latin barefoot beauty stereotype) okay, but the script gives her very little to work with. Cary Grant (who was having an affaire with Loren at the time) plays his part as if he'd rather be at the polo club watching the wallpaper fade.... The battle scenes are great. Really quite an odd movie. From: Peace Date: 01 Feb 06 - 03:36 PM I would sooner put my elbow in a spinning propeller blade than listen to that song. While I have done my best to out-gross Little Hawk, short of sending y'all life-sized posters of William Shatner, I am at my wits' end. However, thanks to a suggestion above from my buddy, Muttley: Sunny, yesterday my life was filled with rain Sunny, you smiled at me and really eased the pain Oh, the dark days are done The bright days are here My sunny one shines so sincere Sunny one so true Sunny, thank you for that sunshine bouquet Sunny, thank you for the love you brought my way You gave to me your all and all Now I feel ten feet tall Sunny one so true Sunny, thank you for the truth you let me see Sunny, thank you for the facts from a to z My life was torn like windblown sand And then a rock was formed when we held hands Sunny one so true Sunny, thank for that smile upon your face Sunny, thank you for that gleam that flows with grace You're my spark of nature's fire You're my sweet complete desire Sunny one so true Sunny, yesterday my life was filled with rain Sunny, you smiled at me and really eased the pain The dark days are done The bright days are here My sunny one shines so sincere Sunny one so true From: Muttley Date: 02 Feb 06 - 07:00 AM Actually that wasn't the "Sunny" I was referring to - though when re-reading my own post that particular song (whose lyrics you just posted) and tune came crashing into my skull obliterating some of the last few sensitive neurons I have left. Then I scroll down and READ the damned thing - - - you are cruel. No the one I meant was the one I was referring to was (I think) by tha "misery-hack" Bobby Goldsborough and designed to make everyone weep at the injustice of a youthful passing - - - Its primary response was to promptly gag and hurl! (Actually, now I "think on't" the title MAY have been "Honey"! "See the tree, how big it's grown: Honey; hasn't been too long - you went away ................ etc" Now do you get the picture??? Checked a whole heap of sites plus my own resources and all I could find was that the song is SUPPOSED to refer to Loren, though Sarstedt never actually seems to make the claim. However, I DID find that Loren had a sister (half-sister) so she wasn't an only child. I rather think the idea of thr "singer" being a close male friend of her childhood with whom she made one of those "vows" that so many "rags to riches" success stories seem to claim to have made at some point - in her case it was probably a made-up-for-the-song situation but referred toan actual childhood friend who also made good but in chasing their careers, they drifted - he losing Loren to "Hollywood" romances - - - notably Cary Grant and the guy she ended up arrying - the Italian director, whatsisname???? AHH !!!! Ponti! Best I can do guys - the mystery remains Keep up the "Flame Wars" they are bloody hilarious - - - probably 'cos I ain't on ythe end of them hahahahahahaha Mutt Date: 02 Feb 06 - 07:54 AM I'll buy you one more frozen orange juice on this fantastic day. We'll walk the sunny hills of Madrid laughing all the way. And if you feel you wanna run down a ravine A place that no-one else has ever been Before I'll pick a flower from the road and place it in your heart We will hold our breath together, we shall never part You rescue me, I rescue you You rescue me, I rescue you yes, I do And in the morning when we wake up I'll be on my way, With echoes ringing in my head of this fantastic day You rescue me etc. Date: 02 Feb 06 - 02:58 PM For my buddies Little Hawk and Muttley. Terry Jacks Seasons In The Sun Lyrics Goodbye to you, my trusted friend. We've known each other since we're nine or ten. Together we climbed hills or trees. Learned of love and ABC's, skinned our hearts and skinned our knees. Goodbye my friend, it's hard to die, when all the birds are singing in the sky, Now that the spring is in the air. Pretty girls are everywhere. When you see them I'll be there. We had joy, we had fun, we had seasons in the sun. But the hills that we climbed were just seasons out of time. Goodbye, Papa, please pray for me, I was the black sheep of the family. You tried to teach me right from wrong. Too much wine and too much song, wonder how I get along. Goodbye, Papa, it's hard to die when all the birds are singing in the sky, Now that the spring is in the air. Little children everywhere. When you see them I'll be there. We had joy, we had fun, we had seasons in the sun. But the wine and the song, like the seasons, all have gone. Goodbye, Michelle, my little one. You gave me love and helped me find the sun. And every time that I was down you would always come around and get my feet back on the ground. Goodbye, Michelle, it's hard to die when all the bird are singing in the sky, Now that the spring is in the air. With the flowers ev'rywhere. I wish that we could both be there. We had joy, we had fun, we had seasons in the sun. But the stars we could reach were just starfishs on the beach. Please note the rhyming couplet to end this timeless--uh, stuff. Date: 02 Feb 06 - 03:17 PM Honey See the tree, how big it's grown but friend it hasn't been too long it wasn't big I laughed at her and she got mad, the first day that she planted, it, was just a twig Then the first snow came and she ran out to brush the snow away So it wouldn't die Came runnin' in all excited, slipped and almost hurt herself And I laughed till I cried She was always young at heart, kinda dumb and kinda smart and I loved her so And I surprised her with a puppy Kept me up all Christmas Eve two years ago And it would sure embarrass her When I came in from workin' late 'cause I would know That she'd been sittin' there and cryin' Over some sad and silly late, late show And honey, I miss you and I'm bein' good And I'd love to be with you if only I could She wrecked the car and she was sad And so afraid that I'd be mad but what the heck Though I pretended hard to be Guess you could say she saw through me and hugged my neck I came home unexpectedly and caught her cryin' needlessly In the middle of a day And it was in the early Spring when flowers bloom and robins sing She went away And honey, I miss you and I'm bein' good And I'd love to be with you if only I could One day while I was not at home while she was there and all alone The angels came Now all I have is memories of Honey and I wake up nights and call her name Now my life's an empty stage where Honey lived and Honey played And love grew up And a small cloud passes overhead and cries down on the flower bed That Honey loved And see the tree how big it's grown but friend it hasn't been too long it wasn't big And I laughed at her and she got mad The first day that she planted it, was just a twig Date: 02 Feb 06 - 04:43 PM Speaking of overwrought sentimentality...though I must admit this song gets to me every time. Daisy a Day He remembers the first time he met 'er He remembers the first thing she said He remembers the first time he held her And the night that she came to his bed He remembers her sweet way of singin' Honey has somethin' gone wrong He remembers the fun and the teasin' And the reason he wrote 'er this song refrain: I'll give you a daisy a day I'll give you a daisy a day I'll love you until the rivers run still And the four winds we know blow away They would walk down the street in the evenin' And for years I would see them go by And their love that was more than the clothes that they wore Could be seen in the gleam of their eye As a kid they would take me for candy And I loved to go taggin' along We'd hold hands while we walked to the corner And the old man would sing 'er his song refrain Now he walks down the street in the evenin' And he stops by the old candy store And I somehow believe he's believin' He's holdin' 'er hand like before For he feels all her love walkin' with him And he smiles at the things she might say Then the old man walks up to the hilltop And gives her a daisy a day Date: 02 Feb 06 - 08:23 PM Snuffy, I gotta tell you: I used to sing "Patches" when I was a working stage performer. Audiences liked it. It has a great melody and a tale to tell. Lee Dickie Down by the river that flows by the coal yards. Stands wooden houses with shutters torn down There lives a girl everybody calls Patches Patches my darling of Old Shanty town We plan to marry when June brought the summer I couldn't wait to make Patches my bride Now I don't see how that ever can happen My folks say No, and my heart breaks inside Patches oh what can I do I swear I'll always love you But a girl from that place would just bring me disgrace So my folks won't let me love you Each night I cry as I think of that shanty And pretty Patches there watching the door She dosn't know that I can't come to see her Patches must think that I love her no more I hear a neighbor tellin my father He said a girl name of Patches was found Floating face down in that dirty old river That flows by the coal yards in Old Shanty Town Patches oh what can I do I swear I'll always love you It may not be right But I'll join you tonight Patches I'm coming to you From: JennyO Date: 02 Feb 06 - 08:52 PM Oh no - you people are making me think about some of the horrors I had almost forgotten! This one gives me the shudders - my ex-husband used to sing it AT me... You've painted up your lips And rolled and curled your tinted hair Ruby are you contemplating The shadow on the wall Tells me the sun is going down Oh Ruby Don't take your love to town It wasn't me That started that old crazy Asian war But I was proud to go And do my patriotic chore And yes, it's true that I'm not the man I used to be Oh, Ruby I still need some company Its hard to love a man Whose legs are bent and paralysed And the wants and the needs of a woman your age Ruby I realize, But it won't be long i've heard them say until I'm not around Oh Ruby Don't take your love to town She's leaving now cause I just heard the slamming of the door The way I know I've heard it Some 100 times before And if I could move I'd get my gun And put her in the ground Oh Ruby Don't take your love to town Oh Ruby for God's sake turn around Date: 03 Feb 06 - 05:06 AM Thought this might also fit into your sentimental journey Kris Kristofferson: Jody and the Kid She would meet me in the morning On my way down to the river Waiting patient by the chinaberry tree With her feet already dusty >From the pathway to the levy And her little blue jeans rolled up to her knees I'd pay her no attention As she tagged along beside me Trying hard to copy everything I did But I couldn't keep from smiling When I'd hear somebody saying Looky yonder there goes Jody and the kid Even after we grew older We could still be seen together As we walked along the levy holding hands For as surely as the season she was changin' to a woman And I'd lived enough to call myself a man And she often lay beside me In the coolness of the evening Til' the morning sun was shining on my bed And at times when she was sleeping I'd smile when I'd remember How they use to call us Jody and the kid Now the world's a little older And the years have changed the river Cause there's houses where they didn't used to be And on Sundays I go walking Down the pathway to the levy With another little girl who follows me And it makes the old folks smile To see her tag along beside me Doing little things the way her mama did But it gets a little lonesome When I hear somebody sayin' Looky yonder there goes Jody and the kid Date: 03 Feb 06 - 05:26 AM Jeanie, you're not speaking of this one , do ya? He said to me he wanted to be near to me He said he never wanted to be out of my sight But it's too late to give this boy my love tonight Please wait at the gate of heaven for me, Terry. He said to me he wanted to be close by my side We had a quarrel, I was untrue on the night he died And it's too late to tell this boy how great was Please wait at the gate of heaven for me, Terry. He rode into the night, accelerated his motorbike I cried to him in fright, don't do it, don't do it, don.t do it. He said to me you are the one I want to be with He said to me you are the one who my love I shall give One day he'll know how hard I prayed for him to live Please wait at the gate of heaven for me, Terry. He rode into the night, accelerated his motorbike I cried to him in fright, don't do it, don't do it, don.t do it. He said to me you are the one I want to be with He said to me you are the one who my love I shall give One day he'll know how hard I prayed for him to live Please wait at the gate of heaven for me, Terry. Terry, Terry, Terry From: alanabit Date: 03 Feb 06 - 06:28 AM We have done this subject before on the "Worst Pop Song Ever" threads. No harm in bringing it back again though! The teenage wedding day aligned to a car crash/motorcyle accident/air disaster/shark attack, was a popular genre in the sixties. "Leader of the Pack" and "Ebony Eyes" are two spectacularly awful examples of that. "Tell Laura I Love Her" is another. It takes a strong man not to laugh at the end of that one. With my advandcing years, I am developing a soft spot for them. It is more a,"So bad they are funny," sort of feeling. Joe Offer and others provided convincing argument that "Feelings", that gruesome offering from Maurice Albert, was an unsurpassable atrocity. I think I have heard worse somewhere, but mercifully, that songwriter (rest his soul) never got on the radio. Date: 03 Feb 06 - 01:53 PM Ho-lee....FLIP! Watta bunch of cruddy songs, eh? Okay, here's one for ya: To all the girls I've loved before Who travelled in and out my door I'm glad they came along I dedicate this song To all the girls I've loved before To all the girls I once caressed And may I say I've held the best For helping me to grow I owe a lot I know To all the girls I've loved before The winds of change are always blowing And every time I try to stay The winds of change continue blowing And they just carry me away To all the girls who shared my life Who now are someone else's wives I'm glad they came along I dedicate this song To all the girls I've loved before To all the girls who cared for me Who filled my nights with ecstasy They live within my heart I'll always be a part Of all the girls I've loved before The winds of change are always blowing And every time I try to stay The winds of change continue blowing And they just carry me away To all the girls we've loved before Who travelled in and out our doors We're glad they came along We dedicate this song To all the girls we've loved before To all the girls we've loved before Who travelled in and out our doors We're glad they came along We dedicate this song To all the girls we've loved before YEEEEE-HAAAAAAAAAAAA! Pretty flippin' deadly, eh? - Shane Date: 03 Feb 06 - 04:34 PM I remember that one too Snuffy. As to the song that started all this. Back in the early 70s I was in a big Melbourne music shop one day. They used to sell everything from pianos to sheet-music. In the basement you could browse through the sheet-music collection and then order the stuff you wanted by writing it on an order form on the counter. A shop assistant would get your music from behind the scenes somewhere and call out the name. This particular day the place was packed. Lunch hour I think. A young man, behind the counter, called out, "Where do you go to my Lovely?" "Over here, Darling! Over here!" came the sultry reply from another young man dressed in a very straight business-type suit. This was MELBOURNE remember. The silence hit like a sledge hammer. Wonderful. Cheers, Joy Date: 04 Feb 06 - 02:40 PM [Paul:] Hey, hey Paula, I wanna marry you Hey, hey Paula, no one else will ever do I've waited so long for school to be through Paula, I can't wait no more for you My love, my love Hey Paul, I've been waiting for you Hey, hey, hey Paul, I want to marry you too If you love me true, if you love me still Our love will always be real My love, my love True love means planning a life for two Being together the whole day through True love means waiting and hoping that soon Wishes we've made will come true My love, my love Date: 04 Feb 06 - 04:15 PM Artist: 1910 Fruitgum Company Lyrics Song: Yummy, Yummy, Yummy Lyrics Yummy, Yummy, Yummy. I got love in my tummy, And I feel like a-lovin you: Love, you're such a sweet thing, Good enough to eat thing And that's just a-what I'm gonna do. Ooh love, to hold ya, Ooh love, to kiss ya, Ooh love, I love it so. Ooh love, you're sweeter, Ooh love, I wont let you go. Yummy, Yummy, Yummy, I got love in my tummy, And as silly as it may seem; The lovin' that you re giving, is what keeps me livin' And your love is like Peaches and cream. - reached #1 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1989 - featured in the movie "Cocktail" starring Tom Cruise Here's a little song I wrote You might want to sing it note-for-note Don't worry, be happy In every life we have some trouble But when you worry, you make it double Don't worry, be happy Don't worry, be happy now Ooo-oo-hoo-hoo-oo hoo-hoo-oo-oo-oo-oo-ooo Don't worry Woo-oo-oo-oo-ooo Don't worry, be happy Ooo-oo-hoo-hoo-oo hoo-hoo-oo-oo-oo-oo-ooo Don't worry Woo-oo-woo-oo-ooo Don't worry, be happy Ain't got no place to lay your head Somebody came and took your bed Don't worry, be happy The landlord say your rent is late He may have to litigate Don't worry, (ha-ha ha-ha ha-ha) be happy (look at me, I'm happy) Ooo-oo-hoo-hoo-oo oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-ooo Don't worry Oo-oo-oo-oo-ooo (Here, I'll give you my phone number. When you're worried, call me. I'll make you happy.) Ooo-oo-hoo-hoo-oo oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-ooo Don't worry Ain't got no cash, ain't got no style Ain't got no gal to make you smile But don't worry, be happy 'Cause when you're worried, your face will frown And that will bring everybody down So don't worry, be happy Don't worry, be happy now Ooo-oo-hoo-oo-oo oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-ooo Don't worry Woo-oo-oo-oo-ooo Don't worry, be happy Ooo-oo-oo-oo-oo oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-ooo Don't worry Woo-oo-oo-oo-ooo Don't worry, be happy Now there, is this song I wrote I hope you learned it note-for-note, like good little children Don't worry, be happy A-listen to a-what I say In your life, expect some trouble When you worry you make it double Don't worry, be happy, be happy now Ooo-oo-hoo-hoo-oo oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-ooo Don't worry Oo-oo-oo-oo-ooo Don't worry, be happy Ooo-oo-hoo-oo-oo oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-ooo Don't worry Woo-oo-oo-oo-ooo Don't worry, be happy Ooo-oo-hoo-oo-oo oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-ooo Don't worry, don't worry Oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-ooo Don't do it, be happy Oo-oo-oo-oo-ooo Put a smile on your face Don't bring everybody down like this Ooo-oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-oo It will soon pass, whatever it is Ooo-oo-oo-oo-ooo Don't worry, be happy (fading...) Ooo-oo-hoo-hoo-oo oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-ooo I'm not worried Ooo-oo-oo-oo-oo-oo-oo I'm happy From: GUEST,Art Thieme Date: 04 Feb 06 - 11:01 PM Folks, I'm glad to be able to truthfully say that I missed 95% of those songs you all seem to know. (I guess that's just one of the many perks of being into trad folk! ;-) But you have missed the absolute worst, saccharine, treacly, and unabashedly dumb song of all. I say that BECAUSE it was taken to heart by so many folkies who certainly should've known better!! --- I am, of course, talking about the completely insipid song that led the way from the languid old folk era when urban navel-gazing singer/songwriters, writing about love on the school bus and other aspects of pimply infatuation angst, were few and far between---. The song I am thinking about, even though thoughts of it sicken me to the point of losing my lunch, got grown men to go beating their drums (among other things) out in the woods with Robert Bly. Clutching their new copy of "Iron John" (among other things), they pranced around like wanna-be ballerina Neanderthals and sang the national anthem of the biological-orientation-and-animal husbandry movement: Wa wa wa waltzing---"waltzing with bears" My uncle Walter goes "waltzing with bears"... Sadly, I fear I need say no more!!!!! But this song (and armies made up of, unbelievably, ALL VOLUNTEERS), is what folks mean when they talk about how the world is dumbing down !!! It does leave one nostalgic for the Viet Nam era. -- Back then we at least knew enough NOT to go! Art From: Muttley Date: 05 Feb 06 - 02:17 AM Peace - you've had us all fooled. . . . . you are a cruel, twisted, evil and nasty piece of work - - - you're also now my hero; how do i learn to get THAT evil? I mean I thought I was pretty good at it but man YOU have raised this to an ART FORM !!!!! Honey, Nobody's Child, Patches, Hey Paul; Hey Paula, Yummy Yummy Yummy AND Don't Worry - Be Happy. They are evil on SOOOOOOOOOOOOO many levels - - - ALL of them !!! However, I must display a slice of my own (likely) bad taste - I actually rather like the sentiments expressed in "Daisy a Day" - the words are a bit mawkish at times, but the sentiment is beautiful: I'm reminded of a far better song in a similar vein by Australia's John Williamson called "Wrinkles". Second 'Bad Taste' point: Kenny Rogers "Ruby": I love this song (sorry Jenny O) while I sympathise with your torturous experiences I love this song for two reasons: My all time favourite student while teaching at a boarding school (polite, charming, hard worker, articulate for someone whose second language was English, reasonably pretty) was named Ruby. One day she began 'wilting' in class and complaining of a headache. I asked for her to be taken into town to the doctor and checked up, but the principal over-ruled me and out her to bed because she "had 'flu" - 'flu had been running through the community. Next morning she was dead. Bacterial Meningitis. My other reason is because for ten years I was 'Padre' (chaplain) to the Vietnam Veterans Motorcycle Club here in Australia - an honour I shall treasure always - and those boys helped me to understand the frustrations and hurts of being a 'Vet' HOWEVER - back to the really bad songs - especially mawky ones: You can't bring up all these 'stinkers' and NOT add in "The Son of Hickory Hollis' Tramp" And if were gonna completely gross out the readers and cite "Don't Worry Be Happy" then I have just three words for y'all: "ACHY BREAKY HEART" Date: 05 Feb 06 - 02:26 AM or......... TELL LAURA I LOVE HER Ray Peterson Laura and Tommy were lovers He wanted to give her everything Flowers, presents and most of all, a wedding ring He saw a sign for a stock car race A thousand dollar prize it read He couldn't get Laura on the phone So to her mother Tommy said Tell Laura I love her, tell Laura I need her Tell Laura I may be late I've something to do, that cannot wait He drove his car to the racing grounds He was the youngest driver there The crowed roared as they started the race 'Round the track they drove at a deadly pace No one knows what happened that day How his car overturned in flames But as they pulled him from the twisted wreck With his dying breath, they heard him say Tell Laura I love her, tell Laura I need her Tell Laura not to cry My love for her will never die And in the chapel where Laura prays For Tommy who passed away It was just for Laura he lived and died Alone in the chapel she can hear him cry Tell Laura I love her, tell Laura I need her Tell Laura not to cry My love for her will never die Tell Laura I love her..... From: GUEST,Raven's Wing Date: 05 Feb 06 - 02:38 AM I'm not sure if this fits in here. It's a completely different kind of song from those others. But it is unusual. WIGGLE WIGGLE (Bob Dylan) Wiggle, wiggle, wiggle like a gypsy queen, Wiggle, wiggle, wiggle all dressed in green, Wiggle, wiggle, wiggle 'til the moon is blue, Wiggle 'til the moon sees you. Wiggle, wiggle, wiggle in your boots and shoes, Wiggle, wiggle, wiggle, you got nothing to lose, Wiggle, wiggle, wiggle, like a swarm of bees, Wiggle on your hands and knees. Wiggle to the front, wiggle to the rear, Wiggle 'til you wiggle right out of here, Wiggle 'til it opens, wiggle 'til it shuts, Wiggle 'til it bites, wiggle 'til it cuts. Wiggle, wiggle, wiggle like a bowl of soup, Wiggle, wiggle, wiggle like a rolling hoop, Wiggle, wiggle, wiggle like a ton of lead, Wiggle - you can raise the dead. Wiggle 'til you're high, wiggle 'til you're higher, Wiggle 'til you vomit fire, Wiggle 'til it whispers, wiggle 'til it hums, Wiggle 'til it answers, wiggle 'til it comes. Wiggle, wiggle, wiggle like satin and silk, Wiggle, wiggle, wiggle like a pail of milk, Wiggle, wiggle, wiggle, rattle and shake, Wiggle like a big fat snake. I wonder what Bob had on his mind? Maybe it's about Jim Bakker or something. Date: 05 Feb 06 - 07:16 AM Here's another that deserves a spot in the pantheon of dyspepsia. Wolverton Mountain They say don't go on Wolverton Mountain, if you're looking for a wife. 'Cause Clifton Clowers has a pretty young daughter, he's mighty handy with a gun and a knife. Her tender lips are sweeter than honey And Wolverton Mountain protects her there. The bears and birds tell Clifton Clowers If a stranger should wander there. All of my dreams are on Wolverton Mountain. I want his daughter for my wife. I'll take my chances and climb that mountain Though Clilfton Clowers, he may take my life Her tender lips .... I'm going up on Wolverton Mountain, It's too lonely downhere below. It's just not right to hide his daughter From the one who loves her so. Her tender lips ... But I don't care about Clifton Clowers, I'm gonna climb up on his mountain, I'm gonna take the girl I love. I don't care about Clifton Clowers, I'm gonna climb up on his mountain, I'm gonna take the girl I love. Date: 05 Feb 06 - 08:10 AM All right - take THIS! TOTAL ECLIPSE OF THE HEART (Bonnie Tyler ) Turnaround, every now and then I get a little bit lonely and you're never coming around Turnaround, Every now and then I get a little bit tired of listening to the sound of my tears Turnaround, Every now and then I get a little bit nervous that the best of all the years have gone by Turnaround, Every now and then I get a little bit terrified and then I see the look in your eyes Turnaround bright eyes, Every now and then I fall apart Turnaround bright eyes, Every now and then I fall apart Turnaround, Every now and then I get a little bit restless and I dream of something wild Turnaround, Every now and then I get a little bit helpless and I'm lying like a child in your arms Turnaround, Every now and then I get a little bit angry and I know I've got to get out and cry Turnaround, Every now and then I get a little bit terrified but then I see the look in your eyes Turnaround bright eyes, Every now and then I fall apart Turnaround bright eyes, Every now and then I fall apart And I need you now tonight And I need you more than ever And if you'll only hold me tight We'll be holding on forever And we'll only be making it right Cause we'll never be wrong together We can take it to the end of the line Your love is like a shadow on me all of the time I don't know what to do and I'm always in the dark We're living in a powder keg and giving off sparks I really need you tonight Forever's gonna start tonight Once upon a time I was falling in love But now I'm only falling apart There's nothing I can do A total eclipse of the heart Once upon a time there was light in my life But now there's only love in the dark Nothing I can say A total eclipse of the heart Turnaround bright eyes Turnaround, every now and then I know you'll never be the boy you always you wanted to be Turnaround, every now and then I know you'll always be the only boy who wanted me the way that I am Turnaround, every now and then I know there's no one in the universe as magical and wonderous as you Turnaround, every now and then I know there's nothing any better and there's nothing I just wouldn't do Turnaround bright eyes, Every now and then I fall apart Turnaround bright eyes, Every now and then I fall apart And I need you now tonight And I need you more than ever And if you'll only hold me tight We'll be holding on forever And we'll only be making it right Cause we'll never be wrong together We can take it to the end of the line Your love is like a shadow on me all of the time I don't know what to do and I'm always in the dark We're living in a powder keg and giving off sparks I really need you tonight Forever's gonna start tonight Once upon a time I was falling in love But now I'm only falling apart There's nothing I can do A total eclipse of the heart Once upon a time there was light in my life But now there's only love in the dark Nothing I can say Date: 05 Feb 06 - 08:25 AM For all you horrid people who have done that to my digestion, here is alanabit's revenge! Sugar Sugar - The Archies You are my candy girl And you've got me wanting you. Honey, ah sugar sugar You are my candy girl And you've got me wanting you. I just can't believe the loveliness of loving you (I just can't believe it's true) I just can't believe the one to love this feeling to. (I just can't believe it's true) Ah sugar, ah honey honey You are my candy girl And you've got me wanting you. Ah honey, ah sugar sugar You are my candy girl And you've got me wanting you. When I kissed you, girl, I knew how sweet a kiss could be (I know how sweet a kiss can be) Like the summer sunshine pour your sweetness over me (Pour your sweetness over me) Sugar, pour a little sugar on it honey, Pour a little sugar on it baby I'm gonna make your life so sweet, yeah yeah yeah Pour a little sugar on it oh yeah Pour a little sugar on it honey, Pour a little sugar on it baby I'm gonna make your life so sweet, yeah yeah yeah Pour a little sugar on it honey, Ah sugar, ah honey honey You are my candy girl And you've got me wanting you. Oh honey, honey, sugar sugar .. You are my candy girl .. Date: 05 Feb 06 - 05:29 PM Hey wait a minute! Wolverton Mountain! I love that one! I like to stop after the line about the bears and the birds telling Clifton Clowers that someone's coming and give a little demonstration. Think about it. You can use mime. That's the obvious because it gets past the language translation problem. Or Bear: GRRRRRRR! Wooof. GRR GRR! Clowers: What's that? A stranger you say? Bear: GRRRRRRRRRRRRRRRR! Clowers: I surely am glad I've got you to warn me! Bird: Tweeeeeeeeeeet! Clowers: Coming to get my daughter? We'll have to see about that! Bird: TWEEEEEEEEEEEEET! Clowers: My gun! Thanks bird. Cheers, Joy Date: 05 Feb 06 - 07:54 PM Aw shucks, I like "Total Eclipse..." How's this: Fooled Around And Fell In Love Elvin Bishop I must've been through about a million girls I love 'em and I leave 'em alone I didn't care how much they cried, on sir Their tears left me cold as a stone But then I fooled around and fell in love I fooled around and fell in love I fooled around and fell in love I fooled around and fell in love Used to feel that I'd see the girl that I like I fill in my book and I write down her name The grass got a little greener on the other side I just tear off a page, hey... (Repeat ) That's the way I used to be Oh since I met you baby Love got a hold of me (Repeat ) From: Muttley Date: 06 Feb 06 - 12:32 AM I happen to like Green Green Grass of Home - it's sickly sweet, yeah! I'll grant that but at least it's got a LITTLE bit of genuine pathos - if you want truly regurgative prison fare - Yellow Ribbon was a stinker that has become ridiculously cliched by the number of times captives of any sort receive homecomings to gazillions of yellow ribbons tied around anything upright - - - including the welcoming committee! And as for this thread being ridiculous - I humbly beg to differ - no, screw it - You're wrong - it's not ridiculous it's a lot of fun. If the truth be told, once upon a time we probably secretly LIKED all those songs that now make us nauseated - that's half the fun of it (OK - Achy Breaky Heart was never loved by ANYone - - - - - EVER - except mabe Billy Ray Cyrus; and with a name like that he deserved to like it) Mutt Date: 06 Feb 06 - 08:08 PM Convoy By Bill Fries & Chip Davis -------------------------------------------------------------------------------- Uh, Breaker One-Nine, this here's the Rubber Duck You got a copy on me Pig-Pen? C'mon Uh, yeah 10-4 Pig Pen, fer sure, fer sure By golly it's clean clear to Flag-Town, C'mon Uh, yeah, that's a big 10-4 Pig-Pen, Yeah, we definitely got us the front door good buddy, Mercy sakes alive, looks like we got us a convoy Was the dark of the moon, on the sixth of June In a Kenworth, pullin' logs Cabover Pete with a reefer on And a Jimmy haulin' hogs We 'as headin' fer bear on I-One-Oh 'Bout a mile outta Shaky-Town I sez Pig-Pen, this here's the Rubber Duck An' I'm about to put the hammer on down Cause we gotta little ol' convoy, rockin' through the night Yeah we gotta little ol' convoy, ain't she a beautiful sight? Come on an' join our convoy, ain't nothin' gonna git in our way We're gonna roll this truckin' convoy, cross the USA Convoy... Convoy... Uh, breaker Pig-Pen, this here's The Duck Uh, you wanna back off them hogs 10-4, 'bout five mile or so, 10-roger Them hogs is gittin' in-tense up here By the time we got into Tulsa-Town We had eighty-five trucks in all But they's a road block up on the clover leaf An' them bears 'as wall to wall Yeah them smokies 'as thick as bugs on a bumper They even had a bear-in-the-air I sez callin' all trucks, this here's The Duck We about to go a huntin' bear Cause we gotta great big convoy, rockin' through the night Yeah we gotta great big convoy, ain't she a beautiful sight? Come on an' join our convoy, ain't nothin' gonna git in our way We're gonna roll this truckin' convoy, cross the USA Convoy... Convoy... Uh, you wanna give me a 10-9 on that Pig-Pen? Uh, negatory Pig-Pen, yer still too close Yeah, them hogs is startin' close up my sinuses Mercy sakes, you better back off another ten Well we rolled up interstate fourty-four Like a rocket sled on rails We tore up all a our swindle sheets An' left 'em settin' on the scales By the time we hit that Chi-Town Them bears was a gittin' smart They'd brought up some reinforcements From the Illinois National Guard There 'as armored cars, and tanks, and Jeeps An' rigs of every size Yeah them chicken coops 'as full a bears An' choppers filled the skies Well we shot the line, an' we went for broke With a thousand screamin' trucks And eleven long-haired friends of Jesus In a chartreusse microbus You wanna put that microbus in behind the suicide jockey? Yeah, he's haulin dynamite He needs all the help he can git Well we laid a strip fer the Jersey Shore An' prepared to cross the line I could see the bridge 'as lined with bears But I didn't have a doggone dime I sez Pig-Pen, this here's the Rubber Duck We just ain't a gonna pay no toll So we crashed the gate doin' ninety-eight I sez, let them truckers roll, 10-4 Cause we gotta mighty convoy, rockin' through the night Yeah we gotta mighty convoy, ain't she a beautiful sight? Come on an' join our convoy, ain't nothin' gonna git in our way We're gonna roll this truckin' convoy, cross the USA Convoy... Convoy... Uh, 10-4 Pig-Pen, what's yer 20? Omaha?! Well they oughta know what to do with them hogs out there fer sure Well mercy sakes alive good buddy We gonna back on outta here So keep the bugs off yer glass An' the bears off yer... tail We gonna catch ya on the flip-flop This here's the Rubber Duck on the side We gone From: Metchosin Date: 10 Feb 06 - 12:18 PM Tunesmith, same here, but not because of the song, although I thought of it at the time. I stayed at wonderfully romantic, grungy low rent place, called the (Hotel Le Suede?) on the Boulevard Saint-Michel near Place (Pigalle?) with a view of the Seine and Nortre Dame. I did so, at the specific request of an old boss, who asked when I got there, if I would go to Notre Dame and ask the nuns on the right (as opposed to the nuns on the left) to light candles for his daughter who had died or been killed when very young. It always seemed a very enigmatic request and because of the quirkiness of the song as well, the two have always been linked in my mind. From: Joybell Date: 10 Feb 06 - 04:38 PM Muttley, I actually don't really know what it was about Great Uncle Walter. He was my Grandmother's brother. I was doing family research when I found him. In the few photos I have of him he's got a silly sort of grin. I found a few letters that mentioned him. They contained phrases like, "Walter is doing quite well and he's very happy." A daughter of another of his sisters told me he was always wandering off in the bush and coming back tattered. (Not actually with bear-hairs perhaps). She said children just adored him. When my grandmother had a baby, in her nearby home, Great Uncle Walter was sent to register her. There are several very obvious mistakes on the certificate. He may have just been a bit "slow" - as they would have put it. Or - there is mention that he suffered epileptic fits. I've wondered if he wandered off after those - possibly in a confused state. He never married and died young - in his 30s. Not much evidence I grant you, but along with the name, it's enough for me to attach "Waltzing with Bears" to him. Cheers, Joy From: Muttley Date: 10 Feb 06 - 07:22 PM Dear Joybell - a lovely story - both of them. If you don't mind a little observation here: Your great uncle sounds like he was a tad 'eccentric'. If so he may have actually been an Asperger's affected person. Such people act the way you have described, children tend to be attracted to them because of their child-like openness and often obsessive focussing on subjects that frequently appeal to children themselves ie trains, dinosaurs, letterboxes - - -anything really. I have a very deep and sensitive 'soft-spot' for "Aspies"; as they are known to their families and selves. The reason being that I have one son who is extremely mildly Asperger and another wh is quite profoundly Asperger (bordering on high-functioning Autistic) while I, myself am somewhere in between. My obsessions are music (though I can't read or write it, I can play the guitar and recorder and didjeridu and am learning the Low Pipe (though the guitar has suffered as a result of head injuries the result of which I forgot how to play and had to relearn in a far more simple manner). As for the lady who kept looking for the unlocked door - I suggest watching the Australian 'claymation' short film: "Harvey Krumpet" - it's about a young chap, obviously an Autistic Spectrum person with Tourettes who ends up in a nursing home with several Alzheimer's patients. Sadly and beautifully poignant - won an Oscar a few years ago. Worth a watch if you haven't already seen it. Cool Beans, your wife would love it too. If you can't get it where you are, let me know and I shall try over here for you - send me a PM if you want to take it 'off thread'. Tunesmith: We were recently in Paris as well but I didn't get to walk down the Boulevard Saint Michel - much as that was one of my goals. I think we did drive a bit of it on a coach, though. I too, must admit to loving this song - don't know why, but it's just beautifully haunting to me - especially with the accordion (of course my wife is French so that may have a bearing, though I loved it even before I met her just over 30 years ago. However for many years I was unable to listen to it - though I had it on record AND tape: You see, I used to be paramedic and on one aoocasion I was called (with my partner) to an "unconscious infant" south of Melbourne in one of the bayside suburbs. Lovely house, young 'semi-professional'-type couple, with a young daughter (first and only child). When we got there the babe was not unconscious, but in fact deceased (SIDS - "cot death"). She was a gorgeous little girl and looked like she was asleep. And her name was Marie Claire - after the song! After that, for many years, just the sound of the opening bars was enough to reduce me to tears. - that was in 1984/5 or thereabouts. Lately, with my busking, I have included the song, but I have to precede and follow it with "happy" songs or I just start to falter on the lines "So look into my face marie Claire . . . . " If I'm not careful the image of that child as a young woman (she'd be 21, now) swims up and overwhelms me, even now. Funny I can't recall ANY of those whose lives I saved (and there were literally a few hundred) but quite a few of those we 'lost' still haunt me! Could someone send me the lyrics and chords to "Bears" and let me know where I can hear the tune. Muttley From: Joybell Date: 10 Feb 06 - 08:28 PM Muttley, such a sad and lovely story. Thank you so much for sharing it. Have we crossed paths I wonder? I was a busker in Melbourne for several years back in the 80s. I also have a background in the medical profession and have memories that trigger overwhelming responses. Actually one of mine includes a bear - speaking of waltzing with them. One morning my friend called me to her home. Her baby had died as the result of SIDS. She was trained in first aid but there had been nothing she could do. While we waited for the ambulance I was sitting, by myself, in the children's room with the baby on my lap. Her two-year-old sister wandered in, looked at us and picked up the baby's Teddy bear from the crib. "My Teddy now!" she said to me. "..... would like that." I said. "Take good care of him". Joy Muttley are you still in Melbourne. There's a wonderful festival next weekend just East of there. I could sing "Waltzing with Bears" for you if you'd like to meet me there. Cheers Joy From: Muttley Date: 11 Feb 06 - 05:31 AM PS - I've only been busking in the last 8 months or so - never had the confidence to do it before - and since beoming an ABI thanks to the m/cycle accident and forgetting how to play; I had to relearn - very simplified. Can't barre chord or fingerpick any more and I cant remember chordings - even to songs I know well so I print up all the songs I can do with a line of lyric and the corrsponding chords placed above where the changes occur - and so I've taught myself to read two lines at once and play the chords as I go. Probably seen as cheating in some circles - but at least I still have some music left! I busk because I love to play - the coin I get is just a bonus. From: Muttley Date: 11 Feb 06 - 07:50 AM Sorry; just realised when writing about Asperger's I stopped the 'obsessions' bit at music! D'oh (Simpsons is NOT one of them - though it and Futurama and comics DEFINITELY are for my youngest - the severly Aspie one) My other obsessions are, Dinosaurs couple of hundred models and figurines / realistic toys as well as over 50 texts and 200 plus 'other' books, magazines and video's. World War II aeroplanes (all nations) , German tanks and artillery in scale models + some battleships. Books - especially Tolkien, Anne McCaffrey, David Eddings, Terry Pratchett, Douglas Adams, and several others Finally - History - ancient Rome & Egypt and Britain / Europe up to about the end of the Tudor Period Anyway - let's get back to torturing one another with awful songs :-) Muttley From: Ian Burdon Date: 13 Oct 07 - 02:46 PM Tunesmith wrote:- "Interestingly, Sacha Distel was just an obscure ex-boyfiend of Brigitte Bardot when the song came out. Later, of course, he became quite a big star in the UK." In the late fifties/early sixties he was quite the rising star on jazz guitar and it is said that the relationship with La Bardot was terminated when she realised that he was beginning to catch up with her in the fame stakes. In France he was sufficiently well known and respected for George Brassens to give him a song (Le Myosotis) Anyway, I've enjoyed reading through this thread and to add to all of the above highlights of popular song would offer the following which UK and OZ readers will recognise immediately. Feel free to sing along; one, two, three... Two little boys had two little toys Each had a wooden horse Gaily they played each summer's day Warriors both of course One little chap then had a mishap Broke off his horse's head Wept for his toy then cried with joy As his young playmate said Did you think I would leave you crying When there's room on my horse for two Climb up here Jack and don't be crying I can go just as fast with two When we grow up we'll both be soldiers And our horses will not be toys And I wonder if we'll remember When we were two little boys Long years had passed, war came so fast Bravely they marched away Cannon roared loud, and in the mad crowd Wounded and dying lay Up goes a shout, a horse dashes out Out from the ranks so blue Gallops away to where Joe lay Then came a voice he knew Did you think I would leave you dying When there's room on my horse for two Climb up here Joe, we'll soon be flying I can go just as fast with two Did you say Joe I'm all a-tremble Perhaps it's the battle's noise But I think it's that I remember When we were two little boys Do you think I would leave you dying There's room on my horse for two Climb up here Joe, we'll soon by flying Back to the ranks so blue Can you feel Joe I'm all a tremble Perhaps it's the battle's noise But I think it's that I remember When we were two little boys You may think that I'm talking foolish You've heard that I'm wild and I'm free You may wonder how I can promise you now This love that I feel for you Always will be You're not just time that I'm killing I'm no longer one of those guys As sure as live This love that I give Is gonna be yours until the day that I die Oh baby I'm gonna love you forever Forever and ever, amen As long as old men sit and talk about the weather As long as old women sit and talk about old men If you wonder how long I'll be faithful (I'll be happy to tell you again/Just listen to how this song ends) I'm gonna love you From: Little Hawk Date: 18 Nov 08 - 12:21 AM It's fun to read over some of this thread again. I have to say that one of the aforementioned songs, Bonnie Tyler's "Total Eclipse of the Heart" is one of the most spectacular examples of wretchedly bad, horribly melodramatic lyrical and emotive excess that has ever been heard in the annals of recorded music. It's downright astonishing. I used to hear it occasionally on some radio station or other and I would always sort of freeze and just listen...in a state of mixed horror and fascination. Kind of like you just can't avoid looking at a grisly auto accident as you pass by... Wouldn't she get a little embarrassed to sing that song? Well, I guess not, but who knows? Maybe her agent said, "This will make you a ton of money." ;-) From: GUEST Date: 18 Nov 08 - 01:27 AM I have a 45rpm of Peter Sarstedt (United Artists UP35041) released 1969 the A side is "As Though It Were A Movie" from the album of the same name, the B side of that is TAKE OFF YOUR CLOTHES as mentioned earlier. I just played it again and was reminded how controversial it was at the time, at least as far as the BBC were concerned. It's still a nice quite chirpy tongue in cheek little number. I like it. PETER SARSTEDT. TAKE OFF YOUR CLOTHES Take off your clothes let me see what it is that you're hiding And don't look so shocked you have nothing to fear from my eyes My daddy is a priest you know And I am not a beast you know I just want to look I just want to look So take off your clothes and stand naked as nature intended And I'll take off mine just to show you that I'm in good faith My daddy is a priest you know And I am not a beast you know I just want to look I just want to look Well now you can see that it isn't as bad as all that So lie on the bed and I'll talk of my unhappy childhood My daddy is the pope you know And I just want to grope you know No, I just want to love Yes I just want to love Well it will not hurt you I promise you that cross my heart The first time is always the best you can ask anybody, ask your mother My daddy is a priest you know And I am not a beast you know I just want to feel I just want to feel Well how can you say that I brought you here just for one purpose There's thousands of girls I could get if I just wanted that, yes there are My daddy is a priest you know And I am not a beast you know I just want to love I just want to love Well how does it feel now that you are no longer a maiden What do you mean you want more and you want it right now, oh my God My daddy is a priest you know And I am not a beast you know I just want to sleep I just want to sleep Take off your clothes let me see what it is that you're hiding And don't look so shocked you have nothing to fear from my eyes whb From: GUEST Date: 12 Jun 10 - 08:32 AM Where do you go to my lovely , pure unadulterated shite and a staple for woeful buskers down through the years. Regardless of who it may or may not have been about it , it was/is an exercise in namedropping in an effort to sound sophisticated, any reader of Jackie could have done the job had it needed to be done. The Romeo and Juliet . Dire Straits number at least had the good grace not to name drop and of course had a decent bit of music to it, It is high time that John Otway gave it the treatment as he has done so admirably with "I will Survive", "Honey", and of course "Two Little Boys" in the right hands these songs are masterpieces and Mr Otway has those hands. http: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=b_cE6I5V-bY From: GUEST,ruairiobroin Date: 13 Jun 10 - 02:33 PM Sorry Tug the Cox I got signed as "guest" whilst giving out about Where do you go to my lovely What I said I probably said 40 years ago too. Schmoltz does not improve with age . I was attending Folk clubs back then and there were lots of acts regularly appearing in folk clubs with and without accordions who had well constructed meaningful songs to sing and play that are never heard now, more's the pity, it's a shame that shite like that song will never die It has always sounded to me that someone who had only a tenuous grasp of the English language an iffy understanding of music , a copy of a "Write your own Folksong" book and a friend in a record company was behind it. On the basis of what I have read above I remain to be convinced otherwise. Murray MacLeod I think that may have been Matt McGinn Throw the other shite to Otway http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XPPm7CVP6Bk From: Cretzon Date: 13 Jun 10 - 03:31 PM "Pure unadulterated shite" sounds like a euphemism for "wish I'd thought of it, but didn't have the talent, and probably never will have". OK - easy to knock it 41 years later if you've got nothing better to do, but it made the artist and a few others a bit of fame and money, stayed in the charts for 16 weeks (four of them at number one)and obviously kept Joe Public happy for a while, or they wouldn't have bought it by the ton. It won the Ivor Novello award, as well, as I remember. Hardly shite. If it was about anything it was probably about envy and jealousy. From: puck Date: 22 Jul 10 - 10:40 AM I'd have to say first of all that I love 'Where do you go to', and regard it as an iconic song of it's time. I love lyrics that tell a tale and even at the time it came out I understood the lyrics and references to Zizzy, Belmain etc. I'd also like to say that considering you all seem to HATE the songs mentioned on this thread many of you seem to know ALL the lyrics [ very sad!!]; or have researched them to post them here [even sadder!!], and, by including the lyrics for all to see, are doing a fine job of advertising them, even in a negative light, you help to ensure their longevity! I also have to own up to liking 'The green green grass of home'.....but then I'm Welsh and whilst it's very sad that not everyone is lucky enough to be 'cymro' and I pity those of you who are not....but then you can't be all perfect!! I got the last bit in b4 you lot From: GUEST,Patsy Warren Date: 23 Jul 10 - 07:23 AM This is a coincidence I was having this very same conversation with my son who unfortunately has this on a 60's compilation CD. I wonder what was inside his head when he wrote it! I know Rita Heyworth had something going with the Aga Khan but I don't recall her sounding like Marlena Dietrich and I am sure she didn't come from Naples. Surely Peter Sarstedt's big brother Eden Cane would have been more likely the age to fancy Sophia Loren. Perhaps she turned one of them down and it was a bit of sour grapes, a little bit like You're so Vain by Carly Simon From: Little Hawk Date: 29 Dec 10 - 12:19 AM John Otway's attempt to parody Dylan does have some of the typical Dylanesque vocal exaggerations stretched to a pretty ridiculous extent...as was clearly Otway's intention...and it's a piss poor and wretched attempt to sound like Bob Dylan, in my opinion. ;-) He manages to be a lot more annoying than Bob at his very worst. That also was probably his intention, so I guess he sort of succeeded...but I'm not impressed. You want to hear a really good parody? Check out this marvelous parody of Neil Young: Southern California Brings Me Down Now THAT is a good parody. It's tuneful, and it's fun to listen to. It catches virtually every Neil-Youngish kind of riff and wordplay you can name, and it does so in an affectionate manner. It's not bloody annoying and mean-spirited like Otway's tuneless mangling imitation of Bob Dylan's most aggressive vocal phrasings. (However, I bet Otway had fun doing it.) From: Little Hawk Date: 29 Dec 10 - 03:17 AM I have listened to Peter Sarstedt doing the title song of this thread on Youtube before an apparently lobotomized crowd of late 1960s young people who dance vapidly around on the dance floor seeming quite unconscious of the lyrics while he sings the song earnestly at them from the raised stage. Interesting. He sings it quite well. While it does seem affected and pretentious in one sense...from another angle, I can see why some people really like it. It is unique, and it has a kind of interesting tune and overall effect. Date: 29 Dec 10 - 07:20 AM LH, you're right: it was the tune and Sarstedt's voice that made the hit. But indeed, the lyrics made a lot of sense to us back in 1969 (though I never liked them). In a nutshell, the song is about "class treason". Its story is ficticious (as the woman turns out to be the narrator's childhood friend in Naples, where Sarstedt never lived), but the attributes were well-known from the yellow press in Europe, about Loren and other members of the "jet set". These attributes included a fashionable fake bohemianism represented by Rolling Stones records etc. A member of the working class would be allowed to become educated and successful, but mingling with representatives of crudest capitalism like Aga Khan was a capital sin. It is however a particular weakness of these lyrics that they convey envy as well. The real haut monde, of course, would smirk at Sarstedt's vulgar yellow-press clichés. The times, they have a-changed since, but not completely. Date: 30 Dec 10 - 12:25 PM Well put, Grishka. Ray - Sure...it could take about 10 minutes to write that song. Why not? Most of the songs I've written have happened very quickly. We're not all like Leonard Cohen (who says he takes months or even years to finish writing some of his songs). Most of Bob Dylan's great songs were written down in a quick flash of inspiration, so why would it have taken Sarstedt very long to write "Where Do You Go To, My Lovely"? This stuff just springs out of the subconscious and you have to be attentive and get it down fast when it happens...at least that's how it works for me. What's interesting about the song, though, is not how long it might have taken to write it, but what Grishka had to say in his last post. He has explained it perfectly, in my opinion. It's about "class treason", as he says. It's about selling out for personal gain. It makes me think of someone like Veronica Lodge in the Archie comics, only she was born rich. ;-) So she couldn't commit class treason by joining the jet set. The weakness of the song, again as Grishka says, is the undercurrent of envy that weaves through it. A true social revolutionary is not supposed to envy the material advantages of jet set fame and fortune, he is supposed to despise and reject them utterly...otherwise he has slipped from revolutionary grace, hasn't he? ;-) These were important issues in the 60s. From: GUEST,Grishka Date: 31 Dec 10 - 05:56 AM I think we are not looking for "deeper" meanings, but for ideas and feelings that seemed self-evident in those days but should now be explained to younger persons (such as LH, judged by his appearance on U2be). Also, some aspects were specific to Europe. (Actually, in 1969 I was a young boy myself and hardly understood a word of English, but I lived near Paris in the 1970s.) Certainly the lyrics lack finish. A line like "They say that when you get married it'll be to a millionaire" is ridiculous by any standard. Perhaps Sarstedt was ashamed of it lateron. The story had obviously grown inside him for a long time, maybe reading the yellow press at the hairdresser's, so it just fell off when ripe. If I understand LH correctly, he is trying to check the songs and ideas of the past for their relevance today, which I find quite worth the while. If the old recipes do not seem very useful today, we may at least avoid repeating some of the old errors. From: Little Hawk Date: 31 Dec 10 - 09:42 AM The reason I asked, Ray, was because different people write songs in different ways. Some people write very deliberately, with the conscious mind....they decide they are going to write about some specific thing: like a breakup with their girlfriend or an antiwar statement or whatever... And other people write spontaneously and instinctively, without any prior calculation or expectation of what's going to happen (that's how I do it, and I've written hundreds of songs that way). And still others write with a combination of prior mental calculation plus spontaneity/instinctively (I've done that occasionally). I find that the stuff that is written on the spot with no prior idea of even what the song is going to be about...surprisingly, perhaps...results in far superior songwriting. And why? Because what you are writing when you write that way springs straight out of the vast well of your own subconxcious (or if you are mystically inclined...from some source that is beyond even you). You just have to relax, get your mind out of the way, and let it happen. And it's great. It wouldn't surprise me a bit if Sarstedt got the tune and musical arrangement in a minute, and the lyrics in 7 or 8 minutes. That would be pretty normal, as far as I'm concerned. Now, the point is, when stuff rises instinctively out of your own subconscious, it has all kinds of meanings in it. It relates to all kinds of stuff that's been bubbling around in the back of your mind, maybe for years, maybe for most of your life. And it just happens. Whether Sarstedt had any conscious intention to say anything in those lyrics, he still has said something regardless. And he's touched on some interesting issues there, regardless. It may have meant nothing to him at the time on a conscious level, but it still has meaning, regardless. In my opinion. ;-) And it doesn't hurt you or anybody else if I find some meaning in his song. But I didn't start this thread with any intention of provoking dissertations on the deep meaning of the song. I just wanted to see if anyone else remembered it, because it was on the radio so much in 1970 that it really started to bug me. ;-) And that was why I launched the thread. Period. It then went where it would, as threads tend to do. ***** Grishka - Don't let my looks deceive you. I am 62 years old this year. I only wish I was as young as I appear to be. It would be nice. From: lefthanded guitar Date: 27 Sep 11 - 01:04 PM Little Hawk I am engaged by your description of the songwriting process. It is for many songwriters (Dylan and myself included, tho I don't of course put myself in the same class as Dylan) something that springs from the subconscious and brings the influences of years of living and thinking and feeling. I saw this thread and remembered the guy who sang this song when I was living in a small college town. I think the song still has a valid perspective, even if it's not as well crafted as other songs on the topic by the likes of Dylan or Ochs. The thing is only that (many of ) our generation that has moved on from that mindset -but I'm not sure the song is as dated as we may think. What the song reminds me most,however, is recalling the community of people I knew in grad school,one foot in school the other in the work world; living in flimsy flats, hair long and tangled;rejoicing in the freedom of young adulthood but searching for love and struggling to find our way in life. Was friendship ever so valued and betrayal ever so scorned as it was in those days of the dawn of our maturity? And when we believed, at the time, (as Nanci Griffith observed years later in Julie Gold's "Goodnight New York" ) that "having less meant knowing more."	Where Do You Go To (My Lovely)%3F
What was the name of the treaty that was signed by Belgium, France, Italy, Luxembourg Netherlands and West Germany on March 25th 1957 that was an international agreement That led to the founding of the EEC ?	Streets \| On Books, Streets & Migrant Footprints \| Page 7 19th century , Avant Garde , Cultural history , Streets Rue Lepic is an ancient winding road in Montmartre, climbing the steep hill from the Boulevard de Clichy to the Place Jean-Baptiste-Clément. Having been given various names previously, in 1864 the street was renamed after General Louis Lepic, a hero of the Napoleonic Wars (and of the Polish Campaign in particular). The street is famous for its steep hill. Louis Renault built his first car in 1898, calling his car the ‘Voiturette’. On 24 December 1898, he won a bet with his friends that his invention was capable of driving up the slope of Rue Lepic. As well as winning the bet, Renault received twelve orders for the vehicle. From 1886 to 1888, Vincent van Gogh and his brother Theo lived on the third floor of the property at no. 54. In the spring of 1887 he painted an image of Paris as seen from his room in the Rue Lepic. It was during this period that Vincent changed his painting style from the dark Belgo-Dutch browns and blacks to bright impressionist colours. For much of his live novelist Louis-Ferdinand Céline lived for much of his life at no. 98 Rue Lepic, opposite the Moulin de la Galette. He mentions the street in several of his novels. Yves Montand dedicated to this road his charming song ‘Rue Lepic’ which features on the 1974 album Yves Montand. It ends with the lines: Et la rue Vers ses moulins si beaux Ses moulins tout là-haut Rue Lepic. Since the Middle Ages there have been windmills on the hill of Montmartre and in the seventeenth century there were at least thirty. The mills were used to grind the corn grown on the plain of Saint Denis, north of Montmartre (now the location of the Stade de France). At the time of Claude Renoir’s death in 1919 nearly all the windmills had disappeared as Paris expanded and the old cornfields were sold off as building plots. The few remaining mills were turned into cabarets and restaurants. Its more recent past saw Claude Monet, Vincent van Gogh, Pablo Picasso, Salvador Dali, Amedeo Modigliani, Piet Mondrian and others calling Montmartre their home. Around the same time the Basilica of the Sacré Coeur rose from its highest point, memorializing losses suffered during the 1871 Franco-Prussian war and the end of the Paris Commune. This white basilica has dominated the Parisian skyline since 1914. It was dedicated to the 58,000 who lost their lives in the conflict. For many Parisians a trip to Montmartre was an escape, a place to have fun out of sight of relations and enquiring neighbours. The main attraction was the Moulin de Galette, a windmill situated near the top of Montmartre. The name is based on a popular brown bread or galette that was produced by the nineteenth century miller family of Debray. Initially it was sold with a glass of milk. As the nearby fields were replaced with housing and factories, Nicholas Charles Debray sought commercial opportunities to remain in business. One of the mills was turned into a viewing tower and a dance hall was opened adjacently. People came to the Moulin for entertainment and dancing. It became an outlet for Parisian pleasure-seekers to enjoy a glass of local wine (rather than milk), freshly baked bread and a terrace view of city and Seine below. A number of artists have immortalized the Moulin de la Galette. The earliest and most notable image was was Renoir’s atmospheric 1876 oil on canvas painting ‘Bal du Moulin de la Galette’, one of the masterpieces of early Impressionism. This painting is his most important work of the mid 1870s and was shown at the Impressionist exhibition in 1877. Though some of his friends appear in the picture, Renoir’s main aim was to convey the vivacious Sunday afternoon atmosphere of the dance garden on the Butte Montmartre. This snapshot of the moving crowd, bathed in natural and artificial light, is depicted with brightly coloured and fluid brushstrokes. Van Gogh completed his version of the Moulin in 1886 whilst living in the Rue Lepic. Painting outdoors encouraged him to explore the effects of natural light and the result is a luminous palette that departs from his usual sombre tones. Toulouse-Lautrec painted the Moulin de la Galette in 1889, thirteen years after Renoir, but he adopted the same angle of people sitting at tables enjoying the music and dancing in the background. He however uses darker colours and does not focus on the faces of the people, whereas Renoir painted almost every figure looking directly at the viewer. Renoir’s work seems more staged. It seems as if the company of revellers is posing for a photographer. Picasso created his image of the mill in 1900. His depiction of lamps burning in darkness and women wearing lipstick and striking outfits portray a different ambience than Renoir’s. But in his case too, the painting resembles a stage performance. Looking towards the viewer, his figures pose as if they are keen to give their identity away. One year earlier, Dutch painter Kees van Dongen had settled in Paris and became a resident of the Bateau-Lavoir in Montmartre. In the early years of the century the poet Max Jacob had the name Bateau-Lavoir to a conglomeration of artists’ studios in Montmartre, at the top of the steps leading to no. 13 Rue Ravignan. They were situated in a shaded square which later took the name of the singer Émile Goudeau. It was a gloomy heap of dark and dirty premises made of beams and planks. On stormy days they swayed and creaked so dangerously on their uncertain foundations that they reminded one of the washing-boats on the Seine – hence the name. Between 1904 and 1914 an extraordinary number of outstanding artists, poets and authors settled here. The list of occupiers of the building is like a comprehensive index of modernist artists in the years preceding World War I, extending from Picasso, Braque, Modigliani, to Apollinaire, Jarry, and Cocteau. It was in this milieu that Picasso first discussed Cubism. Picasso’s studio was next to Van Dongen, and the two became close friends. Van Dongen painted ‘Le Moulin de la Galette’ in 1904. He participated in the controversial 1905 exhibition Salon d’Automne, in a room featuring Henri Matisse amongst others. The bright colours of this group of artists led to them being called Fauves (‘Wild Beasts’). 19th century , 20th century , Avant Garde , fin de siècle , Streets Vlaanderenstraat is a street in the Flemish coastal town of Ostend (Oostende). Originally a small fishing village, the town acquired something of a reputation in 1834, when King Leopold I made his summer residence there, and went on to become a fashionable seaside resort in the following decades. It was in Ostend that Englishman James Frederic Ensor met local girl Marie Catherine Haegheman. He was probably an alcoholic and a bankrupt. The family’s main income came from the shop owned by Marie’s family, an antiques and souvenirs emporium selling china, taxidermic specimens and grotesque carnival masks. James Ensor was born in 1860 and the future painter grew up in this setting of ‘shells, lace, rare stuffed fish, old books, engravings, weapons, Chinese porcelain, an inextricable jumble of miscellaneous objects’ (letter to Louis Delattre, 4 August 1898). Ensor himself lacked interest in academic study and left school at the age of fifteen to begin his art training with two local painters. From 1877 to 1880, he attended the Académy Royale des Beaux-Arts in Brussels, where Fernard Khnopff, Theo Van Rysselberghe, Willy Finch, and other future members of L’Essor and Les Vingt were among his fellow students. In Brussels, he met poet and art critic Théo Hannon who introduced him to the liberal circle of Ernest Rousseau, professor at the Université Libre de Bruxelles, and his younger spouse Mariette. The home of the Rousseau couple was a meeting place for the artistic, literary and scientific elite of the time. Here he met Félicien Rops, Eugène Demolder and others who stimulated his artistic and intellectual development. In 1880 Ensor installed a studio in the attic of his parental home. Although he lived in Ostend until his death, he regularly stayed in Brussels and participated in the artistic life of the capital. With the exception of a few excursions to London, Holland and Paris, Ensor scarcely travelled. He was a loner who despised most cultural representatives and was convinced they hated him. He was both an aggrieved traditionalist and a sophisticated artist who helped shape early Modernism, not in a Paris studio but in an attic room over an Ostend novelty shop. His self-portraits tell their own story. Within the span of five years in the late 1880s he depicted himself as a cross-dressed dandy, a rotting corpse, a bug, a fish, Albrecht Dürer and a crucified Jesus. Between 1885 and 1888, Ensor’s attention went chiefly to drawing and etching. Under the influence of Rembrandt, Redon, Goya, Japanese woodcuts, and Brueghel, Ensor developed a highly personal iconography and design. He rejected French Impressionism and Symbolism and lent himself to the expressive qualities of light, line, colour and the grotesque and macabre motifs which he rendered in massive tableaux such as in the series ‘The Aureoles of Christ or The Sensibilities of Light’ (1885/6). While his early works depict realistic scenes in a sombre style, his palette subsequently brightened and he favoured increasingly bizarre subject matter. Such paintings as ‘The Scandalized Masks’ (1883) and ‘Skeletons Fighting over a Hanged Man’ (1891) feature freakish figures. Masks recall the strange atmosphere of the family shop as well as the local carnival tradition. They conceal a reality that the painter found unbearably cruel, while skeletons point to the vanity of the world. Ensor’s cityscapes of Brussels and Ostend offer a derisive view of contemporary urban renewal and the social transformations it enforced. His work is socio-cultural criticism in colour. From his studio in the attic on the fourth floor of the house on the corner of Vlaanderenstraat and Van Iseghemlaan, Ensor had a splendid view over the rooftops of his hometown. There are several paintings and drawings on this topic, including the oil paintings ‘La Rue de Flandre dans le neige’ (1880/1) and ‘Boulevard Van Iseghem’ (1893). More relevant in the context of his oeuvre is the 1890 oil painting ‘Musique Rue de Flandre’ or ‘Muziek in de Vlaanderenstraat’ (he also made an engraving of the scene) in which, from a bird perspective, the festive passage has been recorded of a military band in the street, followed by a mass of people, approaching the observer and marching in the direction of the sea. The picture reflects Ensor’s intense preoccupation with the masses. In this case, the image is light-hearted rather than fearful. It is as if Ensor had painted the street and houses first and waited till later to add a seemingly endless stream of people. The marching musicians and their followers are all identical characters. Ensor seems to suggest that within the crowd all individuality dissolves. The single individual is becoming increasingly unable to have a meaning other than as a function of something in which he ceases to have a personality. By contrast, the buildings in the street are presented in an accurate manner, one of those being the Hôtel de Flandres (now Albert II). It was at the time one of the most important hotels in Ostend and had a central gate leading to a courtyard and stables. Nearly all of Ensor’s illustrations of city life include images of crowds and masks, elements applied to his work in order to evoke the horror of the modern metropolis. This is particularly evident in his masterpiece. In 1888, Ensor tackled the monumental ‘Christ’s Entry into Brussels in 1889’ which elaborates an earlier theme treated in his 1885 drawing ‘Les Auréoles du Christ’, a vast masked carnival mob advancing towards the onlooker. Ensor gave his own features to Christ entering Brussels, as if sacrificing his life and his peace of mind to painting. Ensor’s society is a mob represented by an ugly and dehumanized sea of clowns and caricatures. Public, historical, and allegorical figures along with the artist’s family and friends make up this mob. The haloed Christ at the centre of the turbulence is an isolated visionary amidst the herd-like masses of modern society. After rejection by Les Vingt, the association of artists that Ensor had helped to found, the painting was not exhibited in public until 1929. In 1917, Ensor moved to the house in the Vlaanderenstraat (no. 27) that he had inherited from his uncle. Today, the James Ensor museum is housed there. Ensor’s macabre depiction of the masses is by no means exceptional in European culture. Fear of the masses dates back to the eighteenth century and was widely expressed, particularly in England. Lord Chesterfield may have been responsible for introducing the word mob in the English language (1751); Laurence Sterne spoke of the herd of the world (1768). The word ‘mob’ is derived from the Latin phrase mobile vulgus (the fickle crowd). It had its origin at the period of the Exclusion Crisis when the nation became divided into party and faction, Whig versus Tory. Elections for parliament, and other public meetings, resulted inevitably in riots, fights and other disturbances. Initially the word ‘the mobile’ circulated. It was soon shortened to ‘mob’ and became an increasingly loaded term encapsulating the growing fear of social upheaval. During the 1790s the imagery concerning the masses became more surreal. In English journalistic and literary iconography in response to the French Revolution a new image was introduced that would be worthy of James Ensor himself. The image is that of cannibalism. After the massacres of September 1792, James Gillray portrayed a family of Paris sansculottes feasting upon dismembered bodies, and in 1793 he depicted the exiled revolutionary leader Charles Dumouriez about to eat the severed head of William Pitt. Radical Tory journalists associated with Fraser’s Magazine adopted this set of images and gave it new social resonance in the restless 1830s and 1840s. Social unrest, it was feared, would give rise to a new generation of bloodthirsty barbarians. Fraser’s pointed time and again to Paris in 1792/3 to warn its readers of the dangers at home. Thomas Carlyle was closely connected to this magazine in the 1830s. He made the cannibal and eating imagery his own. The myth of a self-consuming revolution was passed on virtually ready-made from Carlyle to Dickens, who incorporated it as the historical backdrop for A Tale of Two Cities. The fantasy of a cannibal-like insurrection persisted over the entire Victorian period: Carlyle’s ruthless Jacobins from the 1830s merely turned into H.G. Wells’s bloodthirsty Beast Folk and Morlocks from the 1890s. Yet, there is an interesting shift in application. By the end of the nineteenth century the fear of revolution had receded. The cannibal in society is given a different shape. It is no longer the revolutionary mob that drinks the blood of innocence, but the new industrial order is threatening to devour its workers. Capitalism, mechanism, and urbanism turn civilized man back towards a savage state of being. Wells’s oeuvre is catalogue of modern day barbarism, a never ending parade of cannibals fighting to consume one another. Apart from his passion for painting, Ensor also placed great importance on his (mediocre) musical productions. In 1911, he wrote the libretto and composed the music for a ballet entitled ‘La gamme d’amour’. For this pantomime he designed the decor and costumes himself. In 1924, this ballet was performed in the Antwerp opera house. In that sense, it is appropriate that the artist is remembered in song. John Flansburgh and John Linell, founders of the Brooklyn-based American rock band They Migh Be Giants (TMBG), wrote the lyrics for a song for in which the painter is remembered. ‘Meet James Ensor’ and features on the 1994 album John Henry. Ensor would have appreciated the macabre lines of the refrain: Meet James Ensor, Belgium’s famous painter Dig him up and shake his hand, appreciate the man. 18th century , 19th century , Streets Bath is a spa city on the River Avon which was known in Roman times as Aquae Sulis. During the eighteenth century it was rebuilt in Palladian style. Laura Place was designed by Thomas Baldwin and John Eveleigh between 1788 and 1794. It lies at the end of Pulteney Bridge and consists of four blocks of houses around an irregular quadrangle with a fountain which was added in the late nineteenth century. Literary references to Bath are too numerous to sum up. One of the early mentions of the city dates back to Geoffrey Chaucer. The best-known pilgrim in his collection of Canterbury tales is Alisoun, the Wife of Bath, a bawdy female who is the very antithesis of virtuous womanhood. In her delightful tale she challenges all contemporary wisdom about the female role in society. The Wife of Bath claims to be an expert on married life having had five husbands (her first at the age of twelve). She ridicules virginity and poses the question: what are genitals for if not for procreation? She insists that street knowledge and experience outweigh the wisdom of scripture and tradition. The Wife of Bath probably lived in the parish of St Michael without the Walls (now: the area around North Gate Street). The more recent history of the city is closely associated with the arrival of one figure in particular – Richard Nash. Poor health drove novelist Oliver Goldsmith to Bath in the summer of 1762. There he gained access to the papers of Richard ‘Beau’ Nash, and collected anecdotes from witnesses about this legendary figure who had recently died. On 14 October 1762 The Life of Richard Nash was published and a second edition appeared in December. Swansea-born Richard Nash was the son of a glass maker of modest means, but he received nevertheless a sound education and matriculated from Jesus College in March 1692 with the idea of pursuing a legal career. However, for Richard, Oxford’s attractions were not intellectual but social. In 1695 Nash supervised a successful pageant held in honour of William III. It was the start of a career in which he acquired the reputation as the ‘Prince of High Fashion’. By 1705 Nash had moved to Bath. The sudden rise of this city was due in part to William’s heir, Queen Anne, who visited the spa in 1702 and 1703. The Queen’s stay at what was then a relatively poor resort prompted the arrival of well-to-do guests who were keen to drink the Bath waters and be entertained. Nash was appointed assistant to the Master of Ceremonies, a man named Captain Webster. When the latter was killed in a duel, Nash took over the main role and began to transform the city into the most fashionable place in England. Music performances which had previously been played in an open space called the Grove were removed to the grand Pump Room. By late 1705 Nash was appointed Master of Ceremonies, a post he would hold for over half a century. He was, in his own words, ‘a beau of three generations’. Nash appreciated the importance of establishing a strong physical presence. Dress was central to developing a distinctive appearance by which he underpinned his career as a self-publicist. From the start he cultivated the image of a dandy (although the word itself was coined later). Fashion decreed that wigs should be white. Nash insisted on wearing a black wig with a contrasting white hat. He finished this off with brocaded waistcoats and ruffled shirts. Before long, men were copying his style. His laws were so strictly enforced that he was styled ‘King of Bath’. Well into old age Nash retained his youthful attachment to fine clothes complemented by a cane and a white beaver hat which had become symbolic of his majestic position. He organized magnificent public balls, on a scale which had never been witnessed before in Bath. Nash matched ladies with dancing partners and even brokered marriages. He raised capital to improve the roads in and around the city and encouraged the design of new public buildings. He met all fresh arrivals into the city in order to judge their social standing. Although himself a heavy gambler, he regulated gaming in the city. Gambling had frequently led to disputes and the use of arms in Bath. Nash banned the wearing of swords, initially in public rooms alone, and later in the city as a whole. The Corporation of Bath was delighted with the efforts Nash made on behalf of the town. In his honour a full marble statue of him was erected in the Pump Room. It was placed between the busts of Newton and Pope. Bath became a cultural centre, a place for the wealthy to seek the healing agents of the water and air, while increasing their society and social status. During the late eighteenth century, some 40,000 visitors come to the city each year. Richardson and Sterne were among the regulars. Burke and Goldsmith had lived in North Parade, Sheridan in the Royal Crescent (at no. 11), and young Horatio Nelson had a house in Pierrepont Street. Bath became, after London, the most memorialized city in Britain. Apart from numerous guide-books and directories, the city provoked an unparalleled mass of writing. The city appeared in prose, poetry, drama (Foote’s The Maid of Bath, 1771), satire, sermons and moral tales. Painters and print-makers recorded its splendours for a mass market, and cartoonists poked fun at the goings-on in Britain’s premier spa resort. In 1798, caricaturist Thomas Rowlandson produced a series of twelve satiric prints ‘The Comforts of Bath’. He depicted both the social and medical scene in the city just before the period described by Jane Austen in her novels. The pages of Austen’s work are filled with references to places in Bath: the Octagon rooms, the Lower rooms, Edgar’s Buildings, Laura-place, and Market-place in her first novel Northanger Abbey; Camden Place, Bond Street, the baths and Westgate buildings, the colonnade on Bath Street, and the famous Union Street where Captain Wentworth declares his love for Anne in Persuasion, the last novel she wrote. As any Londoner will testify, status is defined by one’s post-code. A house is more than just a home; its location is a signal of social hierarchy, an emblem of elevation or degradation. There is nothing new in that. Jane Austen used the topographic characteristics of Bath to symbolize social hierarchy in Persuasion. Sir Walter chooses a ‘very good house in Camdenplace, a lofty, digniﬁed situation, such as becomes a man of consequence’ as his temporary lodgings in Bath. Camden Place (now Camden Crescent) was close to the northernmost and highest point of the city. From this height Sir Walter could literally look down on almost everyone else in Bath. Dowager Viscountess Dalrymple and her daughter Miss Carteret took a house in Laura Place, situated across the River Avon. Why did Jane Austen choose this specific location? The ‘other side’ of the river emphasizes the independence of the two ladies and their relative isolation from the rest of the characters. Apart from a beneﬁt concert held at her place, Lady Dalrymple and her daughter remain outside the real action of the story. They do not interact with the main characters, Anne and Captain Wentworth. Moreover, Lady Dalrymple is of Irish aristocratic descent. She does not really fit in an English sense of hierarchy that was strictly upheld in society. The urban lay-out in other words is woven into the action and emotion of the novel and integrated with each character’s rank in life. Bath is a metaphor for the society Jane Austen portrays. Detail from a picture by Valerie Pirlot, painter in Bath. ( http://valeriepirlot.com ) 20th century , Avant Garde , fin de siècle , Streets Tverskoy Boulevard is the oldest and longest street in central Moscow. For some two centuries, the neighbourhood called Bely Gorod (White Town) formed part of a defensive belt around the capital until, in the eighteenth century, the crumbling walls were taken down and replaced with large boulevards. Laid out in 1796, Tverskoy was the first of those and quickly became popular with Moscow’s aristocracy. In 1812 the boulevard changed dramatically in character when Napoleon’s armies entered Moscow. Soldiers set up their tents along the street, cutting down most of the trees for firewood. However, no permanent damage was done. Although new avenues were laid out afterwards, Tverskoy remained popular and was simply known as ‘the boulevard’. Soviet art and architecture have been responsible for acts of severe vandalism, but the historical Tverskoy Boulevard has remained relatively well preserved. Architects and urban planners designed parts of their typical massive office blocks to stand back from the street to maintain the line of historic façades. Many of the buildings have their own story to tell. The famous Café Pushkin is located at no. 26a of the Boulevard. What is now known as the Gorky Moscow Art Theatre on the boulevard was originally the site of a mansion where young Alexander Pushkin met his future wife Natalya Goncharova at a ball in 1828. This first meeting was the beginning of a love affair that tragically ended with Pushkin’s death in a duel. In June 1880, the first monument to Alexander Pushkin was unveiled. Sculpted by A. M. Opekushin, it was immediately recognized as a masterpiece and a spiritual symbol of Russia. For a long time the statue was located in Tverskoy Boulevard until, in 1950, it was moved to a new place because the former Strastnaya (now: Pushkinskaya) Square was being reconstructed. The monument was moved to its centre, to the place of the former bell tower of the Strastnoy Monastery which was destroyed in 1937 together with a number of other local churches. The monument portrays the poet immersed in thought. It makes Pushinskaya Square justifiably one of the most representative places in Moscow. After all, Pushkin was a Muscovite by birth and, poetically, expressed a profound love for his home city. The lateral sides of the pedestal bear famous lines of his poem ‘Exegi monumentum’. Another statue in the Tverskoy Boulevard is that of socialist philosopher and author Alexander Herzen who was born at no. 25. Known as Herzen’s House, it soon became a centre of literary and artistic life in Moscow. Osip Mandelstam lived in a modest room of the building during the late 1920s and 1930s. A memorial plaque of the poet (by Dmitry Shakhovsky) was inaugurated there in 1991 in celebration of his 100th anniversary. In 1995, another statue was unveiled there, this time in honour of legendary poet Sergei Yesenin who gave a number of famous readings at Herzen’s House. Although he was Russia’s most popular poet and had been given an elaborate funeral by the State, most of his writings were banned by the Kremlin during the reigns of Stalin and Khrushchev. Only in 1966 were most of his works republished. Between 1889 and 1928 Tsarist and Soviet theatre star Maria Nikolayevna Yermolova lived on the Boulevard. She was hailed as the greatest actress in Russian history and, in 1921, the first person to be proclaimed the ‘People’s Artist of the Republic’. Following her death, her Tverskoy flat was designated a national monument. The same neighbourhood hosts the headquarters of Russia’s major news agency, Itar-Tass (founded in 1902), constructed in the 1970s. Its trademark giant windows have been inspired by a series of Soviet propaganda posters that were typically displayed in windows. In painting the ‘traditional’ and ‘aristocratic’ Tverskoy Boulevard has been an inspiration to modernist artists in particular. Igor Emmanuilovich Grabar was a post-Impressionist painter, publisher, and art historian. Creatively, he reached his peak in painting in the period between 1903 and 1907. His work was notable for a peculiar divisionist painting technique and his rendition of snowy scenes. One of his early paintings dates from around 1880 and is an oil on canvas entitled ‘A Moscow Street, Tverskoy Boulevard’. Cityscapes in a similar tradition were produced by Konstantin Yuon. He too was inspired by French post-Impressionists and their interest in the city. Among his urban scenes are ‘The Tverskoy Boulevard’ (1903) and ‘The Night Tverskoy Boulevard 1909’. The most remarkable rendering of the boulevard however was Aristarkh Lentulov’s 1917 cubo-futurist image of ‘Tverskoy Boulevard’. The latter had lived in Moscow from 1909, and he was one of the founders of the avant-garde exhibiting association of artists named the Jack of Diamonds. The group became the most significant exhibition societies of the early Russian avant-garde and remained active until its dissolution in 1916. Between 1910 and 1911 Lentulov studied at the Le Fauconnier studio and the La Palette Academy in Paris. Whilst there, he became acquainted with contemporary French modernists and absorbed the new tendencies of Fauvism and Cubism before developing his own unique colourful style of painting. He was instrumental in pushing forward the avant-garde movement in Moscow and influenced such masters as Kandinsky and Malevich. 20th century , Avant Garde , Cultural history , Modernism , Streets Charing Cross denotes the junction of Strand, Whitehall and Cockspur Street, just south of Trafalgar Square. It is named after the Eleanor Cross that once stood in the hamlet of Charing. In 1290, Eleanor of Castile, the wife of Edward I had died at Harby in Nottinghamshire. The places where her body rested on the journey south to its tomb in Westminster Abbey were each marked by stone crosses. The site of the Charing cross is now occupied by an equestrian statue of Charles I. There are countless paintings and drawings of Charing Cross and its famous bridge. The view produced by one artist, however, has become iconic. When Claude Monet visited London in 1870 he became intrigued by the metropolis. Capturing its muted colours and moisture-laden atmosphere became a challenge he was not ready to risk as yet. His desire to paint these distinctive effects of light and tonal nuance was rekindled three decades later when he travelled to London later to visit his son Michel in the autumn of 1899. The sight of the city’s buildings looming in the fog inspired him to return the following year. He painted boats on the Thames from a position on the Charing Cross Bridge as well as the massive silhouette of the Houses of Parliament in every conceivable weather condition. He struggled to capture what he saw, working on as many as fifteen canvases at a time. Monet painted his ‘Charing Cross Bridge’ in 1900. This view of the bridge, with its misty atmosphere and the merest suggestion of shapes for the boats on the water, recalls earlier and pioneering work. His ‘Waterloo Bridge’, painted in the same year, is an evocative portrayal of London’s infamous overcast climate in which the artist restricted his palette to a range of blues, modulated with yellow into green, in a dramatic expression of obscured light. In his letters from London, Monet often complained about the English weather. The fog, the rain, and the damp all threatened to impede his progress, and he often worked in his hotel room, looking out the window. But the volatility of the weather also inspired him. He set out to capture every type of weather in paint, including his 1903 work ‘Pont de Waterloo, Jour Gris’. His 1903 foggy image of ‘Les maisons de Parliament’ was part of a series that had to be completed from memory rather than observation. Illness had cut short this, his third London campaign. In 1900, Claude Monet pushed himself to the point of collapse, and, in the following year, a severe bout of pleurisy forced him to cut his work short and return to Giverny. It was during this spell of physical recovery that he started his famous series (nearly 100 canvases) of water lilies floating in his pond. Maintaining this Continental focus, Charing Cross appears in a significant manner in Ford Madox Ford’s modernist war poem ‘Antwerp’ (published in January 1915). Previously, just before entering World War I where he served as a Lieutenant until he was sent home following shell shock at the battle of the Somme, Ford had published his novel The Good Soldier. His Antwerp poem was inspired by the blackness of his experiences during the war. It was considered by T.S. Eliot to be the only good poem he knew on the subject of war. Ford, weary of English life, eventually settled in France where he founded The Transatlantic Review. He made Ernest Hemingway assistant editor, and they published authors such as Ezra Pound, James Joyce, Gertrude Stein, Djuna Barnes, and Jean Rhys. Between the years 1924 and 1928, he published his four-volume novel, Parade’s End. The poet published ‘Antwerp’ under his real name of Ford Madox Hueffer. Son of a German journalist and music critic, he anglicized his name to Ford Madox Ford only after the war at the behest of his publisher. An early episode in the war was the siege of Antwerp in the north of Belgium by the German Army. Ford’s poem deals with the desperation of Belgian resistance against the German invasion. It opens with these powerful lines: Gloom! August a hundred thousand hours, And all September, A hundred thousand, dragging sunlit days, And half October like a thousand years … And doom! That then was Antwerp … To describe Belgian heroism, Ford uses parallels with the heroes of Greek or Norse legend. The final verses of the poem move the reader from occupied Antwerp to Charing Cross and the nightmare spectacle of Belgian refugees. In September 1914 the British government had offered ‘victims of war the hospitality of the British nation’, accepting the responsibility for the reception, maintenance and registration of Belgian refugees, while at the same time sought out assistance in housing the refugees with local authorities. British Naval Brigades were sent to Antwerp to the relief and evacuation of the city. It meant the beginning of an influx of refugees from Belgium. Charing Cross was the station where these refugees arrived in large numbers, frightened women, childrenand elederly people in desperate circumstances carrying their tiny bundles belongings done up in handkerchiefs. Ford paints a painful picture of the conditions awaiting those who had fled their home and country: This is Charing Cross; It is one o’clock. There is still a great cloud, and very little light; Immense shafts of shadows over the black crowd That hardly whispers aloud…. And now!… That is another dead mother, And there is another and another and another…. And little children, all in black, All with dead faces, waiting in all the waiting-places, Wandering from the doors of the waiting-room In the dim gloom. These are the women of Flanders: … There is another strong reminder of the unfortunate role Charing Cross played during World War I. John Hodgson Lobley was official war artist to the Royal Army Medical Corps. Nowadays we send photographers to the front. During the Great War artists were commissioned to leave their impressions to posterity. In his capacity as war artist Lobley created 120 paintings, many of which are owned by London’s Imperial War Museum. These include scenes of rehabilitation in Queens Hospital for Facial Injuries in Sidcup (opened in 1917 thanks to the initiative of otolaryngologist Harold Gillies: more than 11,000 operations were performed on over 5,000 soldiers with facial injuries from gunshot wounds) ; of the Royal Army Medical Corps in training; and of casualty clearing stations near battlefields in France, including Douai. Probably the most famous of Lobley’s images is the 1918 oil on canvas painting entitled ‘Outside Charing Cross Station, July 1916: Casualties from the Battle of the Somme Arriving in London’. 19th century , Cultural history , fin de siècle , Streets The Boulevard des Italiens is one of the four grand avenues in Paris (the others are Boulevard de la Madeleine, Boulevard des Capucines and Boulevard Montmartre). Originally the term boulevard referred to a bulwark or rampart of a fortified town; hence, a street occupying the site of demolished fortifications. The word was derived from the Middle Dutch bolwerk (bulwark or bastion). The name points the Théâtre des Italiens which was built there in 1783, shortly before the French Revolution (now replaced by the Opéra-Comique). Under the second Bourbon Restoration it was known as the Boulevard de Gand in memory of Louis XVIII’s exile in Ghent during the Hundred Days War. Throughout the nineteenth century and up to World War I the boulevard was a meeting place for the elegant elite of Paris. The streets of Paris underwent remarkable changes in the 1820s. The existing cobblestones were covered with bitumen pavements to make them more pleasant to walk and easier to maintain, and to prevent rebels from using the cobblestones to make blockades. In addition, gas lights were installed which created a new and exciting atmosphere, that of ‘la ville lumière’ in the making. They lined the streets, illuminating them throughout the night. Cafés and restaurants were brightly lit. Their large plate-glass windows seem to open up the inner city. The terraces were full of relaxed clients watching the world go by. The light of the gas lamps enabled them to socialize late at night. In 1842, such an image was captured by Eugène Lami in his painting ‘Le Boulevard des Italiens, la nuit, à l’angle de la Rue Lafitte’. Showing the intersection of the Boulevard des Italiens and the Rue Lafitte, it depicts affluent Parisians out on the streets during the evening. Not long afterwards Lami’s popular view was made into a colour litho by E. Radclyffe. Many artists were inspired by the lively atmosphere of the Boulevard. In 1880, Gustave Caillebotte created an ‘aerial’ view of ‘Le Boulevard des Italiens’. Édouard Léon Cortès, a French post-impressionist artist of French and Spanish ancestry, was known as ‘Le Poète Parisien de la Peinture’ because of his beautiful cityscapes in a variety of weather and night settings. His first exhibition in 1901 brought him immediate recognition. He depicted the Boulevard des Italiens in a number of atmospheric paintings. In 1897, Camille Pissarro painted the Boulevard in the morning sunlight and called the work ‘Boulevard des Italiens, matin, soleil’. The painting was acquired by Chester Dale who, upon his death in 1962, bequeathed the core of his impressive French art collection to the National Gallery of Art, Washington. After the July Revolution of 1850 the cityscape of Paris began to express its bourgeois prosperity in which the young played a leading role. The archetypal denizen of the modern boulevard was a flâneur, a man (always, a man) of sophistication and elegance who scanned the activity around him with detachment. Baudelaire cast the artist in the role of flâneur, a detective who could decipher the codes of a new urban experience. The boulevards were filled with aristocrats, diplomats, artists, and dandies, who gathered in fashionable establishments such as the Café de Paris, the Café Anglais, Maison Dorée, and above all at Tortoni’s. Founded in 1798 by a Neapolitan immigrant named Velloni as a café-pâtisserie and extended by Giuseppe Tortoni, the Café Tortoni became the establishment where the elite of Parisian society would meet in the nineteenth century. In the morning, stockbrokers breakfasted there; late in the afternoon, artists sipped absinthe; and at night tout le monde went to Tortoni’s for his famous ice creams. Some of its artistically refined clients soon came to be referred to as ‘dandies’ or more locally as ‘tortonistes’. Composer Offenbach, poet Alfred de Musset, novelists Alexandre Dumas and Eugène Sue, the Goncourt Brothers, Lord Henry Seymour, and Jules Barbey d’Aurevilly, author of Du dandysme et de George Brummell, were all regular visitors to the café. Balzac often mentions Tortoni in his novels; the café is described by Alfred de Musset; the famous billiard room on the second floor appears in Stendhal’s Le rouge et le noir; and Proust points on several occasions to Tortoni’s in À la recherché du temps terdu. Sénécal, in Flaubert’s L’éducation sentimentale (1869), kills Dussardier on the steps of Café Tortoni. There are several depictions of the café, all confirming its reputation as a fashionable establishment. In his from his 1856 series of lithographs entitled Physionomies de Paris Eugène Charles François Guérard, an artist of whom few biographical details are known, shows an image of ‘Le Boulevard des Italiens, devant Tortoni à quatre heures du soir’. The scene is outside the café, where patrons crowd the sidewalk. Men, all in top hats and frock coats dominate the mass of people. An image of the café itself was provided in an oil painting by Jean Béraud, another artist who specialized in the depiction of daily Parisian life, which he titled ‘Le Boulevard devant le Café Tortoni’. Édouard Manet felt particularly at home in this café where he frequently lunched. He was more a dandy than a bohemian. His top hat and waistcoat blended in splendidly with the patrons of Tortoni’s. In 1878/80 he created a painting of a jaunty gentleman in a top hat in the act of writing (a letter or a novel?) which he gave the title of ‘Chez Tortoni’. The origin of the word dandy is uncertain. Eccentricity, defined as taking characteristics such as dress and appearance to extremes, began to be applied in the 1770s. Similarly, the word dandy first appears in the late eighteenth century. A dandy is a man who places particular importance upon physical appearance, refined language, and cultivated wit. In most cases of middle-class background, he strove to imitate an aristocratic lifestyle. The model dandy in British society was George Bryan ‘Beau’ Brummell in his early days, an undergraduate student at Oriel College, Oxford, and later, an associate of the Prince Regent. In 1799, upon coming of age, Brummell – although not from an aristocratic background – inherited from his father a fortune of thirty thousand pounds, which he squandered on costume, gambling, and high living. His snobbery was one of style and fashion. The new development in fashion he started off was in his perfect plainness. His understated elegance and refinement set the standard in masculine dress. To a world in which dress was dictated by wealth and display, he brought a new ethic of restraint. His mode of masculine dress reflected the neo-classical ideals in art and architecture of the day. It was based upon his interpretation of Greek masculine beauty. The best known image of Brummell is a watercolour produced by the prolific London portrait artist Richard Dighton. Although Lord Byron considered Brummel the most influential character of the nineteenth century after Napoleon, Romanticism created a different image of the dandy. The romantic pose was always to appear at ease, but it was a casualness that was as painstakingly cultivated as the outward perfection of the dandy. The romantics wore their collars unbuttoned to show their pale chests. Broad brimmed hats kept their white complexions away from the sun. Byron, in order to conceal his club-foot, wore loose trousers, an innovation that would become a ‘must’ among his followers soon after. In France, from the 1750s onwards, the English were much admired in certain (aristocratic) circles. The number of French visitors to England increased substantially and many travellers published an account of their journey. English novels were popular in translation. Voltaire had paid tribute to the English political system; the French admired the horse racing culture in England; their aristocracy drank ‘ponche’, and dined on ‘rosbif’ and ‘pouding’. After the defeat of Napoleon, both English dandyism and Romanticism struck Paris like lightning. The French adopted the figure of the dandy and made him their own. French dandyism however took on a different direction. The Bourgeois Revolution of 1830 had an effect of idealizing practicality, economy and efficiency. In rebellion, Parisian artists and poets adopted dandiacal dress and haughty manners. They created a bohemian ‘aristocracy’ rejecting and mocking bourgeois society. Barbey d’Aurevilly intellectualized the dandy and identified dandyism with the battle against vulgarity. Writers such as Théophile Gautier, Charles Baudelaire and J.K. Huysmans enhanced the status of the dandy by giving him a spiritual mission. Dandyism was defined as the outward manifestation of inner perfection. Tortoni’s at the Boulevard des Italiens closed in 1893. The famous name however was not lost. In 1858 a French immigrant in Buenos Aires named Touan opened a coffeehouse at no. 825 Avenida de Mayo. He called the establishment Café Tortoni. Nostalgia no doubt. The café recreated the atmosphere of the Parisian fin de siècle coffeehouse. Cultural history , Streets The Boulevard Saint-Michel is a major street in the Latin Quarter. It is a tree-lined boulevard which runs south from the Pont Saint-Michel on the Seine, crosses the Boulevard Saint-Germain and continues alongside the Sorbonne and the Luxembourg Gardens, ending at the Place Camille Jullian just before the Port-Royal train station. The boulevard was an important part of Haussmann’s renovation of Paris. As the central axis of the Left Bank and the university at its heart, the area is and has long been a centre of learning and culture, and a hotbed of student life and political activism. Initially known as Boulevard de Sébastopol Rive Gauche, construction of the boulevard was decreed in 1855 and began in 1860. The name was changed to Boulevard Saint-Michel in 1867. The Boulevard Saint-Michel is connected with a literary group known as the ‘Vilains bonhommes’ (the ‘naughty fellows’ – a journalistic insult addressed against fellow poet François Coppée and taken as an honorary name). The authors met in a room on the third floor of the Hôtel des Étrangers, dining, drinking, smoking, reciting verse, and creating parodies of each other’s work and that of the Parnassiens (preferably in an obscene manner – young Rimbaud was a master in producing such rhymes). The result was a collection of poems published in the Album zutique. The hotel’s barman Ernest Cabaner was teaching piano to Rimbaud using chromaticism as a method, colouring notes and giving them the sound of a vowel (this was the immediate source of Rimbaud’s inspiration for the 1871 sonnet ‘Voyelles’ in which each vowel is assigned a colour which helped popularize synesthesia). The Boulevard Saint-Michel has been the subject of a number of paintings. Jean-François Raffaëlli was a Parisian realist painter and printmaker who exhibited with the Impressionists. Until the mid-1870s he produced primarily costume pictures. His interest in the positivist philosophy of Taine led to a change in approach. Having articulated a theory of realism that he named ‘caractérisme’, he began depicting the people of his time, particularly peasants, workers, and rag pickers seen in the suburbs of Paris. His careful observation of man in his milieu paralleled the anti-aesthetic, anti-romantic approach of Naturalist novelists led by Émile Zola. Degas invited him to take part in the Impressionist exhibitions of 1880 and 1881, an initiative that bitterly divided the group. Not only was Raffaëlli not an Impressionist, but he threatened to dominate the 1880 exhibition with a staggering display of thirty-seven works. Monet, resentful of Degas’s insistence on expanding the Impressionist exhibitions by including several realists, refused to exhibit. After 1890, Raffaëlli shifted his attention from the suburbs to the inner city of Paris. The oil painting ‘Boulevard Saint-Michel’ (1890) is an example of that notable stylistic shift in his work. Luigi Loir was one of the foremost painters of views of Paris and among the first artists to glamorize the urban lifestyle of the late nineteenth century. He was known as the ‘official painter of the Parisian Boulevards’. Amongst the many street paintings are the Boulevard Henri IV, Rue de la Santé, Le Val de Grâce, Quai Saint Michel, Quai des Augustins, Rond Point des Champs Élysées, Boulevard du Palais, and others. His interest in street scenes was influenced by a transformation that had entirely reshaped the urban landscape and the way in which Parisians spent their leisure time. The street itself became the centre of activity – from the bohemian centre of Montmartre to the upper class promenades of the leisure class. Loir’s cityscape is more than a simple depiction of Paris and its inhabitants. The artist was fascinated by the changing effects of both the different times of day and the varying weather conditions. Among the many street and boulevard scenes he created is a delightful oil painting of the Boulevard Saint-Michel in the early evening (he also produced a ‘Coin du Boulevard Saint-Michel’). Peter Sarstedt is an Anglo-Indian singer and songwriter. Born in Delhi in 1941, the family returned to England thirteen years later. The singer hit the big time in 1969 with his song ‘Where Do You Go To (my Lovely)?’, a song about a fictional poor girl from the backstreets of Naples named Marie-Claire (it has been suggested that this is a reference to Sophia Loren) who grows up to become a member of the jet set. The lyrics describe her from the perspective of a childhood friend. The title suggests that wealth has not brought her happiness or contentment in life. The lyrics contain a set of international references to what was hot and fashionable in the late sixties and early seventies, from personalities such as Marlene Dietrich (actress and singer), Zizi Jeanmaire (ballerina), Pierre Balmain (designer), Sacha Distel (singer), the Aga Khan (racehorse owner who, in 1969, married the fashion model Sarah Croker-Poole), Picasso and The Rolling Stones, to exotic places like Juan-les-Pins (Riviera beach resort) and Saint Moritz (ski resort in the Alps). In 1969 the song was awarded the prestigious Ivor Novello Award presented by the British Academy of Songwriters, Composers and Authors (BASCA) – the writing community in other words. The two opening verses seem to justify John Peel’s comments on this song. In a New Musical Express interview, the legendary BBC disc jockey named the record as his personal worst of all time. You talk like Marlene Dietrich And you dance like Zizi Jeanmaire Your clothes are all made by Balmain And there’s diamonds and pearls in your hair, yes there are. You live in a fancy apartment Off the Boulevard Saint-Michel Where you keep your Rolling Stones records And a friend of Sacha Distel, yes you do.	i don't know
Which is the next prime number that is greater than 75 ?	Number: Primes Number Primes A prime number is a number with special properties. Prime numbers can only be divided into integers (whole numbers) by the number1 and itself. Any whole number that divides exactly into another number is called a factor. For example: The number 3 is a prime number because 3 ï¿½ 1 = 3 and 3 ï¿½3 =1. These are the only two numbers that 3 can be divided by What about 5, is it a prime number ? Ask yourself! What numbers can 5 be divided by so that the answer is a whole number? The answer is 1 and 5, so 5 is a prime number. It would seem that all prime numbers must be odd numbers. Do you know why? 100 The prime numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 101. You could have got rid of all the even numbers first, then every number that you could divide by 3. Then every number you could divide by 5 then 7 then 9 then 11. Well, I hope you didn't find that too hard! Let me finish with a definition of a prime number: A prime number is an integer greater than one that as only two positive factors, the number one and itself. Good luck!	79
A Numismatist is a person who has an interest and collects which particular items ?	Number: Primes Number Primes A prime number is a number with special properties. Prime numbers can only be divided into integers (whole numbers) by the number1 and itself. Any whole number that divides exactly into another number is called a factor. For example: The number 3 is a prime number because 3 ï¿½ 1 = 3 and 3 ï¿½3 =1. These are the only two numbers that 3 can be divided by What about 5, is it a prime number ? Ask yourself! What numbers can 5 be divided by so that the answer is a whole number? The answer is 1 and 5, so 5 is a prime number. It would seem that all prime numbers must be odd numbers. Do you know why? 100 The prime numbers 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29, 31, 37, 41, 43, 47, 53, 59, 61, 67, 71, 73, 79, 83, 89, 97, 101. You could have got rid of all the even numbers first, then every number that you could divide by 3. Then every number you could divide by 5 then 7 then 9 then 11. Well, I hope you didn't find that too hard! Let me finish with a definition of a prime number: A prime number is an integer greater than one that as only two positive factors, the number one and itself. Good luck!	i don't know
Which famous American author who lived from 1904 to 1997 had the first christan name Theodor and the surname Geisel ?	Famous Writers - The Greatest Writers of All Time Famous Writers Famous Writers admin \| June 19, 2013 Authors and novelists, their lifetime’s work fill the library, public and private. These men and women draw from experiences and are able to tell us a story, fiction or non-fiction, that they weave from the treasury of their mind. Thanks to them, we learn, thanks to them, we are challenged to think. That is the gift authors, writers, and novelists have provided for us. Nationality: English Famous For: Bard of Avon, tragic & comedic plays Shakespeare is a very big name in the world of literature, virtually known to everyone who has been educated in English literature. Some of his works are Julius Caesar, Macbeth, Hamlet, Romeo and Juliet, Othello, King Lear and so many more. He wrote plays about romance, tragedies, and comedies. His Sonnets have also become poems well remembered. Nationality: American Famous For: The Raven Nevermore! Edgar Allan Poe and his work as a writer will never be equaled. His famous works include Masque of the Red Death, The Cask of Amontillado, The Black Cat, The Pit and the Pendulum, and Murders in the Rue Morgue only to name a few. And who can forget his poetry such as Annabel Lee, Tamerlane, and The Raven. Nationality: German Famous For: Diary of Anne Frank The Diary of a Young Girl was actually a diary by Anne Frank. She chronicles her time in hiding during World War II before being taken to Nazi concentration camps. It is the only piece of literature she wrote, she died of typhus in 1945 at the age of 16. Nationality: Brazilian Famous For: The Alchemist Brazilian writer Paulo Coelho is known for his books entitled The Alchemist, Eleven Minutes, Veronika Decides to Die and many others. Sixty-five million copies of The Alchemist have sold worldwide and translated in 71 languages. Nationality: American Famous For: Carrie & The Shining When it comes to fantasy, horror, science fiction, and suspense novels, the name of Stephen King quickly comes to mind. He has written 200 short stories, fifty novels, and five non fiction books. He is known for The Shining, Salem’s Lot, Carrie, Cujo, Miseryand even The Green Mile. Nationality: British Famous For: Harry Potter book series Joanne Rowling became a novelist over a seven year period. She is known for writing the Harry Potter series, the first of which is entitled Harry Potter and the Philosophers Stone. Today, she writes novels for adults, The Casual Vacancy, a “tragicomedy.” Nationality: Irish Famous For: The Importance of Being Earnest The Importance of Being Earnest is considered Oscar Wilde’s masterpiece written for the stage. The lone novel he is known for is entitled The Picture of Dorian Gray. His last work was a poem entitled The Ballad of Reading Gaol. Nationality: American Famous For: The Cat in the Hat Rosetta Stone and Theo LeSieg are pen names used by Theodor Seuss Geisel, also known as Dr. Seuss. This writer of children books is best remembered for How the Grinch stole Christmas, Green Eggs and Ham, Horton Hears a Who, Horton Hatches the Egg and of course The Cat in the Hat. Nationality: American Famous For: Adventures of Huckleberry Finn & Tom Sawyer Though he is known as Mark Twain, Samuel Langhorne Clemens is the author of Adventures of Huckleberry Finn and The Adventures of Tom Sawyer, two great American classics. The first piece he wrote that gained him attention is entitled Jumping Frog of Calavera County. Other books he wrote include The Prince and the Pauper and A Connecticut Yankee in King Arthur’s Court Nationality: English Famous For: Murder on the Orient Express Murder and mystery novels is synonymous to the name Agatha Christie. Her novels often revolve one with the other with the likes of Murder on the Orient Express, Death on the Nile and Evil Under the Sun. And who can forget the lead characters in her novels, “Hercule Poirot, Tommy & Tuppence, and Miss Jane Marple.” Nationality: American Famous For: The Old Man and the Sea One of America’s Nobel Prize recipients for literature is Ernest Hemingway. Many of his novels are considered classics, they include,For Whom the Bell Tolls, A Farewell to Arms, The Sun also Rises, and The Old Man and the Sea. He also received a Pulitzer Prize award for fiction in 1953. Nationality: American Famous For: The Notebook & Message in a Bottle Hope and romance are themes the novels Nicholas Sparks have. Sparks first novel was The Notebook which was followed later by Message in a Bottle, A Walk to Remember, The Guardian, Nights in Rodanthe along with many other up and coming titles. His newest book, The Longest Ride is due to be released later in 2013. Nationality: English Famous For: Pride and Prejudice English romance writer Jane Austen and her novels often feature women and other romantic escapades. Austen is known for writing Sense and Sensibility, Pride and Prejudice, Emma, Mansfield Park and published after her death Northanger Abbey & Persuasion. Nationality: English Famous For: Great Expectations and A Christmas Carol Who can forget the characters created from the mind of Charles Dickens and his novels. Dickens’ work include such Victorian masterpieces like The Pickwick Papers, A Christmas Carol, David Copperfield, A Tale of Two Cities, Great Expectations and even Oliver Twist. Nationality: Russian-American Famous For: Atlas Shrugged The Fountainhead and Atlas Shrugged were written by author Ayn Rand. She wrote another novel early in her career entitled We the Living in 1936. Prior to writing the first two books mentioned, she also wrote Night of January 16th and Anthem. Nationality: British Famous For: Charlie & the Chocolate Factory Considered one of the fifty greatest British writers post World War 2, Roald Dahl is known for writing children’s books. Among his memorable titles include Jack and the Giant Peach, Matilda, The Gremlins, and of course Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. Dahl also wrote adult fiction, with two titles Sometime Never: A Fable for Supermen and My Uncle Oswald. Nationality: American Famous For: A Song of Fire and Ice Those familiar with the science fiction fantasy genre know who “GRRM” is, George R.R. Martin. His bestselling series of novels include A Song of Ice and Fire, the first of which is entitled A Game of Thrones then A Feast for Crows, and the latest A Dance with Dragons. Nationality: American Famous For: The Da Vinci Code Before the movie, there was the book. Dan Brown’s novel The Da Vinci Code became popular that his other works became equally popular as well. He wrote Angels & Demons, The Lost Symbol, and his most recent one, Inferno. His earliest novel which published in 1998 is entitled Digital Fortress. Nationality: American Famous For: the “Twilight” series With her books translated in 37 languages and nearly 100 million printed, Stephenie Meyer is responsible for the Twilight series and that was the title of her first book. This was followed by three more, New Moon, Eclipse, and Breaking Dawn. Nationality: English Famous For: The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy English author and humorist Douglas Noel Adams is best remembered for his book “The Hitchhiker’s Guide to the Galaxy.” His unfinished novel, The Salmon of Doubt was published in 2002. He also wrote The Meaning of Liff and The Deeper Meaning of Liff. Nationality: American Famous For: Moby Dick Moby Dick is Herman Melville’s greatest work as a novelist. His other novels include Redburn and White Jacket. The first book he published was a bestseller, Typee. Nationality: American Famous For: The Colossus and Other Poems The genre brought about by Sylvia Plath was known as confessional poetry. Among her well known works include The Bell Jar, Ariel, and The Colossus and Other Poems, for which she received a Pulitzer Prize for poetry posthumously in 1982. Nationality: Italian Famous For: Divine Comedy A major force during the middle ages, Italian writer Dante Alighieri wrote Divine Comedy. In this book, sections of it have become as popular as the whole, Inferno, Purgatorio, and Paradiso. It is from these works that the reference to “Dante’s Inferno” comes from. Nationality: English Famous For: Orlando English author and essayist Virginia Woolf is viewed as one of the stalwarts of modernist writing. A Room of One’s Own, Orlando, To the Lighthouse, and Mrs. Dalloway are among her most famous works. She wrote nine novels along with a collection of six short stories. Nationality: English Famous For: The Hobbit and Lord of the Rings trilogy J.R.R. Tolkien is seen by many as the “father of modern fantasy literature”. His best known novels begin with The Hobbit, The Silmarillion, and The Lord of the Rings. His writings has been described as “high fantasy.” Nationality: English Famous For: Animal Farm & 1984 Considered as one of the most influential visionaries among British writers, Eric Arthur Blair, also known as George Orwell, his writing still influence politics and modern culture to this day. His best known books include Animal Farm, Homage to Catalonia, and Nineteen Eighty Four. It is from these books we get the phrases “Orwellian”, “big brother”, and “Cold War” from. Nationality: French-Algerian Famous For: The Rebel French-Algerian author Albert Camus received a Nobel Prize in Literature. As a writer, he wrote five novels, numerous essays, a collection of short stories, and a handful of non-fiction books which include The Rebel. Included in his list of writings are The Stranger, Exile and the Kingdom, and The Myth of Sisyphus. Nationality: American Famous For: I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings American writer Maya Angelou has authored seven “autobiographical fiction” along with a bevy books of poetry and essays. Her most notable book is entitled I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings. Most of her writing revolves around the Civil Rights movement in America. Nationality: Greek Famous For: Iliad & the Odyssey No one really knows when Greek poet Homer lived, what is known is that his literary work are considered epic and have been a foundation in Western literature. He is best known for the Iliad and the Odyssey. Other works attributed to him include Capture of Oechalia, Little Iliad, and Epignoni. Nationality: French-Algerian Famous For: Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea The influence of French author Jules Verne on science fiction cannot be overlooked. It was he who wrote Around the World in 80 Days, Journey to the Center of the Earth, and of course, Twenty Thousand Leagues Under the Sea. Along with two other authors, Verne has been referred to as the “Father of Science Fiction.” Nationality: German Famous For: The Metamorphosis Kafka authored many of his works in the German language. His most noted novel is entitled Die Verwandlung (a.k.a. The Metamorphosis). His other works include The Castle, Contemplation, and The Trial. Nationality: Portugese Famous For: Message and The Book of Disquiet Heteronym is a literary style of writing attributed to Portuguese writer Fernando Pessoa. The Book of Disquiet and Message, which is presented in three parts, are two books considered as his most memorable. He also wrote essays that has been published as The New Portuguese Poetry Nationality: American Famous For: The Chronicles of Narnia Clive Staples Lewis’s name will always be linked to his most famous work of fiction, The Chronicles of Narnia. He also wrote other books, his first novel was entitled The Pilgrims Regress. Then there is Space Trilogy and The Screwtape Letters. He also wrote non-fiction which include, Mere Christianity, Miracles, The Problem of Pain, and . Nationality: American Famous For: Hell’s Angels:The Strange & Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs Author and journalist Hunter Thompson is remembered internationally for his book Hell’s Angels:The Strange & Terrible Saga of the Outlaw Motorcycle Gangs. One of his books The Rum Diary, was written in the 60’s but was not published until 1998. Other notable works by Thompson include, Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas and a collection of articles entitled Fear and Loathing on the Campaign Trail. Nationality: American Famous For: Alex Cross series Mixing romance and mystery, James Patterson’s books have been propular reading over the years. These include Along Came a Spider, Kiss the Girls, The Big Bad Wolf and many others. Nationality: British-Indian Famous For: The Satanic Verses British writer Salman Rushdie received the Booker Prize in 1981 for his book Midnight’s Children. He gained international fame for his fourth novel, The Satanic Verses. He also wrote children’s books, Haroun and the Sea of Stories and Luka and the Fire of Life. Nationality: American Famous For: Bestselling author of 209 romance novels. Though her name is immediately associated with romance novels, Nora Roberts has also written suspense and fantasy novels. Some of her novels were written under pseudonyms, “Jill March, Sarah Hardesty, and J.D. Robb.” She is the author of Irish Thoroughbred, Night Moves, and the “In Death” series which includes her latest novel Thankless in Death under “J.D. Robb.” Nationality: American Famous For: Percy Jackson & the Olympians American author Rick Riordan wrote the series Percy Jackson & the Olympians. His writing style caters to the detective, fantasy, and mythology genre. Titles of his other books include Heroes of Olympus, The Kane Chronicles, The Maze of Bones and the Tres Navarres adult series. Nationality: English Famous For: The Sandman When it comes dark fantasy and science fiction, the novels and work of Neil Gaiman often comes to mind. His first book, Good Omens was followed by Neverwhere, The Sandman, Coraline, and The Graveyard Book. He is known for his comic book series as well, Violent Cases and The Tragical Comedy or Comical Tragedy of Mr. Punch. Nationality: American Famous For: The Hunger Games Science fiction and fantasy are popular these days, Suzanne Collins and her best selling novels The Hunger Games triology and The Undeland Chronicles are evidence of that. Other books she has written include Fire Proof and When Charlie McButton series. Nationality: French Famous For: The Three Musketeers and The Count of Monte Cristo History, romance and adventure, that was the forte of French writer Alexandre Dumas. It was he who wrote The Count of Monte Cristo and The Three Musketeers. His other adventure novels include The Conspirators and The Corsican Brothers. Nationality: American Famous For: White Fang Adventure in the wild, these were the subject of novelist Jack London. In his books White Fang and The Call of the Wild he sets these two books during the Alaskan gold rush. He also wrote The Sea-Wolf, Martin Eden, and The Iron Heel. Nationality: German Famous For: Steppenwolf Nobel Prize winner and author Hermann Hesse is noted for his books The Glass Bead Game, Siddhartha, and Steppenwolf. His other works include Journey to the East and Klingsor’s Last Summer Nationality: Irish Famous For: Ulysses and Dubliners Viewed as an influence in modern writing during the 20th century, Irish author,James Joyce is remembered for Ulysses and Dubliners. He also wrote Finnegans Wake and A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man. Nationality: American Famous For: How to Win Friends and Influence People How to books have been popular, Dale Carnegie capitalized on that by publishing How to Win Friends and Influence People which continues to be a bestseller to this day. His other books include How to Stop Worrying and Start Living and Lincoln the Unknown. He co authored books with other writers, one such book is Art of Public Speaking. Nationality: American Famous For: The Great Gatsby One of the greatest of American writers, Francis Scott Key Fitzgerald and his novels captured readers by storm. His most memorable book is The Great Gatsby which has been made into a movie several times over. In addition to the “Gatsby,” Fitzgerald wrote Tender is the Night, The Beautiful and the Damned, This Side of Paradise, and The Love of the Last Tycoon which was published after his death. Nationality: American Famous For: The Grapes of Wrath First a Pulitzer in 1940, then a Nobel Prize in ’62, these represent the quality that American novelist John Steinbeck represents. He authored six non fiction books, five short stories, and sixteen novels. His Pulitzer Prize winning novel was The Grapes of Wrath. Before that he wrote In Dubious Battle and Of Mice and Men, and then East of Eden, all of which are popular to this day. Nationality: Russian Famous For: Nightfall This was what Isaac Asimov is known for hard science fiction, beginning with his Foundation Series which was later followed by The Robot Series (I, Robot and Bicentennial Man) and Nightfall which was voted as the best science fiction book in 1964. Nationality: American Famous For: On the Road Before the hippie movement, there was American writer Jack Kerouac. Sadly, his literary talent was not recognized until his death. His books include Big Sur, On the Road, The Sea is My Brother, Doctor Sax, Visions of Cody, The Dharma Burns, and Desolation Angels to name a few. All of these are in print. Nationality: Japanese Famous For: 1Q84 Whether it is fiction or non-fiction, the talent of Haruki Murakami is evident through his novels which include 1Q84, Hear the Wind Sing, Norwegian Wood, Sputnik Sweetheart, and Kafka on the Shore. He also has written short stories and essays. Nationality: American Famous For: Infinite Jest His novel Infinite Jest was recognized as part of of the top 100 novels (in English) by Time magazine. Included in his body work are The Broom of the System and the unfinished The Pale King which was published “as-is,” after his death. Nationality: Chinese Famous For: The Art of War Chinese General Sun Tzu and his book The Art of War have influenced many military men over the centuries. The book provides approaches on how to win a battle and “manage conflicts.” Many nations have endorsed the reading of this book to their armed forces.	Dr. Seuss
Kenya shares the vast majority of it’s East border with which country ?	The 25 best children's books - Telegraph Book news The 25 best children's books From classics to modern day tales of magic, here are 25 stories that have delighted young readers for more than a century Image 1 of 12 Since The Very Hungry Caterpiller, Eric Carle he has illustrated more than 70 books Photo: PENGUIN AA Milne's Winnie the Pooh had a penchant for honey Harry Potter author JK Rowling earns £3m a week Photo: Jonathan Lodge Image 1 of 12 Babar in the bath from The Story of Babar by Jean de Brunhoff. First published 1931 Mr Toad and friends in Kenneth Grahame's Wind in the Willows Enid Blyton and her two daughters 'Roald the Rotten': Roald Dahl By Martin Chilton , Digital Culture Editor 4:57PM GMT 18 Nov 2010 TREASURE ISLAND (1883) By R.L. Stevenson (13 November 1850 - 3 December 1894) Scottish writer Stevenson’s swashbuckling story is the source of most popular perceptions of pirates, including “X marks the spot” treasure maps and one-legged seamen with shoulder-perched parrots. Inspired by a map drawn by Stevenson’s stepson, the tale sees the young Jim Hawkins pit his wits against the dastardly Long John Silver in a race to discover Captain Flint’s hidden treasure. With more than 74 film, television, stage and radio adaptations to its name, Treasure Island is one of the most frequently dramatised novels of all time. Quote:"Fifteen men on the dead man's chest- Yo-ho-ho, and a bottle of rum! Drink and the devil had done for the rest- Yo-ho-ho, and a bottle of rum!" THE TALE OF PETER RABBIT (1902) By Beatrix Potter (28 July 1866 - 22 December 1943) Related Articles Why Enid Blyton's Famous Five are back 17 Sep 2010 Originally written in 1893 for Noel Moore, the five-year-old son of Potter’s former governess, this family favourite was reworked and privately printed by Potter in 1901 following several rejections from publishers. The story, which describes the perilous adventures of rebellious Peter Rabbit in Mr McGregor’s garden, has sold more than 45 million copies, been translated into 36 languages and spawned a hoard of merchandise. Quote: "Don't go into Mr. McGregor's garden: your Father had an accident there; he was put in a pie by Mrs. McGregor." WIND IN THE WILLOWS (1908) By Kenneth Grahame (8 March 1859 - 6 July 1932) Since its first publication, this tale of friendship and moral growth has been issued in more than 100 editions, with annual sales figures reaching the hundreds of thousands. Told in Grahame’s glorious prose, the story follows Mole (lonely and miserable, who has been cleaning his home), Ratty and Badger as they live a life of picnics and playing by the river. Until, that is, they decide to help Toad mend his reckless ways. Prison breaks and car chases ensue, culminating in a battle for Toad Hall. Quote: "There is nothing - absolutely nothing - half so much worth doing as simply messing about in boats." THE RAILWAY CHILDREN (1906) By E. Nesbit (15 August 1858 – 4 May 1924) When their father is wrongfully imprisoned for selling state secrets to the Russians, Roberta, Peter and Phyllis move with their mother to a house by the railway for a life of make-do and mend in the country. Watching the trains for their father’s return, the children’s new-found resourcefulness is put to use preventing a derailment and saving an injured cross-country runner. A stage adaptation of the story was performed at the National Railway Museum in to celebrate the 40th anniversary of the celebrated film after the book. Quote: "I don't think we're going to enjoy being poor, you know, being cold and all that." PETER PAN (1911) By J.M. Barrie (9 May 1860 - 19 June 1937) Originally a successful stage play called Peter Pan, or The Boy Who Wouldn’t Grow Up, Barrie’s novel - originally called Peter and Wendy - follows the adventures of the Darling children as they are taken to the island of Neverland by the mischievous and eternally young Peter Pan. There, they encounter fairies, Indians, mermaids and Peter Pan’s arch nemesis, Captain Hook. In 1929, Barrie bequeathed all rights to the book to Great Ormond Hospital, but they expired in 2007, leaving the hospital searching for a new literary benefactor. Quote: "All children, except one, grow up." WINNIE-THE-POOH (1926) By A.A. Milne (18 January 1882 – 31 January 1956) Adapted from a collection of Milne’s stories, which were first published in magazines such as Punch, the story follows Christopher Robin’s teddy bear as he adventures in the Hundred Acre Wood with his friends Piglet, Owl, Rabbit and Eeyore. The book has been translated into many languages, including Latin (Winnie ille Pu) in 1958, and, thanks in large part to a rights deal with Disney, the character of Winnie is now worth £500 million a year. The Silly Old Bear, with his friends in Hundred Acre Wood, is more than a British institution. A.A. Milne created a life philosophy with the trials, triumphs and tiddley-poms of the honey-loving, always kind-hearted Pooh. Quote: "It is more fun to talk with someone who doesn't use long, difficult words but rather short, easy words like 'What about lunch?'" SWALLOWS AND AMAZONS (1930) By Arthur Ransome (18 January 1884 - 3 June 1967) Inspired by a summer spent teaching his friends’ children to sail, Ransome’s tale of Lakeland adventures follows the Walker and Blackett children. Meeting one summer on Wildcat Island, the children form an alliance against the Blacketts’ irritable Uncle Jim, whom they believe to be a retired pirate. After days spent sailing, camping and fishing and drinking ginger beer, the allies hatch a plan to seize Uncle Jim’s houseboat and force him to walk the plank. Quote: "Grab a chance and you won’t be sorry for a might-have-been." BABAR (1931) Jean de Brunhoff (December 9, 1899 - October 16, 1937) Originally published in oversized volumes with cursive writing and the author’s wonderful sprawling watercolour paintings, the English language version of Brunhoff’s Histoire de Babar immediately captured the interest of British children. Babar brings clothes and cars (and Madame) from Paris - where he has been educated - and readers follow him home to his African kingdom. He is crowned King and transforms the elephant kingdom into a Westernised civilisation. With his family and the wise Cornelius by his side, Babar protects his land from the Rhino King The stories were adapted into an animated television series, which ran from 1989 to 1991 with 13 additional episodes aired in 2000. Quote: "Does everything have to mean something?" THE FARAWAY TREE (1943) By Enid Blyton (11 August 1897 – 28 November 1968) First published during World War II, the series follows three young children, Jo, Bessie and Fanny, who discover an enormous magical tree in an enchanted forest and befriend the creatures that live among its branches. With a band of new pals including Moon-face, The Saucepan Man and Mr Watzisname, the children embark on various adventures in the magical lands lurking at the top of the tree. Unsurprisingly, the Lands of Birthdays, Goodies and Do-As-You-Please became particular favourites with young readers. The titles in the series are The Enchanted Wood (1939), The Magic Faraway Tree (1943), The Folk of the Faraway Tree (1946) and Up the Faraway Tree (1951). Quote: "I expect I shall find it rather dull here after living in Londo. It seems so quiet. I shall miss the noise of buses and trams." THE LION, THE WITCH AND THE WARDROBE (1950) C.S. Lewis (29 November 1898 - 22 November 1963) Set during World War II, when four children - Peter, Susan, Edmund and Lucy Pevensie - are evacuated from London in 1940 to escape the Blitz. They are sent to live with Professor Digory Kirke, who lives in a country house in the English countryside. During a game of hide-and-seek, Lucy looks into a wardrobe and discovers a portal to a mysterious world called Narnia, Peter, Susan, Edmund and Lucy discover the land of Narnia and the malevolent White Witch. The novel uses Christian iconography in Aslan's dramatic sacrifice and resurrection. Edmund's transition from self-interested schoolboy to heroic young man is also resonantly spiritual. Quote: "Have you forgotten the Deep Magic?" THE LORD OF THE RINGS (1954) By J.R.R Tolkein (3 January 1892 - 2 September 1973) Tolkien’s epic story of the battle for Middle-Earth has captivated readers over half a century, selling approximately 150 million copies and spawning an Oscar-nominated trilogy of films that are among the highest grossing of all time. The three-volume tour de force follows Frodo the hobbit and his loyal protectors as they journey to Mount Doom to destroy a dangerous and powerful ring, forged by the Dark Lord Sauron to rule all of Middle-Earth. The books have brought fantasy to a mainstream literary audience, making Frodo one of the greatest fictional heroes of all time. Quote: "The hearts of men are easily corrupted... And the ring of power has a will of its own.” THE CAT IN THE HAT (1957) by Dr Seuss (March 2, 1904 – September 24, 1991) Theodor Seuss Geisel was a writer and cartoonist who published 44 children's novels. Perhaps the most famous was about his tall, anthropomorphic, mischievous cat, sporting a tall, red and white-striped hat and a red bow tie. He also carries a pale blue umbrella. With the series of Beginner Books that The Cat inaugurated, Numerous adaptations of his work have been created, including eleven television specials, three feature films, and a Broadway musical and Seuss was a great advocate of the fun of reading for children. Quote: "Look at me! Look at me! Look at me NOW! It is fun to have fun. But you have to know how." WHERE THE WILD THINGS ARE (1963) By Maurice Sendak (born June 10, 1928) Initially a critical failure and even banned in some libraries, this book went on to sell more than 19 million copies. The story centres on a lonely and temperamental boy, Max, who, having been sent to bed without dinner, imagines a sea in his bedroom and sets sail to the land of the wild things where he quickly becomes King. In 2009, the story was made into a live-action feature film by acclaimed director Spike Jonze. Quote: "I have a sadness shield that keeps out all the sadness, and it's big enough for all of us." CHARLIE AND THE CHOCOLATE FACTORY (1964) By Roald Dahl (13 September 1916 - 23 November 1990) Originally called “Charlie’s Chocolate Boy” and featuring 10 horrid children who won tickets to the weekly Wonka’s Factory visit, the fudge-filled fantasy was totally rewritten after a damning review from the author’s nephew. The tale follows the lucky winners of five golden tickets — four obnoxious brats and poor but polite Charlie Bucket — as they explore Willy Wonka’s fantastical factory and (unbeknown to them) are tested to see who should take over his booming business. The book was adapted into two major motion pictures: Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory in 1971, and Charlie and the Chocolate Factory in 2005. The book's sequel, Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator, was written by Roald Dahl in 1972. Dahl had also planned to write a third book in the series, but never finished it. Quote: “So much time, and so little to do! Strike that, reverse it.” THE TIGER WHO CAME TO TEA (1968) By Judith Kerr (born 14 June 1923) A young girl, Sophie, and her mother find their afternoon snack interrupted by an insatiable tiger who drinks all of their tea and eats every last morsel in the house. Hoping their greedy friend will pay them another visit, the pair buy a huge tin of tiger food but, sadly, he never returns. Today, the story has scores of fans, including more than 20,000 fans who have declared their adoration on the social networking site, Facebook. Quote: "Once there was a little girl called Sophie, and she was having tea with her mummy in the kitchen. Suddenly there was a ring at the door." THE VERY HUNGRY CATERPILLAR (1969) By Eric Carle (born June 25, 1929) First published in 1969, Carle’s story follows our ravenous, furry hero as he munches his way through plums, pickles, Swiss cheese, salami, melon and more before finally pupating into a beautiful butterfly. Carle’s mouth-watering illustrations have made this quirky story a bedtime staple, and 10,000 children still write to Carle every year. It has been translated into more than 50 languages and its sales have now surpassed the 30 million mark. The book was inspired by a hole puncher, as Carle recalled: "One day I was punching holes with a hole puncher into a stack of paper, and I thought of a bookworm and so I created a story called 'A Week with Willi the Worm'. Then my editor suggested a caterpillar instead and I said 'Butterfly!' That's how it began." Quote: "In the light of the moon a little egg lay on a leaf. One sunny Sunday, the caterpillar was hatched out of a tiny egg. He was very hungry. On Monday, he ate through one apple." MR MEN (1971) Roger Hargreaves (9 May 1935 - 11 September 1988) Intended for very young readers, the Mr Men books comprised 48 books in all and they joined later by a series of 42 Little Miss books. With silly stories, bright-coloured, boldly drawn illustrations, they have been part of popular culture for over 25 years, with sales over 100 million worldwide in 15 languages. Among the funniest character were Mr Forgetful, Mr Fussy, Mr Lazy and Mr Grumpy - not forgetting Little Miss Chatterbox and Little Miss Trouble. And, of course, Mr Happy. Quote: "I am really very happy" WATERSHIP DOWN (1972) By Richard Adams (born 9 May 1920) Thirteen publishers rejected Adams’s first novel before Rex Collings Ltd took it on in 1972. Since then it has become one of Penguin’s best-selling books of all time, with sales surpassing five million. Something of a rabbit’s odyssey, and drawing on Homeric and Virgilian quest themes, the novel recounts a group of rabbits’ epic journey from their endangered warren to their new home in Watership Down, facing perils and temptations along the way Quote: "I think we ought to do all we can to make these creatures friendly. It might turn out to be well worth the trouble." THE BFG (1982) By Roald Dahl (13 September 1916 - 23 November 1990) The BFG (short for "Big Friendly Giant") is written by Roald Dahl and illustrated by Quentin Blake. The story is about a little girl named Sophie, a name inspired by the author's granddaughter Sophie Dahl, who lives in an orphanage but is befriended by a giant. Together they stop a group of human-eating giants. Because he refuses to eat people, the BFG has survived on a repulsive vegetable known as a snozzcumber. An animated film based on the book was released in 1989 with David Jason providing the voice of the BFG. Quote: “All human beans is having different flavours. Human beans from Panama is tasting very strong of hats.” DEAR ZOO (1982) By Rod Campbell (born 1945) In the past 30 years, Dear Zoo has become firmly established as a classic for the under five’s. To celebrate the 25th anniversary, Rod Campbell, a Scottish writer and illustrator with a doctorate in organix chemistry, refreshed the original artwork to give Dear Zoo an updated and fresh look. Dear Zoo is a "lift the flap book" about, in case you hadn't guessed, a letter to the zoo from a child who wants a pet. Quote: "Elephant! He was too big. I sent him back." WE'RE GOING ON A BEAR HUNT (1989) By Michael Rosen (born 7th May 1946) An illustrated tale of a family who go searching through the long wavy grass, the thick oozy mud and the swirling, whirling snowstorm in search of a bear. A classic picture book, combining the words of poet and writer Michael Rosen with the illustrations of Helen Oxenbury. Quote: "We're going on a bear hunt. We're going to catch a big one. What a beautiful day!" THE STORY OF TRACY BEAKER (1991) By Jacqueline Wilson (born 17 December 1945) First published in 1991 and since adapted into a long-running BBC children’s series, Wilson’s award-winning “autobiography” of 10-year-old rebel Tracy Beaker was the most borrowed title of the past decade. Placed in The Dumping Ground (a children’s residential care home) as a result of domestic violence, Beaker misses her mother terribly and uses her autobiography to chart her imagined “mistreatment” in the home and plot revenge on her enemies. Quote: "Your dress looks like a frilly custard." HIS DARK MATERIALS (1995) By Philip Pullman (born 19 October 1946) Despite being voted Britain’s third best-loved read in the BBC’s 2003 poll, Pullman’s fantasy trilogy - comprising Northern Lights (1995), The Subtle Knife (1997), and The Amber Spyglass (2000) - has caused much controversy, most notably for its alleged negative portrayal of organised religion. Pullman himself declared the books were about 'killing God'. An inversion of Milton’s Paradise Lost, the books trace the coming-of-age of Lyra Belacqua (a girl from Oxford) and Will Parry as they wander through a series of parallel worlds and become caught up in an epic war between the theocratic governing body, the Magisterium, and those whom it oppresses. Quote: "I stopped believing there was a power of good and a power of evil that were outside us. And I came to believe that good and evil are names for what people do, not for what they are." HARRY POTTER series (1997-2007) By J.K. Rowling (born 31 July 1965) Since the release of Harry Potter and the Philosopher’s Stone in 1997, JK Rowling’s record-breaking fantasy series has been translated into 67 languages and sold more than 400 million copies worldwide, making it one of the highest-selling series in history. Children and adults alike remain transfixed by half-blood Harry, haphazard Ron Weasley and overachieving Hermione Granger as they struggle to stop Lord Voldemort conquering the Wizarding and Muggle worlds. The Potter phenomenon has its detractors, but the success of special 'grown-up' covers, allowing commuters to read Rowling without shame, tells its own tale. Quote: "We do not speak his name! The wand chooses the wizard, Mr. Potter." THE GRUFFALO (1999) By Julia Donaldson (born 16 September 1948) Children watch in awe as a cunning mouse navigates the deep, dark forest, fending off dangerous characters such as fox and snake with tales of his monstrous (and imaginary) friend, the Gruffalo. Written in rhyming couplets and accompanied by Axel Scheffler’s now iconic illustrations, The Gruffalo has sold more than 10.5 million copies, been adapted for stage in both the West End - with a new show in December 2010 - and Broadway, and has also been made into a 30-minute animated film. Quote: "Who is this creature with terrible claws and terrible teeth in his terrible jaws?"	i don't know
Which is the next prime number that is greater than 90 ?	algorithm - Given Prime Number N, Compute the Next Prime? - Stack Overflow Given Prime Number N, Compute the Next Prime? up vote 54 down vote favorite 24 A coworker just told me that the C# Dictionary collection resizes by prime numbers for arcane reasons relating to hashing. And my immediate question was, "how does it know what the next prime is? do they story a giant table or compute on the fly? that's a scary non-deterministic runtime on an insert causing a resize" So my question is, given N, which is a prime number, what is the most efficient way to compute the next prime number? This really belongs on mathoverflow. – Kirk Broadhurst Dec 18 '10 at 1:05 2 Maybe your colleague is incorrect, or maybe it uses a few pre-computed primes rather than finding the next prime. – James K Polk Dec 18 '10 at 1:11 16 @Kirk: I disagree -- this is an algorithm question, not a math question. – Jim Lewis Dec 18 '10 at 1:15 4 @Kirk It all falls under theoretical computer science, which is very much in the middle of programming and math. So I honestly don't see a problem posting this question on either site. – marcog Dec 18 '10 at 1:27 10 @Kirk: This definitely does not belong on MathOverflow, which is for research-level questions only. I also disagree that it needs to be on math.stackexchange.com , but it would at least be suitable there as well. – Antal Spector-Zabusky Dec 18 '10 at 2:19 up vote 30 down vote accepted The gaps between consecutive prime numbers is known to be quite small, with the first gap of over 100 occurring for prime number 370261. That means that even a simple brute force will be fast enough in most circumstances, taking O(ln(p)sqrt(p)) on average. For p=10,000 that's O(921) operations. Bearing in mind we'll be performing this once every O(ln(p)) insertion (roughly speaking), this is well within the constraints of most problems taking on the order of a millisecond on most modern hardware. I wouldn't call that "fast" in the context of growing a dictionary. – James K Polk Dec 18 '10 at 1:13 Agree that the complexity isn't excessive but each of those operations is a relatively heavy remainder check; & the complexity of the check itself increases as p increases. – Kirk Broadhurst Dec 18 '10 at 1:19 @GregS See my edit. @Kirk For sure, and coming to realise these expenses is one of the things that make an experienced programmer. – marcog Dec 18 '10 at 1:24 @marcog Unless I am still asleep, for p = 10000, ln(p) = 9.2 and sqrt(p) = 100, => O(920). – Kirk Broadhurst Dec 18 '10 at 1:30 up vote 51 down vote About a year ago I was working this area for libc++ while implementing the unordered (hash) containers for C++11. I thought I would share my experiences here. This experience supports marcog's accepted answer for a reasonable definition of "brute force". That means that even a simple brute force will be fast enough in most circumstances, taking O(ln(p)sqrt(p)) on average. I developed several implementations of size_t next_prime(size_t n) where the spec for this function is: Returns: The smallest prime that is greater than or equal to n. Each implementation of next_prime is accompanied by a helper function is_prime. is_prime should be considered a private implementation detail; not meant to be called directly by the client. Each of these implementations was of course tested for correctness, but also tested with the following performance test: int main() { typedef std::chrono::high_resolution_clock Clock; typedef std::chrono::duration<double, std::milli> ms; Clock::time_point t0 = Clock::now(); std::size_t n = 100000000; std::size_t e = 100000; for (std::size_t i = 0; i < e; ++i) n = next_prime(n+1); Clock::time_point t1 = Clock::now(); std::cout << e/ms(t1-t0).count() << " primes/millisecond\n"; return n; } I should stress that this is a performance test, and does not reflect typical usage, which would look more like: // Overflow checking not shown for clarity purposes n = next_prime(2n + 1); All performance tests were compiled with: clang++ -stdlib=libc++ -O3 main.cpp Implementation 1 There are seven implementations. The purpose for displaying the first implementation is to demonstrate that if you fail to stop testing the candidate prime x for factors at sqrt(x) then you have failed to even achieve an implementation that could be classified as brute force. This implementation is brutally slow. bool is_prime(std::size_t x) { if (x < 2) return false; for (std::size_t i = 2; i < x; ++i) { if (x % i == 0) return false; } return true; } std::size_t next_prime(std::size_t x) { for (; !is_prime(x); ++x) ; return x; } For this implementation only I had to set e to 100 instead of 100000, just to get a reasonable running time: 0.0015282 primes/millisecond Implementation 2 This implementation is the slowest of the brute force implementations and the only difference from implementation 1 is that it stops testing for primeness when the factor surpasses sqrt(x). bool is_prime(std::size_t x) { if (x < 2) return false; for (std::size_t i = 2; true; ++i) { std::size_t q = x / i; if (q < i) return true; if (x % i == 0) return false; } return true; } std::size_t next_prime(std::size_t x) { for (; !is_prime(x); ++x) ; return x; } Note that sqrt(x) isn't directly computed, but inferred by q < i. This speeds things up by a factor of thousands: 5.98576 primes/millisecond and validates marcog's prediction: ... this is well within the constraints of most problems taking on the order of a millisecond on most modern hardware. Implementation 3 One can nearly double the speed (at least on the hardware I'm using) by avoiding use of the % operator: bool is_prime(std::size_t x) { if (x < 2) return false; for (std::size_t i = 2; true; ++i) { std::size_t q = x / i; if (q < i) return true; if (x == q i) return false; } return true; } std::size_t next_prime(std::size_t x) { for (; !is_prime(x); ++x) ; return x; } 11.0512 primes/millisecond Implementation 4 So far I haven't even used the common knowledge that 2 is the only even prime. This implementation incorporates that knowledge, nearly doubling the speed again: bool is_prime(std::size_t x) { for (std::size_t i = 3; true; i += 2) { std::size_t q = x / i; if (q < i) return true; if (x == q * i) return false; } return true; } std::size_t next_prime(std::size_t x) { if (x <= 2) return 2; if (!(x & 1)) ++x; for (; !is_prime(x); x += 2) ; return x; } 21.9846 primes/millisecond Implementation 4 is probably what most people have in mind when they think "brute force". Implementation 5 Using the following formula you can easily choose all numbers which are divisible by neither 2 nor 3: 6 * k + {1, 5} where k >= 1. The following implementation uses this formula, but implemented with a cute xor trick: bool is_prime(std::size_t x) { std::size_t o = 4; for (std::size_t i = 5; true; i += o) { std::size_t q = x / i; if (q < i) return true; if (x == q * i) return false; o ^= 6; } return true; } std::size_t next_prime(std::size_t x) { switch (x) { case 0: case 1: case 2: return 2; case 3: return 3; case 4: case 5: return 5; } std::size_t k = x / 6; std::size_t i = x - 6 * k; std::size_t o = i < 2 ? 1 : 5; x = 6 * k + o; for (i = (3 + o) / 2; !is_prime(x); x += i) i ^= 6; return x; } This effectively means that the algorithm has to check only 1/3 of the integers for primeness instead of 1/2 of the numbers and the performance test shows the expected speed up of nearly 50%: 32.6167 primes/millisecond Implementation 6 This implementation is a logical extension of implementation 5: It uses the following formula to compute all numbers which are not divisible by 2, 3 and 5: 30 * k + {1, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29} It also unrolls the inner loop within is_prime, and creates a list of "small primes" that is useful for dealing with numbers less than 30. static const std::size_t small_primes[] = { 2, 3, 5, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29 }; static const std::size_t indices[] = { 1, 7, 11, 13, 17, 19, 23, 29 }; bool is_prime(std::size_t x) { const size_t N = sizeof(small_primes) / sizeof(small_primes[0]); for (std::size_t i = 3; i < N; ++i) { const std::size_t p = small_primes[i]; const std::size_t q = x / p; if (q < p) return true; if (x == q * p) return false; } for (std::size_t i = 31; true;) { std::size_t q = x / i; if (q < i) return true; if (x == q * i) return false; i += 6; q = x / i; if (q < i) return true; if (x == q * i) return false; i += 4; q = x / i; if (q < i) return true; if (x == q * i) return false; i += 2; q = x / i; if (q < i) return true; if (x == q * i) return false; i += 4; q = x / i; if (q < i) return true; if (x == q * i) return false; i += 2; q = x / i; if (q < i) return true; if (x == q * i) return false; i += 4; q = x / i; if (q < i) return true; if (x == q * i) return false; i += 6; q = x / i; if (q < i) return true; if (x == q * i) return false; i += 2; } return true; } std::size_t next_prime(std::size_t n) { const size_t L = 30; const size_t N = sizeof(small_primes) / sizeof(small_primes[0]); // If n is small enough, search in small_primes if (n <= small_primes[N-1]) return std::lower_bound(small_primes, small_primes + N, n); // Else n > largest small_primes // Start searching list of potential primes: L k0 + indices[in] const size_t M = sizeof(indices) / sizeof(indices[0]); // Select first potential prime >= n // Known a-priori n >= L size_t k0 = n / L; size_t in = std::lower_bound(indices, indices + M, n - k0 * L) - indices; n = L * k0 + indices[in]; while (!is_prime(n)) { if (++in == M) { ++k0; in = 0; } n = L * k0 + indices[in]; } return n; } This is arguably getting beyond "brute force" and is good for boosting the speed another 27.5% to: 41.6026 primes/millisecond Implementation 7 It is practical to play the above game for one more iteration, developing a formula for numbers not divisible by 2, 3, 5 and 7: 210 * k + {1, 11, ...}, The source code isn't shown here, but is very similar to implementation 6. This is the implementation I chose to actually use for the unordered containers of libc++ , and that source code is open source (found at the link). This final iteration is good for another 14.6% speed boost to: 47.685 primes/millisecond Use of this algorithm assures that clients of libc++ 's hash tables can choose any prime they decide is most beneficial to their situation, and the performance for this application is quite acceptable. A nice trick is to use a partial sieve. For example, what is the next prime that follows the number N = 2534536543556? Check the modulus of N with respect to a list of small primes. Thus... mod(2534536543556,[3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37]) ans = 2 1 3 6 4 1 3 4 22 16 25 We know that the next prime following N must be an odd number, and we can immediately discard all odd multiples of this list of small primes. These moduli allow us to sieve out multiples of those small primes. Were we to use the small primes up to 200, we can use this scheme to immediately discard most potential prime numbers greater than N, except for a small list. More explicitly, if we are looking for a prime number beyond 2534536543556, it cannot be divisible by 2, so we need consider only the odd numbers beyond that value. The moduli above show that 2534536543556 is congruent to 2 mod 3, therefore 2534536543556+1 is congruent to 0 mod 3, as must be 2534536543556+7, 2534536543556+13, etc. Effectively, we can sieve out many of the numbers without any need to test them for primality and without any trial divisions. Similarly, the fact that mod(2534536543556,7) = 3 tells us that 2534536543556+4 is congruent to 0 mod 7. Of course, that number is even, so we can ignore it. But 2534536543556+11 is an odd number that is divisible by 7, as is 2534536543556+25, etc. Again, we can exclude these numbers as clearly composite (because they are divisible by 7) and so not prime. Using only the small list of primes up to 37, we can exclude most of the numbers that immediately follow our starting point of 2534536543556, only excepting a few: {2534536543573 , 2534536543579 , 2534536543597} Of those numbers, are they prime? 2534536543573 = 1430239 * 1772107 2534536543579 = 99833 * 25387763 I've made the effort of providing the prime factorizations of the first two numbers in the list. See that they are composite, but the prime factors are large. Of course, this makes sense, since we've already ensured that no number that remains can have small prime factors. The third one in our short list (2534536543597) is in fact the very first prime number beyond N. The sieving scheme I've described will tend to result in numbers that are either prime, or are composed of generally large prime factors. So we needed to actually apply an explicit test for primality to only a few numbers before finding the next prime. A similar scheme quickly yields the next prime exceeding N = 1000000000000000000000000000, as 1000000000000000000000000103. up vote 3 down vote For sheer novelty, there’s always this approach: #!/usr/bin/perl for $p ( 2 .. 200 ) { next if (1x$p) =~ /^(11+)\1+$/; for ($n=1x(1+$p); $n =~ /^(11+)\1+$/; $n.=1) { } printf "next prime after %d is %d\n", $p, length($n); } which of course produces next prime after 2 is 3 next prime after 3 is 5 next prime after 5 is 7 next prime after 7 is 11 next prime after 11 is 13 next prime after 13 is 17 next prime after 17 is 19 next prime after 19 is 23 next prime after 23 is 29 next prime after 29 is 31 next prime after 31 is 37 next prime after 37 is 41 next prime after 41 is 43 next prime after 43 is 47 next prime after 47 is 53 next prime after 53 is 59 next prime after 59 is 61 next prime after 61 is 67 next prime after 67 is 71 next prime after 71 is 73 next prime after 73 is 79 next prime after 79 is 83 next prime after 83 is 89 next prime after 89 is 97 next prime after 97 is 101 next prime after 101 is 103 next prime after 103 is 107 next prime after 107 is 109 next prime after 109 is 113 next prime after 113 is 127 next prime after 127 is 131 next prime after 131 is 137 next prime after 137 is 139 next prime after 139 is 149 next prime after 149 is 151 next prime after 151 is 157 next prime after 157 is 163 next prime after 163 is 167 next prime after 167 is 173 next prime after 173 is 179 next prime after 179 is 181 next prime after 181 is 191 next prime after 191 is 193 next prime after 193 is 197 next prime after 197 is 199 next prime after 199 is 211 All fun and games aside, it is well known that the optimal hash table size is rigorously provably a prime number of the form 4N−1. So just finding the next prime is insufficient. You have to do the other check, too.	97
What seven letter name was given to the type of two wheeled cart that was used during The French Revolution to take prisoners to the Guillotine ?	The First 1,000 Primes (the 1,000th is 7919) For more information on primes see http://primes.utm.edu/ 2 3 5 7 11 13 17 19 23 29 31 37 41 43 47 53 59 61 67 71 73 79 83 89 97 101 103 107 109 113 127 131 137 139 149 151 157 163 167 173 179 181 191 193 197 199 211 223 227 229 233 239 241 251 257 263 269 271 277 281 283 293 307 311 313 317 331 337 347 349 353 359 367 373 379 383 389 397 401 409 419 421 431 433 439 443 449 457 461 463 467 479 487 491 499 503 509 521 523 541 547 557 563 569 571 577 587 593 599 601 607 613 617 619 631 641 643 647 653 659 661 673 677 683 691 701 709 719 727 733 739 743 751 757 761 769 773 787 797 809 811 821 823 827 829 839 853 857 859 863 877 881 883 887 907 911 919 929 937 941 947 953 967 971 977 983 991 997 1009 1013 1019 1021 1031 1033 1039 1049 1051 1061 1063 1069 1087 1091 1093 1097 1103 1109 1117 1123 1129 1151 1153 1163 1171 1181 1187 1193 1201 1213 1217 1223 1229 1231 1237 1249 1259 1277 1279 1283 1289 1291 1297 1301 1303 1307 1319 1321 1327 1361 1367 1373 1381 1399 1409 1423 1427 1429 1433 1439 1447 1451 1453 1459 1471 1481 1483 1487 1489 1493 1499 1511 1523 1531 1543 1549 1553 1559 1567 1571 1579 1583 1597 1601 1607 1609 1613 1619 1621 1627 1637 1657 1663 1667 1669 1693 1697 1699 1709 1721 1723 1733 1741 1747 1753 1759 1777 1783 1787 1789 1801 1811 1823 1831 1847 1861 1867 1871 1873 1877 1879 1889 1901 1907 1913 1931 1933 1949 1951 1973 1979 1987 1993 1997 1999 2003 2011 2017 2027 2029 2039 2053 2063 2069 2081 2083 2087 2089 2099 2111 2113 2129 2131 2137 2141 2143 2153 2161 2179 2203 2207 2213 2221 2237 2239 2243 2251 2267 2269 2273 2281 2287 2293 2297 2309 2311 2333 2339 2341 2347 2351 2357 2371 2377 2381 2383 2389 2393 2399 2411 2417 2423 2437 2441 2447 2459 2467 2473 2477 2503 2521 2531 2539 2543 2549 2551 2557 2579 2591 2593 2609 2617 2621 2633 2647 2657 2659 2663 2671 2677 2683 2687 2689 2693 2699 2707 2711 2713 2719 2729 2731 2741 2749 2753 2767 2777 2789 2791 2797 2801 2803 2819 2833 2837 2843 2851 2857 2861 2879 2887 2897 2903 2909 2917 2927 2939 2953 2957 2963 2969 2971 2999 3001 3011 3019 3023 3037 3041 3049 3061 3067 3079 3083 3089 3109 3119 3121 3137 3163 3167 3169 3181 3187 3191 3203 3209 3217 3221 3229 3251 3253 3257 3259 3271 3299 3301 3307 3313 3319 3323 3329 3331 3343 3347 3359 3361 3371 3373 3389 3391 3407 3413 3433 3449 3457 3461 3463 3467 3469 3491 3499 3511 3517 3527 3529 3533 3539 3541 3547 3557 3559 3571 3581 3583 3593 3607 3613 3617 3623 3631 3637 3643 3659 3671 3673 3677 3691 3697 3701 3709 3719 3727 3733 3739 3761 3767 3769 3779 3793 3797 3803 3821 3823 3833 3847 3851 3853 3863 3877 3881 3889 3907 3911 3917 3919 3923 3929 3931 3943 3947 3967 3989 4001 4003 4007 4013 4019 4021 4027 4049 4051 4057 4073 4079 4091 4093 4099 4111 4127 4129 4133 4139 4153 4157 4159 4177 4201 4211 4217 4219 4229 4231 4241 4243 4253 4259 4261 4271 4273 4283 4289 4297 4327 4337 4339 4349 4357 4363 4373 4391 4397 4409 4421 4423 4441 4447 4451 4457 4463 4481 4483 4493 4507 4513 4517 4519 4523 4547 4549 4561 4567 4583 4591 4597 4603 4621 4637 4639 4643 4649 4651 4657 4663 4673 4679 4691 4703 4721 4723 4729 4733 4751 4759 4783 4787 4789 4793 4799 4801 4813 4817 4831 4861 4871 4877 4889 4903 4909 4919 4931 4933 4937 4943 4951 4957 4967 4969 4973 4987 4993 4999 5003 5009 5011 5021 5023 5039 5051 5059 5077 5081 5087 5099 5101 5107 5113 5119 5147 5153 5167 5171 5179 5189 5197 5209 5227 5231 5233 5237 5261 5273 5279 5281 5297 5303 5309 5323 5333 5347 5351 5381 5387 5393 5399 5407 5413 5417 5419 5431 5437 5441 5443 5449 5471 5477 5479 5483 5501 5503 5507 5519 5521 5527 5531 5557 5563 5569 5573 5581 5591 5623 5639 5641 5647 5651 5653 5657 5659 5669 5683 5689 5693 5701 5711 5717 5737 5741 5743 5749 5779 5783 5791 5801 5807 5813 5821 5827 5839 5843 5849 5851 5857 5861 5867 5869 5879 5881 5897 5903 5923 5927 5939 5953 5981 5987 6007 6011 6029 6037 6043 6047 6053 6067 6073 6079 6089 6091 6101 6113 6121 6131 6133 6143 6151 6163 6173 6197 6199 6203 6211 6217 6221 6229 6247 6257 6263 6269 6271 6277 6287 6299 6301 6311 6317 6323 6329 6337 6343 6353 6359 6361 6367 6373 6379 6389 6397 6421 6427 6449 6451 6469 6473 6481 6491 6521 6529 6547 6551 6553 6563 6569 6571 6577 6581 6599 6607 6619 6637 6653 6659 6661 6673 6679 6689 6691 6701 6703 6709 6719 6733 6737 6761 6763 6779 6781 6791 6793 6803 6823 6827 6829 6833 6841 6857 6863 6869 6871 6883 6899 6907 6911 6917 6947 6949 6959 6961 6967 6971 6977 6983 6991 6997 7001 7013 7019 7027 7039 7043 7057 7069 7079 7103 7109 7121 7127 7129 7151 7159 7177 7187 7193 7207 7211 7213 7219 7229 7237 7243 7247 7253 7283 7297 7307 7309 7321 7331 7333 7349 7351 7369 7393 7411 7417 7433 7451 7457 7459 7477 7481 7487 7489 7499 7507 7517 7523 7529 7537 7541 7547 7549 7559 7561 7573 7577 7583 7589 7591 7603 7607 7621 7639 7643 7649 7669 7673 7681 7687 7691 7699 7703 7717 7723 7727 7741 7753 7757 7759 7789 7793 7817 7823 7829 7841 7853 7867 7873 7877 7879 7883 7901 7907 7919 end.	i don't know
What seven letter name is given to the light vehicle with three wheels and pedals used In South East Asia to carry usually two passengers ?	Makers of Four Wheel Bicycles and Adult Trikes Pedicabs Four Wheel Bike Manufacturers Adbikes of the UK has a line of four wheelers with high cargo areas that can carry a billboard ad. They also have a 4 wheel courier and load carrying model. Both models have electrical assistance as well as pedal power. Alternative Vehicles has a line of four wheelers and trikes mostly made by Pacific Cycles in Asia. Their 2 Rider model is a surrey-style bike but a little lower than most surreys, with two active pedaling positions and a kids seat adaptor or cargo area up front. It can tow a trailer. All wheels are suspended, and it has cup holders. Berg Toys of The Netherlands has four wheelers that look like pedaled go-karts, and tricycles as well, including one with an articulated front wheel for body-lean steering called the BalanzBike. They have off-road and street models, and four-seaters for the whole family. There are mud-guards to protect your arms from the rear wheels, and fully-enclosed chains for wet weather riding. They have US dealers listed on the US web site . Blackbird Designs has a system called the Quadribent that attaches two normal recumbent bikes to make a four wheel, side-by-side "Sociable Tandem" with independent gearing and pedaling. The recumbents can be detached for solo use. The company can provide doggy platforms and a rumble seat for kids. They also do some custom work for special needs riders. Bill Blakie - Very Eco has a quad designed by Bill Blakie of Invercargill, New Zealand. The bike is designed for mobility and has a sprung subframe under the seat, five speed gearbox that includes reverse, and front disk/rear coaster brakes. Body Cycles is an Australian company whose main line is "theraputic" trikes with a handle on the rear for a parent or assistant to help guide the rider. They also have a four wheeler constructed of two side-by-side linked bikes for those who can ride in normal biking posture. Brox HPVs in Manchester, England, has a four wheeler that comes in various configurations and is designed to carry cargo. The rider is in a recumbent position, with a large cargo bed behind, and the frame is articulated to keep all four wheels on the ground at all times. There is a flatbed, a cargo box and a child carrier model. They also have a "One Less Car" tricycle pedicab and other tricycle models. Caribbean Riders is a Florida-based designer, wholesaler and marketer of a line of surrey-style four wheelers. They have one model with a single bench seat and another with two seats. Both have the normal surrey top canopy. The Web site mentions drum brakes but does not mention gears. Carvx is a Dutch company with a four wheel mountain bike with four hydraulic brakes, full suspension and hub gearing. We could not find ordering or price info on the site, and the "news" page has items from 2003 and 2004, so it may never have made it into production. Chat 'n Bike in Gaithersburg, Maryland, is a US dealer for Dutch and Chinese four wheelers. They order batches of the two and four-seater Dutch Quattrocycles described below. They are also bringing in the Chinese GX01 four-seater. They arrange test rides. ConferenceBike made by Velo Saliko of Germany, is a round seven-seat bike, with the riders facing each other, steered by the forward-facing rider in the back of the circle. All riders pedal, with seven independent freewheels. The photo gallery on the Web site shows the design well. You may have seen them at bicycle events. In the US, Larry Black of Mount Airy Bicycles in Maryland sometimes has one in stock. You can contact the manufacturer for other dealers. Contes Engineering has developed and will bring to market in 2012 an impressive four wheel machine that is intended for off-road riding and the kind of hard jumping that BMX riders do. It has long-travel four wheel suspension, a rear differential with two driven wheels and an upright rider position that is secure on jumps and permits using the legs to muscle the bike. Films (some on the Web site) are impressive when powered by Andy Contes , a former top-ranked pro BMX bike racer. It will be pricey, of course, but if you want something for off-road that has a chance of holding up well, this one is worth a look. They have a velocar in the works. e Quadz from Concept Cycles in Montana, has a four wheeler with or without electric assist and fat tires for back road cycling. The site has interesting info on their frame building techniques, as well as a detailed list of components. The model without electric assist is lighter and more of a road bike. Electric Bike Car Co has several models of their Ebikecar four wheelers that come as pedaled bikes or with electric motors. There are one, two and four seat models, with yellow seats, red frames and red or yellow 20" wheels. Adult and child models. There is a downward sloping accent over the e in Ebikecar, but we can't reproduce it. Eric has a four wheeled kiddie bike called the QQ-Bike that uses a rowing action to move forward and is steered by the feet. Colorful, with red, yellow and green plastic wheels perhaps 10" in diameter. For kids from 3 to 12 years old. The Web site won't work for us. Feetz of the Netherlands has a four wheeled cargo and child carrier bike. It is very upright and has 20 inch wheels. It has a box for the kids in the front and another box for cargo in the rear. They also have tadpole trikes with the front box only. The GrannyBike is a conversion kit for linking two solo bicycles into a side-by-side quad. The design includes crossmembers at the front and rear, plus a steering linkage that attaches to the handlebars of each bike. The company is in Ontario. Greenspeed now makes a quad called the Anura to complement its line of tricycles (see below). They use some off-the-shelf components and some components manufactured just for them. The Anura has an aluminum frame, a differential that drives both rear wheels, and front wheel steering geometry "designed so that when one front wheel leaves the ground, the other seamlessly takes over all the steering control." If you have ever ridden a quad down a bumpy hill you know why that would be interesting, and if you use a quad in snow the two wheel rear drive is a big plus. BentRider Online said it was very stable and "it was definitely one of the funnest machines on the test track." There is a kit to convert the Anura Trike to a fourwheeler. Gus Wheels is a Miami Beach company that makes four wheel bikes in a factory employing mentally challenged adults. The bikes are made of stainless steel to avoid beach rust. We can't find them on the Web. GX01 is a Chinese-manufactured four wheel, four person surrey bike. It is available in the US from Chat 'n Bike (above) who organize group buys. They have some interesting comments on usage limitations. Hoening is a German manufacturer with at least two four wheelers. One looks like a pair of solo bikes linked together and the other is apparently designed as a pedaled wheelchair. They make tandems and regular wheelchairs too. Hollywood Bike has a side by side tandem four wheeler that looks like it begins by linking two solos together like the ones from Blackbird Designs, Body Cycles or Grannybike but adds a wide seat across the two bikes and a surrey-like canopy top. Made in Thailand and sold from the inventor's Los Angeles office. Industrial Bicycles has a wide range of four wheelers, trikes and heavy duty industrial bicycles. They sell their own house bikes and many other brands as well. They have delivery vehicles, special needs vehicles, parts, accessories, electric drives, bike racks, car racks for delta and tadpole trikes, tools and a lot of other stuff. They say they have been in business since 1935. Worth a look for nearly anyone looking for a three or four wheeler. International Surrey Company is a Texas company with two four wheel surrey models that are designed to withstand the rigors of the rental trade. Their Surrey Deluxe seats two adults plus children on a front bench, and has an awning on top. The Surrey Limousine adds a rear seat as well, with four pedaling positions. Their advertising says they are the original surrey company in the US and have been "pedaling since 1970." Just Two Bikes of Hugo, Minnesota, has a system that combines two recumbents side-by-side. They can be separated for solo use. Karbyk of Italy has three basic models, all with aluminum frames, gears and many options amenities. Their machines are used in racing events like the British Pedal Car Racing Championship. They weigh about 55 pounds. An interesting Web site, but have your little yellow sticky note ready to cover the distracting moving gifs. In July of 2000 they emailed us that they are looking for US distributors. Kettler is a German manufacturer known in the US primarily for their aluminum bikes. They have at least three toy four-wheel models for kids, including one called the Street Hawk in the US market that is sold for as little as $70 at Toys R Us. All have small wheels, a fully enclosed chain guard and a coasting/freewheeling lever allowing the rider to disengage the chain for freewheeling action. Lightfoot Cycles of Conner, Montana, has several four wheel models, from cargo to lighter weight touring versions, with lots of options. They also make trikes, and models for people with leg or arm disabilities, very heavy riders, and other special needs or uses. They have a fully-enclosed velocar, as well as head-out models scheduled for mid-2012. Mayfair Bicycle Co of Indiana has a surrey-style four wheeler with a fringe on top around the canopy. They have one model, the Brighton, seating up to six adults and two children with four in pedaling positions. Mitraco/Maxwin of Taiwan has a four wheel Rickshaw model, with four seats with pedals and space for two kids, a canopy on top and caliper brakes. We can't find it anywhere on their Web page, but here is a photo they sent by email. Mobilette Ltd. is a Bulgarian company with an extensive line of four wheelers including two-seaters, four seaters and family models. Some models have pedals for all riders, and most have surrey tops. Many are intended for use at hotels and resorts. In the US they are distributed by Scooterbug . Mupocar by Belik Creation of Texas has three and four wheel versions of their "muscle powered car." They are all powered by cranks directly attached to the front wheels and pedaled directly without gearing. Front wheels are listed as 20 or 28 inch, so that's the fixed gear. The rear wheels vary by model and do the steering. The URL is not working as of June 2010. Nour has hand-made four wheel pedal cars for kids. The CEO, Tunisian engineer Mourad Feki, plans to produce an adult design as well. Pacific Cycles is a Taiwanese company producing a wide variety of four wheelers and trikes. They make unique vehicles, including many designed for handicapped riders. Some of their vehicles are available through Alternative Vehicles and a Canadian distributor, Belize Bikes . If you are searching for their products, avoid those of another company that uses exactly the same name except they have dropped the s on Cycles. Palm Imports has a four-wheeler similar in appearance to the Swiss ZEM, weighing 90kg. They have others as well, including surrey models. Palm is a wholesaler located in Florida. Pedal Back in Tyme is a Canadian manufacturer of 4 wheel bikes. They make an old-fashioned fourwheeler reminiscent of a Model T. Their Web link is no longer working for us, but we don't know what that means. Pedalcoupe has a compact-looking four wheeler that they say "speaks to the child in all of us." It is a serious bicycle with a serious price but has brightly colored wheels and other components. Both rear wheels are driven with a "posi-traction" system, and it has gears, high-pressure tires and an 8 foot turning radius. The company is in Minnesota, and has photos of their quad in the snow. Prime Pedal Karts is a manufacturer and importer of four and three wheel bikes for kids and on up. The designs look to be on the sturdy side. Some of their models have a reverse gear. They have interesting trailers, including one with four wheels. They are in Pensacola, Florida. QBX-Quad Bike Xcycles produces four wheel bikes in France. They have an aluminum-frame mountain bike with large suspension travel that is shown on the site grabbing some impressive air. They also have an urban model, and electric-assist is available on three hybrid models. Quadrabyke is a child's four, three or two wheeler. The small wheels can be set up in any of the three configurations. Quadracycle, Inc. of Hamilton, Indiana, has a line of four wheelers including a child's model, a single adult bike, a side-by-side double adult bike and a taxi that seats four with an awning. Quadracycle International of Saskatoon has a "Little Duece Coupe" for two adults plus a child. It is a three speed, and has at least two different carts you can add on to pull golf clubs or other cargo. Note the one letter difference in spelling between the companies above and below! Quadricycle International of Canada has a line of four wheelers described as "recreational vehicles with four wheels capable of carrying two to nine passengers. With a maximum speed of 8 km/h and being propelled by pedals, these vehicles are safe and in conformity with regulations regarding environmental concerns." Their Web page says they can be profitable rental vehicles. Quattrocycle of the Netherlands has a large four wheeler for four adults and 3 kids in the back that is more bicycle-like than most of the surrey bikes. Each of the four riders has a separate 3 speed gear hub so they can shift individually or freewheel to accommodate a range of pedal cadences. "The internal gear hubs and chains are the only part that is somewhat fragile. You must only switch gears when you are not pedaling." Front and rear axle suspension lets the bike negotiate obstacles, and there are four drum brakes. The front positions are more reclined, improving the view from the rear. The left rear position steers. The bike can be stored upright to save space. Designed to hold up under rental use, so it weighs 114 kilograms/250 lbs. There is an electric assist available. For a US group buy source, see Chat 'n Bike above. Rhoades Car is a long-time maker of one seat, two seat, and four seat four-wheeled bikes. The one I rode at Interbike rolled easily on a flat surface and seemed very stable, but at 90 pounds it would be slow on uphills and probably ideal on a boardwalk. In addition to their surrey-style and sport bikes, they have a collection of cargo bikes that can handle up to 700 lbs. Their Recycler carries four removable green recycling containers--that's about as green as you can get. The company has many options available including electric motors and solar power. They can do custom mods for special needs. The factory is in Tennessee, and 80% of their components are made in USA. Rideable Bicycle Replicas has quad surreys and trikes along with their boneshakers and highwheels. They also have a unique upright tandem trike, some hand-cranked trikes and tricycle pedicabs that can be outfitted with a two or four person trailer if your legs can handle that! They are in Southern California. Rowbike has a four wheeler called the Crewzer that is powered by a rowing action rather than pedaling. They are in Minnesota. Seat of the Pants Company (UK) had a line of utility quads configured as taxis and in a pickup truck style. We don't find them on the Web any more, but they still can be found as the producers of the famous Windcheetah tricycle , which in competition with a full fairing has done nearly 50 MPH on a flat road. SightSeeingBike , also known as Partyfiets in the Netherlands, and as Beerbike in the UK, has very large four wheel party bikes similar to the Fietscafe bikes above. There are up to 18 partiers sitting around a central table and most are pedaling. They use a car differential and drive shaft to link the pedalers. The site has interesting photo sequences of producing the machines that show the underlying frame. They are working on an amphibian as well. The Dutch parent company, RondjeRegio, will produce bikes for the US market in Bend, Oregon. SurreyBikes has several four wheelers that resemble old fashioned surreys. One has three rows of seats for up to nine adults. In the Service section there is a long list of component parts and some detailed schematic drawings with exploded views of their machines' components. They are in Longwood, Florida. Tecnoart of America has an Italian-made four wheeler called the Selene Sport (a 2-seater) and the four-seater Selene Bus and a six-seater as well. Check the Web page for details. 2-Rider is a four passenger (two pedaling in the rear) four wheeler made by Pacific Cycles. It's a surrey-type machine with a canopy, front and rear suspension and rim brakes, with the front brakes mounted on a J shaped bar that wraps around the wheels. Note that the original Pacific Cycles has an S on the end and the more recent Pacific Cycle of the US does not. Trailmate makes a four wheeler called the Double Joyrider with two side-by-side seats, 24" wheels on the back and smaller wheels on the front, independent pedaling and plastic bucket seats. In addition, the company makes several trikes for both recreational and industrial use. The trikes range from an upright Adult model to a Funcycle series for the sportier market and a Joyrider model designed for people with balance issues and other special needs. They are in Bradenton, Florida. Transport Cycling has pedicabs. Most are three wheeled, but they have one unique four wheeler with the driver in recumbent position. That should improve the forward view of the passengers. They also sell components and do custom work. They are located in San Francisco. TumTumCar is produced by JMC Motoronics, a California company. They have two models of four wheelers. Both can be pedal-powered, but one also has a 35cc recoil start gas motor. If you must have a four wheeler that burns fossil fuel, here it is. Both have front and rear independent suspension with springs and shock absorbers. 2-Rider is sold by the Austrian company Metallhase. It is a side-by-side two person machine that comes from the ZEM heritage. It is made by Pacific Cycles, and may be available from other dealers, but Metallhase believes they are the only dealer in Europe specializing in them. The ZEMs were nice, well built machines, on the heavy-duty side. Ulamo , a Dutch company, makes four wheeled go-cart-like pedal vehicles that sell in the Netherlands. We have not been able to find them on the Ulamo Web page, but you might contact Ulamo U.S.A., One Rockefeller Plaza, STE 1420, New York, NY 10020, phone (888) 449-3365. Van Dalen Products of the Netherlands has four wheel pedal cars for kids styled like an army jeep. They also make gas-powered jeep-style go-carts as well as swan boats and other pedal boats, and a car-sized gas-powered locomotive on tires that pulls a three car train. Very Eco is a New Zealand maker of what appears to be a practical and well finished four wheeler with a sprung sub-frame under the seat, disk brakes in front with a coaster brake in the rear, and a five speed gearbox including reverse. Voiturettes Velocar This French company has recumbent models including one, three and 21 speed versions. They are rated to carry 2 adults plus two kids and a baby in the front basket, with 1 double hydraulic disk brake, 2 driven wheels with a differential, a spare wheel, headlights, tailights, removable sun shade, pannier, chainguards and a 250 kg capacity. When we last checked in August of 2007 their Web page said "Nothing here yet. Come back later!" A Google search indicates that the name Velocar was used in the 1930's for a line of recumbents. Work-Bikes This Berlin company (Work Bikes Dumdei/Eilhauer GbR) has a unique four wheeler with a large rear sign for commercial advertising. The rider is semi-recumbent in the front with a front fairing, and it has disk wheels. The drive train is a design developed by AVD/Windcheetah. It rents for 228 Euros per day in Berlin. The site is in German, but here is an English translation . Work Cycles is a Dutch site with work tricycles, including unique delivery trikes, old fashioned ice cream trikes, and old fashioned Dutch street vending trike, and a larger industrial trike equipped for waste collection and cleanup. Worksman Cycles is a US manufacturer founded in 1898 and best known for their utility and cargo bikes, most of the tricycles. In addition to an extensive tricycle line with many variations, they distribute four wheel imports from Italy, the Sirenetta and Delphino Quadricycle Surreys. They are in Ozone Park, New York. ZEM - Zero Emmission Machine of Switzerland built a truly heavy-duty four seater. Complete with wide gearing and freewheeling pedals for each of the four riders, it weighs 70 kg, and can be fitted with an optional electric assist. They also made two-seaters, and planned to eventually have a sail version and a super light version. Unfortunately ZEM Cycles are out of production, but pre-owned vehicles are available. Larry Black of Mount Airy Bicycles in Maryland emailed us in November of 2007 that he had three Zemcycles in stock. And 2-Rider (above) has the two-person version. They are made by Pacific Cycles. Z-Rider is a four seater with two independent adult pedaling positions in the rear and two child passenger seats in front. It has 8 speeds. The four 20" wheels are independently suspended. The "main rider" who controls the shifting can be on either left or right. There is an optional plastic canopy on top. Available to dealers through Pacific Cycles of Taiwan. Other Four Wheel sites Pedicabs We have a few pedicab makers listed above and below in the trikes, but the International Bicycle Fund site has a listing of over 35 pedicab producers. Highly recommended if that's the machine you need. Wheel Fun Rentals has a service at resorts that rents seven different three and four wheel bikes. Might be a good place to try out a four wheeler, if they are near you. Four Wheeler Plans For those who are inclined to build their own four-wheel bikes: American Speedster has plans and kits for four-wheeled models, two for kids and two for adults. The kids' bikes are made of plywood or a 55 gallon plastic drum. The adult bikes are made of pvc pipe available at Home Depot. It is cheap, strong and easy to work with, requiring minimal skills and tools you already have. The kits have all the metal parts. If you are looking for an inexpensive fun bike for your beach house or vacation home this might be your solution. Atomic Zombie sells plans for a wide variety of four wheelers and trikes. Granny Bike makes a kit to put two standard 2-wheel bikes together to make a four wheeler. Prices start at about US$92 plus shipping, quoted in Canadian dollars. Ian's do it yourself bike car is a very nice site put up by Teo and Ian Spiller detailing how they built a four wheeler for Ian. The photos are excellent. Design is simple and uses many standard bike parts. Teo also has some links to other do-it-yourself fourwheel projects . Mark Norwood's MG-TC project is a site detailing in photos how Mark is building a scale model of the MG-TC sportscar for his kids. It seems to be progressing nicely. Bikecar Corporation will sell you plans for three different models. Their "pickup" model puts the cargo load behind the rear axle, so the more you load it the lighter the front wheels would be. That could make bumpy downhills a thrilling experience, but is probably fine for the beach. In December of 2000 we were informed that their current address is BIKECAR CORP, P.O. Box 72, Ocala, Florida 34478. A note from them said they were having trouble finding any more information sheets to send out, and also said, "our vehicle is Build It Yourself & you need to weld & have parts made in shop." They refer people who need a fully constructed vehicle to Rhoades Car (see above). Another possible source of plans, or used bikes for that matter, is Ebay , an auction site used by many to market goods as well as auction things. Be sure to check the box for "Search titles and descriptions." Mother Earth News has plans for an Irish Mail-style hand pump four wheeler . They used electrical conduit to keep it light and cheap, but you could also use something more durable. They have plans for a bike trailer . Just ignore the unprotected child passenger and lack of helmets! They have other human-powered vehicle plans as well if you can find them on the Web site. Michael Dallas did it himself, twice, learning from the first one and sending us a message about his second machine . Adult Tricycles Another possibility for pedaling with more than two wheels is a tricycle. Some of the four wheel manufacturers above also have tricycles, including Berg, Brox, Lightfoot, Prime, Rideable Bicycle Replicas, Ultimate-Quadracycle, Wheel Fun Rentals, Worksman, and Zero. The upright ones can be less stable than a four-wheeler, but if you just want to trundle along at low speeds in your trailer park you may never know the difference. Some of the low slung recumbent trikes are much more stable and harder to tip over, although you you can tip anything with 3 wheels or 4 over if you go fast enough and try hard enough. Since they have one less wheel, they may be lighter and faster than a four wheeler. The ones described as "tadpoles" below are recumbent trikes with two front wheels and one rear wheel. The "delta trikes" have the two wheels in the rear. Here are the ones we are aware of: Actionbent of Redmond, Washington, has one tadpole trike with 20 inch front wheels and a 26 inch rear drive wheel. Disk brakes, 27 speeds, bolted on front axle that should come off for shipping, weighs 37lbs., attractive price. Adventurer from CampingWorld is a folding delta trike (two wheels back, one front) that is sold in Recreational Vehicle (RV) stores and designed to fit in an RV or on a rack in back. Three speeds, reasonably priced. If you are looking for inexpensive and simple folders with two or three wheels you may find them at RV stores. Alternative Vehicles has a line of trikes and four wheelers mostly made by Pacific Cycles in Asia. Designed mostly for rehab and mobility, there are hand-powered models, a folding trike with small wheels, a very upright model and more. AngleTech Cycles has quite a line of recumbent bicycles and tricycles, tandem recumbents, and folding recumbent cycles, and women's cycles. They make a trike that has both arm and leg power, and offer to do custom stuff. They are located in Colorado. ASE Manufacturers is a Taiwan company with a line of pedaled and electric tricycles. They are the upright style used for deliveries and for riding in campgrounds and factories. Some have two wheels in front, some in back. In addition they have AseTek Special Needs Tricycles that have structures to help hold the rider upright and other adaptations. Their Web site was not responding the last time we checked. Au Coin du P�daleur in the Montreal area manufactures and sells trikes. Most are utilitarian delta or tadpole trikes designed with racks or cargo areas to carry things. But they also make special needs trikes and pedicabs. The store has been open for 40 years, and began making trikes 20 years ago. They have an extensive line, and many designs you don't see elsewhere. Belize Bicycle has a series of tricycles branded Tri-Rider with an upright position and cargo baskets in some models. They also have an electric trike. They are located in Quebec, and distribute to dealers in Canada and the US. Bella Bike of Denmark has an upright tadpole trike with a front box that carries from one to four kids, or can carry an ice cream box. It steers by the rear wheel and is powered by the front wheels, including a differential. Berkelbike is a combination of a handcycle and a recumbent bike and is driven by using both the power of the arms as well as legs. There are three models for those with spinal and other injuries. The best description is a wheelchair with a front wheel attachment that includes foot pedals and hand pedals. There is an indoor model, and all can be used with a laptop-based training program. Berkut Trikes of Romania has been in business and making trikes since 1986, including racers, fully faired races and velocars. Their current production is a line of tadpole recumbent trikes. Berserker Tricycle Design has a long travel full suspension recumbent tadpole tricycle intended for off road cycling. It has 24" wheels, with 6" rear suspension travel and 5" front suspension travel. There is an electric assist available. Big Cat Human Powered Vehicles has an aluminum frame tricycle weighing 33 lbs with disk brakes and 27 speeds. They have a helpful page listing their dealers in the US. Their factory is in Winter Garden, Florida. Body Cycles is an Australian company making "theraputic" trikes with a handle on the rear for a parent or assistant to help guide the rider. They also have a four wheeler constructed of two side-by-side linked bikes for those who can ride in normal biking posture. Their Edge line of chain-driven trikes have tire sizes starting at 12" and going up to 24 inches. Boomerbents has an electric assist trike called the Raptor with an upright seating position and two wheels in the rear equipped with a differential. They say the top speed is 15 mph on electric power, and range is 35 miles. They are in Las Vegas. Roger Bowden is a Canadian maker of tricycles and trailers, apparently mostly for himself and his family. He has explanations of his construction and plans up for some of them (see the plans section above). Cab-Bike is a German recumbent trike "velomobile" with an egg-shaped shell surrounding the rider. There is a fully-enclosed version and a trimmer "speedster" version with the rider's head emerging or covered with a small fairing. That one has managed 30 miles in an hour race. Comes with the 14 speed Rohloff transmission. Comes broken down, so considerable assembly is required. There is an electric motor option. Prototypes include a tandem and a solar-powered version. It looks like a hoot, but it is very expensive. We have not seen one, but it could be a great winter commuting vehicle. Here is a very thorough review posted on the Cab-Bike site . Christiania Bikes produces in Denmark a number of tricycle models, mostly with the rider behind a large cargo box. Some are designed for transporting children. Maximum loads are up to 100 kg. Comfort Cycle may still have their slick recumbent trike with 49 gears, Phil Wood hubs, and optional fairing. I managed to almost turn one over doing something flaky on a brief test ride, but that's a trike for you. Their link was not working when we last checked, and leads you to a magazine. Cycles Maximus has sturdy looking tricycles in pedicab/rickshaw taxi style, cargo style and flat bed cargo style with both pedaled and pedaled/electric options. Starting with the flat bed, you can interchange the cargo or pedicab body. They are based in the UK. Di Blasi is an Italian company with folding tricycles. They have 20 inch wheels, and a graphic on their UK Web site shows how they fold "in five seconds." They are not the only folding tricycle in the market, but are surely the only one with two independent v-brakes operating on the front wheel. There are good photos of the folder on Helen-Louise Windsor's site along with shots of her old Pashley. Di Blasi Dirt King has mostly kids trikes, but one adult model that looks like a scaled up kid's trike called the Adult Dually. ETNNIC Bikes & Components of Spain has the ETTNIC line of trikes, including cargo trikes, electrics,off-road models and more. Their unique ETNNIC Garbi is a cargo trike fitted out to pick up trash in parks, with a trash can front end, upright broom holder, internal hub gearing and a trailer. eZee has the Carro, an electric or electric-assist trike with lithium polymer battery capable of 10 mph and 20 miles + per charge. Seating position is upright, and the frame is an easy stepover design with 20" wheels. There is a large basket over the rear wheels. Seven speeds for the pedaling part, or you can cruise on the electric motor. eZee has distributors in a number of countries . Die Fahrradwerkstatt is a German company with six models of tadpole-configured cargo trikes and a trailer. They include a child-carrier with a big platform box in front, a commercial vendor's stand on wheels, a big transporter, and a rickshaw. Most appear to have 16 inch front wheels and larger rear wheels. Some are clearly for heavy duty use. Feetz of the Netherlands has tadpole cargo and child carrying trikes with a front box that can carry either. It is very upright and has 20 inch wheels. They also have a four wheeled version, with a box for the kids in the front and another box for cargo in the rear. Although they appear designed for trundling around town at modest speeds, a video on the home page shows one zipping along and swerving to demonstrate that the wheels tilt into curves, so with some care for weight shifting at appropriate times they could be faster than they look. Fietscafe is a Dutch four wheeler for 16 happy passengers. The body is made of beautifully polished wood, and has a canopy overhead. The passengers face inward in party style, grouped around a center table to put their drinks on, and most of them have pedals. There is a large beer barrel in the rear, and the driver sits in front in the center. It looks like fun. If you live anywhere around Houston, Texas, you can rent one from Pedal Party . See below for the similar PartyFiets bikes. Flamingo is a Taiwanese brand from Grace Gallant Enterprises Co Ltd. We have only seen them once at Interbike and don't know where their trikes are available. They are recumbent tadpole style trikes with aluminum frames, 26 inch rear wheels, 20 inch front wheels, disk brakes and 27 speed gear trains. Fietsen Met Kinderen is a Dutch site with an incredible array of trikes and bikes that have child carriers in front. Although putting the child in front puts them in the way of the parent's body in a front end collision, some of these machines appear to have considerable structure for child protection. Frank Mobility Systems Inc has a unique Duet model "wheelchair bicycle tandem" that is in fact the back half of a bicycle attached to a wheelchair in front. The bike is a three speed and the wheelchair can be removed and used by itself. There is also a seven speed model with electric assist. Here is a description of how it is used in a medical therapy program . They are located in Pennsylvania. Freedom Concepts makes custom trikes for children and adults with disabilities, including a forward-leaning prone recumbent with chest support for people with cerebral palsy and a tandem controlled by the rear rider. Their head office is in Winnipeg. GigaTrike makes bare-bones trike frames to sell on Ebay. They use pieces from 4-6 old bikes, usually with a couple of 20 inch bikes and at least one 26 inch frame. These are combined with plumbing fittings and pipe. There are interesting photos on their site if you want to make a trike frame or are interested in a low-cost trike. Gomier Electric Trike is less expensive than some electrics. It is an upright position delta design with step-through frame and 8 mile+ crusing range at a maximum 8 mph. The pedaling is single speed, said to be suitable for flat areas. No company Web site, so the link is to a Google search for dealers. Greenspeed makes a nice line of tricycles. They use some off-the-shelf components and some components manufactured just for them. I enjoyed riding one at Interbike and found it very stable when I deliberately tried to tip it over with sharp turns and braking. They have tadpoles, delta trikes, six models of folding trikes, tandem trikes, a hand-powered trike, a quad and a velocar called the Glyde. In 2012 they added a Magnum Trike designed for heavy users, with a high seat for easy entry that can be adjusted downward if you lose weight from riding the trike. Users of their tandem trikes give them a high rating, and here is a review in BentRider Online that is positively ecstatic . If you can afford custom work, they have a custom shop. Handy is a hand-driven low-profile tadpole tricycle with high-profile handlebars. It has internal hub gearing on the front wheel and controls for shifting and braking built into the hand pedals. The Handy Upright version has a higher seating position. Both have 20" wheels. They are available to dealers from Pacific Cycles of Taiwan and are recommended for upper body exercise and people who can't pedal with their legs. You can read about Pacific Cycles in the March 1, 2006 issue of Bicycle Retailer and Industry News . The article explains why the original Pacific Cycles has an S on the end and Pacific Cycle of the US does not. Hase Spezialrader is a German company with a tricycle model they call the KettWiesel with dual rear wheels and one in front. Steering is by joysticks on both sides. You can make up a tandem by removing the front wheel of the rear machine and attaching it to the rear of the front one, resulting in a five wheel tandem. Hase also has a Lepus trike that folds. Hase has an arm powered model, and can set up their bikes for one-handed operation. They have an impressive array of accessories. Hean Cyklen is a Danish company with trikes for one and two people with and without electric or gasoline motors. Their vehicles appear to be aimed at those with disabilities. Hell-bent Cycle Works has designs for Thunderbolt Mk II 26 tadpole-style recumbent trikes with an aluminum frame. They sell trike plans and components when ready, and have some copyrighted plans on the Web . Be sure to check out the About page for background on how the company has developed and the What's New page for recent changes. The plans we have seen appear to be very well done, with photos, drawings and dimensional drawings along with discussion of frame materials and a lot of other info. We have not, however, built one, so we don't know how they work out. Hotmover is a New Zealand manufacturer with a three-wheel design that is different enough to tell you right away it is not US-made. Slick looking and nicely finished. They have dealers in the US and elsewhere, listed on their Web site, but can sell direct if you are too far from a dealer. HP Velotechnik is a German company with a Scorpion trike that comes in a unique folding version . In two minutes with a 6mm hex key it folds two ways and the wheels readily remove for a very compact bundle that fits in the trunk of a Smart microcar. The Web site has links to magazine reviews. Prices start at 2700 Euros (about $US 5,400). HPV has new models in 2010, including an "entry level" trike with a 20" rear wheel. Human Powered Machines has trikes available from the Eugene Bicycle Works in Eugene, Oregon. They have a recumbent work trike with a large rear platform that carries 333 US pounds and another that is rated at 666 pounds. There is also a long-wheelbase recumbent trike called the Tritan, and a tadpole-style called the Cyclone. Husky Bicycles has a balloon-tired "industrial" tricycle suitable for use in a manufacturing plant as well as cargo tricycles designed for vendors or for large volume cargo, maintenance, janitorial use and luggage carrying at hotels or resorts. Their trikes are made in Mexico and marketed by a Texas partner. Ice Trikes are produced by the UK's Inspired Cycle Engineering. They are suspended tadpole trikes with a choice of longer, more laid back seating position or a more upright position with a much shorter wheelbase. Industrial Bicycles has a wide range of four wheelers, trikes and heavy duty industrial bicycles. They sell their own house bikes and many other brands as well. They have delivery vehicles, special needs vehicles, parts, accessories, electric drives, bike racks, car racks for delta and tadpole trikes, tools and a lot of other stuff. They say they have been in business since 1935. Worth a look for nearly anyone looking for a three or four wheeler. International Surrey Company is a Texas company with one recumbent Impello delta trike for two people side-by-side, built with a tub-like body on a steel chassis and seven speed gears. They also have an "easy rider" style electric delta tricycle for one person. It has a maximum speed of 12 mph+ and a range of 22 miles +. See the fourwheeler section above for the surreys. I-Zip or E-Zip announced a recall in 2012 of some of its tricycle models. See the link for the full story. The delta trike is made by Acetrikes in China and distributed by Currie Technologies. The CPSC press release says "the rear axle can break causing a rear wheel to detach, posing a fall hazard to the rider." KMX Karts is a UK company with tadpole trikes with two small front wheels and a larger rear wheel. Their base model is one of the least expensive we have seen despite the exchange rate. Their advertising emphasizes rugged components. Lightfoot Cycles of Conner, Montana, has several trikes plus four wheel models, from velomobiles and cargo machines to lighter weight touring versions, with lots of options. They also make models for people with leg or arm disabilities, very heavy riders, and other special needs or uses. Gil Linde has built three bump-em car trikes, inspired by the bumper car rides at amusement parks. They have low reclining seats surrounded by a low circular frame and heavy rubber bumpers. They are powered by a double-spoked unicycle wheel from Luke Shirk's amazing bike shop in Lancaster County PA and steered by the rear wheels using a lever on each side of the rider. With a combination of spin and reverse pedaling they can suddenly shift to backup mode in the wink of an eye. Steering is tricky at high speed, but playing bumper car in them is a kick. Gil thinks that commercializing them would be risky, so you can't buy one. Logo Trikes is an Australian company making high-end tadpole-style trikes and tandems. They have a trailer, too. Lone Star Tricycles is a Texas-based company with upright delta-style trikes. They have seven speeds and dual rear disc brakes. There is a basket behind the rider. There is an industrial model, and the Big Tex has Surly's impressively massive Pugsky 26" by 4" wheels. The URL is for a Web page that has the trikes for sale, after the one for Lone Star Tricycles disappeared in 2010. Main Street Pedicabs has a number of models of three-wheel pedicabs, adult trikes and cargo trikes. One is a pedal-electric hybrid, with a 500 watt electric motor for hill climbing and fast acceleration. It weighs 400 pounds including 120 pounds of battery. They run a fleet of pedicabs in Denver. Micah is a two wheels back trike with high-profile handlebars designed for special needs kids from 5 to 15. It has a handle extending out behind for parents to control the trike including a steering link, and adaptive seating arrangements. The frame is aluminum, with 16" wheels. It is available to dealers from Pacific Cycles of Taiwan. You can read about Pacific Cycles in the March 1, 2006 issue of Bicycle Retailer and Industry News . Mission Cycles and Components is a UK company with a wide range of trikes for special needs, including those with impaired balance. Their Mission Statement says their trikes are designed in the UK and manufactured in Taiwan. They have a trailer Trike that can be towed behind the parent bike, as well as child, adult, electric and folding trikes. Mobo by ASA Products are three wheel delta trike "cruisers" with fat wheels and direct drive cranks on the front wheel. They have rear wheel steering and a freewheel mechanism but no chain and no gears. The Pro model has a 20" front wheel, and the Triton has a 16" front wheel, setting the fixed gearing in a very low range. Frame length is adjustable to fit riders up to 6'3" on the adult Shift model. Other models are described as "great for ages 5 and up." Mupocar by Belik Creation of Texas has three and four wheel versions of their "muscle powered car." They are all powered by cranks directly attached to the front wheel and pedaled directly without gearing. Front wheels are listed as 20 or 28 inch, so that's the fixed gear. The rear wheels vary by model and do the steering. Nihola of the Netherlands has a tadpole cargo carrier with some astonishingly large cargo boxes in the front. Optima Cycles is a Dutch company with a line of recumbents, two of which are tadpole trikes. Their Rhino ST has a curved boom frame of aluminum with rear suspension, laid back seat position and short turning radius. The Rider model is similar, but has a stainless steel frame. Organic Engines has a road trike, a tandem trike called the Troika, a delivery trike called the Sensible Utility Vehicle, and a pedicab. They also sell frame kits you can build up any way you want. They are located in Tallahassee, Florida. Pacific Cycles is a Taiwanese company producing a wide variety of trikes and four wheelers. They make unique vehicles, including many designed for handicapped riders. Some of their vehicles are available through Alternative Vehicles and a Canadian distributor, Belize Bikes . If you are searching for their products, avoid those of another company that uses exactly the same name except they have dropped the s on Cycles. Palmer Industries of Endicott, NY, has been in business since 1973. They have a line of trikes that include pedal, hand and electric power. Pedal-powered models have mostly 24 inch wheels and are designed for around town and utility use. The hand powered model has an optional foot pedal combination and optional variable speed electric power. Most models have large cargo baskets available for carrying groceries or others items. Palmer sells electric kits, too, and has their 12 volt motors available separately for experimenters. They stock parts for every product they have ever made. Pashley is an old-line British company with a full line of bikes of all kinds, including their PDQ3 recumbent. They have other tricycles as well. Their trikes are sold in the US market as well as the UK. Penninger Recumbents has three trikes called the Traveler, the Voyager and the T-31. Penninger is said to be division of HFR Precision Machining of Sugar Grove, Illinois. We can't find anything about their trikes on the HFR web page . But see the Versa Trike catalog for more about their models. PF Mobility has trikes for one and two people with and without electric motors. They are upright recumbent designs. This is a Danish company, and as you would guess from the name, they mostly sell to people who have trouble getting around. Performance Recumbent has tadpole trikes with 26" or 700C rear wheels and 20" front wheels. One model has the main frame tube in carbon, one model folds, some have rear suspension. Powabyke is a UK company with an electric-powered delta trike with a front power hub. It has a low step-through frame design and upright riding position. It has full gears for pedaling as well. The URL is not working as of June, 2010. Pterosail Trike Systems has bolt-on kits to add sails to recumbent tadpole trikes. Both solo and tandem recumbents can be fitted out with a mast and sails. The carbon fiber mast is 11 feet high, and the spar is aluminum. The sail sits out in front of the trike. Quadrabyke is a child's four, three or two wheeler. The small wheels can be set up in any of the three configurations. As a trike, it's a tadpole. Q-Int from the Netherlands makes tricycles for children and adults. Their Triker carving go-karts are delta trikes with the cranks out front driving the front wheel with a very short chain and freewheel. They steer by leaning. Wheels are small (12") keeping the trikes low. Other models have larger front wheels. Retail prices are in the $300 range. Ricksycle in Ontario has a delta trike with big wheels for two people side-by-side. It dismantles to stow in small places, and can be extended for more passengers. They have child kits, and can do custom arrangements for disabled passengers. Rifton Adaptive Tricycles make tricycles for kids with disabilities that are easily adjustable when the child grows. Roman Road Cycles is a Welsh company making tricycles and tricycle conversions, both solos and tandems. Their designs have 2 wheels at the front and one wheel at the back. They also supply components, including hub gears, hub brakes and custom wheels. Rowcumbent (Beanz Bikes) is a trike with two wheels in the rear that you power by conventional pedals and by rowing the handlebars. The company is in Southern California. RunAbout Cycles has recumbent trikes with electric assist that they call hybrid electric cycles, and can add electric assist to your trike. They have lithium ion batteries and a solar charger if you can afford them that let you run your transportation off grid. The company's shop is in Fort Collins, Colorado. They have a demo video up on YouTube. Scooterbug has seven-seater bikes where the riders face each other in a circle. They also distribute Mobilette in the US. Sherer USA has a tadpole recumbent with a push lever pedaling system. Instead of pedals on a crank, you push forward sequentially on two levers with your feet, and the levers move the crank down below through a cable and chain system. It still has gears on the rear. Similar lever push systems have been around for a long time on wedgies, but this is the first one we have seen on a recumbent trike. There is a TV news video so you can see it operate. I am sceptical of the inventor's claims for higher speeds, since I rode a wedgie with a similar system and it wasn't as fast for me as pedaling in little circles. Your mileage may vary. The company is in Iowa. In June of 2010 the URL was not working. Sidewinder Cycle has trikes with both front wheels driven and the single rear wheel pivoting to steer. They use dual inboard hydraulic disk brakes. There is an electric drive option too. The company is in Fillmore, California. Soloviov (Velomobiles) is a Russian company with a unique three wheel drive trike, and another that has a large cargo box under the frame. StreetStrider is an upright trike with two wheels in front that you propel by standing alternately on large pedal platforms with a fixed front bearing and the rear attached to regular cranks. The action is a lot like running. There is no saddle, so you are standing on the pedals. Some models have arm levers as well, and steer by leaning. The sturdiest is rated for a 450 pound load, and is featured on a sales video on YouTube that is worth a thousand words. Sun Bicycles has three different styles of trikes: EE Tad is a tadpole-style trike with steel frame, 24 speeds and 20 inch wheels. EE-3 USX has two wheels in back, steel frame and 20 inch wheels Traditional Trike has an upright position with two wheels in back. There are 26 inch, 20 inch and 12 inch models, all single speed. Atlas Trike and Atlas Cargo are upright trikes with cargo areas between the two rear wheels. Taga of the Netherlands makes a very nice looking three wheel tadpole design that works as a child carrier bicycle for one or two toddlers, or can be converted "in 20 seconds" to a stroller as well. It has 16 inch wheels, Shimano three speed hub and brakes for all three wheels (disks in the front). They offer a number of different options. The bike folds easily to go into a car trunk or for storage. Tasso is an Italian maker of three-wheeled pedicabs for passengers, cargo and even a camper. They have lots of photos of their products in nice Italian places. In June, 2010 the link was not working. Torker has one tricycle in their Adult Bikes category, revamped in 2011. It is an upright with two 20 inch rear wheels, single or three speed with coaster brake and front hand brake, wide saddle and optional rear fenders. Sold to dealers through Seattle Bike Supply. Trailmate makes the Joyrider and Jr. Joyrider, with small front wheels, steel frame, plastic bucket seats, rear basket and an "S" shaped crank. They are easily-mounted "walk-in" units. They also have Freedom Ryder adult trike models with gears, 20", 24" or 26" wheels, standard cranks and standard handlebars. They have recumbent trikes with 20" mag wheels, a chain-driven front wheel or rear wheel and low center of gravity. They also have an Eco-Trike with a very large cargo box between the rear wheels rated for 650 pound loads. And they have a folding delta trike called the Tri-Fold with 20 inch wheels. Transport Cycling has tricycle pedicabs. They also have a unique four wheeler with the driver in recumbent position. That should improve the forward view of the passengers. They also sell components and do custom work. Transformation Trike is an amazing cargo and people mover trike that converts from a tandem to a triplet, or can use a big cargo bed replacing the two rear saddle positions. There is also an aluminum frame trailer that can haul 350 pounds. Trek is a mainstream US bike brand that has two trikes in their "Pure" series of "bike trail" models. They have upright bars, baskets, chain guards, flat pedals and soft saddles. There is a one speed with coaster brake and a three speed. Both models have aluminum frames. Trek's products have a reputation for holding up well, and their dealer network provides good after-sales service. These are worth a look for retirees and other casual riders who want a simple trike to use on reasonably flat terrain. Trykit is a UK company producing classic British delta trikes with full size road wheels. Frames are fillet brazed steel, with a wide range of tubing available. The components are up to date, with optional aero wheels and disk brakes. In addition to trikes they sell frames and components, including a kit to convert your road bike to a trike. Tridynamic make tricycles for riders with disabilities that they say are designed to minimize tipovers. Trio Bike of the UK has a large tadpole trike that takes two kids in the front or cargo. It converts to a two wheeled bike or to a kids stroller. There is another version that does not convert. Tripendo had a trike that leans its whole structure into turns with both front wheels the way a two wheeler does. They claim extreme stability on fast turns. Electric assist option. Their links page had links to many other trike and velomobile manufacturers, but the site seems to have disappeared, so the link above is to a Google search. Tripod Bikes is a Dutch company with a tadpole trike that steers by leaning. It has rear suspension and 20 inch wheels with disk brakes on all three wheels. It comes in three models. Tri-Sled of Australia has a wide range of trikes including touring, racing, work trikes and pedicabs. They make a very low trike designed to have a fairing added for hpv use. In their accessories section they include a carrier that attaches to a standard tow-hitch ball, a servicing stand for the workshop and bags designed for their bikes. Their Interceptor Handcycle is for those with leg problems, permitting the rider to either kneel or put the legs out in front. The Handcycle is a delta design, while the others are tadpoles. The Tri-Sled Sorcerer is Australia�s first production velomobile. True Bicycles is based in Michigan. They have trikes, including folders and step-throughs, with recumbent tadpoles and deltas in development. They have replacement parts, including solid axle-mounted Karasawa drum brakes, as well as electric kits. They also have special needs accessories, including heel-retention pedals. Tuantaigeer has at least two Chinese made trikes that are of the upright seating and two wheels in the rear variety. I rode their very interesting prototype solar powered trike at Interbike in 2006. It has a surrey type top that is formed by the 60 watt solar panel. The panel doesn't have enough juice to power the trike, but it recharges a battery. They expect it to retail in the $1500 to $2000 range. The US rep is Hui Chin Yang, Accurrent Intl Inc. in Gilbert, AZ. [email protected] 602-334-9773. Turf Trike is a unique pedal-powered golf cart. It has two wheels in front and an upright rider position. There is a removable carrier on the front for your golf bag with small wheels so you can roll your bag around. The chain is enclosed in a tartan cover. It has seven speeds and 24" x 4 1/4" turf tires. The front end folds to fit on a rear-mounted car bike rack. It was designed by Jason Deal and is made by Pacific Cycles for Cycle Cart, Inc. Velomobilis of Lithuania has a tadpole trike with a very straight boom putting the pedals out front. 20 inch wheels in front, 26 in the back. Photos and comments on the Web site indicate they have plans for other Velomobiles, including four wheelers, but in mid-2007 the trike is their only current model. Versa Trike of St. Charles, Illinois, is produced by a ten year old non-profit known as Creative Mobility. They have one model intended for use by those who have trouble cycling for physical reasons that is 44 inches tall with rear wheels closer together than most trikes. They also have accessories like crank shorteners, Pedal Width Enhancers that put your pedals about an inch further out, a pedal that holds your foot in with a bungee cord and a Rigid Foot Plate for adapting almost any foot to a pedal. They have more on the Creative Mobility site. It has a catalog of adaptive bikes that includes trikes by Catrike, Freedom Concepts, Greenspeed, Trice Trike, Invacare, Hase, Penninger, Rifton, Quickie and others. That includes a tandem trike by Freedom Concepts where the driver steers from the rear and the front position rider just pedals and rides. Very Eco has unique custom trikes designed by Bill Blakie of Invercargill, New Zealand. His trike has one-handed steering via a single right or left lever, so it can be operated by a person who can use only one arm. This newsletter has a writeup on trying out his cycles in 2002 . Why Walk Pedicab has a line of tricycle pedicabs. They range from simple pedaled machines with a two passenger seat behind the driver to electric assisted ones with full canopies. They have a cargo trike that can handle 1,000 pounds and a unique "Media Bike" that has a large screen behind the rider with two 3x4 foot scrolling poster ads in color with 12 volt backlighting and a stereo system. At $19,000 it may be the most expensive vehicle on this page, but Why Walk says it can be profitable if you can sell enough ads. Windcheetah/AVD has two tadpole trikes. Their 2007 Hypersport Series II has a unique aero front fairing, carbon fiber seat suspended on carbon fibre leaf springs, and a large rear wheel. They have been known for fast recumbents for more than 20 years. The Web site has downloadable manuals with some construction details. Part of the development cost of the Hypersport Series II was funded by an Innovation Grant from the UK Department of Trade and Industry. WizWheelz makes the TerraTrike, with two wheels forward and one wheel back. They have solo models in steel, aluminum and aluminum/carbon. For 2007 they also have a tandem with couplings to break down for transport. Zigo has a unique trike combined with a stroller/jogger. It has two 20" wheels on the front that are the stroller wheels when you dismount that section. There is an 8-speed internal gear rear hub. There is a spare wheel under the stroller to put on as the front wheel of the bike when you separate them, and two 8" caster wheels on the front of the stroller to make it a four wheel stroller. Michael Deegan's site was the definitive recumbent tricycles page. When we found it we almost took the trikes off of ours. He had a photo of each trike, a very useful way of sorting through them. But we can't find it online any more. Arm-Powered Vehicles Before reading these, here is Murray Drew's site -- Manual Mobility -- for links to arm-powered vehicles and almost anything else you might want for muscle or electric powered mobility. Years after breaking his neck he is still working hard to get it all back. Action has two arm-powered Excelerator trikes, the L'il Excelerator with 20" wheels and the Top End Excelerator with 26" wheels. No pedals, arm power only! Seven speeds, high-back seat, custom bumper rack for your car. Action Top End, 4501 63rd Circle North, Pinellas Park, FL 33781, phone (800) 532-8677 or (813) 522-8677. Alternative Vehicles has a line of trikes and four wheelers mostly made by Pacific Cycles in Asia. Their hand-powered models are designed mostly for rehab and mobility. Angle Tech has a trike powered by either arms, legs, or both. Brike International has a Freedom Ryder hand-powered recumbent trike steered by leaning the body. Built for athletes and racing, it has a high tech look, particularly with the carbon fiber wheel option. Greenspeed makes a nice line of tricycles including a 54-speed hand-powered trike. If you can afford custom work, they have a custom shop. Handy is a hand-driven low-profile tadpole tricycle with high-profile handlebars. It has internal hub gearing on the front wheel and controls for shifting and braking built into the hand pedals. The Handy Upright version has a higher seating position. Both have 20" wheels. They are available to dealers from Pacific Cycles of Taiwan and are recommended for upper body exercise and people who can't pedal with their legs. You can read about Pacific Cycles in the March 1, 2006 issue of Bicycle Retailer and Industry News . The article explains why the original Pacific Cycles has an S on the end and Pacific Cycle of the US does not. Intrepid Equipment has an arm-powered delta road trike with three 700c wheels, 21 speeds and dual front disk and rim brakes. There is an optional coupler to split the frame for transporting it in a car. They offer test rides and service at their San Diego location. Invacare has a racing arm-powered trike. It has a driven, pivoting front wheel, 27 speeds, 24 inch tires and optional carbon fiber wheels. Mobilis Corporation has at least three arm-powered trikes including the Armstrong, the Cruiser and the Lightning Bolt. No pedals, arm power only! Handled by Rideable Bike Replicas, 2329 Eagle St., Alameda, CA 94501, phone (510) 521-7145. The Irish Mail is for something completely different. It is the four wheel rowbike some people remember from earlier times. Some links: A wood kit to build one from Rockler. Mother Earth News has plans for building one as well. Space Bike makes a very small four wheeled rowing bike for toddlers and kids 3 to 12 years old. It is steered with the feet. Bright colors, including the wheels. There is a Youtube video on it. Tri-Sled in the trikes section above has a hand powered trike. Tricycle Plans Atomic Zombie sells plans for a number of tricycles, including adult deltas and tadpoles, novelty, hand-powered and stunt trikes. Bicycle Lane Industries has plans for a cargo trike based on a grocery cart. The description makes the trike seem pretty lame, but the writeup will help you to avoid the problems they uncovered if you want to design a cargo trike. Hell-bent Cycle Works has designs for Thunderbolt Mk II 26 tadpole-style recumbent trikes with an aluminum frame. They sell trike plans and components when ready, and have some examples of their plans on the Web . Be sure to check out the About page for background on how the company has developed and the What's New page for recent changes. The plans we have seen appear to be very well done, with photos, drawings and dimensional drawings along with discussion of frame materials and a lot of other info. We have not, however, built one, so we don't know how they work out. Hoard's Bike Cart has plans on the Web for making a trike that has a garden cart with two wheels on the front. With photos of the two they have in use on a ranch. The builder says "You can easily pedal up to 200 pounds of anything that isn't kicking like crazy to its destination. They are great for bringing in the produce, moving sacks of grain, bales of hay, sick calves, manure, etc." Larry Bowden has plans up for tricycles . They are free for personal use but he asks you to make a small donation to Princess Margaret Hospital Foundation. Vintage Projects has plans for building very old looking designs for a sidecar and a chariot-style trailer. Velomobiles There are a number of car-like fully enclosed tricycles available now, mostly in Germany and the Netherlands. Some are listed above. AeroRider is a Dutch company with a bullet shaped vehicle on three wheels. There are a least two models. The larger one weighs 150 lbs, and has electric assist that can do 28mph/45kph over a 19 to 56 mile (30 to 90km) range. It has vents and fans for cooling. The smaller model can be run without the upper clear plastic fairing for warm days. Cab-bike is a German company with a really cute velomobile design. The entire top is hinged to flip off to the side for easy entry. The design is also produced in Canada and available through Blue Velo in Toronto Go One is a German company with a bullet-shaped fully-enclosed aerodynamic recumbent tadpole trike with a carbon fiber monocoque chassis that keeps the weight to 60 pounds. It is a fully-equipped human-powered vehicle with lights and turn signals. There is a 350 watt electric assist motor available. The US link is above, but there is a German site as well. Prices run $10,000 to $13,000. Greenspeed makes a nice line of tricycles including a velocar called the Glyde. See Tri-Sled in the trikes section above for another Australian velomobile. Fietser.be is a Belgian company with their own WAW velomobile. They also act as a dealer for ICE Trikes and TerraTrike. Leitra is a Danish company who built their first Velomobile in 1980. It is a three-wheeled design with a unique fairing with cutaway sides that permits arm signals (insisted on by Danish authorities when they approved its use in 1982). Lightfoot Cycles of Conner, Montana, has a fully-enclosed velocar, as well as head-out models scheduled for mid-2012. Other bikes in their line can be fitted with all-weather protection. Flevobike alleweder is a German velomobile with three wheels and a full fairing. The company has unfaired trikes as well. Velomobiel is a Dutch company with several velomobile models. Some of their designs are now produced in Canada and available through Blue Velo in Toronto. Fietsen has photos and reviews of trikes, bents and velomobiles. Rentals Thanks to Dan Beckwith, we are now aware of at least one shop in the US that rents trikes and fourwheelers, or perhaps used to. The Pepperell Bike Shop in Pepperell, Massachusetts, had various models on their Web page, but we can't find mention of rentals any more. Another East Coast dealer who normally has many trikes in stock for test rides and perhaps for rentals is Mount Airy Bicycles in Mount Airy Maryland. Proprietor Larry Black has been an alternative bicycle addict for many years, and his medium-sized shop is crammed with very interesting machines, all available for test rides in the Maryland countryside. Others The Autocanoe is a unique amphibian, with a canoe body with three wheels, two of which function as paddlewheels when the canoe enters the water. Dead Links There is a high mortality rate in four and three wheel bicycle companies. Or perhaps just a high rate of Web site changes. We can't find these any more so if you need to contact one we suggest a Google search. Quetzal Cycle is a Canadian manufacturer of recumbents with a trike model that looks utilitarian with five speeds and a large rear basket. Some of their models have an "overdrive" unit to increase the gear ratio, a feature they explain on their technology page with a formula for calculating the distance traveled per crank revolution. On their 2003 catalog page they have a bike rack that fits on the back of a minivan or suv putting the rear wheel close to the rear window and the front wheel up over the roof of the car. In a brochure we picked up at Interbike in 2002 they also have a trike adaptor that puts two wheels on the back of its standard recumbent models, but we did not find either the rack or trike adaptor listed for sale on their Web page in September of 2003. In late 2004 their page ceased to respond. Let us know if they come back. Ultimate-Quadracycle has the CosyCycle line of trikes and four wheel bikes. Located in Canada, they are the North American rep for CosyCycles. (We have lost track of the former international rep.) Their four wheelers carry one to four riders. On two-seater four wheelers, each rider drives one of the rear wheels, and can select their gears independently. They have an interesting work trike called the CC-Work Buddy that can carry up to 600 pounds. And this one has shifted their focus: Quikke was originally a conversion kit to add two wheels in front to a two wheeler or alpha trike. The kit is no longer available from LoMac Products, who have sold out all remaining stock of parts. They are now producing for other brands. Go-Kid Quadcoasters were not really bicycles, but they have four medium sized wheels spaced widely enough to look like a bike. Some are propelled by kicking out the back and some called Equads come with electric motors useful for handicapped users. They are located in Houston. The URL redirects to an advertising site now. Fresher Links? Generally you can find more and fresher links with a Google search for "four wheel bicycle" the same way most people find this page. Our first search for four wheel bicycle turned up 66,500 possible pages. With quotes before and after the phrase (the link above), it found only 295 pages. As of March, 2003, the number had fallen to 272. You can also search for variations like four wheel bike , and get many more pages. Using the number 4 instead of the word did not work as well for us. You might try another search engine, but we don't since Google works so well. If you find a link on this page that does not work, you can use Google to search for the company name to find out if they have a new site. Then let us know where you found it! Why? - A footnote In 1995 I put up a page to vent my frustrations with a four wheeled bike called the Forerunner that I had bought in 1994. People emailed me looking for four wheeled bikes and tricycles, and others telling me they make them. (And one who asked to be taken off our page.) I have also been checking out the companies each year at the Interbike trade show, and the list has grown. I still ride my Forerunner, and don't know anything at all about most of the companies listed above or their products, so can't recommend any of them or vouch for their integrity. In at least one case a customer has emailed us his account of a dispute with one of the companies. You should use normal business caution dealing with them, of course, so you are on your own! In many cases the bikes are sold through local bike shops. Our most active local seller of non-traditional pedal powered vehicles is Mount Airy Bicycles in Mount Airy, Maryland. They have amazing things in stock, and I recommend them highly. I understand that Utah Trikes has over 500 tricycles in stock. There are lots of non-specialized local dealers who have fewer choices but some good bikes. I do not accept anything from any manufacturer or retailer except test rides, so this page is not influenced by commercial considerations. It runs on the Bicycle Helmet Safety Institute site , where I work full time as a volunteer, and I contribute enough work to BHSI to offset the minimal resources the page uses. There are no ads on this page, and no commercial angles here. If you know of other four wheel bike manufacturers or adult tricycle makers I would be delighted to hear from you. Please send me an email . Randy Swart	Cycle rickshaw
On which British motorway can you find Burtonwood and Birch Services ?	Vietnam travel guide - Wikitravel Time Zone UTC +7 Vietnam (Việt Nam), officially the Socialist Republic of Vietnam (Cộng hòa Xã hội Chủ nghĩa Việt Nam) is a long, thin country in Southeast Asia . Its neighbouring countries are China to the north, Laos and Cambodia to the west. Once a lesser-known destination, Vietnam has become widely popular in recent years. With Hanoi consistently ranked among the world's top 10 destinations by TripAdvisor, one can now find European tourists as far as in Ha Giang , one of the most remote mountainous provinces. History[ edit ] Vietnam's history is one of war, colonisation and rebellion. Occupied by China no fewer than four times, the Vietnamese managed to fight off the invaders just as often. At various points during these thousand years of imperial dynasties, Vietnam was ravaged and divided by civil wars and repeatedly attacked by the Songs, Mongols, Yuans, Chams, Mings, Dutch, Qings, French and the Americans. The victories mostly belonged to the Vietnamese but, even during the periods in history when Vietnam was independent, it was mostly a tributary state to China until the French colonisation. Vietnam's last emperors were the Nguyễn Dynasty, who ruled from their capital at Huế from 1802 to 1945, although France exploited the succession crisis after the fall of Tự Đức to de facto colonise Vietnam after 1884. Both the Chinese occupation and French colonisation have left a lasting impact on Vietnamese culture, with Confucianism forming the basis of Vietnamese social etiquette, and the French leaving a lasting imprint on Vietnamese cuisine. After a brief Japanese occupation in World War II, the Communist Việt Minh under the leadership of Hồ Chí Minh continued the insurgency against the French, with the last Emperor Bảo Đại abdicating in 1945 and a proclamation of independence following soon after. The majority of French had left by 1945, but in 1946 they returned to continue the fight until their decisive defeat at Điện Biên Phủ in 1954. The Geneva Conference partitioned the country into two at the 17th parallel of latitude, with a Communist-led North and Ngô Đình Diệm declaring himself President of the Republic of Vietnam in the South. The tank that ended the war, Ho Chi Minh City Fighting between South Vietnam and the North Vietnamese-backed Việt Cộng escalated into what became known as the Vietnam War - although the Vietnamese officially refer to it as the American War. US economic and military aid to South Vietnam grew through the 1960s in an attempt to bolster the Southern Vietnam government, escalating into the dispatch of half a million American troops in 1966. What was supposed to be a quick and decisive action soon degenerated into a quagmire and US armed forces were only withdrawn following a cease-fire agreement in 1973. Two years later, on 30 April 1975, a North Vietnamese tank drove into the South's Presidential Palace in Ho Chi Minh City and the war ended with the conquest of South Vietnam. An estimated 800,000 to 3 million Vietnamese and over 55 thousand Americans had been killed. The Vietnam war was only one of many that the Vietnamese have fought, but it was the most brutal in its history. Over two thirds of the current population was born after 1975. American tourists will receive a particularly friendly welcome in Vietnam, as many young Vietnamese imitate American customs and venerate US pop culture. Politics[ edit ] Vietnam is a one party authoritarian state, with the President as the Head of State, and the Prime Minister as the Head of Government. The Vietnamese legislature is the unicameral National Assembly, from which the Prime Minister is selected. In practice, the President's position is only ceremonial, with the Prime Minister wielding the most authority in government, although the General Secretary is considered to exercise a considerable amount of power, too. Economy[ edit ] Bustling central Hanoi Economic reconstruction of the reunited country has proven difficult. After the failures of the state-run economy started to become apparent, the country launched a program of Đổi Mới (renovation), introducing elements of capitalism. The policy has proved highly successful, with Vietnam recording near 10% growth yearly (except for a brief interruption during the Asian economic crisis of 1997). The economy is much stronger than those of Cambodia, Laos, and other neighbouring developing countries. Like most Communist countries around the world, there is a fine balance between allowing foreign investors and opening up the market. In practical terms, you'll find rampant capitalism at the "retail" level, with shopkeepers and sellers from carts exercising great flexibility in pricing and how they do business. As those business people go up levels of permissions to operate (e.g., where they do business), government controls quickly take over. There used to be extreme restrictions on foreigners owning property or attempting to sell. However, a new property regulation announced on 1 July 2015 now allows foreigners to own and lease apartments in Vietnam. It is very difficult for them to trade without negotiating 'fees'. Business can be done via local partnerships with all the attendant risks. Power and services is another issue. There are often 'rolling blackouts' when there is not enough electricity at times. For this reason, many shops have portable generators. According to government estimates Vietnam sees 3.3m tourist arrivals each year. Vietnam has a return rate of just 6% compared to Thailand’s whopping 50%. People[ edit ] Most people in Vietnam are ethnic Vietnamese (Kinh), though there is a sizeable ethnic Chinese community in Ho Chi Minh City, most who are descended from migrants from Guangdong province and are hence bilingual in Cantonese or other Chinese dialects and Vietnamese. There are also numerous other ethnic groups who occupy the mountainous parts of the country, such as the Hmong, Muong and Yao people. There is also a minority ethnic group in the lowlands near the border with Cambodia known as the Khmer Krom. Buddhism, mostly of the Mahayana school, is the single largest religion in Vietnam, with over 85% of Vietnamese people identifying themselves as Buddhist. Catholicism is the second largest religion, followed by the local Cao Đài religion. Other Christian denominations, Islam, and local religions also share small followings throughout the southern and central areas. Culture[ edit ] Due to its long history as a tributary state of China, as well as several periods of Chinese occupations, Vietnamese culture is heavily influenced by that of Southern China, with Confucianism forming the basis of Vietnamese society. The Vietnamese language also contains many loan words from Chinese, though the two languages are unrelated. Buddhism remains the single largest religion in Vietnam, though like in China but unlike in the rest of northern Southeast Asia, the dominant school of Buddhism in Vietnam is the Mahayana School. Nevertheless, Vietnamese culture remains distinct from Chinese culture as it has also absorbed cultural elements from neighbouring Hindu civilizations such as the Champa and the Khmer empires. The French colonization has also left a lasting impact on Vietnamese society, with baguettes and coffee remaining popular among locals. Climate[ edit ] Vietnam is large enough to have several distinct climate zones. The North has four distinct seasons, with a comparatively chilly winter (temperatures can dip below 15°C/59°F in Hanoi), a hot and wet summer and pleasant spring (March-April) and autumn (October-December) seasons. However, in the Highlands both extremes are amplified, with occasional snow in the winter and temperatures hitting 40°C (104°F) in the summer. In the Central regions the Hải Vân Pass separates two different weather patterns of the North starting in Lăng Cô (which is hotter in summer and cooler in winter) from the milder conditions South starting in Đà Nẵng. North East Monsoon conditions September - February with often strong winds, large sea swells and rain make this a miserable and difficult time to travel through Central Vietnam. Normally summers are hot and dry. The South has three somewhat distinct seasons: hot and dry from March to May/June; rainy from June/July to November; and cool and dry from December to February. April is the hottest month, with mid-day temperatures of 33°C (91°F) or more most days. During the rainy season, downpours can happen every afternoon, and occasional street flooding occurs. Temperatures range from stifling hot before a rainstorm to pleasantly cool afterwards. Mosquitoes are most numerous in the rainy season. December to February is the most pleasant time to visit, with cool evenings down to around 20° (68°F). Holidays[ edit ] By far the largest holiday of the year is Tết, celebration of the New Year (as marked by the lunar calendar), which takes place between late January and March on the Western calendar and usually coincides with the Chinese New Year. Lunar New Year dates The year of the Horse started on 31 Jan 2014 The year of the Goat will begin on 19 Feb 2015 The year of the Monkey will begin on 8 Feb 2016 The year of the Rooster will begin on 28 Jan 2017 In the period leading up to Tết, the country is abuzz with preparations. Men on motorbikes rush around delivering potted tangerine trees and flowering bushes, the traditional household decorations. People get a little bit stressed out and the elbows get sharper, especially in big cities, where the usual hectic level of traffic becomes almost homicidal. Then a few days before Tết the pace begins to slow down, as thousands of city residents depart for their ancestral home towns in the provinces. Finally on the first day of the new year an abrupt transformation occurs: the streets become quiet, almost deserted. Nearly all shops and restaurants close for three days, (the exception being a few that cater especially to foreign visitors; and hotels operate as usual.) In the major cities, streets are decorated with lights and public festivities are organized which attract many thousands of residents. But for Vietnamese, Tết is mostly a private, family celebration. On the eve of the new year, families gather together and exchange good wishes (from more junior to more senior) and gifts of "lucky money" (from more senior to more junior). In the first three days of the year, the daytime hours are devoted to visiting -- houses of relatives on the first day, closest friends and important colleagues on the second day, and everyone else on the third day. Many people also visit pagodas. The evening hours are spent drinking and gambling (men) or chatting, playing, singing karaoke, and enjoying traditional snacks and candy (women and children.) Visiting Vietnam during Tết has good points and bad points. On the minus side: modes of transport are jammed just before the holiday as many Vietnamese travel to their home towns; hotels fill up, especially in smaller towns; and your choice of shopping and dining is severely limited in the first days of the new year (with a few places closed up to two weeks). In Saigon, most shops are closed for a whole week after new years day. Restaurants may charge a higher than normal price, e.g. adding a 20% "Happy New Year" fee. Beware that crowded places are ideal for pickpockets. On the plus side, you can observe the preparations and enjoy the public festivities; pagodas are especially active; no admission is charged to those museums and historical sites that stay open; and the foreigner-oriented travel industry of backpacker buses and resort hotels chugs along as usual. Visitors also stand a chance of being invited to join the festivities, especially if you have some local connections or manage to make some Vietnamese friends during your stay. When visiting during Tết, it's wise to get settled somewhere at least two days before the new year, and don't try to move again until a couple of days after. Lesser holidays include: New Year 1 January. Hùng Kings' Festival (Giỗ tổ Hùng Vương) on the 10th day of the 3rd lunar month commemorating the first kings of Vietnam. Liberation Day (Ngày giải phóng miền Nam) on 30 April, marking the fall of Saigon in 1975. International Workers' Day (Ngày Quốc tế Lao động) 1 May, the traditional socialist labour day. Around those times (Vietnamese often call 30 Apr-1 May holiday - the second longest holiday after Tết), trains and planes tend to be sold out, and accommodations at holiday destionations are hard to find. Best to book far in advance. National Day (Quốc khánh) 2 September. Regions[ edit ] Map of Vietnam with regions colour-coded Visas[ edit ] You can pick up a visa for Vietnam in a bewildering variety of places for a varying amount of money and different response times. Below is a catalog of various experiences at various times. London, England[ edit ] If purchasing your visa from the Vietnamese embassy in London , as of January 2013 a 30-day single entry visa will cost you £54 (£69 for 2 day service, £75 for next day), while a 30 days multiple entry visa costs £85 (£105 for 2 day service, £115 for next day). You must also pay up to £8 postage per passport (depending on how many are being processed) if you need it posted back to you. Wellington, New Zealand[ edit ] If purchasing from the embassy of Vietnam in Wellington, New Zealand, as of May 2014, a 30-day single entry visa will cost $120, 30 day multiple entry for $140, $220 for a 90 day single entry and $240 for a 90 day multiple entry. In person or by post. If by post, enclose a paid for courier bag. Either way, processing time around 3 days. Cambodia[ edit ] In Cambodia, Vietnam visas can be obtained at the embassy in Phnom Penh or at the consulates in Battambang and Sihanoukville. The uniform cost for a 30 day visa is US$40usd (December 2015, travel agencies lie claiming its US$60) Visa processing officially takes 48 hours in Phnom Penh and Battambang. On the spot visa issuance is only possible in Sihanoukville. Travel agencies can obtain the visa for you for a fee (US$1-5). (December 2015) consulate can issue a visa on a separate document (saves a page on your passport). Laos[ edit ] The consulate in Vientiane, Laos, offers them for US$70 with delivery the day after (paying in local currency is more expensive). The consulate in Luang Prabang, Laos at 427-428 That Bosot Village (19°53′08.36″N 102°07′46.95″E) offers a visa service. Office hours M-F 07:30-11:30 & 13:30-16:30 Tel 254748 / 254749 Fax:-254746 Email:- [email protected]. It's better to do your visa here than going to agents, as agents charge an extra USD15. Visa price is USD40 and takes 3 working days. Go to the Tourist Information for the location if you're not sure, they will be able to help you. It's only a 10min walk from the Tourist Information. October 2012: the clerk who fills out the receipt asks for an additional US$5 (or LAK40,000) for the handling. Overall, the Vietnamese Consulate in Luang Prabang seems to offer one of the cheapest if not the cheapest Visas to Vietnam. Visa fees in USD in Luang Prabang as of December 2016 are as follows (no paper copies or photos were allowed to be taken of them): Processing time $65 $80 April 2014: using the Vietnamese Consulate of Pakse (Southern Laos) will cost you US$70 (!) and 3 working days... Thailand[ edit ] Vietnam Embassy in Bangkok is on Thanon Witthayu (AKA Wireless Road), near the other embassies. It's a quick process (10-15 minutes) as long as there isn't a queue. Nov 2012 - Vietnam Embassy in Bangkok charges 1,800 baht (c. US$62) for a 30-day single-entry visa, 4 working days. 2,700 baht for 30-day single-entry visa, next (Working) day. Bear in mind that if you go on a Friday, you still have to wait until Monday to get your visa even if you paid for next day. If you don't have a passport photo, go out of the embassy, turn left and a hundred metres up the road on the left is a big shopping centre, called All Season's Place. On the 3rd floor there is a Kodak shop called Sprint Photo Fast which will do 6 passport/visa photos for 120 baht. Make SURE to tell them it's for a Vietnam visa as passport photos and visa are different sizes for different countries. Vietnam requires a 2 in x 2 in photo. If staying on Khao San road (which a lot of travellers/backpackers do), taxi /tuk tuk drivers may be unwilling to take you here on the meter, especially close to rush hour, as it is quite far and in an awkward place on the one way system. They'd rather scam a couple other people in the same time it would take. The Vietnamese Consulate in Khon Kaen, Thailand, also offers tourist visas. (UPDATED: March 2013) A single entry tourist visa valid for 30 days costs 2500 baht. A single entry 3-month tourist visa costs 4000 baht. A multiple entry, 3-month visa costs 5500 baht. The consulate only accepts Thai baht in cash (no other currencies or credit cards). Visas can be picked up the same day if submitted in the morning. If submitted in the afternoon, you can pick up your visa the next morning. The consulate is closed on weekends. Some consular staff speak English. You will need a passport photo (bring 2 just in case), application form (available at the consulate), and payment. May 2015 - next (working) day no longer appears to be an option; cost is 2,450 baht(~US$70) and takes 4 working days. Drop-off from 9-11:30 and 13:30-16:30; pick-up after 15:00 or 16:00 (seems to change). Check the website for holidays; the office is closed on both Vietnamese and Thai public holidays (i.e., a lot). Honestly despite the scaremongering you are better off doing visa on arrival if you are flying in. China[ edit ] China - You can get a visa from nearby Nanning or Kunming (additionally to Beijing and other reported major cities). Kunming regular 1 month single-entry tourist visa costs CNY400 for standard 3 days process or add CNY150 for same day service (submit morning, receive at 17:00). ☎ +86 871 6352-2669. Nanning regular 1 month single-entry tourist visa costs CNY450, but(!) you can ask them to pre-arrange your visa by emailing them the needed information (passports scans and application form). [email protected] ☎ +86 771 5510 561/560. M- F 9:00-12:00 & 14:00-17:30. No 55 Jinhu Road, on the west side of Wuxiang Square, (Yahang Centre Building with red China Bank on the ground floor) Nanning. The Consulate is on the 27th Floor, and get ready for a long line for the elevator in the morning at the building. (Nov 2014) Taiwan[ edit ] May 2014 - The Vietnam Economic and Cultural Office in Taipei also offers visa services, both to Taiwan residents and tourists in Taiwan. Address is 65 Songjiang Lu, hours M-F 8:30-12 & 14-16:30. You only need your passport, application form, and one passport photo (No ARC required, even "high risk" nationalities such as Pakistani citizens don't need any other documentation or approval letter). Visa price is 1850 TWD for standard Single entry - 30 days, 3 day processing. Same day and next day processing is available, along with multiple entries for a higher price. USA[ edit ] November 2010 - the Vietnamese Mission to the UN in New York City charges US$80 for a 30-day single-entry visa. Cash or money order is accepted. Processing takes 6 business days. Expedited service (4 business days) is available for US$110. June 2012 - a single-entry tourist visa valid for 30 days costs USD90 at Washington DC and takes around 4-7 days to process; express visas take 2-3 days for an additional USD30. A multiple entry, 1 month visa is US$140 and multiple entry, 3 month visa is US$170. February 2013 - The Consulate General of Vietnam in San Francisco, United States charges US$100 for a 30-day single entry visa. Cash or money order is accepted. December 2015 - Prices seem to have changed, USD100 for a 90 day single entry. December 14, 2015 - the Vietnamese Consulate in NYC charges USD135 for a 30-day multiple entry visa (USD80 for a 30-day single entry). Canada[ edit ] April 13, 2014 - The Consulate General of Vietnam in Vancouver, Canada charges CAD100 for a 30-day single entry visa. Australia[ edit ] November 2010 - Vietnam Embassy in Canberra, Australia charges AUS$75 for a 30 day single entry visa. Approx 3 days to process. Other consular services at this embassy have been reported as slow and costly (4 weeks for Ex-Vietnamese seeking 5 year Visa exceptions - and the passport must have 5 years of life left). As of September 2015, the cost is AUS$95, and they only accept cash or cheque (Vietnamese Embassy, Sydney). Malaysia[ edit ] November 2016 - the Vietnamese Embassy in Kuala Lumpur charges MYR235 for a 30 day single entry visa, will return the passport by 2 PM the following day if received early on the preceding day, 10 AM in our case. Hong Kong[ edit ] January 2015--The Consulate General of Vietnam in Hong Kong can issue visas within 2 working days. A single-entry, 30 day visa with 2 working day service costs $580 HKD. Next working day ($640 HKD) and same-day ($720) service are also available. Longer term and multiple-entry visas are also available (up to 6 months w/ multiple entries for $3000 HKD--2 working days, +200 HKD for same-day service). Singapore[ edit ] February 20, 2015 - the Vietnamese Embassy in Singapore charges SGD105 (about US$85) for a 30 days single entry visa, 6 working days to process March 17, 2015 - the Vietnamese Embassy in Singapore [1] charges SGD155 ( about USD110) for a 30 days single entry visa for Indian passport. 6 working days to process Embassies are recalcitrant in publishing a schedule of fees, as the relatively high visa cost is a source of embarrassment, revenue, and a tourism deterrent (EU and US). A slowdown in tourist number arrivals has been disguised by the removal of visa fees for certain nationalities (but not former Vietnamese) resulting in neighbouring countries numbers filling the vacuum. Visa free travel for neighbouring countries is part of Vietnam's commitment to visa free travel for fellow citizens of ASEAN (The Association of South East Asian Nations) Foreign citizens of Vietnamese origin can apply for visa exemption that allows multiple entry for 3 months at a time which is valid for the duration of the passport. Visa on arrival[ edit ] This method is available only for Air travel. The term visa on arrival is a bit of a misnomer in the case of Vietnam as a letter of approval has to be obtained before arrival. This is handled by a growing number of on-line agencies for a charge of USD10-21 (Aug 2014). Most agencies accept payment by credit card, some accept payment by Western Union or Paypal. You also have to pay stamp fee at the airport when arrival. You need 1 photo. The visa on arrival fees 2015-2016 Note: From 29 August 2016, all visas will be issued in 1-year-visa multiple entry is granted for US citizens with maximum 90 days of stay per one entry to Vietnam. The stamping fee at Vietnam airport for US citizens will be $135 USD One month – single entry USD25 One month – multiple entry USD50 Three months – single entry costs the same with one month single entry Three months – multiple entry USD50 Six months – multiple entry USD135 The Foreign and Commonwealth Office of Her Majesty's Government in London states "We are aware that there are nearly 1000 travel companies that are able to arrange legitimate visas-on-arrival but this must be done prior to arrival in Vietnam. There have also been reports of bogus companies that claim to be able to arrange for a visa on arrival. As the British Embassy and Consulate cannot confirm whether a company has a legitimate arrangement in place, the safest way to obtain a visa is via the nearest Vietnamese Embassy. Vietnamese visas are usually valid for only one entry. If you plan to leave Vietnam and re-enter from another country make sure you obtain a visa allowing multiple entries." The situation is complicated by the fact that the Internet high level domain "gov.vn" does not necessarily denote a government agency! The agent - located in Vietnam - obtains from the Department of Immigration a letter of approval bearing the traveller's name, date of birth, date of arrival, nationality and passport number, and then forwards that letter to the traveller (in PDF or JPEG format) by email or fax, usually within three working days. It is common to get the letter with several other applicants passport details (passport number, date and place of birth, full name, etc.). You might share your personal information with up to 10-30 other applicants on the same letter(s). For persons who are concerned about their privacy or security, it is recommended to check first if the agencies have an option for a separate or private approval letter (Private Vietnam visa on arrival) on their website. Very few on-line agencies have this option. Another solution is to apply for a regular visa through an embassy to keep your personal details private. After landing at one of the three international airports (Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City and Da Nang), the traveller goes to the "Landing Visa Counter" before the passport control and shows the letter, fills in an additional arrival form (can be pre-filled before departure), provide a photo and receives a visa sticker in his or her passport. As of Sep 2015 a visa fee in cash, of US$45 or US$65 for a single or multiple entry visa respectively, is payable at the time - only U.S. dollars or VND are accepted (no other currency or credit card) and the notes must be in reasonably good condition or they will be refused. One passport photo is required (often 4X6 cm). For $2 they can take a photo for you. Note that visas on arrival are not valid for arrival at the land crossings, and the official visa stamp can only be obtained at the three international airports. Therefore, travellers arriving by land from Cambodia, Laos or China must be in possession of a full visa when they arrive at the border. A third alternative, 'Visa Code' appears to be another option [More references needed] where on-line approval is first obtained - with a code, then you take the passport to the Embassy for the visa to be 'stamped'. The cost for service fee is cheaper than at the embassy in Europe or America. In Asia the cost will be almost the same as the regular total visa fee. However, you will avoid to go back and forth to the embassy. Passengers of Air Asia and some other airlines travelling to Vietnam must present the approval letter at check-in. Vietnam has moved away from arrival/departure cards. Depending on the present level of SARS and avian flu you may be subjected to a so-called health-check, which as of Sep 2015 consist only from a thermal scanner you pass through on your way to passport control; there are no forms to fill. Visa extensions[ edit ] Prior to 2015 it was relatively simple (and inexpensive) to obtain a one-time, 30 day extension to your standard single-entry tourist visa. This is no longer the case! As of May 2015, obtaining a 30 day extension took 10 days and cost US$185 - although the stamp still states "10 (mười) USD". Similarly, overstaying your visa has become considerably more expensive (on the order of USD50/day). By plane[ edit ] Vietnam has international airports at Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City, and Da Nang. Non-stop flights are available from Australia , Cambodia, China, France , Germany , The Netherlands, Hong Kong , Japan, South Korea, Laos, Malaysia, Philippines, Poland, Russia, Singapore, Brunei , Thailand, Taiwan , Indonesia, Macau , Qatar , Turkey , Dubai and the U.S. However, most direct flights are served by flag carrier Vietnam Airlines while plenty of other long-haul flights are available with transits via Bangkok , Doha , Dubai, Hong Kong, Singapore , Kuala Lumpur and Taipei . Hue airport (HUI) is also classified as international, but currently (2015) has no international departures/arrivals. By train[ edit ] There are direct international train services from Nanning and Beijing in China to Hanoi. Most require a change of trains at the border at Pingxiang / Dong Dang , but the Chinese-operated daily Nanning express (T8701/MR2) runs through, although it still spends about four hours at the border for immigration. The daily train from Nanning starts around 18:00 and arrives around 05:00 to Hanoi. Hard Sleeper c. CNY180 and soft sleeper c. CNY295. (You can consider taking the bus from Nanning instead which is a cheaper and pretty convenient day journey. The Kunming-Hanoi line was shut down by landslides in 2002 and, as of 2011, remains closed. There are no train links to Laos or Cambodia. Cambodia[ edit ] Alert Several Ho Chi Minh to Phnom Penh bus operators, such as Kumho Samco, scam foreign tourists by charging an extra US$5 for the Cambodian visa on arrival. Not agreeing to the extra charge and attempting to obtain the visa independently will result in being stranded at the border without your belongings. Mekong Express runs same fee plus drops passengers a few km south of downtown PP and tries to scam $12 for taxi by claiming "so far" away. MaiLinh Bus companies are the most reliable and reputable businesses operating on this route.* However, you might as well take the $5 charge as additional "service fee" not included to the ticket price. Vietnamese border control in Moc Bai is just a huge badly organised mess when the buses from HCMC to Phnom Penh arrive around the same time. It seems than in order to speed up the process it has become customary for the bus companies to collect the passengers' passports and hand them all together over to the officials. When the passports are stamped your name will be called by the same bus company's representative who collected your passport and hand it over back to you. Its up to you whether you will condone to this "scam" and let yourself cross the border as smooth as possible given the circumstances, or save yourself the "service fee" and spend much longer time at the border control, likely missing your bus. This is the only fee charged by the bus companies and it is not related to Cambodian Visa in any form. The main crossing is the Moc Bai/Bavet crossing on the Ho Chi Minh City - Phnom Penh road. Buses between the two cities cost USD-12 and take around 6 hr. Passengers vacate the vehicle at both countries' checkpoints. Only one passport photo is required for a Cambodian visa on arrival. Tours of the Mekong Delta (USD25-35, 2-3 days) can provide a more insightful journey between the two cities. Through tickets to Siem Reap are also available (US$18), though it is cheaper to buy a ticket to Phnom Penh and then arrange onward transport on one of the many connecting buses. Close to the coast is the Xa Xia/Prek Chak border. Cambodian visas are available on arrival. Buses run between Ha Tien in Vietnam to Sihanoukville and Phnom Penh in Cambodia. The Vietnamese consulate in Sihanoukville issues 30-day tourist visas on a same-day basis. Coastal areas are also served by the Tinh Bien/Phnom Den border near Chau Doc in Vietnam The Xa Mat/Trapeang Phlong crossing on the Ho Chi Minh City - Kampong Cham road is not well served by public transport but may be useful for accessing Kampong Cham and Eastern Cambodia . Banlung in North Eastern Cambodia is connect to Pleiku in Vietnam by a crossing at Le Tanh/O Yadaw. Visas are avaiable on arrival, one photo required. Change buses at Le Tanh. China[ edit ] There are three border crossings between China and Vietnam that can be used by foreigners: Dongxing - Mong Cai (by road; onward travel Mong Cai to Ha Long by sea or by road) Hekou - Lao Cai (by road and/or rail, but no international passenger train services) Youyi Guan - Huu Nghi Quan (Friendship Pass - by road and/or rail) There are several Day buses from Nanning running every day, at least at 10:00 and 13:50 and costs about CNY160 (Nov 2014), reaching Hanoi at evening (around 22:00 although in China they may tell you the arrival is before 22:00), with a break for less than an hour to cross the border and transfer buses - all arranged in the ticket and no further hassle or arrangements by yourself. This may be more convenient than the night train from Nanning to Hanoi at 18:00 reaching Hanoi around 05:00, which is also more expensive. The ride itself is picturesque, and you receive a water bottle and some snacks at the bus. At the border crossing there are money changing ladies trying to get your dollars or renminbi for a deal. Laos[ edit ] There are at least six border crossings between Laos and Vietnam that can be used by foreigners. Be wary of catching local buses from Laos to Vietnam. Not only are they often crammed with cargo (coal and live chickens, often underfoot) but many buses run in the middle of the night, stopping for several hours in order to wait for the border to open at 07:00. Whilst waiting, you will be herded off the bus (for several hours) where you will be approached by pushy locals offering assistance in getting a Laos exit stamp in exchange for money (usually USD5+). If you bargain hard (tiring, at 04:00) you can get the figure down to about USD2. The men will take your passports, which can be incredibly disconcerting, but will actually provide the service they promise. It is better to get the Laos exit stamp yourself for free at the border station. The sleeping bus from Vientaine to Hanoi is fairly nice as all cargo is stored in the cargo hold and you are allowed to sleep in the bus at the border crossing until it opens at 7AM. There is also a VIP bus from Savannakhet. These include: By boat[ edit ] Boats can be taken from Phnom Penh to the Vietnamese border town of Chau Doc . Such a journey takes roughly 5 hours and includes brief stops both to exit Cambodia and enter Vietnam. Make sure you carry a few US dollars to tip the boat porters with, so as to avoid losing your luggage in the Mekong when alighting or changing boats. Longer tours lasting multiple days may also be available from Phnom Penh . Check with your accommodation provider or along Sisowath Quay. By plane[ edit ] Booking online When searching for flights, make sure to check directly with the carrier or that your favorite flight search engine is set to Vietnam. Otherwise you risk paying up to $100 more than necessary. Traveling by plane is cheap and fast. For longer distances it is probably the best way to get around. The trip from Hanoi to HCMC will take about 2 hours by plane. There are many flights connecting the two largest cities, Hanoi and HCMC, to major towns such as Da Nang, Hai Phong, Can Tho, Hue, Nha Trang, Da Lat, Phu Quoc. There are several domestic carriers in Vietnam: Vietnam Airlines[ edit ] Vietnam Airlines , a SkyTeam alliance member, is probably the best and most comfortable airline in Vietnam. Passengers are generally allowed to take one free checked bag up to 22 kgs and one free cabin bag up to 7 kg plus a laptop bag or a handbag. Also the carry-on weight is rarely enforced as long as the bag size looks reasonable. On some flights they serve drinks and sandwiches, on other shorter routes they only serve water. Book via its website as Expedia and others seem to only show Class Y fares for domestic routes - which are the most expensive fares - and if you book early, you can get many cheap deals ("Super Saver"). A flight between SGN and HAN should cost about 1.600.000 VND (70 USD). Planes are usually quite new Airbus A320s, and there is reasonable legroom space. This airline is mostly on-time, and delays are rare. VietJetAir[ edit ] VietJetAir is a private low cost carrier. This airline is infamously nickanamed locally as "DelayJet" as most of its flights are invariantly delayed, often for many hours and more. While it appears to have more flights available when booking, it is simply a marketing trick - in reality most of those flights would be merged together into one or two flights, typically leaving many hours after your initial departure time. So instead of flying 6 times a day on the route, there would be one or two flights only packing the passengers from all 6 itineraries. VietJet calls it "rescheduling", and you can get your first "rescheduling" notification sometime just hours after purchasing the flight. Flights are also occasionally cancelled, although this is less frequent now - as in case of cancellation the refund is due, while no refund or any kind of compensation is due in case of any flight delays. Occasionally you are notified about the flight changes via e-mail and phone, but the notifications not always happen - do not assume if you don't receive any notifications than the flight is on time (as it almost never is anyway). Almost all passengers on those flights are Vietnamese buying super-cheap tickets (as low as 99,000 VND - less than $5) months in advance, who cannot afford Vietnam Airlines and therefore are willing to spend long hours or even days at crowded airports waiting for their flight. If you do not belong into this category and care about your itinerary at all, it is not recommended to fly VietJetAir. Personal experience: in Sep 2015 all three of my VietjetAir flights were delayed for 4, 9 and 14 hours respectively. While flights are much cheaper when purchased well in advance, once the supersaver fares are gone, the flights are only slightly cheaper (SGN-HAN for under 1,000,000 VND or US$50 versus US$70 on Vietnam Airlines). Planes are Airbus 320s with western pilots. However, the seats are tiny, and there is almost no legroom. If you're over 5"6 (160cm) make sure you book (and pay for) an exit row or premium seat, as otherwise you simply might not fit in. You are also charged for checked baggage, and free carry-on allowance is only one piece not exceeding 7 kg. Your carry-on will be weighted during check-in, and if it exceeds 7kg, you cannot carry it on and must check it in for a fee. Jetstar Pacific[ edit ] Jetstar Pacific is another low-cost carrier. Formerly known as Pacific Airlines, it belongs now to the Jetstar Airways network. According to locals it is as delay-prone as VietjetAir. By train[ edit ] The railway is the least developed transportation infrastructure in Vietnam. Most of the network was built during the period of French colonization and since then it has not been expanded. There have been various programs for rehabilitation in the last decade but the network still has many deficiencies. Nevertheless, trains are undoubtedly the most comfortable way to travel overland in Vietnam, although prices are more expensive than buses. The network currently has 7 lines in operation, with a total length of 2,632 km. The North-South railway line connecting Hanoi and Ho Chi Minh City The Hanoi-Lao Cai railway line The Hanoi-Quan Trieu railway line The Hanoi-Dong Dang railway line The Hanoi-Hai Phong railway line The Saigon-Quy Nhon railway line The Saigon-Phan Thiet railway line The main railway line is the North-South line, also known as the Reunification Express, connecting Hanoi with Saigon station in Ho Chi Minh City. It has a total length of 1,726 km and there are two types of service, express (designated as SE) and local (designated as TN), with different durations depending on the number of stops. Each of the SE and TN coded trains end with a number. If the number is odd it travels from North to South; if it is even, it travels from South to North. The fastest service runs between Hanoi and HCMC in almost 30 hours, stopping in the main cities: Nha Trang, Da Nang, Hue and Vinh. The duration is too long to complete the whole journey at once, so overnight hops are usually recommended. Besides the service Hanoi-Saigon, there are partial services for the most important sections of the North-South line, such as: Hanoi-Vinh, Hanoi-Hue, Hue-Saigon, Nha Trang-Tuy Hoa and Nha Trang-Saigon. Some segments of the North-South line pass near the coast or through a unique mountain scenery, like the Hai Van Pass between Da Nang and Hue. The train is definitely a good way to see the countryside of Vietnam. Its is recommended that you book your train tickets in advance before coming to Vietnam, as it may difficult to buy them at station in the same day or even few days in advance. During peak holiday season, tickets for some specific dates may sell out the previous weeks. By the end of 2014, the national railway operator Đường Sắt Việt Nam - DSVN (Vietnam Railways) launched the website dsvn.vn to sell tickets online. The website is available in Vietnamese and English. Customers can pay with credit card and receive their e-tickets by email ready for boarding. Please note that the official website of Vietnam Railways is www.vr.com.vn and the official online ticketing site is dsvn.vn . Other websites such as vietnam-railway.com, vietnam-railway.net, vietnamrailways.net are actually travel agencies pretending to be Vietnam Railways, but these are not maintained or have any relationship with the state railway company. Besides the official ticketing site there are some reputable websites that sell train tickets charging a fee or mark-up for their service. Since the railway operator introduced electronic tickets, these agencies will send the official e-tickets issued by Vietnam Railways as well. As train tickets are now electronic, you should avoid any ticket agency or middleman that offers you to deliver the physical tickets to your hotel. Most of these will simply print the ticket issued by dsvn.vn system and charge an expensive amount for delivering in person instead of sending by email. Finally, booking at the train station itself is generally a safe and practical way. Just prepare on a piece of paper with the destination, date, time, number of passengers and class and give to the staff at the ticket counter. In case you book the ticket at the station please be aware of infamous ticket re-sellers who may approach and offer tickets for trains that are already sold out. Be advised that all electronic tickets issued by Vietnam Railways include the information of the passenger, name and ID/Passport number, so these are non-transferable. Train conductors often verify the tickets before boarding the train, so if the identify of the passenger doesn't match the boarding will be denied. For ticket changes and cancellations, you must process at the train station. According to Vietnam Railways policy, a ticket change requires a cancellation of the reservation and the issuance of a new ticket. The cancellation fee is 10%. There are several types of fares for seats and sleeper berths in Vietnamese trains. The type of the fare is marked on the ticket and it follows this notation: B-Ghế ngồi cứng: Hard seat B DH-Ghế ngồi cứng ĐH: Hard seat with A/C A-Ghế ngồi mềm: Soft seat A DH-Ghế ngồi mềm ĐH: Soft seat with A/C Bn-Giường cứng: Hard bed Bn DH-Giường cứng ĐH: Hard bed with A/C An-Giường mềm: Soft bed An DH-Giường mềm ĐH: Soft bed with A/C Soft sleeper rooms are 4 berth (2 berths by side, designated as T1 and T2), whereas hard sleepers are 6 berth (3 berths by side, designated as T1, T2 and T3). You can sit comfortably on a lower bed in a 4 berth room but in a 6 berth you will have to be very short in order to sit up straight. Having a private travel agent book tickets will quite often result in you paying the agent for a soft-sleeper but the agent will book a hard-sleeper and you will not know until you board the train and it is too late to make changes. This is one of the most common scams!!! As soon as the agent handles you the tickets, identify the fare written on it and check that it's the fare you paid for. Otherwise make a complain and request compensation! AC soft-seat option is not too painful if you are travelling for about 15 hours! However, unless you are travelling in a sleeper car it is no more comfortable than buses. Just think about it in the context of a flight from London to Sydney which takes over 20 hours. On the train, you will have the freedom to move about, stand up & stretch, no seat-belt wear, a lot of legroom, etc. Seats are numbered in this carriage and it appears you cannot request a seat based on your preference. The reservation system will assign one for you at the time of buying it! Don't always believe the pictures of train carriages you see! The TN trains have the oldest and dirtiest cars and are the slowest therefore, are not recommended. The SE trains have slightly better quality cars but they too are old. Luggage storage is very much restricted to the over-head racks in non-sleeper compartments. These racks would take a large case on wheels but you will have to lift it up there! You will see locals boarding trains with large cases or boxes and these usually end up in the passenger's foot well (i.e. they put their feet on top of the case) or in the corridor. The latter is not a good idea especially on long distance trains since the meal & drinks trolleys go up and down the carriages frequently. In sleepers, your luggage has to be in your room. If you have a lot of luggage, a bus or plane would be a better option. The chances are, your neighbours would want chat to you but it's not uncommon in Vietnam. By the way, if you are going on a long journey, do not forget to take a loo roll with you! By bus[ edit ] Long-distance bus services connect most cities in Vietnam. Most depart early in the morning to accommodate traffic and late afternoon rains, or run overnight. It is important to note that average road speeds are typically quite slow, even when travelling between cities. For example a 276 km (172 mi) journey from the Mekong Delta to Ho Chi Minh City by bus will likely take about 8 hours. Public Buses travel between the cities' bus stations. In bigger places, you often have to use local transport to get into the city centre from there. Buses are generally in reasonable shape, and you have the chance to interact with locals. Vietnamese buses are made for Vietnamese people - bigger Westerners will be very uncomfortable, especially on overnight buses. Also, many Vietnamese are not used to riding on long-haul buses, and will sometimes get sick - not very pleasant if you are stuck on an overnight bus with several Vietnamese throwing up behind you. Even if you are sometimes bus-sick, it is advisable to book a seat at the middle section rather than at the front of the bus. First, you will avoid viewing directly the short-sighted risks the driver is taking on the way. Second, you will somewhat escape the loud noise of unceasing honkings (each time the bus passes another vehicle, that is about every 10 seconds). The long haul bus lines run from North to South and back on the only main road (QL1). Be aware that if you take a bus going further than your destination, the bus will drop you off at the most convenient crossroads for the driver and not, as you could have expected, at the bus terminal of your destination. For Hué, this crossroad is 13 km from the city centre and for Nha Trang, 10 km. At these crossroads, you'll find taxis or mototaxis to get you to your hotel. If you travel with a bicycle, negotiate the extra fee with the driver rather than the ticket counter before buying your ticket. The bicycle fee should be no more than 10% of the ticket price. A scam that you may encounter is that after arriving at your location, guides will ask you whether you have booked a hotel. Even though you haven't, say that you have and prepare the name of a hotel. If you say you have not booked one, they will charter a taxi for you and probably drop you at a hotel where they can collect commission. If you decide not to stay, things may get a little ugly, as they will demand that you pay the taxi fare, which they may quote as several times the actual fare for a ten minute ride. One of the major bus companies is Hoang Long [2] . They have an excellent website in english that provides all rate information as well as locations of bus terminals in all cities they service. You can bypass the travel agents altogether and head straight for bus station since the agent will simply sell you the very same ticket. If you choose to go the lazy route and use the travel agent at least reference the Hoang Long website for what the bus ticket should cost you. Do not give the travel agent a commission of more than a dollar. Open Tour buses are run by a multitude of tour companies. They cater especially to tourists, offering ridiculous low rates (Hanoi to HCMC: US$20-25) and door-to-door service to your desired hostel. You can break the journey at any point and continue on a bus of the same company any time later, or simply buy tickets just for the stage you're willing to cover next. If you're not planning to make more than 3-4 stops, it might be cheaper to buy separate tickets as you go (ie Hanoi to Hue can be as low as US$5). Also the open ticket limits you to using only one company and does not guarantee you a seat on any bus. Most hotels and guest houses can book seats for any connection, although you're better to shop around at travel agents, as prices will vary on any given ticket/bus company. Going to the bus company office may net you a commission-free fare. C Although the bus company will usually be happy to collect you at your hotel or guest house, boarding at the company office will guarantee a choice of seats and you'll avoid getting stuck at the back or unable to sit next to your travelling companions. The offices are generally located in or near the tourist area of town, and a short walk might make your trip that much more pleasant. Since tour companies charge very little, they do make commission on their stop-offs which are often at souvenir shops, where you do not have to buy; they always have toilets and drinks and water available for purchase. The estimated time for a bus trip will not be accurate and may be an additional couple of hours sometimes, due to the number of stop offs. Collecting the passengers at the start of the journey can also take quite a while too. Always be at least half an hour early to catch the bus. Try not to drink too much water, as rest stops, especially for overnight buses, may be just somewhere where there are a lot of bushes. WARNING - Be very careful of your possessions on the overnight bus, people (including bus employees) have been known to look through passengers bag's and take expensive items such as iPods and phones and sell them on for profit. If you are travelling with an iPod DO NOT FALL ASLEEP WITH IT IN YOUR EAR, as the chances are it will be nowhere to be found in the morning. Simply get a padlock for your hand luggage and lock everything up in there before you go to sleep. By car[ edit ] International driving licences are not accepted in Vietnam. The concept of renting a car to drive yourself is almost non-existent, and when Vietnamese speak of renting a car they always mean hiring a car with a driver. (After a short time on local roads with their crazy traffic, you will be glad you left the driving to a local.) Since few Vietnamese own cars, they have frequent occasion to hire vehicles for family outings, special occasions, etc, and a thriving industry exists to serve that need. Vietnamese can easily hire anything from a small car to a 32-seat bus, for one day or several. Tourists can tap into that market indirectly by way of hotels and tour agents found in every tourist area. Additionally, international car brands have started to surface. Budget Car Rental, one of the largest car rental companies in the world, now offers chauffeur driven services in Vietnam. Hiring a small car for a day trip returning to the point of origin costs around US$60 for 8 hours (though the price changes with the cost of fuel.) (If you shop around and bargain hard for the lowest possible price, you will probably get an older, more beat-up car. If you are paying more than bare minimum, it's worth asking what sort of car it will be, and holding out for something comfortable.) Few drivers speak any English, so make sure you tell the hotel/agent exactly where you want to go, and have that communicated to the driver. It's also possible to hire a car and driver for inter-city travel, at somewhat higher cost. A small car from Saigon to the beach resort of Mui Ne, a 4- or 5-hour trip depending on traffic, costs about US$70, and Dalat to Mui Ne about US$90. Long distance travel by car may be a good choice for several people travelling together, as it provides a flexible schedule and flexible access to remote sites. Keep in mind that long-distance road travel in Vietnam by whatever means (bus or car) is slow, with average speeds less than 50 km/hour. Highway 1, the north-south backbone of the country, usually offers but one lane each way for masses of buses, trucks, cars and motorbikes. In the frequent cities, towns and villages, locals often walk, slowly motorbike or push carts within inches of "fast" through traffic. Vietnamese newspapers frequently lament very-high rates of fatal accidents, many along this route. Generally speaking, describing Vietnamese driving habits as atrocious would be an understatement. Road courtesy is non-existent and drivers generally do not check their blind spot or wing mirrors. Vietnamese drivers also tend to use their horn very often to get motorcyclists out of their way. In addition, most roads do not have lane markings and even on those that do, drivers generally ignore the lane markings. As such, driving yourself in Vietnam is not recommended and you should leave your transportation needs in the hands of a local. By bicycle[ edit ] Adventurous travellers may wish to see Vietnam by bicycle. Several adventure travel tours provide package tours with equipment. Most of the population gets around on two wheels, so it's an excellent way to get closer to the people, as well as off the beaten path. Bicycles can be rented cheaply in many cities, and are often a great way of covering larger distances. Good spots for cycling are Dalat, Hoi An, Hue and Ninh Binh. On the other hand, attempting to cycle in Hanoi or HCMC is virtually suicide without proper experience of traffic rules (or lack thereof, 'proper experience' in this case means understanding that everyone around you could potentially change direction at any moment.) In cities like Ho Chi Minh City and Hanoi, parking bicycles on the sidewalks is not allowed, and you'll have to go to a pay parking lot. 2000 dong per bike. By motorcycle taxi[ edit ] The xe ôm (literally 'hugging vehicle') is a common mode of transport for Vietnamese as well as tourists. They are widely available and reasonably cheap -- about 10,000 dong for a 10 minute trip, which should get you anywhere within the city centre. Walk the city streets, and every couple of minutes a guy will flag your attention and say "You !! MotoBike?" Longer trips to outlying areas can be negotiated for 20,000-25,000 dong. Always agree on the fare before starting your trip. As with most things, a tourist will often be quoted an above-market price initially, and you need to be firm. If quoted anything over 10,000 dong for a short trip, remind the driver that you could take an air-con taxi for 15,000 dong so forget it. Occasionally drivers will demand more than the negotiated price at the end, so it's best to have exact change handy. Then you can pay the agreed amount and walk away, end of discussion. By motorcycle[ edit ] The 110-cc motorbike is the preferred mode of transport for the Vietnamese masses, and the large cities swarm with them. There are an estimated 37 million motorcycles in Vietnam and it's common to see whole families of four cruising along on a single motorbike. In most places where tourists go, you can easily rent your own, with prices ranging from 100,000 to 160,000 dong per day. Before reading on, however, you should be aware that it is illegal for foreigners to ride a motorbike in Vietnam unless they are in possession of a temporary Vietnamese motorcycle licence, which in turn requires you to have a current licence issued by your home country/country of residence or an International Driving Permit. To convert your licence or International Driving Permit into a temporary Vietnamese licence you must hold a Vietnamese residence permit of at least three months' validity or a three-month tourist visa. In Hanoi you should apply to the Centre for Automotive Training and Mechanism, 83a Ly Thuong Kiet Street; in HCMC to the Office of Transportation, 63 Ly Tu Trong Street, District 1. You should also be aware that if you ride unlicensed and have an accident in which a third party is injured or killed you could be subject to a term of imprisonment of 10-20 years, as well as paying a large sum in compensation to the victim or the victim's family. Moreover, even if your travel insurance policy covers you for motorcycling (check the small print as many don't), if you are injured when riding illegally the insurance company will not recompense you for medical attention, hospitalisation, evacuation to another country for hospitalisation or repatriation, the cost of which can run into tens of thousands of dollars. Desk clerks at small hotels often run a side business renting motorbikes to guests, or have a friend or relative who does. Tour booths can usually do the same. In small towns and beach resorts where traffic is light, e.g Pho Quoc, it's a delightful way to get around and see the sights, and much cheaper than taxis if you make several stops or travel any distance. Roads are usually decent, though it's advisable not to ride too fast and always keep an eye on the road for the occasional pothole. Riding in the big cities, especially Ho Chi Minh City, is a very different matter, and not advisable unless you are an experienced rider with a very cool head. Traffic is intense and chaotic, with a long list of unwritten rules that don't resemble traffic laws anywhere else. "Right of way" is a nearly unknown concept. Riding in HCMC is like finding yourself in the middle of a 3-D video game where anything can come at you from any direction, and you only have one life. Expats who brave the traffic at all typically have an apprenticeship of a few weeks or months riding on the back of others' motorbikes to learn the ways of the traffic, before attempting to ride themselves. Extreme caution is advised for short-term visitors. Riding long distance in the countryside can also be harrowing depending on the route you take. Major roads between cities tend to be narrow despite being major, and full of tour buses hell-bent on speed, passing slow trucks where maybe they shouldn't have tried, and leaving not much room at the edge for motorbikes. Two main categories of motorbike are available to rent: scooters (automatic transmission); and four-speed motorbikes, the gears of which you shift with your left foot. The ubiquitous Honda Super Cub is a common 4-speed bike that has a semi-automatic gearbox ie no clutch so is relatively easy to ride. Other models may be fully manual and therefore you must also operate the clutch using your left hand - this takes a lot of skill and it's all too easy to over-rev and pull a wheelie or stall the engine - if you end up with such a bike then practice releasing the clutch gently before hitting the roads! Dirt bikes are becoming popular for rent in Hanoi, other cities are not yet ready for these beasts. Rental agents tend to steer foreigners toward scooters if available, on the (plausible) assumption that they don't know how to ride motorbikes that require shifting gears. Motorcycles of 175cc and above are only legal to ride if you make a connection with a Vietnamese motorcycle club. The KUB cafe (Kustom Urban Bike) #12 ngõ 264 Âu Cơ, Tây Hồ, Hà Nội offers a great starting point for your journey by motorbike or a great place to end your trip in Vietnam, It's run by bikers for bikers of all sizes. They give out great advise to help you on your journey by motorbike. Most places you would want to stop have parking attendants who will issue you a numbered tag and watch over your bike. Sometimes these parking operations are overseen by the establishment you are visiting, and sometimes they are free-lance operations set up in places where a lot of people go. You will usually see rows of bikes lined up parked. Depending on circumstance, you might park the bike yourself, or just put it in neutral and let the staff position it. In all but rare cases you keep the key. Parking is sometimes free at restaurants and cafes (look for "giu xe mien phi"). Elsewhere, fees range from 2,000 to 5,000 dong. Traffic police in the cities pull over lots of locals (often for reasons that are hard to discern), but conventional wisdom has it that they rarely bother foreigners due to the language barrier. Obeying the traffic laws is nevertheless advisable, especially if you have failed to obtain a Vietnamese licence. Cities like Ho Chi Minh have several one way street, and it is too easy to just steer into them unknowingly as there are limited signs warning you. BE SURE that if you break law, the police who are sneaking just at the right spot, will ask you to pull over and will fine you. They will also threaten to confiscate your bike. The quoted price for the fine may be negotiable, and being apologetic and friendly can get you back on road quickly, with a few dollars less in your pockets. Helmets have also been required by law since December 2007, so if you don't have one already ask your rental agent to provide you with one. If buying a bike from a dealer, do not believe any "buy-back" guarantee. They are invariably a lie to encourage you to buy. Cyclo in Hue While slowly being supplanted by motorbikes, cyclo pedicabs still roam the streets of Vietnam's cities and towns. They are especially common in scenic smaller, less busy cities like Hue, where it's pleasant to cruise slowly along taking in the sights. Though the ride will be slow, hot and sometimes dangerous, you'll generally need to pay more than for a motorbike for the equivalent distance. On the plus side, some drivers (particularly in the South) are very friendly and happy to give you a running commentary on the sights. Cyclo drivers are notoriously mercenary and will always ask for a high price to start with. Sometimes they will also demand more than the agreed price at the end. (Japanese tourists, especially women, are most often targeted with this scam since they are more responsive to the threat that the driver will call the police and make trouble for them if they don't pay as demanded.) A reasonable price is about 20,000 dong for up to 2 km (1.2 mi), and if the driver disagrees, simply walk away. (You won't get far before that driver or another takes your offer.) Prices for a sight-seeing circuit with intermediate stops are more complex to negotiate and more subject to conflict at the end. If you plan to stop somewhere for any length of time, it's best to settle up with the driver, make no promises, and start fresh later. Some drivers start with a very low rate to get you into their cycle and then if required to wait for you or otherwise vary the agreed price, bring out a typed up price list of their "standard rates" which are inflated beyond belief. If even slightly unsure ask the driver show you his list of charges. Then negotiate from that point or walk away. To avoid trouble, it's also best to have exact change for the amount you agreed to pay, so if the driver tries to revise the deal, you can just lay your cash on the seat and leave. By boat[ edit ] You will be missing a big part of Vietnamese life if you do not spend some time on a boat. Do be careful though because many boats, although seaworthy, are not designed to first world standards. An example is the ferry from Phu Quoc to the mainland. This ferry has one tiny entrance for all passengers to board. When full, which it usually is, there are approximately 200 people on board. In the event of an accident, the chance of everyone getting out of the boat fast enough would be very small. The idea of an emergency exit does not exist. Tour boats can be chartered for around US$20 for a day's tour; but beware of safety issues if you charter a boat. Make sure the boat is registered for carrying Tourists and has enough life jackets and other safety equipment on board. Or you can book a tour through a tour company; but be aware that in Vietnam most Tour Agents charge whatever markup they want and therefore the tourist is often paying margins of 30-40% and the boat owner and operator (of anything from a van to a boat) are paid very little of the total amount! Ha Long Bay is a famous destination for 1-3 day boat trips among its scenic limestone islands. Problem is that all the boats seem to visit the same places - and with high prices and poor quality boats and service real value is hard to come by! Many boats have a US$10 corkage fee, and forbid BYO alcohol, with on board alcohol and seafood about the same price as Europe on some boats! If there is rain, mist or low cloud, you may not see much. Try to pick a clear day. Dozens of small family-operated boats ply the river in Hue taking visitors to the imperial tombs southwest of the city. This journey is long because the boats are slow, taking about 4 hours or so to make the journey in one direction. Snorkel - fishing - lunch trips are available from Nha Trang , Hoi An , and Phu Quoc to nearby islands. In Central Vietnam, the North East monsoon season limits many sea boat tours during the months Sep-Feb; other parts of Vietnam seem less affected. A 90-minute hydrofoil boat operates from Saigon to the seaside resort of Vung Tau for about 120,000 dong each way -- the fastest way to reach the beach from the city. River tours are perhaps the most interesting. A day-long boat trip forms the core of almost any tour of the Mekong region. Tomb of Khai Dinh, Hue Talk[ edit ] The official language of Vietnam is Vietnamese . Like Thai and Mandarin, Vietnamese is a tonal language that uses a change in pitch to inflect different meanings, and this can make it difficult for Westerners to master. While it is very different from Western languages, a traveler may be surprised to learn that the basic grammar is pretty simple. Verbs are static regardless of the past or future and parts of speech are pretty straightforward. The major difficulties lay on tones and certain sounds. Vietnamese consists of 4 main dialects: the northern dialect spoken around Hanoi, the north-central dialect spoken around Vinh, the central dialect spoken around Hue, and the southern dialect spoken around Ho Chi Minh City. While the Hanoi dialect is taken as the 'standard' and widely used in broadcasting, there is no de facto standard in the education system. Northerners naturally think that southern accent is for 'hai lua' (countrymen) and will always recommend you to be stick to the northern accent, but the choice of accents should depend on where you plan to live. If you are working in Ho Chi Minh City, the main economic centre of Vietnam, the southern accent is what you will hear every day. For learners, the Latin alphabet is a relief. Unlike English, Vietnamese orthography reflects pronunciation closely, although using certain letters to represent different sounds and containing sounds not found in English. The Vietnamese lexicon has been heavily influenced by Chinese languages. Some words are loanwords from Chinese, like hotel (khách sạn), children (nhi đồng), Communist party (đảng cộng sản); some are formed based on Chinese characters (roots), like representative (đại diện) or bird flu (cúm gà). Knowledge of the Chinese language will make it much easier to learn Vietnamese. Vietnamese is also full of loanwords from French and English from more recent times. Although the Vietnamese people do appreciate any effort to learn their language, most seldom experience foreign accents. Learners may find it frustrating that no one can understand what they try to say. Staff in hotel and kids tend to have a more tolerant ear for foreign accents and it is not unheard of for a kid to effectively help translate your 'Vietnamese' into authentic Vietnamese for adults. Google translate now supports Vietnamese and this can be downloaded to supported devices to work in "off-line" mode. The Vietnamese certainly appreciate the attempt to communicate, albeit non-verbally, in their own language. Be aware that not all can read though. Besides Vietnamese, Ho Chi Minh City is home to a sizeable ethnic Chinese community, many of whom speak Cantonese . The more remote parts of the country are also home to many ethnic minorities who speak various languages belonging to the Mon-Khmer, Tai-Kadai and Austronesian language families. Most Vietnamese youths learn English in school, so many young people have a basic grasp of English, but proficiency is generally poor. However, most hotel and airline staff will know enough English to communicate. Directional signs are generally bilingual in both Vietnamese and English. Despite Indochina's colonial history in which French was the medium of education, French is no longer widely taught in Vietnamese schools and aside from a few educated elite among the elderly, is much less useful than English when trying to communicate with locals. However in recent years, there has been a revival of the language in both the government and educated elite. In the big cities, some of the big international luxury hotel chains will have staff who are able to speak French and other foreign languages such as Mandarin, Japanese or Korean. Download google translate to your phone or tablet. You can download a language pack so that it works offline. Note, whilst the majority (albeit not all - many cannot read) Vietnamese will understand what you type in, they often can't type a reply that Google understands... See[ edit ][ add listing ] Simply walking to the nearest intersection and merely watching the driving antics is amazing. Keep watching and you may see TV's and fridges and other unlikely objects impossibly balanced and secured with string on the back of a motorcycle. Watch how other people and locals cross the road. You will need to observe the traffic etiquette before you cross the road. Some suggest avoiding crossing when trucks and lorry's are around, as they are less agile than motorbikes. If you happen to be around during to/from school hours, this is the best time to observe a glimpse of pushbikes, traditional clothing and ao dai mixing it with 'normal' traffic, even in the heaviest of torrential downpours. This is an example of the motivation of the school children! As you travel about, you will find there are clusters of shops all selling similar goods - like 20 sewing machine shops together, then 30 hardware shops all together, 200 motorcycle repair shops in the same block. This makes for very competitive prices! Be wary of watch shops selling original authentic fakes. Other fake watches are available but not as cheap as other surrounding countries. Pirated software is oddly very hard to find and not sold openly. However Movie DVD's of differing quality are widely available from US$1, although not all may have English on them. The local post office will strictly not allow them to be posted abroad. Vietnam claims Health tourism is on the rise. Hygiene, infection control and proper sterilization is very important, as drug resistant 'bugs' are always a concern, anywhere. Do[ edit ][ add listing ] Motorbiking is popular with locals and tourists alike. Given that motorbikes are the main mode of transport in Vietnam, they can give a particularly authentic view of travelling through the country. Renting or buying a bike is possible in many cities. Also consider Motorbike adventure tours, which involve being guided on multi-day drives to remote regions of the country. Most tours include accommodation, petrol, helmets, drivers and entry tickets to local places of interest. Guides usually speak good English or French and offer customised tours if desired. Motorbike Sightseeing Tours are similar but have a more local range specific to one city or area and can focus on food, shopping or sightseeing. As mentioned in the work section below, many travelers like to spend some time working with the local community as a volunteer. Most of these programs require the volunteer to pay fees which cover meals, accommodation and which also allow the local organisations to fund social programs. These fees can vary from a hundred dollars a week to several thousand so it is a good idea to research thoroughly. Besides, there are lots of options to do in Vietnam: First: Take a cruise trip to visit Halong Bay. You can spend 1 day of Hanoi - Halong Bay cruise - Hanoi, or 2 days with 1 night over on cruise, or 3 days with 2 nights over on cruise. The transfer by road from Hanoi to Halong Bay takes about 4 hours. You may select seat in coach bus, or private transfer. Also, you may choose joining cruise, or private charter. There are hundreds of cruises in Halong Bay with wide range of standard from budget to luxury. Second: Take a trip to Sapa. There are two ways: Sapa by train, and Sapa by road. For Sapa by train, take overnight train from Hanoi to Lao Cai, you will arrive Sapa in early morning, then ideally spend 2 days in Sapa, and take overnight train back to Hanoi when you will reach Hanoi in early morning in the following day. Please note that there is not day train between Hanoi and Lao Cai. For Sapa by road, it takes about 4 hours to transfer between Hanoi and Sapa town. Third: Take a cooking class. Vietnamese cuisine is diverse and tasty and one of the many highlights of a visit to the country. There are lots of cooking class options in Hanoi, in Hoi An, and in Ho Chi Minh. You may take half day or full day cooking class. However, please select the class with market-visit arrangement so that you can experience the local market. Forth: Take a river cruise trip in Mekong. Start from Ho Chi Minh City, you may end the cruise at Vinh Long, at Can Tho, at Chau Doc, even end at Phnom Penh or end at Siem Riep. Fifth: Just relax and chill out wonderful beachside in Vietnam. Best destinations are Nha Trang, Mui Ne, Phu Quoc. Sixth: Cu Chi Tunnels is a must-visit if you have a chance to come to Ho Chi Minh City. Crawling through the Cu Chi Tunnels is a unique experience of your Vietnam trip. Seventh: It's an off-the-beaten-track when you take a home-stay trip. Mai Chau Village in the north and home-stay in Mekong (Vinh Long, Can Tho) are among the bests. DTW Travel World Co., Ltd. is a trusted company (listed on tripadvisor with great comments) can make Vietnam trip amazing and easy. Buy[ edit ][ add listing ] The national currency is the dong (internationally symbolised as VND, but written as đồng in Vietnam), which is difficult to find or exchange outside Vietnam; change money on arrival and try to get rid of any leftovers before leaving the country. Continuing inflation and a series of devaluations continues to steadily push down the value of the dong, with USD1 worth over 22,000 dong in May 2016. Banknotes are available in denominations of 500, 1000, 2000, 5000, 10,000, 20,000, 50,000, 100,000, 200,000 and 500,000 dong. In 2003, coins were also introduced in denominations of 200, 500, 1000, 2000 and 5000 dong, although these are rarely seen. Exchanging dong According to Vietnamese laws, foreign currency can be easily changed into dong but not vice versa. Exchanging dong is quite a complicated procedure requiring some time and patience. In order to change dong into another currency one should show one's ticket as a confirmation of leaving Vietnam and one's ID. These documents will be photocopied by the bank employees. Then, one fills out a special form stating the sum, purpose of the exchange and destination country. Not all Vietnamese banks perform exchange of dong, but Vietcombank is one that does. However, it is easy and fast to change dongs to foreign currencies with reasonable rates at Vietnam's international airports. Prices are widely advertised in US dollars, namely because of the unstable currency valuation of the dong, but unlike neighbouring Cambodia, for instance, payment is often expected in dong only, especially outside major tourist destinations. It is also easier to bargain with dong, especially since dollar prices are already rounded, and also because offering the price in dollars marks you as a "tourist" or "newcomer" - and as a potential target for scams/overcharging. Travel-related establishments (guesthouses, travel agencies, etc.) which quote their price in dollars, on the other side, may try to get from you slightly more if you wish to pay them in dong rather than dollars (e.g. calculating $1 as 21,000 or even 22,000 while the going rate was 20,800) - in this case it's actually cheaper to pay them in dollars. Dollar bills in less than perfect condition may be rejected. USD2 bills (especially those printed in the 1970's) are considered lucky in Vietnam and are worth more than USD2. They make a good tip/gift, and many Vietnamese will keep them in their wallet for luck. USD50 and US$100 notes get a higher exchange rate than notes of lower denominations. Most visitors opt to keep the bulk of their cash in US dollars and exchange or withdraw dong as needed. There is often a considerable spread in dong buy/sell rates, and sometimes the same hotel has different rates for different services! In addition to banks and official exchange counters, you can exchange most hard currencies (Sterling, Yen, Swiss Francs, Euro etc.) at gold shops, often at slightly better than official rates. This is technically illegal, but enforcement is minimal. Hotels and travel agencies can also exchange money with differing exchange rates so look for the best rate. For credit card payments, there is usually a 3% surcharge, so cash may be advantageous for large transactions. Traveller cheques of well known companies are widely accepted, but usually a small fee is charged. Fees might also be the only thing that would keep you from getting cash advances on Visa- or MasterCard at most banks. Through both ways you can also get hold of US dollars, though there will be even higher fees. There are mentions in some popular travel books about Vietcombank not charging any commission fees to cash AMEX travellers cheques. However, this is not true any more. ATMs are becoming more and more common and can be found in most bigger cities and every tourist destination. They will accept a selection of credit and bank-cards, including Visa, MasterCard, Maestro or Cirrus and several other systems. Typically withdrawals are limited to 2,000,000 dong per transaction, and will incur a 20,000 dong service fee. Usually ATMs disclose the commission before the transaction. ATMs with no charge: EXIMBANK allows up to 2,000,000 dong per transaction with no charge. MIlitary Bank (MB) up to 5,000,000 dong per transaction with no charge. These ATMs are the best to choose although it is not easy to find ATMs of this bank. SeABank allows (at least) up to 3,000,000 dong per transaction with no charge. ATMs with a charge: Agribank allows up to 3,000,000 dong per transaction with a 22,000 dong charge. ANZ Bank allows up to 4,000,000 - 10,000,000 dong per transaction (15,000,000 dong per day) with a 40,000 dong charge. BIDV Bank allows up to 3,000,000 dong per transaction with a charge of 50,000 dong, or a 5% surcharge whatever is higher. These ATMs are the most prominent and worst to choose. Citi Bank allows up to 8,000,000 dong per transaction with a 60,000 dong charge. Techcombank allows up to 2,000,000 per transaction with a 66,000 dong charge. These are the second worst ATMs to choose. VIB Bank allows up to 2,000,000 per transaction with a 50,000 dong charge that is not disclosed until after the transaction is completed. Vietcombank allows up to 2,000,000 dong per transaction with a 20,000 dong charge. The rates itself depend on your bank and card issuer. There are branches of money transfer companies like Western Union, but this is always one of the more expensive ways to get money. On most land borders connecting to Cambodia, China, and Laos there are freelance moneychangers to take care of your financial leftovers, but be assured they'll get the better of you if you don't know the going rate. Note for travellers departing from Hanoi airport: There are no money exchange establishments once you finish your immigration, so exchange your dong before you enter the departure hall unless you plan to shop. Bargaining[ edit ] Overcharging has long been an issue in Vietnam tourism. It can happen anywhere on anything from an hotel room, a ride on taxi, coffee, meal, clothing, basic grocery stuff. Your coffee suddenly becomes 100% more expensive and a restaurant may present you an English menu with inflated prices. A friendly local who spent 30 minutes talking with you may also feel like overcharging you on anything. In many places overcharging happens through non-obvious means. A typical example would be to negotiate a room price in US dollars, but upon checkout a payment is demanded in dongs, using a very unfavorable conversion rate. Don't discuss payment in currency other than dong without confirming first that this currency would be accepted. Note that in almost every case it is cheaper to negotiate in dong and then change your hard currency into dong. Vietnamese hold a diverse view on overcharging but in general it is more common in Vietnam than other neighboring countries to see it socially acceptable to overcharge foreigners. They may argue inflated prices are still cheap and they may blame on the cheap cost of living which attracts a lot of backpackers with barebone budgets. According to this school of thought, if tourists complain about it, it's because they're stingy. Rich tourists should not have a problem being overcharged. It is the same mindset as "stealing a little from wealthy is okay" and is even seen as a form of social justice. Keep in mind that in Vietnam "wealthy" is defined as "has more money than me", and is not limited to tourists, or to whites - for example, the people in Northern Vietnam routinely overcharge Vietnamese visiting from Southern Vietnam. The good news is that standard price is much more common than early 90s. You will absolutely spoil your travel if you assume that everyone is cheating you, just try to be smart. In a restaurant, learn some common dish names in Vietnamese, insist that you need to read Vietnamese menu, and compare it. If owners argue that the portion of dishes in the English menu is different, it's definitely a scam and move to other places. Learn some Vietnamese numbers and try to see how much a local pays a vendor. Also try basic bargaining tactics: Think how much it is back home, ask for big discount and walk away, pretending that the price isn't right. Many products tend to be standardized and compare more. Try to be as clear as possible on the agreed price. You may agree 20,000 dong with a "Xe Om" driver for a specific trip, but at the end he may claim you are due 40,000 dong. Then you pay 20,000 dong, smile and say goodbye, because you have a good memory. Costs[ edit ] Vietnam is still cheap by most standards: a month's stay can start from USD250 using basic rooms, local food and open bus transportation. Tipping is not expected in Vietnam, with the exception of bellhops in high end hotels. In any case, the price quoted to you is often many times what locals will pay, so tipping can be considered unnecessary in most circumstances. To avoid paying a tip when a taxi driver, for example, claims they don't have small change, always try to have various denominations available. Eat[ edit ][ add listing ] Gỏi cuốn fresh spring rolls, cao lầu noodles (a specialty of Hoi An ), nước mắm dipping sauce and local beer With unbelievable abundance of fresh vegetables, herbs, fish and seafood, Vietnam has a lot to offer. It can be mentioned here a range of widely- admired dishes such as noodle served with beef or chicken( pho), spring roll, eel or snail vermicelli, crab fried with tamarind, crab sour soup, rice spaghetti, steamed rolls made of rice-flour, rice pancake folded in half (and filled with a shrimp, meat and soya bean sprouts)., etc. Food sits at the very centre of Vietnamese culture: every significant holiday on the Vietnamese cultural calendar, all the important milestones in a Vietnamese person's life, and indeed, most of the important day-to-day social events and interactions - food plays a central role in each. Special dishes are prepared and served with great care for every birth, marriage and death, and the anniversaries of ancestors' deaths. More business deals are struck over dinner tables than over boardroom tables, and when friends get together, they eat together. Preparing food and eating together remains the focus of family life. Vietnamese cuisine varies slightly from region to region, with many regions having their own specialties. Generally, northern Vietnamese cuisine is known for being bland while southern Vietnamese cuisine is known for being spicy. At the same time, the Vietnamese are surprisingly modest about their cuisine. (And old proverb/joke says that a fortunate man has a Western (French) house, Japanese wife, and Chinese chef.) High-end restaurants may serve "Asian-fusion" cuisine, with elements of Thai, Japanese, and Chinese mixed in. The most authentic Vietnamese food is found at street side "restaurants" (A collection of plastic outdoor furniture placed on the footpath), with most walk-in restaurants being mainly for tourists. Definite regional styles exist -- northern, central, and southern, each with unique dishes. Central style is perhaps the most celebrated, with dishes such as mi quang (wheat noodles with herbs, pork, and shrimp), banh canh cua (crab soup with thick rice noodles) and bun bo Hue (beef soup with herbs and noodles). Many Vietnamese dishes are flavored with fish sauce (nước mắm), which smells and tastes like anchovies (quite salty and fishy) straight from the bottle, but blends into food very well. (Try taking home a bottle of fish sauce, and using it instead of salt in almost any savory dish -- you will be pleasantly surprised with the results.) Fish sauce is also mixed with lime juice, sugar, water, and spices to form a tasty dip/condiment called nước chấm, served on the table with most meals. Vegetables, herbs and spices, notably Vietnamese coriander (rau răm), cilantro (rau mùi or rau ngò), mint (rau húng) and basil (rau húng quế), accompany almost every dish and help make Vietnamese food much lighter and more aromatic than the cuisine of its neighboring countries, especially China. Pho Vietnam's national dish is phở (pronounced like the fu- in funny, but with tone), a broth soup with beef or chicken and rice noodles (a form of rice linguini or fettuccine). Phở is normally served with plates of fresh herbs(usually including Asian basil), cut limes, hot chiles and and scalded bean sprouts which you can add in according to your taste, along with chili paste, chili sauce, and sweet soybean sauce. Phở bò, the classic form of phở, is made with beef broth that is often simmered for many hours and may include one or more kinds of beef (skirt, flank, tripe, etc.). Phở gà is the same idea, but with chicken broth and chicken meat. Phở is the original Vietnamese fast food, which locals grab for a quick meal. Most phở places specialize in phở and can serve you a bowls as fast as you could get a Big Mac. It's available at any time of the day, but locals eat it most often for breakfast. Famous phở restaurants can be found in Hanoi. Generally speaking, the phở served at roadside stalls tends to be cheaper and taste better than those served in fancier restaurants. Street side eateries in Vietnam typically advertise phở and cơm. Though cơm literally means rice, the sign means the restaurant serves a plate of rice accompanied with fish or meat and vegetables. Cơm is used to indicate eating in general...even when rice is not served (ie: Ăn cơm chưa?- Have you eaten yet). Though they may look filthy, street side eateries are generally safe so long as you avoid undercooked food. In rural and regional areas it is usually safest to eat the locally grown types of food as these are usually bought each day from the market. It is not uncommon, that after you have ordered your meal a young child of the family will be seen running out the back towards the nearest market to purchase the items. Most restaurants/cafes in Vietnam will have a bewildering variety of food available. It is very common for menus to be up to 10-15 pages. These will include all types of Vietnamese food, plus some token western food, possibly some Chinese and maybe a pad thai as well. It is generally best to stick with the specialty of the area as this food will be the freshest and also the best prepared. Be advised that when dining in a restaurant, it is common practice for the wait staff to place a plastic packet (stamped with the restaurant's name) containing a moist towelette on your table. They are not free; they cost between 2,000 - 4,000 VND. If you open it, you will be charged for it. Also, peanuts or other nuts will be offered to you while you are browsing the menu. Those are not free, either. If you eat any, you will be charged. Vegetarian food is quite easy to find anywhere in Vietnam due in large part to the Buddhist influence. These restaurants will run from upscale to street stall. Basically any Vietnamese dish with meat can be made vegetarian with the abundance of fake meats. Besides the Buddhist influence of two vegetarian days a month, Cao Dai people eat vegetarian 16 days, and followers of the bizarre Quan Yin method eat vegan daily. Look for any sign that says Com Chay or simply remember the phrase An Chay. Bánh mì: French baguette stuffed with pâté, herbs and pickles Coffee, baguettes, and pastries were originally introduced by the French colonials, but all three have been localized and remain popular contemporary aspects of Vietnamese cuisine. More on cà phê below, but coffee shops that also serve light fare can be found in almost every village and on multiple street corners in the bigger cities. Bánh mì are French bread sandwiches: freshly baked white bread baguettes filled with grilled meats or liver or pork pâté, plus fresh herbs and vegetables. Most pastry shops serve a variety of sweets and quick foods, and are now owned by Vietnamese. If you like seafood, you may find heaven in Vietnam. The ultimate seafood experience is traveling to a seaside village or beach resort area in the south to try the local seafood restaurants that often serve shrimp, crab, and locally-caught fish. Follow the locals to a good restaurant: the food will still be swimming when you order it, it will be well-prepared, very affordable by Western standards, and often served in friendly surroundings with spectacular views. All Vietnamese restaurants are controlled by government, and some are fully owned by government. Most restaurants' opening times are 10:00 to 22:00, some open at 07:00 and some at 06:00 or 08:00. In 24-hour restaurants, there will be two prices, the price is normal from 06:00 to 22:00, and doubled from 22:00 to 06:00. For example, rice (com) usually costs 10,000 dong, but if you order after 22:00, the price will be 20,000 dong. This project is made by government to discourage people from eating late. Some dishes are not served after 22:00. In many restaurants, you will usually get "errored cuisine" translated dishes, such as fried fish with lemon sauce instead of fish sauce, or rice with tea instead of chili, and some dishes are not available for one month long without any announcement. To know which restaurants and dishes are highly rated by locals, try downloading popular food apps among locals such as MenuX, Foody, or Lozi on app stores. They are available in English and work with both Android & iOS. Note: restaurants often offer you a wet napkin (khăn) at the end of a meal to wash you hands. Be aware that using this incurs an extra charge on your bill. Drink[ edit ][ add listing ] The legal purchasing age of alcoholic beverages is 18. However, there is no legal drinking age. Do not drink tap water, it's a game of Russian Roulette. Drink only bottled water. Watch out for ice in drinks. Factory-made ice is generally safe, but anything else can be suspect. Pubs/bars[ edit ] Drinking in a Vietnamese bar is a great experience. One of the interesting things is that during the day, it is almost impossible to see a bar anywhere. Once the sun goes down though, dozens seem to appear out of nowhere on the streets. Wikitravel founder Evan quaffing bia hoi in Hoi An Don't miss out on bia hơi, (literally "air beer"), or draught beer made daily. It's available throughout Vietnam, mostly from small bars on street corners. Bia hoi bars will give you the opportunity to relax drinking in a typical Vietnamese bar surrounded by the hustle and bustle of everyday life. Every traveler can easily find these bars to experience what the locals are enjoying. The beer is brewed daily and each bar gets a fresh batch delivered every day in plastic jugs. It's a very light (3% alcohol) refreshing lager at a fraction of the cost of draft or bottled beer in the Western-style bars. Bia hoi is not always made in sanitary conditions and its making is not monitored by any health agency. Though fun for the novelty factor, this beer may produce awful hangovers for some. For those people, sticking with bia chai (bottled beer) might be more advisable. The most popular beer (draft, bottle or can) among the Southern Vietnamese is Saigon Do (Red Saigon). For the Northern Vietnamese Bia Hanoi (Hanoi beer) is the most popular brand, whereas Central Vietnamese prefer Festival beer or Bia Huda. 333, pronounced "ba-ba-ba" is a local brand, but it's somewhat bland; for a bit more flavor, look for Bia Saigon in the green bottle and a bigger bottle than Bia Saigon Special. Bia Saigon is also available as little stronger export version. Bière Larue is also good, and you can find local brands in every larger city. It's regular practise for beer in Vietnam to be drunk over ice. This means that the cans or bottles need not be chilled. If you are drinking with Vietnamese people it is considered polite to top up their beer/ice before re-filling your own drink. It is also considered necessary to drink when a toast is proposed...mot, hai, ba, do (one, two, three, cheers). Mot tram, mot tram implies you will drink 100%. Microbreweries[ edit ] Beer consumption is dominated by bottled beers and bia hoi but there are also plenty of microbreweries in Vietnam. You can find microbreweries in Ho Chi Minh City, Nha Trang, Mui Ne, Hai Duong, Hai Phong and Hanoi. Most of them make Czech styled beers with imported malt and hops. The marketing of these breweries is more or less non-existent so they can be hard to find, but the full list can be found online . The price of a 300mL glass of beer is normally VND30,000. Most of the breweries serve one black and one blond beer, are small and produce about 3-4 thousand litres a month. There are more than thirty microbreweries in Vietnam which is more than in many other countries in the region. Recently a group from Colorado has set up the Pasteur Street Brewing Company ( http://www.pasteurstreet.com/ ) in Saigon. They serve great American style microbrews with a local ingredients adding a nice twist. Wine and liquor[ edit ] Vietnamese "ruou de" or rice alcohol (ruou means alcohol) is served in tiny porcelain cups often with candied fruit or pickles. It's commonly served to male guests and visitors. Vietnamese women don't drink much alcohol, well at least in public. It's not recommended for tourists. Dating back to French colonial times, Vietnam adopted a tradition of viticulture. Dalat is the center of the winelands, and you can get extremely good red and white wine for about USD2-3, however this is very hard to find. Most wine is Australian that is served in restaurants and you will be charged Australian prices as well making wine comparatively quite expensive compared to drinking beer or spirits. Coconut wine - Rượu dừa - ruou dua :ive This is special Vietnamese wine that has the acidity and alcohol concentration of grape wine, but the taste and fragrance of coconut. It makes an attractive drink because it is served in the whole coconut and sipped through an aluminum tube. It is made by placing traditional ingredients such as sticky rice and pure sap into a whole coconut to ferment. It is believed the copra (the white meat) of the coconut can purify aldehydes that are typically found in rice wine which can cause hangover symptoms such as headaches and tiredness when consumed in excess. So you can feel more free to drink to your drinking partners health! Rice spirit and local Vodka is incredibly cheap in Vietnam by western standards. Russian Champagne is also quite available. When at Nha Trang, look for the 'all you can drink' boat trips for around US$10-15 for an all day trip and party with on board band. Soft drinks[ edit ] Coconut water is a favourite in the hot southern part of the country. nước mía, Sieu Sach or sugar cane juice, is served from distinctive metal carts with a crank-powered sugar cane stalk crushers that release the juice. Another thirst-quencher is the fabulous sinh tố, a selection of sliced fresh fruit in a big glass, combined with crushed ice, sweetened condensed milk and coconut milk which should cost 20,000 dong at maximum. You can also have it blended in a mixer. You could place any fruit-type after the word sinh tố - e.g. sinh tố bơ (avocado smoothie) or sinh tố dứa(pineapple smoothie). If you prefer to have orange juice, you won't use the word sinh tố but nước (literally: water) or nước cam if you would like to have an orange juice. Juices are usually without condensed milk or coconut milk. Coffee[ edit ] Another popular drink among locals and tourists alike is the traditional Cà phê sữa đá] (Vietnamese Iced Coffee). At its simplest, this drink is made with coarsely ground dark roast coffee individually brewed with a small metal French drip filter called a cà phê phin. The coffee then takes it time slowly releasing drops of hot coffee into a cup filled up with 2-3 tablespoons of creamy thick sweetened condensed milk. Once the brewing is done the metal lid is removed from the filter, poured over ice and mixed with the condensed milk. Do be careful when drinking locally prepared coffee as the locals tend to drink it incredibly strong with about 4 teaspoons of sugar per cup. There is also the Cà phê đá which is the same black coffee without the milk. Sleep[ edit ][ add listing ] Lodging is not an issue in Vietnam, even if you're travelling on a pretty tight budget. Accommodation in Vietnam ranges from scruffy US$6-a-night dorm accommodation in backpacking hostels to world-class resorts, both in large cities and in popular coastal and rural destinations. Even backpacking hostels and budget hotels are often far cleaner and nicer than in neighboring countries (Cambodia, Thailand, Laos), and cheap hotels that charge US$8-10 for a double room are often very clean and equipped with towels, clean white sheets, soap, disposable toothbrushes and so on. In hotels costing a few dollars more (US$12 per room upwards, more in Hanoi) you can expect an en suite bathroom, telephone, air conditioning and television. As with hotels elsewhere in the world, mini-refrigerators in Vietnamese hotels are often stocked with drinks and snacks, but these can be horribly overpriced and you would be much better off buying such items on the street. Adequate plumbing can be a problem in some hotels but the standard is constantly improving. It is a legal requirement for all hotels to register the details of foreign guests with the local police. For this reason they will always ask for your passport when you check in. The process usually only takes a few minutes, after which they will return your passport. However, because non-payment by guests is by no means unknown, some hotels retain passports until check-out. If a place looks dodgy then ask that they register you while you wait and take your passport with you afterwards. It is helpful to carry some photocopies of your passport as well as Vietnam visa, which you can then hand over to the hotel, insisting if necessary that your actual passport is not in your possession but rather at a travel agency for purpose of visa extension (which is a legitimate situation). Alternatively, you can try to extend an advance payment rather than allow them to keep your passport. Most hotels throughout Vietnam now have high-speed Internet access. Facebook, Twitter, and other social networks are blocked but a quick google search can explain how to easily bypass this ban; a useful hotel booking engine hotels-in-vietnam , too. The use of computers is generally free, although some hotels levy a small charge. The more high-end hotels offer a multitude of amenities; such as elaborate buffets with local cuisine, spa treatments, local sightseeing packages, etc. Hanoi now has some hostels for families called Hanoi Family Hostels. Rooms here are large and with more beds for children. Homestay accommodation is easily booked through travel agents. However, some tourists are disappointed to learn that the "homestay" they booked is really a commercial hotel or the accommodation is situated in a separate building from the family home. Responsible hotels, green hotels or claimed to be so hotels are increasing in Vietnam. There is no standard or accreditation scheme but this is a positive sign that Vietnamese people are paying more attention to the impact of tourism on environment. By saying "yes" to responsible accommodation, you can help protect the local nature, environment and community without without sacrificing your enjoyment. Eco-friendly hotels can be found in northern mountainous areas as well as some Lodges in Mekong Delta , a Vietnam that many dream about with lush rice paddies, endless waterways and laid back villages. Learn[ edit ] If you want to meet local people, stop by a school. In Ho Chi Minh City (aka Saigon), visit the American Language School, where you'll be welcomed enthusiastically and invited to go into a class and say hello. You'll feel like a rock star. The Vietnamese love to meet new people, and teachers welcome the opportunity for their students to meet foreigners. An excellent novel set in modern-day Vietnam is "Dragon House" by John Shors. Dragon House is the story of two Americans who travel to Vietnam to open a centre to house and educate Vietnamese street children. Former BBC reporter in Hanoi, Bill Hayton, has written a good introduction to most aspects of life in Vietnam - the economy, politics, social life, etc. It's called Vietnam: rising dragon and was published in May of 2010. Work[ edit ] You can volunteer as an English teacher through many volunteer organisations. However, if you have a TEFL/TESOL qualification and a degree then it's very easy to find paid teaching work. Without qualifications it's also possible to find work, but it takes more patience to find a job, and often there are concessions to make with payment, school location and working hours(weekends). Most teaching jobs will pay $15 to $20 an hour. There are also many paid volunteering organisations which allow you to help local communities, such as: Love Volunteers [3] , i-to-i [4] and Global Volunteers [5] . Crime[ edit ] Rural Vietnam is a relatively safer place for tourists than urban Vietnam. Low level street crimes like bag snatching regularly occur in major cities like Hanoi and Saigon. Few instances of knife attacks during robberies have been reported. Avoid fights and arguments with locals (especially groups). Keep in mind that yelling is highly insulting to Vietnamese, so the reaction of a Vietnamese in such a situation may be unexpected. As a foreigner, Vietnamese expect you to act a certain way in their country. You should respect the general law of the land. Most of these arguments can be avoided easily by showing general courtesy, and tolerating cultural differences that may seem rude to you. Street robbery Touristy areas and high population cities in Vietnam are areas to watch for thieves, pickpockets, and scammers. They especially target foreigners. Pickpockets and motorbike snatching have found their home especially in Ho Chi Minh City, Hanoi and Nha Trang. Thieves on motorbikes will snatch bags, mobile phones, cameras, and jewelery off pedestrians and other motorbike drivers, and it is a crime committed so regularly that even local Vietnamese are common victims. Avoid dangling your bags along traffic roads. Talking on your mobile phone next to cars on the road and putting your bag on the front basket of a motorbike will tempt a robber. It could happen day or night, in a crowded road with hundreds of drivers.Pickpockets are well organized and operate in groups. If you travel by motorbike, be aware that crooks can cause serious security issues. Reports of people claiming that "your motorcycle is on fire" and offering to repair it or passers-by that throw nails at foreigners on motorcycles are frequent. Theft Also infamously common are thefts on popular beaches. Never leave your bag unattended on beaches. In hotel rooms, including five star ones, reports that belongings are stolen have been heard regularly by hotel staff, especially when it comes to small personal items of high value (cash, digital cameras, etc), so take your cash or put it in a security deposit box, and the same with small digital equipment. There are many places where leaving larger electronics like laptops in the room is perfectly fine. Also, hotel employees are known to try to pick padlocks as soon as they see one (<- the validity of this statement is questionable). The most effective preventative step is to only book hotel rooms at places that have a good reputation and reviews. Con men One of the tricks employed by con men is targeting tourists traveling on bikes by deliberately crashing into tourists bikes to blame them to extort money. Show special caution when drinking with Vietnamese men. Scams[ edit ] Vietnam probably has the most scams per square foot, and significantly more than in surrounding countries. One certain trait of Vietnamese scams is that there seems to be no limit to what people would try to overcharge you. It is pretty common for the scammers to attempt to overcharge you by ten or fifty times and sometimes even more. A very common one is when the organizers claim that the bus broke down and the tour operators force people to pay huge amounts for crummy hotels "while the bus is repaired". Be careful when going to a shop or restaurant that doesn't have prices written down. Before eating a meal, ask for the price or you may be in for a surprising bill. When you embark on a tourist tour, be independent: know where you are at all times and be aware of alternatives; the tour might suddenly fall apart. The police are probably the worst crooks of them all. They are known to steal items from people (both locals and tourists) and ask for a steep bribe to get the item in return. Also, don't count on them for any help if you are victim of crime. Most scams in Vietnam are in transport, hotel prices and the two-menus system practiced by some restaurants. Hotel owners may tell you that the room price is 200,000 dong. However, when checking out, they may insist that the price is USD20, charging you almost a double. Another trick is to tell customers that a "room" is a few dollars, but following day they'll say that price was for a fan room only and it's another price for an air-con room. These days, legitimate hotel owners seem to be aware of these scams and are usually willing to help by writing down how much the room is per person per day (in US dollars or dong), if it has air con or not. Staff of legitimate hotels also never ask for payment from a guest when they check in. Watch out if they insist that you should pay when you check out but refuse to write down the price on paper. Some restaurants are known to have two menus, one for local people and another one for foreigners. The only way to deal with it is to learn a few Vietnamese phrases and insist that you should be shown only the Vietnamese menu. If they hesitate to show you the local menu, you better walk away. On rare occasions restaurants have two (English) menus with different prices. Taking pictures of all menus might be excessive, but if you suspect that the food had a different price when ordered, stand your ground. We usually memorize the prices of what we order and pay exactly that. The owners rarely make a big deal out of it because they know they cheated. Otherwise ask for the police. Many taxi drivers in Saigon and Hanoi install rigged meters, charging up to 2 to 8 times more. The best way to reduce your chances is by taking a taxi from reputable companies such as Mai Linh (+84 38 38 38 38) and Vinasun in Saigon and Mai Linh and Hanoi Tourist for Hanoi (but note that taking these companies is not a guarantee, and travelers have had problems even with reputable companies). If you don't know what a reasonable fare is, it is generally a bad idea to agree on a price in advance. Spoken for Saigon, the two recommended companies have quite reliable meters. Vinasun taxis usually have notices explaining that the meter value should be multiplied by 1000 to obtain the fare. Some drivers will take advantage of the ambiguity, and tourists' lack of knowledge about what the fare should be, so it is best to have things clearly written out. Taxis are abundant in Saigon - and you can get a taxi at any time of the day or (night). You can also call a Taxi, and usually people at call centers will be able to either converse in English, or will pass on the phone to someone who can. Rule of thumb to detect scammers: if the taxi doesn't have the fare charges written, or drivers name and photo on the dashboard, immediately ask the taxi to stop and get out. It's a definite scam. When leaving the airport, the taxi driver may insist that you pay the airport toll. He might not be very forthcoming about the price and, if you give him cash, he will pay the toll and pocket the rest. Many taxi drivers in Sai Gon and Ha Noi try to overcharge thin faced, just arrived, and gullible travelers. You should consult some guidebooks and travel forums to prepare yourself for those petty scams and to learn more about how to avoid them. The airport toll fee in Saigon is 10,000 dong (as of July 2012) - this is also written, along with the fare, on the dashboard of the taxi. You can confidently say "airport toll only 10,000" and refuse to pay anything else such as parking etc. (unless there were more toll roads in between). Usually, the driver will not argue it out. In Saigon, a trip to Backpackers Street should not cost more than 250,000 dong from the airport in any case. In several other cities of Vietnam, such as Dalat, Hoi An, Nha Trang etc. - DO NOT travel by meter. The airports are as far as 30-40km from these places and meter will cost you from 500,000 to 650,000 dong. However, you can either take a bus from the Airport to the city center, or pre-negotiate rates with taxis from 200,000-300,000 dong. Refer to individual sections for details. Pay attention to sides of taxi - usually a rate for Airport drop is written on the door itself. Taxi and cyclo drivers may claim that they don't have change when accepting payment for an agreed-upon fare. The best way to handle this is to either carry smaller bills or be ready to stand your ground. Generally the driver is only trying to get an extra dollar or so by rounding the fare up, but to prevent this scam from becoming more popular it is advised to stay calm and firm about the price. When you meet an over friendly cyclo driver who says, "never mind how much you would pay" or "you can pay whatever you like at the end of the trip". He even tries to show you his book of comments from international tourists. This kind of driver has to be a scammer. If you still want to use his service you should make it clear about the agreed price and don't pay more than that. Just be clear what you are willing to pay; the cyclo drivers are just trying to make a living. Corruption[ edit ] Corruption is a big problem in Vietnam and locals are convinced that the police are not to be trusted. Police officers may stop motorcycle riders for any reason including missing insurance papers or a missing driving license, and fine you around USD$20 for each offense (the average traffic fine should only be about USD$5-$10). Remember to stand your ground and all officers are required to write all traffic violations in their notebook and give you a receipt with directions to pay to the station (not the officer). If you have a cell phone, threaten to call your embassy and he may back down. However, you might just find it easier to pay the fine and get on your way. Immigration officers are known to take bribes. During the early Doi Moi (the reform in the 90s), bribes could be a few US dollars or a few packs of 555 cigarettes. Today, although some officers still seem to feel okay at taking bribes, it is absolutely risk-free and acceptable if you don't bribe. The international monitoring group Transparency International has rated Vietnam as one of the most corrupt nations in Asia. Prostitution[ edit ] Prostitution is illegal in Vietnam, but it is nevertheless widespread. Due to conservative culture it is less visible; there is no street prostitution or go-go clubs. However it thrives both in traditional establishments (massage parlors and spas, nightclubs, hourly rentals) and in some places you would never expect, such as hair salons. Rickshaw drivers also offer prostitutes to tourists at every tourist destinations, and in less reputable hotels the staff may offer them as well. Especially pay special attention if you want a massage in a tourist area. In legitimate massage establishments, a man is typically massaged by a male masseur. You can ask for a male masseur, and while most tourist-serving establishments won't have one, it will inform them that you're really looking for a massage (and not for other activities). The age of consent is 18. Vietnam has laws on the books with penalties up to 20-40 years in prison for sexually exploiting women and children, and in the case of underage prostitution, those laws are indeed enforced. Also, several nations have laws that allow them to prosecute their own citizens who travel abroad and engage in intercourse with minors. Traffic[ edit ] The first discovery for many tourists who just arrive in Vietnam is that they need to learn how to cross a road all over again. You may see a tourist standing on the road for 5 minutes without knowing how to cross it. Traffic in Vietnam is a nightmare. Back home, you may never witness the moment of crash, seeing injured victims lying on the road, or hearing the BANG sound. Staying in Vietnam for more than a month, you will have fair chance of experiencing all these. Roads are packed. Some intersections in main cities (Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City) have traffic lights patrolled by police. To cross the road, don't try to avoid the cars, let them avoid you. Step confidently forward, a little more, and you will see motorcycle drivers to slow down a bit, or go to another way. Make your pace and path predictable and obvious to other drivers. Don't change your speed or direction suddenly. Then move forward until you hit your destination. The best strategy is just to keep walking forward at a comfortable pace. The simplest way, if available, is to follow a local, stand next to them in the opposite side of the traffic (if you get hit, he will get it first) and he will give you the best chance of crossing a road. If you are injured, don't expect that local people are willing to help for even calling an ambulance because it is not free. Make sure you tell local clearly that you will pay the ambulance fee. Hospitals will also not accept your admission unless you prove that you can pay the bill. Highways are also risky with an average of 30 deaths a day and some locals will not even venture on them if not in a big vehicle (car or bus). Taking a bicycle or motorcycle on highways is an adventure for risk takers, definitely not for a family with children. Nightlife[ edit ] Petty crime in night clubs can happen. Avoid quarreling with local people because drunken Vietnamese can be violent. Clubs are full of prostitutes looking for their admirers but be aware that they may also steal your wallet and mobile phone, etc. Walking very late by yourself on the streets in the tourist area is often unsafe. Avoid asking the cab drivers for recommended nightspots. Most cab drivers are paid by KTVs and lounges to bring in foreign tourists. Usually when you walk in they will tell you a set of pricing which seems reasonable; but when you check out the bill will include a number of extravagant charges. Do your homework beforehand and tell the cab drivers where you want to go. Insist on going to where you want to go despite their persuasion. There are a number of reputable pubs and disco around. Try going to those which have a preponderance of foreigners. Wildlife[ edit ] Much of Vietnam's ecology has been severely damaged and very little wildlife remains, let alone anything dangerous to humans. Venomous snakes (such as Cobras) may still be common in rural areas but virtually everything else has either gone extinct or exist in such small numbers that the chances of even seeing them are remote. Tigers may exist in very small numbers in remote areas, but this is yet to be proven. Saltwater crocodiles once thrived in southern Vietnam but have been locally extinct for at least 20 years, although a re-introduced population of Siamese crocodiles thrives at a lake in Cat Tien National Park . Stay healthy[ edit ] Tropical diseases such as malaria , dengue fever and Japanese encephalitis are endemic in rural Vietnam. Malaria isn't as much a concern in the bigger cities such as Ho Chi Minh and Hanoi, but always remember to take mosquito liquid repellent with you. It may be very useful, especially in the countryside and crowded neighbourhoods. Thanks to much improved hygiene conditions in recent years, cooked food sold by street vendors and in restaurants, including blended ice drinks, are mostly safe. Just use your common sense and follow the tips under the Traveller's diarrhoea article and you'll most likely be fine. Do not drink tap water, it's a game of Russian Roulette. Always drink only bottled water. Respect[ edit ] Souvenir shops in Vietnam sell lots of T-shirts with the red flag and portraits of "Uncle Ho." Many overseas Vietnamese are highly critical of the government of Vietnam you may want to consider this before wearing such T-shirts in their communities back home! A less controversial purchase would be a nón lá (straw hat) instead. It's common to be stared at by locals in some regions, especially in the central and northern side of the country, and in rural areas. Southerners are usually more open. Asian women traveling with non-Asian men could attract attention, being considered lovers, escorts or prostitutes by some people and may even be harassed or insulted. These attitudes and behaviors have lessened but have not yet disappeared. The most surprising thing about the topic of the Vietnam War (the American or Reunification War, as it is called in Vietnam) is that the Vietnamese do not bear any animosity against visitors from the countries that participated, and in the South many Vietnamese (especially older Vietnamese involved in the conflict or with relatives in the war) appreciate or at least respect the previous Western military efforts against the North. Two-thirds of the population were born after the war and are quite fond of the west. That said, there are some attractions which present a very anti-American viewpoint on the war's legacy, which may make some feel uncomfortable. Be sensitive if you must discuss past conflicts. Well over 3 million Vietnamese died, and it is best to avoid any conversations that could be taken as an insult to the sacrifices made by both sides during the wars. Do not assume that all Vietnamese think alike, as many Vietnamese in the South are still bitter about having lost against the North. The official government relationship with the PR China has deteriorated significantly recently as the two countries are locked in a territorial dispute over maritime borders; stay neutral and be aware. Traditional costume[ edit ] You can see people wearing the traditional Vietnamese garment – Aodai (áo dài, “long dress”)- which has a strong bond with Vietnamese tradition, history, culture. It is a long silk dress which is split on its side. For centuries, it has been acknowledged that Aodai is the representative of the country and people. Vietnam is somewhat influenced by the Chinese including their way of dressing due to four thousand years being under Chinese reign. Tourists going to Vietnam can easily catch sight of Vietnamese wearing Aodai in solemn ceremonies such as the death anniversary of Hung Kings, Quanho Bac Ninh, Huong Temple celebration, New Year’s Eve and other important festivals. Aodai was originally designed for both men and women, but it is mostly preferred by women due to its slender, elegant design – a design which is definitely suitable to honor Vietnamese women. Aodai is usually worn along with Nonla (nón lá, “leaf hat”), or a cloth worn over one’s head, known as a Khandong (khăn đống, “silk hat”). There are various versions of Aodai such as miniraglan Aodai, turtleneck Aodai, etc. The "Miss Aodai" pageant is one of the most popular beauty contests featuring the traditional costume. It aims to preserve the traditional Vietnamese costume, as well as introduce it to audiences around the world. Tourists who come to Vietnam can watch this show at the Ho Chi Minh City palace of culture. In addition, if you wish to have your own Aodai, here are some recommended branches that you may want to take a look at: Thai Tuan Ao dai, Lien Huong Ao Dai. These branches can provide you with the most authentic Aodai. Telephone bills are 30% to 40% cheaper if dialed with 171 or 178 services. Domestic call : 171 (178) + 0 + Area code + Number. International call : 171 (178) + 00 + Country code + Area code + Number. Since hotels and guesthouses often charge higher for telephone calls, try to find a post office or any reliable public service. There are many mobile networks with different codes: Vinaphone: 91, 94, 121, 123, 125 (GSM 900) Mobifone: 90, 93, 122, 124, 126 (GSM 900/1800) Viettel: 98, 97, 165, 166, 167, 168, 169 (GSM 900) SFone: 95 (CDMA) EVN Telecom: 96 (CDMA) Beeline: 199, 99 (GSM 900) You can buy a SIM card in every shop selling mobile phones, or showing their network's brands. The standard price is no higher than 75,000 dong, but foreigners are often charged 100,000 dong. Prepaid account charges vary from 1,700-2,500 dong per minute. Recharge cards are available in denominations of 50,000, 100,000, 200,000 and 500,000 dong. Roaming onto Vietnam's GSM networks are possible with foreign mobile phones, subject to agreements between operators. Internet[ edit ] Internet access is available in all but the most remote towns. Internet cafes are available in most tourist spots and rates are fairly affordable, ranging from 2,000-10,000 dong per hour. Connection speeds are high, especially in the big cities. Many hotels and restaurants provide free Wi-Fi or terminals for their guests. If you bring your own phone, several providers offer mobile internet services (EDGE/3G) services for surprisingly affordable prices. For example, Viettel offers unlimited (albeit slow) 3G internet for 70,000 dong per month as of June 2014 after purchase of sim card. Mobifone has better speeds with a comparable "unlimited internet" pricing plan. Having mobile access to the internet for such a cheap price is really a no-brainer, as it opens the door to finding directions when you are lost, looking up hotel reviews, verifying reasonable pricing on services, using translation websites, and so on. This can really take the edge off of traveling to a new city. Internet censorship is applied to a small number of internet services. In the past, Facebook and Skype have been blocked. As of July 2014, Facebook still continues to be blocked in certain areas such as Hanoi (which can be bemusing as Facebook is one of the de facto social networking websites used by locals). A quick Google search for solutions should help you bypass restrictions on banned sites quite easily. Other sites such as Gmail, YouTube, and Wikipedia have not been affected.	i don't know
What eight letter name is given to the ringing, hissing or booming sensation in one or Both ears, usually caused by infection of the middle or inner ear ?	Homeopathic Remedies For Tinnitus - Ringing ,Hissing ,humming ,buzzing Call Dr. Sharma's Clinic - From United States and Canada call 703-659-0873. Patients From rest of the world and India call +91-9815299965 Wonderful Homeopathic Remedies for Tinnitus Homeopathic Remedies For Tinnitus Homeopathic Remedies for Tinnitus After having treated many bad cases of Tinnitus , I can assure all those who suffer from Tinnitus that Homeopathy has a really wonderful treatment for it. Although tinnitus is not life threatening nor is it a part of any grave illness yet at times it can severly affect ones quality of life . Tinnitus refers to a condition where an individual may hear sensations of sounds which are not actually present or there is no source of it. These sounds are usually have very different characteristics . Most of the people report ringing , hissing, buzzing or clicking kind of sounds. Tinnitus mostly occurs as a result of side effect of certain drugs. Middle ear problems or Internal ear problems can also lead to tinnitus like condition.Rarely , it can be associated with no medical condition and is called as ‘Idiopathic tinnitus’. Homeopathy and Tinnitus Homeopathic Remedies For Tinnitus when there is Ringing sound in the ears Homeopathic remedy China leads the homeopathic table in treating Tinnitus . I have had great success with Homeopathic medicine China in treating Tinnitus which is of ‘Ringing Type’ . I have also found out with clinical trials that Homeopathic medicine Iris Versicolor very effective in treating Ringing type of tinnitus whenever it is also related with deafness or hardness of hearing. Homeopathic medicine Formica Rufa is very effective WHEN THE PROBLEM IS MORE IN LEFT EAR and is accompanied by buzzing and cracking sounds in the ear. Homeopathic remedies for Tinnitus when there is a Roaring sound in ears Homeopathic Medicine Calcarea Flourica is one of the leading homeopathic medicines for all kinds of hard kind of calcareous deposits . In Tinnitus I have used it in conditions where there is hardening of Tympanic membrane ( ear drum) and tinnitus that results out of it.Buzzing sound is quite well treated with Calcarea Flour whenever there is hardening of Tympanic Membrane. Another medicine that needs a lot of praise as Homeopathic Tinnitus Relief and treats buzzing sound in ears is Silicea. This is very effective when after multiple onslaughts of middle ear infections there is scar formation and hardening of middle ear structures which leads to buzzing sound in ears. Silicea can be used irrespective of the kind of sound the tinnitus is showing up with as long as the causation remains the same (i.e hardening or scarring of middle ear structures after recurrent middle ear infections.) Homeopathic remedies for Tinnitus when there is a Buzzing sound in ears. A lesser known homeopathic medicine Primla veris works wonders in treating tinnitus that has a buzzing sound in ears . Another symptom of this medicine is that the buzzing sound disappears when going into open air. Homeopathic Medicines for Tinnitus when there is a Hissing , whistling, cracking ,and echoing sound in ears. Homeopathic remedy Aethusa is an excellent remedy for tinnitus that presents itself as hissing sound in ears . Manganum Aceticum is effective for whistling sounds . Homeopathic medicine Graphites is effective for treating Cracking sound in ears and homeopathic medicine Belladonna for sounds that echo in ears Homeopathy – Natural Remedy for Hearing Loss Where Homeopathy can provide natural relief for tinnitus it can also be a natural remedy for hearing loss . Many homeopathic medicines like Graphites , calcarea flour and Kali mur can be a great alternative treatment for hearing loss . Is Homeopathic treatment for Tinnitus a part of Natural remedies for Tinnitus ? Homeopathy for tinnitus is very safe . There are no side effects with homeopathic remedies for tinnitus and the medicines are made of naturally occurring substances which are very natural to our body. Fill the Comment Form below -You can write about your problem To Dr. Sharma and receive a reply on How Homeopathy can help in treating your illness. Write To Dr . Sharma Write to Dr. Sharma and get a reply on how homeopathy can help you in treating your disease condition . Name	Tinnitus
What two word hyphenated term is used to describe the contagious, epidemic form of Acute Conjunctivitis, so called from the colour of the inflammation ?	blood – Tinnitus Support Group Narrowing of blood vessels as well as vascular tumors may cause type of tinnitus This rare type of tinnitus may be caused by a blood vessel problem, a middle ear bone condition or muscle contractions. A tumor that presses on blood vessels in your head or neck (vascular neoplasm) can cause tinnitus and other symptoms. Conditions that affect your blood flow, such as high blood pressure or narrowed arteries (atherosclerosis), can increase your risk of tinnitus. The Mayo Clinic Diet Online Eat well. Vascular noises usually are caused by turbulences within blood vessels. Narrowing of blood vessels as well as vascular tumors may cause type of tinnitus. Inner ear disorders that increase hearing sensitivity (such as SCD) can cause pulsatile tinnitus. Noise in those blood vessels can be conducted into the inner ear. Types III and IV drain directly into the cortical veins, without dural venous drainage. There are a few types of tinnitus in which a rhythmical sound is experienced that is not in time with the pulse – this is discussed at the end of this leaflet. Pulsatile tinnitus is due to a change in blood flow in the vessels near the ear or to a change in awareness of that blood flow. Tumours of the head and neck cause the development of abnormal blood vessels and this can result in pulsatile tinnitus. However, it can occur at any age and in men as well as women. Narrowing of blood vessels as well as vascular tumors may cause type of tinnitus. In late stages, pseudoaneurysms may form at the location of the intimal tear (7). In rare cases, this can lead to a catastrophic event such as stroke. This is a benign vascular tumor usually located in the ear or just below the ear at the skull base. It may result from either an increase in blood flow or due to the narrowing of a blood vessel. It is therefore totally different from a continuous type of tinnitus that is associated with damage to the auditory nerve or the cochlea in the inner ear. Glomus tumor is a non-malignant vascular tumor in the ear or at the base of the skull, below the ear. It consists of intertwined blood vessels that cause a throbbing sensation. This rare type of tinnitus may be caused by a blood vessel problem, a middle ear bone condition or muscle contractions. A tumor that presses on blood vessels in your head or neck (vascular neoplasm) can cause tinnitus and other symptoms. Narrowing or kinking in a neck artery (carotid artery) or vein in your neck (jugular vein) can cause turbulent, irregular blood flow, leading to tinnitus. There are tinnitus groups that meet in person, as well as Internet forums. The Causes Of Pulsatile Tinnitus Arterioarterial shunts are the second type of arterial malformation that cause objective tinnitus. Balloon occlusion of the carotid artery prior to surgery for neck tumors. To our knowledge, subclavian artery occlusion causing an objective tinnitus has not been reported. The right subclavian artery injection showed a high-grade stenosis at the level of the vertebral artery origin and a delayed and reversed filling of the left vertebral and subclavian arteries. The most common types of tinnitus are ringing or hissing ringing and roaring (low-pitched hissing). A blood vessel may be close to the eardrum, a vascular tumor such as a glomus tumor may fill the middle ear, or a vein similar to a varicose vein may make enough noise to be heard. Pulsatile tinnitus (tinnitus that beats with your pulse) can be caused by aneurysms, increased pressure in the head (hydrocephalus), and hardening of the arteries. Learn more about the types of tinnitus in this article, particularly the pulsatile kind, to ensure that you get the correct treatment for it. Narrowed arteries prevent blood from circulating properly because its flow has been restricted. Tumors: these may be found in the neck or head that can press on the blood vessels in those areas which may cause not only tinnitus but other symptoms as well. Pulsatile tinnitus can be heard as several characteristic sounds including a lower pitched thumping or booming, as well as a rougher blowing sound which is coincidental with respiration, or as a clicking, higher pitched rhythmic sensation. Objective tinnitus can be caused by a vascular abnormality of the cervical region, skull base, or intracranium. The number of people who complain of some form of tinnitus varies with how tinnitus is defined, what population is sampled, and how the subjects are questioned (4). In either location, this vascular tumor rarely may cause tinnitus. MR angiography and CT angiography both demonstrate the narrowed true lumen of the artery. The Causes Of Pulsatile Tinnitus One way tinnitus can be classified is by the type of sound. Pathological causes of tinnitus include head injury; disorders affecting the CNS such as stroke, meningitis, and encephalitis; cardiovascular disorders such intracranial hypertension, aneurysm, aortic stenosis, or carotid artery stenosis; ear infections, cancer, and surgery-induced injury. Other possible causes are vascular tumors or large arteriovenous malformations. The opposite condition, hypothyroidism, frequently causes tinnitus as well as hearing loss. However, if there’s hearing loss as well, tinnitus may be permanent. The most common types of tinnitus are ringing or hissing ringing, whistling (high pitched hissing) and roaring (low-pitched hissing). Loud noise is the leading cause of damage to the inner ear. There are many factors that can cause tinnitus and the effect it has in your everyday life. Presbycusis is the medical term for this type of hearing loss. A tumor that presses on blood vessels in your head or neck (vascular neoplasm) can cause tinnitus and other symptoms. In order to find out the root cause of your tinnitus, your audiologist will conduct a complete medical history, as well as a complete examination. Both pulsatile and non-pulsatile tinnitus may be constant or intermittent. UA Otolaryngology faculty are experts in caring for common as well as complex ear, nose and throat diseases in children as well as adults. Jacob offers state-of-the-art medical and surgical care for patients with all types of ear and lateral skull base disorders. Glomus tumors are highly vascular (blood sensitive) and are primarily composed of blood channels flowing through the tumor itself. Pulsatile tinnitus occurs as the tumor enlarges and presses against the bones of hearing. The size and extent of the glomus tumor of the middle ear can be well assessed by microscopic examination. In recent years, with the perfection of new techniques used by the radiologist, feeding vessels to the tumor can be selectively found and blocked during angiography. While Pulsatile tinnitus is not a common form of tinnitus, it has some well-known causes including hypertension, heart murmur, glomus (globe-shaped) tumor, Eustachian tube disorder, or an abnormality of a vein or artery. Localized increased blood flow can occur when a blood vessel is narrower than it should be. Pulsatile tinnitus will also occurs when the is a narrowing or a partial blockage of these arteries from an atheroma which is a fatty deposit in inner lining of an artery, which can obstruct blood flow and is caused by high levels of cholesterol in the body. What causes Tinnitus in one may not be the cause for another. Now, I know that it’s all too easy to self-diagnose with some kind of horrid (and possibly terminal) disease with Doctor Google. A tumor that presses on a blood vessel in your head or neck (vascular neoplasm) can cause Pulsatile Tinnitus. Blood clots also can get trapped in narrowed arteries, blocking the flow of blood. Cushing’s syndrome and tumors of the pituitary and adrenal glands often increase levels of the adrenal gland hormones cortisol, adrenalin, and aldosterone, which can cause hypertension. Other conditions that can cause hypertension are blood vessel diseases, thyroid gland disorders, some prescribed drugs, alcoholism, and pregnancy. Combining antihypertensive medicines with different types of action often controls blood pressure with smaller doses of each drug than would be needed for just one. This kind of tinnitus is generally related to muscular or vascular malady and accounts for not more than 5 percent of the total tinnitus cases. This could be due to the buildup of fatty deposits within the artery walls resulting in narrowed arteries which obstruct the smooth flow of blood and cause tinnitus sounds. Brain tumors or deformity in the constitution of the brain may also be the reason behind the occurrence of tinnitus sounds. Vitamin C enhances and restores the blood flow and is a well-established remedy for preventing and treating inflammation and infections. Any type of inner ear injury that will cause inefficient conversion of acoustic sound energy into bio-electrical energy. Smoking can lead to tinnitus by causing a narrowing of the blood vessels that supply the inner ear. They may also be caused y the presence of a vascular tumor that is richly supplied with blood vessels, e. Having some soothing background music while sleeping at night will help the mind relax as well as provide background noise to mask out the tinnitus. The medical term for this type of hearing loss is presbycusis. In rare cases, tinnitus is caused by a blood vessel disorder. This process, as well as the physical problems that can develop, is described under How To Control Your Balance. Dizziness or vertigo can be caused by a disturbance in a particular part of the inner ear the vestibular system. Arteriosclerosis, a hardening or narrowing of blood vessels that supply blood to the brain, may cause decreased blood flow, resulting in dizziness. Tinnitus is buzzing or ringing in the ears and can occur with dizziness or may be a symptom by itself. Pulsatile tinnitus is a common clinical symptom, and it usually originates within a venous blood vessel Pulsatile tinnitus is usually unilateral, unless the underlying vascular pathology is bilateral. Pulsatile tinnitus is a common clinical symptom, and it usually originates within a venous blood vessel.2) Pulsatile tinnitus is known to result from non-laminar blood flow caused by increased blood flow or a reduced vascular cross sectional area. Data from 82 cases of arterial or venous pulsatile tinnitus were reviewed. T1 and T2 weighted MRI clearly revealed intracranial or skull base AVF draining into intracranial vessels in 15 cases, and kinked and elongated VBA compressing on the VIIIth cranial ver (vevestibulocochlear nerve) near the superior olivary fossa and other neural structures close to the brainstem in 1 case. Because the loudness of venous pulsatile tinnitus is related to the velocity of local blood flow, a clinical characteristic of such tinnitus is that it decreases or disappears when ipsilateral jugular vein is compressed which slows down blood flow inside the culprit venous sinus 10. BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE: Pulsatile tinnitus (PT), a common disorder, can be caused by a variety of otologic and vascular lesions. With this technique, arterial, venous, middle, and inner ear causes of PT can be excluded. If the tinnitus was diminished by external compression of the jugular vein, it was presumed to be venous in origin. Pulsatile sounds are usually caused by vibrations from turbulent blood flow that reach the cochlea. Common causes of conductive hearing loss include external ear infection, cerumen impaction, and middle ear effusion. Objective tinnitus usually is caused by vascular abnormalities of the carotid artery or jugular venous systems. In general, pulsatile tinnitus, unilateral tinnitus, and tinnitus associated with other unilateral otologic symptoms represent potentially more serious underlying disease than bilateral tinnitus. Tinnitus of venous origin can be suppressed by compression of the ipsilateral jugular vein. Clinical evidence on tinnitus. Venous hum tinnitus is also known as objective tinnitus, pulsatile tinnitus; Auditory tinnitus is subjective and originates within the central or peripheral auditory system. The most common causes of somatosounds are vascular bruits, palatal myoclonus, patulous eustachian tube, and the temporal mandibular joint (Jastreboff et al. Idiopathic venous hum PT originates mainly in vascular structures (venous or arterial vessels) as a result of flow turbulence caused by increased blood volume or alterations in the vessel lumen 2-5. The clinical investigation and the MRI examinations were normal in all patients. Generally, PT is the otologic manifestation of a blood flow abnormality of the temporal bone. This type of tinnitus is a common reason for imaging examination of this region 2, 6. Is this swelling of something within the orbit (eg, thyroid eye disease)? Pain: this important symptom may arise from inflammation, infection, acute pressure changes (such as haemorrhage) and bony or neural invasion. Blood testsGeneral tests are useful if you are considering infection (FBC, inflammatory markers), malignancy (add liver and renal function tests) or thyroid problems (TFTs). Clinically, look for a firm, non-tender, mobile lump, usually seen soon after birth. Also note an exophthalmos which may be pulsatile, with a loud bruit over the eye and sometimes tinnitus. These are usually benign, slow-growing but highly vascular tumors that cause symptoms by their 1) mass effect in small spaces such as the ear, 2) high blood flow, 3) invasion of adjacent structures, and 4) secretion of hormones, which is rare. Glomus tympanicum tumor (red mass in bottom of middle ear). A larger tumor that originates from the bulb of the jugular vein and involves the base of the skull is called a glomus jugulare. Ct Arteriography And Venography In Pulsatile Tinnitus: Preliminary Results Usually best heard on the right side of the neck, just over the clavicle. Ligation of the internal jugular vein in venous hum tinnitus. Arteriovenous fistula of the blood vessels of the neck–a rare differential diagnosis of venous hum in childhood Scholbach T. Contrary to the usual subjective tinnitus of non-vascular origin, it is low pitched and pulsatile in character. Cranial base tumors can often be asymptomatic (without symptoms) until they compromise neighboring structures, so they are often found at advanced stages. They often originate in the back and side walls of the nasal cavity near the hole in the skull base where nerves or blood vessels pass to the brain, and they grow in all directions. They are generally benign, slow growing tumors that, in the cranial base, can originate from the middle ear space (glomus tympanicum) causing a unique symptom called pulsatile tinnitus which is hearing the sound of your own pulse in the ear at all times. Pulsatile tinnitus usually originates within the blood vessels inside the head or neck region when disturbed blood flow occurs. With the exception of headaches, pulsatile tinnitus is the most common clinical symptom in dural arteriovenous fistulas and acquired arteriovenous short-circuits to the cerebral veins or sinuses (3). If there are no other venous abnormalities, venous tinnitus is perceived as right-sided more frequently than left-sided, because the right jugular vein is dominant in 70 to 80 of cases (23). Because of the heterogeneity in the clinical presentation and etiology, the diagnosis of CVT is often missed, and even if a diagnosis is made the contributory factors which are often subclinical are also missed or overlooked. Frontal sinuses are the most common source of infection. Clinical presentation of tinnitus and perceptive hearing loss were correlated. Subjective tinnitus is perception of sound in the absence of an acoustic stimulus and is heard only by the patient. Objective tinnitus is uncommon and results from noise generated by structures near the ear. Bruit or venous hum in neck. Loud noise, aging, Meniere disease, and drugs are the most common causes of subjective tinnitus. Visible furuncles in diffuse external otitis are usually caused by which pathogen?. Echocardiography Many disease processes can occur in the posterior fossa. Schwannomas are more common and most arise from the 8th cranial nerve. They are hypervascular, receiving their blood supply predominantly from dural vessels. Pulsatile tinnitus usually beats in cadence with the heart. It is caused by the sound of blood flowing through vessels. 2) Venous Sounds 3) Benign or Malignant Tumors 4) Spasm of Middle Ear Muscles. Diagnosis of the cause of pulsatile tinnitus involves the imaging of the vascular system of the head and neck. So many papers indicate that tinnitus originates in the ear, then it becomes a disorder of the brain. Looking for online definition of tinnitus in the Medical Dictionary? tinnitus explanation free. Objective tinnitus is typically caused by tumors, turbulent blood flow through malformed vessels, or by rhythmic muscular spasms. Common causes include presbycusis, prolonged exposure to loud environmental noise, and such pathological conditions as inflammation and infection of the ear, otosclerosis, meniere’s disease, and labyrinthitis. In this article, we describe our study of the therapeutic effects of IJV ligation on pulsatile tinnitus, and we discuss the proper management of pulsatile tinnitus of venous origin. We report a rare case of pulsatile tinnitus in a 44-yr-old female patient, which was induced by a large mastoid emissary vein (MEV) and objectively documented by Doppler sonography of the left posterior auricular region. Pulsatile tinnitus is generally subjective but sometimes audible (objective) to the examiner by ear or by a stethoscope. The common feature of these MEV-associated tinnitus reports (including ours) is the left side tinnitus related to the abnormal MEV in female patients. Researches have actually revealed that tinnitus is linked with high degrees of hormone insulin in your blood Researches have actually revealed that tinnitus is linked with high degrees of hormone insulin in your blood. Having a well balanced and healthy diet plan will certainly do good for your ringing ears disorder. Hyperinsulinemia is an elevation of insulin levels in the bloodstream. Your adrenal glands are most likely exhibiting higher than normal cortisol levels from an acute or chronic, unresolved stress. Your blood sugar levels are regulated by a fine balance between your adrenal glands and your pancreas. This will lead to carbohydrate intolerance, also called insulin resistance, where your body will have more and more difficulty using the insulin it makes to process the sugars you eat. Insulin is a hormone produced by the pancreas. When you have insulin resistance, your body produces insulin, but does not use it properly. This leads to high levels of both glucose and insulin circulating in your blood. Animal studies have found that having adequate taurine concentrations helps control diabetes by reducing blood glucose and restoring insulin sensitivity.22 But it doesn’t stop there. And decades of research have linked low levels of CoQ10 with congestive heart failure. PACE can actually INCREASE the number of mitochondria in your cells. Cells shed from tumors enter the bloodstream in very low numbers and circulate through the body. Past research has linked obesity to heart disease risk. NIH-funded scientists created a virus that expresses high levels of an HIV-neutralizing antibody. A research team led by Dr. Tony Lam at the Toronto General Research Institute and the University of Toronto discovered a novel function of a hormone found in the gut that might potentially lower glucose levels in diabetes. Our findings reveal a novel role for the CCK hormone and suggest that CCK-resistance in the gut may contribute to high blood sugar levels in response to high-fat feeding in rodents. Our findings reveal a novel role for the CCK hormone and suggest that CCK-resistance in the gut may contribute to high blood sugar levels in response to high-fat feeding in rodents. More than two million Canadians have diabetes and that number is expected to increase to three million by 2010. In rare cases, symptoms and signs of thyroid hormone deficiency are caused by the inability of tissues to respond to thyroid hormone by mutations in the nuclear thyroid hormone receptor TR; this condition, known as thyroid hormone resistance (see Ch. It is only in the last stage that subnormal serum T3 concentrations are found, when serum T4 has fallen to really very low values associated with markedly elevated serum TSH concentrations ( Figure 9-1 ). It explains why sometimes a slightly elevated serum T3 is found in the early stage of development of hypothyroidism. In prospective studies after traumatic brain injury TSH deficiency was observed in 3. Tinnitus Insulin Resistance Diet Nutrition But parathyroid hormone MUST be evaluated in any patient with hypercalcemia. My experience and research shows that T3 increases the CoA line of nutrients which can quite quickly deplete magnesium. Recently was told I have high levels of magnesium in blood and should retest in six weeks? Mine were really high.mercury affects your thyroid a lot! Checking your iron levels is one of the most important tests that everyone should do on a regular basis as part of a preventive, proactive health screen. Iron in Your Blood. But what many people fail to realize is that too much iron can be equally deadly, and is actually far more common than iron deficiency, thanks to a hereditary disease known as hemochromatosis. Cancer researchers have also found new evidence that bowel cancers are two to three times more likely to develop when dietary iron is too high in your body. Other potential causes of high iron levels include:. Melatonin Helps Patients With High Blood Pressure To Sleep 152,402 Views. In another study, researchers revealed that combining daily exercise with the daily intake of melatonin appeared to have a synergistic effect against brain deterioration in mice with Alzheimer’s disease-associated mutations. Studies have shown that insufficient melatonin production can set you up for:. Keep the temperature in your bedroom no higher than 70 degrees F. Really good information on melatonin. In fact, many OTC drugs have drug interactions with prescriptions and other OTC drugs. Hallucination: A vision of something that is not actually there; can occur because of nervous system disorders or in response to drugs. Prostaglandin: A hormone-like substance that affects blood vessels and the functions of blood platelets, and sensitizes nerve endings to pain. High levels of histamine in these receptors cause an allergic reaction, usually in the way of a stuffy nose or sneezing. 6 hypothyroid tests can unlock the mystery of your thyroid health. T3 and T4 are sent out into your bloodstream where they are responsible for the thyroid’s actual work of controlling your metabolism. A high TSH and low FT4 and FT3 indicate hypothyroidism. Bouts of bloating, diarrhoea and discomfort have sent her to the GP more than once, but when tests ruled out the serious stuff (cancer, ulcerative colitis, Crohn’s disease) Taylor was left with nebulous explanations and trial-and-error solutions. The gastrointestinal system is having its turn in the sun as research reveals that this is no simple plumbing job, but a highly sophisticated, finely tuned system of intelligence. One explanation is that an over-flourishing of one type will trigger an inflammatory state and make cells less responsive to insulin and leptin, key hormones in regulating energy intake and energy expenditure, carbohydrate and fat metabolism. Eating three meals a day and two snacks spreads the load on your digestion and your blood sugar balance, keeping your energy up. Office Of History, National Institutes Of Health Other side effects of these food additives include elevated cholesterol, liver and kidney damage, infertility, sterility, immune disorders, increased susceptibility to carcinogens, and behavioral problems. This study also showed an increase in blood glucose levels and a decrease in insulin response. If you have hypothyroid symptoms but your lab tests are normal, you’ll be told you’re fine. When TBG levels are low, levels of free thyroid hormone will be high. In women, it is commonly associated with PCOS and insulin resistance. Studies have shown that the frequency of diabetes is increased in HH, that elevated ferritin levels are associated with increased incidence of diabetes, and that reducing iron stores reverses or improves the metabolic abnormalities associated with excess iron. But recently I read that iron overload is strongly correlated with insulin resistance. I was on a high protein low carb (basically paleo diet) prior to this discovery and considering taking some Registered Dieticians’ advice to limit my meat/heme iron and go semi vegetarian. Donating blood periodically is a good idea, since your iron levels are slightly high, so you will help yourself and others by donating. High histamine foods as indicators of histamine intolerance. From the information you have provided regarding your symptoms and their onset it is also possible that you may have tyramine intolerance. Tests such as skin tests, which reveal which foods placed on the skin result in a local reaction and blood tests designed to detect food-specific antibodies. With the hormone connection in mind it is possible that your present outbreak of hives may be associated with premenopausal changes in the levels of your hormones. Im worried is this normal,i have anxiety,dizziness and off balance sometimes. Her symptoms were actually migraines, brought on by the early stages of the menopause. If this doesn’t help, the next options are drugs such as candesartan, propranalol or topiramate that are also used to treat epilepsy and high blood pressure or anti-depressants which work on chemical messengers in the brain. When oestrogen levels start to fall during the menopause, the blood supply to the genital area can also diminish making for less powerful orgasms. High levels of the hormone indicate an underactive thyroid. to measure levels of hormones thyroxine (T4) and triiodothyroxine (T3), and to measure a protein called thyroxine-binding globulin. Blood TSH, free T4, free T3 and anti-TPO antibodies should be tested. Effective natural tratment for tinnitus (ear ringing). B12 will work even better in your attempt to treat tinnitus if it is combined with Alpha-lipoic acid, Chlorella, Zinc, Magnesium, Folate, B6 (P5P), NAC, and D3. Tinnitus has been linked to having depleted levels of magnesium and potassium, and supplementing with these minerals seems to help. Spirituality: Researchers have been studying how spiritual beliefs, attitudes, and practices affect health. While phrases such as mind over matter have been around for years, only recently have scientists found solid evidence that mind-body techniques actually do fight disease and promote health. One study found that unconsciously being defensive or stifling feelings may result in medical consequences, such as high blood pressure. The goal of mind-body techniques is to get the body and mind to relax and to reduce the levels of stress hormones in the body, so that your immune system is better able to fight off illness. Of all the causes of dizziness in women high levels of estrogen is one of the most common. A severe form is Meniere’s disease, sometimes accompanied by hearing loss, tinnitus and pressure in one or both ears. Oestrogen is an excitatory, inflammatory hormone causing water retention. Although progesterone can help stabilise blood glucose, it’s essential to avoid all sweet foods and drink, see Insulin Resistance and Nutrition. A1C measured every then sorry when dose of insulin misses diabetes. Noise exposure also has been known to induce tinnitus, hypertension, vasoconstriction, and other cardiovascular adverse effects. Exposure to high levels of noise have differing effects within a given population, and the involvement of reactive oxygen species suggests possible avenues to treat or prevent damage to hearing and related cellular structures. This may result because annoyance from the sound causes elevated adrenaline levels trigger a narrowing of the blood vessels (vasoconstriction), or independently through medical stress reactions. This research reveals in the period April 2008 – 2009 UK councils received 315,838 complaints about noise pollution from private residences. Processed foods are cheap to produce, have a long shelf life, and are easy to store and distribute. If you are gluten sensitive, your body produces elevated levels of antibodies against gliadin. First, BDNF, a key growth hormone in the brain, is suppressed by sugar. At the very least, high blood pressure can cause tinnitus, or ringing in the ears It can be caused by ear problems in your outer, middle or inner ear. Some causes of tinnitus are less common, including:. Conditions that affect your blood flow, such as high blood pressure or narrowed arteries (atherosclerosis), can increase your risk of tinnitus. Most people refer to tinnitus as ringing in the ears. See a list of possible causes in order from the most common to the least. 1. High blood pressure (hypertension) increases your risk for heart attack, stroke, coronary heart disease, and other serious health problems. A concussion can cause many severe symptoms that affect brain function. In many of these cases the damage caused by high blood pressure can lead to death. Tinnitus is an abnormal noise or sounds that are heard in the ear or head and is caused by damage to the nerve ending in the ear. It can sound like a low roar or a high pitched ring, hissing, whistling and roaring. Ginkgo Biloba is also known for its powerful action to enhance the circulation of blood, and to make blood less sticky. Almost everyone has had tinnitus for a short time after being exposed to extremely loud noise. While there’s no cure for chronic tinnitus, it often becomes less noticeable and more manageable over time. Anxiety doesn’t cause ringing directly, the stress anxiety causes can. For example, there can be many causes of this symptom, such as exposure to loud sounds, age, ear injury, ear wax build up, ear bone changes, an adverse reaction to medication, high blood pressure, TMJ, head or neck injuries, sinus or ear infection, and a variety of other medical causes. The more rested the body becomes, the less of an issue ringing in the ears becomes. It can be experienced as a ringing, hissing, whistling, buzzing, or clicking sound and can vary in pitch from a low roar to a high squeal. Objective tinnitus can be heard by an examiner positioned close to the ear. Exposure to loud noise can injure these nerve endings and result in hearing loss. However, sometimes it is associated with serious conditions such as high or low blood pressure, hardening of the arteries (arteriosclerosis), anemia, vascular tumor, or aneurysm. Tinnitus can even be a side effect of common medications, including certain antibiotics and over-the-counter pain relievers. If your tinnitus is the temporary result of a an injury, medication, or an infection, it may clear up when you recover; working with your doctor to manage chronic health conditions such as high blood pressure or diabetes can also have the added bonus of reducing tinnitus. Hearing aids and cochlear implants: The majority of tinnitus is related to hearing loss scientists believe that when there is less external noise reaching the brain, it undergoes neurological changes that cause the ringing and other internal sounds. At the very least, the increase in outside noise makes the internal noise less noticeable. Sometimes, it is a sign of high blood pressure, an allergy, or anemia. Any noise in the room, like a humidifier, white noise machine, or dishwasher, can help mask tinnitus and make it less irritating. If you have hearing loss, stay away from very loud noises to protect your hearing. Ear ringing, whistling, high pitched whistling, whizzing sounds, rushing sounds like water in a waterfall. Sudden exposure to high levels of noise like gunfire can also cause tinnitus. Any or all of these muscles may be painful and produce pain in the TMJ or at the very least lead to an abnormal movement of the lower jaw. Choline Choline (provided by two lecithin capsules at each meal or 2 tablespoons of brewer’s yeast daily) has cleared ear noises in less than 2 weeks for some patients with high blood pressure. Tinnitus: Ringing In The Ears And What To Do About It Its pitch can go from a low roar to a high squeal or whine or it can have many sounds. At times, it is relatively easy to associate the symptom of tinnitus with specific problems affecting the hearing system; at other times, the connection is less clear. Excessive ear wax, especially if the wax touches the ear drum, causing pressure and changing how the ear drum vibrates, can result in tinnitus. Middle ear problems that cause hearing problems can also cause tinnitus. Tinnitus is characterized by a noise or ringing in the ears caused by various factors such as age, injury and circulatory problems. According to a study published in the May 1984 issue of Acta Oto-Laryngologica, 82 percent of the study participants with inner ear problems also had elevated blood sugar levels. Changes to your eating habits will help manage your tinnitus symptoms if you suffer from the condition or lower your risk of developing the tinnitus if you have normal hearing. You see, some people naturally have higher blood pressure and that is normal for them and is not wrong. Certain medications that are toxic to the ear can also cause tinnitus, as can ear or sinus infections, head or neck injury, certain types of tumors, and vascular problems such as hypertension. Although the connection between high blood pressure and tinnitus is not well understood, it has been observed that both high blood pressure and excessive alcohol consumption can make your tinnitus worse. Treatment for tinnitus is very individual and can range from avoiding foods that may make your tinnitus worse to taking medications. Do your stereocilia a favor and back away from the 6-foot wall of speakers on stage, at least until you perfect your ability to lift your arms and instantly jet off to a quieter planet. Hearing loss can also lead to a ringing sensation in the ears, known as tinnitus. It’s a fairly common symptom affecting as many as 12 million Americans, with at least 1 million of them dealing with severe tinnitus. Tinnitus is often associated with high blood pressure, allergies, and abnormal kidney function. Tinnitus (ringing in the ears) is one of the less common symptoms of TMJ disorders. Because tinnitus can arise from so many conditions, ranging from hearing loss to high blood pressure to medications, diagnosing the cause or causes can be a challenge. Ringing In The Ears Is A Symptom Of Underlying Health Issues Tinnitus (TIN-ih-tus) is the perception of noise or ringing in the ears. Some causes of tinnitus are less common, including:. Conditions that affect your blood flow, such as high blood pressure or narrowed arteries (atherosclerosis), can increase your risk of tinnitus. Long-term exposure to amplified music with no ear protection or listening to music at very high volume through headphones can cause hearing loss and tinnitus. High Blood Pressure Medication That Does Not Increase Tinnitus. However, I would be very appreciative if those members who take a HBP med that does not significantly increase T intensity, or at least very little, could let me know via reply posting of the name of such HBP med that works for you. I think my problem occurred because I already had tinnitus in one ear, plus some hearing loss. High blood pressure levels, in turn, is usually linked to ringing in ears. In the event you can’t quit, at the very least attempt to cut back and see if this assists. The hearing is stuffed with tiny cellular material which can be extremely breakable, and extended contact with high decibel ranges could cause ringing in the ears. Dizziness or ringing in the ears. All adults should have their blood pressure checked at least once a year. Although it rarely happens, hypertension occasionally causes symptoms such as vertigo (dizziness), tinnitus (ringing in the ears), dimmed vision, fatigue (tiredness), palpitations (irregular heart beat), impotence (inability of males to achieve or maintain erection), and fainting. Extremely elevated blood pressure can cause a headache upon awakening or, even more rarely, nosebleed, nausea, or vomiting. In severe cases, however, tinnitus can cause people to have difficulty concentrating and sleeping. A single exposure to a sudden extremely loud noise can also cause tinnitus. It can sound like a low roar, or a high pitched ring. A blood vessel may be close to the eardrum, a vascular tumor such as a glomus may fill the middle ear, or a vein similar to a varicose vein may make enough noise to be heard. Tinnitus can also arise from damage to the nerve between the ear and brain (8th nerve, labelled 6, auditory nerve), much more rarely from injury to the brainstem (Lanska et al, 1987), and extremely rarely, to the brain itself. Pulsatile tinnitus (tinnitus that beats with your pulse) can be caused by aneurysms, increased pressure in the head (hydrocephalus), and hardening of the arteries. Natural treatment of Tinnitus – Causes for ringing ears – Herbal remedy for Tinnitus relief. Circulation problems such as high blood pressure and atherosclerosis can cause the sound of blood flow in vessels close to the ear to become more forceful, or turbulent – allowing your ear to detect the sound. In cases where tinnitus is caused by ear damage due to noise exposure or advancing age, very little is available in terms of medical treatment. I used the remedy for several weeks and began to notice the sound becoming quieter and less obvious. Do you ever hear a strange, high-pitched ringing in your ears? Learn what causes ringing in the ears, the medical term for ringing in the ears, what’s really going on, and options for treatment for ringing in the ears. The tinnitus will usually clear up on its own, and will last anywhere from minutes to hours. Do Epsom salt soaks really relieve pain? Ringing sounds in the ears can often be traced to high blood pressure. If that’s the case, think of the ringing as a warning bell to get a complete physical checkup, since blood pressure that is high enough to produce tinnitus may well be wreaking havoc elsewhere in the body. Search out foods labeled sodium free, which means that the item has less than five milligrams of sodium per serving. Viibryd has increased my blood pressure and given me tinnitus(ringing in my ears) Many people who take antidepressants notice ringing in their ears or tinnitus. Certain drugs may be more likely to cause tinnitus than others. Differences in serotonin blood levels have been observed between those with tinnitus and those without it. Everytime I have taken Wellbutrin the ringing in my ears gets worse and far more noticeable. Because of how recently Viibryd has come on to the market, the full extent of Viibryd side effects is still unknown. Viibryd has increased my blood pressure and given me tinnitus(ringing in my ears). I hear music in my ears all the time that no one else hears. You may not have these Viibryd side effects at this time but when the Viibryd is reduced any of the side effects may begin. Hypertension – High blood pressure, a symptom of disease in the blood vessels leading away from the heart. Some of the symptoms are: pain when chewing, headaches, losing your balance, stuffy ears or ringing in the ears, and teeth grinding. Tinnitus – A buzzing, ringing, or whistling sound in one or both ears occurring from the use of certain drugs. Withdrawal off of Viibryd does not have to be difficult and handling current Viibryd side effects can be resolved quickly. Hypertension – High blood pressure, a symptom of disease in the blood vessels leading away from the heart. Migraine – Recurring severe head pain sometimes accompanied by nausea, vomiting, dizziness, flashes or spots before the eyes, and ringing in the ears. Anaphylaxis – A violent, sudden, and severe drop in blood pressure caused by a re-exposure to a foreign protein or a second dosage of a drug that may be fatal unless emergency treatment is given right away. Find out below who they are, when they have Ringing in the ears and more. Ringing in the ears (a ringing in the ears) has been reported by people with depression, high blood pressure, high blood cholesterol, osteoporosis, stress and anxiety. My Psychiatrist wants me to try Prozac but I am afraid it will hurt my basketball performance. I was given drugs for an exacerbation.of reactive.airway. Viibryd has increased my blood pressure and given me tinnitus(ringing in my ears). The other feels like a huge pressure in my head followed by a ‘bolt of lighting just hit me’ feeling. As I’m drifting off, the ringing in my ears (I have chronic tinnitus) grows louder, and just as I start to lose consciousness, in an instant the ringing goes thru the roof and I feel like my brain gets a huge electric shock that makes me literally jump in bed. This all started with me about a month ago.started taking Viibryd (vilazodine). All the same symptoms high blood pressure and stress. I always get tinnitus right before the onset of the surge but if i sit up the ringing goes away. I also have these electric shock zings with intense ringing in my ears that wakes me in the night. The increase of Norepinephrine (a powerful blood vessel constrictor) can become dangerously high and prove fatal if MAOs are combined with the following: (list is not comprehensive, check with your pharmacist or medical professional for additional items to avoid). Viibryd Withdrawal. Get Relief From Viibryd Insomnia And Viibryd Anxiety. Viibryd Withdrawal Solution Updated 2 years ago in Viibryd. LEFT Ear Infection Post a Reply my left ear was operate for drum damaged. now noise is coming continually and sometimes yellow pulse is coming pls suggest me ear drops for ear infection. Now noise is coming continually and sometimes yellow pulse is coming pls suggest me ear drops for ear infection. Hello, Corne! How are you and your husband? Has he seen a cardiologist? I’m thinking that if nothing else turned up, the humming may be due to whatever blood pressure or cardiac condition he’s having treated with the Triplen Forte, it may also cause headache, dizziness and stomach pain. These tablets contain sodium, which has increased my Tinnitus. Went to GP but they didn’t seem to bothered about it and the subject quickly changed to mood and blood pressure. Using venlafaxine together with mirtazapine can increase the risk of a rare but serious condition called the serotonin syndrome, which may include symptoms such as confusion, hallucination, seizure, extreme changes in blood pressure, increased heart rate, fever, excessive sweating, shivering or shaking, blurred vision, muscle spasm or stiffness, tremor, incoordination, stomach cramp, nausea, vomiting, and diarrhea. This drug passes into breast milk and may have undesirable effects on a nursing infant. Check your blood pressure regularly and tell your doctor if the results are high. Tinnitus, 6, 6, 2. Get your Xanax withdrawal timeline and more here. She said that it would help with my blood pressure. And still feel lousy with a horrible feeling that cannot be described plus ringing ears,insomnia,anxiety,sweating,and restless legs. I m a disabled veteran who has anxiety problems due to severe tinnitus in both ears after an explosion in the service. I was given Xanax 0.25mg mid Dec14 for anxiety as I. My dr. Started me on ambien and lunesta with little relief from either drug. Around this same time I began to experience pain behind just my right eye and pressure and fullness in my right ear. I just started taking Viibryd (a new anti-depressant) a few weeks ago, and I also take Lamictal and Seroquel. Today I have tinnitus and have been itching on my hands and face, and my feet alternate between itching like crazy and pins-and-needles pain that hurts like &. My blood pressure was pretty elevated, they offered me blood pressure meds but I didn’t want to add a med to handle a side effect. One of my friends stayed in the study and Savella has given him his life back. It is not mine to begin with:) Doesn’t it ring true though? I have tried Savella, Plaquenil and Prednisone and whatever is in those meds it gives me neck pain, left ear ache and throat closure feeling. Viibryd Haing those has left me with tinnitus and has also affected. The Road Back Program has been assisting people with Klonopin withdrawal since 1999, and have helped over 50,000 people become drug free. Klonopin withdrawal – Hypertension – is high blood pressure, which is a symptom of disease in the blood vessels leading away from the heart. Klonopin withdrawal – Anaphylaxis – A violent, sudden, and severe drop in blood pressure caused by a re-exposure to a foreign protein or a second dosage of a drug that may be fatal unless emergency treatment is given right away. Klonopin withdrawal – Tinnitus – A buzzing, ringing, or whistling sound in one or both ears occurring from the internal use of certain drugs. My only serious advice here is to get a blood pressure pump and to wear a medical tag in cause you conk out somewhere, because you don’t want anyone coming near you with Demerol, or putting you under without being aware of your medication. The side effects started hitting me this weekend: dry mouth, insomnia, stomach and muscle cramps, tinnitus. Although my mood is much better I am experiencing a lot of tiredness throughout the whole day, low blood pressure, dry mouth, blocked and ringing ears when I get up from a lying or sitting position and being cold most of the day and evening. What should my healthcare provider know before I take this medicine? This medicine is not usually given to pregnant women because it can harm the baby, especially in late pregnancy If you become pregnant, contact your healthcare provider right away. Symptoms of an acute overdose may include: stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, vomiting or coughing up blood, dizziness, drowsiness, confusion, black or bloody stools, trouble walking, tremors, decreased urination, fever, fast heartbeat, shallow or trouble breathing, headache, ringing in the ears, numbness, tingling, seizures, fainting, coma. This medicine has been linked with increased risk for high blood pressure. Buspar pharmacology more anxious, maximum daily dosage do you have to taper off what type of medication is bupropion does contain acetaminophen informacion del medicamento buy, can and paxil be taken together patient assistance japan. Can i take viibryd and buspar together? Buspar for ruminating thoughts, luvox helps me sleep dogs side effects, can i take viibryd and together, maoi 10mg side effects dizziness how long, 5 mg picture does work alone, orthostatic hypotension, available australia?. Does raise blood pressure miracle fluoxetine, medication half life my experience with is there an extended release can tylenol be taken with efficacy pill vs xanax is an maoi drug and wellbutrin interaction for anxiety side effects!. Nabumetone, Oral na-BYOO-me-tone. If your healthcare provider has not given you specific instructions, follow the directions that come with the medicine package. Symptoms of an acute overdose may include: stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, vomiting or coughing up blood, dizziness, drowsiness, confusion, black or bloody stools, trouble walking, tremors, decreased urination, fever, fast heartbeat, shallow or trouble breathing, headache, ringing in the ears, numbness, tingling, seizures, fainting, coma. This medicine has been linked with increased risk for high blood pressure. What should my healthcare provider know before I take this medicine? This medicine is not usually given to pregnant women because it can harm the baby, especially in late pregnancy If you become pregnant, contact your healthcare provider right away. Symptoms of an acute overdose may include: stomach pain, nausea, vomiting, vomiting or coughing up blood, dizziness, drowsiness, confusion, black or bloody stools, trouble walking, tremors, decreased urination, fever, fast heartbeat, shallow or trouble breathing, headache, ringing in the ears, numbness, tingling, seizures, fainting, coma. This medicine has been linked with increased risk for high blood pressure. Hepatic Enzyme Increased, Sleep Disorder, Product Taste Abnormal, Fungal Infection, Sunburn, Fatigue, Blood Pressure Fluctuation, Rash Erythematous, Skin Exfoliation This Sleep Disorder side effect was reported by a consumer or non-health professional from US. Blood Pressure Inadequately Controlled, Chest Pain, Cholelithiasis, Feeling Abnormal, Feeling Hot, Nausea, Sleep Disorder, Vomiting A 49-year-old patient (weight: NA) from BRAZIL with the following symptoms: hypertension started Diovan Hct treatment (dosage: Vals 80 / Hct 12. Looking back, that was when i lst noticed ringing in my ears, which has gotten worse. These could be effected our blood pressure, noise -induced hearing loss,sleep disorders and irritability I also felt more comfortable sleeping on my right side, and in fact had a further spinning episode just after I had laid down on my left side, so avoided doing so. Could the stress I’m suffering because of my health problems be hampering my recovery? So many questions!! Would love to hear from anyone who’s story is similar to mine. I will try and keep things brief but symptom wise I have a really bad thick head feeling spaced out like I am not on this planet, photo phobia, nausea, dizzy (no spinning) bilateral tinnitus, sensitive to noise, horrible sensations in my ears, pressure, whoosing like my ears and head are going to explode. Also I get the occasional dizzy feeling now but my hearing has been affected. Hearing Problems: Any unwanted sound that our ears have not been built to filter can cause problems within the body. Noise pollution can cause hypertension, high stress levels, tinnitus, hearing loss, sleep disturbances, and other harmful effects. Kamal I agree loud human voices are so irritable. Symptoms include noises in the ears or head, including ringing, whistling and buzzing. There are many different conditions that can cause tinnitus and sometimes it can occur for no known reason. For example, problems with narrowing of your blood vessels. The bones in your ear pass sound through and into your brain. Worried about hearing loss? You can also use our symptom search to help understand any of the symptoms better. Fatigue is often caused by lack of sleep, anxiety, stress, poor diet and inactivity. 20) High Blood Pressure and Joint Pain If you suffer from high blood pressure and you are starting to have pain in your joints you may be suffering from acute gouty arthritis. 27) Hearing Problems Do you hear noises that aren’t there? There are 98 conditions associated with headache, hearing loss, numbness or tingling and ringing in ears. The links below will provide you with more detailed information on these medical conditions from the WebMD Symptom Checker and help provide a better understanding of causes and treatment of these related conditions. Symptoms include ringing in the ears (tinnitus), pressure or fullness in the ears. Excessive caffeine use can cause irritability, difficulty sleeping, anger, depression, and fatigue. Hearing loss occurs when you have difficulty hearing sounds in one or both ears. Anemia, iron deficiencyAnemia, a lack of red blood cells, can cause fatigue, pale skin and gums, brittle nails, irritability, and more. Thalassemia is a rare group of genetic blood disorders effecting red blood cells and leading to anemia. Symptoms include ringing in the ears (tinnitus), pressure or fullness in the ears. All of these have become a part of the urban culture and rarely disturb us. Not only is the local wildlife affected by the pollution, humans also face a number of problems due to it. Hearing Problems: Any unwanted sound that our ears have not been built to filter can cause problems within the body. Studies show that the occurrence of aggressive behavior, disturbance of sleep, constant stress, fatigue and hypertension can be linked to excessive noise levels. Objective tinnitus is sound your doctor can hear during an examination. The following list is not complete, but does include: age-related hearing loss; extended exposure to loud noise in work or hobbies; earwax blockage; changes in the earbones; Meniere’s disease (an inner ear disorder); stress and depression; acoustic neuroma (a non-cancerous benign tumor); head and neck tumors that Do you experience a ringing, swishing or buzzing sound inside of your ears? Exposure to loud noises is a very common cause of tinnitus, and it often damages hearing as well. Obviously, it is important to rule out any serious physical problems that could be the root cause of this condition. How Understanding These 50 Medical Symptoms Can Keep You Healthier Connects The symptoms of AIED are sudden hearing loss in one ear, progressing rapidly to the second ear. Symptoms include fever, ear drainage, hearing problem, irritability, feeling of fullness and pressure in the ear, and vomiting. These situations may create a feeling of blocked ears causing discomfort. Tinnitus is the perception of sound (ringing in the ears) that can only be heard by the sufferer. The noise from objective tinnitus can be so loud that another person can perceive an actual sound emanating from the affected person’s ear! Loss of hearing, jaw joint problems and certain medications can be the source of ringing in the ears as well. High blood pressure and arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries) are examples of diseases that are known to cause this disorder. Gain knowledge of the causes of Tinnitus and how it affects hearing in the ears. It saved my sanity when I developed sudden hearing loss in one ear. The week or two that I took prednisone for my hearing loss I couldn’t sleep, became incredibly irritable and hard to live with, and felt as if I had turned into someone I didn’t know or like. That would have been better than these side effects. I am experiencing high blood pressure, agoraphobia, panic attacks, light headedness, confusion, weakness, intolerance to heat, IBS, shaking, etc. Revealed: Living near a wind farm could seriously damage your health. Dr Pierpont’s studies indicate that humans are affected by low-frequency noise and vibrations from wind turbines through their ear bones, similar to fish and other amphibians. Our blood pressure has gone up. The entire sample reported believing that the unit noise levels could be reduced by speaking lower, reacting more quickly to alarms and handling furniture more carefully. The NICU professionals reported adopting these behaviors. Likewise, professionals may be affected, and their performance levels may be reduced. Healthcare professionals working in NICUs may have arterial hypertension, sleep and mood disorders, hearing loss, irritability, stress and fatigue, which may affect their working performance. Causes And Effects Of Noise Pollution Often people end up addicted to these things because there was a need somewhere else in their life that was not being fulfilled. Hypnotherapy will work for any mind or stress related problems. By learning how the mind works and by understanding how we are affected by our states of mind, we can get back on the road to recovery in no time. It is often caused by stress and although not dangerous like blood pressure, it can do immense harm to your teeth. There’s a wide variety of sleep disorders which can impede on your health. Many doctors say hearing loss is a part of the aging process and you have to live with it. We will further explore these common sleep disorders, so you can have a better understanding of what may be the root cause of your sleep deprivation. Thyroid problems affect approximately nine percent of the population. Thyroid hormones can affect the function of everything from your heart and lungs to your emotional well-being. I feel irritable and nervous. I have difficulty sleeping. My blood pressure is high. On the other hand, hypothyroidism may be missed if these symptoms are attributed to depression when a true thyroid disorder exists. We offer the most advanced diagnostic testing and treatment options available. Hearing loss is one of the most prevalent chronic conditions in the United States, with more than 19 million Americans age 45 and over having hearing loss. On the other hand, if only the low frequencies are affected, the configuration would show poorer hearing for low tones and better hearing for high tones. DisorientationSome individuals may also experience nausea and vomiting, diarrhea, faintness, changes in heart rate and blood pressure, fear, anxiety or panic. Prolonged stress may result in physical or mental health problems. These are environmental pressures like wind, pollution, noise, overcrowding etc which are often relatively minor, but which can affect people over a long time period and affect everyone in the vicinity. Generally changes which affect our experience of light and dark hours have noticeable effects on behaviour. Jet lag can result in headaches, digestive and sleeping disorders and can last for up to two weeks. It also explains why autoimmune thyroid disease, or Hashimotos, is so often misdiagnosed as 93847 other conditions and why so many Hashi sufferers finally arrive at the correct diagnosis exhausted from trying all kinds of different supplements and treatments for 93847 unrelated conditions. If you’ve suffered a miscarriage, your thyroid could be to blame. Energy level and sleep:. Noise pollution can affect health, yet the effects are very difficult to quantify. Lower levels of noise due to aircraft and road traffic cause sleep disturbance and possibly hypertension. Aircraft and road noise causes annoyance, sleep disturbance and hypertension. Exposure to loud noise can cause permanent hearing damage. A massage can help you clear your mind, circulate your blood, relax your body, and calm your tinnitus To help you drown the sounds of tinnitus, use a white-noise machine whenever you sleep. They provide white noise that can mask the noises in your thoughts, helping you to go to sleep easier. A massage can assist you clear your mind, circulate your blood, relax your body, and calm your tinnitus. When you relax, your heart calms with you, lowering your blood pressure. Even heavy exercise can stimulate your body and cause ringing. You ought to cut back on any stimulants. A massage will help you clear the mind, circulate your blood, relax your body, and calm your tinnitus. Whenever you relax, your heart calms along with you, lowering your blood pressure. The stress and anxiety will cause the symptoms of tinnitus to worsen. By teaching your body that you only sleep in bed, will help prevent tossing and turning. A massage can help you clear your mind, circulate your blood, relax your body, and calm your tinnitus. If you’re hearing noises in your ears that aren’t external, relax! Make yourself a calm bedtime routine that can be done nightly. Tinnitus can affect peoples’ ability to get to sleep or stay sleeping. A massage can help you clear your mind, circulate your blood, relax your body, and calm your tinnitus. Some Sound Advice To Help Tinnitus Sufferers Understand What Causes Tinnitus Because individuals who have tinnitus may find it hard to distinguish real sounds from tinnitus-related sounds, this dis. This can help you relax whilst keeping your blood pressure level low. Meditation is synonymous with relaxing the body and also the mind. A massage can help you clear your thoughts, circulate your blood, relax your body, and calm your tinnitus. A massage can help you clear your mind, circulate your blood, relax your body, and calm your tinnitus. As you get more relaxed, your blood pressure should get lower. In order to prevent your tinnitus from worsening, you have to protect your ears from further damage. A doctor can help you cope with tinnitus by giving you suggestions which could diminish the problem. A massage is a great way to relax your body, clear your mind, improve your circulation, and reduce your tinnitus. A massage can help you clear your mind, circulate your blood, relax your body, and calm your tinnitus. Relaxing lowers your blood pressure and gives your heart a break. If the doctor says that they cannot help you understand tinnitus, try to see another one. Some doctors function not understand how to cope with tinnitus and just how you are better able to deal with it. This should help you to keep your mind away from your condition. Even though some may allow their tinnitus to take over their lives, you don’t need to live that way. A massage will help you clear your brain, circulate your blood, relax your body, and calm your tinnitus. Once you relax, your heart calms along with you, lowering your blood pressure. Making Life With Tinnitus More Bearable: What You Should Know · Storify A massage can help you clear your mind, circulate your bloodstream, relax relaxing vitamins gifts your body, and calm your tinnitus. A massage can help you clear your mind, circulate your blood, relax your body, and calm your tinnitus. As you relax your blood pressure lowers, reducing the sounds in your ears. White noise will help you go to sleep by distracting from your tinnitus. A massage can assist you clear your mind, circulate your blood, relax your body, and calm your tinnitus. These activities can calm you and clear your head. Through manual manipulation, massage can relax not only the body but the mind as well. Let go. It can be hard to accept that things in life don’t go exactly as planned. These mucous membranes produce mucous which cleanse the ear. In ideal functioning, the mucous then drains out of the middle ear via the Eustachian tubes and into the throat where it is swallowed. Sudden exposure to high levels of noise like gunfire can also cause tinnitus. Certain substances in your blood and other body fluids influence your inner ear fluid quality. If you’re hearing those noises inside your ears, you have tinnitus. Relax your mind, body and soul with the benefits of Indian Head Massage Indian Head Massage helps increase mobility and flexibility in the neck and shoulders. It improves blood circulation, lymphatic flow and aids elimination of toxins and is particularly good for reducing the effects of stress and tension. This tension can later show up as a stiff neck and shoulders, eyestrain and sometimes even hair loss. Oxygen helps you think clearly and creatively, the same effect is brought about through exercising. Tinnitus French maritime pine tree, is effective in relieving tinnitus symptoms by improving blood flow in the inner ear French maritime pine bark extract on behalf of Horphag Research. Research shows Pycnogenol is effective in relieving tinnitus symptoms and improving inner ear blood flow. A study recently published in Panminerva Medica reveals that Pycnogenol (pic-noj-en-all), an antioxidant plant extract derived from the bark of the French maritime pine tree, is effective in relieving tinnitus symptoms by improving blood flow in the inner ear. Pycnogenol, an antioxidant plant extract derived from the bark of the French maritime pine tree, was effective in relieving tinnitus symptoms by. Pycnogenol, an antioxidant plant extract derived from the bark of the French maritime pine tree, was effective in relieving tinnitus symptoms by improving blood flow in the inner ear in a recent study published in Panminerva Medica. Impaired blood flow to the ear is a common cause for tinnitus, a disturbing and very debilitating condition that can considerably impact overall health and quality of life, said study leader Dr Gianni Belcaro from Chieti-Pescara University in Italy. Using high resolution ultrasonography imaging to measure blood flow in the inner ear, Dr Belcaro and his co-workers report that both doses of Pycnogenol improved blood systolic and diastolic blood flow velocities from 14. These results suggest that in selected patients with tinnitus and altered perfusion, Pycnogenol is effective in a short period of time in relieving tinnitus symptoms by improving cochlear blood flow, wrote the researchers. French maritime pine tree bark, significantly improves inner-ear blood flow, making it a natural option for those seeking relief from symptoms of Meniere’s disease such as dizziness, ringing in the ear, hearing loss, inner-ear pressure and unsteady balance. Significantly improve inner-ear blood flow and reduce pressure as compared to control group (higher flow, higher diastolic component (p 0. This study confirms previous findings from the catalog of research on tinnitus and inner-ear ailments including a 2010 study that found Pycnogenol to be effective to significantly relieve tinnitus symptoms by improving blood flow in the inner ear. French maritime pine bark extract, is effective in relieving tinnitus symptoms. Recently published in Panminerva Medica, the study found that after four weeks of supplementing with Pycnogenol, patients experienced a decrease in tinnitus symptoms including improved blood flow in the inner ear. Derivative of Pine Bark Said to Improve Tinnitus. Geneva, Switzerland A study recently published in Panminerva Medica reports that Pycnogenol (pic-noj-en-all), an antioxidant plant extract derived from the bark of the French maritime pine tree, is effective in relieving tinnitus symptoms by improving blood flow in the inner ear, according to its manufacturer. Its creators claim the extract from French maritime pine trees is anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and can help ease tinnitus. The latest study has found that Pycnogenol can help to relieve tinnitus symptoms by improving blood flow in the inner ear. The scientists concluded that Pycnogenol was effective for a short period of time. See the website, Pine Bark Extract Appears to Relieve Tinnitus Symptoms. French maritime pine bark extract. Scientists in Italy have found that Pycnogenol may support healthy blood flow to the inner ear, helping relieve tinnitus symptoms. Pine Bark Extract May Relieve Tinnitus Symptoms: Study A natural plant extract from the bark of the maritime pine tree (Pinus pinaster) which grows exclusively along the coast of southwest France in Les Landes de Gascogne. Supplementation with pycnogenol has been shown to be effective in reducing the development of leg and ankle swelling, and risk of deep vein thrombosis, during long distance flights (Cesarone et al, 2003; Belcaro et al, 2004). An antioxidant plant extract derived from the bark of the French maritime pine tree, was effective in relieving tinnitus symptoms by improving blood flow in the inner ear in a recent study published in Panminerva Medica (2010 June;52(2 Suppl 1):63-8). (pic-noj-en-all), a natural antioxidant plant extract from French maritime pine tree bark, significantly improves inner-ear blood flow, making it a natural option for those seeking relief from symptoms of Meniere’s disease such as dizziness, ringing in the ear, hearing loss, inner-ear pressure and unsteady balance. Effect of pine bark extract (Pycnogenol) on symptoms of knee. Italian team reports that pine bark extract is effective in relieving tinnitus symptoms and improving inner-ear blood flow. A supplement derived from French maritime pine bark may help reduce the risk of developing leg clots during long air flights. Tinnitus treatment: Rebooting the brain helps stop the ring of tinnitus in ratsTargeted nerve stimulation could yield a long-term reversal of tinnitus, a debilitating hearing impairment affecting at least 10 percent of senior citizens and up to 40 percent of military veterans, according to a new article. French maritime pine bark extract, from Horphag Research, is effective in relieving tinnitus symptoms and improving inner ear blood flow. Tinnitus and ringing in the ear can be minimized with natural remedies including homeopathic and nutritional supplements, tinitus. 1 Vinpocetine improves blood flow in the inner ear and brain, thereby increasing utilization of glucose and oxygen, and increasing production of brain cell ATP (ATP is the cellular energy molecule – adenosine tri phosphate). Derivative Of Pine Bark Said To Improve Tinnitus 5 Marine View Plaza, Ste. 403 Hoboken, NJ 07030-5722 Phone: (877) 369-9934; (201) 459-0300 Fax: (201) 459-0055 frank pycnogenol. Natural Health Science (NHS) is the exclusive North American supplier of Pycnogenol French maritime pine bark extract. Published last fall in Panminerva Medica, subjects who suffered mild to moderate tinnitus in one ear, experienced relief from tinnitus symptoms after treatment with Pycnogenol for four weeks improved blood flow in the inner ear. Pycnogenol, a standardized preparation extracted from French Maritime pine, is rich in procyanidin flavonoid molecules and contains some of the most potent antioxidant properties known. Further studies are beginning to reveal Pycnogenol’s preventive capabilities in fighting skin aging, traumatic brain injury, pain syndromes, and even persistent tinnitus. Because signs and symptoms of metabolic syndrome often relate to oxidative stress and subsequent inflammation,18,19 it’s natural that researchers in the field would be interested in the potent antioxidant flavonoids found in Pycnogenol. Several other symptoms, including fatigue, sleep disorders, concentration and memory problems, dizziness, and irritability also tended to improve for the Pycnogenol group but did not reach statistical significance, according to researchers, who suggested that Pycnogenol may be an effective daily dietary supplement for reducing symptoms in menopausal women. Doctors explained that there is a middle layer of skin, called the dermis, which contains collagen proteins and elastin fibers that provide contour and support for the skin, and help maintain hydration, but deteriorates with age. After four weeks, while there were no changes in the non-treatment group, both Pycnogenol groups had much better blood flow to the ear and reported far less severe symptoms. Isn’t pycnogenol one of those supplements that is used to increase sexual arousal? Is there any sort of issues with using it for a period of time for tinnitus? I wouldn’t want to have other problems with getting hard because I used a medicine for too long for another purpose. French maritime pine bark extract, is effective in relieving tinnitus symptoms. Recently published in Panminerva Medica, the study found that after four weeks of supplementing with Pycnogenol, patients experienced a decrease in tinnitus symptoms including improved blood flow in the inner ear. Both hearing loss and tinnitus can cause irritability, fatigue, high blood pressure, and stress For others, tinnitus can be debilitating, and may lead to insomnia, difficulty with concentration, poor work or school performance, irritability, anxiety and depression. Approximately 90 of persons with chronic tinnitus have some form of hearing loss. Tinnitus is a non-auditory, internal sound that can be intermittent or continuous, in one or both ears, and either a low- or high-pitch squeal. It also can be caused by problems with the hearing (auditory) nerves or the part of your brain that interprets nerve signals as sound (auditory pathways). You can generally hear this type of tinnitus in both ears. Conditions that affect your blood flow, such as high blood pressure or narrowed arteries (atherosclerosis), can increase your risk of tinnitus. Fatigue; Stress; Sleep problems; Trouble concentrating; Memory problems; Depression; Anxiety and irritability. Hearing loss can affect all areas of your life. Both hearing loss and tinnitus can cause irritability, fatigue, high blood pressure, and stress. At work, it can impair your ability to detect warning signals, hear clearly in meetings, and listen on the telephone. Acute stress reaction symptoms include shortness of breath, anxiety, nervousness, sense of doom and more. Symptoms include ringing in the ears (tinnitus), pressure or fullness in the ears. Chronic kidney diseaseChronic kidney disease is a condition of the kidneys that can cause high blood pressure, fatigue, and weakness. Labyrinthitis, an infection and swelling in the inner ear, and may cause vertigo or hearing loss. Hearing loss occurs when you have difficulty hearing sounds in one or both ears. Symptoms include ringing in the ears (tinnitus), pressure or fullness in the ears. Excessive caffeine useExcessive caffeine use can cause irritability, difficulty sleeping, anger, depression, and fatigue. Chronic kidney diseaseChronic kidney disease is a condition of the kidneys that can cause high blood pressure, fatigue, and weakness. Tinnitus is relatively common among pilots and can create problems with cockpit communications and sensitivity to noise. Keep in mind that permanent hearing damage can occur from sounds louder than 85 dB, physical pain occurs at around 125 dB, and an eardrum may burst at 140 dB. Prolonged exposure to loud noises and unchecked hearing damage can also cause irritability, lack of focus, high blood pressure, increased stress levels, insomnia and high or abnormal heart rate. One of the most common causes is noise-induced hearing loss. Tinnitus can be perceived in one or both ears or in the head. Persistent tinnitus may cause irritability, fatigue and, on occasions, clinical depression and musical hallucinations. Tinnitus is a phantom sound perceived in one or both ears, experienced by an estimated 1 out of 5 American adults. TMJ disorders, stress, high blood pressure, cardiovascular problems, migraines, acoustic neuroma (benign tumors), thyroid disorders, ototoxic medications and earwax. For those extremely disturbed by tinnitus, it can lead to fatigue, memory loss, concentration problems, depression, irritability and anxiety. Bleeding, blood pressure, conditions, risks and blood products. It is common for a person’s tinnitus to be affected by stress or tiredness, but this has no harmful significance. Regular exercise helps you to cope better with stress and reduce fatigue, both of which can make sleeping more difficult or disturbed. Auditory neuropathy is hearing loss caused by a disruption of nerve impulses travelling from the inner ear to the brain. Fatigue And Ringing In Ears: Common Related Medical Conditions Other Health Problems Allergies, tumors and problems in the heart and blood vessels, jaws and neck can cause tinnitus. How will hearing experts treat my tinnitus? Although there is no cure for tinnitus, scientists and doctors have discovered several treatments that may provide relief. Tinnitus can be perceived in one or both ears or in the head. Persistent tinnitus may cause irritability, fatigue, and on occasions, clinical depression, and musical hallucinations. Ototoxic drugs can cause subjective tinnitus either secondary to hearing loss or without hearing loss and may increase the damage done by exposure to loud noise, even at doses that are not in themselves ototoxic Subjective tinnitus is also a side effect of some medications, such as aspirin, and may result from an abnormally low level of serotonin activity. Pulsatile tinnitus can also be caused by a condition known as benign intracranial hypertension-an increase in the pressure of the fluid surrounding the brain. Tinnitus has been linked to stress, sleep disorders, concentration issues, depression, anxiety, fatigue, irritability, and memory problems. Because tinnitus is commonly linked with hearing loss, people who experience tinnitus are usually recommended to take a hearing exam. The hearing exam is a painless, simple procedure that measures hearing ability by ear, and it may help identify possible causes of tinnitus. If you can hear your heartbeat (pulsatile tinnitus), this may be an indication of high blood pressure, blood vessel problems, or other related conditions. Learn more about magnesium and how magnesium for tinnitus can help with your tinnitus symptoms. Deficiency is quite common and can lead to muscle cramps, fatigue, irritability and insomnia. Having the following can also affect recovery from Lyme disease. Isolation and depression can often be a result of hearing loss, but there are good treatments, including hearing aids and surgery. (Hearing Education and Awareness for Rockers) is a non-profit volunteer organization dedicated to raising awareness of the real dangers of repeated exposure to excessive noise levels from music which can lead to permanent, and sometimes debilitating, hearing loss and tinnitus. It can lead to fatigue, irritability, depression, anxiety, low self-esteem, and contribute to impaired memory and paranoia in the elderly. Tinnitus GENERAL __ Fatigue, made worse by physical exertion or stress __ Activity level decreased to less than 50 of pre-illness activity level __ Recurrent flu-like illness __ Sore throat __ Hoarseness __ Tender or swollen lymph nodes (glands), especially in neck and underarms __ Shortness of breath (air hunger) with little or no exertion __ Frequent sighing __ Tremor or trembling __ Severe nasal allergies (new allergies or worsening of previous allergies) __ Cough __ Night sweats __ Low-grade fevers __ Feeling cold often __ Feeling hot often __ Cold extremities (hands and feet) __ Low body temperature (below 97. It causes headaches, makes you irritable, and can keep you from getting a good night’s sleep. It can raise your blood pressure and cause heart disease and hearing loss over time. On some occasions, we can be both the cause and the victim of noise, such as when we are operating noisy appliances or equipment. My noise-induced high blood pressure by now was through the roof. Tinnitus and hearing loss. Symptoms of a seizure can range from sudden, violent shaking and total loss of consciousness to muscle twitching or slight shaking of a limb. This one is easy – if you notice any problem with your hearing or vision, it must be checked out. Anxiety disorders If you unrealistically anxious about 2 or more life circumstances for at least 6 months and have at least 3 of the following symptoms, you may be suffering an anxiety disorder: irritability, fatigue, insomnia, concentration problems, muscle tension and restlessness. Also ringing in the ears, loss of hearing, nausea or vomiting. This condition can occur in pregnancy or at severe times of stress or illness. These complaints can occur in the one ear or both ears. Usually sufferers of tinnitus will experiencing fatigue, stress, sleep problems, trouble concentrating, memory problems, depression, anxiety and irritability. Tinnitus commonly caused by age, too often hear a loud sound, earwax blockage, changes in the ear bones, head or neck injuries, high blood pressure, malformation of capillaries and medications. Tinnitus that suffered by the elderly patients are usually caused by the damage of the hearing nerves. The symptoms consist of nervousness, irritability, weight loss, shaky hands, panic disorder, racing heart and tinnitus. Further conditions can include hearing impairment and tinnitus. Iodine – Iodine deficiency, which is a major cause of thyroid dysfunction, can be increased with diet and kelp supplementation. For me, the tinnitus started when I took a blood pressure drug for the first time, so I don’t think mine is related to my thyroid, unless the gland may make our ears extra-sensitive and prone to getting tinnitus. Tinnitus is the term used to describe the sense of ringing in the ears or head, even though no noise is present. Preliminary research suggests that there may be a link between vitamin B12 deficiency and noise-induced tinnitus and hearing loss. It can be caused by problems in the outer, middle or inner ear. The use of portable music devices can also cause noise-related hearing loss if played at high volumes for long periods (and may be worse with the use of in-the-ear headphones). High Blood Pressure Hypertension and factors that increase blood pressure including stress, alcohol and caffeine, can all make tinnitus more noticeable. Usually this type of tinnitus is heard in both ears. For most people, symptoms of tinnitus get better with treatment. The following list is not complete, but does include: age-related hearing loss; extended exposure to loud noise in work or hobbies; earwax blockage; changes in the earbones; Meniere’s disease (an inner ear disorder); stress and depression; acoustic neuroma (a non-cancerous benign tumor); head and neck tumors that may be pressing on the blood vessels; high blood pressure; excessive use of alcohol, nicotine and/or caffeine; medications such as diuretics, antibiotics, cancer medications or taking uncommonly high dosages of aspirin. Among the difficulties that tinnitus can cause, some are: fatigue, stress, sleep problems, trouble concentrating, memory problems, depression, anxiety and irritability. Fatigue is a symptom of many different illnesses – but it is not a defining symptom of M. Are limited in how physically active they can be but are also limited in similar ways with cognitive exertion, sensory input and orthostatic stress. Although M.E. can cause many different symptoms the major features of epidemic and sporadic M. Very low blood pressure (hypotension) on reclining, or high blood pressure on activity. Tinnitus and vertigo are often associated with impaired blood flow within the inner ear and brain Other problems related to vestibular dysfunction include complications from aging, autoimmune disorders, and allergies. ) As an acoustic neuroma grows, it compresses the vestibulo-cochlear nerve, usually causing hearing loss, tinnitus, and dizziness or loss of balance. Dizziness in the elderly can be a result of problems with the vestibular, central (brain-related), and vision systems, as well as from neuropathy, psychological causes, and unknown (idiopathic) causes. When the ear is itself attacked, this is known as autoimmune inner ear disease. Tinnitus is abnormal noise perceived in one or both ears or in the head. With severe tinnitus in adults, coexisting factors may include hearing loss, dizziness, head injury, sinus and middle-ear infections, or mastoiditis (infection of the spaces within the mastoid bone). Vestibular disorders: Hearing impairment and related tinnitus often accompany dysfunction of the balance organs (vestibular system). You may develop permanent hearing loss and/or permanent tinnitus in some cases. Drop attacks last just a short time with little associated vertigo. These effects may cause the inner ear to send abnormal messages to the brain, which causes the dizziness and being sick (vomiting). Betahistine is a medicine that is thought to increase the blood flow around the inner ear. Tinnitus and Dizziness are often warning signs of serious hearing loss. Meniere’s disease is an inner ear disorder that causes severe hearing loss, ringing in the ears, and dizziness. Dizziness is often caused by decreased blood supply to the brain and the impaired blood supply may be because of low blood pressure or dehydration which may be caused by diarrhea, fever, and vomiting. Lightheadedness may also be associated with flu, low blood sugar, sweating, common cold, or allergies. The hearing loss in Meniere’s may lead to severe permanent hearing loss and deafness in the affected ear. People with Meniere’s Disease report that tinnitus may be variable and often worsen before an attack of vertigo. Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) with a contrast dye called Gadolinium can rule out an acoustic neuroma or other brain tumor as a possible source of symptoms. Smoking constricts and reduces blood flow to the tiny blood vessels which nourish the inner ear nerve endings. Causes of dizziness related to the ear are often characterized by vertigo (spinning) and nausea. Labyrinthitis – An inner ear infection or inflammation causing both dizziness (vertigo) and hearing loss. Rotation of the head causes a flow of fluid, which in turn causes displacement of the top portion of the hair cells that are embedded in the jelly-like cupula. This can be due to a disturbance in circulation, fluid pressure or metabolism, infections, neuritis, drugs, injury, or growths. Any interference with the circulation to the delicate inner ear structures or their central connections may result in dizziness and, at times, hearing loss and tinnitus. Inner ear dizziness due to blood vessel spasm is usually sudden in onset and intermittent in character. It can be caused by ear problems in your outer, middle or inner ear. You have hearing loss or dizziness with the tinnitus. As you age, the number of functioning nerve fibers in your ears declines, possibly causing hearing problems often associated with tinnitus. Severe injury to the head or neck can cause nerve, blood flow, and muscle issues that result in the perception of tinnitus. Nasal congestion from a severe cold, flu, or sinus infection can create abnormal pressure in the middle ear, impacting normal hearing and causing tinnitus symptoms. Tinnitus & Dizziness, Sydney Australia Impairment of the blood supply to the nerve or inner ear may also play a role. A sudden decrease in hearing, often associated with viral infection or vascular occlusion, occurs in about one in eight AN patients. The headache may radiate to the neck, top of the head or front of the head. This results in a relative increase in the middle ear air pressure compared to the surrounding cabin pressure. In rare instances, surgical intervention to decompress the nerve and allow return of blood flow to the nerve fibers may be indicated. In this condition, there is not only facial weakness, but also often hearing loss, unsteadiness, and painful blisters in the ear canal. There are many causes of tinnitus related directly to the ear, such as simple ear wax. Peripheral causes relate to damage of the inner ear receptors or to the vestibulocochlear nerve. Central vertigo is not associated with hearing loss, and there are often other abnormalities of the central nervous system found by examination. Finally, there are studies suggesting instability of the regulation of intracranial blood flow after head and neck injuries. The hearing loss can be detected even between attacks of vertigo. Deficits in sound localization are most likely to occur when the primary auditory cortex is involved but is less frequently observed with large lesions of the frontal and/or parietal cortex. Pulsatile tinnitus is most often due to turbulence in the carotid blood flow. Most diseases of the inner ear or vestibular nerve are destructive in nature, decreasing input from that ear. Common causes of conductive hearing loss include wax accumulation, ear drum rupture, infections of the outer or middle ear, stiffening or fixation of the small middle ear bones, cholesteatoma (abnormal accumulation of skin in the middle ear), and other less common causes including superior semicircular canal dehiscence syndrome and malformations of the middle or inner ear bony architecture. This can associated with a feeling of fullness or pressure in the ear, tinnitus (ringing), distortion of speech and sound, and often times dizziness and/or vertigo. Hearing loss is often accompanied by intense ringing of the ears (tinnitus). Susac s syndrome is an autoimmune endotheliopathy, a disorder in which the body s immune system mistakenly attacks the inside lining (endothelium) of the walls of the very tiny blood vessels that supply blood to the brain, retina, and inner ear. American Autoimmune & Related Diseases. Causes Of Dizziness Imbalance can also be associated with arthritis, especially in the neck, or another neurological problem. Vertigo, dizziness, and tinnitus after otobasal fractures. This is called noise-induced hearing loss. This kind of tinnitus is most often caused by problems with blood flow in the head or neck. Even with all of these associated conditions and causes, some people develop tinnitus for no obvious reason. Along the path a hearing signal travels to get from the inner ear to the brain, there are many places where things can go wrong to cause tinnitus. When one inner ear is not functioning correctly the brain receives nerve impulses that are no longer equal, causing it to perceive this information as distorted or off balance. Ear dizziness results from disturbances in the circulation of fluid pressure in the inner ear chambers or from direct pressure on the balance nerve which transmits impulses from the inner ear to the brain. Spells may be due to ischemia (decrease or lack of blood flow) within inner ear tisues. There is no physical pain associated with Meniere’s Disease. Vertigo, hearing loss, and tinnitus may not always be present at the same time. This study enables visualization of the structures of the inner ear and brain in order to rule out tumors, strokes, multiple sclerosis, hydrocephalus, congenital anomalies, and other abnormalities which can cause dizziness and imbalance. Hearing loss is the partial or total loss of hearing in one or both ears. Tinnitus (ringing or buzzing in the ear) maybe present with or without significant hearing loss and occur in one or both ears. Dizziness is often caused by decreased blood supply to the brain and the impaired blood supply may be because of low blood pressure or dehydration which may be caused by diarrhea, fever, and vomiting. Vertigo is often associated with inner ear problems or disorders. It may be intermittent or constant, mild or severe, and vary from a low roar to a high pitched type of sound. It may or may not be associated with hearing impairment. Tinnitus must always be thought of as a symptom and not a disease, just as pain in an arm or leg is a symptom and not a disease. Objective Tinnitus may be due to muscle spasms in the middle ear or eustachian tube, or to abnormalities in the blood vessels surrounding the ear. This may occur from a variety of causes: infection; allergic swelling; systemic diseases, either acute or chronic, with resultant toxic effects; sudden exposure to a blast of sound or prolonged exposure to high noise levels in susceptible persons; certain drugs to which the patient may be sensitive; and minute changes in the blood supply with resultant changes in nutrition. The vestibular nerve carries information from the inner ear about head movement. After a few days, symptoms are often only precipitated by sudden movements. However, present thought is that inflammation, presumably viral, is much more common than loss of blood flow. In labyrinthitis, it is also thought that generally viruses cause the infection, but rarely labyrinthitis can be the result of a bacterial middle ear infection. In labyrinthitis, hearing may be reduced or distorted in tandem with vertigo. The patient suffering from vertigo often uses the term dizzy to describe this sensation. These are thought to be dormant forms of a virus and may, when activated, produce infection with resultant inner ear disease.29,33 Other causes such as occlusion of the anterior vestibular artery, cerebellar infarctions, and acute diabetic neuropathy have been implicated in the etiology of vestibular neuronitis. 65 Cogan’s syndrome is a rare disease characterized by non-syphilitic interstitial keratitis associated with tinnitus, vertigo and hearing loss.68 The etiology is uncertain but evidence suggests that immunologic or infectious causes are likely. It is well known that turning the head leads to decrease flow in vertebral vessels,111 however, general cardiovascular causes such as atherosclerosis appear more important. Often, tinnitus is accompanied by a partial loss of hearing. Thus, the frequency may depend on the exact part of the inner ear where the original injury occurred. A common example is a pulsatile bruit caused by turbulent flow through blood vessels in the neck. Migraines are sometimes associated with tinnitus and vertigo. Often several conditions can conspire to produce balance problems. Related Topics. Symptoms of an acoustic neuroma may include vertigo, hearing loss and tinnitus in one ear. When one inner ear is not functioning correctly, the brain receives nerve impulses that are no longer equal, causing it to perceive this information as distorted or off balance. Ear dizziness results from disturbances in the circulation or fluid pressure in the inner ear chambers or from direct pressure on the balance nerve that transmits impulses from the inner ear to the brain. Imbalance due to ear infection is usually abrupt and severe in onset often associate with nausea and vomiting. Ringing in the ears (tinnitus) is noise originating in the ear rather than in the environment. The noise heard by people with tinnitus may be a buzzing, ringing, roaring, whistling, or hissing sound and is often associated with hearing loss. It is caused by abnormal activity in the part of the brain responsible for processing sound (auditory cortex).	i don't know
Which famous author, born in Sandymount, County Dublin in 1865 won the Nobel Prize For Literature in 1923 ?	William Butler Yeats, Nobel Prize in Literature 1923 (1865 - 1939) - Genealogy William Butler Yeats, Nobel Prize in Literature 1923 Birthdate: in Menton, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, France Immediate Family: June 13 1865 - Sandymount, County Dublin, Ireland Death: Jan 28 1939 - Menton, France Parents: John Butler Yeats, Susan Mary Yeats Wife: Anne Yeats, Michael Butler Yeats Siblings: John Butler Yeats, Susan Mary Yeats (born Pollexfen) Siblings: Elizabeth Yeats, Jack Yeats, Susan Yeats Wife: John Butler Yeats, Susan Yeats (born Pollexfen) Siblings: Susan Mary (Lily) Yeats, Elizabeth Corbet (Lollie) Yeats, Robert Corbet (Bobbie) Yeats, John Butler (Jack) Yeats, Jane Grace Yeats Wife: Georgie Yeats (poet) (born Hyde Lees) Children: ex-partner's daughter About W. B. Yeats, Nobel Prize in Literature 1923 William Butler Yeats (pronounced /ˈjeɪts/; 13 June 1865 – 28 January 1939) was an Irish poet and dramatist, and one of the foremost figures of 20th century literature. A pillar of both the Irish and British literary establishments, in his later years Yeats served as an Irish Senator for two terms. He was a driving force behind the Irish Literary Revival, and along with Lady Gregory and Edward Martyn founded the Abbey Theatre, serving as its chief during its early years. In 1923 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for what the Nobel Committee described as "inspired poetry, which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation." He was the first Irishman so honored. Yeats is generally considered one of the few writers who completed their greatest works after being awarded the Nobel Prize; such works include The Tower (1928) and The Winding Stair and Other Poems (1929). Yeats was born and educated in Dublin but spent his childhood in County Sligo. He studied poetry in his youth and from an early age was fascinated by both Irish legends and the occult. Those topics feature in the first phase of his work, which lasted roughly until the turn of the 20th century. His earliest volume of verse was published in 1889 and those slow-paced and lyrical poems display debts to Edmund Spenser, Percy Bysshe Shelley, and the Pre-Raphaelite poets. From 1900, Yeats' poetry grew more physical and realistic. He largely renounced the transcendental beliefs of his youth, though he remained preoccupied with physical and spiritual masks, as well as with cyclical theories of life. 'Easter, 1916' I have met them at close of day Coming with vivid faces From counter or desk among grey Eighteenth-century houses. I have passed with a nod of the head Or polite meaningless words, Or have lingered awhile and said Polite meaningless words, And thought before I had done Of a mocking tale or a gibe To please a companion Around the fire at the club, Being certain that they and I But lived where motley is worn: All changed, changed utterly: A terrible beauty is born. * That woman's days were spent In ignorant good-will, Until her voice grew shrill. What voice more sweet than hers When, young and beautiful, This man had kept a school And rode our wingèd horse; This other his helper and friend Was coming into his force; He might have won fame in the end, So sensitive his nature seemed, So daring and sweet his thought. This other man I had dreamed A drunken, vainglorious lout. He had done most bitter wrong To some who are near my heart, Yet I number him in the song; He, too, has resigned his part In the casual comedy; He, too, has been changed in his turn, Transformed utterly: A terrible beauty is born. * Hearts with one purpose alone Through summer and winter seem Enchanted to a stone To trouble the living stream. The horse that comes from the road, The rider, the birds that range From cloud to tumbling cloud, Minute by minute they change; A shadow of cloud on the stream Changes minute by minute; A horse-hoof slides on the brim, And a horse plashes within it; The long-legged moor-hens dive, And hens to moor-cocks call; Minute by minute they live: The stone's in the midst of all. * Can make a stone of the heart. O when may it suffice? That is Heaven's part, our part To murmur name upon name, As a mother names her child When sleep at last has come On limbs that had run wild. What is it but nightfall? No, no, not night but death; Was it needless death after all? For England may keep faith For all that is done and said. We know their dream; enough To know they dreamed and are dead; And what if excess of love Bewildered them till they died? I write it out in a verse—	W. B. Yeats
Which famous author, born in Dublin in 1856 won the Nobel Prize For Literature In 1925 ?	W.B. Yeats (Author of The Collected Poems of W.B. Yeats) Poetry , Religion & Spirituality , Literature & Fiction Influences edit data William Butler Yeats (pronounced /ˈjeɪts/) was an Irish poet and dramatist, and one of the foremost figures of 20th century literature. A pillar of both the Irish and British literary establishments, in his later years Yeats served as an Irish Senator for two terms. He was a driving force behind the Irish Literary Revival, and along with Lady Gregory and Edward Martyn founded the Abbey Theatre, serving as its chief during its early years. In 1923 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for what the Nobel Committee described as "inspired poetry, which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation." He was the first Irishman so honored. Yeats is generally considered one of the few writers who completed their William Butler Yeats (pronounced /ˈjeɪts/) was an Irish poet and dramatist, and one of the foremost figures of 20th century literature. A pillar of both the Irish and British literary establishments, in his later years Yeats served as an Irish Senator for two terms. He was a driving force behind the Irish Literary Revival, and along with Lady Gregory and Edward Martyn founded the Abbey Theatre, serving as its chief during its early years. In 1923 he was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for what the Nobel Committee described as "inspired poetry, which in a highly artistic form gives expression to the spirit of a whole nation." He was the first Irishman so honored. Yeats is generally considered one of the few writers who completed their greatest works after being awarded the Nobel Prize; such works include The Tower (1928) and The Winding Stair and Other Poems (1929). Yeats was born and educated in Dublin but spent his childhood in County Sligo. He studied poetry in his youth, and from an early age was fascinated by both Irish legends and the occult. Those topics feature in the first phase of his work, which lasted roughly until the turn of the century. His earliest volume of verse was published in 1889, and those slow paced and lyrical poems display debts to Edmund Spenser and Percy Bysshe Shelley, as well as to the Pre-Raphaelite poets. From 1900, Yeats' poetry grew more physical and realistic. He largely renounced the transcendental beliefs of his youth, though he remained preoccupied with physical and spiritual masks, as well as with cyclical theories of life.	i don't know
Who were the last county to be admitted into the County championship ?	A brief history of the County Championship \| Cricket \| ESPN Cricinfo A brief history of the County Championship List of winners \| Competition sponsors \| Wooden spoon At least four possible dates have been given for the start of county cricket in England. The first, patchy, references began in 1825. The earliest mention in any cricket publication is in 1864 and eight counties have come to be regarded as first-class from that date, including Cambridgeshire, who dropped out after 1871. For many years, the County Championship was considered to have started in 1873, when regulations governing qualification first applied; indeed, a special commemorative stamp was issued by the Post Office in 1973. However, the Championship was not formally organised until 1890 and before then champions were proclaimed by the press; sometimes publications differed in their views and no definitive list of champions can start before that date. Eight teams contested the 1890 competition - Gloucestershire, Kent, Lancashire, Middlesex, Nottinghamshire, Surrey, Sussex and Yorkshire. Somerset joined in the following year, and in 1895 the Championship began to acquire something of its modern shape when Derbyshire, Essex, Hampshire, Leicestershire and Warwickshire were added. At that point MCC officially recognised the competition's existence. Worcestershire, Northamptonshire and Glamorgan were admitted to the Championship in 1899, 1905 and 1921 respectively and are regarded as first-class from these dates. An invitation in 1921 to Buckinghamshire to enter the Championship was declined, owing to the lack of necessary playing facilities, and an application by Devon in 1948 was unsuccessful. Durham were admitted to the Championship in 1992 and were granted first-class status prior to their pre-season tour of Zimbabwe. In 2000, the Championship was split for the first time into two divisions, on the basis of counties' standings in the 1999 competition. For the first six seasons, the bottom three teams in Division One were relegated at the end of the season, and the top three teams in Division Two promoted. In 2006 this was changed to a two-up, two-down system of promotion and relegation. County Champions The title of champion county is unreliable before 1890. In 1963, Wisden formally accepted the list of champions "most generally selected'' by contemporaries, as researched by the late Rowland Bowen. Results 3rd ODI: India v England at Kolkata Jan 22, 2017 (13:30 local \| 08:00 GMT \| 03:00 EST \| 02:00 CST \| 00:00 PST) Group A: Leeward Is v Kent at Coolidge Jan 25, 2017 (13:30 local \| 17:30 GMT \| 12:30 EST \| 11:30 CST \| 09:30 PST) 1st T20I: India v England at Kanpur Jan 26, 2017 (16:30 local \| 11:00 GMT \| 06:00 EST \| 05:00 CST \| 03:00 PST) Group A: Trinidad & T v Kent at Lucas Street Jan 29, 2017 (09:00 local \| 13:00 GMT \| 08:00 EST \| 07:00 CST \| 05:00 PST) 2nd T20I: India v England at Nagpur Jan 29, 2017 (19:00 local \| 13:30 GMT \| 08:30 EST \| 07:30 CST \| 05:30 PST)	Durham
Who was editor of the News Of The World newspaper at the time of it’s closure ?	Zafar Ansari bowls Surrey to first Championship win of the season \| Sport \| The Guardian Zafar Ansari bowls Surrey to first Championship win of the season • Spinner takes four wickets in 13 balls and finishes with six for 36 against Notts • Durham put Yorkshire under pressure at the Riverside Zafar Ansari took six for 36 to bowl Surrey to their first County Championship Division One victory of the season, against Nottinghamshire. Photograph: Philip Brown/Getty Images Graham Hardcastle Wednesday 22 June 2016 20.25 EDT Last modified on Thursday 7 July 2016 08.41 EDT Close This article is 7 months old Zafar Ansari took four wickets in 13 balls and finished with six for 36 to bowl Surrey to their first Championship win of the season against Nottinghamshire, who forlornly chased a fourth day target of 386 at The Oval. Ansari finally has something to smile about after a nightmare nine months in which he has struggled to shake off a serious thumb injury. Since badly dislocating the thumb on his left-hand during a Championship match against Lancashire at Old Trafford last September, the 24-year-old has missed England’s winter Test series against Pakistan , undergone two operations and reinjured the same thumb this summer. He has played only four Championship matches in 2016 but now has 13 wickets to his name added to 183 runs with one half-century. Gareth Batty, who following the win described Ansari as “the best young spinner in the country in my opinion” declared overnight with Surrey on 244 for five, 385 ahead, and Notts were never realistically in the hunt as they lost wickets all too regularly. Brendan Taylor’s 68 was their only innings of note. Ansari initially removed Jake Libby, Riki Wessels, Samit Patel and Zimbabwean Taylor as Notts collapsed from 119 for two in the 37th over to 124 for six in the 41st. Libby was caught at backward point before Wessels was caught behind next ball. Patel survived the hat-trick ball but perished shortly afterwards to cover and Taylor fell stumped. Ansari wrapped up the win to put the two teams level on 72 points after eight matches in seventh and eighth positions, when he had Jake Ball lbw and Harry Gurney caught in the covers shortly before 3pm. All of this was happening while Sam Curran was completing his final A-Level exam. At the Riverside, another left-hander prospered but this time with the bat as Keaton Jennings’ fourth Championship century of the season went a long way to turning the tables on Yorkshire during a dominant third day for a Durham side aiming to become only the second county to beat the reigning champions in the last two and a half seasons. They recovered from 98 for three overnight in their second innings to close day three on 452 for eight, meaning a lead of 301. With the spotlight on team-mate Scott Borthwick due to his likely England recall, South African-born Jennings has gone quietly about his business and is now the leading run-scorer in either division with 702. Jennings, who posted two hundreds in the season opener against Somerset here, added a career-best unbeaten 185 to leave Yorkshire , on course for a three-day win at the start of the day, looking ragged. He was ably supported by half-centuries for Paul Collingwood (61) and Yorkshire-born seamer Usman Arshad, who did not make it into his home county’s system as a junior growing up in Bradford. After Jennings and Collingwood had shared 117 either side of lunch for the fifth wicket to steady Durham’s second innings, Arshad gave it impetus with some lusty striking. He hit Adam Lyth’s part-time off-spin for sixes over long-on and straight on the way to his career-best 84. Their seventh-wicket partnership amassed 156 inside 36 overs either side of tea as the champions dropped a couple of important catches. No doubt, Yorkshire will fancy their chances of chasing a final day target, but they face a tough task given there have been plenty of signs of uneven bounce. Leicestershire inflicted a first defeat upon Division Two leaders Essex at Chelmsford as they chased down 159 in the last 33 overs of the match. Angus Robson’s 56 was instrumental in a four-wicket win. The match between Glamorgan and Kent at Cardiff petered out to a draw, while Derbyshire are chasing a fourth day victory over Worcestershire at Derby. Back in Division One at Old Trafford, Matthew Parkinson became the only the second English leg-spinner since 1946 to take a five-for on Championship debut during the third day between his Lancashire side and Warwickshire. Adil Rashid was the other. Lancashire will begin day four on 170 for five in their second innings, leading by 215. On the first day of the game at Hove, the home side Sussex were bowled out for just 178, Mohammad Azharullah taking six for 68. Northamptonshire were 43 for one in reply at the close.	i don't know
Which bookmaker was founded in 1988 by the merger of 40 shops of three Irish bookmakers ?	PaddyPower (paddypower.com) bookmaker review: rules, support, sign up Workability 0/10 Contents Company Review Company Review PaddyPower was founded in 1988 in Ireland following the merger of 40 betting shops owned between three bookmakers, Stewart Kenny, David Power, and John Corcoran. The general director of this public owned company is Andy McCue. PaddyPower has offices located in Ireland, the United Kingdom and Italy. The bookmaker is also represented in Australia. PaddyPower’s online arm is regulated by a license from the Isle of Man, while it has a license for gaming in the United Kingdom and in Australia, a license which is provided by the government of the Northern Territory. PaddyPower also accept bets on the Italian market and are allowed to do under a local license. Not only does the company have a large online presence, they also have a wide network of betting shops with more than 350 in the UK and Ireland. The website can be found at www.paddypower.co.uk/bet and www.paddypower.it. The online operation focuses on the British market and it’s main website is available in English, although users in Italy can of course view the site in Italian. PaddyPower allows the use of both pounds and euros, as well as affording clients all the regular methods of topping up their accounts, which makes the depositing and withdrawing of funds both easy and convenient. PaddyPower often have a variety offers and bonuses for both new players and existing customers to enjoy. First time users who bet £10, will be able to claim three free £10 bets.. If you have a grievance with the Paddy Power betting firm, The Bookmaker Ratings will act as an intermediary and aim to resolve any issues. Video review hush! shooting is in progress! We are shooting this video right now, soon it will be here. Website languages	Paddy Power
Which famous film director was born on December 5th 1901 at Tripp Avenue in Chicago and died on December15th 1966 in Burbank, California?	UK Bookmakers - Bet Asia UK Bookmakers UK Bookmakers 888Sport 888Sport .com is Cassava's sports betting site. The online bookmaker was launched in March 2008. Bets can be placed on a variety of sporting events including horseraces, cricket, football, rugby and other events, such as the Big Brother television programs. 888Sport is currently offered in six countries: Germany, Spain, Denmark, Sweden, Austria and the United Kingdom. » Visit 888Sport Bet365 bet365 is one of the largest online betting companies in the world. bet365 has more than four million customers in 200 countries worldwide and offers betting in 17 different languages. bet365 takes bets from most countries/regions around the world including Europe, Canada and even India. » Visit Bet365 Betfair Betfair is the world's largest Internet betting exchange. The company is based in Hammersmith in West London, England. Since Betfair was launched in June 2000 it has become the largest online betting company in the UK and the largest bet exchange in the world. Betfair claim to have over 3 million clients and a turnover in excess of £50m/week. » Visit Betfair Betfred Betfred is a United Kingdom-based bookmaker, named after its co-founder Fred Done. It was first established as a single shop in Ordsall, Salford, in 1967. Its turnover is over £1.5 billion, a nearly threefold rise since 2003's £550 million. Betfred has more than 800 betting shops. It claims to be both the world's biggest privately owned betting company, and the UK's biggest privately owned retail outlets. » Visit Betfred Betinternet Betinternet offers its worldwide account holders a first class, highly efficient and professional wagering service that is second to none. Betinternet go to great lengths to ensure our customers receive the best in terms of speed, security, value for money and breadth of wagering opportunities. Register today with Betinternet and discover one of the best wagering sites on the web. » Visit Betinternet BetVictor Victor Chandler is chairman of the company that bears his name, Victor Chandler International. Frequently styled ‘The Gentleman Bookmaker’, in 2006 The Racing Post described Chandler as "arguably the most famous bookmaker in the world. He's the Indiana Jones of bookmaking, the fearless, swashbuckling rails layer who lit up Britain's racecourses for two decades.. » Visit BetVictor Blue Square BlueSQ is Rank's interactive gaming business launched on 5 May 1999. The product suite offered by BlueSQ has grown from its traditional bookmaking business to now offer all aspects of the gaming market including online casino, slots and online poker. The fixed odds betting services covers many channels including the Internet, Interactive TV, WAP and telephone. » Visit Blue Square Bookies Bookies.com is one of the UK's leading odds comparison sites where you can compare many different bookies prices without visiting each of their sites. A must first visit for anyone wanting the best prices for their selections. » Visit Bookies Boylesports Boylesports was established by John Boyle in 1989. Its stated mission is to create a “modern sports betting service”. Boylesports employs over 800 people and has 140 retail branches in Ireland. » Visit Boylesports Bwin Bwin Interactive Entertainment AG, formerly betandwin (until 2006), is an Austrian based online betting company. Bwin operates under international and regional licences in countries like Gibraltar, the Amerindian reserve of Kahnawake (Canada), and Belize; and Germany, Italy, Mexico, Croatia, Austria, France, and the United Kingdom in Europe. Bwin offers sports betting, poker, casino games, soft and skill games with most revenue coming from poker and sports betting. Bwin has over 20 million registered customers in more than 25 core markets. Competence centres are located in Vienna, Stockholm, and Gibraltar. » Visit Bwin Coral Coral is a bookmaker in Britain, and currently has 1630 betting shops in the UK as of 3 August 2009 as well as hundreds in Italy trading under the Eurobet name. » Visit dafabet Eurobet Coral is a bookmaker in Britain, and currently has 1630 betting shops in the UK as of 3 August 2009 as well as hundreds in Italy trading under the Eurobet name. At the end of 1999 Eurobet , an internet betting business was acquired and the Coral Group’s name was changed to Coral Eurobet . » Visit Eurobet Expekt Expekt .com Ltd is a pan-European online gaming company with more than 1.8 million registered customers. The main office is in Gzira, Malta and employs 150 people. It offers sports betting, poker, casino games and bingo, as well as pool betting on Supertoto and Superscore. Expekt.com also offers live video streamed sport with Spanish Primera Division, Italian Serie A, Europa League and ATP tennis, including Australian Open and Wimbledon. Expekt .com's site is available in 23 languages and has a wide variety of payment solutions including credit/debit cards. » Visit Expekt Extrabet IG Group launched its unique fixed-odds site extrabet .com in March 2006 as a sister site to its spread-betting offering. The platform was revolutionary, valuing bets in-play so that clients could take their winnings early, or cut a loss, during live events. In March 2009, extrabet .com relaunched as the first betting platform in the world to offer sports spread betting, sports and financial fixed-odds, sports and financial binary betting and a casino all under a single account. » Visit Extrabet Ladbrokes The Ladbrokes brand in the UK is synonymous with betting and gaming. Today the company, whose origins stretch back to 1886, employs more than 16,000 people in five countries, making it the world’s largest fixed-odds betting company. Ladbrokes is the leading bookmaker in the UK, Ireland and Belgium with over 2,600 owned and operated betting shops. It also operates betting facilities at some of the leading FA Premiership grounds and a number of leading racecourses. » Visit Ladbrokes McBookie McBookie is a company dedicated to bringing the best possible service to the Scottish gambling market place. Whether betting on Andrew Murray to win Wimbledon or Scotland to win the World Cup, McBookie strives to be the number one choice for Scottish punters. Always putting Scottish sport and Scottish punters first, McBookie aims to deliver a first class betting service combined with excellent customer service. » Visit McBookie Paddy Power Paddy Power is Ireland’s largest bookmaker. Offline it conducts business through a chain of licensed betting offices and by operating Ireland's largest telephone betting service. Online it offers sports betting, online poker, online bingo, online casino games and spread betting. Paddy Power was founded in 1988 by the merger of three existing Irish main street bookmakers. The company also markets its services in the UK and is a publicly quoted company, listed on the Irish and UK stock exchanges. » Visit Paddy Power Pinnacle Sports Pinnacle Sports is an online gaming website that was founded in 1998 and is operated by Pinnacle Sports Worldwide. Since its inception, Pinnacle Sports has become one of the world’s largest, fully licensed, online sportsbooks. Presently, Pinnacle Sports has customers in over 100 countries and is available in 14 different languages. » Visit Pinnacle Sports Sky Bet Skybet is the sports betting division of Sky Betting and Gaming, with the majority of its operations run from Leeds. The company allows betting via its website, telephone, mobile phone (WAP) and interactive television through Sky. Skybet remains one of the few sports betting companies in the UK not to operate traditional high street shops. The company uses the slogan 'It matters more when there's money on it'. » Visit Sky Bet Sportingbet Sportingbet plc is a British e-gaming operator. The Company was founded by Mark Blandford in 1997. Sportingbet acquired Paradise Poker in October 2004. » Visit Sportingbet Stan James Stan James is a UK bookmaker established in 1973, and trades online under the name Stan James .com. The company is based in Marina Bay, Gibraltar with offices in Abingdon, Oxfordshire. The companies which operate Stan James , Stan James (Gibraltar) Limited and Stan James (Abingdon) Limited, are privately-held companies. Their operations are primarily online and over the telephone with a limited number (under 40) of betting shops in the UK. » Visit Stan James Totesport The Horserace Totalisator Board, more commonly known as The Tote, is a British bookmaker with head offices in Wigan. Under the brand totesport the Tote has over 540 high street betting shop 1 outlets on Britain's 60 racecourses, as well as internet and call centre divisions. » Visit Totesport William Hill Founded in 1934, William Hill is one of the best-known names in the gambling industry, providing gaming and betting services across three channels: online, on the high street and on the phone. William Hill 's headquarters is in the north London suburb of Wood Green and in Leeds, West Yorkshire.	i don't know
Which Welsh golfer won the award for BBC Sports Personality Of The Year in 1957 ?	BBC Sports Personality of the Year: 60 years of Welsh competition - BBC News BBC News BBC Sports Personality of the Year: 60 years of Welsh competition 14 December 2013 Read more about sharing. Close share panel As the BBC Sports Personality of the Year award celebrates its 60th show, take a look at all the winners and runners up of the award from Wales. 1957: Dai Rees (1913 - 1983) from Fontegary, Vale of Glamorgan remains the oldest recipient of the award winning Sports Review of the Year at the age of 44. He captained the Great Britain Ryder Cup team that year, defeating the United States for the first time since 1933. 1960: Show jumper David Broome was named Sportsview Personality of the Year after winning Olympic bronze on Sunsalve in Rome. It would be a long wait before there was to be another Welsh winner of the award. 1971: Barry John was third-placed behind winner HRH Princess Anne and George Best. Seen here playing against the All-Blacks at Auckland in August that year, he broke the record for points kicked for the British Lions. 1972: The following year Chepstow's Richard Meade placed third in the competition and also won BBC Wales Sports Personality of the Year. He won individual gold and was a member of Britain's gold medal winning team in the three-day event at that year's Summer Olympics in Munich. 1987: Ian Woosnam, seen here playing out of the woods during the Woosnam v Lyle Final at the Wentworth Golf Club, was first in the Order of Merit and placed third in the Sports Personality awards behind winner Fatima Whitbread and Steve Davis. 1994 and 1997: Colin Jackson twice came third in the awards. In 1994 he won 110m hurdle gold at the Commonwealth Games representing Wales and set a world record for the 60m hurdles. He took silver in both the indoor and outdoor 1997 World Championships. 1998: Iwan Thomas won gold in the 400m at both the Commonwealth Games and European Championships and came third in the awards behind winner Michael Owen and runner up Denise Lewis. 2000: Tanni Grey-Thompson winning the gold medal in the women's 200m T53 final at the Paralympics Summer Games in Sydney. She came third behind Steve Redgrave and Denise Lewis and also won the BBC Wales Sports Personality award. 2007: Joe Calzaghe floors Mikkel Kessler during the super-middleweight title unification fight at the Millennium Stadium in Cardiff to win by unanimous decision. He went on to win the BBC Sports Personality of the Year, becoming the first Welsh winner for 47 years. 2009: Ryan Giggs won the PFA Player of the Year award, made his 800th appearance for Manchester United, scored his 100th Premier League goal and was awarded BBC Sports Personality of the Year.	Dai Rees
Published in 1992, which American author wrote the famous book Men Are From Mars Women Are From Venus ?	BBC Sports Personality of the Year: Protests about Rory McIlroy are futile, Lewis Hamilton is a worthy winner - Delme Parfitt - Wales Online Sport Opinion BBC Sports Personality of the Year: Protests about Rory McIlroy are futile, Lewis Hamilton is a worthy winner Amid protests from the golfing fraternity that McIlroy was robbed of the prestigious award, Delme Parfitt highlights why we should not be surprised Share Lewis Hamilton wins the 2014 BBC Sports Personality of the Year Award (Photo: David Davies/PA Wire) Share Get rugby updates directly to your inbox + Subscribe Could not subscribe, try again laterInvalid Email The bleating from the golfing fraternity has been deafening. Rory McIlroy’s non-crowning as BBC Sports Personality of the Year has met with a level of objection as fierce in some quarters as that which emanates from a club captain who’s just had a ball drop from the heavens two yards away from him and not heard the shout of “Fore!” Ryder Cup captain Paul McGinley was left ‘very disappointed’. Ian Poulter, blue and gold rabble-rouser-in-chief, branded it ‘absolutely ridiculous’ and ‘a complete joke’. Sir Nick Faldo retweeted sarcasm from Ant and Dec about McIlroy needing ‘faster clubs’. Countless less celebrated observers also waded in. The double-Major winning Northern Irishman was 25-1 on with some bookmakers on Sunday night to receive the prestigious award. It was, in golfing parlance, supposed to be a gimme. But McIlroy was forced to call Lewis Hamilton through...so cue all the usual arguments about whether the winner was worthy, and whether putting the decision out to a public vote can be trusted as a means of ensuring the cream rises to the top. For what it’s worth, my own view, regardless of what Joe Public thought, is that McIlroy should have won it. It’s difficult to make someone who doesn’t care for the game of golf understand the scale of the achievement of winning the Open and the USPGA in the same year, not to mention being part of yet another European Ryder Cup victory. Gallery: The Sports Personality of the Year contenders View gallery Yet I don’t buy the theory that all Hamilton had to do was sit his backside in the best car to win a second World Drivers’ Championship either. Winning Formula One comes with extraordinary physical demands, off the scale concentration levels and mental fortitude in the knowledge that one lapse of judgement could cost you not just a place on the podium but your life. Those who expected Hamilton to play second fiddle clearly underestimated the pulling power of Formula One which has provided the winner six times – Stirling Moss (1961), Jackie Stewart (1973) and Nigel Mansell and Damon Hill twice (1986 and1992, and 1994 and 1996 respectively) – in the 61-year history of what is known in the social media world as SPOTY. By contrast only Welshman Dai Rees (1957) and Sir Nick Faldo (1989) have won courtesy of their exploits on the golf course. Bottom line? Never underestimate the fanaticism of those who follow motorsport. You certainly see it in Cardiff once a year when the speedway rolls into the Welsh capital. It is not difficult to imagine legions of Hamilton followers taking the trouble to pick up telephones and register their preference. Golf, on the other hand, got caught dawdling. On Sunday night, the European Tour was tweeting advice to would-be McIlroy endorsers to text votes for their man when it was not possible to do so under the terms and conditions of the BBC polling process. Honest mistake it may have been, but for all the admiration for the best golfer in the world a similar mobilisation of support for him from Royal Porthcawl to St Andrews was clearly not forthcoming. Hamilton took 33.8% of the vote compared to McIlroy’s 19.9. McIlroy’s was likely a classic case of people nodding sagely about his credentials and believing he was home and hosed without bothering to actually do what was required to ensure it. Other issues need to be considered. Rory McIlroy gives the first fist pump of the Ryder Cup The most pressing is the sense that golf is no longer embedding itself in the public consciousness in the way it did at the height of its resurgence in the late 1980s and early 1990s. That was a time when the exploits of Faldo, Woosnam, Lyle, Langer and Ballesteros made golf club membership a seller’s market and you were nobody if a Pringle sweater wasn’t hanging in your wardrobe. McIlroy’s Open triumph was at the apex of his fantastic year, yet it was just about the only time we were able to see him perform on terrestrial televsion. The rest of the golfing calendar is tucked away behind a satellite subscription – Ryder Cup included – and so there’s the suspicion that golf is suffering in the same way as Test cricket has done. It flies over the heads of those with a dish who flick on Sky Sports as routinely as they do EastEnders. Then there is the passage of time. McIlroy’s exploits at Hoylake were also in July, so it wasn’t fresh in the minds of punters in the same way as Hamilton’s triumph which was sealed at the Abu Dhabi Grand Prix only a fortnight ago. The other potential factor being put forward is more complex and, unfortunately political. Mercedes Lewis Hamilton celebrates becoming World Champion after victory in the 2014 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix Did McIlroy’s support from his own country, Northern Ireland suffer because of his decision to represent Ireland rather than Great Britain at the 2016 Rio Olympics? McIlroy has argued that as he played all his amateur golf under the auspices of the Golfing Union of Ireland and was funded by the GUI in his formative golfing years, he feels he belongs under the Irish banner. But being from Holywood, County Down, there are those who find his decision difficult to accept. We will probably never know what part all that played, but what we do know is that he will probably have to do something unimaginable to ever get his hands on the BBC trophy now. Not that McIlroy will lose sleep. He will be more concerned with being in possession of the trophy he walked on stage with in Glasgow on Sunday...the Open Championship Claret Jug. You can bet any disdain he has for the outcome isn’t half as pronounced as some of those who believe he was robbed. The engraver has done his work. BBC Sports Personality of the Year 2014 is Lewis Hamilton. He is entirely worthy. Like us on Facebook Most Read Most Recent	i don't know
Which village in Lincolnshire is home to the aerobatics display team The Red Arrows ?	The Red Arrows - Lincolnshire.org Five Dog Friendly Cottages in Lincolnshire The Red Arrows "Officially known as the Royal Air Force Aerobatic Team, the Red Arrows is the aerobatic display team of the Royal Air Force" Officially known as the Royal Air Force Aerobatic Team, the Red Arrows is the aerobatic display team of the Royal Air Force. Today, the Red Arrows are based at RAF Scampton. The Red Arrows, however, were not the first RAF aerobatics team. History of the RAF Red Arrows The glory days of RAF jet aerobatics display teams were in the 1950s and 1960s. There was a time during the mid 1960s that almost every Flying Training School had their own aerobatic display teams, until the Royal Air Force decided to disband all of them and form one single, permanent professional team, as so much time, effort and money were being spent on them. As a result, the Red Pelicans flying six Jet Provost T Mk 4s became the first team to represent the Royal Air Force as one in 1964. That same year saw the formation of a team of five yellow Folland Gnat jet trainers, known as the Yellowjacks, at No 4 Flying Training School at Royal Air Force Valley in North Wales. This team was led by Flight Lieutenant Lee Jones who was posted to the Central Flying School (CFS) the following year to form the Red Arrows. The Red Arrows began at RAF Gloucestershire, which was then a satellite of CFS. There were, originally, seven display pilots and ten Gnat jet trainers. The name Red Arrows is a combination of the names of two earlier teams, the Black Arrows and the Red Pelicans. On May 6, 1965, the Red Arrows held their first display in the UK at Little Rissington for a press day, and in their first season, the team had flown 65 displays in Britain, France, Italy, Holland, Belgium and Germany. The Red Arrows team was awarded the Britannia Trophy by the Royal Aero Club in recognition of their outstanding contribution to aviation. Eventually, two spare pilots were established even though the team continued to fly only seven aircraft in most of their displays. The first time the Red Arrows flew with nine pilots was for the benefit of HRH The Duke of Edinburgh in July 1966. It wasn’t until 1968 that the Red Arrows officially increased in size to nine. There was nothing new in flying nine aircraft in a diamond-shaped formation, but the team’s perfectly symmetrical Diamond Nine rapidly became the representation of the peak of precision flying. It was soon registered as an official trademark. The British Aerospace Hawk trainer arrived in the autumn of 1979 and the pilots converted from the Gnat. They worked up a display using the new aircraft for the 1980 display season. The Hawk has since taken the Red Arrows on tours all over the world. In 2006, the 4000th display flown using the Hawk was at Royal Air Force Leuchars’ Battle of Britain Airshow. RAF Scampton became the CFS headquarters in 1983, and the Red Arrows moved there as well. Due to economic reasons, Scampton was closed in 1995; thus, the Red Arrows moved to RAF Cranwell, just twenty miles away from Scampton. However, since they still used the air space above Scampton, the emergency facilities and runway still had to be maintained, and they moved back there in December 21, 2000. Group Composition There are nine volunteer display pilots each year, each of them staying for a three-year tour of duty. Three pilots are changed every year. This means that there are always three pilots in their first year, three pilots in their second year and three pilots in their final year with the team. Aside from the nine pilots, the Road Manager, also known as ‘Red 10’, is a fully qualified Hawk pilot who flies the tenth aircraft whenever the team is away from the base. He is in-charge of various duties that include coordination of the display and acting as the team’s Ground Safety Officer. In addition, Red 10 flies TV cameramen and photographers for air-to-air photos of the Red Arrows. The group is also supported by an 85-member engineering team, known as “The Blues”. To date, the Red Arrows has flown over 4000 displays throughout the world. They have become renowned and have acted as ambassadors for Great Britain, demonstrating capabilities of British equipment and expertise. Author Information Lincolnshire's best Christmas lights switch-on celebrations... Places to stay nearby	Scampton
Cordoba is the second most highly populated city of which country ?	the RAF Aerobatic Team the Red Arrows, history History Since the first aerial pageant at Hendon in 1920, formation aerobatics have been held in high regard by the Royal Air Force. In the barnstorming days before the Second World War no air display would be complete without the sight of two or more biplanes flying in close proximity, often tied together. With the dawn of the jet age, piston engine aircraft were replaced by the faster and more dramatic of the new front-line jet fighters. The first RAF jet team was formed in 1947 and consisted of three Vampires from the Odiham Wing in Hampshire. By 1950 72 Squadron was flying a team of seven Vampires and 54 Squadron, with their five aircraft, were the first to use smoke. This was achieved by injecting diesel into the jet pipe where the high temperature turned it to white smoke. Rivalry between the RAF fighter squadrons was high and it became the trend for each to form its own team. When 54 Squadron re-equipped with the Hawker Hunter in 1955 they put together a four ship team know as the Black Knights. In 1956, 111 Squadron (Tremblers or Treble One) became the official RAF display team with their five gloss black Hunters. After displaying in France they were applauded as Les Fleches Noires and they soon became know throughout the Continent as the Black Arrows. Two of those original aircraft remained in service until 1995, being used for groundcrew training at RAF Scampton. The RAF sold one to The Royal Jordanian Historic Aircraft Flight and the other to a private buyer in South Africa. In 1957 The Black Arrows were increased to nine aircraft. These were supplemented in 1958 by an additional 13 aircraft from other squadrons in order to perform a 22 aircraft loop and barrel roll at the Farnborough Air Show. This is the greatest number of aircraft ever looped in formation and remains a world record to this day. The Tigers, of 74 Squadron, became the official RAF display team in 1962 with nine Mach 2 Lightnings. At that time 92 Squadron, with the Blue Diamonds, and 56 Squadron, with The Firebirds, could also be seen on the display circuit. In 1964 six Jet Provosts of The Central Flying School (CFS) became the official RAF team, known as The Red Pelicans. The RAF were soon to realize that training aircraft were a much cheaper option to operate than the Lightning. The Squadrons, afterall, seemed to be spending more time at airshows and less time flying operational sorties. The Red Pelicans were not without their rivals and in that same year a five ship of yellow Gnats, known as The Yellow jacks, were formed at RAF Valley in North Wales by Flight Lieutenant Lee Jones. The Folland Gnat was the RAFs advanced jet trainer and its speed and agility made it the perfect machine for formation aerobatics. The following year Jones formed the official RAF display team with a seven ship of red Gnats and called them The Red Arrows. Initially The Red Arrows were based at RAF Fairford in Gloucestershire which was operated by CFS. The team was equipped with a total of ten Gnats although they continued to display seven until 1968. Each had its own three colour smoke generation system and a distinctive red, white and blue colours scheme. In that first year The Red Arrows performed 65 displays in the UK, Italy, The Netherlands, Belgium and Germany. At the end of that year they were awarded the Britannia Trophy by the Royal Aero Club in recognition of their outstanding contribution to British prestige in the field or aviation. Initially The Red Arrows employed a spare pilot, but soon found this practice to be unsatisfactory. The display routine is a complex one and any reserve pilot would be required to learn all the skills of his colleagues. Since he would rarely be called upon to fly in a display it would be difficult to keep him current and in time he would become frustrated. In the nineteen sixties much of the Central Flying School were located at airfields around the Cotswolds in the heart of England. It was there that the Team remained, moving from Fairford to Kemble, near Cirencester. RAF Scampton, in Lincolnshire, became the Headquarters of CFS, and in 1983 The Red Arrows were relocated there. With the end of the Cold war, Scampton fell victim to defence cuts and the airfield closed at the end of 1995. In February 1996, after returning from tours of Africa, Australia and the Far East the Team settled into their new home at RAF Cranwell, where they share the airfield with the Bulldogs, Dominies and Jetstreams of CFS. Although the public have always known them as the The Red Arrows their official name is The Royal Air force Aerobatic Team (RAFAT). This is the title that appears on the Squadrons crest together with the diamond nine and the motto Eclat, with means brilliance. When the team was first formed the original badge depicted seven red Gnats in Vulcan formation superimposed over the RAF roundel. Since 1968 The Red Arrows have performed as a nine ship display team and from that time the Diamond Nine shape has been their trademark. Number six and seven are known as the Synchronised or Synchro Pair and are well known for their breathtaking crosses in front of the crowd. The display routine has always been designed to keep the attention of the crowd and is split into two distinctive segments. Each year the team pilots create a display routine around this basic format. The complete routine lasts about twenty minutes, which some spectators think is not long enough. The team, however, believe in the philosophy that is always better to leave the crowd wanting more. The first half of their display consists of aerobatic manoeuvres performed by all nine aircraft flying a variety of different shapes. Six and seven spend most of the first half in line astern on the leader, forming what is called the stem. In the second half the Synchro Pair split off from the other seven aircraft to perform their crosses, these are interlaced with the splits and rejoins of the main section. In previous years all nine aircraft would rejoin for the Parasol Break as the finale to the show. The Red Arrows fly as two loose formations of five aircraft when transitting between displays. The Team Manager flies the spare. For many years now the front five have been nicknamed "Enid" after the famous five books by Enid Blighton. Six to ten are known as Gypo which comes from the word Gypsy. Perhaps this was due to the appearance of some of the pilots. 1979 was the last year that the Team flew the Gnat. The British Aerospace Hawk became the RAF's new jet trainer and the Red Arrows converted to it during the winter of 79/80. The Team began the 1980 display season with the new aircraft and a brand new colour scheme. Seventy-five support personnel are required to keep the Team airborn. Six of these are involved in administration and planning, commanded by a Warrant Officer. The remainder are engineers, of which 25 are designated as First Line and 41 are Second Line. First Line are responsible for servicing the aircraft away from the home base. They are commanded by a Flight Lieutenant Engineering Officer (Eng 1), who flies, together with nine of his engineers, to the displays, and collectively they are known as Circus. The remainder, if required, will travel by road. Second Line are responsible for the in-depth maintenance back at base and are also commanded by a Flight Lieutenant Engineering Officer (Eng 2). In the 32 years that the Team has been in existence it has displayed in fifty countries. They perform over one hundred displays each year and have totalled more than 3400 to date. The 1000th show was flown in the summer of 1977 at Greenham Common. Nine years later the 2000th display was achieved in front of holiday crowds at Bournmouth sea front. The 3000th display was performed over the estuary at Dartmouth in August 1995. The Team has always fulfilled its role in promoting a positive image of the Royal Air Force and as an aid to recruiting, but more recently they have been called upon to promote the British Aerospace industry through displays at home and abroad. The Red Arrows, through the many displays they perform each year, have become a household name and there is almost no one in the UK that does not know who or what they are. It is true to say that following recent tours to Africa, Asia and North America they are also becoming a worldwide name. This is a rare position to hold and should ensure that the Team remains a useful asset for many years to come. by Flt Lt Mark Zanker Special thanks must go to all the Red Arrow pilots and special to: the Groundcrew. all photographs by: EJ van Koningsveld �	i don't know
"""I Whistle A Happy Tune"" and ""Getting To Know You"" are two songs from Which stage musical of 1951 ?"	The King and I [Original 1951 Cast] - Gertrude Lawrence \| Songs, Reviews, Credits \| AllMusic The King and I [Original 1951 Cast] AllMusic Rating google+ AllMusic Review by William Ruhlmann Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II's fifth musical, The King and I, was their first to be designed as a star vehicle -- written at the behest of British stage star Gertrude Lawrence to mark her return to the New York musical stage after ten years in 1951. The show was a musicalization of Margaret Landon's 1944 novel Anna and the King of Siam, in turn based on the diaries of Anna H. Leonowens, who had been tutor to the children of King Mongkut of Siam in the 19th century, and it had already been adapted into a nonmusical film in 1946. Rodgers and Hammerstein were somewhat hamstrung by the principal cast members. Neither Lawrence nor Yul Brynner, a television director hired to play the part of the king, had much of a singing voice. The songwriters solved this problem by giving the rangy songs -- "We Kiss in a Shadow," "Something Wonderful," and "I Have Dreamed" -- to the secondary characters: Tuptim (Doretta Morrow), Lady Thiang (Dorothy Sarnoff), and Lun Tha (Larry Douglas), respectively. Brynner, who was billed as only a supporting player at first (though he later achieved star billing), got a patter song, "A Puzzlement." As the star, Lawrence had to have several numbers, but Rodgers and Hammerstein played upon her role as a teacher to give her two simple tunes to be sung to children -- "I Whistle a Happy Tune" and "Getting to Know You" -- as well as a patter song expressing her anger with the king, "Shall I Tell You What I Think of You?" Even "Hello, Young Lovers" and her duet with Brynner, "Shall We Dance?," were pleasant ditties rather than demanding theater songs. And yet, the musical restrictions made for a highly enjoyable, pop-oriented score with slight Oriental touches. "Hello, Young Lovers" and "We Kiss in a Shadow" became minor hits, but the most memorable songs over time ended up being "I Whistle a Happy Tune" and "Getting to Know You," which became children's standards. The original Broadway cast album just missed topping the bestseller charts and remained listed there for over a year. It has remained in print through various reissues over the years. The first CD version appeared in 1990. It was repackaged with new liner notes for Rodgers and Hammerstein's 50th anniversary in 1993, and this version was given a 24-bit remastering for a reissue released on May 16, 2000. Track Listing	The King and I
Which famous film director was born on August 13th 1899 in Leytonstone near London and died on April 29th 1980 in Bel Air California ?	THE KING AND I by Richard Rodgers and Oscar Hammerstein II “The music is so entrancing, the lyrics so enchanting, the characterizations so rich, that it’s no puzzlement why The King and I endures.” - The Guardian A glorious spectacle of unforgettable songs, marvelous costumes, and opulent scenery is coming to Lyric this spring with an “elaborate...brightly colored...dazzling” (The New York Times) production of one of the most beloved musicals of all time, The King and I. This Tony-winning musical that tells the story of a British schoolteacher who is hired by the King of Siam to tutor his wives and children will capture your heart as they discuss, debate, and ultimately grow in understanding and respect. A cast of Broadway’s brightest led by Kate Baldwin, who “casts a warm glow whenever she sings” (The New York Daily News) and Paolo Montalban, who “rules the stage with flawless timing and a perfect sense of entitlement” (The Washington Post) will illuminate the Lyric stage and delight with one familiar song after another, including “Shall We Dance?,” “Something Wonderful,” “Getting to Know You,” “I Whistle a Happy Tune,” and more. Don’t miss the limited engagement of this hit Broadway musical! #LyricKing Performance running time: 3 hours including 1 intermission Lyric Opera premiere generously made possible by The Negaunee Foundation, two Anonymous Donors, Robert S. and Susan E. Morrison, and Northern Trust. Rodgers & Hammerstein's THE KING AND I Music by Richard Rodgers Book and Lyrics by Oscar Hammerstein II Based on Anna and the King by Margaret Landon Original Orchestrations by Robert Russell Bennett Original Dance Arrangements by Trude Rittmann Original Choreography by Jerome Robbins The King and I production created by the Théâtre du Châtelet, Paris on June 13, 2014. General Director: Jeanluc Choplin. Photo: Marie-Noëlle Robert The King and I Resources	i don't know
Which town in Southern England is home to the Royal National Lifeboat Institution ?	RNLI is the charity that saves lives at sea Facebook Twitter YouTube Instagram Pinterest The RNLI is the charity that saves lives at sea Royal National Lifeboat Institution (RNLI), a charity registered in England and Wales (209603) and Scotland (SC037736). Registered charity number 20003326 in the Republic of Ireland \| RNLI (Sales) Ltd t/a RNLI Shop (registration number 2202240) and RNLI College Ltd (registration number 7705470) both companies registered in England and Wales at West Quay Road, Poole, BH15 1HZ. Images and copyright © RNLI 2017.	Poole
Published in 1980, which American author wrote the book The Bourne Identity ?	British Cities: Population: 149,244 Area: 64.88 kmï¿½ Poole is a coastal town, port and tourist destination in the ceremonial county of Dorset in southern England. The town has a population of 141,128 and is famed for its large natural harbour, situated on the shores of the English Channel. Prominent employers in Poole include Barclays Bank, Hamworthy Engineering, Poole Packaging, and Ryvita. The town is home to the headquarters of Sunseeker, Royal National Lifeboat Institution (RNLI) and the 'worldwide freeride' clothing company, Animal. The Poole Harbour area has been inhabited for well over 2,000 years. The local tribe were the Celtic Durotriges who lived in Dorset in the Iron Age, particularly around Wareham, five miles to the west. The earliest significant archaeological find in the harbour itself is the Poole Longboat, a 10 metre boat made from a single oak tree and dating to 295 BCE. At the time the harbour was probably shallower and any settlement would now be under water. During the last few centuries before the Roman invasion the Celtic people were moving from the hilltop settlements, such as Maiden Castle and Badbury Rings on the chalk downs to the north, and onto the lower vales and heathland around the River Frome. It may be this marshy area which gave the Durotriges, "water dwellers", their name. The Durotriges probably engaged in cross-channel trading at Poole with the Veneti, a seafaring tribe from Brittany. In the Roman invasion of Britain in the 1st century, Poole was one of a number of harbouring sites along the south coast where the Romans landed. The Romans founded Hamworthy, an area just west of the modern town centre, and continued to use the harbour during the occupation. Poole was a small fishing village at the time of the Norman Conquest, but grew rapidly into an important port exporting wool and in 1433 was made Port of the Staple. By then the town had trade links from the Baltic to Spain. However, in 1405 the Spanish burnt Poole to the ground because local pirate, Harry Paye, kept attacking Spanish vessels. The town, however, continued to grow in importance despite the effects of piracy and, in 1571, was made a county corporate. In the 17th century transatlantic trade and travel developed and at the start of the 18th century Poole was beating rival Bristol as the busiest port in England. The town grew rapidly during the industrial revolution as urbanisation took place, and the merchants put up tenement buildings, most of which were demolished during the ill-advised slum clearance activities in the late 1960s and early 1970s. Poole was granted exclusive rights to fish off Newfoundland by Queen Victoria, which drasticly improved the importance and wealth of the town; however, when this right wore off, other ports were quick to get their share in the trade which negatively affected the importance of Poole. At the turn of the 19th century, nine out of 10 workers in Poole were engaged in harbour activities, but as the century progressed ships became too large for the shallow harbour and the port began losing business to the deep water ports at Liverpool, Southampton and Plymouth. In the 19th century the beaches and landscape of south-west Hampshire, as well as the Isle of Purbeck district of Dorset, began to attract large numbers of tourists and the villages to the east of Poole began to grow and merge until the holiday town of Bournemouth emerged. Growth accelerated and Poole and Bournemouth (along with Christchurch to the east) have become a large built-up area. This area is known by some as a conurbation, although this not a view held by the populations of either Poole or Christchurch. Although the three towns are well known as popular holiday destinations, each has its own individual character and attracts different types of holidaymakers. Despite the growth in leisure activities, Poole retains a considerable part of its industrial heritage. The Town Centre retains a few of the old buildings put up by the wealthy merchants, such as the 1761 market house and Sir Peter Thompson's 1746 town house designed by John Bastard. The 18th and 20th century buildings hide earlier buildings, such as the mediaeval Wool house, Scaplen's Court and the Tudor almshouses. However, the town suffered from both bombing in World War II and the utilitarian town planning of the economically drained post-war Britain, and consequently has lost many old buildings. In recent years, however, some regeneration has taken place, with the demolition of Hamworthy (Poole) power station and the redevelopment of the old town gas gas-works. On April 1, 1997 the town was made a unitary authority, once again administratively independent from Dorset, after a review of the Local Government Commission for England. The Borough's name was officially changed at this date to Borough and County of the Town of Poole, which recalled its status as a county of itself prior to the implementation of the Local Government Act 1888.	i don't know
Philippa Of Hainault was the wife of which English King ?	philippa of hainault - 必应 Sign in Philippa of Hainault Philippa of Hainault (24 June 1314 – 15 August 1369) was Queen of England as the wife of King Edward III. Edward, Duke of Guyenne, her future husband, promised in 1326 to marry her within the following two years. She was married to Edward, first by proxy, when Edward dispatched the Bishop of Coventry "to marry her in his name" in Valenciennes (second city in importance of the county of Hainaut) in October 1327. The marriage was celebrated formally in York Minster on 24 January 1328, some months after Edward's accession to the thr ... (展开) one of England. In August 1328, he also fixed his wife's dower. Philippa acted as regent on several occasions when her husband was away from his kingdom and she often accompanied him on his expeditions to Scotland, France, and Flanders. Philippa won much popularity with the English people for her kindness and compassion, which were demonstrated in 1347 when she successfully persuaded King Edward to spare the lives of the Burghers of Calais. It was this popularity that helped maintain peace in England throughout Edward's long reign. The eldest of her fourteen children was Edward, the Black Prince, who became a renowned military leader. Philippa died at the age of fifty-five from an illness closely related to dropsy. The Queen's College, Oxford was founded in her honour. Philippa of Hainault; Philippa's coronation. Queen consort of England; Tenure: 24 January 1328 – 15 August 1369: Coronation: 4 March 1330: Born 24 June 1314 https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippa_of_Ha… Genealogy for Philippa Of Hainault Philippa de Hainault, Queen consort of England (1314 - 1369) family tree on Geni, with over 160 million profiles of ancestors and ... https://www.geni.com/people/Philippa-of-Hainault... Philippa de Hainaut est un personnage secondaire des Rois maudits de Maurice Druon. Elle apparaît très brièvement vers la fin du cinquième volume, ... https://fr.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philippa_de_Hainaut Phillipa of Hainault was living in a loving home in comfort with her brothers and sisters. Across the sea in England, Queen Isabella was conspiring with her lover ... https://thefreelancehistorywriter.com/2012/11/07/philippa-of... sources » Philippa of Hainault. Philippa of Hainault Lineage. Richard II's grandmother, Philippa of Hainault (1310/15-1369), was the daughter of Count William the ... www.history.ac.uk/richardII/philippa.html	Edward III of England
Puente Alto is the second most highly populated city of which country ?	1000+ images about Edward III and Queen Philippa of Hainault on Pinterest \| John of gaunt, Order of the garter and Plantagenet Forward The marble tomb effigy of Philippa of Hainault (c.1310-1369) Queen Consort of Edward III at Westminster. Philippa was an excellent queen who not only fulfilled her duties as wife & mother (she bore & breastfed 13 children!) but was also an exceptional queen. Philippa instituted many positive economic changes within her adopted country of England, & by the time of her death she was beloved by her subjects. Queen Philippa died of dropsy at her husband's favorite castle, Windsor August 14th… See More	i don't know
Who directed the films The Damned United in 2009 and Les Miserables in 2012 ?	Tom Hooper - IMDb IMDb Director \| Producer \| Writer Tom Hooper was educated at one of England's most prestigious schools, Westminster. His first film, Runaway Dog, was made when he was 13 years old and shot on a Clockwork 16mm Bolex camera, using 100 feet of film. At age 18, he wrote, directed and produced the short film Painted Faces (1992), which premiered at the London Film Festival; it was ... See full bio » Born: a list of 27 people created 18 Nov 2011 a list of 28 people created 17 Jul 2013 a list of 35 people created 01 Apr 2015 a list of 42 people created 11 Nov 2015 a list of 32 people created 6 months ago Do you have a demo reel? Add it to your IMDbPage How much of Tom Hooper's work have you seen? User Polls Won 1 Oscar. Another 28 wins & 48 nominations. See more awards » Known For 1998 EastEnders: The Mitchells - Naked Truths (Video) (archive directed by) 1997 Byker Grove (TV Series) (4 episodes) 1992 Painted Faces (TV Short) Hide 1992 Painted Faces (TV Short) (producer) Hide 1992 Painted Faces (TV Short) Hide 2012-2015 Film 2016 (TV Series) Himself - Interviewee / Himself 2015 Made in Hollywood (TV Series) Himself 2013 Secret Voices of Hollywood (TV Movie documentary) Himself - Director, Les Misérable 2013 Vivir de cine (TV Series) Himself 2010-2012 Charlie Rose (TV Series) Himself - Guest / Himself 2012 MSN Exclusives (TV Series) Himself (2013) 2011 National Movie Awards (TV Special) Himself 2011 Tavis Smiley (TV Series) Himself 2009-2010 The Review Show (TV Series) Himself - Panelist / Himself 2010 2010 Britannia Awards (TV Special) Himself 2009 The Culture Show (TV Series documentary) Himself Himself - Winner: Outstanding Directing for a Miniseries, Movie or a Dramatic Special Related Videos TV commercial: SK-II (Japan) See more » Height: Did You Know? Personal Quote: There were probably two requirements for doing [Les Miserables]: one was everyone signing up to the idea of singing live, the second was Hugh Jackman existing. Because I think if Hugh Jackman didn't exist, I wouldn't have made this film. See more » Trivia: Directed 7 actors in Oscar-nominated performances: Colin Firth , Helena Bonham Carter , Geoffrey Rush , Hugh Jackman , Anne Hathaway , Eddie Redmayne , and Alicia Vikander . Firth, Vikander and Hathaway won Oscars for their work in Hooper's movies. See more » Trademark: Often directs historical dramas and period pieces See more » Star Sign:	Tom Hooper
Which motor company produces car models such as The Picanto, The Soul and The Carens	Tom Hooper News & Biography - Empire Search Tom Hooper From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Thomas George "Tom" Hooper (born 1972) is a British film and television director of English and Australian background. Hooper began making short films at the age of 13, and had his first professional short, Painted Faces, broadcast on Channel 4 in 1992. At Oxford University Hooper directed plays and television commercials. After graduating, he directed episodes of Quayside, Byker Grove, EastEnders and Cold Feet. Into the 2000s, Hooper directed the major BBC costume dramas Love in a Cold Climate (2001) and Daniel Deronda (2002), and was selected to helm the 2003 revival of ITV's Prime Suspect series, starring Helen Mirren. Hooper made his feature film debut with Red Dust (2004), a South African drama starring Hilary Swank and Chiwetel Ejiofor, before directing Helen Mirren again in the Company Pictures/HBO Films historical drama Elizabeth I (2005). He continued working for HBO on the television film Longford (2006) and in John Adams (2007), a seven-part serial on the life of the American president. Hooper returned to features with The Damned United (2009), a fact-based film about the English football manager Brian Clough (played by Michael Sheen). The following year saw the release of the historical drama The King's Speech (2010), starring Colin Firth and Geoffrey Rush, which was met with critical acclaim. Hooper's work was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Directing for Prime Suspect and John Adams, won one for Elizabeth I, and was nominated for the British Academy (BAFTA) TV Craft Award for Best Director for Longford. The King's Speech won multiple awards, including Best Director wins for Hooper from the Directors Guild of America and the Academy of Motion Picture Arts and Sciences, and a Best Director nomination from BAFTA. Description above from the Wikipedia article Tom Hooper (director),licensed under CC-BY-SA, full list of contributors on Wikipedia.	i don't know
H2CO3 is the molecular formula for which acid ?	Molecular weight of Carbonic Acid Molecular weight of Carbonic Acid 1.007942 + 12.0107 + 15.99943 ›› Percent composition by element 77.386% ›› Similar chemical formulas Note that all formulas are case-sensitive. Did you mean to find the molecular weight of one of these similar formulas? ›› Calculate the molecular weight of a chemical compound Enter a chemical formula: I'm feeling lucky, show me a random compound . You can also browse the list of common chemical compounds . ›› More information on molar mass and molecular weight In chemistry, the formula weight is a quantity computed by multiplying the atomic weight (in atomic mass units) of each element in a chemical formula by the number of atoms of that element present in the formula, then adding all of these products together. Formula weights are especially useful in determining the relative weights of reagents and products in a chemical reaction. These relative weights computed from the chemical equation are sometimes called equation weights. If the formula used in calculating molar mass is the molecular formula, the formula weight computed is the molecular weight. The percentage by weight of any atom or group of atoms in a compound can be computed by dividing the total weight of the atom (or group of atoms) in the formula by the formula weight and multiplying by 100. A common request on this site is to convert grams to moles . To complete this calculation, you have to know what substance you are trying to convert. The reason is that the molar mass of the substance affects the conversion. This site explains how to find molar mass. Using the chemical formula of the compound and the periodic table of elements, we can add up the atomic weights and calculate molecular weight of the substance. Finding molar mass starts with units of grams per mole (g/mol). When calculating molecular weight of a chemical compound, it tells us how many grams are in one mole of that substance. The formula weight is simply the weight in atomic mass units of all the atoms in a given formula. The atomic weights used on this site come from NIST, the National Institute of Standards and Technology. We use the most common isotopes. This is how to calculate molar mass (average molecular weight), which is based on isotropically weighted averages. This is not the same as molecular mass, which is the mass of a single molecule of well-defined isotopes. For bulk stoichiometric calculations, we are usually determining molar mass, which may also be called standard atomic weight or average atomic mass. This page was loaded in 0.067 seconds.	Carbon
Which letter of the Greek alphabet when written as a capital looks like a triangle ?	Molecular weight of H2CO3 Molecular weight of H2CO3 Molar mass of H2CO3 = 62.02478 g/mol This compound is also known as Carbonic Acid . 1.007942 + 12.0107 + 15.99943 ›› Percent composition by element 77.386% ›› Similar chemical formulas Note that all formulas are case-sensitive. Did you mean to find the molecular weight of one of these similar formulas? ›› Calculate the molecular weight of a chemical compound Enter a chemical formula: I'm feeling lucky, show me a random compound . You can also browse the list of common chemical compounds . ›› More information on molar mass and molecular weight In chemistry, the formula weight is a quantity computed by multiplying the atomic weight (in atomic mass units) of each element in a chemical formula by the number of atoms of that element present in the formula, then adding all of these products together. The atomic weights used on this site come from NIST, the National Institute of Standards and Technology. We use the most common isotopes. This is how to calculate molar mass (average molecular weight), which is based on isotropically weighted averages. This is not the same as molecular mass, which is the mass of a single molecule of well-defined isotopes. For bulk stoichiometric calculations, we are usually determining molar mass, which may also be called standard atomic weight or average atomic mass. A common request on this site is to convert grams to moles . To complete this calculation, you have to know what substance you are trying to convert. The reason is that the molar mass of the substance affects the conversion. This site explains how to find molar mass. Formula weights are especially useful in determining the relative weights of reagents and products in a chemical reaction. These relative weights computed from the chemical equation are sometimes called equation weights. If the formula used in calculating molar mass is the molecular formula, the formula weight computed is the molecular weight. The percentage by weight of any atom or group of atoms in a compound can be computed by dividing the total weight of the atom (or group of atoms) in the formula by the formula weight and multiplying by 100. Finding molar mass starts with units of grams per mole (g/mol). When calculating molecular weight of a chemical compound, it tells us how many grams are in one mole of that substance. The formula weight is simply the weight in atomic mass units of all the atoms in a given formula. Using the chemical formula of the compound and the periodic table of elements, we can add up the atomic weights and calculate molecular weight of the substance. This page was loaded in 0.003 seconds.	i don't know
Which motor company produces car models such as The Panamera, The Cayenne and the Boxster ?	Porsche Financial Services Offers Porsche Financial Services Offers $0 due from customer at lease signing. Request More Information on this Promotional Offer Mandatory Fields * Email* Notes I wish to receive further information from your organization. I am aware that I may unsubscribe to such information at any time. Useful Links Why Buy from Baker Motor Company? Your local source for factory authorized Porsche sales, parts, and service. "Driven to Serve" Full selection of new and used Porsche vehicles Proud sponsor of Tommy B. Baker Scholarship Fund Serving the greater Charleston area Proud supporter of Yes Carolina, Southcoast Community Bank Located in West Ashley Founded in 1988 About Baker Motor Company Baker Motor Company of Charleston was founded in 1988 by Tommy B. Baker and is the largest privately held automobile dealer group headquartered in South Carolina. The company operates manufacturer-authorized, new car dealerships representing 12 brands including Porsche, Rolls-Royce Motor Cars, Mercedes-Benz, Sprinter, smart, Infiniti, Maserati, Jaguar, Land Rover, Buick, GMC, and Cadillac. The company also operates two high-line pre-owned centers, a reconditioning center, and a full service, USAA and State Farm Insurance-approved collision repair center. Connect With Baker Motor Company	Porsche
HNO3 is the molecular formula for which acid ?	Porsche AG - Automotive Patents Automotive Patents By Automotive • 14. August 2013 Automotives Porsche Aktiengesellschaft was founded in 1931 in Stuttgart and engages in the design, development, manufacture, and distribution of vehicles, engines, and other technical products worldwide. The company is most well known for their sports cars of various models, such as the Boxster, Cayman, 911, Panamera, but also for their sleek SUV Cayenne. They have also produced a number of tractors, aircraft engines, racing cars and even taks. In the recent years Porsche has further expanded their portfolio by developing hybrid and electric cars, such as Panamera and 918 hybrid. In addition to the cars, they also produce parts and components. In addition to their automotive production related operations, Porsche also offers financing, leasing, and insurance services for customers and dealers. Porsche AG is headquartered in Stuttgart, Germany. After a long history of cooperation on July 5th, 2012, Volkswagen AG announced a deal with Porsche resulting in Volksagen assuming full ownership of Porsche on August 1st, 2012.	i don't know
Which dance move was a popular dance craze of 1962, the move vaguely resembled that Of the twist and was danced to a version of it by soul singer Dee Dee Sharp ?	The Official 60's Site-Dance Crazes of the 60s The Dance Crazes of the 1960s The 60s was a fun and a unique experience. You had to be there to understand. Just talk to any baby boomer who was an adolescent during the 60s and they will tell you how fun and how fortunate they were to grow up in the 1960s. School dances and the dance crazes during that period were something else. I couldn't even begin to write about or even talk about what dances are popular today. I guess I possess a generation gap. I am lost in the 60s and 70s. The first dance craze I remember was "The Stroll." Of course it came out in the 50s but its popularity was still present in the 60s. You could stroll to almost any slow song. The Diamonds made the song famous in January 1958 and is still played today at many parties and weddings. It was close to being the first line dance. Girls on one side and boys on the other and the line moved up as each couple would meet one at a time in the center at the beginning of the line and stroll to the music down the line between the others and take their place at the end of the line. The Twist was a rock and roll dance popular in the early 1960s named after the song that originated it, The Twist. It was the first major international rock and roll dance style in which the couples did not have to touch each other while dancing. The dance was first popularized by Chubby Checker in 1960 with a hit cover of the 1959 minor hit "The Twist" written by Hank Ballard. Checker's single became a smash hit, reaching #1 on the US charts. The song set a record, being the only single to reach #1 in two different chart runs (as it reached #1 in 1960, and then resurfaced, reaching #1 again in 1962). This has never happened again in rock history. Faced with explaining to the youthful audience how to do the dance, a member of Checker's entourage came up with the following description: "It's like putting out a cigarette with both feet, and wiping your bottom with a towel, to the beat of the music." In 1961, at the height of the Twist craze, patrons at New York's hot Peppermint Lounge on West 45th Street were twisting to the music of the house band, a local group from Jersey, Joey Dee and The Starliters. Their house song, "Peppermint Twist (Part 1)," became the number one song in the United States for three weeks in January 1962. We even had a Peppermint Lounge in Circleville, Ohio. Of course it wasn't as famous as the one in New York. The lounge closed after a short period of time. The Mashed Potato is a dance move which was a popular dance craze of 1962. It was danced to songs such as Dee Dee Sharp's Mashed Potato Time. Also referred to as "mash potato" or "mashed potatoes", the move vaguely resembles that of the twist, by Sharp's fellow Philadelphian, Chubby Checker. The dance begins by stepping backward with one foot with that heel tilted inward. The foot is positioned slightly behind the other (stationary) foot. With the weight on the ball of the starting foot, the heel is then swiveled outward. The same process is repeated with the other foot: step back and behind with heel inward, pivot heel out, and so on. The pattern is continued for as many repetitions as desired. The step may be incorporated in various dances either as a separate routine or as a styling of standard steps. James Brown had two Mashed Potato-related chart hits, "(Do the) Mashed Potatoes" (1960; released under a pseudonym and "Mashed Potatoes U.S.A." in 1962. Brown also featured the dance prominently in his live performances during the 50s and 60s. The dance was also referred to in Connie Francis' 1962 hit "V-A-C-A-T-I-O-N" ("...we'll Mashed Potato to a jukebox tune..."), "Do You Love Me" by The Contours, "Harry the Harry Ape" a 1963 Top-20 pop and R&B novelty hit by Ray Stevens, and "Land of 1000 Dances", a song made popular by Wilson Pickett. The Monster Mash came out around the same time that the song "The mashed potatoes" was popular ... and it was a variation. In the mashed potatoes you "ground" your foot (as if grindiing a cigarette butt to put it out) while pulling it backwards then stepping on to the opposite foot to do the same thing ... simultaneously walking in place while swivelling foot. "Monster Mash" was a hit by Bobby "Boris" Pickett and the Crypt Kickers. The song was a hit twice, in 1962 and again in 1973. The difference with the monster mash was that you would hold arms in goulish positions while doing the mashing footwork. Keep in mind the 60s period of dancing was where we were all trying to imitate behaviors of people when dancing. We tried to mimic watusi dancers, we mimiced swimming, locomotives, surfers and so forth. Nodbody was safe from us 60s dancers. The Monkey, the Dog, the Frug---everyone at BYU was doing them; that is, until President Wilkinson gave a controversial speech at the beginning of the year banning all fad dances. The student body split into two opposing camps, one arguing that such dances were indeed against Church standards, the others saying there was nothing wrong with them. Discussions grew heated, and prejudiced letters to the editor filled the columns of the 'Universe' until the issue was finally settled by a letter from President McKay. Verdict---No. The decision brought the campus nationwide news coverage and encouraged comment on the other campuses.". The Monkey is a novelty dance, most popular in 1963. The dance was popularized by two R&B records: Major Lance's "The Monkey Time", and The Miracles "Mickey's Monkey", both released during the summer of 1963. The Madison is a novelty dance that was popular in the late 1950s to mid 1960s. The Madison was created and first danced in Columbus, Ohio in 1957. The Madison is a line dance that features a regular back-and-forth pattern interspersed with called steps. Its popularity inspired dance teams and competitions, as well as various recordings, and today it is still sometimes performed as a nostalgic dance. The Madison is featured in the movie Hairspray; and it continues to be performed in the Broadway musical Hairspray. Both the film and the musical feature one of many songs released during the Madison "craze" in the US. The Madison basic danced in the film Hairspray is as follows: Step left forward	Mashed potato
What eight letter word is given to delicate and intricate ornamental work made from gold Silver or other fine, twisted wire ?	Songs People Should Hear [Archive] - Music Discussion Music Head 15-11-2009, 12:48 My opinion of course. Going to start posting some of my favs from the past here. Songs I loved when growing up. Mostly from the 60's as that was my decade. Going to try and stick to lesser known stuff, but who knows what I'll come up with. I will post info about them when available. Feel free to post your own favs First up The Capitols - Cool Jerk - 1966 YouTube - The Capitals - Cool Jerk - 1966 - 45 Rpm (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GI35WN6c7w4) from wikipedia "Cool Jerk" is a popular song written by Donald Storball and originally performed by The Capitols. Released in 1966, it reached the number two position on the American R&B chart and number seven on the pop chart. The backing track for this song was actually recorded (secretly) by the Motown house band The Funk Brothers. The Go-Go's, Todd Rundgren, Human Sexual Response , The La De Da's and The Creation have covered the song. Todd Rundgren did his version in an odd time signature (7/4), giving an obviously jerky feel to the song. The Go-Go's covered the song for their 1982 album Vacation, and later re-recorded it for their 1990 album Greatest. The song is remembered as the song that the character Uncle Frank (Gerry Bamman) sang in the shower in the movie Home Alone 2: Lost in New York. A version of the song with different lyrics ("Do the Cool Whip") is used in Cool Whip commercials. A recording by Ricardo Ray featured in the film Donnie Brasco (1997). Iota 15-11-2009, 13:01 Dead Can Dance - Enigma of the Abolute from Spleen and Ideal [4AD Records, 1986] Spleen and Ideal is the second album recorded by Dead Can Dance, released in 1986. A rather ethereal form of gothic music, similar to the origins of its debut album, Dead Can Dance, and followed a more world music- and neoclassical-oriented content, with lyrics based on the writings of Charles Baudelaire and Thomas de Quincey. It is considered the group's best album from a lyrical standpoint. YouTube - Dead can dance - enigma of the absolute - (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=G9TXLiM79lY) Absolutely ingenius piece of art with Brendan Perry in full cry. "Perry's vocal efforts are no less compelling, his own high point occurring with the vast-sounding "Enigma of the Absolute," as a steady, massive drum pound echoes behind a similarly treated guitar/harpsichord combination, tinged with a striking string arrangement." - allmusic Music Head Jimmy Dean - Big Bad John - 1961 YouTube - Jimmy Dean - Big Bad John (1961) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CS3ErDN50Qk) from wikipedia "Big Bad John" is a country song originally performed by Jimmy Dean and composed by Dean and Roy Acuff. Released in September 1961, by the beginning of November it went to number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and won Dean the 1962 Grammy Award for Best Country & Western Recording. The song and its sequel tell a story typical of American folklore, reminiscent of Paul Bunyan or John Henry. Big Bad John was also the title of a 1990 television movie starring Dean. The song tells the story of a mysterious and quiet miner who earned the nickname Big John because of his height, weight and muscular physique ("He stood six foot six and weighed two forty-five"). He supposedly came from New Orleans, where he killed a man over a Cajun woman. One day, a support timber cracked at the mine where John worked. The situation looked hopeless until John "grabbed a saggin' timber, gave out with a groan / and like a giant oak tree just stood there alone", then "gave a mighty shove", opening a passage and allowing the other miners to escape the mine. John, however, didn't make it outside, meeting his demise in the depths of the mine. The mine itself was never reopened, but a marble stand was placed in front of it, with the words "At the bottom of this mine lies one hell of a man - Big John" written on it. (Some versions of the song change the last line to "lies a big, big man" to replace what was at the time considered to be borderline profane language.) Its 1962 sequel, "The Cajun Queen", describes the arrival of "Queenie", Big John's Cajun Queen, who rescues John from the mine and marries him. Eventually, they have "one hundred and ten grandchildren". The sequel's events are more exaggerated than the first, extending the story into the realm of tall tales. In June 1962, the story continued (and evidently concludes) with the arrival of "Little Bitty Big John", (the flip side to "Steel Men" on Columbia 4-42483), learning about his Father's act of heroism. "Big Bad John" was at number one on the pop chart for five weeks, on the country chart for two, and on the adult contemporary music chart for ten in the U.S. It was also a number-two hit in the United Kingdom. The song was nominated for the Grammy Award for Record of the Year and Best Male Solo Vocal Performance. Dean's LP Big Bad John and Other Fabulous Songs and Tales, where the song first appeared, reached number twenty-three in the pop charts. The song was the B-side of "I Won't Go Huntin' with You Jake", but ended up becoming much more popular than the latter. Columbia Records was considering dropping Dean before the release of this million-selling single, as he hadn't had a hit in years. Dean wrote the song on a flight from New York to Nashville because he realized he needed a fourth song for his recording session. There are varying accounts as to who was the inspiration for the character of Big John. The fact is an actor he met in a summer stock play, John Minto (Born in San Francisco) who was 6'5" was the inspiration for the song. Country pianist Floyd Cramer, who was hired to play piano on the song, came up with the idea to use a hammer and a piece of steel instead. This became a distinctive characteristic of the recording. There are several known recordings of the song by Dean. Notably, there are two different versions of the inscription on the marble stand in front of the mine. The original, "At the bottom of this mine lies one hell of a man - Big John", was deemed too controversial, so in the version that was most often heard on the radio, one could hear "At the bottom of this mine lies a big, big man - Big John" instead. The refrain was also used to end the Jimmy Dean song "PT-109", referring to John F. Kennedy. Music Head YouTube - the twist (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UGAUTADn47U) from wikipedia "The Twist" is a twelve bar blues song that gave birth to the Twist dance craze. The song was written and originally released in 1959 by Hank Ballard and the Midnighters as a B-side (to "Teardrops on Your Letter") but his version was only a moderate 1960 hit, peaking at 28 on the Billboard Hot 100.[1] The song, and the dance the Twist, was popularized in 1960 when the song was covered by Chubby Checker. His single became a smash hit, reaching number one on the Billboard Hot 100 on September 19, 1960 (one week), and then setting a record by being the only single to reach number one in two different chart runs when it resurfaced and topped the chart again on January 13, 1962 (two weeks). In 1988, the song "The Twist" became popular once again, due to a new recording of the song by The Fat Boys featuring Chubby Checker. This version reached number two in the United Kingdom and number one in Germany. Checker re-recorded the song numerous times. An updated 1982 recording (from his album The Change Has Come) was retitled "T-82", and in the 1990s, he recorded a country version. In the late 1970s, he recorded a new version that, except for the sound mix and some minor arrangement changes, was identical to the 1960 original; as a result this later version is often misidentified on compilations as the original recording. Checker also recorded variations on the theme, such as "Let's Twist Again (Like We Did Last Summer)" to keep the craze alive (although "Let's Twist Again" was and has remained more popular than "The Twist" itself in the United Kingdom). Songs about doing the Twist went back to nineteenth-century minstrelsy, including "Grape Vine Twist" from around 1844. In 1938 Jelly Roll Morton, in "Winin' Boy Blues," sang, "Mama, mama, look at sis, she's out on the levee doing the double twist"--a reference to both sex and dancing in those days. As for this particular song, "The Twist," Hank Ballard's guitarist, Cal Green, said they picked up the general idea from Brother Joe Wallace of the gospel group The Sensational Nightingales, who of course couldn't record it himself. Green and Ballard already had written a song together called "Is Your Love For Real," which they'd taken from Clyde McPhatter & the Drifters' 1955 song "What'cha Gonna Do," so they simply put the new Twist words to the older melody--and voila! "The Twist" They originally recorded a loose version of the song in a Florida studio in early 1958, with slightly different lyrics, featuring Green on guitar playing like Jimmy Reed. However, they didn't get around to recording the released version until November 11, 1958, when the Midnighters were in Cincinnati. Ballard thought "The Twist" was the hit side, but King Records producer Henry Glover preferred the ballad "Teardrops on Your Letter," which he'd written himself. According to Billboard Magazine, "The Twist" held the honor of being the number-one song on its "Hot 100 50th Anniversary" list of "The Billboard: All-Time Hot 100 Top Songs" in the first 50 years of the Hot 100 chart[2]. The song is ranked number 451 on the Rolling Stone magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. The song is featured on the Spider-Man 3 soundtrack released May 1, 2007. Jim Dawson wrote a 1995 book about the song and the Twist phenomenon called The Twist: The Story of the Song and Dance That Changed the World. sunnyyuan never grow old, it's my ringtone at present:wink: Music Head YouTube - Duke of Earl- Gene Chandler (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0bw55sR4ec8) from wikipedia "Duke of Earl" is a 1962 number-one song, originally by Gene Chandler. It is the best known of Chandler's songs, and he subsequently dubbed himself 'The Duke of Earl'. "Duke of Earl" debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart on January 13, 1962, and held the number-one spot for three weeks. It was on the Hot 100 for a total of 15 weeks. Wayne Fontana and the Mindbenders released a cover version in 1964. Another cover was recorded by the UK based doo-wop outfit Darts in 1979. It reached #6 in the UK Singles Chart. Sha Na Na, a rock and roll revival band, performed Duke of Earl live at the Woodstock Festival of 1969. The Beach Boys and Red Hot Chili Peppers have also played their version of the song whilst on tour. Cypress Hill sampled "Duke of Earl" into one of their own hit songs, "Hand on the Pump", on their 1991 self-titled album. The song has also been sung by The Nylons, The Four Tops, New Edition, and the Van-Dells. In 1983, Youth Brigade also covered "Duke of Earl" on their critically acclaimed debut album Sound & Fury. Daniel Eboli 18-11-2009, 11:20 I think I cannot post links yet but one song that comes to my mind is: Yes - Close to the edge 18 minutes (yes, an eighteen minutes song) of pure beauty. I love it! I have to say that there is a piece of JS bach wich must be obligatory for everyone. The man is a genius: J.S. Bach - Tocata et Fuge in D minor Amazing piece. I recomend it played by the famous organist Otto Winter. Music Head 18-11-2009, 11:57 I think I cannot post links yet but one song that comes to my mind is: Yes - Close to the edge 18 minutes (yes, an eighteen minutes song) of pure beauty. I love it! I have to say that there is a piece of JS bach wich must be obligatory for everyone. The man is a genius: J.S. Bach - Tocata et Fuge in D minor Amazing piece. I recomend it played by the famous organist Otto Winter. You shouldn't have any problem posting links now. You should be out of your probationary period. I like the Yes track also. Music Head YouTube - The Ballad of the Green Beret (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JbQ9zbLiUno) from wikipedia "Ballad of the Green Berets" is a patriotic song in the ballad style about the Green Berets, an elite special force in the U.S. Army. It is one of the very few songs of the 1960s to cast the military in a positive light and yet it became a major hit, reaching number one on the Billboard Charts for five weeks in 1966. It was also a multi-market smash, reaching #1 on Billboard's Easy Listening chart, and #2 on Billboard's Country survey. The song was written by Robin Moore and Staff Sgt. Barry Sadler, while the latter was recuperating from a leg wound suffered as a medic in the Vietnam War. Moore also wrote a non-fiction book, The Green Berets, about the force. The recording of the song was the number one hit in the United States for five weeks in 1966 and was the number twenty-one song of 1960s, despite the later unpopularity of the Vietnam War. Refer to United States Army Special Forces in popular culture It has sold over nine million singles and albums. It was the top single of a year in which the British Invasion, led by the Beatles and the Rolling Stones, dominated the U.S. charts. It is currently used as one of the four primary marching tunes of the Fightin' Texas Aggie Band. The song is heard in a choral rendition by Ken Darby in the 1968 John Wayne film The Green Berets, which was based on Moore's book. The score of the movie was never released as an album until Film Score Monthly released it in 2005. A film tie-in featuring artwork from the film and a cover version by Ennio Morricone was released in Europe, though the other tracks on the album were soundtracks from A Fistful of Dollars and For a Few Dollars More. The song appears in the films More American Graffiti and Canadian Bacon. It can be heard in the gun show scene from the 2002 film Showtime, and in the film Jesus' Son, in a scene that features a hitch-hiking Jack Black. Kazz If Everyone Cared by Nickelback and Kryptonite by 3 Doors Down. Music Head YouTube - THE ARCHIES - SUGAR SUGAR (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ANtMdzOFIVQ) from wikipedia "Sugar, Sugar" is a pop song written by Jeff Barry and Andy Kim. It was a four-week 1969 number-one hit single by fictional characters The Archies. Produced by Jeff Barry, the song was originally released on the album Everything's Archie. The album is the product of a group of studio musicians managed by Don Kirshner. Ron Dante's lead vocals were accompanied by those of Toni Wine (who sang the line "I'm gonna make your life so sweet"), Andy Kim, and Ellie Greenwich. Together they provided the voices of the various Archies using multitracking. Ray Stevens, the comic singer, provided the hand claps to the song[citation needed]. The Archies' "Sugar, Sugar" was the 1969 number-one single of the year. It spent four weeks at the top of the Billboard Hot 100 from September 20, 1969 and eight weeks at the top of the UK singles chart. The song lists at #63 on Billboard's Greatest Songs of All Time. It also peaked at one in the South African Singles Chart. On February 5, 2006, "Sugar, Sugar" was inducted into the Canadian Songwriters Hall of Fame, as co-writer Andy Kim is originally from Montreal, Quebec. Rumors have circulated that the song was earlier offered to The Monkees, even sparking additional rumors that it was recorded using session musicians with Davy Jones providing all the vocals, but never released. Don Kirshner himself says in an interview on "Popular Song: Soundtrack of the Century episode Modern Pop" that Mike Nesmith put his fist through the wall of the Beverley Hills hotel refusing to do "Sugar, Sugar." Jones confirmed that Kirshner had offered it to them, but stated they turned it down, and he never recorded it. The band thought it seemed cheesy and at that point they were looking to mature their sound. On September 4, 2006, Dante and Wine performed the song together on the Jerry Lewis MDA Telethon. This was the first time they had publicly performed the song together. They performed it again at one of Toni Wine's performances at the Genghis Cohen in West Hollywood. Former President George W. Bush has said "Sugar, Sugar" is one of his favorite songs. The song played in Jenna Bush's wedding party in May, 2008.[6] In the TV Movie Archie: To Riverdale and Back again (VHS reissued title, Return to Riverdale), the now-older Jughead plays the original version of the song to his son; later he uses it to bridge the 'age gap' between them when he finds out his son is shy around girls ï¿½ the two perform a 'rap' version of the song. The song was featured in the episode That's All There Is in the 1998 HBO Mini-Series From the Earth to the Moon. Astronauts Al Bean and Dick Gordon are seen singing the song in their Command Module during their 4 day trip to the moon on Apollo 12 in November of 1969. Millions upon millions of copies of this record were distributed through an unusual distribution mode. A record of the song was embossed directly onto the backs of Kelloggs breakfast cereal boxes (Sugar Pops & Sugar Smacks) and the cardboard record could be cut out and played on a turntable. The song is featured in The Simpsons episodes "Boy-Scoutz N the Hood" and "Sweets and Sour Marge". In the former, Homer has a hallucination about dancing ice cream cones while trapped on a raft; he was listening to the song on Rod Flanders' personal stereo, but as the batteries run down, the song gradually slows down and stops and the ice creams melt, ending his dream. English hard rock band Def Leppard got the idea for their 1987 hit "Pour Some Sugar on Me" from the song.[citation needed] The original recording can be heard in the Dreamworks Film Bee Movie while Barry, played by Jerry Seinfeld, is dreaming. The song was adapted for a TV commercial for Equal brand artificial sweetener in the late '80s -- "Sugar (no no no no no no)/Now there's Equal (yeah yeah yeah yeah yeah yeah)". The song is adapted for a TV commercial for table sugar product called "Gulaku" in Indonesia. They're using many different version of the song, depends on the storyline that is being depicted in the commercial. One of the most expensive advertisements in Indonesia, the TV commercial also reintroduced the song to the public's psyche.[7][8] This song was played in the 1996 movie A Very Brady Sequel when Greg saw a beautiful girl coming out of the swimming pool and later on saw that it was Marcia. This song was song by Richie in an episode of Family Matters when he and 3J were trying to win affection of a girl to be their Valentine on Valentine's Day who was related to Maxine but 3J thought this song was too childish and it hurt Richie's feelings. So the girl decides to pick him over 3J. The gingerbread man in Dreamworks Film Shrek 2 sings this song in the DVD's special feature "Far Far Away Idol". ulle1989 20-11-2009, 13:31 Nitty Gritty Dirt Band - "Fishing in the dark" I can't say why but this song has been stuck in my head for way too long now, this is the only song by that band that I like:) The Coasters - "Down in Mexico" I think there are three different versions of this song, and I taught two of them were amazing. Check it out! :smile: YouTube - Patsy Cline - I Fall To Pieces (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HG-8uZg2uV0) from wikipedia "I Fall to Pieces" is a single released by Patsy Cline in 1961, and was featured on her 1961 studio album, Patsy Cline Showcase. "I Fall to Pieces" was Patsy Cline's first #1 hit on the Country charts, and her second hit single to cross over onto the Pop charts. It was the first of a string of songs that would be written by Hank Cochran and Harlan Howard (not always collaborating together) for Cline. "I Fall to Pieces" became one of Patsy Cline's most-recognizable hit singles. It has also been classified as a country music standard. Hank Cochran and Harlan Howard met in California, and became songwriting partners. One night, Cochran was mulling over song ideas, when he thought of a title, "I Fall to Pieces." Cochran met up with Howard at his house the next day, where they finished writing the song. The demo version of the song was recorded at Pamper Music in Goodlettsville, Tennessee by Howard's wife and country singer, Jan Howard. Harlan Howard pitched the song to Decca producer, Owen Bradley, who tried to find the right artist to record it. The song was turned down numerous times, first by Brenda Lee, who found the song "too country" for her pop style. Bradley then asked rising country star, Roy Drusky to record it but he turned it down stating that it's not a man's song. Patsy Cline, who overheard Drusky's argument with Bradley about the song, asked if she could record it instead. Bradley then accepted her offer. When Cline began recording the song in November 1960, she had second guesses after she discovered popular Nashville session group, The Jordanaires would serve as the background vocalists. Cline was afraid the Jordanaires would drown her sound out and as a result, she was not very friendly upon meeting them. Cline also felt that the Pop ballad style Bradley wanted it recorded in didn't suit her own style. Bradley was trying to make the song appeal to the Pop market, an idea that was not well-liked by Cline. She had several arguments with Bradley, however the ending result led to Cline recording it in the style that Bradley wanted it. After listening to the playback of "I Fall to Pieces," she ended up liking the song, stating that she finally found her own identity. "I Fall to Pieces" was released 30 January, 1961. Upon its release, it was virtually ignored by radio stations. However, Hal Smith of Pamper Music, who had faith in the song's songwriters hired a promotion man, Pat Nelson to promote the single. Nelson's strategy was to attempt to explain to DJs that "I Fall to Pieces" was a departure from any of Cline's previous singles. Soon a Pop radio station in Columbus, Ohio began playing the single. After finding this out, Bradley saw that the song was being fanned by record distibutors across the country. Within four months, momentum was building on both the Country and Pop charts. On April 3, the song debuted on the Billboard Country Chart and began its ascent. By August 1961, "I Fall to Pieces" peaked at number one on the Billboard Country Chart and reached number twelve on the Billboard Pop Chart. It would be one of several Country-pop crossover hits that Cline was to have over the next couple of years. Cline was able to prove that a solo female artist could have major hits on both the country and pop charts. That year, she was acclaimed as one of the nations leading recording artists, along with Jimmy Darren and Bobby Vee. However, due to a major car accident in June 1961, Cline was kept in the hospital for two months, which cut into promoting "I Fall to Pieces." Therefore, by the time Cline had left the hospital, "I Fall to Pieces'" popularity began to decrease. The success of the song helped get Cline a invitation to become a regular cast member the Grand Ole Opry in Nashville, Tennessee. In 1980, the song was re-released and overdubbed on a Patsy Cline compilation album, Always. The new version contained new instrumentation and new female background vocalists. The song even charted among the Billboard Country Chart that year, peaking at #61. An electronically-produced duet of the song with deceased country star, Jim Reeves was released in 1982, and charted at #54 on the Billboard Country Chart. In 2004, Rolling Stone Magazine ranked "I Fall to Pieces" at #238 on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. The song was also ranked at #7 on CMT's television special of the 100 Greatest Songs in Country Music. Another Patsy Cline song, "Crazy" was ranked four positions higher at #3 on the countdown. It was also ranked at #107 on RIAA's list of the Songs of the Century. carbon_psycho YouTube - Theme From A Summer Place (1960) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mERbQIvgJXs) from wikipedia The "Theme from A Summer Place" is a song with lyrics by Mack Discant and music by Max Steiner, written for the 1959 film, A Summer Place, which starred Sandra Dee and Troy Donahue. It was recorded for the film by Hugo Winterhalter. It is one of the most well-known examples of beautiful music. Percy Faith recorded the most popular version of the tune, which spent an at-the-time record of nine consecutive weeks at number one on the still-young Billboard Hot 100 singles chart in early 1960[1]. It remains the longest-running number-one instrumental in the history of the chart. It reached number two in the UK. It hit number one in Italy under the title "Scandalo Al Sole". Faith won a Grammy Award for Record of the Year in 1961 for his recording. This was the first movie theme and the first instrumental to win a Record of the Year Grammy. Faith re-recorded the song twice ï¿½ first, in 1969, as a female choral version, then, in 1976, as a disco version titled "Summer Place 76". In 2008, Faith's original version was ranked at number eighteen on Billboard's top 100 songs during the first fifty years of the Hot 100 chart. The song was the title cut to Billy Vaughn's 1960 number-one album. The song was well-accepted by R&B audiences of the day, reaching number two on the Billboard R&B singles chart. "Theme from A Summer Place" was also covered by Dick Roman, The Tornados (both in 1962), The Lettermen in 1965 (placing at number sixteen on the Billboard Hot 100) and The Ventures in 1969. Andy Williams sang a deft, authoritative, and sublime rendition of "Theme from A Summer Place" on his 1962 Gold-certified album Moon River. A very impressive jazz version of the song was recorded by the legendary singer Julie London. It appeared on her album, Our Fair Lady in 1965. American pop singer Eamon sampled "Theme from A Summer Place" for his 2006 song "Elevator". The melody serves to illustrate the song's exploration of "elevator music" as an aphrodisiac. A version with lyrics was recorded by Bobby Vinton. Music Head YouTube - Neil Diamond_Sweet Caroline (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WzsUOmqpaeg) from wikipedia "Sweet Caroline" is a pop song written and performed by Neil Diamond and officially released on September 16, 1969, as a single. There are three distinct mixes of this song. The original mono 45 mix had a loud orchestra and glockenspiel compared to the stereo version on the Brother Love's Travelling Salvation Show LP. The third version was a remix found only on the initial CD release of Neil Diamond's "His 12 Greatest Hits". This version has the orchestra mixed down very noticeably and has the background vocals mixed up. It has a longer fade as well. The song reached #4 on the Billboard chart and eventually went platinum for sales of one million singles. In the fall of 1969, Diamond performed "Sweet Caroline" on several television shows. It later reached #8 on the UK singles chart in 1971. In a 2007 interview, Diamond revealed the inspiration for "Sweet Caroline" was President John F. Kennedy's daughter, Caroline Kennedy, who was eleven years old at the time. Diamond sang the song to her at her 50th birthday celebration in 2007. "Sweet Caroline" is popular at sporting events. Sherrie Levy, Neil Diamond's press agent, remarked, "I'm not sure how it happened, but we're very pleased that it happened". The song has been a tradition at Boston's Fenway Park since at least 1997, and it has been played at every game in the middle of the eighth inning since 2002 by the influence of Amy Tobey, a production agent responsible for the audio played over the park's loudspeakers. Music Head YouTube - SAM THE SHAM AND THE PHARAOS (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MHF558u6Q_8) from wikipedia "Wooly Bully" is a popular song originally recorded by Tex-Mex rock 'n' roll band Sam the Sham and the Pharaohs in 1965. Based on a standard 12-bar blues progression, it was written by the band's leader, Domingo "Sam" Samudio. It was released as a single on the Memphis-based Pen label and distributed via MGM. "Wooly Bully" was the band's first and biggest hit. It became a worldwide sensation, selling three million copies and reaching No. 2 on the American Hot 100 chart on June 5, 1965. It was the first American record to sell a million copies during the British Invasion, and was nominated for a Grammy Award. It lingered in the Hot 100 for a then-impressive 18 weeks and was named Billboard's "Number One Record of the Year" despite never reaching No. 1. It remained the only record to achieve that feat for 35 years, until Faith Hill's "Breathe" repeated it in 2000. As the Pharaohs prepared to write their debut album, lead singer "Sam the Sham" (Domingo Samudio) wanted to write a tribute to the Hully Gully dance. His record label's legal department feared using that title due to the existence of another song with a similar title. The song was given the green light after Sam rewrote the lyrics and replaced "Hully Gully" with "Wooly Bully". The lyrics of "Wooly Bully" were hard to understand, and some radio stations banned the song. The lyrics describe a conversation between "Hattie" and "Matty" concerning the American bison and the desirability of developing dancing skills. The warning, "Let's not be L-7's", means "Let's not be squares", from the shape formed by the fingers making an L on one hand and a 7 on the other. Sam the Sham underscores the Tex-Mex nature of the song by counting out the rhythm in Spanish, and the characteristic simple organ riffing. According to Sam: "The name of my cat was 'Wooly Bully', so I started from there. The count down part of the song was also not planned. I was just goofing around and counted off in Tex-Mex. It just blew everybody away, and actually, I wanted it taken off the record. We did three takes, all of them different, and they took the first take and released it." The song is referenced by Joe Strummer in the live version of The Clash hit "Capital Radio". The song is also heard in a number of films: Fast Times at Ridgemont High, Full Metal Jacket, Splash, Scrooged, Happy Gilmore, Monsters vs. Aliens, Religulous, Monsieur Ibrahim and The Chipmunk Adventure, in which it is performed by the Chipmunks. Drealm 25-11-2009, 04:57 I always considered this song to be the best from Enya, and also a masterpiece in itself. YouTube - Enya - Cursum Perficio (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HrhTUfBY1vA) I hope some of you will enjoy. Kazz Life of my own ~~ 3 Doors Down is a really awesome Song! Music Head YouTube - Jimmy Gilmer & The Fireballs - Sugar Shack (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-DW8ecqu0Iw) from wikipedia "Sugar Shack" is a song written in 1962 by Keith McCormack and his aunt, Fay Voss. The song was recorded in 1963 by Jimmy Gilmer & the Fireballs at Norman Petty Studios in Clovis, New Mexico. "Sugar Shack" hit #1 on both the Billboard Hot 100 (where it spent five weeks from October 12 to November 9, 1963) and on the Cashbox charts (where it spent three weeks from October 19 to November 2, 1963. "Sugar Shack", also has the distinction of being the last single to make it to number one on the Billboard R&B chart, because Billboard magazine published no R&B chart for fourteen months between the period of late November, 1963 to late January, 1965. On November 29, 1963 the song received RIAA certification for selling over a million copies, earning gold record status, and was the number one single of the year according to Billboard. "Sugar Shack" also hit the UK at #45 on the Record Retailer chart. Music Head http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3nj-KarqMjI from wikipedia "Please Help Me, I'm Falling" is a 1960 song by Hank Locklin. The single was Hank Locklin's most successful recording becoming his second number one on the country charts. "Please Help Me, I'm Falling" spent fourteen weeks at the top spot and spent nine months on the country chart and crossed over to the Hot 100 peaking at number eight. from answers.com Hank Locklin's second album is made up of material cut between December of 1956 and January of 1960, when he was rapidly headed for the top of his game and fully embraced the Nashville sound, giving up the steel guitar and fiddle accompaniment in favor of the smoother sound of the piano, with some drums as well. In contrast to his first LP, Foreign Love, which was a concept album built around a specific body of songs, Please Help Me I'm Falling offers a cross section of Locklin's styles and sounds drawn from numerous sessions. The album was actually hooked around several hits: the RCA Victor version of "Send Me the Pillow That You Dream On," highlighted by Millie Kirkman's soaring accompaniment, which had charted in the country Top Five in 1957; the amusing 1959 single "Foreign Car"; and the smooth, elegant title track. Interspersed among these singles are the nine other songs in a multitude of styles, including the achingly beautiful and catchy ballad "Seven Days (The Humming Song)," the lean country lament "(I'm So Tired Of) Goin' Home All by Myself," the slow, moody "Blues in Advance," the more lushly produced "Livin' Alone," with its mixed male and female chorus, and the jaunty "Why Don't You Haul off and Love Me" and "It's a Little More Like Heaven," with their crisp, stripped-down guitar-dominated textures. Even the non-hits are excellent recordings, and at least four of them could compete for places on a genuine best-of Hank Locklin. carbon_psycho Joe Tex - The Love You Save YouTube - Joe Tex - The Love You Save (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=szEAqKbAGz4) Music Head Joe Tex - The Love You Save YouTube - Joe Tex - The Love You Save (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=szEAqKbAGz4) oh, yeah carbon_psycho 26-11-2009, 22:04 Sadly I can't find the youtube links for this, but if anyone does please do share so all can listen. Earth Opera - Alfie Finney I have always wonder who on earth is Alfie?? Music Head YouTube - Tossin'and Turnin'-Bobby Lewis-original song-1961 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ghFBvBmXv4E) from wikipedia "Tossin' and Turnin" is a song written by Ritchie Adams and Malou Rene, and originally recorded by Bobby Lewis. The record reached #1 on both the Billboard Hot 100 pop on July 10, 1961, and R&B charts, and has since become a standard on oldies compilations. It was also featured in the soundtrack for the 1978 film, Animal House. It was named Billboard's #1 single for 1961, after spending seven consecutive weeks at the top. On the original hit single version, the track begins with Bobby singing "I couldn't sleep at all last night," and it appears this way on most oldies compilations. However, on some releases the song has a prelude, where Bobby sings "Baby...Baby...you did something to me," followed by a musical cue into the first verse. Bobby usually includes this prelude when he performs the song live. The song was covered by folk singer Steve Goodman, Kiss drummer Peter Criss (on his 1978 solo album entitled Peter Criss), and polka star Jimmy Sturr. The Ivy League's 1965 UK No. 3 hit was a different song entirely. The song lists at #27 on Billboard's All Time Top 100. Music Head YouTube - The Statler Brothers - Flowers On The Wall live Denmark '71 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g2qAZXHROz8) from wikipedia "Flowers On The Wall" is a song made famous by country music group The Statler Brothers. Written and composed by the group's original tenor, Lew DeWitt, the song peaked in popularity in January 1966, spending four weeks at No. 2 on the Billboard magazine Hot Country Singles chart, and reaching No. 4 on the Hot 100 chart. In the years since its release, "Flowers on the Wall" became one of the trademark songs of the Statler Brothers' 40-year career. The song is a wryly humorous account of a man's isolated life. Recounting his sad, daily pursuits, "Counting flowers on the wall, that don't bother me at all, playing solitaire till dawn with a deck of fifty-one, smoking cigarettes and watching Captain Kangaroo," are all acts of boredom and lost purpose as well as isolation. The Chorus of the song ends with the words: "So don't tell me I've nothing to do." The song gained exposure amongst a new generation after it was used by Quentin Tarantino in Pulp Fiction. In that film, it was sung by Bruce Willis, who would also quote lyrics from the song in Die Hard...With A Vengeance. The lyrics of this song were broken down and analyzed in Kurt Vonnegut's Palm Sunday. An instrumental version of the song was used as the theme for the 1980's TVNZ programme It's A Dog's Show. Beech-Nut Company, when marketing its packages of chewing gum, which it promoted as having eight sticks per package as against the seven with which the Wrigley Company then packed into its packages of chewing gum, but for the same price, based its jingle on the verse melody, with the lyrics: "That other gum's got seven sticks and Beech-Nut gives ya eight./Eight sticks for the price of seven--ain't that great!" Music Head YouTube - Louis Armstrong - Hello Dolly Live (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=kmfeKUNDDYs) from wikipedia "Hello, Dolly!" is the title song of the popular 1964 musical of the same name. Louis Armstrong's version was inducted in the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2001. The music and lyrics were written by Jerry Herman, who also wrote the scores for many other popular musicals including Mame and La Cage aux Folles. "Hello, Dolly!" was first sung by Carol Channing, who starred as Dolly Gallagher Levi in the original 1964 Broadway cast. In December 1963, at the behest of his manager, Louis Armstrong made a demonstration recording of "Hello, Dolly!" for the song's publisher to use to promote the show. Hello, Dolly! opened on January 16, 1964 at the St. James Theatre in New York City, and it quickly became a major success. The same month, Kapp Records released Armstrong's publishing demo as a commercial single. The best-known recording is by Louis Armstrong, in 1964, which reached number-one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100, ending The Beatles' streak of three number-one hits in a row (they also held the top three spots) and becoming the biggest hit of Armstrong's career, followed by a gold-selling album of the same name. For the song Armstrong received a Grammy Award for "Best Vocal Performance, Male" in 1964. In 1965, it received a Grammy Award for "Best Song" (Jerry Herman (songwriter), performed by Louis Armstrong). The song also spent nine weeks atop the adult contemporary chart shortly after the opening the musical. Louis Armstrong also performed the song (together with Barbra Streisand) in the popular 1969 film Hello, Dolly!. As successful as the stage show and title song itself turned out to be, however, the tune "Hello, Dolly!" became caught up in a lawsuit which could have endangered timely plans for bringing the musical to the silver screen. Mack David (1912-1993), an Academy Award-nominated composer also known for his compositions for television, sued for infringement of copyright, because the first four bars of Herman's show number, "Hello, Dolly!", were the same as those in the refrain of David's song "Sunflower" from 1948. As he recounts in his memoirs, Herman had never heard "Sunflower" before the lawsuit, and wanted a chance to defend himself in court, but, for the sake of those involved in the show and the potential film, he reluctantly agreed to pay a settlement before the case would have gone to trial. Music Head YouTube - The Young Rascals - "Good Lovin" on The Ed Sullivan Show (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=jVAusXuPsY8) from wikipedia "Good Lovin' " is a song written by Rudy Clark and Arthur Resnick that was a number one hit single for The Young Rascals in 1966. The song was first recorded in 1965 by R&B/novelty artists The Olympics, but was only moderately successful at best, reaching number 81 on the Billboard Pop Singles chart. The tale is told that Rascal Felix Cavaliere heard it on a New York City radio station and the group added it to their concert repertoire. Co-producer Tom Dowd captured this live feel on the recording, even though the group did not think the performance held together well. Divining a mixture of garage rock and white soul, the Rascals' "Good Lovin'" jumped out of radios with a "One - Two - Three -" count-in, high-energy instrumentation, and insistent call-and-response vocals from Cavaliere and the band. These were followed by an organ break from Cavaliere, and a full stop false ending that was suddenly popular at the time (cf. "Rain" and "Monday, Monday") ï¿½ all in two and a half minutes. "Good Lovin'" rose to the top of the Billboard Pop Singles chart in the spring of 1966 and represented The Young Rascals' first real hit. It was also the first of three #1 hits for the group. "Good Lovin'" is one of The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll, and was ranked number 325 on Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list. Writer Dave Marsh placed it at number 108 in his 1989 book The Heart of Rock and Soul: The 1001 Greatest Singles Ever Made, saying it is "the greatest example ever of a remake surpassing the quality of an original without changing a thing about the arrangement," and that "'Good Lovin' all by itself is enough to dispel the idiotic notion that rock and roll is nothing more than white boys stealing from blacks." The song has since been performed and recorded by a number of artists, including Tommy James and the Shondells (1966), Herbie Mann (1966), The Who (1965), and Bobby McFerrin (several versions). The Grateful Dead made it a workhorse of their concert rotation, sung in their early years by Ron "Pigpen" McKernan and then later sung by Bob Weir. The Weir rendition was recorded for the group's 1978 Shakedown Street album and came in for a good amount of criticism: Rolling Stone said it "featured aimless ensemble work and vocals that Bob Weir should never have attempted." "Good Lovin'" was the title song of a 2008 album by Australian singer David Campbell. The Rascals' "Good Lovin'" was also featured in the 1986 third season "Atomic Shakespeare"/Taming of the Shrew episode of Moonlighting, with Bruce Willis singing the Cavaliere vocal, as well as the 1987 first season Wiseguy episode "No One Gets Out of Here Alive". Music Head YouTube - Skeeter Davis -- The End Of The World (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qgcy-V6YIuI) from wikipedia "The End of the World" is a pop music hit by Skeeter Davis that enjoyed international success in the 1960s. The record was released by RCA Records in December 1962 and reached its greatest success in March 1963, peaking at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 pop chart, number two on the Billboard country singles chart (Davis was a country music vocalist and the record was a crossover music success), and #1 on Billboard's adult Contemporary - easy listening chart. The record also was a number four hit on Billboard's rhythm and blues chart - making Davis one of the very few Caucasian female vocalists to enjoy a top ten record on that chart. Davis' four-chart top-ten accomplishment has never been duplicated by any other female vocalist in the history of the Billboard charts. Although Ruby and the Romantics' hit "Our Day Will Come" kept "The End of the World" from hitting number one on the pop chart, the song's popularity and chart history earned it the #3 place on Billboard's list of the year's 20 biggest hits. The music was written by Arthur Kent with lyrics by Sylvia Dee. Dee also wrote the lyrics for "Too Young" by Nat King Cole. Davis' recording was produced by Chet Atkins and has long been considered one of the foremost examples of the Nashville Sound of the 1960s - smooth vocals and a slick, sophisticated production appealing to audiences far beyond the traditional country music audience. The song was played at Atkins' funeral in 2001 in an instrumental performance by Marty Stuart and later, Davis' recording was broadcast over the speakers of her 2004 funeral at the Ryman Auditorium. Davis went on to score many other country music hits as well as a few major pop crossovers, but she was forever identified with "The End of the World" and sang it at virtually every concert appearance she would make after its success. The song has been covered by a number of artists on albums, including The Carpenters, Loretta Lynn, Herman's Hermits, Brenda Lee, Carola, Bobby Vinton, John Cougar Mellencamp, Johnny Mathis, Julie London, Eddy Arnold, Dottie West, Nancy Sinatra, Sonia Evans, Twiggy, Claudine Longet, Agnetha Fï¿½ltskog (of ABBA fame), Rosie Flores, Patti Page, Anne Murray, Nina Gordon, Vonda Shepard, Exposï¿½, The Vanguards, Leigh Nash, Brilliant, Lobo, Satoko Ishimine and others. In 2009, the song received new attention via a cover version by international Internet sensation Susan Boyle on her debut album, I Dreamed a Dream. Davis' remains the definitive performance, and her version has been featured on the soundtracks of a number of films (including Girl, Interrupted; Riding In Cars With Boys; and Daltry Calhoun) plus in the JFK assassination episode of the 2009 television series Mad Men. It was also featured on TV commercials for the videogame Tom Clancy's EndWar, in which the conflict the game revolves around threatens to destroy civilization. trbc08 YouTube - Howlin' Wolf - Spoonful (1960) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6TwEYuues6Y) "Spoonful" by Howlin' Wolf. I've never heard pain expressed so ecstatically. Beautiful, amazing stuff. Music Head http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LANwIgpha7k from wikipedia "Aquarius/Let the Sunshine In", sometimes referred to as "The Age of Aquarius" or "Let the Sunshine In", is a medley of two songs from the musical Hair ("Aquarius" and "The Flesh Failures (Let The Sunshine In)") written by James Rado, Gerome Ragni, and Galt MacDermot, and released as a single in 1969 by The 5th Dimension. The single held the number one position on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 for six weeks and was certified Platinum. The song listed at #57 on Billboard's Greatest Songs of all time. The recording won the Grammy Award for Record of the Year and Best Contemporary Vocal Performance by a Group at the Grammy Awards of 1970, after it was released on the album The Age of Aquarius. The song was based on the astrological belief that the world would be entering the Age of Aquarius, an age of love, light and humanity, unlike the then current Age of Pisces. This change was presumed to occur at the end of the 20th century, however major astrologers differ over this. Dates range from 2062 (Dane Rudhyar), 2150 (Neil Mann), 2595 (Hermann Haupt) and 2680 (Shephard Simpson). "Aquarius/Let the Sunshine In" was ranked thirty-third on the 2004 AFI's 100 Years... 100 Songs. Catherine Sutter 03-12-2009, 00:32 I've had a lot of favorite songs over the years, and Lady Gaga is my current favorite artist... A really GREAT song, even if you don't usually like rap, is Eminem's "Beautiful" off his latest album. I cry every time I hear it. If you're looking for incredible songs that aren't mainstream, check out James Pequignot and Christel South. I used to see them a lot at this open mic in Encino, CA. Really all of their songs are incredible, but this one song Christel posted recently really made an impact on me. It's called "Ever See the Sun" and she has it on reverbnation dot com (I guess I'm still not allowed to post links yet) ... www dot reverbnation dot com slash christelsouth. Oh and James Pequignot is at www dot iprefersadsongs dot com. Music Head YouTube - THE FOUR TOPS - I Can't Help Myself (Sugar Pie, Honey Bunch) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aigRZ-1LjH0) from wikipedia "I Can't Help Myself (Sugar Pie Honey Bunch)" is a 1965 hit song recorded by the Four Tops for the Motown label. Written and produced by Motown's main production team Holland-Dozier-Holland, the song is one of the most well-known Motown tunes of the 1960s. The song hit number one on the R&B charts and was also the number-one song on the Billboard Hot 100 for two non-consecutive weeks, from June 12 to June 19 and from June 26 to July 3 in 1965. It replaced "Back in My Arms Again" by labelmates The Supremes, It was replaced by "Mr. Tambourine Man" by The Byrds, then regained the top spot before being replaced by "(I Can't Get No) Satisfaction" by The Rolling Stones. The song finds lead singer Levi Stubbs, assisted by the other three Tops and The Andantes, pleadingly professing his love to a woman: "Sugar pie, honey bunch/I'm weaker than a man should be!/Can't help myself/I'm a fool in love, you see." Like most of his lead parts, Stubbs' vocals are recorded in a tone that straddles the line between singing and shouting, similar to the tone of a black Baptist preacher. The melodic and chordal progressions are very similar to the Supremes' "Where Did Our Love Go". Rolling Stone magazine ranked the song #415 on their list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. It has been covered extensively since 1965, including versions done for several television commercials. In 1980, Bonnie Pointer had a crossover hit, with the song, peaking at #40 on the pop singles chart, #42 on the soul singles chart, and #4 on the dance charts. In Autumn 1985, The Johnny Dyson Experience performed the song as their cover of a 9 Below Zero version, at the Crown public house in Bognor Regis, West Sussex, UK. The featured lead in instrument was harmonica played by David Turner who went on to join UK Ska legends Bad Manners. La Toya Jackson covered "I Can't Help Myself" on her 1995 album Stop in the Name of Love. The single was only released throughout Switzerland, Austria, Germany and Holland, with the album track "Baby Love" (cover of The Supremes' "Baby Love") as a B-side. The single failed to chart. Australian girl group, Teen Queens, released a version in 1992 for their second single, where it peaked at #28 on the ARIA Singles Chart. The hard rock band Axe did a heavy version of the song on their first LP. During the 1980s the song (using the original Four Tops arrangement) was featured in a popular commercial for Kelloggs Honey Smacks cereal in the United Kingdom; sung by the cereal's (then) mascot, Barey Bee. In 1980, the song was covered by Japanese pop singers Pink Lady on an episode of their American variety show Pink Lady and Jeff. On Madonna's Who's That Girl Tour, she sang a few lines of "I Can't Help Myself" during the song "Like a Virgin." The band Say Anything also uses a few lines from the song on their track "Sure Baby...Hold Back" released on their first album entitled Baseball. George Harrison's "This Song", which commented on the "My Sweet Lord"/"He's So Fine" plagiarism suit, borrowed the riff of "I Can't Help Myself". In the middle of the song, Harrison, referring to the Fontella Bass song, says, "Sounds like 'Rescue Me'". To which, Eric Idle replies, "Sounds like 'Sugar Pie, Honey Bunch' to me." Scottish Post-punk band Orange Juice makes reference to The Four Tops in their similarly named song "I Can't Help Myself" and made use of the intro bass riff in their instrumental song "Moscow". carbon_psycho Deer Mouth - Song about a man. YouTube - KEXP inStudio 10.2 - DEER TICK (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gBv7fIBBKxg) Iota YouTube - Songs you should listen to: Red House Painters - Have You Forgotten (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-zMjjyBf-GM) CMB1888 03-12-2009, 20:23 YouTube - THE FOUR TOPS - I Can't Help Myself (Sugar Pie, Honey Bunch) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aigRZ-1LjH0) The band Say Anything also uses a few lines from the song on their track "Sure Baby...Hold Back" released on their first album entitled Baseball. starts at 3.15 YouTube - Say Anything- Sure baby... Hold back (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XwZ_Ee3Mjvc) - Can't beat the Four Tops version though Music Head YouTube - dee dee sharp - mashed potato time (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=mQBKpV9emKc) from wikipedia The Mashed Potato is a dance move which was a popular dance craze of 1962. It was danced to songs such as Dee Dee Sharp's "Mashed Potato Time". Her song reached #2 on the Billboard charts for that year. Also referred to as "mash potato" or "mashed potatoes", the move vaguely resembles that of the Twist, by Sharp's fellow Philadelphian, Chubby Checker. The dance begins by stepping backward with one foot with that heel tilted inward. The foot is positioned slightly behind the other (stationary) foot. With the weight on the ball of the starting foot, the heel is then swiveled outward. The same process is repeated with the other foot: step back and behind with heel inward, pivot heel out, and so on. The pattern is continued for as many repetitions as desired. The step may be incorporated in various dances either as a separate routine or as a styling of standard steps. James Brown had two Mashed Potato-related chart hits, "(Do the) Mashed Potatoes" (1959; sung by King Coleman and performed by Brown's band under the pseudonym Nat Kendrick and the Swans) and "Mashed Potatoes U.S.A." (1962); Brown also featured the dance prominently in his live performances during the 1950s and '60s. The dance was also referred to in Connie Francis' 1962 hit "V-A-C-A-T-I-O-N" ("...we'll Mashed Potato to a jukebox tune..."), "Do You Love Me" by The Contours, "Let's Dance" by Chris Montez, "Harry the Hairy Ape" a 1963 Top-20 pop and R&B novelty hit by Ray Stevens, and "Land of a Thousand Dances", a song made popular by Wilson Pickett. Bill Haley & His Comets had a Latin American hit in 1963 with "Pure de Papas", a song based on the dance craze. A variation on the Mashed Potato was danced to Bobby "Boris" Pickett's novelty hit "Monster Mash," in which the footwork was the same, but monster gestures were made with the arms and hands. Music Head YouTube - JIMMY WEBB - RICHARD HARRIS - MacArthur Park (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=su3JdzUUuH4) from wikipedia "MacArthur Park" is a song written by Jimmy Webb. Originally written as part of an intended cantata rejected by The Association, it was first recorded by Richard Harris in 1968 and then covered by many other performers. One of the best known covers of the song is Donna Summer's 1978 disco hit. Maynard Ferguson, Stan Kenton, and Woody Herman all performed dynamic big band jazz versions. The song is named after MacArthur Park, a park in Los Angeles, California, although the title on the disc and record cover art is spelled with a space between Mac and Arthur. Its lyrics, which include the memorable line "Someone left the cake out in the rain", are more symbolic than descriptive, beginning as a poem about love, then moving into a lover's lament. The song was first recorded by Richard Harris on his album A Tramp Shining in 1968 and was released as a single. It was an unusual single, running for more than seven minutes, with a long, climactic orchestral break. Harris's topped the music charts in Europe and peaked at number two on the U.S. charts. The song peaked at #10 in Billboard's Easy Listening survey, and was #8 for the year on WABC's overall 1968 chart. Harris sings the song's final chorus at an elevated pitch near the top of his falsetto range. Throughout his recording, Harris can be heard using the incorrect possessive form, "MacArthur's Park". Webb has said he tried correcting Harris during re-takes, but gave up when he simply could not (or would not) sing the correct words. The song has been covered by many artists over the years with the most notable being by Donna Summer who did a disco version of the song which topped the U.S. charts for three weeks in 1978. "MacArthur Park"'s odd metaphors and sentimentality have made it a frequent target of parody and ridicule over the years. In 1992, humorist Dave Barry conducted a poll among his readers (as recorded in Dave Barry's Book of Bad Songs) of the worst songs ever. Barry's readers selected Harris's version of "MacArthur Park" as the worst song ever recorded, both in terms of "Worst Lyrics" and "Worst Overall Song". The song was also once parodied in a 1981 episode of SCTV, in which Dave Thomas, playing Richard Harris, sang a version of the song that appears to never end. carbon_psycho YouTube - Roses Are Red (My Love) - BOBBY VINTON (1962) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UIUlWZHlXSc) from wikipedia "Roses Are Red (My Love)" is a popular song composed by Al Byron and Paul Evans. It was recorded by Bobby Vinton and was a number-one song in the United States during the year 1962. It topped the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart on July 15, 1962, and remained there for four weeks. The recording was his first hit. He found the song in a reject pile at Epic Records. He first recorded it as an R&B number but was allowed to record it with a new arrangement including strings. The single was also the first number one hit for Epic. Music Head YouTube - LULU - TO SIR WITH LOVE - BEST SOUND (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=huNYR_RixqM) from wikipedia "To Sir, with Love" is the theme from the 1967 film To Sir, with Love. The song was written by Don Black and Mark London. "To Sir, with Love" was initially recorded by Lulu (with The Mindbenders, who also acted in the film). Her single was released in 1967 and reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100, remaining in the top position for five weeks and earning the number one position for the entire year. "To Sir With Love" also peaked at number nine on the R&B charts [1]. In Lulu's native UK, the song was never released in its own right, instead appearing as the B-side to the 1967 #11 hit "Let's Pretend." Music Head YouTube - Bobbie Gentry - Ode To Billy Joe (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CZt5Q-u4crc) from wikipedia "Ode to Billie Joe" is a 1967 song written and recorded by Bobbie Gentry, a singer-songwriter from Chickasaw County, Mississippi. The single, released in late July, was a number-one hit in the United States, and became a big international seller. The song is ranked #412 on Rolling Stone's list of "the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time". The recording of "Ode to Billie Joe" generated eight Grammy nominations, including three wins for Gentry and one win for arranger Jimmie Haskell. This song is a first person narrative that reveals a quasi-Southern Gothic tale in its verses by including the dialog of the narrator's family at dinnertime on the day that "Billie Joe McAllister jumped off the Tallahatchie Bridge." Throughout the song, the suicide and other tragedies are contrasted against the banality of everyday routine and polite conversation. In an interview with Bob Harris broadcast by BBC Radio 2 in Bob Harris Country on 16 April 2009, singer Rachel Harrington claimed that Bobbie Gentry originally wrote 11 verses but deleted six because a record producer thought it was too long. "Ode to Billy Joe" was originally intended as the "B side" of Gentry's first single recording, a blues number called "Mississippi Delta," on Capitol Records. It was originally a seven minute recording with only Gentry's guitar backing the lyrics which told more of the story of what happened to Billie Joe at the Tallahatchie Bridge. After the original version was finished, the label executives realized that this song was the better option for a single release. Thus, they went back into the studio with the string orchestra for backing and cut the song length almost in half. Cutting the length and lyrics provided the song with a mystical allure which left more to the listener's imagination about what really happened to Billie Joe. It also made it more suitable for radio airplay. The mysteries surrounding the characters in the song created something of a cultural sensation at the time and at least one urban legend. In 1975, Gentry told author Herman Raucher that she hadn't come up with a reason for Billie Joe's suicide when she wrote the song. She has stated in numerous interviews over the years that the focus of the song was not the suicide itself, but the rather matter-of-fact way that the narrator's family was discussing the tragedy over dinner, unaware that Billie Joe might well have been her boyfriend. A popular speculation at the release of the song in 1967 (unsupported by either the song's lyrics or the culture of that area and time period) was that the narrator and Billie Joe threw their baby (live, stillborn or aborted) off the bridge, and Billie Joe then killed himself out of grief and guilt. This version of events is accentuated in the Sinï¿½ad O'Connor version, where a baby is heard to cry at the moment the mystery item is thrown off the bridge. There was also speculation that Billie Joe was black, having a forbidden affair with the white narrator, although the culture of that area, in that time period, made it extremely unlikely that a black man would have had any part in the events described in the song's lyrics (a frog down the narrator's back at a public movie theater, socializing with the narrator's family after church, or being seen together throwing "something" off a bridge in public). Gentry continually dismissed speculation that the song was autobiographical. At the height of the song's popularity, numerous rumors circulated that she had been questioned by Mississippi police. The song's popularity proved so enduring that in 1976, nine years after its release, Warner Bros. commissioned author Herman Raucher to adapt it into a novel and screenplay, Ode to Billy Joe (note different spelling). The poster's tagline, which treats the film as being based on actual events and even gives a date of death for Billy (June 3, 1953), led many to believe that the song was based on actual events. In fact, when Raucher met Bobbie Gentry in preparation for writing the novel and screenplay, she confessed that she herself had no idea why Billie Joe killed himself. In Raucher's novel and screenplay, Billy Joe kills himself after a drunken homosexual experience, and the object thrown from the bridge is the narrator's ragdoll. Billy Joe's story is analyzed in Professor John Howard's history of gay Mississippi entitled Men Like That: A Queer Southern History as an archetype of what Howard calls the "gay suicide myth". gryphon 08-12-2009, 10:35 The song I would urge people to listen to is by a relatively unknown English singer song writer : Clifford T.Ward The song which I believe is on youtube is called "Home Thoughts From Abroad" Clifford was like so many others of his time an aspiring singer who fronted a band which lived and gigged in the Kidderminster area of the UK. The band underwent several name changes including Cliff and the Cruisers , Martin Raynor and The Secrets, The Secrets and finally Simon's Secrets. Many of these incarnations released singles but non charted. Eventually Clifford went solo and produced his first album Singer songwriter for John Peel's Dandelion label here in the UK. Just after this Clifford ( Who was at that time a Teacher ) managed to break into mainstream pop with a single Gaye which reached the upper ends of the UK charts. On the heals of this came the excellent Album " Home Thoughts From Abroad " from which I have nominated the title track. In a BBC radio 2 poll of the hundred best songs ever "Home thoughts From Abroad" came 5th beating many well known and well regarded tracs Clifford remains a cut figure here in the UK known only to a few but I hope you will take this introduction to hear an excellent and well crafted song Music Head YouTube - Crimson and Clover - Tommy James & The Shondells (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GpGEeneO-t0) from wikipedia "Crimson and Clover" is a song by Tommy James and the Shondells. It was one of the biggest hits of the 1960s and reached #1 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 and #1 in Canada in 1969. It dropped from #18 to completely out of the Billboard pop charts in one week, setting a record for the farthest drop out of the charts. "Crimson and Clover" was completely written and recorded by the duo of Tommy James and Peter Lucia Jr., the Shondells drummer. Lucia played drums and delivered backing vocals, while James played all other instruments and sang the lead vocals. The song is famous for a unique "wobbly" vocal effect near the end of the song. To produce this effect, Tommy James plugged his microphone into a guitar amplifier, flipped the tremolo switch, and repeatedly sang the line "crimson and clover, over and over". When it was released in November 1968, some listeners thought he was saying "Christmas is over" instead of "crimson and clover. The song is often incorrectly attributed to The Velvet Underground, Fleetwood Mac, Simon and Garfunkel or The Hollies on P2P networks and lyrics websites. The Velvet Underground instrumental song "Ride Into the Sun" from the Out-take V.U. album uses the same chords. Lou Reed later used the same chords for Sweet Jane on the Velvet Underground's "Loaded" album. The similarities are best heard on the Sweet Jane cover Version by the Cowboy Junkies from the Natural Born Killers Soundtrack. Music Head http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/2/23/Royorbisoncolorpic.jpg/220px-Royorbisoncolorpic.jpg YouTube - Roy Orbison - Pretty Woman from Combo Concert (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QDTAlQynZ-s) "Oh, Pretty Woman" is a song, released in 1964, which was a worldwide success for Roy Orbison. Recorded on the Monument Records label in Nashville, Tennessee, it was written by Roy Orbison and Bill Dees. The song spent three weeks at number one on the Billboard Hot 100. The best-known guitar performance was by Wayne Moss later of Barefoot Jerry. Orbison posthumously won the 1991 Grammy Award for Best Male Pop Vocal Performance for his live recording of the song on his HBO television special Roy Orbison and Friends, A Black and White Night. In 1999, the song was honored with a Grammy Hall of Fame Award and was named one of the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine ranked it #222 on their list of the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time." The lyrics tells the story of a man who sees a pretty woman walking by. He yearns for her and wonders if, as beautiful as she is, she might be lonely like he is. At the last minute, she turns back and joins him. The title was inspired by Orbison's wife Claudette interrupting a conversation to announce she was going out; when Orbison asked if she was okay for cash, his co-writer Bill Dees interjected "A pretty woman never needs any money." In 1989, the controversial rap group 2 Live Crew recorded a parody of the Orbison song, using the alternate title "Pretty Woman" for their album Clean As They Wanna Be. The 2 Live Crew sampled the distinctive bassline from the Orbison song, but the romantic lyrics were replaced by talk about a hairy woman and her bald-headed friend and their appeal to the singer, as well as denunciation of a "two-timing woman." Orbison's publisher, Acuff-Rose Music sued 2 Live Crew on the basis that the fair use doctrine did not permit reuse of their copyrighted material for profit. The case, Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc. went all the way to the United States Supreme Court. The Supreme Court decided in 2 Live Crew's favor, greatly expanding the doctrine of fair use and extending its protections to parodies created for profit. It is considered a seminal fair use decision. gryphon CMB1888 10-12-2009, 18:42 Agreed - It was one of my grandad's records that I played ad infinitum when I was a kid and I still love it, cheesy as it is. Music Head 11-12-2009, 10:33 http://www.singerpictures.com/images/pic/s/shelley-fabares/106875.jpg MP3DL Player (http://mp3dl.co.cc/play.php?src=4shared&id=46173414&x=c4d6446a&name=Shelly%20Fabares%20-%20Johnny%20Angel%20%5B1962%5D%2096) from wikipedia "Johnny Angel" is a song written by Lyn Duddy and Lee Pockriss and recorded by Shelley Fabares. It hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 on April 7, 1962, during a 15-week run on the chart. The song is an expression of a teenage girl's romantic longing for a boy who doesn't know she exists, to the point where she declines other boys' propositions for dates because she'd rather concentrate on the boy she loves. The song premiered on an episode of Fabares' sitcom, The Donna Reed Show, and was released on Columbia Pictures' Colpix Records label. The song also has a sequel song entitled "Johnny Loves Me" (which tells the story of how the girl won Johnny's heart). The song had previously been recorded by Georgia Lee on the Decca label. Darlene Love and her group, the Blossoms, sang backup vocals on the track. Fabares is quoted in The Billboard Book of Number One Singles by Fred Bronson as saying she was intimidated by Love's group and their "beautiful" voices and was terrified at the prospect of becoming a recording artist, as she did not consider herself a singer. Although Fabares' career as a singer came to an end (though her career as an actress stayed strong for three decades) within a few years of "Johnny Angel" after she was unable to come up with another Top 20 hit, the song has become an oldies radio airplay favorite. The Carpenters covered "Johnny Angel" in 1973 as part of a medley of oldies on side two of their album Now and Then. Music Head 12-12-2009, 11:32 I know I just did Roy. I couldn't help it. Just too beautiful. In the right (wrong) mood it can literaly do what the title implies to me. YouTube - Roy Orbison - Crying (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sE9AwR0awVQ) from wikipedia "Crying" is a rock and roll ballad written by Roy Orbison and Joe Melson and sung by Orbison. The song was released as a 45rpm single by Monument Records in July 1961 and went to No. 2 on the Billboard pop music charts. The song contains "a vivid combination of hurtful romantic longing combined with near operatic vocals". It is remarkable in that Roy Orbison begins singing the climactic, final note slightly flat, sliding up by the end of the note to just under the correct pitch. That this was done for effect and this was confirmed in a live performance, Live at Austin City Limits, as well as on the 1987 re-recording from the album In Dreams: The Greatest Hits, on which he sang that note perfectly on key. The song also appears on Orbison's 1962 album with the title Crying and his 1989 posthumous album A Black & White Night Live from the 1988 HBO television special. In 1987, Orbison rerecorded the song as a duet with k.d. lang as part of the soundtrack for the motion picture, Hiding Out. Their collaboration won the Grammy Award for Best Country Collaboration with Vocals. The duet version was a minor chart hit for the two, peaking at #42 on the Hot Country Singles chart. Rebekah Del Rio performed an a cappella Spanish language version of the song, entitled "Llorando" in the 2001 David Lynch film Mulholland Dr.; critics have described this sequence as the most powerful in the movie. The song had also previously been used on the soundtrack for the 1997 cult film Gummo, directed by Harmony Korine, in which two of the central characters even discuss the song at length. In 2002, "Crying" was honored with a Grammy Hall of Fame Award. In 2004, Rolling Stone Magazine ranked it #69 on their list of the "500 Greatest Songs of All Time". Carrie Underwood performed the song on the TV Talent show, American Idol (Season 4). She later went on to win the show, and is now a successful country music artist. Emily Vinette performed this song in the Top 10 episode of Canadian Idol's third season. Vinette was voted off the next night. Ashley Coulter performed the song in the top 6 episode of season 4. She was also voted off the next night. The winner of Australian Idol Damien Leith also performed the song, in 2006. In a 2006 poll for a Channel 5 program Britain's Favourite Break-up Songs, "Crying" was voted 13th. Robi83 YouTube - Tommy Roe Dizzy (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=vYG9Bpnjuv0) from wikipedia "Dizzy" is a song originally recorded by Tommy Roe which was a worldwide smash hit single in 1969. Written by Roe and Freddy Weller, "Dizzy" was a major hit on both sides of the Atlantic, reaching number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 for four weeks in March 1969, for one week on the UK Singles Chart in June 1969, and was #1 in Canada in March 1969. It was subsequently recorded by such disparate artists as Boney M, Mike Melvoin and the Deadbeats, Wreckless Eric and Billy J. Kramer In 1991, a cover of "Dizzy" recorded by English comedian Vic Reeves and the alternative rock band The Wonder Stuff peaked at number one for two weeks in the United Kingdom. In 1989 it was sampled by De La Soul on their album, Three Feet High and Rising, in the track "The Magic Number". In 1994 it was covered by Babe on their album 4 Babe pesme; the Babe version being entitled "Dizel". A version of the song has been recorded by Bob the Builder, with the lyrics referring to Bob's concrete mixer, Dizzy. gryphon 13-12-2009, 10:41 Excellent choice ! Tommy's Buddy holly influenced Sheila is also an excellent track that should be heard. Sounds just like Buddy ! Dizzy is widely covered which backs up what en excellent choice it is. :happy: YouTube - Bruce Channel - Hey! Baby (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L4w1Mp6Mce4) from wikipedia "Hey! Baby" is a song written by Margaret Cobb and Bruce Channel, who recorded the song in 1961. Channel co-produced the song with Major Bill Smith and released it on Mercury Records' Smash label. The song reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 for three weeks, starting the week ending March 10, 1962. The song features a prominent riff from well-known harmonica player Delbert McClinton. According to a CNN article[1] from 2002, "while touring the U.K. in 1962 with a little known group called The Beatles, harmonica player Delbert McClinton met John Lennon and gave him some harmonica tips. Lennon put the lessons to use right away on 'Love Me Do' and later 'Please Please Me'." Lennon included the song in his jukebox, and it is also featured on the related compilation album. "Hey! Baby" was covered by Ringo Starr and released as a single in 1976. (#74 US Pop) Country-rock singer Juice Newton remade the song in 1978 on her debut solo album, Well Kept Secret. The song was released as a single but did not chart. In mid-1982, Canadian country pop singer Anne Murray covered the song, reaching #7 on the US Country Singles chart and #26 on the Adult Contemporary chart. Murray also reached #1 on the RPM country and adult contemporary charts in Canada. A live version was recorded by Adam Faith for a live album in the `60s. Shortly afterwards he began to concentrate on more middle of the road material and ballads, though Faith himself is said to have preferred rock `n` roll. Singer and DJ DJ ï¿½tzi released a cover version of "Hey Baby" in 2001. In 2002, it was re-released when it became the unofficial theme song for the 2002 FIFA World Cup. CMB1888 14-12-2009, 23:05 I know I just did Roy. I couldn't help it. Just too beautiful. In the right (wrong) mood it can literaly do what the title implies to me. YouTube - Roy Orbison - Crying (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sE9AwR0awVQ) Forever ruined for me because of this - and I'm sure anyone who is an 'Only Fools and Horses' immediately thought of this as well YouTube - tony angelino's "cwying" only fools and horses (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NjF7GMP28X8) Music Head 14-12-2009, 23:16 Forever ruined for me because of this - and I'm sure anyone who is an 'Only Fools and Horses' immediately thought of this as well YouTube - tony angelino's "cwying" only fools and horses (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=NjF7GMP28X8) That would do it. Obviously I don't know of this being a yankee and all, but is there a particular reason why he says cwying? Is that a popular show that's on now? Kazz http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FKCnHWas3HQ from wikipedia "Downtown" is a pop song composed by Tony Hatch following a first-time visit to New York City, most famously recorded by Petula Clark, whose version topped the singles charts in both the U.S. and the U.K. in early 1965. Hatch had originally intended to present "Downtown" to The Drifters, but when British singer Petula Clark heard the incomplete tune, she proposed that if he could write lyrics to match the quality of the melody, she would be interested in recording it. The song was recorded 16 October 1964 at the Pye Studios in Marble Arch. The session featured guitarists Vic Flick, Jimmy Page and Big Jim Sullivan, and also drummer Bobby Graham and the Breakaways vocal group. Thirty minutes before the session was scheduled, Hatch was still completing the lyrics to "Downtown" in the studio's washroom. "Downtown" was released in late 1964 and became a best seller in English, French, Italian, and German versions, topping music charts worldwide (with 3 million copies sold in the US alone) and introducing Clark, who had been a popular recording artist and actress in Europe for nearly 20 years, to the American record-buying public. She continued her success in the United States with a string of fifteen consecutive Top 40 hits. "Downtown" was the first song by a British female artist to top the Billboard Hot 100 chart and went on to win the Grammy Award for Best Rock and Roll Song. It was enrolled in the Grammy Hall of Fame in 2004. Clark re-recorded the song four times, in 1976 (with a disco beat), in 1984 (with a new piano and trumpet intro that leads into the song's original opening), in 1988 with Dutch producer Eddy Ouwens for the album "My Greatest" for release in the UK, Germany and Benelux only, and in 1996. In addition, the original 1964 recording was remixed and re-released in 1988, 1999, and 2003. Clark, who in the early 1960s maintained a concurrent non-English musical career throughout Europe, also recorded French, German and Italian versions in early 1965. While the German version retained the original title, the French version was retitled Dans le Temps and the Italian version was called Ciao Ciao. Following 9/11, New York City adopted Clark's version of "Downtown" as the theme song for a series of commercials encouraging tourism to Lower Manhattan. The song has been used by other metropolitan areas ï¿½ including Chicago, Indianapolis, and Singapore ï¿½ for promotional purposes as well. carbon_psycho Wow.. That's my favourite song.. I feel so bad, it wasn't me who shared that. Thanks Music head. The Association ? Cherish ? Video & free listening at Last.fm (http://www.last.fm/music/The+Association/_/Cherish) from wikipedia Cherish is a pop music song written by Terry Kirkman and recorded by The Association. Released in 1966, the song reached number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 in September of that year and remained in the top position for three weeks. In Canada the song also reached number one. Nina Simone recorded her version on 1967's Silk and Soul. Session musician Doug Rhodes, also member of The Music Machine, played the Celesta on the recording. David Cassidy recorded his own version on his 1972 album Cherish; his version of the song reached #9 on the Hot 100 chart and spent one week at #1 on the adult contemporary chart (#3 in Canada). Barry Manilow covered this song, along with Windy, on Manilow's 2006 album, The Greatest Songs of the Sixties. Other covers have been performed by artists such as The Four Tops and Jodeci, but the original Association version of the song appears at the end of The Simpsons Season 20 Episode 6, entitled "Homer and Lisa Exchange Cross Words", and The Nanny Season 5 Episode 15, entitled "The Engagement". The chords for this song also appear in Spongebob Squarepants Season 5 Episode 13, entitled "Breath of Fresh Squidward". Known for its simple lyrics and complex vocal harmonies, "Cherish" is widely regarded as one of the greatest love songs ever written, and the original version still gets regular airplay today gryphon YouTube - Dion The Wanderer (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5m6lymJy57E) from wikipedia "The Wanderer" is a song written by Ernie Maresca and originally recorded by Dion. The song, with a 12-bar blues-base verse and an eight-bar bridge, tells the story of a travelling man and his many loves. The song is ranked #239 on the Rolling Stone magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. Maresca had co-written Dion's previous # 1 hit, "Runaround Sue", but originally intended "The Wanderer" to be recorded by another group, Nino and the Ebbtides. They passed on it in favour of another Maresca song, so Dion was given it as the B-side of his follow-up single, "The Majestic", a song which his record company had chosen for him. The record was turned over by radio DJs who preferred "The Wanderer", which duly entered the US charts in December 1961 and rose to # 2 in early 1962. It also reached # 10 in the UK, and # 1 in Australia. The song was recorded with an uncredited background vocal group, the Del-Satins, in a rockier style than Dion's earlier hits with the Belmonts. The Del-Satins were an established doowop group led by Stan Ziska (later known as Stan Sommers), who at the time were also contracted to Laurie Records, and who later formed the core of Johnny Maestro and the Brooklyn Bridge. Dion said of "The Wanderer": At its roots, it's more than meets the eye. "The Wanderer" is black music filtered through an Italian neighborhood that comes out with an attitude. It's my perception of a lot of songs like "I'm A Man" by Bo Diddley or "Hoochie Coochie Man" by Muddy Waters. But you know, "The Wanderer" is really a sad song. A lot of guys don't understand that. Bruce Springsteen was the only guy who accurately expressed what that song was about. It's "I roam from town to town and go through life without a care, I'm as happy as a clown with my two fists of iron, but I'm going nowhere." In the fifties, you didn't get that dark. It sounds like a lot of fun but it's about going nowhere. However, on Maresca's original demo of the song, the lyrics were "with my two fists of iron and my bottle of beer", and the change to "with my two fists of iron but I'm going nowhere" in fact seems to have been at the record company's insistence. Music Head http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tbad22CKlB4 from wikipedia "Breaking Up Is Hard to Do" is a song recorded by Neil Sedaka and described by Allmusic as "two minutes and sixteen seconds of pure pop magic".[1] It is considered to be Sedaka's signature song. It hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 on August 11, 1962 and was a good hit all over the world, sometimes with the text translated into foreign languages. For example, the Italian version was called "Tu non lo sai" (" You don't know ") and was recorded by Sedaka himself. Originally an uptempo song, Sedaka re-recorded it as a ballad in 1975 and the new version peaked at number eight in February 1976 and went to number one on the Adult Contemporary chart; it was only the second time that an artist made the Billboard Top Ten with two different versions of the same song. Music Head YouTube - Del Shannon Runaway (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=8TLLcvWeiKw) from wikipedia "Runaway" was a number one Billboard Hot 100 song in the spring of 1961 by Del Shannon. It was written by Shannon and keyboardist Max Crook, and became a major international hit. It is #466 on Rolling Stone's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. Singer-guitarist Charles Westover and keyboard player Max Crook performed together as members of "Charlie Johnson and the Big Little Show Band" in Battle Creek, Michigan, before their group won a recording contract in 1960. Westover took the new stage name "Del Shannon", and Crook, who had invented his own clavioline-based electric keyboard called a Musitron, became "Maximilian". After their first recording session for Big Top Records in New York had ended in failure, their manager Ollie McLaughlin persuaded them to rewrite and re-record an earlier song they had written, "Little Runaway", to highlight Crook's unique instrumental sound. On January 21, 1961, they recorded "Runaway" at the Bell Sound recording studios, with Harry Balk as producer,Fred Weinberg as audio engineer and also session musician on several sections- session musician Al Caiola on guitar, and Crook playing the central Musitron break. "Runaway" was released in February 1961 and was immediately successful. In April, Shannon appeared on Dick Clark's American Bandstand helping to catapult it to the number one spot on the Billboard charts where it remained for four weeks. Two months later, it also reached number one in the UK. On the R&B charts, "Runaway" peaked at number three. Music Head YouTube - LEN BARRY - 1-2-3 - 1966 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=An1-ntyBcz8) from wikipedia "1-2-3" is a hit 1965 song written and recorded by Len Barry. The song is actually a rework of "Ask Any Girl" released by The Supremes as the b-side to their single "Baby Love", and written by Holland-Dozier-Holland. It reached #2 in the U.S. Billboard chart and #3 on the UK Singles Chart. "1-2-3" also went to number eleven on the soul chart. The song was featured on the soundtrack for the film, Mr. Holland's Opus. "1-2-3" was one of the songs that appeared in John Lennon's jukebox. Motown Records sued the songwriters, because "1-2-3" was a reworked copy of Holland-Dozier-Holland song "Ask Any Girl". The songwriters admitted to taking the composition which led to Holland-Dozier-Holland getting credit for writing "1-2-3". In 1980, disco/dance group Salazar, peaked at number sixty on the disco/dance charts with their version of the song. In 1987, English singer-songwriter Roy Wood recorded a cover version and released it as a single, but it failed to chart In December 2005, Welsh singer-songwriter Cerys Matthews recorded a new version of "1-2-3" in Nashville, Tennessee for a children's charity in the UK. Edwyn Collins sampled the opening for his single "A Girl Like You". Music Head YouTube - Bobby Vee : Take Good Care Of My Baby (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LunT2kP3JL4) from wikipedia "Take Good Care of My Baby" is a song written by Carole King and Gerry Goffin and made famous by Bobby Vee, when it was released in 1961. It quickly became popular, reaching #1 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 in September. The song was covered by The Beatles during their audition at Decca Records on January 1, 1962. Dion also recorded a version, though it was not released as a single. Gary Lewis & The Playboys recorded a cover version in 1965 on their She's Just My Style album. In 1968, it became a hit again, this time for Bobby Vinton, but his version reached only #33 on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 in comparison. Vee re-recorded the song as a ballad in 1973 on his album Ain't Nothing Like a Sunny Day (released under his real name, Robert Thomas Velline). However, it's his original version, along with Vinton's, that remain as staples of oldies radio stations. Music Head YouTube - Everybody Loves Somebody (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Bkwn6tihv2A) from wikipedia "Everybody Loves Somebody" is a song written in 1947 by Irving Taylor and Ken Lane. The song had already been recorded by several artists (including Frank Sinatra) by 1964, but without much success. But it was in that year that Lane was playing piano for Dean Martin on his Dream With Dean LP sessions, and with an hour or so of studio time left and one song short, Lane suggested that Martin take a run at his tune. Dean was agreeable, and the small combo of piano, guitar, drums and bass performed a relatively quiet, laid back jazz version of the song. Almost immediately thereafter, Martin re-recorded the tune for his next album, this time with an orchestra and chorus. His label, Reprise Records, was so enthusiastic about the hit potential of this version, they even titled the LP Everybody Loves Somebody to capitalize on it. Although still a major recording artist, Martin had not had a Top 40 hit since 1958. And with the British Invasion ruling the U.S. charts, few had hopes that a middle aged Italian crooner would sway many teenagers. And yet, defying the odds, Everybody Loves Somebody shot straight up to the top of the Billboard Hot 100. The song also topped the Billboard "easy listening" chart for eight weeks. It ultimately replaced "That's Amore" as Martin's signature song, and he sang it as the theme of his weekly television variety show from 1965 until 1974. The song has become so identified with Dean Martin, that later cover versions are invariably compared to his hit take on the tune. By 1964, Dino, Frank, Sammy and the rest of the Rat Pack's martini-swilling lounge sound was out of synch with the Rock n' Roll now dominating the Top 100 Billboard. Dean in particular, resented and despised anything rock n' roll, which created conflict at home with his fourteen year old son Dean Paul Martin, who like every other teenager in the Western world, worshipped the Beatles. Tiring of his son's infernal boasting of how great the Beatles were, Dino told Dino, Jr., "I'm gonna' knock your pallies off the charts". Quoted from Dino: Living High in the Dirty Business of Dreams by Nick Toches. Having not had a hit for six years, Dino Jr. rolled his eyes, and simply cast the prediction off as nonsense and forgot about it. That is until August 15, 1964 when Everybody Loves Somebody knocked the Beatles off the Number One slot on Billboard. Dino smugly remarked to Dino Jr., "I told you I'd knock your pallies off the charts.". Dino Jr. stood there speechless and gazed at his father in utter amazement, wonder, and with a newfound idolatry. Dean Martin became the only person in history to ever predict he'd knock the Beatles off the charts, and actually succeed. Following the song's peak at the top of the charts, Martin sent his close friend Sinatra a telegram saying "THAT'S THE WAY YOU DO IT". Dean sent a message to Elvis Presley "IF ONE OF US CAN BEAT THE BEATLES -- I'LL DO IT!!" In the 1990s the song was licensed to Western Union for use in a series of television commercials. The words "Everybody Loves Somebody" appear on Dean Martin's grave marker in Los Angeles. kvincent5555 22-12-2009, 22:45 ...And with the British Invasion ruling the U.S. charts... That reminds me of this clip I saw a while back. He's pretty rude, and the jokes seem so out-of-touch. A classic example of what you're talking about. YouTube - Dean Martin presents The Rolling Stones (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qOr2a9oEzGQ) Funny...Nowadays Mick will sing with Christina Aguilera, and JPJ is in a band with Dave Grohl. Maybe it's just me, but there seems to be less suspicion between generations and genres these days. Perhaps they see the career value of playing nice together. Music Head YouTube - The Foundations - Build me up Buttercup (HQ Audio) [Over One Million Served!] (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KJ45_kvgyq4) from wikipedia "Build Me Up Buttercup" is the name of a song written by Mike d'Abo and Tony Macaulay, and released by The Foundations with Colin Young singing the lead vocals in 1968. This was the third major hit for the Foundations. Colin Young replaced Clem Curtis in 1968 and this was the first Foundations hit that he sang on. It reached number 2 on the UK charts and number 3 in the US on the Billboard Hot 100, it stayed at number 3 for 11 weeks. It was re-recorded in or around the late 1980s when original Foundations members Clem Curtis and Alan Warner teamed up to recut this as well as other hits of The Foundations. In 2003 Colin Young recorded an updated version of the song backed by a choir of policemen from the Surrey police force. The proceeds from the sale of the CD go to Milly's Fund. The fund is a trust set up in memory of murdered school girl Amanda Dowler. Apparently the song was a favourite of hers. The song was used in the 1983 film Luggage of the Gods!, and featured again in movies twice in the 1990s and once in 2007. It was covered by rock band The Goops in 1995 for the soundtrack of Mallrats, with the music video featuring View Askewniverse characters Jay and Silent Bob. Three years later, it was included (as its original version) in the 1998 film There's Something about Mary. The actors of the film also made a video for the song, with all the main actors miming to the words in character. It was also covered by The Frantic in 2007 as a bonus track on their album Audio & Murder. This version is popularly thought to have been done by both NOFX and The Donnas. Music Head 23-12-2009, 10:53 That reminds me of this clip I saw a while back. He's pretty rude, and the jokes seem so out-of-touch. A classic example of what you're talking about. YouTube - Dean Martin presents The Rolling Stones (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qOr2a9oEzGQ) Funny...Nowadays Mick will sing with Christina Aguilera, and JPJ is in a band with Dave Grohl. Maybe it's just me, but there seems to be less suspicion between generations and genres these days. Perhaps they see the career value of playing nice together. Nice clip - thanks I really think there was a lot of resentment over that British Invasion. Actually, rock 'n' roll in general, but the brits brought it out more. Those crooners of the 40's, 50's finally realized their day was over. Not just Dean. Frank felt the same way and it took him some time to accept the inevitable. I'm sure it didn't take Dean long to know that his victory was only temporary. Music Head YouTube - The Doors - Touch Me (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PECk9A-07Pw) from wikipedia "Touch Me" is a song by The Doors from their album The Soft Parade. Written by Robby Krieger, its riff was influenced by The Four Seasons' "C'mon Marianne". It is notable for its extensive usage of brass and string instruments to accent Jim Morrison's vocals, including the measures of crooning, (including a powerful solo by featured saxophonist Curtis Amy), and was one of the most popular Doors singles. It was released as a single in December 1968. The song reached #3 on the Billboard Hot 100 and #1 in the Cashbox Top 100 in early 1969 (the band's third American number-one single). The single also did well elsewhere, peaking at #1 in the RPM Canadian Singles Chart and at #10 in the Kent Music Report in Australia. However, despite the band's commercial success the previous year, "Touch Me" did not chart in the UK Singles Chart. According to Bruce Botnick's liner notes the song was initially referred to by its various working titles; "I'm Gonna Love You", from a line in the chorus, or "Hit Me", a reference to black jack playing. The opening line was originally "C'mon, hit me, I'm not afraid", the line thus reflecting the first person vantage point of a black jack player. Morrison reportedly changed the lyric out of concern that rowdy crowds at their live shows would mistakenly believe that "hit me" was a challenge to physically assault him. One of the most famous television appearances of the Doors is of the group performing "Touch Me" on the Smothers Brothers Comedy Hour along with the single's B-side, "Wild Child". During the performance, Jim Morrison missed his cue for the lines "C'mon, c'mon" and Robby Krieger could be seen with a black eye. At the end of the song, Morrison can be heard saying, "Stronger than dirt," which was the slogan of the Ajax household cleaning company, because the last four chords of "Touch Me" were the same as those in an Ajax commercial and as a mocking criticism of Krieger, Densmore, and Manzarek wanting to accept an offer from Buick to use "Light My Fire" in a commercial. The deal was aborted when Morrison opposed. This vocal was omitted on the single version which was a different mix. Music Head http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/8/89/Ray_Charles_%28cropped%29.jpg/220px-Ray_Charles_%28cropped%29.jpg YouTube - Hit the road Jack! (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Q8Tiz6INF7I) from wikipedia "Hit the Road Jack" is a song written by rhythm and blues artist Percy Mayfield and recorded by singer, pianist Ray Charles. It hit number one for two weeks on the Billboard Hot 100, beginning on Monday, October 9, 1961. The song was also number one on the R&B Sides chart for five weeks, becoming Ray Charles' sixth number one on that chart. The song is ranked #377 on the Rolling Stone magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. from song facts This was written by Ray's good friend Percy Mayfield, an R&B singer who was badly disfigured in a car accident soon after he started performing. Mayfield cut back his touring and made his mark as a prolific songwriter, with many of his compositions performed by Charles. This was the second (and shortest, at an even two minutes) of Charles' 3 #1 hits. The solo backing vocals were by Margie Hendricks, who was one of Ray's backup singers, The Raelettes. They were lovers for a time, but the song is not about their relationship. (thanks, Bertrand - Paris, France) The continuing popularity of this song is evident by the many professional and semi-professional hockey teams playing the first few lines whenever a player is sent to the penalty box. This was the winner of the 1961 Grammy for Best Male Rhythm and Blues Recording. (thanks, Brad Wind - Miami, FL, for above 2) Canadian group The Stampeders released a version of this in 1976 that featured a telephone conversation with disc jockey Wolfman Jack. Their version hit #40 in the US. (thanks, Cole - Moose Jaw, Sk) Music Head http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qp8bYrfESOQ from song facts After the success of his song "Blue on Blue" (#3 in mid-1963), Vinton decided to record an album of "Blue" songs ("Blue Moon," "Blue Hawaii," "Am I Blue," etc). As he was picking up sheet music in Nashville, Vinton received a gift from publisher Al Gallico: a copy of "Blue Velvet," which in 1951 was the last major hit for Tony Bennett. The song fit very well with Vinton's project, as every song on the album had "Blue" in the title. This was considered a throwaway, recorded in only two takes. Vinton was not impressed with the recording, but Epic Records released it as a single in response to popular demand. His recording caught on and is considered the definitive version. Written by Bernie Wayne and Lee Morris, the song had also been recorded by The Clovers in 1955. Other artists to record the song include Sammy Davis, Jr., The Countdown Singers, Jackie Gleason, Brenda Lee, The Lettermen, Barry Manilow, The Moonglows, and the Royal Philharmonic Orchestra. In 1986, a movie called Blue Velvet, directed by David Lynch, was released. This song had a prominent role - it was used in a gruesome scene where we discover a human ear that had been cut off someone's head. The song completely contradicted the mood of the scene, which apparently was the point. The movie brought the song to a new audience, although it was now associated with a severed ear. US Chart: 1 UK Chart: 2 dgas1992 YouTube - Sue Thompson - Sad Movies (Make Me Cry) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o3FVe51dnnE) from wikipedia "Sad Movies (Make Me Cry)" is a 1961 pop song by the American singer Sue Thompson. The song was written by John D. Loudermilk and appears on Thompson's 1962 Hickory Records album Meet Sue Thompson. Released as a single in 1961, "Sad Movies (Make Me Cry)" was Thompson's first song to appear on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, where it peaked at #5 in October. The song also reached the top of the Billboard Easy Listening chart, which had been created earlier in 1961, becoming the second song by a female vocalist to top this list (following "Together" by Connie Francis). In Australia, the song topped out at #6 on the Kent Music Report, while in the United Kingdom, it peaked at #46 on the UK Singles Chart. Although Thompson was in her thirties when she recorded "Sad Movies", her singing style and young-sounding voice appealed to many of the Baby Boomers whose influence was starting to become apparent on the US music charts. Loudermilk was inspired to write the song after a girlfriend of his went to see the 1960 film Spartacus: "After the movie went off, they turned the bright lights on, and it was just an ambience killer. The person I was with had tears in her eyes and said, 'Sad movies make me cry'." The Lennon Sisters also recorded a version of "Sad Movies" in 1961 which peaked at #56 on the Billboard Hot 100 and at #13 on the Easy Listening chart. Other artists who have covered the song include British pop singer Carol Deene (whose version of the song charted at #44 on the UK Singles Chart at the same time as Thompson's recording), French pop singer Sylvie Vartan ("Quand le film est triste") and German disco band Boney M.. AddyO 28-12-2009, 18:12 Here are my suggestions, though i feel a need to preface it with some facts. I am young(at heart in the very least), and think my choices should be approached with an open mind! Tupac Shakur- Holla At Me- All Eyes On Me(Album title). This song was a favourite of mine and is/was close to being an anthem of mine, except for one use of a religious lyric. It is almost pure passion, especially the second verse in which Tupac seems to lose all self control, and releases a barrage of lyrics so charged, that he must have passed out after. He(Tupac), was known for his passion, but this song in particular seems to capture everything about him and his spirit. Release Yo Delf- Methodman(Can't remember the album title). This song help me get through some tough times in my late teens as a very welcome distraction, and source of fun and energy. It is another passion charged, soulful effort, that has a place in my heart. My first hearing of itleft me insulting it as some kind of superhero song(if u choose to listen to it you'll know what i mean), but then it got in me and became that which it was. Again, the second verse is the most spectacular. I could write a few more, which i know is what this question is about, but i'm tired now, so i hope you'll enjoy my suggestions.:smile: Music Head 28-12-2009, 18:29 I'd say there's much more laughing going on at my choices than yours dude. Who cares? This thread is about songs that you think people should hear. If those songs moved you, then so be it. If you got more, post away later.:music: carbon_psycho Phil Collins - Another Day in Paradise YouTube - another day in paradise (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DfZqXLnBYb4) Stereophonics - Rewind YouTube - Stereophonics - Rewind video (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QodMs2stZoY) Counting Crows - Colorblind YouTube - Counting Crows - Colorblind (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y0s7ycdUcHk) dgas1992 YouTube - The Righteous Brothers - (Youre my) Soul and Inspiration (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TEpewRQppMc) from wikipedia "(You're My) Soul And Inspiration" was the first and only major hit for American popgroup The Righteous Brothers after parting ways with their long time producer, Phil Spector, as well as the title track to the album. The single peaked at #1 on the US Billboard Hot 100 and the Canadian CHUM Charts as well as reaching #15 on the UK Singles Chart. After leaving Spector's Philles Records in late 1965, citing personal difficulties with the producer, the duo made the jump to the mostly jazz-oriented Verve label and teamed up with Songwriters Hall of Famers, Barry Mann and Cynthia Weil, who were then part of the legendary Brill Building pop machine in New York City. Mann and Weil had already co-written the group's previous #1, "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'" with Spector, and were already familiar with their style and capabilities. The production, by group baritone Bill Medley, with reverbing pop-orchestra and soaring female back-up choir, is highly imitative of Spector's "Wall of Sound" and doesn't contrast the sound of the group's early hits. This would, however, mark the end of the group's peak in popularity. Although they would chart again with their next single, the religiously-oriented "He"(#18 US), before briefly splitting in 1968, they would not break the top-10 again until reuniting in 1974 with "Rock and Roll Heaven", an ode to fallen musical comrades. kvincent5555 YouTube - if i had a hammer - peter paul and mary (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_UKvpONl3No) carbon_psycho /\ I like the Trini Lopez version as well. Dementia32 30-12-2009, 00:45 Who remembers that dance hit from early in the decade, "Days Go By" by Dirty Vegas? Probably everyone. If you say that you don't, you're wrong. You've heard it. I promise. However, I really don't know if hardly anyone has heard this version of it. This acoustic rendition could be found as a b-side to the "Days Go By" single, and I honestly feel as if it is a completely different song. Really, really good stuff in my opinion. It's hearing stuff like this that reminds me why I am a music lover in the first place. I hope that some others here may appreciate it as well. YouTube - Days Go By (Acoustic Version) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QO3myYclEX0&feature=related) Music Head /\ I like the Trini Lopez version as well. I always liked his "Lemon Tree" Music Head 30-12-2009, 11:02 Who remembers that dance hit from early in the decade, "Days Go By" by Dirty Vegas? Probably everyone. If you say that you don't, you're wrong. You've heard it. I promise. However, I really don't know if hardly anyone has heard this version of it. This acoustic rendition could be found as a b-side to the "Days Go By" single, and I honestly feel as if it is a completely different song. Really, really good stuff in my opinion. It's hearing stuff like this that reminds me why I am a music lover in the first place. I hope that some others here may appreciate it as well. YouTube - Days Go By (Acoustic Version) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QO3myYclEX0&feature=related) I listened YouTube - The Dovells - The Bristol Stomp (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=C_Df3-hVh0U) from wikipedia "Bristol Stomp" is a song written in 1961 by Kal Mann and Dave Appell, two executives with the Cameo/Parkway record label, for the Dovells, an a cappella singing group from Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, USA, which recorded the song for Cameo/Parkway late that year. It was originally recorded by a group from Bristol, Pennsylvania, Terry and the Appeljacks (Terry Appel was the son of Dave Appel). The recording by Terry and the Appeljacks did not make the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart or the "Bubbling Under" chart. The Dovells' recording made the #2 spot on the Billboard magazine Hot 100 singles chart in 1961. The song was written about teenagers in 1961 who were dancing a new step called "The Stomp" at dances. The refrain of the song: The kids in Bristol are sharp as a pistol When they do the Bristol Stomp Really somethin'when the joint is jumpin' When they do the Bristol Stomp On the live performance of Gary U.S. Bonds' "Seven Day Weekend" found on Johnny Thunders' live soundtrack album "Stations of the Cross" Walter Lure begins singing the chorus of the song, playing on the fact that the two songs share the same chord sequence. Frank Zappa & The Mothers Of Invention covered the song as part of a medley, performed in Sweden in 1967 (officially released on 'Tis The Season To Be Jelly', Beat the Boots series, FOO-EE Records). gryphon 30-12-2009, 20:22 J.J.Cale................Cocaine Can't post a link to this as it has to be the studio version and all I can find on the internet are live versions !!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!:eek: Music Head YouTube - Simon & Garfunkel - Sound Of Silence (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=h-S90Uch2as) from wikipedia "The Sounds of Silence" is the song that propelled the 1960s folk music duo Simon and Garfunkel to popularity. It was written in February 1964 by Paul Simon in the aftermath of the November 22, 1963 assassination of U.S. President John F. Kennedy. The song features Simon on acoustic guitar and both Simon and Garfunkel singing. It was originally recorded as an acoustic piece for their first album Wednesday Morning, 3 A.M. but on the initiative of the record company was later overdubbed with electric instruments and rereleased as a single in September 1965. The single reached number one on New Year's Day 1966 and was included in the 1966 album Sounds of Silence. The song was originally called "The Sounds of Silence" and is titled that way on the early albums in which it appeared and on the single. In later compilations it was retitled "The Sound of Silence". Both the singular and the plural form of the word appear in the lyrics. Simon began working on the song sometime after the Kennedy assassination. He had made progress on the music but had yet to get down the lyrics. On 19 February 1964 the lyrics apparently coalesced, and Simon showed the new composition to Garfunkel the same day. Shortly afterward, the duo began to perform it at folk clubs in New York. They recorded it for the first time on March 10, and included the track on their debut album, Wednesday Morning, 3 A.M., released that October. The album flopped upon its release, and the duo split up, with Simon going to England for much of 1965. There he often performed the song solo in folk clubs, and recorded it for a second time on his solo LP in May 1965, The Paul Simon Songbook. In the meantime, Simon and Garfunkel's producer at Columbia Records in New York, Tom Wilson, had learned that the song had begun to receive airplay on radio stations in Boston, Massachusetts and around Gainesville and Cocoa Beach, Florida. On June 15, 1965, immediately after the recording session of Bob Dylan's "Like a Rolling Stone," Wilson took the original track of Simon & Garfunkel, and overdubbed the recording with electric guitar (played by Al Gorgoni), electric bass (Bob Bushnell), and drums (Bobby Gregg), and released it as a single without even consulting Simon or Garfunkel. For the B-Side Wilson used an unreleased track he cut with the duo a few months earlier on which they had tried out a more "contemporary" sound. "Sounds of Silence"/"We've Got a Groovy Thing Going" entered the U.S. pop charts in September 1965 and slowly began its ascent. Simon learned that it had entered the charts minutes before he went on stage to perform at a club in Copenhagen, Denmark, and in the later fall of 1965 he returned to the United States. By the end of 1965 and the first few weeks of 1966, the song reached number one on the U.S. charts. Simon and Garfunkel then reunited as a musical act, and included the song as the title track of their next album, Sounds of Silence, hastily recorded in December 1965 and released in January 1966 to capitalize on their success. The song propelled them to stardom and, together with two other top-five (in the U.S.) hits in the summer of 1966, "I Am a Rock" and "Homeward Bound," ensured the duo's fame. In 1999, BMI named "The Sounds of Silence" as the 18th-most performed song of the 20th century. In 2004 it was ranked #156 on Rolling Stone's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, one of the duo's three songs on the list. The original acoustic stereo mix of the song had the duo's vocals on separate channels, spotlighting the delicate harmonies. When the 'rock' version was mixed to stereo, Wilson mixed the vocals in the middle, which is not as clear sounding as the original acoustic version. On the duo's 1968 album Bookends, the track "Save the Life of My Child" features a distorted sample of Art Garfunkel's "Hello darkness my old friend, I've come to talk with you" line from the original recording of "The Sounds Of Silence"). Music Head YouTube - GARY PUCKETT and the union gap: "YOUNG GIRL" ~~ revised mpeg ~~ (1968) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=B_AmklTfv5U) from wikipedia "Young Girl" was a song performed by Gary Puckett & The Union Gap released in 1968. Although it wasn't a #1 hit on Billboard (Puckett being an American artist), reaching #2 on the Billboard Hot 100, it reached #1 on the UK Singles chart and Cash Box. In the UK, the recording enjoyed a second chart run in 1974, when it peaked at #6. Danny Tanner sang this song in an episode of Full House. A part of the Chorus of "Young Girl" was sampled on Plan B's song "Charmaine". Both "Young Girl" and "Charmaine" are about forbidden, underage love (note the lyrics "Young Girl, get out of my mind / My love for you is way out of line"). In the early 1980s, Gary Glitter expressed an interest in doing a cover version of the song in a radio interview with John Peel however this never came to fruition. In the episode of Glee titled Ballad the song was used in a mash-up with Don't Stand So Close to Me by The Police. The lines Young girl, get out of my mind / My love for you is way out of line were changed to Young girl, you're out of your mind / Your love for me is way out of line AddyO 01-01-2010, 21:33 Who remembers that dance hit from early in the decade, "Days Go By" by Dirty Vegas? Probably everyone. If you say that you don't, you're wrong. You've heard it. I promise. However, I really don't know if hardly anyone has heard this version of it. This acoustic rendition could be found as a b-side to the "Days Go By" single, and I honestly feel as if it is a completely different song. Really, really good stuff in my opinion. It's hearing stuff like this that reminds me why I am a music lover in the first place. I hope that some others here may appreciate it as well. YouTube - Days Go By (Acoustic Version) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=QO3myYclEX0&feature=related) Don't take this wrong, but the original of this song i can only describe as "ugly", and it turns my stomach. The acoustic version u mentioned is a much better, more beautiful, classier piece of work. I like, thanks. AddyO 01-01-2010, 21:48 R Kelly's "Vibe". This song i remember as touching me deeply. It is this type of song back then , and even now, that prompts an impulsive reaction from me, and when a song has that kind of effect on me i know its good. They really don't make them like this anymore, and it is not a good thing that they don't. Energy charged, good video, well produced, i could go on for days praising this song. Cutting Crew "I Just Died In Your Arms Tonight". A lot of songs that i will put up as suggestions are from my childhood and i may just be living off the nostaglia of them all, however, this song is so soulful, extremely sexy and beautifully lyrics. Its the kind of song that could melt the coldest of hearts. And finally........ Taylor Dayne "Tell It To My Heart" This one is actually nothing but nostaglia in effect, but it is a good song, good video, and i think is a suggestion of why the eighties has/is coming back into pop music. I think if you analyse my suggestions u will notice a few traits of what i look for in a song and music in general. Passion! Along with other things as well, but that quality must be there otherwise i think a song is not coming from the heart. I will put a few more as they come to mind, and will listen to others suggestions as i get round to them.:smile: CMB1888 01-01-2010, 22:11 @ Music Head I just wanted to say that I always look at this thread but almost as much for the pictures of the artists you post as the recommendations - they are so evocative! (the music is pretty cool as well) thank you. 02-01-2010, 11:33 @ Music Head I just wanted to say that I always look at this thread but almost as much for the pictures of the artists you post as the recommendations - they are so evocative! (the music is pretty cool as well) thank you. YouTube - Ricky Nelson - Travelin' Man 1961 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=0janfcZ8LUw) from wikipedia & song facts "Travelin' Man" was a number-one Billboard Hot 100 song in late-May 1961 by Ricky Nelson. It reached #2 in the U.K. It was written by songwriter Jerry Fuller.The short film made to promote the single has been claimed as the first music video. The song details the loves of a traveling man. They were: a "pretty seï¿½orita" in Mexico, an eskimo in Alaska, a fraulein in Berlin, a china doll in Hong Kong, and a Polynesian in Waikiki. There were others as well, "in every port ... at least one," mentioned obliquely during the opening verse. The song was produced by Joe Johnson who was also famous for The Champs recording of "Tequila". Joe was the owner of 4 star music and Challenge Records in Nashville. Ozzie Nelson realized that whenever he had Ricky sing on their show The Adventures Of Ozzie And Harriet, Ricky's record sales shot up the next day. So Ozzie tried to work it into the plot whenever Ricky had a new record out. As Ricky became popular and the demand for his songs was overwhelming, Ozzie realized that working his singing into the plot was going to be impossible, so Ozzie filmed Ricky singing "Travelin' Man," superimposed some travelogue scenes over the film and tacked it onto a show episode at the end. Viola! The music video was born. Rick Nelson was born Eric Hilliard Nelson in 1940. He died in a small plane crash in Texas in 1985 while flying to a New Year's Eve concert. Mechanical problems and a cabin fire were suspected as the cause of the crash. Speculation that the fire was caused by someone on board freebasing cocaine was never proven, though aerosol cans were found at the crash site. The Nelson family said that the cans were part of the makeup box and that no drugs were involved. The matter was never completely resolved. carbon_psycho This thread should be called Songs People Should Hear by Music Head. The man is unstoppable, he should be a music channel. I'd watch it. Music Head http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bpi8Bek6jdM from wikipedia "He'll Have to Go" is an American country and pop hit recorded on October 15, 1959 by Jim Reeves. The song, released in the fall of 1959, went on to become a massive hit in both genres early in 1960. Reeves recorded what became one of country music's biggest hits ever after listening to a version recorded by singer Billy Brown. The song, written by Joe and Audrey Allison, was inspired after the couple was having difficulty communicating by telephone. Audrey had a soft voice and was unable to speak up so her husband could adequately hear her, so Joe would have his wife place the receiver closer to her mouth. When Brown's version failed to become a hit, Reeves recorded his. It was promptly released to country radio ... as the B-side of the intended hit, "In a Mansion Stands My Love." However, "Mansion" failed to catch on, and disc jockeys began playing the B-side instead. It wasn't long before the song became a huge country and pop hit; several rhythm and blues radio stations played the song, too. The song featured a rather simple musical track: piano by Floyd Cramer, Bob Moore on bass guitar and lead-guitarist Reeves. The first verse set the tone: "Put your sweet lips a little closer to the phone/Let's pretend that we're together all alone/I'll tell the man to turn the juke box way down low/And you can tell your friend there with you he'll have to go." Country music historian Bill Malone noted that "He'll Have to Go" in most respects represented a conventional country song, but its arrangement and the vocal chorus "put this recording in the country pop vein." In addition, Malone lauded Reeves' vocal styling - lowered to "its natural resonant level" to project the "caressing style that became famous" - as being why "many people refer to him as the singer with the velvet touch." "He'll Have to Go" reached #1 on the Hot Country Singles chart on February 8, 1960, where it remained for 14 consecutive weeks. The song was one of just five different titles to occupy the chart's summit during 1960. In addition, the song reached #2 on the Billboard Hot 100 in early 1960 and #13 on the R&B Singles Chart [4]. It also had success abroad, reaching #1 on the Australian Singles Chart and #12 on the UK Singles Chart. "He'll Have to Go" has been covered by many artists, most notably Elvis Presley and Ry Cooder. Presley recorded his version of "He'll Have to Go" on Oct. 31, 1976 at his last known studio recording session; it is believed to be the final song he ever recorded in a studio setting.[5] "He'll Have to Go" is also the sole cover song ever issued by the British group Prefab Sprout, their version appearing on the US pressing of their album Two Wheels Good. The song prompted the answer song "He'll Have To Stay" by Jeanne Black. Her song reached No. 6 on the Billboard Hot C&W Sides chart later in 1960. Skeeter Davis made a cover of it in 1961. Elton John performed "He'll Have to Go" live on a number of occasions, perhaps most notably in 1979 on his acoustic tour with percussionist Ray Cooper, which included eight historic performances in the Soviet Union; a first for a Western rock artist. Elton had performed the song as part of his regular setlist when he was a pub piano player at the Northwood Hills Hotel in the early 1960s. The Notting Hillbillies covered this song a few times during their short 1998 tour. Mark Knopfler also covered it. Music Head YouTube - mary wells - my guy (shindig 1965) (LIVE) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pCMuia_D1q8) from wikipedia "My Guy" is a 1964 number-one hit single recorded by Mary Wells for the Motown label. Written and produced by Smokey Robinson of The Miracles, the song is a woman's dedication to the goodness of her man ("There's not a man today who could take me away from my guy"). The single became the biggest hit ever for Wells, Motown's first female star, and reached the top of the Billboard Hot 100 pop singles chart and #5 in the U.K. The song led the Cashbox Magazine R&B chart for seven weeks. "My Guy" also happened to be Wells' last hit single for Motown, excepting duets she recorded with label mate Marvin Gaye. An option in her recording contract allowed Wells to terminate it at her discretion after she reached her twenty-first birthday on May 13, 1964. Encouraged by her ex-husband, Wells broke her Motown contract and signed with 20th Century Fox in hopes of higher royalties and possible movie roles. However, Wells' career never again reached the heights it had at Motown, and she never again had a hit single as big as "My Guy". As one of Motown's signature hits, "My Guy" has been covered often, with versions by The Supremes, Petula Clark, Claudine Longet, Aretha Franklin, Margo Smith, and more having been recorded over the years. The cover version of the song with the biggest chart impact in the United States was by Sister Sledge in 1982 (#23). One notable cover, used in the Whoopi Goldberg film Sister Act, substitutes "My Guy" with "My God", transforming the song into a faux-gospel number. In 1980, Amii Stewart and Johnny Bristol recorded it as a duet in a medley with another Motown classic, the Temptations' "My Girl"; it reached only #63 in the U.S. Wells herself re-recorded the song in a funk rendition for her 1984 album, I'm a Lady. In 1999, "My Guy" was inducted to the Grammy Hall of Fame. Music Head YouTube - Johnny Tillotson It Keeps Right On A Hurtin' (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XJxBO5BensQ) from song facts Of all the songs written by Tillotson, this song is his most successful. It was inspired by his father's terminal illness, despite having lyrics that are sung as a lover to a heartbreaker. This was Tillotson's first hit to make the Country charts, reaching #4. By the time this song reached its peak, Tillotson enlisted in the National Guard where he stayed for 6 months. During that time, he recorded new songs (mainly Country standards) for his album of the same name. The album capitalized on the success of the song and helped change his image from a teen-idol singer to a Country-Pop singer (Country music was the market that Tillotson always aimed for). This received a Grammy nomination for Best Country & Western Recording; it lost to Burl Ives' hit "Funny Way of Laughin'." A version by Billy Joe Royal reached #17 on the Country charts in 1988. Other artists who have covered this include Bobby Darin, Shelley Fabares, Ferlin Husky, Sonny James, Hank Locklin, Dean Martin, Elvis Presley, Boots Randolph, Slim Whitman, and the Wilburn Brothers. US Chart: 3 UK Chart: 31 Music Head YouTube - "Shop Around" TRUE STEREO MIX Smokey Robinson & The Miracles (1960) HQ Sound (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hjy8HqrcYys) from wikipedia "Shop Around" is a 1961 single by The Miracles (credited as "The Miracles featuring Bill 'Smokey' Robinson") for the Tamla (Motown) label, catalog number T 54034. It is notable as being the label's first #1 hit on the Billboard magazine R&B singles chart, and also hit #2 on the Hot 100.[1]. "Shop Around" also reached #1 on Cash Box pop charts and is also noted for being the first million-selling record for The Miracles and for The Motown Record Corporation, as well as a 2006 Grammy Hall of Fame inductee. The Miracles' original version was ranked #495 on Rolling Stone's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. The song, written by Robinson and Berry Gordy, depicts a mother giving her now-grown son advice about how to find a woman worthy of being a girlfriend or wife ("My mama told me/'you better shop around'"). The original recorded version of the song had a strong blues influence, and was released in the local Detroit, Michigan area before Gordy decided that the song needed to be re-recorded in order to be more commercially viable outside of Detroit. So at 3 a.m. one morning, Robinson, Claudette Rogers, Bobby Rogers, Ronnie White, and Pete Moore recorded a new, poppier version of "Shop Around" that became a major national hit. The original record label credits Bill "Smokey" Robinson as the writer, with Berry Gordy as producer. Since its release, "Shop Around" has become an often-remade tune, on record, in live performance, and on television. One notable version by Captain & Tennille hit #4 on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1976; Toni Tennille changed the song's lyrics slightly so that they were sung from a woman's perspective. Their version also topped the adult contemporary chart for one week in 1976, the duo's fourth #1 on this chart. "Shop Around" also inspired an answer record, "Don't Let Him Shop Around," performed by Debbie Dean (the first white female artist, but sometimes misidentified as the first white artist ever signed to a Motown labelï¿½this distinction actually belongs to instrumental combo Nick and the Jaguars). Dean's "Don't Let Him Shop Around" charted #92 on the Hot 100 in February 1961 and was Dean's only chart entry. Smokey Robinson later recorded a sequel song for his 1987 album One Heartbeat, entitled "It's Time To Stop Shopping Around." "Shop Around's" B-side, "Who's Lovin' You", also became a Motown classic composition, mostly due to its plethora of covers, including a famous one by The Jackson 5 in 1969. Music Head YouTube - Association - Windy (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=_zw2q1nKUxg) from wikipedia "Windy" is a pop music song written by Ruthann Friedman and recorded by The Association. Released in 1967, the song reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 in July of that year. Later in 1967, an instrumental version by jazz guitarist Wes Montgomery became his biggest Hot 100 hit when it peaked at number forty-four. "Windy" was The Association's second U.S. number-one, following "Cherish" in 1966. According to rumor, the original lyrics by Ruthann Friedman were about a man, and The Association changed them to be about a woman. "There are many explanations of who Windy actually was in Ruthann's life. She would have you know, she being me Ruthann Friedman, that none of them are true. Windy was, indeed, a female and purely a fictitious character who popped into my head one fine day in 1967... During the recording session the Association members, sure that they were in the middle of recording a hit,called the song writer, me again, in to sing on the fade at the end. I can be heard singing a blues harmony as the song fades out..." Session musician Hal Blaine was brought in to play drums. The song was featured in an episode of The Drew Carey Show, where the character Nigel Wick (played by Craig Ferguson) played it on the harp. It was also featured recently in the second season finale of HBO's Big Love, where Teeny Henrickson leads a children's dance troupe while the song is playing for the annual Pioneers Festival. In 2009 the song, with slightly altered lyrics, was sung by actor Brad Garrett in an advertisement for 7-Up. A version of the song was used as the theme tune on the nightly Today programme broadcast on Thames Television from 1968 to 1977. Comedy rockers Paul and Storm did a parody version called ï¿½Lindsayï¿½ about Lindsay Lohan. Barry Manilow and The Association covered this song along with "Cherish" on the 2006 album The Greatest Songs of the Sixties. Also recorded by Astrud Gilberto on her album Windy. Music Head YouTube - Tommy Roe Sheila (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=g9EOvbcMhs0) from wikipedia "Sheila" is a song written and recorded by Tommy Roe with the help of Robert Bosch. The single reached number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 on September 1, 1962, remaining in the top position for two weeks and peaking at number six on the R&B charts. The song reached #3 on the U.K. charts. The original version of the song was recorded by Roe for Judd Records in 1960 with his then backing group The Satins, but it failed to sell. Roe wrote this song as a response to Buddy Holly's hit "Peggy Sue" (Roe was heavily influenced by Holly). When Roe accepted a deal with ABC-Paramount, the song was rerecorded and the second version was released as the B-side to "Save Your Kisses." Joe South, who is best known for his Grammy winning hit "Games People Play" was originally a session man. This song was among the famous 1960s hits South played guitar on. A build up of global sales of "Sheila" meant that the R.I.A.A. did not present the gold record until 1969. Music Head YouTube - Something Stupid - Frank & Nancy Sinatra (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=u6bOCUOPN0w) from wikipedia "Somethin' Stupid" is a song written by C. Carson Parks and originally recorded in 1966 by Parks and his wife Gaile Foote, as "Carson and Gaile". It is best known in the hit version by Frank Sinatra and his daughter, Nancy Sinatra. In the early 1960s, Carson Parks was a folk singer in Los Angeles. He was an occasional member of The Easy Riders, and also performed with The Steeltown Three, which included his younger brother Van Dyke Parks. In 1963 he formed the Greenwood County Singers, later known as The Greenwoods, who had two minor hits and included singer Gaile Foote. Before the Greenwoods disbanded, Parks and Foote married and, as Carson and Gaile, recorded an album for Kapp Records, San Antonio Rose, which included the track "Something Stupid". The recording was then brought to the attention of Frank Sinatra. The most successful and best known version of the song was issued by Frank and Nancy Sinatra on Frank's album The World We Knew. Frank Sinatra played Parks' recording to his daughter Nancy's producer, Lee Hazlewood, who recalled "He asked me, 'Do you like it?' and I said, 'I love it, and if you don't sing it with Nancy, I will.' He said, 'We're gonna do it, book a studio.'" Their rendition was recorded on February 1, 1967. Al Casey played guitar on the recording. The song spent four weeks at #1 on the US Billboard Hot 100 chart and nine weeks atop the adult contemporary chart, becoming Mr. Sinatra's second gold single as certified by the RIAA and Ms. Sinatra's third.[3] It was the first and only instance of a father-daughter number-one song in America. The single also reached #1 on the UK Singles Chart the same year. This is the only father/daughter chart topper in the US to date. In the UK it was the first instance of a father-daughter #1 song. Another father/daughter duet, "Changes" by Ozzy and Kelly Osbourne, went to #1 in the UK in 2003. Nancy Sinatra recorded this with her father after Frank Sinatra's ex-army assistant "Sarge" Weiss played him a version by composer Carson Parks. Nancy recalled to The Sun May 2, 2008: "My dad said: 'Great, if Nancy will do it.'" Lee Hazlewood produced this. He recalled in 1000 UK #1 Hits by Jon Kutner and Spencer Leigh: "Frank Sinatra called me to his office and told me he had found the song (for his daughter Nancy Sinatra) but Nancy wouldn't work with any producer but me. He played me the demo of 'Somethin' Stupid' and said, 'Do you like it?' I said 'I love it and if you don't do it with Nancy, I will.' He said 'We're gonna do it, book a studio.'" Music Head YouTube - The Toys - Lovers Concerto - HQ (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=aGDZc9bdUZM) from wikipedia "A Lover's Concerto" is a pop song written by American songwriters, Sandy Linzer and Denny Randell, and recorded in 1965 by The Toys. Their version of the song was a major hit in both the United States (#2) and the UK (#5) during 1965. It peaked on the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number two. Critic Dave Thompson wrote, "Few records are this perfect. Riding across one of the most deceptively hook-laden melodies ever conceived ... 'A Loverï¿½s Concerto' marks the apogee of the Girl Group sound."[1] The song also had an unusual structure that blurred the differences between its verses and choruses. The lyrics begin with: How gentle is the rain That falls softly on the meadow, Birds high up in the trees Serenade the flowers with their melodies Linzer and Randell based the melody on the familiar "Minuet in G major" (BWV Anh. 114) from J.S. Bach's Notebook for Anna Magdalena Bach. One key difference is that the "Minuet in G major" is written in 3/4 time, whereas "A Lover's Concerto" is arranged in 4/4 time. (Although often attributed to Bach himself, the "Minuet in G major" is now believed to have been written by Christian Petzold. The Notebook, a gift from Bach to his second wife Anna, begins with works by Bach but also included many blank pages, onto which members of the family copied works that they liked to play; the famous minuets in G major and G minor are not in Bach's handwriting.) In subsequent years, "A Lover's Concerto" has been recorded by numerous other artists, including Sarah Brightman, Tight Fit, Cilla Black, The Lennon Sisters, The Delfonics, Sarah Vaughan, The Supremes, Mrs. Miller, Audrey Hall, Terry & Bill and Kelly Chen. Music Head YouTube - The Mamas & The Papas: California Dreamin' (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dN3GbF9Bx6E) from wikipedia "California Dreamin'" is a song by The Mamas & the Papas, first released in 1965. The song is #89 in Rolling Stone's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. The lyrics of the song are about a man in a cold winter landscape longing for the warmth of California. It reached #4 in the U.S. and #9 in the U.K. According to John Phillips in a Bravo documentary, and Michelle Phillips in an NPR piece, the song was written in 1963 while they were living in New York. He dreamed about the song and woke her up to help him write it. At the time, the Phillipses were members of the folk group The New Journeymen which evolved into The Mamas & the Papas. They earned their first record contract after being introduced to Lou Adler, the head of Dunhill Records, by the singer Barry McGuire. In thanks to Adler, they sang the backing vocals to "California Dreamin'" on McGuire's album This Precious Time. The Mamas and the Papas then recorded their own version, using the same instrumental backing track to which they added new vocals and an alto flute solo by Bud Shank. McGuire's original vocal can be briefly heard on the left channel at the beginning of the record, having not been completely wiped. The single was released in late 1965 but it was not an immediate breakthrough. After gaining little attention in Los Angeles upon its release, Michelle Phillips remembers that it took a radio station in Boston to break the song nationwide. By early 1966, the song peaked at #4 and stayed on the charts for 17 weeks. Some high profile artists who have covered this song include Jose Feliciano (B-side on his 1968 hit single Light My Fire), America, The Beach Boys (two versions), The Carpenters, Four Tops, Bobby Womack, Queen Latifah, Wes Montgomery, George Benson, Eddie Hazel and John Phillips without The Mamas & the Papas. House versions are also covered by Royal Gigolos, Benny Benassi and DJ Sammy. The John Mayer Trio covered California Dreamin' on the June 4, 2009 episode of The Tonight Show with Conan O'Brien. A more up tempo version was recorded by the Japanese punk band Hi-Standard. Their California Dreamin' EP was released on Fat Wreck Chords in 1996. The Beach Boys recorded a second version of "California Dreamin'" in 1986 for their greatest hits compilation Made in U.S.A.. It was produced by Terry Melcher and featured Roger McGuinn from The Byrds on 12-string guitar and John Phillips on saxophone. Michelle Phillips and McGuinn appear in the video. Denny Doherty was on the East coast and declined; Cass Elliot had died in 1974. gryphon 11-01-2010, 11:02 I have always loved California Dreaming! However, the article by Music Head answers for me, an age old riddle...................The recording by The Mamas and The Papas is very loose in its production and quality control . If you listen hard to the track, you can hear several missed ques and parts that have been mixed out or in poorly. The answer clearly is that they inherited the backing track and had to put a vocal over it and add a flute. Given that the US only had three track recording technology at the time I can see why , some things had already been laid down and overdubbed and with thee track it is hard to mask this without re-recoding:cool: Music Head YouTube - The 4 Seasons - "Let's Hang On" - The Ed Sullivan Show (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ECB2ZJfu3Hk) from wikipedia "Let's Hang On!" is a song composed by Bob Crewe, Sandy Linzer, and Denny Randell that was popularized by The Four Seasons in 1965. The single reached the #3 position in the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart, and #4 in the U.K., the group's highest placement since "Rag Doll" hit the top spot in July 1964. This was the last Four Seasons hit to feature bass singer/bassist Nick Massi. The same month "Let's Hang On!" was released, Massi left the group and was temporarily replaced by the band's arranger Charles Calello before Joe Long came in as Massi's full-time replacement. The popularity of "Let's Hang On!" has been attributed to the inclusion of several devices into the recording: a two-line introduction (sung by lead singer Frankie Valli), the use of two fuzz guitars (one guitarist playing low notes, another playing high notes on a fuzz bass), a chorus loaded with hooks and sung in falsetto, and backing vocals giving counterpoint with Valli's lead vocal. It re-established the group's presence in the Top Ten (of the Hot 100) as The Four Seasons were in a flurry of activity, recording albums both as The Four Seasons and as supporting musicians for Valli's rekindled "solo" career. The single's B-side, "On Broadway Tonight", was the theme of a CBS-TV variety series (1964-1965) hosted by Rudy Vallee. In 1966, Mrs. Elva Miller recorded "Let's Hang On!" on her debut album, Mrs. Miller's Greatest Hits. "Mrs. Miller" had made a dent in the Hot 100 chart with her off-key, off-tempo rendition of "Downtown", complete with whistling and forgotten lyrics. On the album (and the subsequent single), "Let's Hang On!" had all of the same hallmarks ï¿½ and mumbling. Bob Crewe's instrumental group, the Bob Crewe Generation, recorded in the song in their hit album "Music To Watch Girls By" of early 1967. This version was played on easy listening stations for decades thereafter. In 1981 Barry Manilow recorded a version of "Let's Hang On!" for his album If I Should Love Again. The song (as "Let's Hang On") was eventually released as a single the following year, reaching #32 in April 1982. In 1987, a version was released by Nancy Boyd and the Capellos. In the early 1990s, PWL boy-duo Shooting Party released the song to poor chart success, despite being played often on the show The Hitman and Her. Notably, The Manhattan Transfer opens their 1995 album Tonin' with "Let's Hang On", with guest vocalist Frankie Valli himself. AddyO Here are two more songs people should definitely hear: "Poison" - Alice Cooper http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yaaMdSapaTA I first heard this song through my older brother who was the person in my household that bought the most music. He still has some valuable picture discs! Anyway, its another passion filled song, both lyrically and sonically, and the video(at least for its time) was quite sexy as well and completely suited the track. Enjoy:smile:. "I Want It All" - Queen http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BKEgrnOOHso This is my second offering, and i believe the lesser of the two. Having just got this song again for my phone, it is still a good, typically hard, rock effort, but i am of the opinion that it lost or lacks some class. If u listen to it u will notice it is of a certain standard til it reaches mid point, at which it seems Queen(or maybe Freddie. I'm allowed to call him that:smile:) runs out of ideas and messes that section up along with the conclusion to the track! Now i am one for doing htings in music people don't anticipate or expect, but i am more up on quality than anything else. I understand what he or they were trying to do, but i don't think they pulled it off, as i believe it ruins the flow and high standard of the track. Aside from those two errors, the track is one of the best and would easily hold up to any good rock song put out in modern times. When/If u listen to it, u will understand what i am getting at. Music Head YouTube - Rascals People Got To Be Free (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=sastKEBZhXY) from wikipedia "People Got to Be Free" is a song released in 1968 by The Rascals. Written by group members Felix Cavaliere and Eddie Brigati and featuring a lead vocal from Cavaliere, it is an upbeat but impassioned plea for tolerance and freedom: All the world over, so easy to see! People everywhere, just wanna be free. Listen, please listen! that's the way it should be ï¿½ Peace in the valley, people got to be free. It became a big hit in the turbulent summer of 1968, spending five weeks atop the Billboard Pop Singles chart, the group's longest such stay. It was also the group's second-most successful single on the Billboard Black Singles chart, reaching number 14 and trailing only the previous year's "Groovin'". "People Got to Be Free" was RIAA-certified as a gold record on August 23, 1968, and eventually sold over 4 million copies. It later was included on the group's March 1969 album Freedom Suite. The single's picture sleeve photo was previously featured in the inner album cover of the Rascals' Time Peace: The Rascals' Greatest Hits compilation. The B-side, "My World", was a track from the group's Once Upon a Dream album. While "People Got to Be Free" was perceived by some as related to the assassinations of Martin Luther King, Jr. and Robert F. Kennedy earlier that year, it was recorded before the latter's death. In fact it was partly a reaction to an ugly encounter wherein the long-haired group was threatened by a group of rednecks after their tour vehicle broke down in Fort Pierce, Florida. The song is clearly a product of its times; however, two decades later writer Dave Marsh included it as number 237 in his book Heart of Rock and Soul: The 1001 Greatest Singles of All Time, saying in reference to, and paraphrase of, the song's lyric, "Ask me my opinion, my opinion will be: Dated, but NEVER out of date." Since this song came out, the Rascals would only perform at concerts that featured an African American act, however, if those conditions were not met, the Rascals canceled several shows in protest. The 5th Dimension recorded "People Got to Be Free" in 1970 as part of a medley with another socially relevant song, Sam Cooke's "A Change Is Gonna Come." The pairing reached number 60 on the Billboard Pop Singles chart. Music Head YouTube - The Lovin' Spoonful - Summer In The City (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=dVKQhBfP37c) from wikipedia "Summer in the City" was a 1966 hit single by The Lovin' Spoonful, written by Mark Sebastian (brother of John Sebastian) and Steve Boone. It came from their album, Hums of the Lovin' Spoonful. It reached number one on the Billboard Hot 100 on August 13. The song featured a series of car horns, during the instrumental bridge, starting with a Volkswagen Beetle horn, and ending up with a jackhammer sound, in order to give the impressions of the sounds of the summer in the city. The song is ranked number 393 on Rolling Stone's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. When at Blair Academy, Mark Sebastian submitted the lyrics as a poem for the literary magazine. That poem, entitled "Summer In the City," had the refrain "but at night it's a different world, go out and find a girl, come on, come on and dance all night, despite the heat it'll be alright, and babe don't you know it's a pity, the days can't be like the night, in the summer in the city." His older brother John changed the slower verses to a more upbeat model, keeping the title and the refrain. Mark's part remains as he wrote it, words and music. Bassist Steve Boone added the instrumental coda in the middle. The song was featured on The Simpsons episode "Papa's Got a Brand New Badge", Only Fools and Horses episode "Miami Twice", in the opening scenes of the Bruce Willis action film Die Hard: With a Vengeance, in a 2006 Gatorade commercial, the 1994 PBS documentary Baseball: A Film by Ken Burns, in the 1989 movie The Karate Kid, Part III, in an advert for the UK retailer Marks & Spencer and in a commercial for Dutch brewer Grolsch. The song was used in the Debenhams advert "Actor". The song was also featured on the television show Family Ties, when Steven Keaton (Michael Gross) sings the first few lyrics while narrating a home movie. On a VH1 Classic episode of Classic Albums featuring Disraeli Gears by Cream, it was asserted that the predominant guitar riff of the song "Tales of Brave Ulysses" from Disraeli Gears was inspired by the keyboard riff of "Summer in the City." The song was featured in German art-director Wim Wenders' first film, 1970's Summer in the City. Comedians Horatio Sanz and Fred Armisen sang the song on the 2004 season finale of Saturday Night Live during a sketch that contained different cast members singing songs that had a summer theme. "Summer in the City" was used as background music on American Idol Season 8 during tryouts in Phoenix, Arizona. Cover versions of the song include BB King in 1972, Quincy Jones in 1973, Tim Curry in 1982, Joe Cocker in 1993, and The Stranglers on their 1997 album Written in Red. In 2000, Joe Jackson released a live album titled Summer in the City: Live in New York, which opens with a cover of the song. The band Eat released a cover of the song in 1989. Country music artist Larry Stewart recorded it on his 1999 album Learning to Breathe. The Butthole Surfers covered the song on "Music for Our Mother Ocean (MOM)" Series No. 3 released in 1999. Styx covered the song on their "Big Bang Theory" released in 2005. It was also sampled by Dan Le Sac Vs Scroobius Pip in 2006 for their song "First Time We Met Musik". A modified version of the chorus was used in the third single Thru Ya City from Art Official Intelligence: Mosaic Thump by De La Soul, Feat. D.V. Alias Khrist. In 2008, Barry Hay (The leadsinger of Golden Earring) covered this song together with the Metropole Orchestra. The Quincy Jones cover of "Summer in the City" has been sampled by Massive Attack in the song "Exchange" from their acclaimed album Mezzanine, Nightmares on Wax in his song "Night's Introlude" on the album Smokers Delight, and also by The Pharcyde on their seminal hit "Passin' Me By" from the album Bizarre Ride II the Pharcyde. It has also been sampled by Black Moon on their 1994 song "Reality" and also sampled by Joe on the remix to his 2001 hit "Stutter". Another cover, by the Gutter Brothers appeared on the soundtrack to the Only Fools and Horses film "Miami Twice". The song has also been covered by UK jazz-dance act, Incognito on the 2006 album Bees + Things + Flowers. gryphon 15-01-2010, 10:50 Excellent choice The Loving Spoonful................John Sabastian was an great influence on the next generation of writers I must add a few more excellent must hear tracks: Coconut Grove!!!!!!!!!!!!!! What a few and so laid back Nashville Cats !!!( A tribute to all those guitar pickers ) Rain On The Roof ( A gentle romantic song ................) Did You Ever Have A Dream Come True. Music Head Did You Ever Have A Dream Come True. What's this off of? Did you mean Did You Ever Have To Make Up Your Mind gryphon My fault ! You are right ! Music Head YouTube - Dion And The Belmonts - Runaround sue (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=c49klxPex-k) from wikipedia "Runaround Sue" is a pop song, originally a US #1 hit for the singer Dion during 1961. The song ranked #342 on Rolling Stone magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. The song was written by Ernie Maresca and Dion DiMucci. It was recorded in 1961 by Dion, backed by vocal group The Del-Satins. Released on Laurie Records, it topped the Billboard Hot 100 for one week in October of that year, and also reached number 11 in the UK charts. It is a song about a man whose ex-girlfriend had commitment trouble and "ran around" (hence the name of the song) with other people in the city. The song caught on with millions for its catchy hook "Hey, hey, hum-ba-diddy-diddy". In the liner notes of Dion's box set King Of The New York Streets, he writes: It came about by partying in a schoolyard. We were jamming, hitting tops of boxes. I gave everyone parts like the horn parts we'd hear in the Apollo Theater and it became a jam that we kept up for 45 minutes. I came up with all kinds of stuff. But when I actually wrote the song and brought it into the studio to record it, well, her name wasn't actually Sue. It was about, you know, some girl who loved to be worshiped but as soon as you want a commitment and express your love for her, she's gone. So the song was a reaction to that kind of woman. Co-writer Ernie Maresca said: Everybody was singing in the neighborhood, on the street corners and in the hallways. I was in a group called The Regents at the time. They didn't have a hit yet. Everybody was coming to me for songs, which was nice, you know. ... I'd never even heard of Laurie Records until I went up there with Dion and met Gene and Bob [Schwartz] who owned the company. After they put out 'No One Knows', I would go up there with demos. I used to cut a lot of demos, you know. Then they cut an album and on it they put "Runaround Sue". The song's melody is very similar to "Quarter to Three", a song released by Gary U.S. Bonds a few months prior to the release of "Runaround Sue." Music Head YouTube - PAUL & PAULA - HEY PAULA (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e8clzAoyRYQ) from wikipedia "Hey Paula" is a song recorded by Paul & Paula. It hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 on the week ending February 9, 1963, and also made it to number one on the Hot R&B Singles chart. "Paul" was the song's writer, Ray Hildebrand, a student at Howard Payne College in Brownwood, Texas. "Paula" was Jill Jackson, the niece of the owner of the boarding house where Ray lived. Hildebrand wrote the song, originally titled "Paul and Paula", taking inspiration from the Annette Funicello hit Tall Paul. Hildebrand and Jackson performed the song on a local radio station and the song soon became popular enough for the duo to try to make a professional recording. They went to a studio in Fort Worth, Texas, and were fotunate enough to find a producer, Major Bill Smith, with studio time and musicians booked and a missing lead vocalist. He recorded their version of the song and released it on his LeCam Records label, changing the name to "Hey Paula", credited to Jill and Ray. When the record became a success, it was picked up by the larger Philips Records, which changed the billing to Paul and Paula. When the song was released on Phillips, it hit the national charts in late 1962, reaching number one on both the pop and R&B charts in 1963. It spawned a follow-up top ten hit, "Young Lovers", and a series of other hits for the duo. carbon_psycho Mike & the Mechanics - The Living Years Music Head Mike & the Mechanics - The Living Years a great song, and probably the only one on that album carbon_psycho 17-01-2010, 16:14 If so, then fortunately the only one I had heard from it. Another song that I really like is the song from Joseph & His Technicolor Dreamcoat. Can't remember the name though, this song reminds me a lot of it. TheBluesBerry http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ZjQQmzEyVgA from wikipedia "We'll Sing in the Sunshine" was a popular folk song written and recorded by Gale Garnett, a New Zealand-born Canadian singer-actress. On September 5, 1964, it reached #4 on the U.S. Hot 100 chart, and also spent seven weeks atop the U.S. "Easy Listening" chart. "We'll Sing in the Sunshine" was Garnett's only single to reach the Top 40, and won her a 1965 Grammy. It was later covered by Helen Reddy in a 1978 version that remained faithful to Garnett's original; it reached #12 on the Easy Listening chart. In Garnett's wistful vocal arrangement, a young woman tells a man that she will live with him for one year (but no longer) before moving on. The subtle theme of a woman taking charge in a relationship was a rarity in the early 1960s. The song is sometimes compared to the 1968 Merrilee Rush recording "Angel of the Morning" (in which another woman speaks of a no-strings-attached relationship). By 1968, however, record companies were placing fewer restrictions on what female popular singers could perform, so Garnett's song is considered to be ahead of its time. Apart from the Helen Reddy version, the song was covered in 1967 by Sonny & Cher, in 1984 by Dolly Parton and Trini Lopez included it on his album All My Best. Music Head YouTube - Sonny And Cher - I Got You Babe (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=uzYBuKaQ83s) from wikipedia "I Got You Babe" is a 1965 number-one hit single by American pop music duo Sonny & Cher. Sonny Bono, a songwriter and record producer for Phil Spector, wrote the song for himself and his wife, Cher, late at night in their basement. Noted session drummer Hal Blaine performed the drums for the song. Bono was inspired to write the song to capitalize on the popularity of the term "babe," as heard in Bob Dylan's "It Ain't Me Babe" which was a hit for The Turtles. Upon recording and releasing the song, "I Got You Babe" became the duo's biggest single, their signature song, and a defining recording[citation needed] of the early hippie countercultural movement. In August 1965, the single spent three weeks at the number-one spot on the Billboard Hot 100 and number nineteen on the R&B charts in the United States [1]. The duo's single also hit number one in the United Kingdom. The song has been frequently covered and featured in film and television, including Sonny and Cher's own The Sonny and Cher Comedy Hour. "I Got You Babe" made a bit of a comeback when it was heavily featured as Phil Connor's alarm clock wake up music in the 1993 movie Groundhog Day. Upon re-release, the single re-charted in the UK, reaching #66. The song was later covered by Cher in a music video that featured Beavis and Butthead as a rapt audience to Cher's performance. In the video, the idiot pair refer to her former husband Bono as a dork and a wuss, to which Cher agrees. Sonny and Cher last performed the song together during an impromptu reunion on NBC's Late Night with David Letterman on Nov. 13, 1987.[2][3] The song placed at #444 on Rolling Stone's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of all time. Music Head YouTube - Nat King Cole - Ramblin' Rose (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Oor-g3gtGno) from wikipedia "Ramblin' Rose" is a 1962 popular song written by brothers Noel and Joe Sherman and popularized by Nat King Cole. Cole's recording of the song was released by Capitol Records as catalog number 4804. It reached #2 on both the Billboard and Cash Box charts and sold over a million copies as a single. The song also spent five weeks at #1 on the Billboard Easy Listening chart, while on the R&B chart, the song reached #7. It was released as a single from Cole's album of the same name, which also was a million seller. The song was nominated for a Grammy Award in the category Record of the Year. The song has been covered by many artists, including two 1970s country music versions of the song: a version by Johnny Lee reached #37 on the Billboard country chart in 1977; the next year, singer Hank Snow's version charted at #93. carbon_psycho YouTube - MC5 - Ramblin' Rose (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Cg0qJ-ieRk) Music Head YouTube - MC5 - Ramblin' Rose (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6Cg0qJ-ieRk) Had forgotten that one. Don't remember those shrill vocals though. Music Head http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/thumb/d/dd/The_Supremes_%28Promo_Pic_1%29.png/220px-The_Supremes_%28Promo_Pic_1%29.png YouTube - The Supremes-Stop! In The Name Of Love (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=t2yLMpGPU8A) from wikipedia "Stop! In the Name of Love" is a 1965 number-one single recorded by The Supremes for the Motown label. Written and produced by Motown's main production team Hollandï¿½Dozierï¿½Holland, "Stop! In the Name of Love" held the number-one position on the Billboard Hot 100 singles chart from March 21, 1965 to April 3, 1965, and reached the number two position on the soul chart. The fourth of five Supremes songs in a row to go number one (the others are "Where Did Our Love Go", "Baby Love", "Come See About Me", and "Back in My Arms Again"), it is remembered as one of the most popular and well-known songs of the late 20th century. "Stop! In the Name of Love!" was recorded in January 1965. and released as a single on February 8. The song was included on the Supremes' sixth album, More Hits by The Supremes, and was nominated for the 1966 Grammy Award for Best Contemporary Rock & Roll Group Vocal Performance, losing to "Flowers on the Wall" by the Statler Brothers. The song was also honored by inclusion in the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's permanent collection of 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll. The Supremes' choreography for this song, with one hand on the hip and the other outstretched in a "stop" gesture, is equally legendary. Paul Williams and Melvin Franklin of The Temptations taught the girls the routine backstage in London, before the Supremes' first televised performance of the single on the BBC Ready Steady Go! special "The Sound of Motown," which was hosted by then-Motown artist Dusty Springfield. They also performed the song on an episode of the ABC variety program Shindig! hosted Frankie Avalon which aired on Wednesday, February 25, 1965. Music Head YouTube - The Turtles - Happy Together :) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OJWKyARKudc) from wikipedia "Happy Together" is a 1967 song from The Turtles' album of the same name. Released in spring of 1967, the song knocked the Beatles' "Penny Lane" out of the #1 slot for three weeks on the Billboard Hot 100. It was the group's only chart-topper. "Happy Together" reached #12 on the UK Singles Chart in April 1967. The song was written by Gary Bonner and Alan Gordon, former members of a band known as The Magicians. The song has been featured in many movies, including 1970's The Magic Garden of Stanley Sweetheart, 1983's Heart Like A Wheel, 1987's Making Mr. Right, 1987's Ernest Goes to Camp, 1990's The Naked Gun, 1994's Muriel's Wedding, 1997's Happy Together, 2000's Sorted, 2001's Shrek, 2002's Adaptation., 2002's Cherish, 2002's S1m0ne,2002's Bubble Boy, 2003's Freaky Friday featuring a cover by Simple Plan, 2004's Ma Mï¿½re, 2005's Imagine Me and You, 2006's documentary Blindsight, 2007's The Simpsons Movie and 2008's 27 Dresses. In television, the song has been used in many episodes of The Simpsons including "The Way We Weren't" and "Trilogy of Error", and in episodes of That '70s Show (sung by the cast in the episode "That '70s Musical"), Cupid (sung by Lisa Loeb), Scrubs, ER, The Wonder Years, and the My Name Is Earl episode "Faked His Own Death". It has also been used in television commercials for Coldwell Banker, Florida Orange Juice (both Turtles' and Simple Plan's versions), the NFL, Burger King, Heineken (starring Jennifer Aniston, which aired in Europe and Australia), the video game Super Smash Bros., npower, Saturn Corporation, Toyota, Twix, US West (now Qwest),"Extra" bubble gum, Mervyn's (as sung by The Youngs), Golden Grahams (with altered lyrics), Smith's Potato Chips, with the lyrics being changed to "I can't see me lovin' nobody but Smiths" and Applebees with lyrics being, "Imagine Steak and Shrimp...", but Applebees was sued by the Turtles for using the tune but not the lyrics to this song, which was not part of the contract, and Mexican telecommunications company Telmex while advertising their mobile phone service. In 2008, the song was featured in a Brazilian commercial for Ford Focus, and The Rosewood Thieves' cover version is featured in the commercial for LG's Decoy cellular phone. In 2009, the song was featured in several French commercials for Amora's mustard. "Happy Together" has been covered by artists as diverse as Weezer, Captain and Tennille, Jason Donovan, The Nylons, Simple Plan, Blue Meanies, Donny Osmond, T.G. Sheppard, Tahiti 80, Filter, MStar, Buck Wild and the Flobots, whose version samples the original. There is also a Spanish cover, sung by Roberto Jordan, called "Juntos y Felices". In 1999, BMI named "Happy Together", with approximately five million performances on American radio, the forty-fourth most-performed song in the USA of the 20th century,[3] placing it in the same league as "Yesterday" by The Beatles and "Mrs. Robinson" by Simon and Garfunkel. Frank Zappa's performance on Fillmore East - June 1971 is especially notable: his band at the time included Turtles vocalists Howard Kaylan and Mark Volman and bassist Jim Pons. Kaylan and Volman also did a reggae remake of the song for the last Flo & Eddie album: Rock Steady With Flo & Eddie. Hugo Montenegro's cover version was released as a single in 1969 and reached #29 on the Billboard Easy Listening chart.[4] More recently, the song has been covered by B.E. Taylor for his latest album, Love Never Fails, and by the Flobots. The song has also been sung by the Red Army Choir and the Leningrad Cowboys, as well as the English rock band Johnny Panic. It was also performed on the show American Idol on February 19, 2008, by David Cook, and on February 20, 2008, by Brooke White. In 2007 the song was used as a sample on the song "Ooh Ooh Baby" from Britney Spears' album Blackout. This song has also been covered by the Roamin' Bones of the Florida State University Marching Band, the Marching Chiefs. carbon_psycho YouTube - John Lennon - #9 Dream (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XJFtYpPeDkM) John Lennon - #9 Dream. I also like the REM cover. Music Head YouTube - J Frank Wilson and the Cavaliers - Last Kiss (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=bh4se9YMV3A) from wikipedia "Last Kiss" is a song that was written by Wayne Cochran in 1962 and originally performed by Wayne Cochran & the C.C. Riders, although their version of the song had little success. The song was later covered by J. Frank Wilson and the Cavaliers, Wednesday, Pearl Jam, and several international artists, all of whom had success with the song. Wayne Cochran was initially inspired to write "Last Kiss" after having lived near a dangerous highway where several accidents had occurred yearly. Cochran began writing the song in 1956. He came up with the song's chord progression, first verse, and chorus, although more than five years would pass before Cochran finished the song. Cochran based the rest of "Last Kiss" on an incident in which several teens were killed and two seriously injured when their car struck a flatbed logging truck.[2] Sixteen-year-old Jeanette Clark was out on a date in Barnesville, Georgia on December 22, 1962, the Saturday before Christmas. She was with a group of friends in a 1954 Chevrolet. J. L. Hancock, also sixteen, was driving the car in heavy traffic and while traveling on Highway 341, collided with a trailer truck. Clark, Hancock, and another teenager were killed, and two other teens in the car were seriously injured.[3] Cochran finished the song, which he titled "Last Kiss", and dedicated it to Clark. "Last Kiss" caught the attention of record promoter Sonley Roush. Roush brought the song to a group that he managed, J. Frank Wilson and the Cavaliers, with the idea of having them cover the song. The song was recorded in a tense four-hour session and led to a disagreement leading to the departure of the lead guitarist, Sid Holmes. On a concert trip to Ohio the band's car collided with a truck, killing Roush and severely injuring Wilson. In 1964, J. Frank Wilson and the Cavaliers had the first real commercial success with the song. The cover was released in June 1964 and reached the Top 10 in October. It eventually reached number 2 on the Top 40 pop charts, and also earned the band a gold record. "Last Kiss" was also covered by the American rock band. Pearl Jam. Music Head YouTube - Lou Christie - Lightnin' Strikes (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LyRqdzF8swY) from song facts U.S. - #1..............U.K. - #11 The song was released as a single on Christmas day 1965, and on February 19, 1966, it hit the top of the pop charts. Said Lou Christie speaking about the song in an interview in the September 16, 2005 issue of Goldmine magazine: "And they didn't even like it! (Label head) Lenny Shear threw it in the wastebasket and said it was a piece of crap! So we put up our own money to get it played around the country, and it started taking off once it got played. Three months later, Lenny was taking a picture with me for Billboard magazine, handing me a gold record. I loved that." The song was co-written by Christie and Twyla Herbert, who was at least 20 years older than Christie and came from a classical music background. In the same Goldmine interview, Christie said: "I never worked with anyone else who was that talented, that original, that exciting. She was just bizarre, and I was twice as bizarre as her." Christie is sending mixed messages in this song: First, he's admitting he can't settle down to just one girl, but in the second verse he wants his girl to be trustworthy, true and pure. He bluntly admits he's willing to settle down to her one day, but for now if somebody's looking and reading his mind he's going for it. Can the character in this song ever be true to one girl? Doubtful. Christie and his songwriting partner Twyla Herbert wrote several stories based on pre-marital sex. Their love went much too far in their car in "Rhapsody In The Rain." "They" had to run away and get married in the song "Baby, We Got To Run Away." "She" gave it to him once and wouldn't give it to him again in the song "Trapeze." "If My Car Could only Talk" and "Watch Your Heart After Dark" are other songs of this nature. Christie's distinctive falsetto in the hook chorus and the way the song builds set it apart from other songs on the radio and helped make it a hit. Other hits for Lou Christie, who is a 1961 graduate of Moon High School, Moon Township, Pennsylvania, included "The Gypsy Cried" (1962), "Two Faces Have I" (1963), "Rhapsody in The Rain" (1966), which reached a #16 chart position, and "I'm Gonna Make You Mine" (1969). Music Head YouTube - Manfred Mann - Do Wah Diddy (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=x-y-50RW5Ng) from wikipedia "Do Wah Diddy Diddy" is a song written by Jeff Barry and Ellie Greenwich and originally recorded in 1963 by the American vocal group The Exciters. In 1964, it was covered by British R&B, Beat and pop band Manfred Mann. Manfred Mann's version, which was more commercially successful, was recorded on June 11, 1964, released on July 10 and spent two weeks in August at number one in the UK Singles Chart and in October of that year it spent two weeks at the number one spot in the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart. In the Manfred Mann version, Paul Jones (then lead singer) ungrammatically sings: "I knew we was falling in love". This was probably considered more of a faux pas in 1964 than in today's era of more lax lyrical standards. Besides, the line's repeated exposure has made the usage seem almost as natural as the correct "we were". "Do Wah Diddy Diddy" was covered by French singer Sheila in 1964. The song's name is "Vous les copains" ("You my friends") The song was remade by a Czech singer Pavel Novak and group Synkopa in 1964. The British pop band, Dave Dee, Dozy, Beaky, Mick & Tich covered the song, and it appears on their greatest hits album. The song was remade by a Korean idol group Shinhwa in 1998. The song was covered by Dutch girl group the Dolly Dots in 1982. The song was covered by Ukrainian-American disco singer Sergey Kremenchenko in 1973. Andrew Gold covered the song on his 1976 album What's Wrong with This Picture. In 1980 it was covered by pop music group A La Carte. The song was parodied by the controversial hip hop group 2 Live Crew on their 1988 album Move Somethin', and by the Macc Lads in their song Manfred Macc. DJ ï¿½tzi released his cover version in 2001. Riders in the Sky released a Monsters, Inc. version on the album Monsters, Inc. Scream Factory Favorites in 2002. As a result of the song's prominent use by Bill Murray and Harold Ramis in the 1981 film Stripes, it has become a popular military cadence. The song is a repeated motif in LA Story, a 1991 movie by Steve Martin. In 2008 an advertisement for Cinnamon Streusel Mini Wheats featured a parody of the song.[1] In the 1991 film, My Girl, Vada Sultenfuss sang the song when she got upset, closing her ears. In the 5th season episode of Home Improvement, 'Advise and Repent', Randy comments on Jill being weird for singing Doo Wah Diddy to a girl he was watching TV with, then Jill comes down the stairs singing the song. This is the theme song for the 90's Philippine TV show Ang TV AddyO YouTube - Those were the days (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lNVit7cesj8) from wikipedia "Those Were the Days" is a song credited to Gene Raskin, who put English lyrics to the Russian gypsy song "Dorogoi dlinnoyu" ("Дорогой длинною", lit. "By the long road"), written by Boris Fomin (1900-1948) with words by the poet Konstantin Podrevskii. It deals with reminiscence upon youth and romantic idealism. The first known recording of the song was by Alexander Vertinsky in the 1920s. The song is best remembered for Mary Hopkin's 1968 recording, which was a top-ten hit in both the U.S. and the U.K. Gene Raskin frequented The White Horse Tavern in the 1960s and the song lamented the passing of the golden folk days of Dylan, Paxton, Ochs, and The Clancy Brothers & Tommy Makem. Although the song was popularized in the early 1960s by The Limeliters, Welsh singer Mary Hopkin did the best known recording. It was released on 30 August 1968, shortly after Hopkin was signed to the Beatles' newly created Apple label. Hopkin's recording was produced by Paul McCartney and became a #1 hit in the UK singles chart, and reached #2 in the US. The tune topped the Billboard Easy Listening survey. Paul McCartney, who produced the session, also recorded Hopkin singing "Those Were The Days" in four other languages for release in their respective countries: In Spain, Que Tiempo Tan Feliz, In West Germany, An jenem Tag, In Italy, Quelli Erano Giorni, In France, Le temps des fleurs. The UK and the USA had the B-side, "Turn! Turn! Turn!" which was written by Pete Seeger (but largely taken from the book of Ecclesiastes), which had been a U.S. #1 hit for The Byrds in 1965. "Those Were the Days" was catalogue number Apple 2 (APPLE 1 designation had been intended for the Beatles single "Hey Jude"). Hopkin's version was released on the back of her success on the television show Opportunity Knocks and around the time of its release popular singer Sandie Shaw was also asked to record the song by her management, feeling that it should be done by a "real" singer and not the new star of a reality TV show. Shaw's version was released as a single but did not beat the success of Hopkin's version. In the mid 1970s, after Hopkin's contract with Apple ended, "Those Were the Days" and "Goodbye" were re-recorded with producer Tony Visconti. Only these re-recorded versions can be found on music compilation discs because Apple never allows its original recordings to be used. In 2005, Dolly Parton released a cover of "Those Were the Days," which featured backing vocals by Mary Hopkin. That year, the song became the title track of Dolly Parton's album with the same name. The melody of the song is instantly recognizable to tens of millions of Brazilians, although most of them are probably wholly unaware of its origins or original lyrics and title; it was used for years by Brazilian TV host Silvio Santos in his Show de Calouros, a Gong Show-like talent show, with the lyrics changed to introduce the judges and host of the show. On Christmas 1975, the President of Equatorial Guinea, Francisco Macï¿½as Nguema, had 150 alleged coup plotters executed to the sound of a band playing Mary Hopkin's tune Those Were the Days in a national stadium. "Those Were the Days" has been adopted by supporters of UK football league club Huddersfield Town FC, as their unofficial club song. The words are modified to "Those were the days my friend we thought they'd never end - We won the league three times in row - we won the FA cup, and now we're going up - we are the Town - Oh yes we are the Town!" carbon_psycho hey, i love that song. Iota YouTube - "Must I Paint You A Picture?" by Billy Bragg (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cJ3T2BP0fl4) YouTube - Stevie Wonder ~ Superstition (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=wDZFf0pm0SE) YouTube - Aesop Rock - 9-5ers Anthem (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UWOQHj_o6eo) y0 YouTube - Righteous Brothers You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin' (45 RPM) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=r8hjtFq3vE0) from wikipedia "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'" is a 1965 number-one hit single in the United States and the United Kingdom by The Righteous Brothers. In 1999, the performing-rights organization Broadcast Music, Inc. (BMI) announced that it was the most-played song of the 20th century. Additionally, the song was chosen as one of the Songs of the Century by RIAA and ranked #34 on the list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time by Rolling Stone. Written by Barry Mann, Phil Spector and Cynthia Weil, the song is one of the foremost examples of producer Phil Spector's "Wall of Sound" technique. Recorded in Studio A of the famed Gold Star Studios in Los Angeles, it features lead vocals by Bill Medley. Bobby Hatfield reportedly expressed his annoyance to Spector upon learning that he would have to wait until the chorus before joining Medleyï¿½s vocals. When Hatfield asked Spector just what he was supposed to do during Medleyï¿½s solo, Spector replied: ï¿½You can go straight to the ******* bank.ï¿½ Among the background singers in the song's crescendo is a young Cher. Cynthia Weil recalled that, "After Phil, Barry and I finished, we took it over to the Righteous Brothers. Bill Medley, who has the low voice, seemed to like the song." Even with his interest in the song, however, Medley had his doubts. In an interview with Rolling Stone magazine, he recalled, "We had no idea if it would be a hit. It was too slow, too long, and right in the middle of The Beatles and the British Invasion." Indeed, the song ran for nearly four minutes when released. This was much too long by contemporary AM standards, but Spector refused to cut it shorter. On the label where the time is indicated, he had "3:05" printed, instead of the track's actual running time of 3:45. He also added a false ending which made the recording more dramatic, and would also trick radio deejays into thinking it was a shorter song. Upon being played the finished record over the phone, co-writer Barry Mann reacted to Medleyï¿½s deep baritone by telling Spector, ï¿½Phil, you have it on the wrong speed!ï¿½ "You've Lost That Lovin' Feelin'" topped the Billboard Hot 100 dated 6 February 1965 and remained at #1 the week of 13 February 1965. In additon the song crossed over to the R&B charts peaking at number two. kerry101 Gave it all away. by Boyzone. " i will learn to live before i die, learn to love and learn to cry" Music Head YouTube - Brian Hyland - Sealed with a kiss 1962 (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xIkUiD8N81k) from wikipedia This archetypal American high-school teen love song was composed by Gary Geld and lyricist Peter Udell. The duo began their writing partnership in the early sixties and wrote over 100 songs together. One of their first songs was this, which they wrote in 1960 and was a hit for Brian Hyland two years later. Hyland said in 1000 UK #1 Hits by Jon Kutner and Spencer Leigh, "Sealed With A Kiss was recorded about a year before I did it by The Four Voices, who had a sound like The Brothers Four. It dragged and didn't have any life in it, so it wasn't a hit. I told them we should do it. Gary Geld was a classically trained musician and he had been inspired to write it from a finger exercise for the piano." This was Hyland's biggest hit in the UK, but 2 years earlier in the US at the age of 16, he enjoyed an American chart topper with "Itsy Bitsy Teenie Weenie Yellow Polkadot Bikini." In 1989 Jason Donavon covered this, taking it to the top of the UK hits. He personally chose this as his follow up to "Too Many Broken Hearts," which also reached the top. Brian Hyland commented in 1000 UK #1 Hits, "I didn't mind his version-he got all the chords right." The song became a hit again in 1968 when Gary Lewis and the Playboys released it as a single. This version also had a high placing on the Hot 100. A third Top 40 Hot 100 version came in 1972, when Bobby Vinton released his version as a single. This version also placed high on Billboard's adult contemporary chart. The Bobby Vinton version was used in both the trailer and end credits of the film All the Boys Love Mandy Lane (2007) starring Amber Heard. Music Head YouTube - Herman's Hermits - Mrs. Brown You've Got a Lovely Daughter (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=OcBT4hKLUNg) from wikipedia "Mrs Brown, You've Got a Lovely Daughter" is a popular song written by Trevor Peacock. It was originally sung by actor Sir Tom Courtenay in The Lads, a British TV play of 1963. The best-known version of the song is by Herman's Hermits, who took it to number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 in April 1965. Herman's Hermits had two U.S. number-ones, the other being "I'm Henry VIII, I Am". The band never released them as singles in Britain. "Mrs Brown, You've Got a Lovely Daughter" was recorded as an afterthought in two takes and featured unique muted rhythm guitar by Keith Hopwood and heavily accented vocals by Peter Noone with backing from Karl Green and Keith Hopwood. The band never dreamed it would be a single let alone hit number one in the U.S.(Hopwood pers. correspondence.) According to Pete Noone, the song was well known to British bands; it would often be performed at birthday parties, substituting the name of the girl whose party was being celebrated, i.e. "Mrs. Smith" or "Mrs. Jones" instead of "Mrs. Brown". The bridge (the section with these lines "Walkin` about, even in a crowd, well You`ll pick her out, makes a bloke feel so proud") has a most unusual chord progression, straying far from the normally expected range of keys, and suddenly coming back to the home key on "so proud". The song was released in Japan on Odeon records, a subsidiary of Toshiba, as OR-1272. It was backed by the song Wonderful World. Herman's Hermits also featured in a film of the same name, and recorded an album in 1968 with the same title. This song is about a guy who is heartbroken over losing his girl, and decides to tell her mother all about it. It was originally sung by the actor Tom Courtney in 1963 in a British television play. The song was written by Trevor Peacock, who was also appearing in the play. Trevor Peacock is well known to British TV audiences for playing the part of Jim Trott in the BBC sitcom The Vicar of Dibley. The producer Mickie Most needed a song to complete Herman's Hermits' debut album and Trevor Peacock gave them this. It was never intended for single release but after an American DJ started giving it airplay, their record label issued it as a 45 and it became their first American #1. In their native Britain it was never released as a single. Later in the year they returned to the top of the American charts with their revival of the old British musical number "I'm Henry The 8th I Am." Music Head 30-01-2010, 10:48 http://userserve-ak.last.fm/serve/252/39339649.jpg MP3DL Player (http://mp3dl.co.cc/play.php?src=4shared&id=20733211&x=3657b537&name=Happenings%20-%20See%20You%20In%20September%281966%29) from wikipedia "See You in September" is a song written by Sid Wayne and Sherman Edwards in 1959 which was a Top 30 hit that summer as first recorded by the Tempos; when remade by the Happenings in 1966 the song reached #3. Sid Wayne would recall the song's inception: "I was in the habit of going from my home on Long Island every day to Brill Building, on Tin Pan Alley [to] meet with different songwriters there. We'd eat at Jack Dempsey's or The Turf Restaurant and then we'd go up to one of the publishers' offices and work in the piano room. We'd sit around saying to each other, 'What do you want to write today? A hit or a standard?'" At 11 a.m. on a Friday in June 1959 Wayne thus met up with Sherman Edwards: "he said, 'What do you want to write?' 'I'd like to write a song called See You in September,"' I said. We talked it back and forth and I think I may have contributed part of the opening music, but with Sherman it didn't matter, because he could throw me back half the lyric - that's how he worked. I think probably by two in the afternoon we got the song finished. It needed to be written; it was like boiling inside of us." By 4:30 p.m. that day Wayne and Edwards had reworked their composition, simplifying it so as to appeal to the teen demographic, and proceeded to make the rounds of publishers to pitch the song which, after one rejection, met with an enthusiastic reception from Jack Gold, owner of the local Paris label, who by 8 p.m. had telephoned the Tempos1 in their hometown of Pittsburgh. The group had been flown in to New York City by the next day: Saturday. Sid Wayne - ""By Monday the record was cut [with the Billy Mure orchestra], test pressings were Thursday, and by Friday the song was played on WNEW in New York. The thing took off like wildfire....Five hundred dollars to split between the two of us [ie. Wayne & Edwards]...was a damn good week's pay in 1961." [1] In fact the Tempos' "See You in September" failed to become a hit in the New York City area and despite breaking in San Francisco in June of 1959 the single did not reach the national charts until that July. Despite a subsequent swift ascent of the Billboard Hot 100, the single's momentum fell sharply at the end of August with a resultant #23 peak. Although overshadowed by the Happenings' #3 remake, the Tempos' version of "See You in September" did gain considerable currency in 1973 by virtue of its inclusion on the American Graffiti soundtrack. Bob Miranda of the Happenings recalls that he and the other members of the group considered the original version of "See You in September", which was "sort of a slow Cha-Cha [to be] a great song and kind of a shitty record. We always looked for that. If you want to revise something and put your own sound to it, I think you should look for a great song that was not a great record." Recorded in the spring of 1966, the Happenings" version of "See You in September" was produced by Bob Crewe for the B.T. Puppy label and its arrangement - by Herb Bernstein - recalled both the recordings of the Tokens - who owned B. T. Puppy - and Crewe's protï¿½gï¿½s the Four Seasons. Although - as had happened with the Tempos' version in 1959 - the Happenings' 1966 take on "See You in September" did not enter the Billboard Hot 100 until the month of July the record broke in enough major markets to reach the Top Ten by the second week of August and despite peaking at #3 the first week of September the single had enough staying power to remain in the Top Ten throughout the rest of the month. [3]. The popularity of "See You in September" was sufficient to secure the Happenings an invitation to the Sanremo Music Festival in June 1967; there they performed their hit in Italian as "Aria de settembre". carbon_psycho YouTube - The Everly Brothers-Cathy's Clown (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FPSuJfLGKGQ) from wikipedia "Cathy's Clown" is a popular song, written and recorded by The Everly Brothers. It was their first single for Warner Bros., after spending three years on Archie Bleyer's Cadence label. "Cathy's Clown" sold eight-million copies worldwide, spending five weeks at number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 chart and one week on the R&B charts. Overseas, "Cathy's Clown" spent seven weeks at number one in the UK in May and June 1960. This was the first single to simultaneously top the UK and US charts. It would become the Everly Brothers' biggest hit single and their fourth and final number one. The song is ranked number 149 on the Rolling Stone magazine's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. Music Head YouTube - Johnny Preston - Running Bear (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PrN2DPN6La8) from wikipedia "Running Bear" is a song written by J.P. Richardson (aka The Big Bopper) sung most famously by Johnny Preston in 1959. Preston first sang the song in 1959 with background vocals by Richardson and George Jones, and it was number one for three weeks in January 1960 on the Billboard Hot 100 in the United States. The song also reached number one in the UK in 1960. Richardson was a friend of Preston and offered "Running Bear" to him after hearing him perform in a club. Preston recorded the song at the Gold Star Studios in Houston, Texas in 1958. The session's producer was Bill Hall with Preston on vocals, Link Davis on saxophone. Richardson, Hall, and Jones performed the song's Indian chants. Preston was signed to Mercury Records, and "Running Bear" was released in August 1959, seven months after Richardson's death in the plane crash that also killed Buddy Holly and Ritchie Valens. "Running Bear" tells the story of Running Bear, a "young Indian brave", and Little White Dove, an "Indian maid". The two are in love but are separated by two factors: Their tribes' hatred of each other. Each hailed from one of the two tribes, which were at war with each other ("Their tribes fought with each other / So their love could never be.") A raging river, which also serves as a metaphor for their other separation. The two, desiring to be together despite their obstacles and the risks for navigating the river, dive into the raging river to unite. After sharing a passionate kiss, they are pulled down by the swift current and drown. The lyrics tell the rest: "Now they'll always be together / In their happy hunting ground." kerry101 Gave it all away. by Boyzone. " i will learn to live before i die, learn to love and learn to cry" http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9n8fxrejX78 I was at the memorial they show Ronan going into. it was very emotional. Music Head YouTube - Martha & The Vandellas "Dancing in the Streets" (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=CdvITn5cAVc) from wikipedia "Dancing in the Street" is a 1964 song first recorded by Martha and the Vandellas. It is one of Motown's signature songs and is the group's premier signature song. Produced by William "Mickey" Stevenson and written by Stevenson and Marvin Gaye, the song highlighted the concept of having a good time in whatever city the listener lived. The idea for dancing came to Stevenson from watching people on the streets of Detroit cool off in the summer in water from opened fire hydrants. They appeared to be dancing in the water.[1] The song was conceived by Stevenson who was showing a rough draft of the lyrics to Gaye disguised as a ballad. When Gaye read the original lyrics, however, he said the song sounded more danceable. With Gaye and Stevenson collaborating, the duo composed the single with Kim Weston in mind to record the song. Weston passed on the song and when Martha Reeves came to Motown's Hitsville USA studios, the duo presented the song to Reeves. Hearing Gaye's demo of it, Reeves asked if she could arrange her own vocals to fit the song's message. Gaye and Stevenson agreed and including new Motown songwriter Ivy Jo Hunter adding in musical composition, the song was recorded in two takes. The interesting loud beat of the drums in its instrumentation can be attributed to Hunter, who banged on a crowbar to add to the drum beat led by Gaye, who was often a drummer on many of Motown's earliest hits. While produced as an innocent dance single (it became the precursor to the disco movement of the 1970s), the song took on a different meaning when riots in inner-city America led to many young black demonstrators citing the song as a civil rights anthem to social change which also led to some radio stations taking the song off its play list because certain black advocates such as H. Rap Brown began playing the song while organizing demonstrations. Dancing in the street had two meanings. The first is the one Martha Reeves asserted to reporters in England. "The British press aggravated Reeves when someone put a microphone in her face and asked her if she was a militant leader. The British journalist wanted to know if Reeves agreed, as many people had claimed, that "Dancing in the Street" was a call to riot. To Reeves, the query was patently absurd. "My Lord, it was a party song," she remarked in retrospect" (Smith 221). While Berry Gordy had created the Black Forum label to preserve black thought and creative writing, he kept the Motown record label and the popular hits it produced from being too revolutionary. "Berry Gordy Jr. was extremely wary about affiliating his business with any organization of movement that might negatively influence his company's commercial success" (Smith 230). The central tenet of Motown records was to produce a sound that was genteel enough to appeal to white audiences across the country while still wholly African American and reflective of the African Diaspora in America. This song is suave and melodious, while still percussive, repetitive, and danceable. The primary meaning was innocent enough to allow national audiences to accept and enjoy the song, if only at first. "Motown records had a distinct role to play in the city's black community, and that community--as diverse as it was--articulated and promoted its own social, cultural, and political agendas. These local agendas, which reflected the unique concerns of African Americans living in the urban north, both responded to and reconfigured the national civil rights campaign" (Smith 227). The movement lent the song its secondary meaning and the song with its second meaning fanned the flames of unrest. This song (and others like it) and its associated political meanings did not exist in a vacuum. It was a partner with its social environment and they both played upon each other creating meaning that could not have been brought on by one or the other alone. The song therefore became a call to reject peace for the chance that unified unrest could bring about the freedom that suppressed minorities all across the United States so craved. "Dancing in the Street" peaked at number two on the U.S. Billboard Pop Singles chart when it was originally released as the group's third album Dance Party's first single in 1964 (see 1964 in music), with "There He Is (at My Door)" included as a B-side. The song also reached the top 5 on the UK pop charts peaking at #4 in a 1969 release after initially peaking at #28 on the chart and helped to revive the Vandellas' success in England. On April 12, 2006, it was announced that Martha and the Vandellas' version of "Dancing in the Street" would be one of 50 sound recordings preserved by the Library of Congress to the National Recording Registry. Lead singer Martha Reeves said she was thrilled about the song's perseverance, saying "It's a song that just makes you want to get up and dance". This version was #40 on the list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time by Rolling Stone. gryphon Don't forget Mike Jagger and David Bowie's Version !!!!:cool: Music Head Don't forget Mike Jagger and David Bowie's Version !!!!:cool: I was trying to! YouTube - Frankie Valli - Can't take my eyes off you (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=PzpWKAGvGdA) from wikipedia "Can't Take My Eyes Off You", written by Bob Crewe and Bob Gaudio, was a 1967 single by Frankie Valli. The song was among Valli's biggest hits, reaching #2 on the Billboard Hot 100 and earning a gold record. It was Valli's biggest "solo" hit until he hit #1 in 1974 with "My Eyes Adored You". The song has been covered by a variety of artists over the years (78 times). A version by Andy Williams made it to #5 on the UK singles chart in 1968. Samantha Jones recorded it for her 1968 album Call It Samantha. Anni-Frid Lyngstad chose her Swedish-language version (Du ï¿½r sï¿½ underbart rar) to be the flipside of a 1967 single release. A version in Italian (titled "Per ricominciare") was recorded live by Mina in her historical album Mina_alla_Bussola_dal_vivo in 1968. One year later she also recorded the song with the original lyrics for the US market in the album "More than strangers". In 1982, San Francisco based disco band Boys Town Gang performed a disco version of the song. In 1991, the Pet Shop Boys used part of the song on their double A-side single "Where the Streets Have No Name (I Can't Take My Eyes Off You)/How Can You Expect to Be Taken Seriously?", which reached #4 in the U.K. (In the U.S., both sides of the single were released as separate singles and both charted, with "How Can You Expect to be Taken Seriously?" at #93 and the "Where The Streets Have No Name/I Can't Take My Eyes Off You" medley at #72.) Other renditions of the song to have charted in the U.S. included versions by The Lettermen (#7 in 1968, in a medley with "Goin' Out Of My Head"), Nancy Wilson (#52 in 1969), Maureen McGovern (#27 on the Adult Contemporary chart in 1979), Boys Town Gang (#1 in the Netherlands in 1982[1]) and Lauryn Hill (#35 on the Hot 100 Airplay chart in 1998). Experimental progressive rock guitarist Bumblefoot recorded a heavy metal version of the song. In 2005 the song was covered by Queens for their debut album "Made For Dancing". In 2007 this song was covered by Soccx. In Germany this song was used for dancing at the ADTV-Worlddance-Day 2010, ChaChaCha-Simultan-Event and Quintal. In 2004, tejano singer Jennifer Peï¿½a released a cover version in Spanish, titled "No Hay Nadie Igual Como Tï¿½" for her album Seducciï¿½n. carbon_psycho 03-02-2010, 11:49 reminded me of 10 things I hate about you. Heath Ledger singing it for Julia Stiles.. May his soul R.I.P. reminded me of 10 things I hate about you. Heath Ledger singing it for Julia Stiles.. May his soul R.I.P. Reminded me of the track you posted just the other day (drawing a blank and don't have time to search for it) from the movie Closer. I know it's not the same song, but wasn't the song title the same? Saw that the movie was on the same day you posted that. Watched it but didn't care for it. carbon_psycho 03-02-2010, 14:24 Blower's daughter, though the song is usually called Can't take my eyes off you, I have no idea if it's an offcial alternate song title.. the movie was okay... I have no clue why people speak so high of it.. but it did have it's moments. I am a big fan of Clive Owen... The guy should have been a Bond.. I hope he gets an oppurtunity within the next 5 years... Music Head http://image.allmusic.com/00/amg/pic200/drp000/p003/p00317b40d4.jpg YouTube - Angels - My Boyfriend's Back - 45 rpm (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=zuSr8LTs9PI) "My Boyfriend's Back" was a hit song in 1963 for The Angels, an American girl group. It was written by the songwriting team of Feldman, Goldstein and Gottehrer. The recording was originally intended as a demo for The Shirelles, but ended up being released as recorded.[1] The result was a single that spent three weeks at number one on the Billboard Hot 100 chart, and number two on the R&B Billboard. The song is a word of warning to a would-be suitor who, after the narrator of the song rebuffed his advances, went on to spread nasty rumours accusing the narrator of romantic indiscretions. Now, the narrator declares, her boyfriend is back in town and ready to settle the score, and she tells the rebuffed would-be suitor to watch his back. The inspiration for the song was when co-writer Bob Feldman overheard a conversation between a high school girl and the boy she was rebuffing Rival girl groups The Chiffons and Martha and the Vandellas recorded covers shortly after The Angels' original release. Nearly twenty years later, Melissa Manchester released a faithful cover version as a single in 1983 which became a minor Adult Contemporary hit.[citation needed] More than twenty years after that, the song was also covered by former American Idol contestant Paris Bennett on her 2007 album "Princess P." The song has also been covered in punk rock-influenced recordings by Me First and the Gimme Gimmes, The Raveonettes, Bracket, and Australian female punk trio The Spazzys. UK Powerpop originators The Pleasers featured the song as a highspot of their live stage shows as 'My Girlfriends Back' and recorded it for their Thamesbeat Album in 1978. Bette Bright and the Illuminations released a cover version in 1978 as their single debut. The rap group Bone Thugs-N-Harmony's track "Guess Who's Back" borrows heavily from the structure and lyrics of "My Boyfriend's Back". The song is featured in the 2006 Tony award winning musical, Jersey Boys. It was also featured on the U.S. television show "American Dreams," where it was sung by Christian Pop singer Stacie Orrico playing the lead singer of the Angels. A version of the tune has been used in a commercial jingle for the Hess toy truck, sung as "The Hess Truck's Back". A cover by Australian band The Chantoozies featured in the film "The Crossing" (1990). The song was parodied by Bob Ricci on his debut album Get a Life as "My Girlfriend's Back". Sarah Brightman released a cover version of the song on a single in 1981. In 1981, the band Dire Straits made a reference to the song in their hit Romeo and Juliet, from the album Making Movies. The song figured prominently in the 1989 made for television film My Boyfriend's Back, which featured Jill Eikenberry, Sandy Duncan and Judith Light as former members of a fictitious girl group named The Bouffants. In the story, "My Boyfriend's Back" was their only hit song. The song title was referenced for the 1993 film My Boyfriend's Back, directed by Bob Balaban. The Disney Channel did a DTV music video of the song set to clips from the Legend of Sleepy Hollow segment of The Adventures of Ichabod and Mr. Toad. Comedian Frank Caliendo often sings a cover of the song, with the lyrics changed to be about Brett Favre, when doing his John Madden impersonation. (My Brett Favre's back and your defense is in trouble/Hey now, hey now, my Brett Favre's Back!) A viral video was later posted on YouTube, with Caliendo's lyrics put over the original song. Music Head YouTube - Billy J Kramer & The Dakotas - Little Children (1964) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H3yO6eUvJAA) from wikipedia "Little Children" is a song written by J. Leslie McFarland and Mort Shuman. It was recorded by Billy J. Kramer & The Dakotas, which reached number one in the UK Singles Chart in March 1964, and number seven in the US later the same year. The lyric concerns a man's entreaties to his girlfriend's young siblings not to reveal his courtship of their elder sister and to leave them alone. As such, it was a departure from the traditional love songs hitherto recorded by Kramer (sometimes supplied by Lennon & McCartney)[1]. When offered another Lennon and McCartney song ("One and One is Two") for his next single by the manager of both groups, Brian Epstein, Kramer turned it down and chose "Little Children" instead after a search for suitable material from music publishers. Kramer was a British Rail fitter until Beatles manager Brian Epstein signed him in 1963. Epstein put him with the Manchester group The Dakotas and got them to record some songs written by John Lennon and Paul McCartney. They immediately scored a #2 UK hit with "Do You Want To Know a Secret," the first ever cover of a Lennon and McCartney song to chart. The follow up "Bad To Me," which was written specifically by John Lennon for the group, became their first UK chart topper. After another Lennon and McCartney Top Five single, "I'll Keep You Satisfied," they recorded this, which became their second UK #1 hit and their first American hit. Wavehellomachine "About A Girl" by Nirvana "Ruby Tuesday" by The Rolling Stones "Plush" by Stone Temple Pilots "We're Going To Be Friends" by The White Stripes " ï¿½nima" by Tool "Simple Man" by Lynyrd Skynyrd "If You Could Read My Mind" by Gordon Lightfoot "Sunday Morning Coming Down" by Johnny Cash Music Head http://userserve-ak.last.fm/serve/252/527492.gif YouTube - Musi c Explos ion - Little Bit O'So ul (1967) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hMKblZEnD3c) Little Bit O' Soul is a song written in 1964 by British song writers John Carter and Ken Lewis, who had previously written big hits for The Ivy League and Herman's Hermits. Originally recorded by Birmingham band The Little Darlings and released in 1965 on Fontana Records, it was popularised by the American band The Music Explosion. The song was the only Top 40 hit by the band. It peaked at number two on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1967 and was awarded a gold record by the RIAA. The song was released as a single and later on the album of the same name. Now when you're feelin' low and the fish won't bite You need a little bit o' soul to put you right You gotta make like you wanna kneel and pray And then a little bit of soul will come your way Now when your girl is gone and you're broke in two You need a little bit o' soul to see you through And when you raise the roof with your rock'n'roll You'll get a lot more kicks with a little bit o' soul And when your party falls 'cause ain't nobody groovin' A little bit of soul and it really starts movin', yeah And when you're in a mess and you feel like cryin' Just remember this little song of mine And as you go through life tryin' to reach your goal Just remember what I said about a little bit o'soul A little bit o' soul, yeah (a little bit o' soul Music Head http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hOxLaHPPzzw from wikipedia "Red Rubber Ball" is a pop song which became a hit (going to #2 in the Billboard Hot 100) in the 1966 version recorded by The Cyrkle. It was co-written by Paul Simon (of Simon and Garfunkel) and Bruce Woodley (of The Seekers). According to Cyrkle guitarist Tom Dawes, Simon offered it to The Cyrkle when they were opening for Simon and Garfunkel on tour. The song's tracks were recorded in stereo, with the bass, lead guitar, and percussion on the right track, acoustic guitar and electric organ on left, and the vocals on both. The Seekers also recorded "Red Rubber Ball" for their 1966 album Come the Day (US-title: "Georgy Girl") ï¿½ and the Seekers' recording of "Red Rubber Ball" can also be heard on 'Disc Three - 1966 - 1967' of the CD box set The Seekers Complete. At "Music Notes", the sheet music for "Red Rubber Ball", for the album Simon and Garfunkel - Old Friends, also credits the songwriters as Paul Simon and Bruce Woodley In an interview on The Colbert Report, Paul Simon said he wrote "Red Rubber Ball" while living in England to get a hundred pound advance from The Seekers. This came in response to Colbert's request for a song that was "on the cusp" and barely made it into his songbook Lyrics 1964-2008. A recorded live cover was performed by Simon and Garfunkel. Eggchair's cover was played in the 2004 movie, Dodgeball: A True Underdog Story. Canadian punk rock group The Diodes recorded a cover of this song as the first track on their debut album, The Diodes (1977). According to the liner notes of the 1998 Diodes anthology, Tired of Waking Up Tired, the band recorded the cover because Paul Simon had been vocal in his disapproval of punk rock music. New Jersey ska-punk group Streetlight Manifesto has recorded a cover of the song for their upcoming album, 99 Songs of Revolution. Don Bluesky Greetings Mr Moderator. I remember hearing this song on the wireless and remember it well! Don Bluesky 07-02-2010, 11:28 Hi MH. Duke of Earl was covered by a UK Doo Wop covers band called Darts in the 70's. I think they are still touring today and they are still a good listen. Didn't Sha Na Na contribute to the first Grease soundtrack? Music Head 08-02-2010, 10:47 http://image.allmusic.com/00/amg/pic200/drP200/P282/P28284HQSCK.jpg MP3DL Player (http://mp3dl.co.cc/play.php?src=4shared&id=46125719&x=55aa5622&name=Drifters%20-%20Under%20The%20Boardwalk%20%5B1964%5D) from wikipedia "Under the Boardwalk" is a hit pop song written by Kenny Young and Arthur Resnick and recorded by The Drifters in 1964. The lyric describes a tryst between a man and his beloved in a seaside town (Coney Island, New York), who plan to privately meet "out of the sun" and out of sight from everyone else under a boardwalk. The instrumentation includes gï¿½iro, triangle and violins. The song's chorus is unusual in that it switches from a major to minor key. The opening line of the song references the Drifters' prior hit "Up on the Roof", showing the occasional thermal weakness of the rooftop getaway and setting the stage for an alternate meeting location, under the boardwalk. The song was set to be recorded on May 21, 1964, but the band's lead singer, Rudy Lewis, unexpectedly died of a heroin overdose the night before. Lewis had sung lead on all of their hits since the 1960 departure of Ben E. King, including "Up on the Roof". Rather than reschedule the studio session to find a new frontman, former Drifters lead vocalist Johnny Moore was brought back to perform lead vocals for the recording. The last-minute move was a success, as the single, released on Atlantic Records, went to number four on the Billboard Hot 100 charts and number one for three non consecutive weeks on Cashbox Magazine's R&B chart. There are two versions of the song. The mono 45 USA released version contains the line "We'll be falling in love." The stereo album version contains beneath the line "We'll be falling in love" also the line "We'll be making love". These are two entirely different recordings, not edits of one another, as the line "on a blanket with my baby is where I'll be" is sung differently in both versions. The song ranked #487 on Rolling Stone's The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time "Under the Boardwalk" has since been covered many times, including The Beach Boys, The Lincolns, John Mellencamp, The Undertones, Bette Midler, and the Tom Tom Club (whose version reached #22 in the UK Top 40 in 1982, becoming the first version of the song to chart in Britain). Versions by Billy Joe Royal, Bruce Willis (a #2 success in the UK), and Lynn Anderson (#24 on the Country singles) all reached the Billboard charts. Huey Lewis frequently plays the song in his concerts. A cajun-tinged swamp pop parody of the song, "(Holly Beach) Under the Boardwalk" by Kenny Tibbs (Kenny Thibodeaux) and the Jokers was released in 1991 and was a perennial Louisiana jukebox favorite until Hurricane Rita virtually wiped out the small seaside resort of Holly Beach, Louisiana in 2005. Another parody cover version came from German Democratic Republic by Lothar & die Trabanten. The song "Unter dem Wartburg" (Under the Wartburg) describes the technical problems, a family father has with his Wartburg car while travelling from Dresden to Rimini. A Spanish version ("Bajo la rambla") was recorded by the Argentine group "Los Gatos Salvajes" in 1965[4]. A cover of this song by The Rolling Stones (whose 1965 version was released as a single only in Australia and peaked at #1) was included in the album Rhythms del Mundo Classics in 2007. Music Head 08-02-2010, 10:50 Hi MH. Duke of Earl was covered by a UK Doo Wop covers band called Darts in the 70's. I think they are still touring today and they are still a good listen. Didn't Sha Na Na contribute to the first Grease soundtrack? thanks for the info. Wasn't aware of either of these. Music Head still tears me up after 40 years http://image.allmusic.com/00/amg/pic200/drP000/P027/P02773X4464.jpg YouTube - Bobby Goldsboro - Honey (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=59BZxgohr9g) "Honey", also known as "Honey (I Miss You)", is a song written by Bobby Russell. He first produced it with former Kingston Trio member Bob Shane. Then he gave it to American singer Bobby Goldsboro who recorded it for his tenth album Honey. The song's protagonist mourns his deceased lover, beginning with him looking at a tree in their garden, remembering "it was just a twig" on the day that they planted it together, then reflecting on their relationship before turning to the day "the angels came." It was released as a single in the U.S. in 1968 (see 1968 in music) and spent five weeks at the top of the Billboard Pop Singles Chart, from April 7 to May 11, and three weeks atop Billboard's Hot Country Singles chart. It was preceded on the Billboard Hot 100 by "(Sittin' on) the Dock of the Bay" by Otis Redding, and was followed by Archie Bell & the Drells' "Tighten Up". It was Goldsboro's first and only number-one hit on the Pop Singles and Country Singles charts, and it was his first song to top the Adult Contemporary chart. "Honey" reached number two on the UK Singles Chart, and a re-release of the single in England in 1975 (see 1975 in music) was also popular. In Australia it spent four weeks at #1 on the ARIA Charts, replacing The Beatles' "Lady Madonna", and was the sixth most popular song of 1968. One day in Spring 1968, Bobby Goldsboro was sitting at home in his apartment in Nashville, Tennessee, when Larry Henley (the falsetto singer from the group The Newbeats) walked in to talk to him. Larry Henley had said that he had just heard this nice new song that Bobby Russell had played for him. Bobby Russell's office at Acuff-Rose Music was right across the street from where Goldsboro lived. So they went over to Bobby Russell's office. Russell then played the song, Honey, for Larry Henley and Bobby Goldsboro, on a guitar. At the end of the song, Henley said "That's a great song. Wasn't that just beautiful" or words to that effect. Goldsboro just thought "If that's what makes you happy, then okay", but the song "didn't do anything for him", he later remembered. Goldsboro then went back to his apartment. A few weeks later, Goldsboro was sitting in the office of his new producer, Bob Montgomery (his producer up to that point had been Jack Gold, who produced "Little Things", "See The Funny Little Clown", and most of the pre-1968 songs that he did). Bob Montgomery and Bobby Goldsboro were sitting around and thinking about new songs that he could sing. Then, in an ironic twist of events, Bob Montgomery took him over to Bobby Russell's office again, and the three were all thinking together, and Goldsboro said "How about that other song you played for me the other day?". And Russell said "You mean "Honey"?? Goldsboro replied "Yes". So Russell played the song for Montgomery and Goldsboro, with another guitar, and it just "floored them both". Goldsboro was delighted. He asked Russell if he could try singing the song as a possibility of a new hit. Russell told him Bob Shane, from the group The Kingston Trio already had recorded the song. It was already getting a little bit of airplay on radio stations. Russell said to Bobby Goldsboro that it was in top 20 in the music charts down in Texas, where Shane was from. Russell told Goldsboro that he could have a try at the song if Shane's record flopped. Luckily nothing happened for Shane, so then Bobby Goldsboro recorded "Honey", and it became a number one hit song for 5 weeks in April 1968. (summarized from liner notes by Steve Kolanjian from "The Best Of Bobby Goldsboro: Honey by Bobby Goldsboro", September 1991, issued by Capitol-EMI Records, available on CD). Bobby Russell was married to Vicki Lawrence (who played Mama Thelma Harper on the TV sitcom Mama's Family in the 1980s) from June 1972 until November 1974. He wrote several other songs other than "Honey", including The Night The Lights Went Out In Georgia, which was sung by his then wife Vicki Lawrence (they got divorced in 1974), and the O.C. Smith song Little Green Apples, which was a big hit in 1969. Russell died of a heart attack on November 19, 1992, in Nicholasville, Kentucky, which is near Lexington. He was only 52 years old when he passed away in November 1992. Larry Henley later ended up writing The Wind Beneath My Wings for Bette Midler from the movie Beaches in 1989. He still lives in Nashville. Don Bluesky 09-02-2010, 12:12 Wishing Well by Bob Mould on the album Workbook. Actually IMHO the whole album really flows well. I think I prefer his solo and Sugar work to his Husker Du days. Music Head 10-02-2010, 10:15 http://image.allmusic.com/00/amg/pic200/drp400/p402/p40253rrwrq.jpg MP3DL Player (http://mp3dl.co.cc/play.php?src=4shared&id=201147119&x=9e6a2d2c&name=%282%29%2016%20-%20THIS%20DIAMOND%20RING%20-%20Gary%20Lewis%20%26%20The%20Play%20Boys) from wikipedia "This Diamond Ring" is a 1965 pop song written by Al Kooper, Bob Brass and Irwin Levine. The song's first appearance on the Billboard Hot 100 chart was a bubbling-under single by Sammy Ambrose that reached #117 on January 9, 1965. The hit record, which went to number one on the Billboard chart, is attributed to Gary Lewis & the Playboys though none of the Playboys played their instruments on the recording and Lewis' vocals were heavily supported by Ron Hicklin's overdubs. The session drummer was Hal Blaine, Carol Kaye played bass and Leon Russell both played keyboards and assisted with production. The song was carried through Snuff Garrett Records. Stylistically, the song's recording features the then common "basic 'combo' instrumentation...(electric guitar, organ, bass, drums), modal (dorian) inflections in the harmony and melody of the verse and a basic rock beat pattern." Unusually the chorus features timpani and the transition between verse and chorus creates a daring modulation from C minor (dorian) to G-flat major. "The musical style", writes Brackett, "skims aspects from contemporary rock songs, and is then produced and arranged from the vantage point of 'easy-listening' music." The song's harmonic progression resembles those of Beatles songs such as the G-flat/F/E-flat/D-flat descending bass line ("Bad to Me") and the vi-iii movement ("Please Please me", "I Want to Hold Your Hand", "She Loves You", "And I Love Her" and others). The melodic turn on "true" of "if you find someone whose heart is true" resembles those in "Please Please Me" ("Last night I said these words to my girl") and "Do You Want to Know a Secret" ("nobody knows, just we two"). Al Kooper has reportedly stated many times that he was unhappy with the record and had originally hoped the song would be recorded by a group like The Drifters based upon the original demo of the song as recorded by Jimmy Radcliffe, although it has been his biggest commercial success as a songwriter.[6] Kooper would later re-visit the song, recording a funky version for his 1976 album "Act Like Nothing's Wrong". gryphon 10-02-2010, 10:39 1975 saw Clifford T.Ward`s fourth album release "Escalator" on Tony Stratton-Smith's Charisma label. This was the last of Clifford's Charisma albums and came at a time when the label was beginning to fall apart .As a result, the promotional machine was misfiring badly and this worthy single received little or no promotional support ........This single has often been sited as Clifford's best chance of a third chart success and fame but it was not to be:cool: YouTube - Clifford T. Ward - Jigsaw Girl (1975) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=__N1pWdug5M)... Music Head 10-02-2010, 11:09 1975 saw Clifford T.Ward`s fourth album release "Escalator" on Tony Stratton-Smith's Charisma label. This was the last of Clifford's Charisma albums and came at a time when the label was beginning to fall apart .As a result, the promotional machine was misfiring badly and this worthy single received little or no promotional support ........This single has often been sited as Clifford's best chance of a third chart success and fame but it was not to be:cool: YouTube - Clifford T. Ward - Jigsaw Girl (1975) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=__N1pWdug5M)... nice gryphon 10-02-2010, 11:19 Examination of any copy of Tubular Bells will reveal that the producer of this wonderful work was Tom Newman who himself was a song writer and early associate of the Virgin records project........Tom is nowhere near as well known as Mike Oldfield but, did make several albums of his own.....the first of which was titled "Fine Old Tom" a single was taken from this, wonderful album: which must have sold less than 100 copies but ,here it is for you to enjoy!:cool: YouTube - sad sing by tom newman -callaborazione di oldfield- (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=VlqyiWkK_X0) carbon_psycho 10-02-2010, 18:11 I have always loved this track! There is not much I can tell you about this except Dave was not Dave Collins .....For a duo they were special there was at least eleven of them and I know it is about a mobile Jamaican sound system :cool: YouTube - Dave & Ansell Collins - Double Barrel (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=H_7Kx2FlFQY) gryphon 11-02-2010, 08:25 This awesome fuzz guitar track was released in early 1967 and has become a classic among collectors! Unfortunately it was doomed before started due to its direct references to drugs which means it got minimal air play but still it is an excellent track! http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MNdLt24eOlc Their best song for me. No I don't like the Tiffany version. http://userserve-ak.last.fm/serve/252/3146827.jpg YouTube - I Think We`re Alone Now - Tommy James & The Shondells (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=IkMFLUXTEwM) from wikipedia "I Think We're Alone Now" is a song written by Ritchie Cordell. It was initially a 1967 hit for American recording artists Tommy James & the Shondells, reaching #4 on the Billboard Hot 100 during a 17-week stay. The recording was produced by Cordell and Bo Gentry. Rock critic Lester Bangs called the single "the bubblegum apotheosis". Cordell wrote or co-wrote many songs for James, including "Run, Run, Baby, Run" (the B-side to "I Think We're Alone Now"), the follow-up single "Mirage," and 1968's "Mony Mony." I Think Were Alone Now stands out as one of Tommy James' most successful recordings, and was sampled in a memorable scene in the 1980s slasher film Mother's Day. "I Think We're Alone Now" has since been covered on numerous occasions. In 1987, a version by Tiffany reached #1 in the US, UK, Canada and New Zealand. Several other cover versions have charted as well, including those by The Rubinoos (#45 US, 1977) and Girls Aloud (#4 UK, 2006). Susan Mart 11-02-2010, 12:29 well, I think Bob Marley, the Midlake, Alina Orlova, soundtracks from the movie Ameli are all worth listening)) they all are from different styles...but def worth knowing. I love them all)) gryphon 11-02-2010, 16:10 Beautiful song from this excellent Canadian singer song writer.........I hope one day he can make a trip to Europe soon as I would love to see him live :biggrin::cool: YouTube - Gordon Lightfoot - Minstril of the Dawn (1A) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KKMx4xA35aw) Music Head 11-02-2010, 17:27 Beautiful song from this excellent Canadian singer song writer.........I hope one day he can make a trip to Europe soon as I would love to see him live :biggrin::cool: YouTube - Gordon Lightfoot - Minstril of the Dawn (1A) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KKMx4xA35aw) excellent. gryphon 12-02-2010, 09:16 One of the few chart successes for Magna in the UK and other territories not as big a hit as it should have been due to a supply shortage,,,,,When it was in the UK charts one had to order a copy and it took several weeks to arrive! No wonder it did not make a bigger dent on the chart! :cool: YouTube - The Airport Song - Magna Carta (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=D1O5AtBelQk) Music Head MP3DL Player (http://mp3dl.co.cc/play.php?src=4shared&id=63541966&x=b64f845&name=Aretha%20Franklin-Respect%201967%20%20%231) from wikipedia "Respect" is a song written and originally released by Stax recording artist Otis Redding in 1965. "Respect" became a 1967 hit and signature song for R&B singer Aretha Franklin. While Redding wrote the song as a man's plea for respect and recognition from a woman, the roles were reversed for Franklin's version. Franklin's cover was a landmark for the feminist movement, and is often considered as one of the best songs of the R&B era,[by whom?] earning her two Grammy Awards in 1968 for "Best Rhythm & Blues Recording" and "Best Rhythm & Blues Solo Vocal Performance, Female", and was inducted in the Grammy Hall of Fame in 1998. In 2002, the Library of Congress honored Franklin's version by adding it to the National Recording Registry. It is number five on Rolling Stone's list of The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time.[1] It was also included in the list of Songs of the Century, by the Recording Industry of America and the National Endowment for the Arts. Otis Redding wrote and recorded "Respect" as a blues tune in the studio while finishing his third album, Otis Blue. The album became widely successful, even outside of his largely R&B and blues fanbase. When released in the summer of 1965, the song reached the top five on Billboard's Black Singles Chart, and crossed over to pop radio's white audience, peaking at number thirty-five there. At the time, the song became Redding's second largest crossover hit (after "I've Been Loving You Too Long") and paved the way to future presence at American radio. Producer Jerry Wexler brought Redding's song to Franklin's attention. While Redding's version was popular among his core R&B audience, Wexler thought the song had potential to be a crossover hit and to demonstrate Franklin's vocal ability. "Respect" was recorded on February 14, 1967 with Aretha's sisters, Carolyn and Erma, singing backup During the recording process, a bridge was added to Redding's original composition. Another addition was King Curtis' tenor saxophone and the slicker production of Wexler and co-producer Arif Mardin. The resulting song was featured on Franklin's Atlantic Records debut album, I Never Loved a Man the Way I Love You. As the title track became a hit on both R&B and pop radio, Atlantic Records arranged for the release of this new version of "Respect" as a single. Franklin's rendition found even greater success than the original, spending two weeks atop the Billboard Pop Singles chart, and for eight weeks on the Billboard Black Singles chart. It also became a hit internationally, reaching number ten in the United Kingdom, and helping to transform Franklin from a domestic star into an international one. Even Otis Redding himself was impressed with the performance of the song, and at the Monterey Pop Festival in the summer of the cover's release, he was quoted playfully describing "Respect" as the song "that little girl done stole from me". "Respect" is one of several songs considered to have defined the 1960s. It has appeared in dozens of films and still receives consistent play on oldies radio stations. In the 1970s, Franklin's version of the song came to exemplify the feminist movement. Although she had numerous hits after "Respect", and several before its release, the song became Franklin's signature song and her best-known recording. I Never Loved a Man the Way I Love You was ranked eighty-third in Rolling Stone's 500 Greatest Albums of All-Time in 2002. Two years later, "Respect" was fifth in the magazine's 500 Greatest Songs of All-Time. The song "Respect" is part of the The Rock and Roll Hall of Fame's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll list. carbon_psycho ? & The Mysterians - Can't Get Enough Of You, Baby YouTube - Question Mark & the Mysterians-Can't Get Enough of You, Baby (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=opMAr7awDJI) But I do like the Smash Mouth cover more. kvincent5555 12-02-2010, 11:41 My favorite Priest song. A classic from their early days. Kind of slow and bluesy with thoughtful, old-school lead work and crisp, close-up production. YouTube - Judas Priest - Victim Of Changes (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EKSU1W0ZUmQ) Wavehellomachine "Ain't No Sunshine When She's Gone" by Bill Withers: YouTube - Ain't no Sunshine When She's Gone (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-2FJWRy74h0) He also did another classic: YouTube - Bill Withers - Lean On Me (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=HaVXfHZv50Y) gryphon 12-02-2010, 22:20 Cole Porter song done by an Australian singer in a somewhat unforgettable way ....check out the violin solo in the middle done by Charisma records session player who plays with String Driven Thing......:cool: YouTube - I Get A Kick Out Of You - Gary Shearston (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TkrucTzwIYE) gryphon YouTube - Born to be wild - Steppenwolf (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=xm5DPlNCmtk) from wikipedia "Born to Be Wild" is a rock song written by Mars Bonfire and made famous by the Canadian rock band Steppenwolf. It is often used in popular culture to denote a biker appearance or attitude. It is sometimes described as the first heavy metal song, and the second verse lyric "heavy metal thunder," marks the first use of this term in rock music. Although initially offered to other bands ï¿½ The Human Expression, for one ï¿½ Born to Be Wild was first recorded in 1968 by Steppenwolf. Writer Bonfire was previously a member of the Sparrows, the predecessor band to Steppenwolf, and his brother was Steppenwolf's drummer. "Born to be Wild" was the band's second and most successful single, reaching #2 on the Billboard Hot 100 singles charts. In 2004, Rolling Stone magazine placed "Born to be Wild" at #129 on the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time list. In 2009, it was named the 53rd best hard rock song of all time by VH1. The song was initially released in 1968, but it was subsequently included in many compilation albums and soundtracks. The first of these was the soundtrack for the movie Easy Rider (1969). Unlike the album or single version, the song on this soundtrack is accompanied by the sounds of motorcycles as an introduction. (Another Steppenwolf song from their first album, "The Pusher" was also used in the film.) When the movie was in production, Born to Be Wild was used simply as a placeholder, since Peter Fonda had wanted Crosby, Stills and Nash to do the movie's soundtrack. Eventually, it became clear that the song was well suited for the movie. Other movies that have used the Steppenwolf version of Born to Be Wild include Coming Home, One Crazy Summer, Opportunity Knocks, Dr. Dolittle 2, Speechless, Armed and Dangerous, Mr Bean's Holiday, Wild America, and many others. The video game Rock N' Roll Racing also used the song but without the lyrics as an in-game tune that played during a race. Professional wrestler Mick Foley used the Steppenwolf version during his time in Extreme Championship Wrestling, and he currently uses it in Total Nonstop Action Wrestling. The video game Rayman Raving Rabbids TV Party uses "Born to Be Wild" instrumentally (in Rabbid Boxing) and with vocals (during the 4-6 pm timeslot on the GrooveOn channel). gryphon I'll get my bike out and ride into the sunset after that one MH! Music Head http://ecx.images-amazon.com/images/I/51N9CCHK0GL._SL500_AA240_.jpg YouTube - OLIVER - JEAN (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6P2j5YGcuYc) "Jean" is the title of a popular song from 1969 (see 1969 in music). It was written by the American poet and composer Rod McKuen, who also recorded a version of the song. The song was the theme to the film adaptation of Muriel Spark's The Prime of Miss Jean Brodie, which starred noted British film actress Maggie Smith. Smith won an Academy Award for Best Actress for her portrayal of the lead character in the film, Jean Brodie. The song "Jean", as performed by songwriter McKuen, was also nominated for an Academy Award in the category Best Original Song. Although released as a single in the summer of 1969, McKuen's version of the song failed to reach the American music charts. "Jean" was also recorded by the American singer William Swofford, who was known professionally by his middle name, Oliver. Earlier in 1969, Swofford had reached #3 on the Billboard pop and adult contemporary charts with his version of "Good Morning Starshine", a song from the musical Hair. While working on an album with producer Bob Crewe (which would also be called Good Morning Starshine), "Jean" was selected as a song for the record and subsequently chosen as the follow-up single. It became another hit for the singer, reaching #2 on the pop chart and spending four weeks at #1 on the adult contemporary chart. Swofford would later describe his cover version of the song: "We had no idea it would be a single. It was a 3/4 ballad in the psychedelic era...it was a beautiful arrangement." All the leaves have gone green And the clouds are so low You can touch them, and so Come out to the meadow, Jean Jean, Jean, you're young and alive Come out of your half-dreamed dream And run, if you will, to the top of the hill Open your arms, bonnie Jean Till the sheep in the valley come home my way Till the stars fall around me and find me alone When the sun comes a-singin' I'll still be waitin' For Jean, Jean, roses are red And all of the leaves have gone green While the hills are ablaze with the moon's yellow haze Come into my arms, bonnie Jean (Jean, Jean) Jean, you're young and alive!! Come out of your half-dreamed dream And run, if you will to the top of the hill Come into my arms, bonnie Jean Music Head YouTube - Peter Paul & Mary - Puff the Magic Dragon (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Wik2uc69WbU) from wikipedia "Puff, the Magic Dragon" is a song written by Leonard Lipton and Peter Yarrow, and made popular by the group Peter, Paul and Mary in a 1963 recording. The song is so well-known that it has entered American and British pop culture. The lyrics for "Puff, the Magic Dragon" were based on a 1959 poem by Leonard Lipton, a 19-year-old Cornell University student. Lipton was inspired by an Ogden Nash poem titled "Custard the Dragon," about a "realio, trulio little pet dragon." Lipton was friends with Peter Yarrow's housemate when they were all students at Cornell. He used Yarrow's typewriter to get the poem out of his head. He then forgot about it until years later, when a friend called and told him Yarrow was looking for him, to give him credit for the lyrics. On making contact Yarrow gave Lipton half the songwriting credit, and he still gets royalties from the song. In an effort to be gender-neutral, Yarrow now sings the line "A dragon lives forever, but not so little boys" as "A dragon lives forever, but not so girls and boys." The original poem also had a verse that did not make it into the song. In it, Puff found another child and played with him after returning. Neither Yarrow nor Lipton remember the verse in any detail, and the paper that was left in Yarrow's typewriter in 1958 has since been lost. In 1961, Yarrow joined Paul Stookey and Mary Travers to form Peter, Paul and Mary. The group incorporated the song into their live performances before recording it in 1962; their 1962 recording of "Puff" reached #2 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in early 1963. The song also spent two weeks atop the Billboard easy listening chart that same year. The lyrics tell a story of the ageless dragon Puff and his playmate Jackie Paper, a little boy who grows up and loses interest in the imaginary adventures of childhood and leaves Puff alone and depressed. The story of the song takes place "by the sea" in the fictional land of Honalee (the spelling used by author Lenny Lipton, though nonauthoritative variations abound). A 1978 animated television special, Puff the Magic Dragon, adapts the song.[3] It was followed by two sequels, Puff and the Land of Living Lies, and Puff and the Incredible Mr. Nobody. In all three films Burgess Meredith voiced Puff. A 2007 book adaptation of the song's lyrics by Yarrow, Lipton. and illustrator Eric Puybaret gives the story a happier ending with a young girl (presumed by reviewers to be Jackie Paper's daughter)[4] seeking out Puff to become her new companion. After the song's initial success, speculation arose that the song contained veiled references to smoking marijuana. For example, the word "paper" in the name of Puff's human friend (Jackie Paper) was said to be a reference to rolling papers, and the word "dragon" was interpreted as "draggin'," i.e. inhaling smoke; similarly, the name "Puff" was alleged to be a reference to taking a "puff" on a joint. The supposition was claimed to be common knowledge in a letter by a member of the public (who offered no qualifications for his expertise on the topic) to The New York Times in 1984. The authors of the song have repeatedly rejected this urban legend and have strongly and consistently denied that they intended any references to drug use. Peter Yarrow has frequently explained that "Puff" is about the hardships of growing older and has no relationship to drug-taking. He has also said of the song that it "never had any meaning other than the obvious one" and is about the "loss of innocence". On one occasion, during a live performance, Yarrow mocked the drug-related interpretations by reciting his own tongue-in-cheek drug-related reinterpretation of "The Star-Spangled Banner", and ended by saying, "You can wreck anything with that kind of idiotic analysis." In 1976, "Paul" of Peter, Paul and Mary also upheld the song's innocence. Noel "Paul" Stookey recorded a version of the song at the Sydney Opera House in March 1976,[12] in which he set up a fictitious trial scene. The Prosecutor, a snake, accused the song of being about marijuana, but Puff and Jackie protested. The judge finally leaves the case to the jury (the Opera House audience) and says if they will sing along with the song, it will be acquitted. The audience joins in with Stookey, and at the end of their sing-along, the judge declares "case dismissed." An example of how this myth had become part of the popular culture four decades after the song's introduction, can be gauged by the song's appearance in the 2000 film Meet the Parents, where there are many conversations and references to its supposed drug message. The song also appears in the fourth episode of The Oblongs, where Bob, Milo's father plays a few lines on a piano at a parent-teacher meeting. Another example of how the urban legend has become part of the culture comes from an assertion made by Fox News that in January 2004, as Yarrow was campaigning with personal friend and Presidential candidate John Kerry, Kerry had made a gesture as if puffing a joint as Yarrow sang "Puff". Puff, the magic dragon lived by the sea And frolicked in the autumn mist in a land called Honah Lee, Little Jackie Paper loved that rascal Puff, And brought him strings and sealing wax and other fancy stuff. Oh Puff, the magic dragon lived by the sea And frolicked in the autumn mist in a land called Honah Lee, Puff, the magic dragon lived by the sea And frolicked in the autumn mist in a land called Honah Lee. Together they would travel on a boat with billowed sail Jackie kept a lookout perched on Puff's gigantic tail, Noble kings and princes would bow whene'er they came, Pirate ships would lower their flags when Puff roared out his name. Oh! Puff, the magic dragon lived by the sea And frolicked in the autumn mist in a land called Honah Lee, Puff, the magic dragon lived by the sea And frolicked in the autumn mist in a land called Honah Lee. A dragon lives forever but not so little boys Painted wings and giants' rings make way for other toys. One grey night it happened, Jackie Paper came no more And Puff that mighty dragon, he ceased his fearless roar. His head was bent in sorrow, green scales fell like rain, Puff no longer went to play along the cherry lane. Without his lifelong friend, Puff could not be brave, So Puff that mighty dragon sadly slipped into his cave. Oh! Puff, the magic dragon lived by the sea And frolicked in the autumn mist in a land called Honah Lee, Puff, the magic dragon lived by the sea And frolicked in the autumn mist in a land called Honah Lee. Don Bluesky Arvo Part- Cantus in Memory of Benjamin Britten. A short but remarkable orchestral piece. YouTube - Arvo Pï¿½rt Cantus in Memory of Benjamin Britten (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=e348n660zrA) gryphon Used to be my favourite song when I was a wee lad:biggrin1::cool: Music Head YouTube - shirley ellis - the name game (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5MJLi5_dyn0) from wikipedia "The Name Game," or "The Banana Song", is a children's singalong rhyming game that creates variations on a person's name. It was written by singer Shirley Ellis with Lincoln Chase, and Ellis' recording, produced by Charles Calello, was released in late 1964 (see 1964 in music) as "The Name Game." The record went to number 3 on the Billboard Hot 100, and number 4 on the magazine's R&B charts in 1965. It was re-released in 1966 and again in 1973. Ellis performed "The Name Game" on major television programs of the day, including Hullabaloo, American Bandstand, and Merv Griffin. "The Name Game" has been recorded by dozens of recording artists in the years since, notably Laura Branigan, whose version produced by Jeff Lorber, appearing on her 1987 album Touch, features a classroom of third-grade schoolchildren singing along to the tongue-twisting game. The Brazilian singer Xuxa recorded a song using the same play and same sample in the song "Jogo da Rima". Often covered by relative unknowns on collections of songs for children, other cover versions have been recorded by artists as diverse (and campy) as Dean Ford and the Gaylords (1965), Divine (1980), and Soupy Sales (2002). In 1982, Stacy Lattisaw took her "rap" recording of "Attack of the Name Game" to #79 on the Hot 100. In 1993, this song was used on television as an advertisement for Little Caesar's Pizza. In Flawless the song is used when Robert De Niro's character is rehabilitating after getting a severe speech impairment following a stroke. The song is sung the 1991 movie My Girl by Vada (Anna Chlumsky) and Thomas J. (Macaulay Culkin), as well as in the 1999 drama A Walk on the Moon and the film "Bewitched" (2005). The 1991 film Hudson Hawk, starring Bruce Willis, contains the line "Anna banana fo-fanna" after Sister Anna Baragli (Andie MacDowell) is captured. In the movie Radio Flyer, Mike (Elijah Wood) and Bobby (Joseph Mazzello) sing "The Name Game" using the name Buck. An episode of Tiny Toon Adventures devoted to spoofing music videos features a tribute to the opening scene of Star Wars Episode IV: A New Hope wherein Darth Vader captures most of the cast, but they proceed to teach him "The Name Game". That episode's end credits note that Plucky Duck was intentionally excluded from that particular scene, because the name would have resulted in an obscenity. In episode 1F08 of The Simpsons, entitled "$pringfield (Or, How I Learned to Stop Worrying and Love Legalized Gambling)", Krusty the Clown sings the song, using herpes in place of a name, as part of an adults-only comedy set at Mr. Burns' casino. In the Good Wilt Hunting episode of the series Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends, a scene on a bus fades in with everyone except Frankie and Mac singing "The Name Game" with the name Coco and then Shut Up (begun by Frankie yelling, "Let's try SHUT UP!"). In the episode "Room 7" of The Golden Girls, Rose attempts to lighten up a car trip by singing the song, starting with the name "Dorothy", who immediately slams on the brakes and orders her out of the car. In The Money Pit, Tom Hanks' character is waiting for a building inspector to arrive when he accidentally gets trapped as the carpet he's standing on sinks through a hole in the floor. Unable to answer the bell, Hanks realizes he will be trapped until his wife (Shelley Long) returns that evening, and passes the time singing "The Name Game" using the names Anna, Brad, and Walter. In the 1995 Stephen King novel Rose Madder, Norman sometimes repeats the song, using the names of various other characters in the book, as his sanity deteriorates. In an episode of the 1990s sitcom Dinosaurs, the character Charlene tries to play the game with the baby, who has unfortunately received the name Ugh-Ugh-I'm-Dying-You-Idiot Sinclair. The song is sung in the "Road Trip" episode of My Wife and Kids. In an episode of Boy Meets World Cory and Shawn are in a terrible band and end up singing "Name Game" to the crowd; later they play one of Mr. Feeny's tapes, a recording of "Name Game" using the name Feeny. In the 1993 computer game Sam & Max Hit the Road, while at the Dinosaur Tar Pit at Mount Rushmore, the character Sam can be made to sing the song with the names of the Presidents depicted on the mountain. The name game! Shirley, Shirley bo Birley Bonana fanna fo Firley Fee fy mo Mirley, Shirley! Lincoln! Lincoln, Lincoln bo Bincoln Bonana fanna fo Fincoln Fee fy mo Mincoln, Lincoln! Come on everybody! I say now let's play a game I betcha I can make a rhyme out of anybody's name The first letter of the name, I treat it like it wasn't there But a B or an F or an M will appear And then I say bo add a B then I say the name and Bonana fanna and a fo And then I say the name again with an F very plain and a fee fy and a mo And then I say the name again with an M this time and there isn't any name that I can't rhyme Arnold! Arnold, Arnold bo Barnold Bonana fanna fo Farnold Fee fy mo Marnold Arnold! But if the first two letters are ever the same, I drop them both and say the name like Bob, Bob drop the B's Bo ob For Fred, Fred drop the F's Fo red For Mary, Mary drop the M's Mo ary That's the only rule that is contrary. Okay? Now say Bo: Bo Now Tony with a B: Bony Then Bonana fanna fo: bonana fanna fo Then you say the name again with an F very plain: Fony Then a fee fy and a mo: fee fy mo Then you say the name again with an M this time: Mony And there isn't any name that you can't rhyme Every body do Tony! Pretty good, let's do Billy! Very good, let's do Marsha! A little trick with Nick! The name game YouTube - The Foundations - Build me up Buttercup (HQ Audio) [Over One Million Served!] (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KJ45_kvgyq4) from wikipedia "Build Me Up Buttercup" is the name of a song written by Mike d'Abo and Tony Macaulay, and released by The Foundations with Colin Young singing the lead vocals in 1968. This was the third major hit for The Foundations. Colin Young replaced Clem Curtis in 1968 and this was the first Foundations hit that he sang on. It reached number 2 on the UK charts and number 3 in the US on the Billboard Hot 100, it stayed at number 3 for 11 weeks. It was re-recorded in or around the late 1980s when original Foundations members Clem Curtis and Alan Warner teamed up to recut this as well as other hits of The Foundations. In 2003 Colin Young recorded an updated version of the song backed by a choir of policemen from the Surrey police force. The proceeds from the sale of the CD go to Milly's Fund. The fund is a trust set up in memory of murdered school girl Amanda Dowler. Apparently the song was a favourite of hers The song was used in the 1983 film Luggage of the Gods!, and featured again in movies twice in the 1990s and once in 2007. It was covered by rock band The Goops in 1995 for the soundtrack of Mallrats, with the music video featuring View Askewniverse characters Jay and Silent Bob. Three years later, it was included (as its original version) in the 1998 film There's Something about Mary. The actors of the film also made a video for the song, with all the main actors miming to the words in character. It was also covered by The Frantic in 2007 as a bonus track on their album Audio & Murder. This version is popularly thought to have been done by both NOFX and The Donnas. Why do you build me up (Build me up) Buttercup baby just to let me down (Let me down) And mess me around And then worst of all (Worst of all) You never call baby When you say you will (Say you will) But I love you still I need you (I need you) More than anyone darlin' You know that I have from the start So build me up (Build me up) Buttercup I'll be over at ten You tell me time and again But you're late I wait around and then I went to the door I can't take any more It's not you You let me down again Baby Baby Try to find a little time And I'll make you happy I'll be home I'll be waiting beside the phone Waiting for you. Why do you build me up.... To you I'm a toy But I could be the boy You adore If you'd just let me know Although you're untrue YouTube - Frankie Valli And The Four Seasons- Walk Like A Man (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BMYZBVbifh8) from wikipedia "Walk Like a Man" is a song written by Bob Crewe and Bob Gaudio and originally recorded by The Four Seasons. The song features the counterpoint of Nick Massi's bass voice and the falsetto of lead singer Frankie Valli. It was their third number one hit, initially reaching the top of the Billboard Hot 100 on March 2, 1963, remaining there for three weeks. During the sessions that produced the hit recording, the fire department received an emergency call from the Abbey Victoria Hotel (the building that housed the Stea-Phillips Recording Studios). As producer Bob Crewe was insisting upon recording the perfect take, smoke and water started to seep into the studio as the group repeated their efforts upon Crewe's insistence: the room directly above the studio was on fire, yet Crewe blocked the studio door and continued recording until a few firemen used their axes on it and pulled Crewe out.[1] Cover versions of the song have been recorded by other musicians such as the Mary Jane Girls and Divine. A parody of the song entitled "Now You're a Man" appeared on the animated series Captain N: The Game Master. In 1993, the song is heard in the hit movie Mrs. Doubtfire, Heart and Souls, and the Barry Levinson drama Sleepers. In 2009,the song was also heard in the TV animated series American Dad! in the episode"Bar Mitzvah Shuffle" being played by a stage band The song also features in the opening sequence of the film The Wanderers. The song was featured in the Tony Award winning Musical Jersey Boys. The song is interpreted twice during the musical, both times in the Act I: first time is sung by "The Four Seasons" and then the reprise is played by the entire company as the closing number of Act I. Oh, how you tried to cut me down to size Tellin' dirty lies to my friends But my own father said "Give her up, don't bother The world isn't comin' to an end" Walk like a man, talk like a man Walk like a man my son No woman's worth crawlin' on the earth So walk like a man, my son Bye bye baby, I don't-a mean maybe Gonna get along somehow Soon you'll be cryin' on account of all your lyin' Oh yeah, just look who's laughin' now Walk like a man, fast as I can Walk like a man from you I'll tell the world "forget about it, girl" And walk like a man from you gryphon YouTube - Tighten Up - Archie Bell and the Drells (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=FRozWFKJph8) from wikipedia "Tighten Up" was a 1968 song by Houston, Texas based R&B vocal group Archie Bell & the Drells. It reached #1 on both the Billboard R&B and pop charts in the spring of 1968. It is ranked #265 on the Rolling Stone magazine's list of "the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time" and is one of the earliest funk hits in music history. "Tighten Up" was written by Archie Bell and Billy Buttier. It was one of the first songs that Archie Bell & the Drells recorded, in a session in 1967, along with a number of songs including "She's My Woman". Soon afterwards Bell was drafted into the U.S. Army and began serving in Vietnam. The song became a hit in Houston, and was picked up by Atlantic Records for distribution in April 1968. By the summer it topped both the Billboard R&B and pop charts. It also sold a million copies by May 1968, gaining an R.I.A.A. gold disc. The line in "Tighten Up", "we dance just as good as we walk" was a little ironic, given that Bell had been shot in the leg and was consigned to a military hospital bed at the time. The introduction features Bell introducing himself as being from Houston, Texas. According to the Billboard Book of Number One Hits by Fred Bronson, Bell heard a comment after the Kennedy assassination in Dallas, that "nothing good ever came out of Texas." Bell wanted his listeners to know "we were from Texas and we were good." The song described an accompanying dance that the band had invented, also called the "Tighten Up"; this dance became popular concurrently with the song. The phenomenal success of the single prompted the band to rush out an album, despite their incapacitated leader. In 1969 the group recorded their first full album with Gamble and Huff, I Can't Stop Dancing, which reached number 28 on the R&B chart. Hi everybody I'm Archie Bell of the Drells From Houston, Texas We don't only sing but we dance Just as good as we walk In Houston we just started a new dance Called the Tighten Up First tighten up on the drums Come on now, drummer I want you to tighten it up for me now Oh, yeah Tighten up on that bass now Tighten it up Now let that guitar fall in Oh, yeah Tighten up on that organ now Yeah, you do the tighten up Yeah, now I said, if you can do it now It sure would be tough Now look here, come on now Now make it mellow Let's tighten it up now Do the tighten up Everybody can do it now So get to it Let's do the tighten up You can do it now So baby, get to it Look to your left now Look to your right But don't you get too tight Come on and tighten up Let's tighten it up now Let's tighten it up now Tighten it up Come and tighten it up Tighten it up now YouTube - The Cowsills - Hair (1969) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=hKNMHk_l7Hw) from wikipedia Hair: The American Tribal Love-Rock Musical is a rock musical with a book and lyrics by James Rado and Gerome Ragni and music by Galt MacDermot. A product of the hippie counter-culture and sexual revolution of the 1960s, several of its songs became anthems of the anti-Vietnam War peace movement. The musical's profanity, its depiction of the use of illegal drugs, its treatment of sexuality, its irreverence for the American flag, and its nude scene caused much comment and controversy. The musical broke new ground in musical theatre by defining the genre of "rock musical", using a racially integrated cast, and inviting the audience onstage for a "Be-In" finale. Hair tells the story of the "tribe", a group of politically active, long-haired hippies of the "Age of Aquarius" living a bohemian life in New York City and fighting against conscription into the Vietnam War. Claude, his good friend Berger, their roommate Sheila and their friends struggle to balance their young lives, loves and the sexual revolution with their rebellion against the war and their conservative parents and society. Ultimately, Claude must decide whether to resist the draft as his friends have done, or to compromise his pacifistic principles and risk his life by serving in Vietnam. After an off-Broadway debut in October 1967 at Joseph Papp's Public Theater and a subsequent run in a midtown discothï¿½que space, the show opened on Broadway in April 1968 and ran for 1,750 performances. Simultaneous productions in cities across the United States and Europe followed shortly thereafter, including a successful London production, which ran for 1,997 performances. Since then, numerous productions have been staged around the world, spawning dozens of recordings of the musical. Some of the songs from its score became Top 10 hits, and a feature film adaptation was released in 1979. A Broadway revival opened on March 31, 2009, earning strong reviews and winning the Tony Award and Drama Desk Award for best revival of a musical. In 2008, Time magazine wrote, "Today Hair seems, if anything, more daring than ever." She asks me why I'm just a hairy guy I'm hairy noon and night Hair that's a fright I'm hairy high and low Don't ask me why It's not for lack of bread Like the Grateful Dead They'll be ga ga at the go go When they see me in my toga My toga made of blond Brilliantined My hair like Jesus wore it Hallelujah I adore it Hallelujah Mary loved her son Why don't my mother love me? Hair, hair, hair, hair, hair, hair, hair Flow it, show it Long as God can grow it My hair, hair, hair, hair, hair, hair, hair Flow it, show it Long as God can grow it gryphon I think that this is an excellent cover of this song:cool: YouTube - Ken Boothe - Everything i own (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5aKCKssaLQ8) Music Head I think that this is an excellent cover of this song:cool: YouTube - Ken Boothe - Everything i own (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=5aKCKssaLQ8) :eek: one of those that shouldn't be touched imo. too much enunciation here. YouTube - Going To The Chapel Of Love- The Dixie Cups (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cMfrLFirGWc) from wikipedia "Chapel of Love" is a song written by Jeff Barry, Ellie Greenwich and Phil Spector, and made famous by The Dixie Cups in 1964, spending three weeks at number one on the Billboard Hot 100. There have also been many other versions of this song. This was also the debut release of the new Red Bird Records run by Jerry Leiber and Mike Stoller along with George Goldner. The song tells of the happiness and excitement the narrator feels on her wedding day, for she and her love are going to the "chapel of love," and "we'll never be lonely anymore." Previously recorded by The Ronettes and The Blossoms, the definitive version of the song was recorded by the Dixie Cups in 1964. Although "many have been quite annoyed by the sing-songy, cloying, childish quality",[1] the song was ranked #279 on Rolling Stone's list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time, being the group's only song on the list. This version was heard on the soundtrack to films ranging from Full Metal Jacket to Father of the Bride. Spring is here YouTube - QUESTION MARK & THE MYSTERIANS-96 TEARS (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Qc69zr_5uH4) from wikipedia "96 Tears" is a popular song recorded by ? & the Mysterians in 1966. It hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 and is ranked #210 on the Rolling Stone list of the 500 Greatest Songs of All Time. The song was originally written by likely Question Mark, Rudy Martinez, around 1962. The recording was done in Bay City, Michigan. It was first released on the small Pa-Go-Go label and then picked up by Cameo Records for national distribution. The original issue is quite rare and sought after by record collectors. The song was originally supposed to be "69 Tears", but that title and lyric was considered too risquï¿½ for radio airplay and was changed to the current version as a result. Known for its signature organ licks and bare-bones lyrics, "96 Tears" has been widely-recognized as one of the first garage band hits and has even been given credit for starting the punk rock movement. It is generally accepted that rock critic Dave Marsh coined the term "Punk rock" when referring to this song. The song hit number one on the Billboard Hot 100 in 1966 and was the band's only major hit single. Follow-up song "I Need Somebody" peaked at number 22 later that year and no other U.S. top-forty singles followed. It appears on the band's album 96 Tears. Too many teardrops For one heart to be crying Too many teardrops For one heart to carry on You`re way on top now since you left me Youre always laughing way down at me But watch out now, I`m gonna get there We`ll be together for just a little while And then I`m gonna put you way down here And you`ll start crying ninety-six tears Cry, cry And when the sun comes up, I`ll be on top You`ll be right down there, looking up And I might wave, come up here But I don`t see you waving now I`m way down here, wondering how I`m gonna get you but I know now I`ll just cry, cry, I`ll just cry Too many teardrops For one heart to be crying Too many teardrops For one heart to carry on Youre gonna cry ninety-six tears Youre gonna cry ninety-six tears Youre gonna cry, cry, cry, cry now Youre gonna cry, cry, cry, cry Ninety-six tears Come on and lemme hear you cry, now Ninety-six tears, woo I wanna hear you cry Night and day, yeah, all night long Uh, ninety-six tears, cry cry cry Come on, baby Let me hear you cry now, all night long Uh, ninety-six tears, yeah, come on now Uh, ninety-six tears gryphon 23-02-2010, 07:34 Only recorded by Beatles for the BBC "I'll Be On My Way" was given away to Billy J Kramer as a "b" side..................:cool: YouTube - I'll Be On My Way - Beatles (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=pwTZRe11svE) Music Head YouTube - Nancy Sinatra - These Boots Are Made For Walking (1966) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yRkovnss7sg) from wikipedia "These Boots Are Made for Walkin'" is a pop song musically composed by Lee Hazlewood and first written and recorded by Nancy Sinatra. It was released in February 1966 and hit #1 in the United States and United Kingdom Pop charts. Subsequently, many cover versions of the song have been released in a range of styles: metal, pop, rock, punk rock, country, dance, and industrial. Jessica Simpson made #14 in the United States in 2005 with her version based on the movie: The Dukes of Hazzard. Geri Halliwell and Jewel also released remakes of the song. Nancy Sinatra was encouraged by Lee Hazlewood to sing the song as if she were a sixteen-year-old girl giving the brush-off to a forty-year-old man. Sinatra's recording of the song was made with the help of notable Los Angeles session musicians known as the Wrecking Crew. This session included Hal Blaine on drums, Al Casey, Tommy Tedesco, and Billy Strange on guitars, Ollie Mitchell, Roy Caton and Lew McCreary on horns, Carol Kaye on electric bass, and Chuck Berghofer on double bass, providing the notable bass line. According to Carol Kaye, "Arranger Billy Strange believed in using the two basses together. Producer Lee Hazlewood asked Chuck to put a sliding run on the front of the tune. Chuck complied by playing notes about three tones apart (4-6 frets apart), but Lee stopped the take. "No Chuck, make your sliding notes closer together", and that is what you hear." According to Al Casey, "Well, Lee and I had been friends forever, and he said, "I've got this song I'm working on, and I want the guitar to play this." And he showed me, because there's a little bit more than banging on an 'E-chord', which is what most people do. There's more to it than that. He said, "I want you to do this on the song.", and he sang the song and played the rhythm guitar lick, "and I went "Oh, that's cute!", little suspecting it was gonna be huge." The second single taken from her debut album Boots, and follow-up to the minor hit "So Long, Babe," the song became an instant success. In late February 1966, the song topped the Billboard Hot 100 chart, a move it replicated in similar charts across the world. When the single was first released, some thought it had to do with the subway strike in New York.[citation needed] That same year, Sinatra recorded an early music video for the song. It was produced by Color-Sonics, and played on Scopitone video jukeboxes. In 1986, for the song's twentieth anniversary, cable station VH1 played this music video. The song was adopted by troops in the Vietnam War when they marched, and Sinatra traveled there in the mid- to late-1960s to perform for the U.S. soldiers. It was used on the soundtrack to Stanley Kubrick's Full Metal Jacket (1987). Sinatra also sang it on an episode of China Beach in the late-1980s. In 2005, Paul Revere & the Raiders recorded a revamped version of the song using Sinatra's original vocal track. It appeared on the CD Ride to the Wall, Vol. 2, with proceeds going to help Vietnam veterans. In addition, the Fembots were introduced to the strains of the opening and closing notes of the song in Austin Powers: International Man of Mystery. In 2006, Pitchfork Media selected it as the 114th best song of the 1960s. Critic Tom Breihan described the song as "maybe the finest bitchy kiss-off in pop history" You keep saying you got something for me Something you call love but confess You've been a'messin' where you shouldn't 've been a'messin' And now someone else is getting all your best Well, these boots are made for walking, and that's just what they'll do One of these days these boots are gonna walk all over you You keep lyin' when you oughta be truthin' You keep losing when you oughta not bet You keep samin' when you oughta be a'changin' What's right is right but you ain't been right yet These boots are made for walking, and that's just what they'll do One of these days these boots are gonna walk all over you You keep playing where you shouldn't be playing And you keep thinking that you'll never get burnt (HAH) Well, I've just found me a brand new box of matches (YEAH) And what he knows you ain't had time to learn These boots are made for walking, and that's just what they'll do One of these days these boots are gonna walk all over you Are you ready, boots? YouTube - Mark Dinning - Teen angel (1960) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=KG_VIcoiCFA) from wikipedia "Teen Angel" is a teenage tragedy song written by Jean Dinning and her husband, Red Surrey, and performed by both Jean's brother, Mark Dinning, and Alex Murray in 1959. As a one-hit wonder for Dinning, it reached number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 (February 1960) and number thirty-seven in the UK Singles Chart (even though it was banned from being played by the BBC). Because of its rather taboo subject matter at the time, Teen Angel was one of the first songs of the '60s to attract controversy, and was banned by many radio stations for being morbid. The song is about a girl who is out on a ride with her boyfriend. Their car is stalled on a railroad track when he pulls her to safety. But when she runs back, she gets hit by a train. When they find her body, the narrator's high school class ring is in her hand, apparently the reason that she ran back. Teen angel, teen angel, teen angel, ooh, ooh That fateful night the car was stalled upon the railroad track I pulled you out and we were safe but you went running back Teen angel, can you hear me Teen angel, can you see me Are you somewhere up above And I am still your own true love What was it you were looking for that took your life that night They said they found my high school ring clutched in your fingers tight Teen angel, can you hear me Teen angel, can you see me Are you somewhere up above And I am still your own true love Just sweet sixteen, and now you're gone They've taken you away. I'll never kiss your lips again They buried you today Teen angel, can you hear me Teen angel, can you see me Are you somewhere up above And I am still your own true love Teen angel, teen angel, answer me, please gryphon 24-02-2010, 19:26 Wonderful piece of music sends shivers down my spine.......was the background music for the Ralph Fiennes and Juliette Binoche version of Wuthering heights ....still it can evoke wonderful visions of bleak countryside be it Ireland or Yorkshire...:cool: YouTube - Women of Ireland,Joanie Madden (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=gbo0-S_KeXs) Music Head http://image.allmusic.com/00/amg/pic200/drP100/P181/P18120RT05I.jpg YouTube - Stevie Wonder - I Was Made To Love Her (AB 1970) (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=W2mVEyFIshk) "I Was Made to Love Her" is a hit single recorded by American soul musician Stevie Wonder for Motown's Tamla label in 1967. The song was written by Wonder, his mother Lula Mae Hardaway, Sylvia Moy and producer Henry Cosby; and included on Wonder's 1967 album I Was Made to Love Her. Released as a single, "I Was Made to Love Her" peaked at number-two on the Billboard Pop Singles chart and spent four non-consecutive weeks at number-one on the Hot Rhythm & Blues Singles chart in the United States. The song was covered by the American band The Beach Boys on their 1967 album Wild Honey, by Jimi Hendrix (with Stevie Wonder on drums) on the BBC Sessions album, by the Jackson 5 on Boogie, and with minor changes, by American R&B singer Whitney Houston on her 1998 album My Love Is Your Love under the name "I Was Made To Love Him". Most recently, it was covered by Boyz II Men on their album Motown Hitsville USA. I was born in Lil' Rock, Had a childhood sweetheart, We were always hand in hand. I was hightop shoes and shirt tails, Suzy was in pig tails, I know I loved her even then. You know my papa disapproved it, My mama boohooed it, But I told them time and time again, "Don't you know I was made to love her, Built a world all around her" Yah! Hey, hey, hey. For the love I gave her through the years. Like a sweet magnolia tree My love blossmed tenderly, My life grew sweeter through the years. I know that my baby loves me, My baby needs me, That's why we made it through the years. I was made to love her, Worship and adore her, All through thick and thin Our love just won't end, 'Cause I love my baby, love my baby. Ah! My baby loves me, And I know I ain't going nowhere. I was knee high to a chicken When that love bug bit me, I had the fever with each passing year. Oh, even if the mountain tumbles, If this whole world crumbles, By her side I'll still be standing there. 'Cause I was made to love her, I was made to live for her, yeah! Ah, I was made to love her, Built my world all around her, Hey, hey, hey. Oo baby, I was made to please her, You know Stevie ain't gonna leave her, no, Hey, hey, hey. Oo wee baby, my baby loves me, My baby needs me, OO my baby loves me.... gryphon 26-02-2010, 09:54 Quintessential English sound from Clifford T Ward .............Clifford was an English teacher by trade and often used his literary knowledge and skills to capture this feel in a song.......as usual Clifford is using his romantic side to talk about an unobtainable love.:cool: YouTube - Clifford T Ward ... Wherewithal (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=4EDsIT1lheo) Music Head http://userserve-ak.last.fm/serve/252/427129.jpg YouTube - Lemon Pipers - Green Tambourine, Feb '68 - dub, HQ Audio (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=tyo-zux7i4I) "Green Tambourine" was the primary hit by the 1960s Ohio-based rock group The Lemon Pipers, as well as the title track to their debut-album Green Tambourine. Released towards the end of 1967, it peaked at number one on the U.S. Billboard Hot 100 for one week at the start of February, 1968 and earned the group a gold record for over a million copies sold. The record remained on the chart for three months. It was also the first U.S. number-one hit for the Buddah label. The Lemon Pipers would never repeat this success, although "Rice Is Nice" and "Jelly Jungle" did make it onto the charts in 1968. The song is the story of a street musician pleading for someone to give him money. In exchange, he would play his green tambourine. The song's instrumentation contains the title tambourine as well as an electric sitar. (Sitar was a frequent trademark of the so-called "psychedelic sound".) Another hook is the heavy, psychedelic tape echo applied to the word "play" in each chorus and at the end, fading into a drumroll ("Listen while I play play play play play play/my green tambourine"). Mrs. Miller covered the song on her 1968 album Mrs. Miller Does Her Thing. Status Quo covered the song on their 1968 debut album Picturesque Matchstickable Messages from the Status Quo. Lawrence Welk covered the song and his version placed on the Billboard Easy Listening survey. Tripping Daisy covered the song on their 1992 debut album, Bill (The Dragon Street release). At the end of the 2001 film Recess: School's Out, TJ and the gang are seen playing this song, with Mikey singing vocals (Mikey's singing voice provided by Robert Goulet). The gang and Principal Prickly are seen in the background, dressed and hairstyled in Sixties hippie clothing and/or hair. Drop your silver in my tambourine Help a poor man fill his pretty dream Give me pennies I'll take anything Now listen while I play My green tambourine Watch the jingle jangle start to chime Reflections of the music that is mine When you drop a coin you'll hear it sing Now listen while I play My green tambourine Drop a dime before I walk away Any song you want I'll gladly play Money feeds my music machine Now listen while I play My green tambourine http://userserve-ak.last.fm/serve/126b/36242001.jpg YouTube - Terry Stafford - Suspicion (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TUe7dMi2uLA) Nothing available on the song itself, but a bit on Terry. Sure was a good song, and I always preferred his version over Elvis. Terry Stafford is best-known for his lone Top 10 hit single, "Suspicion", written by Doc Pomus and Mort Shuman. Stafford's voice uncannily resembled Elvis Presley's, especially on "Suspicion," which was originally recorded by Presley on his album Pot Luck. After "Suspicion" peaked at number three early in 1964, he had another Top 40 hit with "I'll Touch a Star" which reached number 23 in the summer of that year. Following "I'll Touch a Star," none of Stafford's singles made the charts. In the late '60s, he turned to professional songwriting and he continued writing songs into the '80s. Two of his best-known songs are Buck Owens' "Big in Vegas" and George Strait's "Amarillo by Morning." Terry Stafford died in 1996. Everytime you kiss me I'm still not certain that you love me Every time you hold me I'm still not certain that you care Though you keep on saying you really, really, really love me do you speak the same words To someone else when I'm not there Suspicion torments my heart YouTube - Bobby Vee & The Strangers - Come Back When You Grow Up (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Y2C3ZTMwaek) once again, nothing for the song, but a bit on Bobby Vee from lastfm Bobby Vee (born April 30, 1943) is an American pop music singer. Born Robert Thomas Velline in Fargo, North Dakota, United States, his 1961 summer release Take Good Care Of My Baby went to No.1 on the Billboard U.S. and number 3 on the UK singles chart (according to EveryHit.com). Known primarily as a performer of Brill Building pop material, he went on to record a string of international hits in the 1960s, including Devil or Angel, Rubber Ball (1961), More Than I Can Say (1961), Run To Him (1961), The Night Has A Thousand Eyes (1963), and Come Back When You Grow Up. When Vee recorded Come Back When You Grow Up in 1967, he was joined by a band called ï¿½ï¿½The Strangersï¿½ï¿½. His first single was Suzie Baby, an original song penned by Vee which nodded towards Hollyï¿½s Peggy Sue for the Minneapolis-based Soma Records in 1959; it drew enough attention and chart action to be purchased by Liberty Records, which signed him to their label in early 1960. His followup single, a cover of Adam Faithï¿½s UK Number 1 What Do You Want? charted in the lower reaches of Billboard in early 1960; however, it was his fourth recording, a revival of The Cloversï¿½ doo-wop ballad Devil or Angel, that brought him into the big time with US buyers. His follow-up single, Rubber Ball, was the record that made him an international star. Vee was also a pioneer in the music video genre, appearing in several musical motion pictures as well as in the Scopitone series of early film-and-music jukebox recordings. He is a 1999 inductee of the North Dakota Roughrider Award. Come back when you grow up, girl You're still livin' in a paper-doll world Livin' ain't easy, lovin's twice as tough So come back, baby, when you grow up You're lookin' real good like a woman now Your mind hasn't gotten the message somehow So if you can't take it and the goin' gets rough Come back, baby, when you grow up I want you girl but your wide-eyed innocence Has really messed up my mind, yeah I'd rather you get your very first heartbreak Somewhere else along the line Come back when you grow up, girl You're still livin' in a paper-doll world Some day be a woman ready to love Come back, baby, when you grow up Come back when you grow up, girl You're still livin' in a paper-doll world Livin' ain't easy, lovin's twice as tough Come back, baby, when you grow up Come back when you grow up, girl You still got a lotta time left in the world You'll some day be a woman ready to love Come back, baby, when you grow up Come back when you grow up, girl You're still livin' in a paper-doll world Livin' ain't easy, lovin's twice as tough So come back, baby, when you grow up Music Head 28-02-2010, 10:59 I was curious what these sounded like before Zep did them. I was pleasantly surprised. Very raw with great slide work. http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=rcHfWkwXjng YouTube - The McCoys Hang On Sloopy (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=DO2Y2sGZ1dk) from wikipedia "Hang On Sloopy" is a song by the pop group The McCoys which was #1 in America in October 1965 and is the official rock song of the state of Ohio and The Ohio State University. It was written by Wes Farrell and Bert Russell and is named for singer Dorothy Sloop (1913-1998), who used the name "Sloopy" on stage. The song was originally titled "My Girl Sloopy" and was first recorded by The Vibrations in 1964 on Atlantic Records, becoming a top thirty hit. It was the title track of a live 1965 recording (released on Rhapsody in 1966) by the Ramsey Lewis Trio which earned a gold record. It has also been recorded by Arseno Rodriguez (Bang 1966), The Supremes (Motown 1966), The Kingsmen (WAND 1966), Little Caesar and the Consuls, The Yardbirds, Saving Jane, Jan & Dean (Liberty-LP "Folk'n'Roll" 1965) and Die Toten Hosen (2002). It has also been performed by Johnny Thunders and the Oddballs in a medley with "Louie Louie" and can be heard on the "Add Water and Stir" live Japan bootleg. In 1965, The Strangeloves, a rock band who purported to be from Australia, decided to make the song the follow-up to their hit single "I Want Candy", and began performing the song in concert. However, the Dave Clark Five, who they were touring with, told the Strangeloves that they were going to record their own version of the song, copying the Strangeloves' arrangement. The Strangeloves realized that the Dave Clark Five's version would probably outsell their own, but they were still enjoying success with "I Want Candy" and did not want to release a new single yet. So the trio—who were, in reality, three successful writer/producers from Brooklyn, New York— recruited a group from Union City, Indiana, Rick and the Raiders, to record the song instead. The group's name was changed to The McCoys (to avoid confusion with another popular band of the era, Paul Revere and the Raiders), and their 16-year-old leader, Rick Zehringer, became known as Rick Derringer. The group added vocals and a guitar solo to the already-completed Strangeloves backing track, and the single was released on Bang Records. It entered the chart on August 14, 1965, effectively beating the Dave Clark Five to the charts. The single went on to hit number one on October 2. Originally written and recorded with three verses, "Hang On Sloopy" was edited down to two verses for the single and original Hang On Sloopy album. The unedited three-verse version first appeared on the 1970 Bang various artists compilation Bang & Shout Super Hits (BLPS-220), then again in 1995 on the Sony Legacy compilation Hang On Sloopy: The Best Of The McCoys. The song gained an association with The Ohio State University after its marching band began playing it at football games; it first played it October 9, 1965 after a band member, John Tatgenhorst, begged the director to try playing it. After finally convincing the director, Tatgenhorst arranged the song and the band played. After the crowd reaction, the band began to play it at every game and now it is a Saturday tradition to play the song before the start of the fourth quarter of every Buckeye game. Since then "Sloopy" has been appearing on the band's CDs and as a free download on its website. The basic riff of the song became a staple of garage bands during the 1960s, being used on such songs as The Weeds' "It's Your Time" and Kit and the Outlaws' "Dude and the Sundowners" "Don't Tread on Me." The song was covered by The Beau Brummels on the band's 1966 album Beau Brummels '66. A 1973 cover version by Ramsey Lewis won the Grammy Award for Best R&B Instrumental Performance in 1974. Punk rock band, Youth In Asia (New Jersey) recorded the song on their 1984 album Pulling Out The Plug. A parody named "Hang on Snoopy" was included on Swiss rock group Patent Ochsner's 1994 album Gmï¿½es. All-girl Japanese punk band Lolita No. 18 covered the song, which is a testament to its far-reaching influences. The song was also covered by the German punk-rock band Die Toten Hosen as b-side for their 2000 single "Bayern." Also in 2000, Aaron Carter recorded his version, included as a bonus track on his second album, Aaron's Party (Come Get It). In 2006, the rock group Saving Jane recorded the song also. There is a character in the novel The Wanderers by Richard Price named "Hang On Sloopy." The song also appears in several Peanuts cartoons but the words are altered slightly to "Hang on Snoopy". The family of the late Bert Russell Berns call their music publishing company Sloopy II Music. In Mexico was covered by the Rock & Roll group Los Teen Tops (The Teen Tops) and known as "Lupita mi Amor" (Lupita, My Love). The Smashing Pumpkins also released a cover of the song in their Live Smashing Pumpkins album series. Islands (band) uses the chorus in a b-side named "Two Dogs." Hang on Sloopy, Sloopy hang on. Hang on Sloopy, Sloopy hang on. Sloopy lives in a very bad part of town. (Ooo-ooo-ooo-ooo.) And everybody, yeah, tries to put my Sloopy down. (Ooo-ooo-ooo-ooo.) Sloopy I don't care what your daddy do. (Ooo-ooo-ooo-ooo.) 'Cause you know Sloopy, girl, I'm in love with you. (Ooo-ooo-ooo-ooo.) And so I sing out, Hang on Sloopy, Sloopy hang on. Hang on Sloopy, Sloopy hang on. Sloopy wears a red dress, yeah, as old as the hills. (Ooo-ooo-ooo-ooo.) But when Sloopy wears that red dress, yeah, You know it gives me the chills, oh, oh. (Ooo-ooo-ooo-ooo.) Sloopy when I see you walkin', walkin' down the street, (Ooo-ooo-ooo-ooo.) I say, "Don't worry, Sloopy, girl, you belong to me." (Ooo-ooo-ooo-ooo.) And so I sing out, Hang on Sloopy, Sloopy hang on. Hang on Sloopy, Sloopy hang on. Yeah, (yeah), yeah, (yeah). (I'm gonna give it to 'em right now.) Sloopy let your hair down, girl, let it hang down on me, (Ooo-ooo-ooo-ooo.) Sloopy let your hair down, girl, let it hang down on me. Yeah, yeah. (Ooo-ooo-ooo-ooo.) Come on Sloopy, (come on, come on). Well, come on Sloopy, (come on, come on). Well, come on Sloopy, (come on, come on). Well, come on Sloopy, (come on, come on). Well, it feels so good, (come on, come on). You know it feels so good, (come on, come on). Well, shake it, shake it, Shake it, Sloopy, (come on, come on.) Well, shake it, shake it, Shake it, yeah, (come on, come on). Ahhhhhh! Hang on Sloopy, Sloopy hang on. Yeah, (yeah), yeah, (yeah), yeah, (yeah). Oh, hang on Sloopy, Sloopy hang on. Yeah, (yeah), yeah, (yeah), yeah, (yeah). Hang on Sloopy, Sloopy hang on. gryphon 01-03-2010, 17:58 People either love or hate Kate Bush's voice ...but she has proved so often that she is a highly intelligent song writer , who can write from a unique view point...she can capture much that eludes others .....if you have ever read the book or visited my native Yorkshire then you will now that she can express the spirit of both.........couple that with Dave Gilmour`s outstanding guitar work and you have a classic. YouTube - Kate Bush - Wuthering Heights (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WChywYrwHBY&feature=related) Music Head 01-03-2010, 19:15 People either love or hate Kate Bush's voice ...but she has proved so often that she is a highly intelligent song writer , who can write from a unique view point...she can capture much that eludes others .....if you have ever read the book or visited my native Yorkshire then you will now that she can express the spirit of both.........couple that with Dave Gilmour`s outstanding guitar work and you have a classic. YouTube - Kate Bush - Wuthering Heights (http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=WChywYrwHBY&feature=related) I agree with that	i don't know
"Which famous song from the musical South Pacific contains the lyrics ""You may see a Stranger across a crowded room"""	Karaoke Some Enchanted Evening - Video with Lyrics - South Pacific Karaoke Some Enchanted Evening Lyrics of Some Enchanted Evening Some enchanted evening you may see a stranger You may see a stranger across a crowded room And somehow you know you know even then That somewhere you'll see her again and again Some enchanted evening someone may be laugin' You may hear her laughin' across a crowded room And night after night as strange as it seems The sound of her laughter will sing in your dreams Who can explain it?	Some Enchanted Evening
Which French port was the first port of call for the ill fated ship The Titanic after it had left Southampton on April 10th 1912 ?	Project MUSE - "You've Got to Be Carefully Taught": The Politics of Race in Rodgers and Hammerstein's South Pacific Andrea Most - "You've Got to Be Carefully Taught": The Politics of Race in Rodgers and Hammerstein's South Pacific - Theatre Journal 52:3 Theatre Journal 52.3 (2000) 307-337 "You've Got to Be Carefully Taught": The Politics of Race in Rodgers and Hammerstein's South Pacific [ Figures ] In the second act of South Pacific, Lieutenant Joe Cable sings "You've Got to Be Carefully Taught," a song about racial prejudice. Rodgers and Hammerstein were counseled repeatedly in tryouts to remove the song, which was considered by many to be too controversial, too preachy, or simply inappropriate in a musical. They resisted the pressure, James Michener (author of the book on which the play was based) later recalled: "The authors replied stubbornly that this number represented why they had wanted to do this play, and that even if it meant the failure of the production, it was going to stay in." 1 During a touring production of the show in Atlanta in 1953, the song again raised hackles, this time offending some Georgia legislators who introduced a bill to outlaw entertainment having, as they stated, "an underlying philosophy inspired by Moscow." 2 State Representative David C. Jones claimed that a song justifying interracial marriage was implicitly a threat to the American way of life. Hammerstein replied that he was surprised by the idea that "anything kind and humane must necessarily originate in Moscow." 3 One of Rodgers and Hammerstein's most popular musicals, South Pacific has been acclaimed for its sensitive and courageous treatment of the subject of racial prejudice. Preaching tolerance and a universalist humanism, the musical is often celebrated for [End Page 307] representing interracial romance and apparently eradicating (on the musical stage, at least) the differences that separate ethnic and racial groups. 4 Rodgers and Hammerstein's insistence on including a message about racial tolerance in a commercial Broadway play a number of years before the civil rights movement was headline news seems curious. 5 Their earlier works, Oklahoma! (1943) and Carousel (1945), showed little evidence of interest in the issue. While the source material for the play, James Michener's Tales of the South Pacific, briefly touches on the issue of racial difference, it does not give the topic the central place accorded it in the play. There are no African Americans in the play, but, as the Georgia legislators made clear, American race relations are clearly being addressed nonetheless. Why, then, did Rodgers and Hammerstein choose to focus on racial tolerance? The question can begin to be explored by revisiting the red-baiting accusations of the Georgia legislators. South Pacific appeared in 1949 at the height of the post-World War II Red Scare. The House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC), under the leadership of Martin Dies, was in high gear, routing out perceived communist subversives. In 1948 alone, the news was full of the Alger Hiss and Gerhard Eisler espionage cases and the conviction of the Hollywood Ten for contempt. 6 In 1949, Nationalist China was "lost" to the communists, and the Soviet Union revealed that it had the atom bomb. Under the Smith Act, the Communist Party (CP) was effectively made illegal in a highly publicized trial of CP leaders in 1949, and anyone who was or [End Page 308] had been even remotely associated with the Party was in danger of being investigated by the FBI and subpoenaed by HUAC. Liberals who had been supporters of left-wing causes in the 1930s and 1940s needed to find a way to assert their anticommunist credentials without compromising their political position. One solution was to redefine the fight for racial equality as a way to fight communism. In maintaining a class of black laborers who were disaffected, segregated, and underprivileged, they argued, America was setting itself up for potential communist infiltration. By awarding equal rights to all, Americans could protect themselves from revolution from below. 7 American Jews--and, in particular, assimilated New York Jewish artists like Rodgers and Hammerstein--had a personal stake in asserting this connection between anticommunism and civil rights. 8 Jews were commonly associated with the Communist Party and other left-wing groups. Vocal antisemites, like Congressman Martin Dies and his HUAC successor John Rankin, associated the communist menace with Jews, insinuating that Jewish influence was corrupting American politics and culture. 9 Even Jews with impeccable anticommunist records were wary of Cold War demagogues and feared the connections they perceived between anticommunist demagoguery, neofascism, and antisemitism. 10 Indeed, the Georgia legislators' complaints about South Pacific, which equated antiracism and pro-communism and which implied that the New York (often a code word for Jewish) theatre was receiving its directions from Moscow, articulated the very rhetoric Jews of the day understandably feared. Centrist Jews, in order to protect their hard-won status as loyal Americans, therefore needed to dissociate Jewishness from communism and establish their own anticommunist credentials, while critiquing the methods and rhetoric of anticommunist demagogues. They redefined the terms of the debate, claiming that the best protection against communism was a reinforcement of the American values of equality and democracy. By championing civil liberties, they felt, Jews could demonstrate that they were good Americans while also protecting themselves from antisemitism. 11 [End Page 309] When explored within its particular historical context, then, South Pacific becomes more than a simple example of liberal ideology. 12 Between the lines of its apparently straightforward text and woven into its melodies lies a story of Cold War anxieties and Jewish assimilationist desires. Viewed in terms of theatrical history, South Pacific marks a moment when the musical theatre was striving to distance itself from its commercial roots and to redefine itself instead as art. As the quintessential example of what mid-century critics called "middlebrow" culture, South Pacific sits uncomfortably between the "low" culture of Tin Pan Alley and the "high" culture of legitimate theatre and opera. In this essay, I will show how a close reading of the text, music, and performance strategies of a work of popular musical theatre can illuminate not only the complexities of the form itself, but also the multiple cultural and political forces at work in the moment of its creation. This essay will focus on the problem of difference--racial, ethnic, political, and musical--as articulated in South Pacific. Rodgers and Hammerstein created characters that express the contradictions of Cold War liberalism through the theatrical modes in which they perform. The play is set on a distant island, but the concerns are distinctly American. Traditions of high and low musical theatre, of opera and jazz, of European waltzes and burlesque softshoe become the language in which difference is expressed. Examining theatrical conventions such as musical style, dance, gesture, and costume, I will first analyze the ways in which racial difference--and the subsequent call for racial tolerance--is constructed in the play through the character of Bloody Mary and the relationship of Joe and Liat. Then I will look at how Rodgers and Hammerstein use Nellie Forbush to establish the boundaries of "normalcy" for the American stage community and force that community to confront the problem of ethnic, political, and theatrical difference in the character of Emile DeBecque. [End Page 310] Based on James Michener's bestselling collection of stories, Tales of the South Pacific, South Pacific was a phenomenally successful musical, both commercially and critically. Michener's book won the Pulitzer Prize for fiction in 1947 and the musical won the Pulitzer Prize for drama in 1950 (the year after Arthur Miller won for Death of a Salesman). It ran on Broadway for five years and is among the top ten longest running plays in Broadway history. South Pacific toured nationally and internationally for about ten years. The original cast album for the show popularized the 33 1/3 RPM format for LPs, selling one million copies and holding the number one position on the charts for sixty-nine weeks. The sheet music also sold more than two million copies. Before 20th Century Fox bought the movie rights in 1956, South Pacific had already earned profits of more than five billion dollars. The film version received three Academy Award nominations and the soundtrack album was in the United States top ten for two years, with fifty-four weeks at the number one spot. 13 Mary Martin, who starred in the Broadway production, created a commercial sensation of her own when she decided to wash her hair onstage for the number "I'm Gonna Wash That Man Right Out of My Hair." Her short haircut became a fashion sensation and shampoo companies began marketing once-a-day use for their products, relying on Martin's example to sell product. 14 Throughout the late 1940s and 1950s, then, South Pacific was not only a successful play, but a perceptible presence in American popular culture. Its songs played in American livingrooms, its fashions directed American women's tastes, and its political ideology helped to shape American popular opinion. The success of South Pacific requires some investigation. The play's enshrinement in American theatrical history is based on claims about its integrated form and its controversial content. As Rodgers himself states in his memoir, in creating South Pacific he and Hammerstein decided to dispense with well-worn theatrical formulas. 15 They wanted to push the integrated musical even further than they had in Oklahoma! and Carousel and to establish it as the new standard for the musical theatre. 16 In using a "serious" book and casting an opera star as a male lead, they intended to raise expectations about the artistic possibilities of the musical form. South Pacific is also considered radical in its exposure of racial issues on the American stage. As Philip Beidler has pointed out, the legend of Rodgers and Hammerstein's use of the Broadway theatre to make a courageous statement against racial bigotry is the very [End Page 311] foundation on which the work is considered a classic. 17 Rodgers and Hammerstein use the different backgrounds of the characters as a way of promoting racial tolerance. By offering a character who has never been a racist (Emile), one who discovers he is a racist (Cable), and one who successfully overcomes her racism (Nellie), Rodgers and Hammerstein aim to show the ways in which, through education and love, prejudice can be overcome. On the surface South Pacific paints an extraordinarily bright picture of a human community that knows no barriers of race or culture. In this liberal utopian vision, we learn through education that we are all the same under the skin, with the same basic beliefs, needs, desires, and impulses. Whether we are American, Tonkinese, Polynesian, or French, the play implies that as long as we all believe in the fundamental American values of romantic love, marriage, freedom, and equality, we all deserve (and can achieve) happiness. Racial difference serves as an obstacle to be overcome for both of the central couples in the play. In the main love story, Nellie Forbush, a nurse from Little Rock, Arkansas, has fallen in love with a sophisticated and romantic older man, the French plantation owner Emile DeBecque. When she discovers that he has two children from a previous relationship with a Polynesian woman, Nellie breaks off the engagement. Frustrated by Nellie's refusal, Emile decides to take on a dangerous mission, and anxiously awaiting his return, Nellie realizes the error of her ways and decides she will marry him after all. In the final scene, Emile returns safely to find Nellie serving soup to his "Eurasian" (as they are called in the script) children. In a parallel story, Lieutenant Joe Cable, seduced by Tonkinese saleswoman Bloody Mary's descriptions of a nearby paradise island, travels to Bali Hai where he meets and falls in love with Liat, Bloody Mary's daughter. When pressed to marry, however, Joe insists that he cannot bring a Tonkinese woman home to his Mainline Philadelphia family. After witnessing the damage Nellie's racism is causing to her relationship with Emile, however, Joe realizes the folly of his own bigotry. Singing "You've Got to Be Carefully Taught," he implies that if prejudice is learned, it can also be unlearned. Joe's realization comes too late, however. He dies in combat before having the chance to reunite with Liat. Peeling back a sunny layer or two, one discovers underneath South Pacific's utopian humanism a strikingly familiar set of racial codes. South Pacific's success actually lies not in its political radicalism but rather in its presentation of familiar racial tropes under a mask of comforting liberal rhetoric. The apparently simple moral of the play--that prejudice is a result of ignorance and can be eradicated through education--is undercut by the use of racial stereotype and the complex interplay of white Americans with ethnic and racial others on the musical stage. The racial others--the "natives"--do not sing in the "proper" musical theatre style (if they sing at all), and hence they have no chance of being integrated into the American community on the island. The ethnic outsider, Emile DeBecque, is able to perform in a style that impresses the Americans, and so, although his achievement is ambiguous, he does win the hand of the American leading lady and thus some form of membership in the American [End Page 312] community. Rodgers and Hammerstein reinforce a distinction in South Pacific between racial difference, which is immutable, and ethnic difference, which is constructed. 18 In order to uncover the racial logic of the play, one needs to look closely at the theatrical conventions and formulas that drive the action. The vaudevillian approach to race and ethnicity--the use of broad stereotype--which was widely adopted in the musical comedies of the 1920s and 1930s can serve a liberating function when used to its full theatrical potential. By demonstrating the fluidity of racial and ethnic identity on the stage, chameleon-like performers in musical comedies expose the problems inherent in the biological rhetoric of race. Eddie Cantor, for example, a well-known performer of the 1920s and 1930s, adopted numerous masks in his stage and screen roles, performing as an Indian, a black minstrel, a woman, a Greek, or a stage Jew. His broad characterizations and quick changes highlighted the ways in which these identities were constructed and performed--they were a product of costume and accent, not blood. 19 But in South Pacific, the theatricality of these stereotypes is repressed. They are instead forced into a "realist" structure and twisted to serve a particular pedagogical function. When a theatrical racial type like Liat or Bloody Mary becomes the basis for a "real" character in a "realistic" play, the stereotype takes on deeply problematic and even sinister nuances. The mask of caricature, which is potentially powerful because it can be shaped, altered, and removed, becomes in South Pacific a racist device that undercuts the very message the play is supposed to promote. Forced to don a single stereotypical mask and to interact with white characters within a realist dramaturgy, the Asian characters become not self-conscious performers, but "real" examples of the limitations of racial otherness. The Asian characters in the play are one-dimensional and largely without agency. They have no chance of joining the American community on the island. For the most part, they inhabit a distinctly separate sphere from the Americans and Europeans--they live in an exotic paradise called Bali Hai. This island, figured in the song "Bali Hai" as a woman ("Here am I / Your special island! / Come to me, come to me!"), is the repository of all of the white man's fantasies about the exotic South Pacific. 20 There the natives enact strange rituals and the women, eager to sleep with any white man who visits, dance topless in the jungle. 21 Bloody Mary, who introduces Joe Cable to Bali [End Page 313] Hai, seems to emerge directly from World War II film stereotypes of grinning Chinese peasants with betel-stained teeth. 22 We never learn her real name, only the name given to her by the ridiculing sailors. The language used to describe her in the stage directions is startling in its use of cliché: She is small, yellow, with Oriental eyes. She wears black sateen trousers, and a white blouse over which is an old Marine's tunic. On her head is a peach basket hat. . . . At the end of the singing, she gives out a shrill cackle of laughter with which we shall soon learn to identify her. [282] Later in the same scene, Hammerstein writes of her "crafty smile" and her "quick scowl" (283), and in the next scene, Mary is discovered "grinning a big Oriental grin" (287). Mary's attitudes toward human life and liberty are foreign and distasteful to the Americans. She only wants to make a quick buck. To this end she sells shrunken human heads; she also sells her daughter to the "saxy Lootellan" Cable. The relationship between Joe Cable and Bloody Mary's daughter Liat is plagued by similar problems of stereotype. His initial attraction to her is perfectly clear--she is a beautiful, docile, exotic, and willing child-woman who thinks he is a god. Joe and Liat fall in love, but Joe refuses to marry her because of her race. This refusal becomes the moral linchpin of the play. How, the script asks, could Joe turn away the woman he loves simply because of the color of her skin? In doing so, the play implies, he reenacts the crime of American racism. Similarly, in recognizing the error of his ways, he becomes the example for other white Americans of the liberating possibilities of education and understanding. But a close look at Joe and Liat's relationship reveals the conflicted racial ideology at play in this musical. First, and most obviously, Liat embodies the classic stereotype of the exotic Oriental woman. Rodgers and Hammerstein were aware that they were dabbling in cliché as they worked on the script: "The more we talked about the plot, the more it dawned on us that onstage it would look like just another variation of Madama Butterfly." 23 According to Rodgers, the solution they arrived at was not to develop Liat's character further, but to add the story of Emile and Nellie. The addition of a complex and successful love story between two white people, however, only serves to heighten the formulaic and stereotypical structure of the former one. Unlike Nellie and Emile's relationship, which seems distinctly nonsexual, Joe and Liat's seems only sexual. At their first meeting, they exchange no more than three words and then: "She walks slowly toward him. The music builds in a rapturous upsurge. Cable gathers Liat in his arms. She reaches her small arms up to his neck. He lifts her off her feet. The lights fade slowly as his hand slides her blouse up her back" (323). Because South Pacific is at heart a musical comedy, this initial sexual encounter must be explained not realistically as lust but romantically as love-at-first-sight. And so Cable sings to Liat the song [End Page 314] "Younger Than Springtime," which explains his love for her. But Liat cannot answer in song because Rodgers and Hammerstein have rendered her voiceless. In doing so, they actively rejected both of their acknowledged sources for the character--Puccini's opera and Michener's story. In Madama Butterfly, Cio Cio San is not only the central character in the play (she dominates acts two and three, in which Pinkerton only makes a brief appearance), she also has the strongest voice in the opera and her arias are the most powerful in the score. In the Michener story "Fo' Dolla'" on which the Liat / Cable relationship is based (hardly a racially enlightened text, but marginally more so than the play), Liat is actually an educated woman who speaks fluent French. Cable too speaks some French and their relationship develops through both sexual contact and intimate conversation: "For a while, they sat near the cliff and talked. Strange, but all the things Cable could not write to Bryn Mawr flooded out in half-French, half-English sentences. Liat followed his thoughts with ease and soon she was telling him of Tonkin China." 24 Rodgers and Hammerstein have chosen instead to make Liat far younger and utterly uneducated. They condemn her to silence, a sentence in the musical theatre akin to death. 25 In the only other song involving Liat, "Happy Talk," Bloody Mary tries to convince Joe that he should stay on the island and marry Liat. Ironically, she offers him the opportunity for endless "happy talk" with a girl who cannot speak: Talk about a moon Looking like a lily on a lake: Talk about a bird Makin' all de music he can make. [338] To reinforce Liat's silence, the stage directions read: "Liat now performs a gentle, childish dance." Director Josh Logan turned the dance into a series of "finger gestures" which Liat uses to mime the words Bloody Mary sings. 26 The effect is that of a literal dumb show. In the self-consciously formulaic musicals of the 1920s, which dealt overtly in racial and ethnic stereotype, Liat's silence would be logical, if not unproblematic. Exotic sexual objects are not supposed to have complex thoughts. But in South Pacific, Liat is given some of the responsibilities of a "real" character; she is a potential marriage partner for the male lead. And Joe's refusal of her becomes the occasion for the central moral statement of the play. But Rodgers and Hammerstein withhold the tools--a voice, a song--Liat needs to function as a real character in the musical. This paradox [End Page 315] leads to a major plot crisis. By giving Joe a stereotype for a lover, they have set up an impossible situation for him. How, within the logic of this play, could Joe marry Liat? He would first have to prove that they are alike under the skin. In doing this, he would have to erase her exoticism. Then, after dismissing her difference, he would have to find another reason to be attracted to her. By making a racially different girl into a marriageable American girl, by giving the racial other both a voice and a blue-blooded [End Page 316] American man for a husband, Rodgers and Hammerstein would have been openly and powerfully advocating miscegenation and integration in an American society still deeply committed to racially separate spheres. 27 Instead, Liat is literally muted by her stereotypical role, and Joe is killed off as soon as he realizes the problematic nature of his own behavior. Death is the neatest and easiest solution. Rodgers and Hammerstein both supported liberal and antiracist causes and clearly never consciously intended to write a racist play. Hammerstein in particular was active in a number of groups that fought against prejudice, including the NAACP. In 1945 Hammerstein wrote a number of tracts against stereotyping for the Writers' War Board. One was entitled "How Writers Perpetuate Stereotypes"; the other was a parody of "Old Man River" entitled "Ol' Man Author." In this revision of Hammerstein's own song, he imagines a quartet of "an Irishman, a Negro, an Italian and a Jew" singing the following lyrics: I'm a Jew Wealthy Christians think that's funny! I'm a comic, scheming scamp - Comic as a Nazi Concentration Camp! We keep on tryin', we're in there flyin' We're in there fightin', we're in there dyin' But ol' man author, he keeps on writing us wrong! 28 Despite Hammerstein's passionate rejection of racial stereotypes for Jews, blacks, Irish, and Italians, he notably (and perhaps logically, considering wartime attitudes towards the Japanese) neglects to include Asians in his group. His ability to fight against racial prejudice on the one hand and unwittingly to indulge in it on the other defines the difficulties and inherent contradictions of the postwar Jewish liberal position on race. 29 Overt racism, defined by Joe Cable as the fear of people "whose eyes are oddly made and people whose skin is a different shade" (346), presents a central problem in [End Page 317] South Pacific. But even more complicated is the treatment of ethnic difference. Racially different characters like Liat and Bloody Mary exist in a marginal space, only occasionally crossing over into American territory; Emile, a white European, on the other hand, operates within the power centers of the American community--fighting with American troops, entertaining American officers, and ultimately marrying an American girl. The presence of this foreigner among the Americans provokes surprising reactions that suggest the complex anxieties inherent in Cold War culture. In the late 1940s, as tensions with the Soviet Union escalated, the notion that anyone, and particularly any foreigner, could be a communist subversive was widespread. Difference, especially difference of a vaguely European intellectual sort, therefore was perceived as increasingly menacing. Ellen Schrecker, historian of McCarthyism, describes people's responses when asked in a 1954 poll why they thought a particular individual might be a communist: "'He was not like us.' 'Would not attend church and talked against God.' 'He brought a lot of foreign-looking people into his home.' 'I just knew. But I wouldn't know how to say I knew.'" 30 The problem of difference is highlighted in one of the most popular songs in the play. Mary Martin's rendering of "I'm Gonna Wash That Man Right Out of My Hair" was celebrated for its infectious energy in all of the reviews of South Pacific's triumphant opening night in New York. Yet critics have failed to note that, despite its liberating quality, this hit tune is actually a powerful argument against difference in relationships (in a play supposedly preaching the opposite). Nurse Nellie is unsure of her new relationship with Emile, long before she knows anything of his "Eurasian" children. Shaken by the suspicions of her mother and her friends, Nellie decides to give Emile up: I'm gonna wash that man right outa my hair, I'm gonna wash that man right outa my hair, And send him on his way! (She struts around splashing soap out of her hair) Get the picture? Why this extreme reaction to an apparently charming and attentive lover? Nellie explains that Emile is simply different from her: Nellie: If the man don't understand you, If you fly on separate beams, Waste no time! Ride that man right off your range, Rub him outa the roll call And drum him outa your dreams! Nurses: Oh-ho! [311] Difference, it seems, is so problematic in the world of South Pacific that Nellie must expel Emile from all of the mythical American landscapes that he, as a foreigner, might want to inhabit: the range, the roll call, and, most important, the (American) dream. This difference is defined in terms of one's relationship to American popular culture: [End Page 318] Dinah: If you laugh at different comics Another Nurse: If you root for different teams, Nellie, Dinah, Second Nurse: Waste no time, Weep no more Show him what the door is for! [312] But the song quickly moves from pointing out difference to judging it. Difference becomes not just a relationship problem, but the marker of a "bad egg": Nellie: You can't light a fire when the wood's all wet, Girls: No! Nellie: You can't make a butterfly strong, Girls: Uh-uh! Nellie: You can't fix an egg when it ain't quite good, Nurses: And you can't fix a man when he's wrong! [312] In the play, the conflict between Emile and Nellie is supposedly rooted in Nellie's childhood prejudices: Nellie cannot countenance Emile's previous interracial relationship. But this song occurs before she even knows about Emile's Polynesian lover. Before any real conflict arises, difference itself is identified as a potential problem. Bouncing along with Nellie as she happily tosses her man out with the soap lather, we too are encouraged to wonder if there isn't actually something wrong with Emile and the type of difference he represents. Emile is, after all, an outsider. He is not only wealthy, middle-aged, and foreign, but also a political refugee. He left France, as he tells Nellie, because he accidentally killed a petty demagogue (who had gained power in the town through unscrupulous means). In the Michener story, Emile directly articulates his political position as antifascist, opposed to the Vichy government of Petain. In order to write about difference, Rodgers and Hammerstein first had to set up a familiar American space into which difference would intrude. In their previous two shows, Oklahoma! and Carousel, the Americanness of the setting was understood. An Oklahoma farm and a small New England town, after all, are clearly American landscapes with obvious insiders and outsiders. But in choosing an exotic South Pacific island, they transformed a clearly non-American space into a normative American one. South Pacific presents a roster of familiar American theatrical types--Nellie, the optimistic and sparkling leading lady; Joe Cable, the romantic hero; Luther Billis, the (sanitized) ethnic comic; the beautiful nurses in bathing suits; and the manly sailors who want to sleep with them. These characters are united by their comfort in sharing a stage and in their suspicion of outsiders. They consistently ostracize Emile, who emerges as a palpable threat. Such staging illustrates how Rodgers and Hammerstein used the theatre itself to establish American hegemony. By importing familiar conventions of the Broadway musical--both those which signaled the older vaudevillian tradition and those recently created by Rodgers and Hammerstein themselves--into an exotic space, they quickly and efficiently asserted the Americanness of the landscape by creating a familiar community of American "types." These Americans perform in one way, Emile in another. For example, Nellie Forbush embodies the gutsy optimism of the new Broadway musical ushered in by Oklahoma! which was already familiar to audiences by 1948 (by way of Carousel, Kiss Me, Kate, and Annie Get Your Gun). In the first scene of the play, [End Page 319] Nellie, played by Mary Martin, is immediately established as a leading lady of the Broadway stage. South Pacific was, in fact, the first show Rodgers and Hammerstein wrote as a star vehicle. Knowing that Mary Martin would play the part of Nellie Forbush, they were careful to construct a character which would allow her talents to [End Page 320] shine (they gave her seven songs, four of them solos). Unlike Emile, whose role in the musical is murky, new, mysterious, and in need of explanation far into the first act, Nellie immediately asserts the simplicity of her persona in the opening scene, claiming her star status and exercising her powers as the symbol of Broadway itself. As expected, she almost immediately stands up, introduces herself to Emile and the audience, and belts out a song: Nellie: You know what they call me? Knucklehead Nellie. I suppose I am, but I can't help it. (She sings) When the sky is a bright canary yellow I forget every cloud I've ever seen-- So they call me a cockeyed optimist, Immature and incurably green! [276] Nellie establishes herself as the embodiment of American youth, optimism, energy, and power, the life force of the island. Unlike the sexy urban sophisticates of Rodgers and Hart musicals like Pal Joey (or of Irving Berlin, Kurt Weill, and Cole Porter musicals of the same era), Nellie is straightforward, anti-intellectual and, ironically, antitheatrical. She refuses to put on an act; she can only say (or sing) what is in her heart: I could say life is just a bowl of jello And appear more intelligent and smart But I'm stuck With a thing called hope, And I can't get it out of my heart . . . Not this heart! [276] Nellie the American is open, friendly, and has (she thinks) nothing to hide. She offers herself up to the audience without reservation. As she finishes her song, she asks, "Want to know anything else about me?" She demands that the audience identify with her, a familiar, recognizable all-American girl next door. Her assertive normalcy serves to throw Emile's difference further into relief. If Nellie represents America by celebrating the new Broadway of Rodgers and Hammerstein, Luther Billis is Rodgers and Hammerstein's nod to their vaudevillian past. Luther bears a striking resemblance to the Jewish (or ethnic) comics who populated earlier musicals such as Whoopee (Henry Williams), Girl Crazy (Gieber Goldfarb), and Oklahoma! (Ali Hakim). While all traces of ethnic particularity are carefully erased from Luther's character, his performance style clearly connects him with his ethnic vaudevillian predecessors. He serves as comic relief in an otherwise serious play. He performs in a broad, bawdy musical style and always has a chorus of sailors and nurses to back him up. Perhaps most telling is his appearance in the number, "Honey Bun." For the Thanksgiving show, Nellie and Luther appear together in the finale. Nellie, dressed in an oversize sailor suit, sings: A hundred and one Get a load of Honey Bun tonight! [341] [End Page 321] Luther then enters "dressed as a South Sea siren," complete with wig, false eyelashes, and a coconut shell bra. Luther's performance clearly evokes the Jewish male in drag numbers popular in earlier musicals (such as Whoopee and Girl Crazy). And with the appearance of the Milton Berle show on television in the same year as South Pacific, [End Page 322] Luther seems to be making a direct reference to Berle's over-the-top drag routines. Like his predecessors, Luther speaks with the grammar of a tough New Yorker: whatever his ethnicity, he is clearly from "New Yawk." When Lieutenant Cable carefully mentions that he went to college at "a place in New Jersey," Luther, acknowledging both his familiarity with the New York area and his working-class assumptions, responds, "Where? Rutgers?" (296). Perhaps most important, Luther serves the same function as the earlier Jewish comics in the musical plot. 31 He is a staunch ally of the leading lady. Luther does Nellie's laundry for her, prepares her shower, and generally insures that she is cared for. When Emile wants to give Nellie some flowers before the Thanksgiving show, Luther intervenes. In this case, he intervenes not to insure that Nellie and Emile get together but rather to protect her from a suspicious outsider. The Americans close ranks around Nellie, solidifying their community against outside influences. Knowing that Nellie is trying to forget Emile, Luther warns him not to bother her during the show: Emile: Pardon, can you tell me where I can find Miss Forbush? Billis: (Shrewdly sensing trouble and determined to protect Nellie) She's on stage now. She's the Emcee. She can't talk to nobody right now. Do you want me to take the flowers in to her? Emile: No. I would prefer to give them to her myself. Billis: Are you Mister de Becque? Emile: Yes. Billis: Look, Mister de Becque. Do me a favor, will you? Don't try and see her tonight. Emile: Why? Billis: We got her in a great mood tonight and I don't want anything to upset her again. [335] Luther delivers Emile's flowers to Nellie but at first does not tell her who sent them. When he finally decides to show her the card, he assumes she will be upset and offers to help out: Billis: (Shoving a card at Nellie) Here's the card that came with them. (She reads the card, then turns away--deeply affected.) Are you all right, Miss Forbush? (She nods her head) I'll be waiting around the area here in case you need me. Just--just sing out. [345] Luther wants to protect Nellie and he offers to do so in a manner consistent with his character: he asks her to "just sing out." Luther invokes the familiar trope of American musicals in which community is formed by singing together, but in this case he does so in order to exclude, not include. Joe Cable offers us another type of American, in another familiar theatrical role--the young romantic hero. He, not Emile, is the natural match for Nellie, and his attention to her further solidifies the American community while pushing Emile to the outside. The script is loaded with references to a possible attraction between Nellie and Joe. When they first meet in the Island Commander's office, all of the men in the room rush to show Nellie to her seat. The script makes a point of noting that Cable succeeds: [End Page 323] Brackett: Sit down, Miss Forbush. (The three men rush to help her sit. Cable gets there first. Nellie sits.) The officers interrogate Nellie about Emile, but to no avail. Nellie leaves and Commander Harbison muses: "I'm afraid we aren't going to get much out of her. She's obviously in love with him." Cable replies (voicing concerns undoubtedly shared by members of the audience as well), "That's hard to believe, sir. They tell me he's a middle-aged man" (306). In the next scene, Cable intercepts Nellie reading a letter from her mother. He flirts with her: (Cable enters and watches Nellie for a moment. Nellie is now standing still, reading a part of her letter that evokes an occasional groan of irritation from her. Cable grins at her.) Cable: Letter from home? (Nellie looks up, startled by his voice, then grins back at him) Nellie: Yes. Do you get letters from your mother, telling you that everything you do is wrong? Cable: No. My mother thinks everything I do is right . . . . Of course, I don't tell her everything I do. [308] Their intimacy is quickly established. Nellie accepts Cable's joking--they speak a similar language and the scene bounces along easily. Nellie complains to Joe: Nellie: My mother's so prejudiced. Cable: Against Frenchmen? Nellie: (She smiles to acknowledge that she gets the allusion then pursues her anti-maternal tirade) Against anyone outside of Little Rock. She makes a big thing out of two people having different backgrounds. Cable: (Rather hopefully) Ages? Nellie: Oh, no. Mother says older men are better for girls than younger men. Cable: . . . This has been a discouraging day for me. [308] The scene sets up an expectation that Cable is interested in Nellie. His admission of discouragement clearly signals to Nellie that he was hoping he might have a chance with her. Nellie then indignantly asks Joe what he thinks of her mother's advice: Nellie: Do you agree with Mother about people having things in common? For instance, if the man likes symphony music and the girl likes Dinah Shore--and he reads Marcel Proust and she doesn't read anything . . . Well, what do you think? Do you think Mother's right? Cable: Well, she might be. [308] As they part, Cable throws in another jab at Emile: "Listen, you don't know so much about that guy. You better read that letter over two or three times" (308). She apparently decides to take his advice. The next time we see Nellie, she is determined to "Wash That Man Right Out of [Her] Hair." But what makes Emile so different? Why are all of the Americans in the cast, including Nellie, suspicious of him? His foreignness is twofold: he is of different national and ethnic background, and he performs in a different idiom. He is French, not American--he speaks with an accent and has no grasp of American culture. He [End Page 324] refers to Nellie's home town as "Small Rock," a place in the "stick." As Nellie finishes singing "I'm Gonna Wash That Man," Emile appears and asks naively, "that song . . . is it a new American song?" Emile is clearly concerned that Nellie might be singing about him, but instead of directly confronting her, he continues his comments on American music: "It is strange with your American songs. In all of them one is either desirous to get rid of one's lover, or one weeps for a man one cannot have" (313). His history is also murky: he left home under a cloud, and he has, by his own admission, "lived as he could" since he came to the island. He is also an intellectual (usually a suspect category in musicals). He speaks of love "philosophically" (at least according to the stage directions), and he reads Marcel Proust and Anatole France instead of listening to Dinah Shore, as Nellie does. He also seems to have emerged not from the world of musical comedy but from opera. He sings "high" culture music while Nellie and the others sing low. He is middle-aged, which is acceptable for an opera singer; but in a musical world of youth, energy, and freshness, Emile's maturity is out of place. Who is Emile in the American landscape of the 1940s? A political fugitive, a radical antifascist, an intellectual with a high-culture background--in fact, Emile strongly evokes the European (mostly German) intellectuals who fled to America in the 1930s and 1940s to escape Nazi persecution. Many of these refugees were connected with the worlds of theatre, film, music, and literature, and most were Jews. 32 Emile is a type with whom Rodgers and Hammerstein would have been deeply familiar. In Hollywood, Ernst Lubitsch and the composer Arnold Schoenberg were well-known, while closer to home, Kurt Weill was an important presence in the Broadway theatre. Weill, who fled Germany in 1935, wrote One Touch of Venus, which starred Mary Martin. And the same year that Rodgers and Hammerstein were mounting South Pacific, Weill was collaborating with Maxwell Anderson on his own show on race issues, Lost in the Stars, to be directed by Rouben Mamoulian, who also directed the original production of Oklahoma! Rodgers and Hammerstein's portrayal of Emile suggests deep ambivalence about such European refugees. They seem both in awe of and threatened by his presence in their musical; they appear simultaneously to admire and to identify with his European intellectual pedigree while they distance themselves from his politically and racially murky past. As an outsider, he is not only an object of suspicion, he also has the distance necessary to offer sage criticism of American culture. Rodgers and Hammerstein make him the voice of noble democratic rhetoric. Similarly, they give him "high" music to sing but then deny him a leading lady who can sing with him. They give him an apparent advantage by making him "cultured" and Nellie a "hick," but since musicals are famously anti-elitist, this too raises concerns. Rodgers and Hammerstein break form by creating a middle-aged love interest, although they also set up the younger and more musically compatible Joe Cable as his competition. In short, Emile becomes the site of competing anxieties about the racial, cultural, and political world [End Page 325] of the late 1940s. His foreign, intellectual, and antifascist background immediately raises a red flag. Certainly many of the German Jewish emigrés had socialist, if not communist, leanings and most were viewed as potential communists by the more radical red-baiters. Ellen Schrecker points to Gerhard Eisler, one of the most notorious German Jewish emigrés and the subject of the 1951 Cold War film I Was a Communist for the FBI, as the "quintessential embodiment of the specter of international Communism": a Jew, a foreigner, an intellectual with "fancy ideas," and "a man of brilliance and charm." 33 Emile certainly shares most of Eisler's traits, but while Eisler was vilified, Emile becomes a hero. A closer look at Rodgers and Hammerstein's own position in relation to the political and cultural forces of the day helps to untangle Emile's complicated role. The investigation of Hollywood and the subsequent blacklist sent a shiver down the spines of artists working in theatre, television, and film, particularly Jewish artists who may have marched in a leftist rally, signed a petition, or performed in a benefit in the 1930s, any of which activities would now be viewed askance by the committee. Neither Rodgers nor Hammerstein had records that HUAC would have viewed as impeccable, yet both saw themselves as staunch patriots and active defenders of the American creed. While Hammerstein supported the Welcome House program which facilitated adoptions of mixed-race children fathered by American servicemen in Asia and which clearly aided the implementation of American Cold War ideology in Asia, he was also affiliated with countless other organizations, many supporting either left-leaning or Jewish causes. 34 Hammerstein was an active member of the Hollywood Anti-Nazi League in the 1930s; a fundraiser for Jewish Federation (he was the chair of the Legitimate Theatre Division of New York Federation); a vice-president of the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP); and a fundraiser for the National Conference of Christians and Jews. 35 Rodgers too chaired a United Jewish Appeal fundraiser, appeared on a pro-Zionist "Night of Stars" program, and raised funds for Federation. 36 He was a staunch supporter of Roosevelt and the New Deal. 37 [End Page 326] Both were ardent and outspoken patriots--how could the creators of Oklahoma! be judged otherwise?--yet through their affiliations, they were connected with a liberal social agenda which could raise suspicions among those who purported to expose communists "in the interest of national security." Emile, a foreigner living among Americans, also provokes the suspicions of those charged with protecting America's sovereignty. The military officers Brackett and Harbison want to know not what he has done, but what he believes. They want to determine not if he is a criminal but if he adheres to the American creed. Early in the first act, Commander Harbison and Captain Brackett call Nellie into their office to ask her to act as an informer: Harbison: . . . Find out as much as you can about him, his background, his opinions, and why he killed this man in France. Nellie: In other words, you want me to spy on him. Brackett: Well, I'm afraid it is something like that. Nellie: Why? . . . Do you suspect him of anything? Brackett: No it's just that we don't know very much about him and he's--er . . . Will you help us, Miss Forbush? [305] Harbison and Brackett want to know Emile's political philosophy in order to determine if he can be trusted on a secret mission. This careful investigation of a foreigner seems logical--this is, after all, war. But in 1949, when the play was produced, this type of investigation would have also reminded audiences of the highly publicized HUAC hearings. Nellie dutifully proceeds to cross-examine him at their next meeting: Emile: You know very little about me. Nellie: That's right! (Getting down to business) Would you sit down? (Emile sits. Nellie paces like a cross-examiner) Do you think about politics much . . . And if so what do you think about politics? Emile: Do you mean my political philosophy? Nellie: I think that's what I mean. [314] Rodgers and Hammerstein handle this scene with a sort of anxious parody. They inject humor into a tense moment by having Nellie self-consciously imitate the stance of a HUAC cross-examiner. And her naivete--she is not even sure what answers she is looking for--points to the absurdity of the whole project. At the same time, clearly eager to create an indisputably anticommunist play, they also take the investigation of Emile partially seriously. Brackett and Harbison are not villains--they are friendly characters who are sincerely concerned with Nellie's interests and the interests of the American people. The play implies that their suspicions are not unfounded. Emile's difference is a problem that must be resolved. Foreigners, especially those with strident antifascist backgrounds (Emile left France because he killed a fascist demagogue), might after all be communists. Rodgers and Hammerstein's parody of an investigation subtly reveals the real problem many Jewish liberals had with HUAC--the goal to protect America from communism was acceptable; the methods were not. It was difficult for liberals like Rodgers and Hammerstein to stick to a strict anticommunist position in the face of the [End Page 327] flagrant violation of civil liberties practiced by the House committee. Many assimilated Jews worried that the "rooting out" of communist subversives was tinged with antisemitism. They feared that they would be suspected simply because they were Jewish. Most also viewed the leaders of the anticommunist purges with suspicion--convinced that under their patriotic rhetoric lurked populist demagoguery, always bad for the Jews. In the face of competing pressures, Jewish groups often disagreed about how best to combat this potential antisemitic threat. Some urged group opposition to HUAC and its activities; others insisted it was not a Jewish issue at all. In a 1948 letter to actress Florence Eldridge (wife of Frederic March), Rodgers responds to her accusations of disloyalty to the tribe. Eldridge was apparently angry with Rodgers for not standing up for the Hollywood Ten and implied to him that as a Jew he should support them and fight HUAC. Rodgers insists that his Jewishness is utterly disconnected from his politics: I said I was sick of this kind of anti-semitism, and I am. You are attempting to put people like us in an intellectual ghetto when you tell us we must think and act your way because we are Jews. I insist on acting and thinking like an American primarily, and a Jew if I want to. . . . Actually, the tone of your attitude was set some time ago when you told Dorothy that she would be a fascist if she weren't a Jew. That stinks, dear. 38 Rodgers's argument that he is an American first and a Jew when he chooses to be is a familiar one. The fact that he felt a need to make it so forcefully, even to a personal acquaintance, indicates that he, like many others, felt threatened that his Jewishness would be conflated with communist sympathies. Rodgers refuses the connection between Jewishness and communism and labels it a form of antisemitism. At the same time, in his memoir, Rodgers indicates his contempt for McCarthy and condemns his tactics. He claims that while he initially supported Eisenhower (a personal friend) for president, he switched his allegiance to Adlai Stevenson when Eisenhower "failed to take a stand against the contemptible behavior of Senator Joseph McCarthy." 39 This conflict between supporting moderate anticommunism and decrying the type of rabid anticommunist witch-hunts provoked by Dies, Rankin, and McCarthy was typical of the response of many assimilated Jews of the time. 40 In South Pacific, Rodgers and Hammerstein dramatize the strategy the Jewish establishment adopted to resolve this conflict. Jewish organizations like the Anti-Defamation League, the American Jewish Congress, and the American Jewish Committee adopted a careful anticommunism that stressed a commitment to liberal social causes. They insisted that racial tolerance, equal rights, and the protection of civil liberties represented the highest values of American democracy and would serve as [End Page 328] the best defense against communist influences. Jewish organizations therefore found a way to express their patriotism and anticommunism while simultaneously protecting the interests of minorities like themselves. 41 In South Pacific, likewise, racial tolerance is presented as the true expression of Americanness and the best way to teach democracy and avoid communist infiltration both at home and abroad. 42 According to this lesson, Emile, the suspected subversive, therefore actually turns out to be the best American of all because he not only believes in American democratic ideals, but also practices them more genuinely than the Americans do. Emile responds to Nellie's inquiries by asserting his belief in the fundamental American ideals of freedom and equality: Emile: Well, to begin with, I believe in the free life--in freedom for everyone. Nellie: (Eagerly) Like in the Declaration of Independence? Emile: C'est ça. All men are created equal, isn't it? Nellie: Emile! You really believe that? Emile: Yes. Nellie: (With great relief) Well, thank goodness! [314] In the second act of the play, Emile becomes the sounding board for American racial angst. Nellie, distraught over Emile's former alliance with a Polynesian woman, breaks off the engagement: Nellie: It means that I can't marry you. Do you understand? I can't marry you. Emile: Nellie--Because of my children? Nellie: Not because of your children. They're sweet. Emile: It is their Polynesian mother then--their mother and I. Nellie: . . . Yes. I can't help it. It isn't as if I could give you a good reason. There is no reason. This is emotional. This is something that is born in me. [346] Joe Cable, who has just refused to marry Liat on the same grounds, looks on. Nellie turns to him for support, but to no avail: Emile: (Shouting the words in bitter protest) It is not. I do not believe this is born in you. Nellie: Then why do I feel the way I do? All I know is that I can't help it. I can't help it! Explain how we feel, Joe-- (Joe gives her no help. She runs to the door of the dressing shack.) [346] Emile then turns to Joe for explanation. He cannot understand this thing called American racism. He most emphatically does not believe it is biological. He prods Joe to respond, and Joe has an epiphany: Emile: What makes her talk like that? Why do you have this feeling, you and she? I do not believe it is born in you. I do not believe it. Cable: It's not born in you! It happens after you're born . . . (Cable sings the following words as if figuring this whole question out for the first time) You've got to be taught to hate and fear, [End Page 329] You've got to be taught from year to year, It's got to be drummed in your dear little ear-- You've got to be carefully taught! [346] Joe, the American, explains Nellie's racism to Emile, the European, during World War II--as if Emile had never encountered racism in Europe. In the face of Nazi concentration camps and death marches, this scene seems absurd, even offensive. But when understood in terms of American Jewish postwar concerns, the scene makes sense. Emile, an outsider both in France and in this American community, can grasp the problems of racism more clearly than those who live within the system. In questioning Joe about his beliefs, he helps him to work through his irrational racist behaviors and to recognize that if racism must be learned, it can also be unlearned. Like the Jews working for civil rights, Emile serves as a conscience for the American community. Because, like American Jews, he has been treated as an object of suspicion and has suffered because of racism, he understands the dangers of demagoguery and is committed to fighting for equal rights for all. Yet Emile's horror at American racism is, like Rodgers and Hammerstein's, laden with contradictions. He himself lives a lifestyle that is dependent upon racial [End Page 330] inequality. He owns a plantation--a word which in itself evokes an economy based on racial oppression--using underpaid native labor. Early in the play, Captain Brackett forbids Bloody Mary to employ natives to make souvenir grass skirts because she pays them so much that they no longer want to work for the low wages the French planters are willing to offer. Bloody Mary succinctly replies, "French planters stingy bastards!" (297). Emile employs only natives as servants. He hires a native couple to perform an exotic dance at his party, but all of the invited guests are implied to be white (327). When Emile reveals to Nellie that he lived with a Polynesian woman, he supports his choice: "I want you to know I have no apologies." But then he continues by adding an apology anyway: "I came here as a young man. I lived as I could" (331). Just as a good liberal like Hammerstein can write songs against stereotype and not see the ways in which his own work perpetuates the very problems he laments, so Emile props up the system he claims to abhor. Unlike the Jewish immigrant of the early twentieth century, who was easy to parody because he was ignorant and penniless, immigrants (or emigrés, as they were more often called) like Emile had many qualities admired by upwardly mobile second- and third-generation American Jews. They were educated, sophisticated, and often wealthy as well. Emile, the European, is Nellie the American's tutor in the art of social graces. With him she drinks her first brandy, tastes her first wild chicken. Nellie puts three lumps of sugar in her espresso; only after she leaves does Emile chuckle at her childishness. On the other hand, Nellie offers Emile a refuge from his world-weariness. Emile sings: "This is what I need / This is what I've longed for / Someone young and smiling / climbing up my hill!" (277). The relationship evokes an obvious cliché: pretty girl wants rich sugar daddy to keep her in style; older man wants young girl to make him feel youthful. 43 But the sexual quid pro quo implied in such a relationship is strangely missing here. Nellie is apparently uninterested in money and Emile proposes marriage without so much as a kiss or even an arm around Nellie's shoulder. As he sings the last line of "Some Enchanted Evening" ("never let her go!"), he notably does not even touch her. Where a kiss might be expected, the stage directions read, "There follow several seconds of silence. Neither moves." (279). Their apparent passion for one another is hard to glean from either the dialogue or the stage directions. Emile offers a restrained, almost depressing, marriage proposal: "I am older than you. If we have children, when I die they will be growing up. You could afford to take them back to America--if you like. Think about it." As Nellie prepares to go, she "holds out her hand to Emile." Departing, she "turns suddenly and walks off very quickly" (280). Their love seems to be based on little besides a mutual affection for lovely landscapes and a vague sense of "enthusiasm." When Nellie tries to articulate why the two of them should be together, she seems to be woefully stretching: Nellie: Emile, you know, my mother says we have nothing in common. But she's wrong. We have something very important in common . . . Emile: Yes, we're both in love. Nellie: Yes, but more than that. We're--we're the same kind of people fundamentally-- [End Page 331] you and me. We appreciate things! We get enthusiastic about things. It's really quite exciting when two people are like that. We're not blasé. [329] It is hardly an argument for a marriage. The connection between Emile and Nellie is hard to render in romantic terms because it is neither sexual nor financial--it is dramaturgical. Nellie and Emile offer two perspectives on directions the Rodgers and Hammerstein musical might take--populist or elitist. The aging European opera form needs new life and the American musical needs legitimacy. 44 Unlike the other songs in the play, Emile's numbers require an operatically trained voice. Rodgers and Hammerstein were clearly enamored of Ezio Pinza's operatic pedigree and they wrote songs for him to sing as Emile that allowed him to display considerable virtuosity ("Some Enchanted Evening" and "This Nearly Was Mine"). By turning Emile into an opera singer, Rodgers and Hammerstein aimed to move South Pacific (and their own careers) out of the musical comedy sphere and into the world of high art. 45 Yet at the same time, they were deeply defensive about the status of popular music in American culture. And for good reason: beginning in the 1930s, the commercial musical theatre was scrambling for a place in the American cultural landscape. Hollywood quickly eclipsed Broadway as the premier producer for commercially successful musical comedy. Nonprofit organizations like the Group Theater and the Federal Theatre, on the other hand, prided themselves on creating socially conscious and artistically sophisticated works of theatre that were not subject to the demands of the marketplace. At the same time, a growing body of (largely Jewish) critics and intellectuals began to dissect and critique the concept of mass culture and to associate the commercial Broadway musical with what Clement Greenberg labeled "kitsch." 46 Clearly aware that the Broadway musical, while still potentially profitable, was no longer mass entertainment, Rodgers and Hammerstein actively worked to distance it from the commercialism which tainted other forms of mass culture and to establish it instead as an indigenous American art form which was popular because of its democratic appeal. Oklahoma!, for example, which they thought of as a "folk" musical, was originally produced by the Theatre Guild, a nonprofit organization that had also presented Porgy and Bess. Refugees like Emile brought with them an appreciation of high culture and often a scornful disdain for the very musical tradition in which Rodgers and Hammerstein were trained. In the 1940s, popular composers like Rodgers and Hammerstein were subjected to a mounting attack from European and American intellectuals who defined musicals as middlebrow culture. 47 [End Page 332] As an outsider, Emile is not only alone politically, he is also alone musically. Ironically, the biggest problem with Nellie and Emile's relationship is their incompatible performance styles. Their love is never quite believable because they almost never sing together. 48 Because Martin was concerned about singing with the operatically trained Pinza, Rodgers assured her they would not have to compete vocally. Rodgers writes of Martin's reaction to their offer: "She'd played opposite musical-comedy juveniles and leading men but, my gosh, this was Don Giovanni himself! How could we possibly expect her to sing on the same stage with Ezio Pinza? Because there was some logic in what she said, I assured her that we'd write the score without a single duet for her." 49 And so despite the fact that they share the stage, Martin stars in one musical, the South Pacific of "Cockeyed Optimist," "I'm Gonna Wash That Man," and "Honey Bun," and Pinza in another, that of "Some Enchanted Evening" and "This Nearly Was Mine." Further emphasizing the distance between Emile and Nellie is the fact that Nellie performs easily with other characters in the play. An important feature of the musical theatre is that it establishes a metaphorical community onstage by bringing together characters in song and dance. Those who sing and dance together belong together. 50 Nellie and Joe, for example, do sing together in the film and in the original score of the show. The song "My Girl Back Home" was performed on the road, cut from the original New York production, and reinstated for the film and for a new digitally remastered original cast album. In this surprisingly bouncy number, Nellie and Joe lament their failed relationships and ponder how far away their American homes seem from "coconut palms and banyan trees and coral sands and Tonkinese." The ease with which their voices and energies mesh in this short but appealing number raises further questions about Nellie's choice of Emile. Nellie also performs easily and playfully with the chorus of nurses, in both "Wash That Man" and "Wonderful Guy" and with Luther Billis in "Honey Bun." 51 The musical structure of the play thus sets up a community of Americans--Nellie, Joe, Luther, the sailors and nurses--who sing together. Those who sing alone, like Emile, are implicitly excluded from that stage community. The dynamics of Emile's and Nellie's musical interaction is instructive. For the most part, Emile sings romantic arias and Nellie sings upbeat show tunes. But Emile has a powerful and complicated effect on Nellie's singing style. After Nellie rejects Emile with the most American music in the show, "I'm Gonna Wash That Man," Emile appears and, criticizing American music, re-seduces Nellie with an ardent assertion of [End Page 333] his belief in individual freedom, capped by a description of his escape from France. He then asks her to marry him. Nellie expresses her assent by singing a lead-in to a reprise of Emile's song, "Some Enchanted Evening." Emile picks up the verse and takes over the song, with Nellie offering a couple of lines as counterpoint: Nellie: I've known you a few short weeks and yet Somehow you've made my heart forget All other men I have ever met But you . . . but you . . . You may see a stranger, You may see a stranger Across a crowded room, That somewhere you'll see her Again and again . . . Nellie: Who can explain it? Who can tell you why? [316] They never actually sing simultaneously, but a musical dynamic has been established. From the moment Emile asks Nellie to marry him, Emile's musical style will dominate. And, after this moment, whenever they share the stage, Nellie will defer to Emile musically. Nellie offers the final line of the song: Nellie: Once you have found him Never let him go. But Emile takes the recapitulation, allowing him the final triumphant notes: Emile: Once you have found her Never let her go. [316] After Emile exits, Nellie demonstrates the marvelous new musical synthesis she has discovered in falling in love with him. Adopting the European-influenced waltz meter, but belting the song in true Broadway form, she breaks into the triumphant, rousing "I'm in Love With a Wonderful Guy." "Wonderful Guy" celebrates the powerful theatrical possibilities of a union of the older European and younger American lovers (and musical styles). In their next scene together, Emile and Nellie play with this newfound creativity, reviewing all of the songs they have sung in the show so far and even tentatively testing the boundaries of singing together. But it is clear that in this marriage, whether they sing American or European style, it is Emile who will have the last word. 52 They waltz to "I'm in Love With a Wonderful Guy," and Nellie begins a reprise of her final triumphant line: "If you'll excuse an expression I use, I'm in love, I'm in love, I'm in love--." Emile then breaks in and finishes the line for her: "I'm in love, I'm in love and the girl that I love-- [End Page 334] She thinks I'm a wonderful guy!" (328). Nellie then sings two lines from "Twin Soliloquies." Emile responds with four lines of his own. The orchestra, apparently eager to hear more from Nellie, begins to play "A Cockeyed Optimist" under their dialogue. Nellie picks up the cue and Emile joins in: Nellie: I hear the human race Is falling on its face . . . Emile: And hasn't very far to go! Nellie: But every whippoorwill Is selling me a bill And telling me it just ain't so. [329] Conceding just one moment of harmony, the two of them sing together, "'Sweet Adeline' fashion," in one of the few self-consciously theatrical moments in the play. The theatricality and brief instance of simultaneous singing makes their union momentarily believable. But the moment is short-lived. Emile steps over the line. He makes fun of Nellie, imitating her singing "I'm Going to Wash That Man." Nellie loves it, but Emile's implicit criticism of Nellie's type of music reminds the audience that he is different, that he does not understand what he calls "your American songs," and his rendering of the song in a heavy accent punctuates his difference further. His imitation of her song sets up the revelation of even greater difference: as he finishes the song, Ngana and Jerome, the Polynesian children, enter. Emile explains that they are his. Nellie is flustered, then horrified. She runs off into the night as Emile slips back into his own musical mode, finishing the scene with the final verse of "Some Enchanted Evening." When we next see Nellie in "Honey Bun," she too has reverted to her own musical style, a thirty-two-bar Tin Pan Alley tune. The representation of difference here is complicated: Emile's critique of Nellie's popular music is undemocratic and elitist; in this case his difference sets him apart from the community. But his acceptance of his mixed-race children demonstrates his affinity for the ideals of American democracy, a difference that can be perceived as moral leadership. Thus although he is an outsider who cannot understand American music--like the German Jewish intellectuals whom he evokes--he is also an exemplary American--like the liberal Jewish anticommunists fighting for civil rights. After "Honey Bun," Nellie does not sing again for seven scenes. In silence she thinks, she deliberates, and she decides to marry Emile after all. She voices her decision in his terms and then barely sings again. Standing alone, looking over the sea, she prays for Emile to return safely and sings a verse from "Some Enchanted Evening." Even though Emile is absent she still does not sing his final line: Some enchanted evening When you find your true love, When you feel him call you Across a crowded room-- Then fly to his side, And make him your own, Or all through your life you may dream all alone . . . (Music continues. She speaks) (. . . the last line of the refrain is played . . .) [359] [End Page 335] Nellie lets the orchestra take his line, indicating that she understands her new subservient position in the relationship. In the last scene of the play, Emile's two children teach Nellie a French children's song while they await their father's return. She at first refuses to sing, claiming that her accent is no good. (Nellie can belt out "Wonderful Guy" and "Honey Bun," dress in drag, and sing like a man, but a French children's song is apparently too difficult for her.) But they insist. Nellie finally agrees, as long as they will help her. The three sing: [End Page 336] Nellie, Ngana, and Jerome: Dites moi Pourquoi (Nellie is stuck. The children sing the next line without her) La vie est belle. Nellie: (Repeating, quickly, to catch up to them) La vie est belle . . . Dites moi (She turns to the children) Pourquoi what? [365] While they are singing, Emile appears in the background. He hears Nellie ask and responds, singing, "La vie est gai!" Emile and the children finish the song, the children drink their soup, and Emile clasps Nellie's hand. The curtain descends. The group of four is transformed into a nuclear family, differences are overcome, and problems are resolved. Or are they? The scene contains a strange stage direction that throws the neat resolution open to question. After Emile sings "La vie est gai!" the script reads: "Nellie gazes at him, hypnotized--her voice gone" (365). Emile and the children sing alone, and Nellie is not heard from again. So powerful is Emile that in the final moment of the play, he renders Nellie, the star, speechless. How are we to understand this choice? It was not necessary--a finale with all four singing together would certainly have been justified, as it is in other Rodgers and Hammerstein works. Rodgers and Hammerstein exploit Emile's European high-culture style to co-opt its legitimacy, but in making Emile's musical presence in the play so powerful, they end up overwhelming Nellie's popular American style. There is no rousing finale at the end of the play. No chorus celebrates the union of Nellie and Emile. The simple snapshot of a family at dinner implies that with the proper kind of love, racial and ethnic difference can be overcome. But the show itself does not support its own stated ideology. The European has not learned the American songs and the American has stopped singing altogether. Meanwhile, the Eurasian children simply repeat the same French song they sang at the opening of the show. What has been learned? What transformation has taken place here? The image is one of global harmony. But the music indicates that the image is superficial--the family that does not sing together cannot stay together. Andrea Most is an assistant professor in the Department of English at the University of Toronto. She is currently working on a book on the American musical theatre. Notes This essay is part of a larger work on Jews and the American musical theater. I would like to acknowledge the support and feedback I received in developing this essay from Joyce Antler, Michael T. Gilmore, Eugene Goodheart, Felicia Herman, David Román, Jonathan D. Sarna, Rona Sheramy, and Rose Subotnik. A particular thanks to Alan Ackerman, who carefully read and responded to every draft, and to Max, who provided delightful distraction. 1 . Michener quoted in Hugh Fordin, Getting to Know Him: A Biography of Oscar Hammerstein II (New York: Da Capo Press, 1995), 270-71. In a letter to Oscar Hammerstein, Lieutenant Commander McWhorter complains that the song ruins the flow of the show. Hammerstein replies: "I am most anxious to make the point not only that prejudice exists and is a problem, but that its birth lies in teaching and not in the fallacious belief that there are basic biological and physiological and mental differences between races" (Oscar Hammerstein to Lt. McWhorter, 11 April 1949, South Pacific files, Oscar Hammerstein collection, Library of Congress). 2 . New York Herald Tribune, 2 March 1953 (Clipping in Box 4, Folder F, South Pacific Correspondence Files, Oscar Hammerstein collection, Library of Congress). 3 . Fordin, Getting to Know Him, 270. 4 . In his review of South Pacific (New York Times, 8 April 1949) Brooks Atkinson calls the play "a tenderly beautiful idyll of genuine people inexplicably tossed together in a strange corner of the world." Much later, Richard Goldstein in "'I Enjoy Being a Girl': Women in the Plays of Rodgers and Hammerstein" (Popular Music and Society [Spring 1989]: 1-8) summed up the general perception of these works, claiming (inaccurately) that Rodgers and Hammerstein "pioneered the inclusion of social commentary within the musical's form" (1). 5 . In Is Curly Jewish: A Political Self-Portrait (New York: Atheneum, 1965), Paul Jacobs describes how little known the field of "race relations" was among those who would be the potential audience for South Pacific when he went to work for the American Jewish Committee in 1947: "Hey Paul, I've been meaning to ask you something for a long time," the butcher in Nyack, New York, said to me as Ruth and I stood in front of his display case. "What do you do for a living?" "I'm in the race relations field," I answered. "No kidding?" He looked around to see if his wife, who acted as the cashier, could hear him. "Do me a favor, any time you get a tip on a good horse, give me a ring." [140] 6 . Whittaker Chambers, an FBI informant, identified Alger Hiss, an employee in the State Department, as a communist during HUAC testimony in 1948. Hiss sued Chambers for libel, and during the lawsuit Chambers claimed Hiss was a spy. Although tried for (and convicted of) espionage in 1949, Hiss denied everything and no proof of espionage has ever been found. Gerhart Eisler was a German Jewish refugee who had been active in the Communist Party. He was identified by FBI informants in 1946 as a key figure in the American Communist movement. Although there was no proof of his guilt, he was repeatedly arrested and indicted for contempt and perjury. Eisler escaped to Poland in 1949. In 1947, HUAC began investigating Hollywood for alleged communist subversion. The committee called both "friendly" and "unfriendly" witnesses. The ten "unfriendly" witnesses refused to answer HUAC's questions and were cited for contempt. In late 1947, a group of the major Hollywood producers adopted what came to be known as the "Waldorf Statement," which asserted that they would not "knowingly employ a Communist." This instituted the infamous blacklist. All of the Hollywood Ten were fired, and most of them served jail sentences in 1949-50. All three of these cases received major press coverage. Ellen Schrecker, Many Are the Crimes: McCarthyism in America (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1998), 175, 128-29, 320-27.	i don't know
On the morning of April the 11th 1912 the ill fated ship The Titanic made it’s last scheduled stop in Europe at which Irish venue ?	RMS Titanic \| Impressions . By T.V. Antony Raj . On November 21, 1916, at 8:15 am, the British destroyer the HMS Scourge had received the distress signal from HMHS Britannic. Immediately, her Captain set course for the Kea channel. He sent a request for assistance to the HMS Foxhound, another British destroyer, patrolling in the Gulf of Athens. He also requested the French tugs Polyphemus and Goliath to help rescue survivors. At 8:28 am, the auxiliary cruiser SS Heroic, which had encountered the Britannic earlier that day, received the signal and reversed its course immediately. At 8:35 am, the HMS Scourge requested the assistance of the HMS Foxhound, another British destroyer, patrolling in the Gulf of Athens. Northwest of Korissia on Kea, the sea was littered with debris, corpses and survivors in lifeboats. Fortunately, as I mentioned before, two lifeboats on HMHS Britannic were motor propelled and equipped with wireless sets for communications. These innovations proved crucial in the rescue of the hundreds of people scattered all over the area of the wreckage. The two motorized lifeboats quickly picked up as many survivors as possible as they traveled faster and were more maneuverable than the vintage non-motorized lifeboats. They transported the wounded to Korissia. Greek fishermen from Kea were the first to arrive on the scene of the wreckage. They picked up a few people from the water. Around 10 am, SS Heroic picked up 494 people from the lifeboats and from water. Some of the survivors aboard HMS Scourge (Source: pbs.org) A few minutes later, HMS Scourge arrived and picked up 339 survivors. The HMS Foxhound arrived at 11:45 am, followed by the HMS Foresight, one of two Forward class scout cruiser of the Royal Navy, at 2 pm. A total of 1,036 people out of 1,066 on board the HMHS Britannic were saved. Thirty people – nine members of the Royal Army Medical Corps (RAMC) and 21 crew members – lost their lives and 24 people were injured. Even though HMHS Britannic was the biggest ship lost in the First World War, her sinking was not costly in terms of loss of human life when compared to the sinking of her sister ship RMS Titanic. There were 1,066 people on board, with 1,036 survivors picked up from the sea and lifeboats with the loss of 30 lives chopped by the giant propellers. After the sinking of HMHS Britannic, Violet Jessop continued to work aboard ocean liners for 38 more years. After the First World War, she left the White Star Line and joined the Red Star Line and then joined the Royal Mail Line again. She got married in her late thirties. The marriage was brief. In 1950 she retired to Great Ashfield, Suffolk. Violet Jessop, often, allegorically called “Miss Unsinkable” by many, died of congestive heart failure in 1971 at the age of 83. The book “Titanic Survivor” contains some passages of Violet Jessop memoir written in 1934, originally named Neptune’s Greenroom. It has been informatively annotated by editor John Maxtone-Graham. Arthur John Priest, the lowly stoker in the boiler rooms. I feel that Arthur John Priest, the lowly stoker in the boiler rooms, truly deserves the name ‘unsinkable‘ rather than Violet Jessop. He survived the following incidents: In 1907, the RMS Asturias foundering on its maiden voyage. On September 20, 1911, the collision of RMS Olympic with HMS Hawke. On April 15, 1912, the sinking of RMS Titanic. He was rescued, probably in lifeboat 15. On February 29, 1916, the sinking of SS Alcantara by the German armed merchant cruiser SMS Greif. On November 21, 1916, the sinking of RMS Britannic. In April 1917, the sinking of SS Donegal. Also, on board that ship was Archie Jewell, the lookout. Priest survived yet again, but Archie Jewell was killed. John Priest died in Southampton from pneumonia in 1937. Now, I wonder who the real Jonah was on the three ships: RMS Olympic, RMS Titanic and RMS Britannic. Was it Violet Jessop, the stewardess/nurse, or Arthur John Priest, the fireman/stoker? . HMHS Britannic – Coloured by Cyril Codus (Source: httptitanic-model.com) On November 21, 1916, Violet Jessop, after attending an early service by Rev. John A. Fleming, one of the ship’s chaplains, was having breakfast along with others in the dining room. In the dining room was John Priest, a fireman or stoker who was on board along with Violet Jessop on the RMS Olympic when she collided with the HMS Hawke, and was also aboard the RMS Titanic when she sank on April 15, 1912. At 8:12 am, a loud explosion reverberated around the ship. HMHS Britannic apparently struck a submerged sea mine. Violet Jessop later wrote: “Suddenly, there was a dull deafening roar. Britannic gave a shiver, a long drawn out shudder from stem to stern, shaking the crockery on the tables, breaking things till it subsided as she slowly continued on her way. We all knew she had been struck...” Later on, Reverend Fleming described the blast as “if a score of plate glass windows had been smashed together.” In his official report Captain Charles Alfred Barlett said: “…a tremendous but muffled explosion occurred, the ship trembling and vibrating most violently fore and aft, continuing for some time; the ship fell off about 3 points from her course.” Some aboard the ship thought the ship had hit a small boat. Even so, the doctors and nurses left the dining room immediately for their posts. Many others outside the dining room felt a forceful bump that swept them off their feet. Captain Barlett said: “Water was seen to be thrown up to E or D deck forward at the time of the explosion, and a cloud of black smoke was seen, the fumes for some time being suffocating.” The first reports brought to Captain Bartlett and Chief Officer Hume on the bridge were alarming; HMHS Britannic had apparently struck a submerged sea mine. The explosion had taken place low on the starboard side between holds 2 and 3. The watertight bulkhead between hold 1 and the forepeak was damaged. Britannic’s flooding limit. Green:Firemens tunnel. Purple: Watertight bulkheads. Digital elaboration by Michail Michailakis. (Source: hmhsbritannic.weebly.com) The first four watertight compartments started filling with water. The watertight door of the firemen’s tunnel connecting the firemen’s quarters in the bow with boiler room 6 was severely damaged and water started flowing into that boiler room. The watertight door between boiler rooms 6 and 5 also failed to close properly. Captain Barlett later said: “The damage was most extensive, probably the whole of the fore part of the ship’s bottom being destroyed and in my opinion penetrating to No.6 boiler room.“ To aggravate matters, as the ship’s list increased, water reached the level of the portholes that had been opened previously by the nurses to ventilate the wards. Captain Bartlett sent a distress signal and ordered the crew to get ready to launch the lifeboats. At 8:35 am, Captain Bartlett gave the order to abandon ship and the crew members started the drill to lower the lifeboats for evacuation. Death of the Britannic.a(Artist – Ken Marschall) At 8:35 am, Captain Bartlett gave the order to abandon ship and the crew members started the drill to lower the lifeboats for evacuation. An officer ordered two lifeboats to be lowered. A group of panic-stricken stewards and some sailors rushed immediately and occupied the two lifeboats. The officer decided not to remove the frightened stewards from the lifeboats as he did not want them later to obstruct the evacuation of the people on board. He ordered all the sailors to get out except one on each lifeboat to take charge of it as it left the sinking ship. The officer then ordered the lifeboats to be lowered, but stopped lowering them when they were about six feet above the churning water as he realized the engines were still running. He waited for further orders from the bridge. Shortly after, the order came from the bridge not to launch any lifeboats as the Captain Bartlett had decided to beach the Britannic. Captain Bartlett made a dire try to beach the ship on the shores of Kea, about three miles out to his right. Unfortunately, the steering gear did not respond due to the list and she slowly started to turn. The nurses were loaded onto the lifeboats for evacuation after being counted and grouped by Matron E. A Dowse. A group of firemen/stokers furtively took a lifeboat from the poop deck without being authorized. Seeing the lifeboat was not filled to its maximum capacity, Assistant Commander Harry William Dyke ordered the firemen to pick up some men who had already jumped into the water. In the next 50 minutes, the crew managed to lower 35 of 58 lifeboats. Of the lifeboats assigned to Third Officer David Laws three were lowered without his knowledge. Using automatic release gear they dropped six feet and hit the water violently. The gigantic propellers that were still running were almost out of the water and the two of the three unauthorized lifeboats started drifting towards the giant rotating blades of the portside propeller. Archie Jewell, the lookout, was in one of the lifeboats which was being sucked into the ship’s still turning propellers. However, he survived. In a letter to his sisters Archie described his escape: “… most of us jumped in the waterbut it was no good we was pulled right in under the blades…I shut my eyes and said good bye to this world, but I was struck with a big piece of the boat and got pushed right under the blades and I was goin around like a top…I came up under some of the wreckage … everything was goin black to me when some one on top was strugling and pushed the wreckage away so I came up just in time I was nearly done for … there was one poor fellow drowning and he caught hold of me but I had to shake him off so the poor fellow went under.“ Violet Jessop was in one the other lifeboat, No. 4. In her memoirs she wrote: “... the lifeboat started gliding down rapidly, scraping the ship’s side, splintering the glass in our faces from the boxes, which formed, when lighted, the green lighted band around a hospital ship’s middle, and making a terrible impact as we landed on the water...” “… eyes were looking with unexpected horror at the debris and the red streaks all over the water. The falls of the lowered lifeboat, left hanging, could now be seen with human beings clinging to them, like flies on flypaper, holding on for dear life, with a growing fear of the certain death that awaited them if they let go…” Moments after touching the water, her lifeboat clustered with the other lifeboats already in the water, struggling to get free from the ship’s side, but it was rapidly drifting into the propellers. “… every man jack in the group of surrounding boats took a flying leap into the sea. They came thudding from behind and all around me, taking to the water like a vast army of rats … I turned around to see the reason for this exodus and, to my horror, saw Britannic’s huge propellers churning and mincing up everything near them-men, boats and everything were just one ghastly whirl“. To avoid being sucked into the Britannic’s propellers that chopped to shreds the lifeboats, one after another, Violet overcame her fear and jumped out of the lifeboat even though she could not swim. She struck her head on the ship’s keel. An arm grabbed her, but Violet shirked it off fearing the arm was that of another person drowning like herself. She surfaced because of the life-belt she was wearing and her clothes almost torn off her. “… The first thing my smarting eyes beheld was a head near me, a head split open, like a sheep’s head served by the butcher, the poor brains trickling over on to the khaki shoulders. All around were heart-breaking scenes of agony, poor limbs wrenched out as if some giant had torn them in his rage. The dead floated by so peacefully now, men coming up only to go down again for the last time, a look of frightful horror on their faces…“. At this exact moment, a third lifeboat was about to be shred to pieces by the propellers. Violet Jessop closed her eyes to stop watching the impending massacre. Unaware of the bloodbath generated by the monstrous propeller blades, Captain Bartlett gave orders to stop the engines. The propellers stopped turning, and the occupants of this boat pushed against the blades and escaped with their lives. Violet Jessop was rescued once again by a lifeboat. Around 8:50 am noticing the rate of the flooding had decreased, Captain Bartlett gave orders to restart the engines in a second attempt to beach the ship. But he immediately aborted the attempt as water was reported on Deck D. At 9:00 am, when the water reached the bridge, Captain Bartlett sounded one last blow on the whistle alerting the ship’s engineers, who had remained at their posts until the last possible moment, to evacuate the ship. Captain Bartlett swam from the bridge to a collapsible lifeboat. From there he coordinated the rescue operations. The ship rolled over her starboard side. The funnels collapsed. The machinery on the deck fell into the sea. Location where HMHS Britannic sank. At 9:07 am, 55 minutes after the explosion, HMHS Britannic, built to be an ocean cruiser, envisaged to be the last word in luxury travel, but never served as a transatlantic passenger liner, sank and vanished into the depths at 37°42’05.0″N 24°17’02.0″E, on its sixth voyage as a hospital ship transporting sick and wounded soldiers. Reverend John Fleming who left the sinking ship in the second-last boat, described the sinking: “Gradually the waters licked up and up the decks — the furnaces belching forth volumes of smoke, as if the great engines were in their last death agony; one by one the monster funnels melted away as wax before a flame, and crashed upon the decks, till the waters rushed down; then report after report rang over the sea, telling of the explosions of the boilers. The waters moved over the deck still, the bows of the ship dipping deeper and deeper into the sea, until the rudder stood straight up from the surface of the water, and, poised thus for a few moments, dived perpendicularly into the depths, leaving hardly a ripple behind. A sense of the desert overwhelmed my soul.“ . HMHS Britannic (Author: Allan Green, 1878 – 1954) The HMHS Britannic was the third and largest Olympic-class ocean liner of the White Star Line larger than the RMS Titanic. Some sources claim the ship was to be named “Gigantic“. At least one set of documentations exists, in which Noah Hingley & Sons Ltd., in Netherton, near Dudley, United Kingdom, discuss the order for the ship’s anchors; this documentation states that the name of the ship is Gigantic. It appears more probable that the name Gigantic must have been used informally in correspondence with Harland & Wolff before being dropped quietly. However, Tom McCluskie affirmed that in his capacity as Archive Manager and Historian at Harland & Wolff, he “never saw any official reference to the name ‘Gigantic’ being used or proposed for the third of the Olympic class vessels.” The keel for Britannic was laid on November 30, 1911, at the Harland & Wolff shipyard in Belfast, 13 months after the launch of the RMS Olympic. Her watertight bulkhead was extended, higher than Titanic’s had been. Britannic was designed to carry 48 open lifeboats. Of these, 46 were to be 34 feet long, the largest lifeboats ever carried until then and two of the 46 were to be motor propelled equipped with wireless sets for communications. The other two were to be 26-foot cutters placed on either side of the bridge. Though Britannic was intended to enter service as a transatlantic passenger liner, she never crossed the Atlantic carrying the rich and the poor to the New World. After improvements were introduced as a consequence of the Titanic disaster, Britannic was launched at 11:10 am on February 26, 1914. Around 20 tonnes of tallow, train oil and soft soap were used to move the gigantic ship down the slipway. In 81 seconds she stood afloat in the water. Later, she was towed to the Abercon Basin for fitting by five tugs. The British press hailed her as “a twentieth century ship in every sense of the word” and “the highest achievement of her day in the practise of shipbuilding and marine engineering.” However, after launching, she was laid up at her builders in Belfast for many months. In August 1914, when the first World War broke out, the shipyards in Britain focused on converting many liners for Transport of Troops. Some were converted to Hospital ships. Britannic‘s maiden voyage scheduled for April 1915 was cancelled. On November 13, 1915, after being docked for 15 months, the British Admiralty requisitioned Britannic, which was just an empty hull, to use it as a hospital ship. She was readied in just six weeks before being put to use as a hospital ship and was given ship number 9618. The public rooms on the upper decks were converted into wards for the wounded soldiers. The large first class dining rooms and the reception rooms were converted into operating theatres and main wards. Deck B was furnished to house the medical officers. The lower decks were fitted out for medical orderlies, other staff and the less wounded patients. In all, the ship was fitted to carry 3,309 people. Digital plans of the Britannic in hospital ship colours by Cyril Codus. (Source: hmhsbritannic.weebly.com) The ship’s hull was repainted in the internationally recognized colours of a hospital ship; a green band was painted along each side of the ship broken by three large red crosses, to provide her safe passage at sea. For protection at night, two large red crosses were painted on both sides of the boat deck and were highlighted at night with a band of green electric bulbs. Renamed HMHS (His Majesty’s Hospital Ship) Britannic, she entered service on December 23, 1915 under the command of Commodore Charles Alfred Bartlett. On December 23, 1915, she entered service as His Majesty’s Hospital Ship – HMHS Britannic. 23-year-old Violet Jessop in her Voluntary Aid Detachment uniform while assigned to HMHS Britannic After her traumatic experience on the RMS Titanic, Violet Jessop secured a position with the British Red Cross as a stewardess. She was posted on HMHS Britannic. Along with Violet on board was 27-year-old Arthur John Priest, a fireman / stoker, who, like her, had survived the collision of the RMS Olympic with the HMS Hawke, and escaped from the RMS Titanic when she sank on April 15, 1912. Also, on board was 23-year-old Archie Jewel, one of the six lookout men on the deck of the ill-fated Titanic. On the night of April 14, 1912, he had worked the 8 pm to 10 pm shift and was in his berth when the ship hit the iceberg at 11:40 pm. He was one of the first to leave the ship on the starboard side at 12:45 pm in lifeboat 7, with just 28 people on it while the full capacity was for 65. After the Titanic, Archie was on board the SS Donegal which was sunk by enemy action in April 1917. On December 23, 1915, HMHS Britannic left Liverpool on her maiden voyage to Moudros, on the island of Lemnos, North Aegean, Greece under the command of Commodore Charles Alfred Bartlett. She reached Moudros eight days later on December 31, 1915 and returned to Southampton on January 9, 1916. After completing two more voyages to Naples, she was laid up on April 12, 1916. On August 28, 1916, HMHS Britannic was recalled to active service and was given a new Transport Identification Number, G618. She made two more voyages to Moudros returning with the sick and wounded. The HMHS Britannic left Southampton at 2:23 pm on November 12, 1916 with Captain Charles Bartlett in command on her 6th outbound voyage to Moudros. On arriving at Naples on November 17, 1916, she took on board more coal and water. The ship was secured for two days at Naples due to a storm. On Sunday, November 19, 1916, finding a brief shift in the weather, Captain Bartlett decided to sail away from Naples. A total of 1,066 people – sick and wounded soldiers, the ship’s crew, and the medical staff – were on board. As HMHS Britannic left the port, a storm set in and the sea rose again. The following morning, the storm passed and the sea became calm and the ship passed the Strait of Messina without any further problems. In the early hours of Tuesday, November 21, 1916, the ship rounded Cape Matapan. At 8:00 am, Captain Bartlett changed course for the Kea Channel, in the Aegean Sea, lying between the islands of Makronisi (to her port side) and Kea (to her starboard side), just off Cape Sounion on the mainland of Greece. Chief Officer Robert Hume and Fourth Officer D. McTowis were on the Bridge along with him. . . R.M.S. Carpathia by Scottvisnjic At full speed it took four hours for the RMS Carpathia, working her way through dangerous ice fields in the dark, to reach the RMS Titanic. When Carpathia arrived at the scene at 4 am on the morning of April 15, 1912, Titanic had already sunk. Carpathia took on around 700 survivors of the disaster from Titanic‘s lifeboats. It rescued the last of the survivors in the lifeboats by 9:15 am. Members of a rescue crew in a whaling boat attempt to retrieve the floating body of a Titanic victim. Photograph by Joseph H. Bailey. (Source: channel.nationalgeographic.com) Out of the 2,224 people aboard RMS Titanic, 710 were saved, leaving 1,517 dead. The figures below are from the British Board of Trade report on the disaster. Passenger category 32% 68% Captain Edward Smith, Chief Officer Henry Wilde, First Officer William Murdoch, Thomas Andrews, the naval architect of RMS Titanic, Jack Phillips, the senior Marconi radio operator, were among those lost with the sinking ship. In this 1912 photo made available by the Library of Congress, Harold Bride, surviving wireless operator of the Titanic, with feet bandaged, is carried up the ramp of RMS Carpathia Harold Bride after being picked up by the RMS Carpathia assisted Harold Cottam in dealing with a constant exchange of messages in the following hours. Lifeboat 12 reached the RMS Carpathia at 8:30 am where Jack was reunited with his mother. A kind passenger on the Carpathia gave Jack his pajamas and a bunk to sleep. Later, Jack Thayer reflected that the brandy he had drunk on that day was his first shot of hard liquor. After being picked up by the RMS Carpathia, Bruce Ismay was taken to the ship’s doctor, Frank Mcgee’s cabin. Ismay gave Captain Rostron a message to send to White Star Line’s New York office: “Deeply regret advise you Titanic sank this morning after collision with iceberg, resulting in serious loss of life. Full particulars later.“ During the entire journey to New York on board RMS Carpathia, Ismay never left Dr. Mcgee’s cabin. He did not eat any solid food and had to be kept under the influence of opiates. After visiting Ismay, Jack Thayer said: “[Ismay] was staring straight ahead, shaking like a leaf. Even when I spoke to him, he paid absolutely no attention. I have never seen a man so completely wrecked.” The RMS Carpathia finally reached New York on April 18, 1912. Guglielmo Marconi, visited his exhausted radio operators on board. He himself had plans to to cross the Atlantic on the ill-fated RMS Titanic, but had changed his plans. He arrived In New York on the RMS Lusitania. After their arrival in New York, Jack Thayer, his mother and Miss Fleming took the Thayer’s private train carriage from Jersey City, NJ, back home to Haverford. After graduating from the University of Pennsylvania, Jack Thayer took on banking. A few years later he was appointed Financial Vice-President and Treasurer of the University. He served as an artillery officer in the US Army during World War I. He married Lois Cassatt and they had two sons. Edward C. Thayer and John B. Thayer IV. In 1940, conceivably, as an attempt to purge some of the memories that still haunted him, Jack Thayer produced a pamphlet relating his experiences with the Titanic’s sinking in vivid detail in a self-published pamphlet. Just 500 copies were printed exclusively for family and friends. Oceanographer Robert Ballard used the details of Jack Thayer to determine the location of the Titanic and proved that the ship had split in half as it sank, contrary to popular belief, as was finally confirmed when the wreck of the Titanic was discovered. During World War II, both his sons enlisted in the armed services. In 1943, Edward Thayer was a bomber pilot in the Pacific theatre. After his plane was shot down, he was listed as missing and presumed dead. His body was never recovered. When the news of Edward’s death reached him, Jack Thayer, became extremely depressed. On the 32nd remembrance day of the RMS Titanic‘s collision with the iceberg, Jack Thayer’s mother Marian died. The loss of his mother depressed him further. On September 20, 1945, Jack Thayer committed suicide by cutting his throat and wrists in an automobile at 48th Street and Parkside Avenue in West Philadelphia. He is buried at the Church of the Redeemer Cemetery, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. In New York, Bruce Ismay was hosted by Philip Franklin, vice-president of the company. Ismay also received a summons to appear before a Senate committee headed by Republican Senator William Alden Smith the following day and a few weeks later he appeared before the British Board of Trade chaired by Lord Mersey. Bruce Ismay testified that as the ship was in her final moments, he was working at an oar, his back to the ship so as to avoid watching his creation sink beneath the waters of the North Atlantic. During the United States Inquiry he assured that all the vessels of the International Mercantile Marine Company would be equipped with lifeboats in sufficient numbers for all passengers. After the inquiry, Ismay and the surviving officers of the RMS Titanic returned to England aboard RMS Adriatic. Ismay’s reputation was irreparably damaged and he maintained a low public profile after the disaster. London society ostracized Ismay for life and labelled him one of the biggest cowards in history. The American and the British press the American and the British press Bruce Ismay for deserting the ship while women and children were still on board. Some newspapers, even conjectured that Ismay jumped into the boat, despite there being women still near the lifeboat. Some papers called him the “Coward of the Titanic” and others named him as “J. Brute Ismay” and suggested that the White Star flag be changed to a yellow liver. Ben Hecht, then a young journalist in Chicago, wrote a scathing poem titled “Master and Man” for the Chicago Journal contrasting the actions of Captain Edward Smith, the master of RMS Titanic who had just gone to an icy grave with his ship along with a majority of its passengers, and J. Bruce Ismay, chairman and managing director of the White Star Line of steamship safe on the rescue ship RMS Carpathia. Master and Man The Captain stood where a Captain should For the Law of the Sea is grim; The Owner romped while the ship was swamped And no law bothered him. The Captain stood where the Captain should When a Captain’s ship goes down But the Owner led when the women fled, For an Owner must not drown. The Captain sank as a man of Rank, While his Owner turned away; The Captain’s grave was his bridge and brave, He earned his seaman’s pay. To hold your place in the ghastly face of Death on the Sea at Night Is a Seaman’s job, but to flee with the mob Is an Owner’s Noble Right. However, some newspapers claimed Ismay’s escape was justified since he was a passenger just like any other passenger on board the RMS Titanic. Some journalists maintained that Ismay bound by the dictum, “Women and children first” assisted many women and children himself. At the inquiry Bruce Ismay and first-class passenger William Carter said they boarded Collapsible C lifeboat only after there were no more women and children near that lifeboat. On June 30, 1913, Ismay resigned as president of International Mercantile Marine and chairman of the White Star Line, to be succeeded by Harold Sanderson. The above news “J. Bruce Ismay Tells in Whispers How He Escaped Death By Leaving Sinking Titanic in Lifeboat With Women” in The Times Dispatch reminds me of an apocryphal account of how Violet Jessop got into the lifeboat: Violet watched patiently as the crew members loaded the passengers on to lifeboat Later, they called out “Are there any more women before this boat goes out?” Bruce Ismay, who had already got into the boat loaded with women saw Violet and said: “Come along; jump in.“ Violet replied: “I am only a stewardess.“ Ismay said: “Never mind – you are a woman; take your place.“ Just as the boat was being lowered, an officer of the Titanic gave her a baby to look after. According to this unsubstantiated account Violet Jessop would have got into lifeboat C along with Bruce Ismay. Violet Jessop, said later that while on board the RMS Carpathia, a woman without saying a word grabbed the baby Violet was holding and ran off with it; and many years after her retirement on a stormy night Violet received a telephone call from a woman who asked her if she saved a baby on the night the Titanic sank. When Violet replied “Yes,” the caller said, “I was that baby.” When she told this to John Maxtone-Graham, her friend, and biographer, the latter said it would have been most likely some prankster. Violet replied, “No, John, I had never told that story to anyone before I told you now.” The above account is a bit enigmatic. Some sources say that Violet Jessop escaped from the sinking Titanic on lifeboat 16. According to available records, the only baby in lifeboat 16 was 5-month-old Master Assad Alexander Thomas/Tannous who was handed over to 27-year-old Miss Edwina Celia Troutt. The infant was later reunited with his mother on the RMS Carpathia. Also, according to available records there were only two stewardesses on that lifeboat: 28-year-old Miss Evelyn Marsden and 41-year-old Mrs. Mary Kezia Roberts. Many survivors lost all their possessions and became destitute. Many families, those of crew members from Southampton in particular, lost their principal breadwinners and were helped by charitable donations. Empty holes where rivets gave way (Source: history.com) Videos taken at the wreck site of the Titanic by recent expeditions, show empty holes where the rivets gave way. Recent investigations by forensic experts reveal the rivets holding the steel plates are the real culprits leading to the Titanic catastrophe. Tests show flaws in the rivets used in the construction of Titanic. Inferior grade iron was used to manufacture the three million odd rivets that were used to hold the steel plates together. After the demise of RMS Titanic, the SS Majestic was pressed back into service once again, filling the hole in the transatlantic schedule of White Star Line. Even after the horrendous experience on RMS Titanic Violet Jessop continued to work as a stewardess on ocean-liners. Her next posting as a stewardess was on HMHS Britannica. Click image to view video “Titanic At 100 Mystery Solved 720p HD (full movie)” . Maiden voyage of RMS Titanic. (Author: T.V. Antony Raj) On Sunday, April 14, 1912, at 11:40 pm ship’s time, about 2,000 miles (3,200 km) from Queenstown and 375 miles (600 km) south of Newfoundland at 41°43’42″N 49°46’49″W, lookout Frederick Fleet spotted an iceberg directly ahead of the RMS Titanic and alerted the bridge. At that time, the ship was travelling near her maximum speed. The iceberg suspected of having sunk the RMS Titanic. This iceberg was photographed by the chief steward of the liner Prinz Adalbert on the morning of April 15, 1912, just a few miles south of where the “Titanic” went down. The steward hadn’t yet heard about the Titanic. What caught his attention was the smear of red paint along the base of the berg, indication that it had collided with a ship sometime in the previous twelve hours. This photo and information was taken from “UNSINKABLE” The Full Story of RMS Titanic written by Daniel Allen Butler, Stackpole Books 1998. Other accounts indicated that there were several icebergs in the vicinity where the TITANIC collided. First Officer William McMaster Murdoch ordered the ship’s engines to be put in reverse to reduce speed and maneuver the vessel around the obstructing iceberg; but it was too late. The starboard side of the ship grazed the immense iceberg, creating a series of gashes below the waterline. The ship began to founder. At 12:11 am on April 15, 1912, the radio operators Jack Phillips and Harold Bride sent out the first distress signal: “CQD CQD CQD CQD CQD CQD DE MGY MGY MGY MGY MGY MGY” from position 41°44’N 50°24’W, and continued sending the distress signal by wireless. ‘CQD’ transmitted in Morse code as – · – · – – · – – · · is one of the first distress signals adopted for radio use. It is understood by wireless operators to mean, “All stations: distress.” “DE” from French “for” and ‘MGY’ the call sign of Marconi’s wireless telegraph station aboard RMS Titanic. The crew sent distress signals using rockets and Morse code lamp. Unfortunately, the ships that responded to her distress call were not near enough to reach her in time. On the night of Sunday, April 14, 1912, the RMS Carpathia (call sign MPA), a Cunard Line transatlantic passenger steamship commanded by Captain Arthur Henry Rostron, was sailing from New York City to Fiume, Austria-Hungary (now Rijeka, Croatia). Carpathia’s only wireless operator, Harold Cottam, received messages from Cape Race, Newfoundland, stating they had private traffic for the RMS Titanic’s Marconi Room. At 12:11 am on April 15, 1912, he sent a message to RMS Titanic stating that Cape Race had traffic for them. In reply he received the Titanic’s distress signal. Cottam informed Captain Rostron who immediately set a course at maximum speed of 17 knots (20 mph; 31 km/h) to the Titanic’s last known position – approximately 58 miles (93 km) away. To make as much steam as possible available for the engines, the Captain ordered the cutoff of the ship’s heating and hot water. As RMS Carpathia raced from the southeast, it fired rockets to let RMS Titanic know that help was on the way. The RMS Titanic was provided with innovative safety features such as watertight compartments and remotely activated watertight doors. At the outset, to accommodate the luxury features in RMS Titanic, Bruce Ismay ordered the number of lifeboats reduced from 48 to 16, the latter being the minimum allowed by the Board of Trade, based on the Titanic’s projected tonnage. However, during the maiden voyage she carried a total of 20 lifeboats: 14 standard wooden Harland & Wolff lifeboats with a capacity of 65 people each and four Englehardt “collapsible” (wooden bottom, collapsible canvas sides) lifeboats (identified as A to D) with a capacity of 47 people each. In addition, she had two emergency cutters with a capacity of 40 people each. So, there were not enough lifeboats to accommodate all on board. Though there were 2,224 people, including the 908 crew members aboard the ship, there were lifeboats enough only for 1,758 people. The RMS Titanic was less than 75% full during her maiden voyage and had room for 1,000 more people. Lifeboat No. 5 Violet Jessop wrote in her memoirs that she was “comfortably drowsy” in her bunk, but not quite asleep when the collision occurred. The second boat lowered on the starboard side was lifeboat 5. Third Officer Pitman was sent in charge of the boat, having five other crew with him as well as two stewardesses – most probably Violet Jessop and her roommate Elizabeth Mary Leather. Passengers were still a bit reluctant to enter the boats at this time. Violet Jessop wrote in her memoirs: “I was ordered up on deck. Calmly, passengers strolled about. I stood at the bulkhead with the other stewardesses, watching the women cling to their husbands before being put into the boats with their children. Some time after, a ship’s officer ordered us into the boat first to show some women it was safe. As the boat was being lowered the officer called: ‘Here, Miss Jessop. Look after this baby.’ And a bundle was dropped onto my lap.” There were probably 35 or 36 people in the boat when lowered. Lifeboat No. 5 was one of the first boats to reach the Carpathia. The collapsible lifeboat C Bruce Ismay was active on the starboard side all night, urging and assisting passengers into the lifeboats., more or less urging them to get away. Lifeboat No. 1, had left 20-30 minutes earlier. The collapsible lifeboat C had been fitted into a pair of empty davits, a system that is used to lower an emergency lifeboat to the embarkation level to be boarded. The davits had falls of manilla rope to lower the lifeboat into the water. Ismay was standing close to the collapsible lifeboat C. Those near the boat were third class passengers – many from the Middle East. Emily Alice Brown Goldsmith and her young son, Frank John William Goldsmith got into the boat with a few younger lady friends from England. After about 25 to 28 women and children had been assisted into the boat, five crew members were ordered in as well as Quartermaster George Rowe, who had been trying to contact ships in the vicinity by assisting with the Morse lamp and with firing rockets. When there were few seats still free, Ismay and a first class passenger, William Ernest Carter, who had sent his family in lifeboat 4, got on to the lifeboat C as it was about to be lowered. Lifeboat C was probably lowered about 20 minutes before the RMS Titanic sank. It was the ninth and the last boat lowered on the starboard side. While rowing away from the ship four Chinese third class passengers were discovered in the bottom of the boat and were taken into the lifeboat. Lifeboat C had the capacity to hold 49 people. Mrs. Goldsmith thought there were 30 women, five crew members and four Chinese and her son in the boat while QM Rowe thought there were 39, and Bruce Ismay estimated between 40 and 45 in the boat. In all likelihood, there were just under 40 people in the boat. They did not pick up any more people from the cold sea and possibly reached the RMS Carpathia as the tenth or twelfth lifeboat. The Thayers John Borland Thayer (Source: New York Public Library. Online reference – digitalgallery.nypl.org) Marian Longstreth Thayer (Source – French Titanic Society) John Borland (‘Jack’) Thayer Jr. (Source: Independent Newspaper, UK) Two weeks before boarding the RMS Titanic at Cherbourg as first class passengers on April 10, 1912, Second Vice-President of the Pennsylvania Railroad, 49-year-old John Borland Thayer from Haverford, Pennsylvania, his wife 39-year-old Marian Longstreth Thayer (née Morris) and their 17-year-old son John Borland (“Jack”) Thayer Jr. had been in Berlin as guests of the American Consul General and Mrs. Thackara. At night on April 14, 1912, while preparing for bed in his cabin C-70 Jack Thayer noticed the breeze through his half-open porthole stop. Pulling an overcoat over his pajamas he called to his parents cabin C-68 that he was ‘going out to see the fun.’ Jack ran up on A deck on the port side, but could see nothing amiss. He went towards the bow where, as his eyes adjusted to the darkness, he could make out the ice on the forward well deck. Jack Thayer returned to get his parents. They together went to the starboard side of A deck where the father thought he saw small pieces of ice floating around. As they crossed to the port side, they noticed that the ship had developed a list to port. They then returned to their room and dressed. Jack put on a tweed suit and vest with another mohair vest underneath in order to keep warm. Having put on life-belts, with overcoats on top, they went to the deck along with 48-year-old Miss Margaret Fleming, the personal maid of Marian Thayer. When the order was given to women and children to board the boats, John and Jack said goodbye to Marian at the top of the grand staircase on A-Deck. While Marian and her maid went to the port side, John and Jack went to the starboard side. A while after, the two men were surprised to learn from Chief Second Steward George Dodd that Marian and her maid were still on board. Reunited, John, Marion and Margaret went on ahead to find a boat. Jack lagged behind and finally lost them, perhaps he was talking to his friend Milton Clyde Long whom Jack had met for the first time, over coffee that evening; or perhaps he just got caught up in the crowd. Jack searched for his parents for a while, but then, presuming they had probably got into a boat he went forward on the starboard side accompanied by Milton Long. The boats were leaving rapidly and the crowds were large. The two young men stood by the empty davits of a lifeboat that had left. Here, close to the bridge they watched a star through the falls of the davit to measure the rate at which the ship was going down. As the ship began to sink more rapidly and deeper, Jack, a strong swimmer, wanted to jump into the sea as others were doing towards the stern. However, Long persuaded Jack against it. Eventually, as they could not wait anymore, saying goodbye to each other, they jumped up on the rail. Long put his legs over and inquired,, “You are coming, boy, aren’t you?” Jack replied “Go ahead, I’ll be with you in a minute.” Long then slid down the side of the ship. Jack never saw him again. Jack then jumped out, feet first. He surfaced well clear of the ship, he felt he was pushed away from the ship by some force. Later on, Jack Thayer reminisced about the terrifying plunge: “I was pushed out and then sucked down. The cold was terrific. The shock of the water took the breath out of my lungs. Down and down, I went, spinning in all directions. Swimming as hard as I could in the direction which I thought to be away from the ship, I finally came up with my lungs bursting, but not having taken any water.” Sinking of RMS Titanic (Artist: Ken Marschall) At 2:20 am, two hours and forty minutes after the Titanic smashed into the iceberg and drifting to the south at a rate of one knot per hour equating to a 2.66 mile drift, sea water gushed in through open hatches and grates; her forward deck dipped under water and she started sinking rapidly. After In two hours time after, the ship broke in two and sank. All remaining passengers and crew were plunged into lethally cold water around 28°F (−2°C). Even young and fit people would not last longer than 15 minutes in such a temperature. Almost all of those in the water died from hypothermia within 15–30 minutes. Jack Thayer reminisced about the sinking: “The ship seemed to be surrounded with a glare, and stood out of the night as though she were on fire…. The water was over the base of the first funnel. The mass of people on board were surging back, always back toward the floating stern. The rumble and roar continued, with even louder distinct wrenchings and tearings of boilers and engines from their beds. Suddenly the whole superstructure of the ship appeared to split, well forward to midship, and bow or buckle upwards. The second funnel, large enough for two automobiles to pass through abreast, seemed to be lifted off, emitting a cloud of sparks It looked as if it would fall on top of me. It missed me by only twenty or thirty feet. The Suction of it drew me down and down struggling and swimming, practically spent… “This time I was sucked down, and as I came up I was pushed out again and twisted around by a large wave, coming up in the midst of a great deal of small wreckage. As I pushed my hand from my head it touched the cork fender of an overturned lifeboat. I looked up and saw some men on the top and asked them to give me a hand. One of them, who was a stoker, helped me up. In a short time the bottom was covered with about twenty-five or thirty men. When I got on this I was facing the ship.” As Jack Thayer and the other survivors balanced precariously on the upturned Collapsible lifeboat B, the cries of those swimming in the water came to them. It sounded to Jack just like the high-pitched hum of locusts back home in Pennsylvania. “Her deck was turned slightly toward us. We could see groups of the almost fifteen hundred people aboard, clinging in clusters or bunches, like swarming bees; only to fall in masses, pairs or singly, as the greater part of the ship, two hundred and fifty feet of it, rose into the sky, till it reached a sixty-five or seventy degree angle. Here it seemed to pause, and just hung, for what felt like minutes. Gradually she turned her deck away from us, as though to hide from our sight the awful spectacle. “I looked upwards – we were right under the three enormous propellers. For an instant, I thought they were sure to come down on top of us. Then, with the deadened noise of the bursting of her last few gallant bulkheads, she slid quietly away from us into the sea.” Of the last moments, Violet Jessop wrote: “… one awful moment of empty, misty darkness…then an unforgettable, agonizing cry went up from 1500 despairing throats, a long wail and then silence…“ Violet and the rest of the survivors remained in the boats all night. . . By T.V. Antony Raj . Violet Jessop said that it was her habit to breathe in fresh air on deck before retiring for the night. Regarding the fourth day of sailing on Titanic she wrote: “If the sun did fail to shine so brightly on the fourth day out, and if the little cold nip crept into the air as evening set in, it only served to emphasize the warmth and luxuriousness within.“ Titanic in ice field (Artist: Ken Marschall) From the second day on, after leaving Southampton on its maiden voyage, RMS Titanic received reports of ice from ships passing through, or stopped due to heavy ice in the region she would be sailing to New York. On the 11th she received six warnings, on 12th five, on 13th three, and on 14th six. As a matter of fact, the Marconi room of RMS Titanic relayed some of the warnings to the shore. As a routine, all these messages would have been logged in the radio book as they were received or intercepted and passed on to the officers on the bridge. So, it is unlikely that Captain Edward Smith and his officers, would have been unaware of the dangerous ice that was lying directly in the path of the ship. Here are the messages received or intercepted on Sunday, April 14, 1912 – four days into the crossing: At 9:00 am (“Titanic” time), RMS Caronia (call sign MSF), a Cunard Line ocean liner, Eastbound New York to Liverpool, sent an ice warning message to RMS Titanic: “Captain, ‘Titanic.’ – Westbound steamers report bergs, growlers and field ice in 42°N from 49° to 51°W, 12th April. Compliments. – Barr.” Action taken: This message referred to bergs, growlers and field ice sighted on April 12, 1912 – at least 48 hours before the time of transmitting the message. At the time this message was received RMS Titanic was at 43°35’N, 43°50’W. Captain Smith acknowledged the receipt of this message and posted it for his officers to read. At about 8 am on April 14, 1912, Greek steamer Athinai (call sign MTI) belonging to the Hellenic Transatlantic Steam Navigation Company, Westbound from Piraues and Mediterranean ports to New York, encountered a large ice field containing several large bergs. During the morning she sent an ice advisory to RMS Baltic, an ocean liner of the White Star Line, Eastbound New York to Liverpool. At 1:42 pm, RMS Baltic (call sign MBC) relayed this report to its sister ship RMS Titanic: “Captain Smith, ‘Titanic.’ – Have had moderate, variable winds and clear, fine weather since leaving. Greek steamer ‘Athinai’ reports passing icebergs and large quantities of field ice today in lat. 41°51′ N., long. 49° 52′ W. Last night we spoke German oiltank steamer ‘Deutschland,’ Stettin to Philadelphia, not under control, short of coal, lat. 40° 42′ N., long. 55° 11′ W. Wishes to be reported to New York and other steamers. Wish you and ‘Titanic’ all success. – Commander.” Action taken: At the time this message was received the RMS Titanic was at about 42°35’N, 45°50W. Captain Edward Smith acknowledged the receipt of this message. Captain Smith showed the message to J. Bruce Ismay, the Managing Director of the White Star Line, on board the RMS Titanic on her maiden voyage to let him know that ice was to be expected that night. The latter pocketed the message and showed it later to two ladies; and of course many people on board became aware of its contents. At 7:15 pm, Captain Smith asked for its return, when it was finally posted in the chart room. At 11:20 am, the German steamer SS Amerika, belonging to the Hamburg America Line of Germany, Eastbound, New York to Hamburg sent an ice advisory telegram message to the Hydrographic Office in Washington, DC via RMS Titanic because Titanic was nearer to Cape Race, to which station it had to be relayed to reach Washington. Here is a facsimile of the message: File copy from Samuel Barr of the telegram from SS Amerika via SS Titanic on location of two large icebergs 14 April 1912. (Source: Wikimedia Commons) Jack Phillips Action taken: The location of the bergs 41°27’N, 50°08’W was 12.5 miles from where the RMS Titanic later sank. The message does not mention at what hour the bergs had been observed. However, as a message affecting navigation, it should have been taken to the bridge. The two Marconi operators on board Titanic were 25-year-old John George Phillips, better known as “Jack Phillips”, and his Deputy, 22-year-old Harold Sydney Bride. Maybe Phillips waited until the ship would be within call of Cape Race (at about 8:00 or 8:30 pm). No one on board the RMS Titanic knew about this message outside the Marconi room. The SS Californian, a tramp steamer of The Leyland Line, transporting cargo to whichever port wanted it, commanded by Captain Stanley Lord, left London on April 5, 1912, and was on her way to Boston, Massachusetts. Although she was certified to carry up to 47 passengers, she carried none during this trip. She had a crew of 55 men. At 6:30 pm she sighted three bergs to her southward, 15 miles (24 km) north of the course the RMS Titanic was heading. At 7:30 pm, Cyril Evans, the only wireless operator of the SS Californian (call sign MWL), sent a wireless message of the ship’s position to their sister ship SS Antillian: “To Captain, ‘Antillian’, 6.30 pm apparent ship’s time; lat. 42°3’N, long. 49°9’W. Three large bergs five miles to southward of us. Regards. – Lord.” Action taken: Harold Bride, the other wireless operator on RMS Titanic intercepted the message, but delivered it to the ship’s bridge only at 10:20 pm. Later, Bride said that he could not remember to whom he delivered this message. .At 9:40 pm, the Marconi station of the MV Mesaba (call sign MMU) belonging to the Atlantic Transport Line sent the following message: “From ‘Mesaba’ to ‘Titanic’ and all eastbound ships. Ice report in lat. 42°N to 41°25’N, long. 49° to long. 50°30’W. Saw much heavy pack ice and great number large icebergs. Also field ice. Weather good, clear.” Action taken: This message clearly indicated the presence of ice in the immediate vicinity of the RMS Titanic and was not delivered to the deck or to any of the officers. Harold Bride This message never left the Titanic’s radio room because the wireless set had broken down the day before, resulting in a backlog of messages that the two radio operators Jack Phillips and Harold Bride were trying to clear. At the time time this message reached Titanic’s radio room an exhausted radio operator Harold Bride was getting some much needed sleep. Phillips may have failed to grasp the significance of the message as he was preoccupied with transmitting and receiving messages for passengers via the relay station at Cape Race, Newfoundland. At Longitude 42°05’N, 50°07’W, a position to the south of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, SS Californian was confronted by a large ice field. Captain Stanley Lord decided to halt the ship at 10:21 pm and wait until morning to proceed further. Officers of SS Californian. Front row, left to right: Captain Lord, Chief Officer Stewart. Back row, left to right: 2nd Officer Stone, 3rd Officer Groves. Around 11 pm, Lord saw a light in the east, but thought it could be a rising star. At 11:10 pm Third Officer C.V. Groves on deck, also saw the lights of a ship 10 or 12 miles away. To him, it was clearly a large liner as he saw brightly lit multiple decks. Fifteen minutes later Groves informed Captain Lord of what he saw. They tried to contact the other ship using a Morse lamp, but did not see any reciprocal reply. The Captain then asked his wireless operator Evans if he knew of any ships in the area. Evans said: “only the Titanic.” Captain Lord instructed Evans to call RMS Titanic and inform her that the Californian was stopped, surrounded by ice. When Evans tried to convey the message the RMS Titanic‘s on-duty wireless operator, Jack Phillips, was busy working on a large backlog of personal messages sent and received from the wireless station at Cape Race, Newfoundland. The relative proximity of SS Californian made signals sent from it loud in Phillips’ headphones. So, Phillips rebuked Evans with: “Shut up, shut up! I am busy; I am working Cape Race!” Evans waited and at 11:30 pm when he did not receive any reply from Phillips he switched off the wireless and went to bed. Violet Jessop was a firm believer in the power of prayer. As a devout Catholic she always had a rosary in her apron. In her memoirs, Violet says she had taken along with her belongings a copy of a translated Hebrew prayer that an old Irish woman had given her. On that fateful day, after settling down in her bunk she read the strangely worded prayer supposed to protect one who read it against fire and water. Then, she persuaded her roommate, a stewardess (according to editor John Maxtone- Graham, possibly Elizabeth Leather) to read it. . . Titanic – A painting by Ken Marschall In 1911, RMS Titanic was the second of three Olympic class ocean liners owned and operated by the White Star Line of steamships. It was the largest ocean cruiser afloat at the time it entered service. Harland and Wolff built the ship in their shipyard on Queen’s Island, now known as the Titanic Quarter, in Belfast Harbour. Thomas Andrew, the managing director and head of the drafting department for the shipbuilding company was her naval architect in charge of the plans for the ocean liner. It took about 26 months to build it. Although RMS Titanic was virtually identical to the class lead ship RMS Olympic, a few modifications were made to differentiate the two ships. RMS Titanic departing Southampton on April 10, 1912. Author: F.G.O. Stuart (1843-1923) RMS Titanic was launched at 12:15 pm on May 31, 1911 in the presence of Lord William Pirrie – a leading Irish shipbuilder and businessman, J. Pierpoint Morgan – an American financier and banker, and J. Bruce Ismay (son of Thomas Henry Ismay) – chairman and managing director of the White Star Line of steamships, and 100,000 onlookers. It is alleged that 22 tons of soap and tallow were spread on the slipway to lubricate the vessel’s passage into the River Lagan. Captain Edward John Smith, RD, RNR Captain Edward John Smith, RD, RNR Edward John Smith, RD, RNR (January 27, 1850 – April 15, 1912) joined the White Star Line in March 1880 as the Fourth Officer of SS Celtic. He served aboard the company’s liners to Australia and to New York City and quickly rose in status. In 1887, he received his first White Star command, the SS Republic. From 1895 on, Smith was captain of SS Majestic for nine years. He gained a reputation among his passengers and crew members for his quiet pomposity. Most England’s elite preferred to traverse the Atlantic only in a ship captained by him, thus he became known as the “Millionaires’ Captain“. From 1904 on, Smith commanded the White Star Line’s newest ships on their maiden voyages. In 1904, he was given command of the then-largest ship in the world, the RMS Baltic. Her maiden voyage from Liverpool to New York, that set sail on June 29, 1904, went without incident. After three years with RMS Baltic, Smith was given his second new big ship, the RMS Adriatic and once again the maiden voyage went without any untoward incident. On board the RMS Titanic Violet Jessop was one of the happiest stewardesses while working on the Olympic. But, after the Hawke incident, she was apprehensive in joining as a stewardess on any ship. However, her friends persuaded her to join the heavily advertised ‘unsinkable’ Titanic as they thought it would be a ‘wonderful experience’ to serve on her. On April 10, 1912, Violet, ‘dressed in a new ankle-length brown suit’ set out in a horse-drawn Hansom cab to join the brand new ship as a stewardess at her berth in Southampton. The same day RMS Titanic left Southampton on its maiden voyage to New York. Bruce Ismay usually accompanied his ships on their maiden voyages, and the Titanic was one of them. There were 908 crew members, including Violet Jessop on board the RMS Titanic under the command of Captain Edward Smith. Most of the crew members were not seamen. They were divided into three principal departments: Deck, Engine, and Victualling. Of these crew members only 23 were female, mainly stewardesses. Also among the crew were bakers, chefs, butchers, fishmongers, dishwashers, stewards, gymnasium instructors, laundrymen, waiters, bed-makers, cleaners, etc. The ship even had a printer, who produced a daily newspaper for passengers called the Atlantic Daily Bulletin with the latest news received by the ship’s wireless operators. Southampton is a major port and the largest city on the south coast of England. Out of the 908 crew members, 699 of the crew came from Southampton, and 40% were natives of the city. Most of the crew signed on in Southampton on April 6, 1912. Some specialist crew members were self-employed or were subcontractors. There were: five postal clerks, who worked for the Royal Mail and the United States Post Office Department; the staff of the First Class À La Carte Restaurant and the Café Parisien; the radio operators, employed by Marconi; and the eight musicians employed by an agency and travelling as second-class passengers. Violet says she became a friend of the Scottish violinist Jock Hume. The pay of crew members varied greatly. Captain Edward Smith was paid £105 a month. Violet Jessop and the other stewardesses were paid £3 10s. The lower-paid victualling staff were allowed to supplement their wages through tips from passengers. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, millions of Europeans immigrated to the United States and Canada. White Star was among the first shipping lines to have passenger ships with inexpensive accommodation for third-class passengers, in addition to luxury first-class and second-class berths. The White Star Line’s quartet of revolutionary liners had the largest carrying capacity for third-class passengers: RMS Celtic of 1901 had a capacity for 2,352 passengers; RMS Cedric of 1903 and RMS Baltic of 1904 had a capacity for 2,000 passengers each; and RMS Adriatic of 1907 had a capacity for 1,900 passengers. The passengers on RMS Titanic included some of the wealthiest people in the world: 325 first-class and 285 second-class passengers, as well as 706 third-class passengers – mostly emigrants from Great Britain, Ireland, Scandinavia and from countries throughout Europe seeking a new life in North America. The following photos are from scenes enacted by actors for the play TITANIC at the Barrow-Civic Theatre, at 1223 Liberty Street, Franklin, Pennsylvania, USA. TITANIC – First Class Passengers. (Source: titanic-bct.blogspot.in) . TITANIC – Second Class Passengers. (Source: titanic-bct.blogspot.in) . TITANIC – Third Class Irish Immigrants (Source: titanic-bct.blogspot.in) . The proud serivce staff of the RMS TITANIC (from left to right) Stewardess Annie Robinson, Stewardess Violet Jessop, Head Steward Henry Etches, Mrs. Latimer, and Stewardess Mary Hutchinson. (Source: titanic-bct.blogspot.in) On April 10, 1912, at noon RMS Titanic left Southampton on its maiden voyage to New York. She called at Cherbourg in France at 6:35 pm. After disembarking 15 first and seven second class passengers, the ship took aboard 142 first, 30 second and 102 third class passengers. It left Cherbourg at 8:10 pm for Queenstown (now Cobh) in Ireland. The ship reached Queenstown at 11:30 am. After disembarking and embarking passengers, she set out at 1:30 pm on her fatal voyage towards New York with a total of 2,224 people: 908 crew members, 325 first class, 285 second class and 706 third class passengers. RMS Titanic, painted by 16-year-old Ken Marschall (Source : greenwichworkshop.com) In her memoirs, Violet Jessop mentions Thomas Andrews, the naval architect in charge of the plans for the ocean liner RMS Titanic. Like all other crew members, she too greatly admired him for he was the only person who heeded the requests of the crew for improvements in their quarters. She wrote: “Often during our rounds we came upon our beloved designer going about unobtrusively with a tired face but a satisfied air. He never failed to stop for a cheerful word, his only regret that we were ‘getting further from home.‘ We all knew the love he had for that Irish home of his and suspected that he longed to get back to the peace of its atmosphere for a much needed rest and to forget ship designing for awhile.” During the voyage, Bruce Ismay talked about a possible test of speed if time permitted. . . By T.V. Antony Raj . The Biblical narrative of Jonah in the Old Testament, set in or around the 8th century BC, concerns the disobedient prophet Jonah. God orders Jonah: “Set out for the great city of Nineveh, and preach against it; for their wickedness has come before me.” But Jonah chose to flee “away from the LORD” to Tarshish by sea, geographically in the opposite direction. He went down to Joppa, found a ship going to Tarshish. The LORD, however, hurled a great wind upon the sea, and the storm was so great that the ship was about to break up. Then, the sailors were afraid and each one cried to his god. To lighten the ship they threw its cargo into the sea. The sailors cast lots, and the lot fell on Jonah. Jonah admitted his disobedience to God. The sailors asked, “What shall we do with you, that the sea may calm down for us?” Jonah responded, “Pick me up and hurl me into the sea and then the sea will calm down for you. For I know that this great storm has come upon you because of me.” Since the sea was growing more and more stormy they picked up Jonah and hurled him into the sea, and the sea stopped raging. But the LORD sent a great fish to swallow Jonah, and he remained in the belly of the fish three days and three nights. Jonah prayed to God in his affliction. God commanded the fish to spew Jonah out. Violet Constance Jessop (October 2, 1887 – May 5, 1971) Violet Constance Jessop (October 2, 1887 – May 5, 1971) was an ocean liner stewardess and nurse notable for surviving the disasters associated with the British White Star Line’s trio of Olympic-class liners: RMS Olympic, RMS Titanic and HMHS Britannic. Was Violet Jessop a 20th century Lady Jonah? In the mid 1880s, her father, William Jessop immigrated to the Argentine Republic from Dublin to try his hand at sheep farming. In 1886, his fiancée, Katherine Kelly from Dublin joined him. Violet Jessop was the first of nine children born to them. Violet contracted tuberculosis at an early age. However, she survived even though her doctor predicted that she would succumb to the illness. Despite a delayed education, Violet benefited from an American schooling in Argentina. SS Orinoco (Source: clydesite.co.uk) After William Jessop died in Mendoza, Katherine Kelly moved to Great Britain with her children where she found a job as a stewardess for the Royal Mail Line. Violet attended a convent school under the tutelage of Breton nuns in Kent. When Katherine became ill, Violet left school at an early age to act as a parental surrogate to four younger brothers. Like her mother, Violet decided to become a ship stewardess. In the early 20th century, most women working as stewardesses were middle-aged, but Violet just 21-years-old and looked beautiful which proved to be a disadvantage in finding a position as a stewardess because Employers believed that her youth and good looks would cause problems with the crew and passengers. Violet solved the problem by making herself look homely by wearing old clothes and no makeup while attending interviews. In 1908, Violet joined as a stewardess aboard the Royal Mail Line’s passenger-cargo vessel the SS Orinoco that plied between Southampton and the West Indies. From then on, her seagoing career continued with few interruptions for 42 years. John Maxtone-Graham the editor of “Titanic Survivor: The Newly Discovered Memoirs of Violet Jessop Who Survived both the Titanic and Britannic Disasters,” said her beauty increased her troubles with the “philandering captains and pursers, loquacious or insufferable fellow stewardesses, and an array of sometimes horrifying passengers.” During her career as a stewardess on various ships, at least three men proposed to her, of while one was an incredibly wealthy first-class passenger. The White Star Line and Harland & Wolff Harland & Wolff Heavy Industries Limited in Belfast, Northern Ireland, is a Northern Irish heavy industrial company, specializing in shipbuilding and offshore construction. The company was formed in 1861 by Edward James Harland and Hamburg-born Gustav Wilhelm Wolff, who lived in the United Kingdom from age 14. The Belfast shipbuilders had a long-established relationship dating back to 1867 with the White Star Line founded in Liverpool, England, by John Pilkington and Henry Wilson in 1845. White Star Line concentrated on the Liverpool to New York shipping services. They financed their heavy investment in new ships by borrowing from the Royal Bank of Liverpool. The bank failed in October 1867 leaving White Star Line with an overwhelming debt of £527,000 (£39,510,442 as of 2014) and forced into bankruptcy. On January 18, 1868, Thomas Henry Ismay, a director of the National Line, purchased the house flag, trade name and goodwill of the bankrupt company for £1,000, (£76,182 as of 2014) intending to operate large ships on the North Atlantic service. Thomas Ismay was president of White Star Line till 1899 and had several ships under his authority. Most of these ships were chartered. Gustav Christian Schwabe, a prominent Liverpool merchant, and his nephew, Gustav Wilhelm Wolff, approached Thomas Ismay during a game of billiards. Schwabe offered to finance the new line if Ismay had his ships built by Wolff’s company, Harland & Wolff. Thomas Ismay agreed, and established a partnership with the agreement with the stipulation that the shipbuilders would not build any vessels for the rivals of White Star Line. Harland and Wolff were given a great deal of latitude in designing ships for the White Star Line. Cost considerations were relatively low on the agenda and the shipbuilders were authorized to spend whatever on the ships and would be paid cost plus a fixed five percent profit margin. White Star Line placed their first order with Harland & Wolff on July 30, 1869 and began operating again in 1871 between New York and Liverpool, with a call at Queenstown. It has long been a custom with many shipping lines to have a common theme for the names of their ships. White Star Line named their ships ending in –ic. In the late 19th century, White Star Line sought to fund construction of two ships, SS Majestic and SS Teutonic through the British government. The government accepted the proposition with the stipulation that the Royal Navy would have access to the two ocean liners in a time of war. SS Majestic (1890) Harland & Wolff built SS Majestic for White Star Line and launched her on June 29, 1889. After fitting the ship during the next nine months, it was delivered to White Star Line in March, 1890. On April 2, 1890, SS Majestic left Liverpool on her maiden voyage to New York. In 1895, 45-year-old English naval reserve officer Edward John Smith, who years later would gain lasting fame as the captain of the RMS Titanic was given command of SS Majestic. He served as her captain for nine years. When the Boer War started in 1899, SS Majestic under Smith’s command transported troops to Cape Colony. The ship made two trips to South Africa, in December 1899 and in February 1900, without any adverse incident. Thomas Ismay died on November 23, 1899 and his son J. Bruce Ismay succeeded him as the chairman of White Star Line. He decided to build four ocean liners to surpass the RMS Oceanic built by his father: the ships were dubbed the ‘Big Four’: RMS Celtic, RMS Cedric, RMS Baltic, and RMS Adriatic. These vessels were designed more for luxury and for speed than safety. In 1902, J.P. Morgan & Co., was organizing the formation of the International Mercantile Marine Company (IMM). It was an Atlantic shipping combine which absorbed several major American and British lines. Bruce Ismay negotiated the sale of the White Star Line to J.P. Morgan&Co. The White Star Line became one of the IMM operating companies. In February 1904, Bruce Ismay became president of the IMM, with the support of Morgan. Violet Jessop’s Career with White Star Line After a brief assignment aboard SS Orinoco, Violet Jessop was hired by the White Star Line as a stewardess aboard SS Majestic. In the early 20th century, the Harland & Wolff shipyard built a trio of ocean liners for the White Star Line, which were popularly called the Olympic-class ocean liners. They were: RMS Olympic, RMS Titanic and RMS Britannic. The designs for both Olympic and Titanic were on the board at the same time. However, to ease pressures on the shipyard, construction of the Olympic began three months before Titanic. Several years would pass before Britannic would be launched. In 1912, the trio were by far the largest vessels of the White Star Line’s fleet of 29 steamers and tenders. The RMS Olympic RMS Olympic built by Harland & Wolff was the lead ship and the namesake of the White Star Line’s trio of Olympic-class liners. Launched on October 20, 1910, it was the largest civilian transatlantic luxury ocean liner at that time – nearly 100 feet (30 meters) longer than any other ship. Edward Smith, who had earned the reputation as one of the world’s most experienced sea captains was given the first command of the lead ship. RMS Olympic arriving at New York on her maiden voyage in June 1911. The maiden voyage of RMS Olympic from Southampton to New York concluded successfully on June 21, 1911. However, as the ship was docking at Pier 59 in New York harbor under the command of Captain Smith with the assistance of a harbor pilot, one of the 12 assisting tugs got caught in the backwash of Olympic, collided with the ship, and for a brief moment was trapped under Olympic‘s stern. Eventually, the tug managed to free itself and limped to the docks. During World War I, RMS Olympic served as a troop ship and was fondly remembered as the “Old Reliable“. After the war, it returned to civilian service. Throughout the 1920s and in the first half of the 1930s, she served as an ocean liner. She was in service for 24 years from 1911 to 1935. After 1930, the slump in trade during the Great Depression, and increased competition, made her operation increasingly unprofitable for the White Star Line. On June 14, 1911, the 23-year-old Violet Jessop boarded the RMS Olympic to work as a stewardess on it. Three months later, on September 20, 1911, shortly after leaving Southampton at the start of her planned fifth voyage to New York, RMS Olympic collided with the old protected Royal Navy cruiser HMS Hawke off the Isle of Wight, the largest island of England in the English Channel. At the time of this incident Violet Jessop was on board the RMS Olympic. Satellite image showing the Solent, separating the Isle of Wight from mainland England (Source: Earth Sciences and Image Analysis, NASA-Johnson Space Center) The collision took place as RMS Olympic and HMS Hawke were running parallel to each other through the Solent. The wide radius taken by RMS Olympic to turn to starboard took the commander of the HMS Hawke by surprise and its bow designed to sink ships by ramming, tore two large gashes on the RMS Olympic‘s starboard side, one above and one below the waterline resulting in the flooding of two of her watertight compartments and a twisted propeller shaft. The damage to RMS Olympic and HMS Hawke (Source: Popular Mechanics Magazine December 1911) HMS Hawke nearly capsized after she sustained severe damage to her bow. Despite the heavy damage to both vessels, there were no casualties and none seriously injured. Both vessels managed to steam back to Southampton for repairs. The fifth voyage of RMS Olympic to New York was cancelled. After two weeks of temporary repairs in Southampton, RMS Olympic returned to Belfast for further repairs. On 30th November 1911, she returned to active service. Though Violet Jessop survived the collision of RMS Olympic with the HMS Hawke, she was slated for more traumatic experience a year later on RMS Titanic and on the RMS Britannic in 1916.	Queenstown
What was the title of the record sung by Clodagh Rogers when she represented the UK at the 1971 Eurovision Song Contest ?	RMS Baltic \| Impressions Impressions . HMHS Britannic – Coloured by Cyril Codus (Source: httptitanic-model.com) On November 21, 1916, Violet Jessop, after attending an early service by Rev. John A. Fleming, one of the ship’s chaplains, was having breakfast along with others in the dining room. In the dining room was John Priest, a fireman or stoker who was on board along with Violet Jessop on the RMS Olympic when she collided with the HMS Hawke, and was also aboard the RMS Titanic when she sank on April 15, 1912. At 8:12 am, a loud explosion reverberated around the ship. HMHS Britannic apparently struck a submerged sea mine. Violet Jessop later wrote: “Suddenly, there was a dull deafening roar. Britannic gave a shiver, a long drawn out shudder from stem to stern, shaking the crockery on the tables, breaking things till it subsided as she slowly continued on her way. We all knew she had been struck...” Later on, Reverend Fleming described the blast as “if a score of plate glass windows had been smashed together.” In his official report Captain Charles Alfred Barlett said: “…a tremendous but muffled explosion occurred, the ship trembling and vibrating most violently fore and aft, continuing for some time; the ship fell off about 3 points from her course.” Some aboard the ship thought the ship had hit a small boat. Even so, the doctors and nurses left the dining room immediately for their posts. Many others outside the dining room felt a forceful bump that swept them off their feet. Captain Barlett said: “Water was seen to be thrown up to E or D deck forward at the time of the explosion, and a cloud of black smoke was seen, the fumes for some time being suffocating.” The first reports brought to Captain Bartlett and Chief Officer Hume on the bridge were alarming; HMHS Britannic had apparently struck a submerged sea mine. The explosion had taken place low on the starboard side between holds 2 and 3. The watertight bulkhead between hold 1 and the forepeak was damaged. Britannic’s flooding limit. Green:Firemens tunnel. Purple: Watertight bulkheads. Digital elaboration by Michail Michailakis. (Source: hmhsbritannic.weebly.com) The first four watertight compartments started filling with water. The watertight door of the firemen’s tunnel connecting the firemen’s quarters in the bow with boiler room 6 was severely damaged and water started flowing into that boiler room. The watertight door between boiler rooms 6 and 5 also failed to close properly. Captain Barlett later said: “The damage was most extensive, probably the whole of the fore part of the ship’s bottom being destroyed and in my opinion penetrating to No.6 boiler room.“ To aggravate matters, as the ship’s list increased, water reached the level of the portholes that had been opened previously by the nurses to ventilate the wards. Captain Bartlett sent a distress signal and ordered the crew to get ready to launch the lifeboats. At 8:35 am, Captain Bartlett gave the order to abandon ship and the crew members started the drill to lower the lifeboats for evacuation. Death of the Britannic.a(Artist – Ken Marschall) At 8:35 am, Captain Bartlett gave the order to abandon ship and the crew members started the drill to lower the lifeboats for evacuation. An officer ordered two lifeboats to be lowered. A group of panic-stricken stewards and some sailors rushed immediately and occupied the two lifeboats. The officer decided not to remove the frightened stewards from the lifeboats as he did not want them later to obstruct the evacuation of the people on board. He ordered all the sailors to get out except one on each lifeboat to take charge of it as it left the sinking ship. The officer then ordered the lifeboats to be lowered, but stopped lowering them when they were about six feet above the churning water as he realized the engines were still running. He waited for further orders from the bridge. Shortly after, the order came from the bridge not to launch any lifeboats as the Captain Bartlett had decided to beach the Britannic. Captain Bartlett made a dire try to beach the ship on the shores of Kea, about three miles out to his right. Unfortunately, the steering gear did not respond due to the list and she slowly started to turn. The nurses were loaded onto the lifeboats for evacuation after being counted and grouped by Matron E. A Dowse. A group of firemen/stokers furtively took a lifeboat from the poop deck without being authorized. Seeing the lifeboat was not filled to its maximum capacity, Assistant Commander Harry William Dyke ordered the firemen to pick up some men who had already jumped into the water. In the next 50 minutes, the crew managed to lower 35 of 58 lifeboats. Of the lifeboats assigned to Third Officer David Laws three were lowered without his knowledge. Using automatic release gear they dropped six feet and hit the water violently. The gigantic propellers that were still running were almost out of the water and the two of the three unauthorized lifeboats started drifting towards the giant rotating blades of the portside propeller. Archie Jewell, the lookout, was in one of the lifeboats which was being sucked into the ship’s still turning propellers. However, he survived. In a letter to his sisters Archie described his escape: “… most of us jumped in the waterbut it was no good we was pulled right in under the blades…I shut my eyes and said good bye to this world, but I was struck with a big piece of the boat and got pushed right under the blades and I was goin around like a top…I came up under some of the wreckage … everything was goin black to me when some one on top was strugling and pushed the wreckage away so I came up just in time I was nearly done for … there was one poor fellow drowning and he caught hold of me but I had to shake him off so the poor fellow went under.“ Violet Jessop was in one the other lifeboat, No. 4. In her memoirs she wrote: “... the lifeboat started gliding down rapidly, scraping the ship’s side, splintering the glass in our faces from the boxes, which formed, when lighted, the green lighted band around a hospital ship’s middle, and making a terrible impact as we landed on the water...” “… eyes were looking with unexpected horror at the debris and the red streaks all over the water. The falls of the lowered lifeboat, left hanging, could now be seen with human beings clinging to them, like flies on flypaper, holding on for dear life, with a growing fear of the certain death that awaited them if they let go…” Moments after touching the water, her lifeboat clustered with the other lifeboats already in the water, struggling to get free from the ship’s side, but it was rapidly drifting into the propellers. “… every man jack in the group of surrounding boats took a flying leap into the sea. They came thudding from behind and all around me, taking to the water like a vast army of rats … I turned around to see the reason for this exodus and, to my horror, saw Britannic’s huge propellers churning and mincing up everything near them-men, boats and everything were just one ghastly whirl“. To avoid being sucked into the Britannic’s propellers that chopped to shreds the lifeboats, one after another, Violet overcame her fear and jumped out of the lifeboat even though she could not swim. She struck her head on the ship’s keel. An arm grabbed her, but Violet shirked it off fearing the arm was that of another person drowning like herself. She surfaced because of the life-belt she was wearing and her clothes almost torn off her. “… The first thing my smarting eyes beheld was a head near me, a head split open, like a sheep’s head served by the butcher, the poor brains trickling over on to the khaki shoulders. All around were heart-breaking scenes of agony, poor limbs wrenched out as if some giant had torn them in his rage. The dead floated by so peacefully now, men coming up only to go down again for the last time, a look of frightful horror on their faces…“. At this exact moment, a third lifeboat was about to be shred to pieces by the propellers. Violet Jessop closed her eyes to stop watching the impending massacre. Unaware of the bloodbath generated by the monstrous propeller blades, Captain Bartlett gave orders to stop the engines. The propellers stopped turning, and the occupants of this boat pushed against the blades and escaped with their lives. Violet Jessop was rescued once again by a lifeboat. Around 8:50 am noticing the rate of the flooding had decreased, Captain Bartlett gave orders to restart the engines in a second attempt to beach the ship. But he immediately aborted the attempt as water was reported on Deck D. At 9:00 am, when the water reached the bridge, Captain Bartlett sounded one last blow on the whistle alerting the ship’s engineers, who had remained at their posts until the last possible moment, to evacuate the ship. Captain Bartlett swam from the bridge to a collapsible lifeboat. From there he coordinated the rescue operations. The ship rolled over her starboard side. The funnels collapsed. The machinery on the deck fell into the sea. Location where HMHS Britannic sank. At 9:07 am, 55 minutes after the explosion, HMHS Britannic, built to be an ocean cruiser, envisaged to be the last word in luxury travel, but never served as a transatlantic passenger liner, sank and vanished into the depths at 37°42’05.0″N 24°17’02.0″E, on its sixth voyage as a hospital ship transporting sick and wounded soldiers. Reverend John Fleming who left the sinking ship in the second-last boat, described the sinking: “Gradually the waters licked up and up the decks — the furnaces belching forth volumes of smoke, as if the great engines were in their last death agony; one by one the monster funnels melted away as wax before a flame, and crashed upon the decks, till the waters rushed down; then report after report rang over the sea, telling of the explosions of the boilers. The waters moved over the deck still, the bows of the ship dipping deeper and deeper into the sea, until the rudder stood straight up from the surface of the water, and, poised thus for a few moments, dived perpendicularly into the depths, leaving hardly a ripple behind. A sense of the desert overwhelmed my soul.“ . HMHS Britannic (Author: Allan Green, 1878 – 1954) The HMHS Britannic was the third and largest Olympic-class ocean liner of the White Star Line larger than the RMS Titanic. Some sources claim the ship was to be named “Gigantic“. At least one set of documentations exists, in which Noah Hingley & Sons Ltd., in Netherton, near Dudley, United Kingdom, discuss the order for the ship’s anchors; this documentation states that the name of the ship is Gigantic. It appears more probable that the name Gigantic must have been used informally in correspondence with Harland & Wolff before being dropped quietly. However, Tom McCluskie affirmed that in his capacity as Archive Manager and Historian at Harland & Wolff, he “never saw any official reference to the name ‘Gigantic’ being used or proposed for the third of the Olympic class vessels.” The keel for Britannic was laid on November 30, 1911, at the Harland & Wolff shipyard in Belfast, 13 months after the launch of the RMS Olympic. Her watertight bulkhead was extended, higher than Titanic’s had been. Britannic was designed to carry 48 open lifeboats. Of these, 46 were to be 34 feet long, the largest lifeboats ever carried until then and two of the 46 were to be motor propelled equipped with wireless sets for communications. The other two were to be 26-foot cutters placed on either side of the bridge. Though Britannic was intended to enter service as a transatlantic passenger liner, she never crossed the Atlantic carrying the rich and the poor to the New World. After improvements were introduced as a consequence of the Titanic disaster, Britannic was launched at 11:10 am on February 26, 1914. Around 20 tonnes of tallow, train oil and soft soap were used to move the gigantic ship down the slipway. In 81 seconds she stood afloat in the water. Later, she was towed to the Abercon Basin for fitting by five tugs. The British press hailed her as “a twentieth century ship in every sense of the word” and “the highest achievement of her day in the practise of shipbuilding and marine engineering.” However, after launching, she was laid up at her builders in Belfast for many months. In August 1914, when the first World War broke out, the shipyards in Britain focused on converting many liners for Transport of Troops. Some were converted to Hospital ships. Britannic‘s maiden voyage scheduled for April 1915 was cancelled. On November 13, 1915, after being docked for 15 months, the British Admiralty requisitioned Britannic, which was just an empty hull, to use it as a hospital ship. She was readied in just six weeks before being put to use as a hospital ship and was given ship number 9618. The public rooms on the upper decks were converted into wards for the wounded soldiers. The large first class dining rooms and the reception rooms were converted into operating theatres and main wards. Deck B was furnished to house the medical officers. The lower decks were fitted out for medical orderlies, other staff and the less wounded patients. In all, the ship was fitted to carry 3,309 people. Digital plans of the Britannic in hospital ship colours by Cyril Codus. (Source: hmhsbritannic.weebly.com) The ship’s hull was repainted in the internationally recognized colours of a hospital ship; a green band was painted along each side of the ship broken by three large red crosses, to provide her safe passage at sea. For protection at night, two large red crosses were painted on both sides of the boat deck and were highlighted at night with a band of green electric bulbs. Renamed HMHS (His Majesty’s Hospital Ship) Britannic, she entered service on December 23, 1915 under the command of Commodore Charles Alfred Bartlett. On December 23, 1915, she entered service as His Majesty’s Hospital Ship – HMHS Britannic. 23-year-old Violet Jessop in her Voluntary Aid Detachment uniform while assigned to HMHS Britannic After her traumatic experience on the RMS Titanic, Violet Jessop secured a position with the British Red Cross as a stewardess. She was posted on HMHS Britannic. Along with Violet on board was 27-year-old Arthur John Priest, a fireman / stoker, who, like her, had survived the collision of the RMS Olympic with the HMS Hawke, and escaped from the RMS Titanic when she sank on April 15, 1912. Also, on board was 23-year-old Archie Jewel, one of the six lookout men on the deck of the ill-fated Titanic. On the night of April 14, 1912, he had worked the 8 pm to 10 pm shift and was in his berth when the ship hit the iceberg at 11:40 pm. He was one of the first to leave the ship on the starboard side at 12:45 pm in lifeboat 7, with just 28 people on it while the full capacity was for 65. After the Titanic, Archie was on board the SS Donegal which was sunk by enemy action in April 1917. On December 23, 1915, HMHS Britannic left Liverpool on her maiden voyage to Moudros, on the island of Lemnos, North Aegean, Greece under the command of Commodore Charles Alfred Bartlett. She reached Moudros eight days later on December 31, 1915 and returned to Southampton on January 9, 1916. After completing two more voyages to Naples, she was laid up on April 12, 1916. On August 28, 1916, HMHS Britannic was recalled to active service and was given a new Transport Identification Number, G618. She made two more voyages to Moudros returning with the sick and wounded. The HMHS Britannic left Southampton at 2:23 pm on November 12, 1916 with Captain Charles Bartlett in command on her 6th outbound voyage to Moudros. On arriving at Naples on November 17, 1916, she took on board more coal and water. The ship was secured for two days at Naples due to a storm. On Sunday, November 19, 1916, finding a brief shift in the weather, Captain Bartlett decided to sail away from Naples. A total of 1,066 people – sick and wounded soldiers, the ship’s crew, and the medical staff – were on board. As HMHS Britannic left the port, a storm set in and the sea rose again. The following morning, the storm passed and the sea became calm and the ship passed the Strait of Messina without any further problems. In the early hours of Tuesday, November 21, 1916, the ship rounded Cape Matapan. At 8:00 am, Captain Bartlett changed course for the Kea Channel, in the Aegean Sea, lying between the islands of Makronisi (to her port side) and Kea (to her starboard side), just off Cape Sounion on the mainland of Greece. Chief Officer Robert Hume and Fourth Officer D. McTowis were on the Bridge along with him. . . R.M.S. Carpathia by Scottvisnjic At full speed it took four hours for the RMS Carpathia, working her way through dangerous ice fields in the dark, to reach the RMS Titanic. When Carpathia arrived at the scene at 4 am on the morning of April 15, 1912, Titanic had already sunk. Carpathia took on around 700 survivors of the disaster from Titanic‘s lifeboats. It rescued the last of the survivors in the lifeboats by 9:15 am. Members of a rescue crew in a whaling boat attempt to retrieve the floating body of a Titanic victim. Photograph by Joseph H. Bailey. (Source: channel.nationalgeographic.com) Out of the 2,224 people aboard RMS Titanic, 710 were saved, leaving 1,517 dead. The figures below are from the British Board of Trade report on the disaster. Passenger category 32% 68% Captain Edward Smith, Chief Officer Henry Wilde, First Officer William Murdoch, Thomas Andrews, the naval architect of RMS Titanic, Jack Phillips, the senior Marconi radio operator, were among those lost with the sinking ship. In this 1912 photo made available by the Library of Congress, Harold Bride, surviving wireless operator of the Titanic, with feet bandaged, is carried up the ramp of RMS Carpathia Harold Bride after being picked up by the RMS Carpathia assisted Harold Cottam in dealing with a constant exchange of messages in the following hours. Lifeboat 12 reached the RMS Carpathia at 8:30 am where Jack was reunited with his mother. A kind passenger on the Carpathia gave Jack his pajamas and a bunk to sleep. Later, Jack Thayer reflected that the brandy he had drunk on that day was his first shot of hard liquor. After being picked up by the RMS Carpathia, Bruce Ismay was taken to the ship’s doctor, Frank Mcgee’s cabin. Ismay gave Captain Rostron a message to send to White Star Line’s New York office: “Deeply regret advise you Titanic sank this morning after collision with iceberg, resulting in serious loss of life. Full particulars later.“ During the entire journey to New York on board RMS Carpathia, Ismay never left Dr. Mcgee’s cabin. He did not eat any solid food and had to be kept under the influence of opiates. After visiting Ismay, Jack Thayer said: “[Ismay] was staring straight ahead, shaking like a leaf. Even when I spoke to him, he paid absolutely no attention. I have never seen a man so completely wrecked.” The RMS Carpathia finally reached New York on April 18, 1912. Guglielmo Marconi, visited his exhausted radio operators on board. He himself had plans to to cross the Atlantic on the ill-fated RMS Titanic, but had changed his plans. He arrived In New York on the RMS Lusitania. After their arrival in New York, Jack Thayer, his mother and Miss Fleming took the Thayer’s private train carriage from Jersey City, NJ, back home to Haverford. After graduating from the University of Pennsylvania, Jack Thayer took on banking. A few years later he was appointed Financial Vice-President and Treasurer of the University. He served as an artillery officer in the US Army during World War I. He married Lois Cassatt and they had two sons. Edward C. Thayer and John B. Thayer IV. In 1940, conceivably, as an attempt to purge some of the memories that still haunted him, Jack Thayer produced a pamphlet relating his experiences with the Titanic’s sinking in vivid detail in a self-published pamphlet. Just 500 copies were printed exclusively for family and friends. Oceanographer Robert Ballard used the details of Jack Thayer to determine the location of the Titanic and proved that the ship had split in half as it sank, contrary to popular belief, as was finally confirmed when the wreck of the Titanic was discovered. During World War II, both his sons enlisted in the armed services. In 1943, Edward Thayer was a bomber pilot in the Pacific theatre. After his plane was shot down, he was listed as missing and presumed dead. His body was never recovered. When the news of Edward’s death reached him, Jack Thayer, became extremely depressed. On the 32nd remembrance day of the RMS Titanic‘s collision with the iceberg, Jack Thayer’s mother Marian died. The loss of his mother depressed him further. On September 20, 1945, Jack Thayer committed suicide by cutting his throat and wrists in an automobile at 48th Street and Parkside Avenue in West Philadelphia. He is buried at the Church of the Redeemer Cemetery, Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania. In New York, Bruce Ismay was hosted by Philip Franklin, vice-president of the company. Ismay also received a summons to appear before a Senate committee headed by Republican Senator William Alden Smith the following day and a few weeks later he appeared before the British Board of Trade chaired by Lord Mersey. Bruce Ismay testified that as the ship was in her final moments, he was working at an oar, his back to the ship so as to avoid watching his creation sink beneath the waters of the North Atlantic. During the United States Inquiry he assured that all the vessels of the International Mercantile Marine Company would be equipped with lifeboats in sufficient numbers for all passengers. After the inquiry, Ismay and the surviving officers of the RMS Titanic returned to England aboard RMS Adriatic. Ismay’s reputation was irreparably damaged and he maintained a low public profile after the disaster. London society ostracized Ismay for life and labelled him one of the biggest cowards in history. The American and the British press the American and the British press Bruce Ismay for deserting the ship while women and children were still on board. Some newspapers, even conjectured that Ismay jumped into the boat, despite there being women still near the lifeboat. Some papers called him the “Coward of the Titanic” and others named him as “J. Brute Ismay” and suggested that the White Star flag be changed to a yellow liver. Ben Hecht, then a young journalist in Chicago, wrote a scathing poem titled “Master and Man” for the Chicago Journal contrasting the actions of Captain Edward Smith, the master of RMS Titanic who had just gone to an icy grave with his ship along with a majority of its passengers, and J. Bruce Ismay, chairman and managing director of the White Star Line of steamship safe on the rescue ship RMS Carpathia. Master and Man The Captain stood where a Captain should For the Law of the Sea is grim; The Owner romped while the ship was swamped And no law bothered him. The Captain stood where the Captain should When a Captain’s ship goes down But the Owner led when the women fled, For an Owner must not drown. The Captain sank as a man of Rank, While his Owner turned away; The Captain’s grave was his bridge and brave, He earned his seaman’s pay. To hold your place in the ghastly face of Death on the Sea at Night Is a Seaman’s job, but to flee with the mob Is an Owner’s Noble Right. However, some newspapers claimed Ismay’s escape was justified since he was a passenger just like any other passenger on board the RMS Titanic. Some journalists maintained that Ismay bound by the dictum, “Women and children first” assisted many women and children himself. At the inquiry Bruce Ismay and first-class passenger William Carter said they boarded Collapsible C lifeboat only after there were no more women and children near that lifeboat. On June 30, 1913, Ismay resigned as president of International Mercantile Marine and chairman of the White Star Line, to be succeeded by Harold Sanderson. The above news “J. Bruce Ismay Tells in Whispers How He Escaped Death By Leaving Sinking Titanic in Lifeboat With Women” in The Times Dispatch reminds me of an apocryphal account of how Violet Jessop got into the lifeboat: Violet watched patiently as the crew members loaded the passengers on to lifeboat Later, they called out “Are there any more women before this boat goes out?” Bruce Ismay, who had already got into the boat loaded with women saw Violet and said: “Come along; jump in.“ Violet replied: “I am only a stewardess.“ Ismay said: “Never mind – you are a woman; take your place.“ Just as the boat was being lowered, an officer of the Titanic gave her a baby to look after. According to this unsubstantiated account Violet Jessop would have got into lifeboat C along with Bruce Ismay. Violet Jessop, said later that while on board the RMS Carpathia, a woman without saying a word grabbed the baby Violet was holding and ran off with it; and many years after her retirement on a stormy night Violet received a telephone call from a woman who asked her if she saved a baby on the night the Titanic sank. When Violet replied “Yes,” the caller said, “I was that baby.” When she told this to John Maxtone-Graham, her friend, and biographer, the latter said it would have been most likely some prankster. Violet replied, “No, John, I had never told that story to anyone before I told you now.” The above account is a bit enigmatic. Some sources say that Violet Jessop escaped from the sinking Titanic on lifeboat 16. According to available records, the only baby in lifeboat 16 was 5-month-old Master Assad Alexander Thomas/Tannous who was handed over to 27-year-old Miss Edwina Celia Troutt. The infant was later reunited with his mother on the RMS Carpathia. Also, according to available records there were only two stewardesses on that lifeboat: 28-year-old Miss Evelyn Marsden and 41-year-old Mrs. Mary Kezia Roberts. Many survivors lost all their possessions and became destitute. Many families, those of crew members from Southampton in particular, lost their principal breadwinners and were helped by charitable donations. Empty holes where rivets gave way (Source: history.com) Videos taken at the wreck site of the Titanic by recent expeditions, show empty holes where the rivets gave way. Recent investigations by forensic experts reveal the rivets holding the steel plates are the real culprits leading to the Titanic catastrophe. Tests show flaws in the rivets used in the construction of Titanic. Inferior grade iron was used to manufacture the three million odd rivets that were used to hold the steel plates together. After the demise of RMS Titanic, the SS Majestic was pressed back into service once again, filling the hole in the transatlantic schedule of White Star Line. Even after the horrendous experience on RMS Titanic Violet Jessop continued to work as a stewardess on ocean-liners. Her next posting as a stewardess was on HMHS Britannica. Click image to view video “Titanic At 100 Mystery Solved 720p HD (full movie)” . Maiden voyage of RMS Titanic. (Author: T.V. Antony Raj) On Sunday, April 14, 1912, at 11:40 pm ship’s time, about 2,000 miles (3,200 km) from Queenstown and 375 miles (600 km) south of Newfoundland at 41°43’42″N 49°46’49″W, lookout Frederick Fleet spotted an iceberg directly ahead of the RMS Titanic and alerted the bridge. At that time, the ship was travelling near her maximum speed. The iceberg suspected of having sunk the RMS Titanic. This iceberg was photographed by the chief steward of the liner Prinz Adalbert on the morning of April 15, 1912, just a few miles south of where the “Titanic” went down. The steward hadn’t yet heard about the Titanic. What caught his attention was the smear of red paint along the base of the berg, indication that it had collided with a ship sometime in the previous twelve hours. This photo and information was taken from “UNSINKABLE” The Full Story of RMS Titanic written by Daniel Allen Butler, Stackpole Books 1998. Other accounts indicated that there were several icebergs in the vicinity where the TITANIC collided. First Officer William McMaster Murdoch ordered the ship’s engines to be put in reverse to reduce speed and maneuver the vessel around the obstructing iceberg; but it was too late. The starboard side of the ship grazed the immense iceberg, creating a series of gashes below the waterline. The ship began to founder. At 12:11 am on April 15, 1912, the radio operators Jack Phillips and Harold Bride sent out the first distress signal: “CQD CQD CQD CQD CQD CQD DE MGY MGY MGY MGY MGY MGY” from position 41°44’N 50°24’W, and continued sending the distress signal by wireless. ‘CQD’ transmitted in Morse code as – · – · – – · – – · · is one of the first distress signals adopted for radio use. It is understood by wireless operators to mean, “All stations: distress.” “DE” from French “for” and ‘MGY’ the call sign of Marconi’s wireless telegraph station aboard RMS Titanic. The crew sent distress signals using rockets and Morse code lamp. Unfortunately, the ships that responded to her distress call were not near enough to reach her in time. On the night of Sunday, April 14, 1912, the RMS Carpathia (call sign MPA), a Cunard Line transatlantic passenger steamship commanded by Captain Arthur Henry Rostron, was sailing from New York City to Fiume, Austria-Hungary (now Rijeka, Croatia). Carpathia’s only wireless operator, Harold Cottam, received messages from Cape Race, Newfoundland, stating they had private traffic for the RMS Titanic’s Marconi Room. At 12:11 am on April 15, 1912, he sent a message to RMS Titanic stating that Cape Race had traffic for them. In reply he received the Titanic’s distress signal. Cottam informed Captain Rostron who immediately set a course at maximum speed of 17 knots (20 mph; 31 km/h) to the Titanic’s last known position – approximately 58 miles (93 km) away. To make as much steam as possible available for the engines, the Captain ordered the cutoff of the ship’s heating and hot water. As RMS Carpathia raced from the southeast, it fired rockets to let RMS Titanic know that help was on the way. The RMS Titanic was provided with innovative safety features such as watertight compartments and remotely activated watertight doors. At the outset, to accommodate the luxury features in RMS Titanic, Bruce Ismay ordered the number of lifeboats reduced from 48 to 16, the latter being the minimum allowed by the Board of Trade, based on the Titanic’s projected tonnage. However, during the maiden voyage she carried a total of 20 lifeboats: 14 standard wooden Harland & Wolff lifeboats with a capacity of 65 people each and four Englehardt “collapsible” (wooden bottom, collapsible canvas sides) lifeboats (identified as A to D) with a capacity of 47 people each. In addition, she had two emergency cutters with a capacity of 40 people each. So, there were not enough lifeboats to accommodate all on board. Though there were 2,224 people, including the 908 crew members aboard the ship, there were lifeboats enough only for 1,758 people. The RMS Titanic was less than 75% full during her maiden voyage and had room for 1,000 more people. Lifeboat No. 5 Violet Jessop wrote in her memoirs that she was “comfortably drowsy” in her bunk, but not quite asleep when the collision occurred. The second boat lowered on the starboard side was lifeboat 5. Third Officer Pitman was sent in charge of the boat, having five other crew with him as well as two stewardesses – most probably Violet Jessop and her roommate Elizabeth Mary Leather. Passengers were still a bit reluctant to enter the boats at this time. Violet Jessop wrote in her memoirs: “I was ordered up on deck. Calmly, passengers strolled about. I stood at the bulkhead with the other stewardesses, watching the women cling to their husbands before being put into the boats with their children. Some time after, a ship’s officer ordered us into the boat first to show some women it was safe. As the boat was being lowered the officer called: ‘Here, Miss Jessop. Look after this baby.’ And a bundle was dropped onto my lap.” There were probably 35 or 36 people in the boat when lowered. Lifeboat No. 5 was one of the first boats to reach the Carpathia. The collapsible lifeboat C Bruce Ismay was active on the starboard side all night, urging and assisting passengers into the lifeboats., more or less urging them to get away. Lifeboat No. 1, had left 20-30 minutes earlier. The collapsible lifeboat C had been fitted into a pair of empty davits, a system that is used to lower an emergency lifeboat to the embarkation level to be boarded. The davits had falls of manilla rope to lower the lifeboat into the water. Ismay was standing close to the collapsible lifeboat C. Those near the boat were third class passengers – many from the Middle East. Emily Alice Brown Goldsmith and her young son, Frank John William Goldsmith got into the boat with a few younger lady friends from England. After about 25 to 28 women and children had been assisted into the boat, five crew members were ordered in as well as Quartermaster George Rowe, who had been trying to contact ships in the vicinity by assisting with the Morse lamp and with firing rockets. When there were few seats still free, Ismay and a first class passenger, William Ernest Carter, who had sent his family in lifeboat 4, got on to the lifeboat C as it was about to be lowered. Lifeboat C was probably lowered about 20 minutes before the RMS Titanic sank. It was the ninth and the last boat lowered on the starboard side. While rowing away from the ship four Chinese third class passengers were discovered in the bottom of the boat and were taken into the lifeboat. Lifeboat C had the capacity to hold 49 people. Mrs. Goldsmith thought there were 30 women, five crew members and four Chinese and her son in the boat while QM Rowe thought there were 39, and Bruce Ismay estimated between 40 and 45 in the boat. In all likelihood, there were just under 40 people in the boat. They did not pick up any more people from the cold sea and possibly reached the RMS Carpathia as the tenth or twelfth lifeboat. The Thayers John Borland Thayer (Source: New York Public Library. Online reference – digitalgallery.nypl.org) Marian Longstreth Thayer (Source – French Titanic Society) John Borland (‘Jack’) Thayer Jr. (Source: Independent Newspaper, UK) Two weeks before boarding the RMS Titanic at Cherbourg as first class passengers on April 10, 1912, Second Vice-President of the Pennsylvania Railroad, 49-year-old John Borland Thayer from Haverford, Pennsylvania, his wife 39-year-old Marian Longstreth Thayer (née Morris) and their 17-year-old son John Borland (“Jack”) Thayer Jr. had been in Berlin as guests of the American Consul General and Mrs. Thackara. At night on April 14, 1912, while preparing for bed in his cabin C-70 Jack Thayer noticed the breeze through his half-open porthole stop. Pulling an overcoat over his pajamas he called to his parents cabin C-68 that he was ‘going out to see the fun.’ Jack ran up on A deck on the port side, but could see nothing amiss. He went towards the bow where, as his eyes adjusted to the darkness, he could make out the ice on the forward well deck. Jack Thayer returned to get his parents. They together went to the starboard side of A deck where the father thought he saw small pieces of ice floating around. As they crossed to the port side, they noticed that the ship had developed a list to port. They then returned to their room and dressed. Jack put on a tweed suit and vest with another mohair vest underneath in order to keep warm. Having put on life-belts, with overcoats on top, they went to the deck along with 48-year-old Miss Margaret Fleming, the personal maid of Marian Thayer. When the order was given to women and children to board the boats, John and Jack said goodbye to Marian at the top of the grand staircase on A-Deck. While Marian and her maid went to the port side, John and Jack went to the starboard side. A while after, the two men were surprised to learn from Chief Second Steward George Dodd that Marian and her maid were still on board. Reunited, John, Marion and Margaret went on ahead to find a boat. Jack lagged behind and finally lost them, perhaps he was talking to his friend Milton Clyde Long whom Jack had met for the first time, over coffee that evening; or perhaps he just got caught up in the crowd. Jack searched for his parents for a while, but then, presuming they had probably got into a boat he went forward on the starboard side accompanied by Milton Long. The boats were leaving rapidly and the crowds were large. The two young men stood by the empty davits of a lifeboat that had left. Here, close to the bridge they watched a star through the falls of the davit to measure the rate at which the ship was going down. As the ship began to sink more rapidly and deeper, Jack, a strong swimmer, wanted to jump into the sea as others were doing towards the stern. However, Long persuaded Jack against it. Eventually, as they could not wait anymore, saying goodbye to each other, they jumped up on the rail. Long put his legs over and inquired,, “You are coming, boy, aren’t you?” Jack replied “Go ahead, I’ll be with you in a minute.” Long then slid down the side of the ship. Jack never saw him again. Jack then jumped out, feet first. He surfaced well clear of the ship, he felt he was pushed away from the ship by some force. Later on, Jack Thayer reminisced about the terrifying plunge: “I was pushed out and then sucked down. The cold was terrific. The shock of the water took the breath out of my lungs. Down and down, I went, spinning in all directions. Swimming as hard as I could in the direction which I thought to be away from the ship, I finally came up with my lungs bursting, but not having taken any water.” Sinking of RMS Titanic (Artist: Ken Marschall) At 2:20 am, two hours and forty minutes after the Titanic smashed into the iceberg and drifting to the south at a rate of one knot per hour equating to a 2.66 mile drift, sea water gushed in through open hatches and grates; her forward deck dipped under water and she started sinking rapidly. After In two hours time after, the ship broke in two and sank. All remaining passengers and crew were plunged into lethally cold water around 28°F (−2°C). Even young and fit people would not last longer than 15 minutes in such a temperature. Almost all of those in the water died from hypothermia within 15–30 minutes. Jack Thayer reminisced about the sinking: “The ship seemed to be surrounded with a glare, and stood out of the night as though she were on fire…. The water was over the base of the first funnel. The mass of people on board were surging back, always back toward the floating stern. The rumble and roar continued, with even louder distinct wrenchings and tearings of boilers and engines from their beds. Suddenly the whole superstructure of the ship appeared to split, well forward to midship, and bow or buckle upwards. The second funnel, large enough for two automobiles to pass through abreast, seemed to be lifted off, emitting a cloud of sparks It looked as if it would fall on top of me. It missed me by only twenty or thirty feet. The Suction of it drew me down and down struggling and swimming, practically spent… “This time I was sucked down, and as I came up I was pushed out again and twisted around by a large wave, coming up in the midst of a great deal of small wreckage. As I pushed my hand from my head it touched the cork fender of an overturned lifeboat. I looked up and saw some men on the top and asked them to give me a hand. One of them, who was a stoker, helped me up. In a short time the bottom was covered with about twenty-five or thirty men. When I got on this I was facing the ship.” As Jack Thayer and the other survivors balanced precariously on the upturned Collapsible lifeboat B, the cries of those swimming in the water came to them. It sounded to Jack just like the high-pitched hum of locusts back home in Pennsylvania. “Her deck was turned slightly toward us. We could see groups of the almost fifteen hundred people aboard, clinging in clusters or bunches, like swarming bees; only to fall in masses, pairs or singly, as the greater part of the ship, two hundred and fifty feet of it, rose into the sky, till it reached a sixty-five or seventy degree angle. Here it seemed to pause, and just hung, for what felt like minutes. Gradually she turned her deck away from us, as though to hide from our sight the awful spectacle. “I looked upwards – we were right under the three enormous propellers. For an instant, I thought they were sure to come down on top of us. Then, with the deadened noise of the bursting of her last few gallant bulkheads, she slid quietly away from us into the sea.” Of the last moments, Violet Jessop wrote: “… one awful moment of empty, misty darkness…then an unforgettable, agonizing cry went up from 1500 despairing throats, a long wail and then silence…“ Violet and the rest of the survivors remained in the boats all night. . . By T.V. Antony Raj . Violet Jessop said that it was her habit to breathe in fresh air on deck before retiring for the night. Regarding the fourth day of sailing on Titanic she wrote: “If the sun did fail to shine so brightly on the fourth day out, and if the little cold nip crept into the air as evening set in, it only served to emphasize the warmth and luxuriousness within.“ Titanic in ice field (Artist: Ken Marschall) From the second day on, after leaving Southampton on its maiden voyage, RMS Titanic received reports of ice from ships passing through, or stopped due to heavy ice in the region she would be sailing to New York. On the 11th she received six warnings, on 12th five, on 13th three, and on 14th six. As a matter of fact, the Marconi room of RMS Titanic relayed some of the warnings to the shore. As a routine, all these messages would have been logged in the radio book as they were received or intercepted and passed on to the officers on the bridge. So, it is unlikely that Captain Edward Smith and his officers, would have been unaware of the dangerous ice that was lying directly in the path of the ship. Here are the messages received or intercepted on Sunday, April 14, 1912 – four days into the crossing: At 9:00 am (“Titanic” time), RMS Caronia (call sign MSF), a Cunard Line ocean liner, Eastbound New York to Liverpool, sent an ice warning message to RMS Titanic: “Captain, ‘Titanic.’ – Westbound steamers report bergs, growlers and field ice in 42°N from 49° to 51°W, 12th April. Compliments. – Barr.” Action taken: This message referred to bergs, growlers and field ice sighted on April 12, 1912 – at least 48 hours before the time of transmitting the message. At the time this message was received RMS Titanic was at 43°35’N, 43°50’W. Captain Smith acknowledged the receipt of this message and posted it for his officers to read. At about 8 am on April 14, 1912, Greek steamer Athinai (call sign MTI) belonging to the Hellenic Transatlantic Steam Navigation Company, Westbound from Piraues and Mediterranean ports to New York, encountered a large ice field containing several large bergs. During the morning she sent an ice advisory to RMS Baltic, an ocean liner of the White Star Line, Eastbound New York to Liverpool. At 1:42 pm, RMS Baltic (call sign MBC) relayed this report to its sister ship RMS Titanic: “Captain Smith, ‘Titanic.’ – Have had moderate, variable winds and clear, fine weather since leaving. Greek steamer ‘Athinai’ reports passing icebergs and large quantities of field ice today in lat. 41°51′ N., long. 49° 52′ W. Last night we spoke German oiltank steamer ‘Deutschland,’ Stettin to Philadelphia, not under control, short of coal, lat. 40° 42′ N., long. 55° 11′ W. Wishes to be reported to New York and other steamers. Wish you and ‘Titanic’ all success. – Commander.” Action taken: At the time this message was received the RMS Titanic was at about 42°35’N, 45°50W. Captain Edward Smith acknowledged the receipt of this message. Captain Smith showed the message to J. Bruce Ismay, the Managing Director of the White Star Line, on board the RMS Titanic on her maiden voyage to let him know that ice was to be expected that night. The latter pocketed the message and showed it later to two ladies; and of course many people on board became aware of its contents. At 7:15 pm, Captain Smith asked for its return, when it was finally posted in the chart room. At 11:20 am, the German steamer SS Amerika, belonging to the Hamburg America Line of Germany, Eastbound, New York to Hamburg sent an ice advisory telegram message to the Hydrographic Office in Washington, DC via RMS Titanic because Titanic was nearer to Cape Race, to which station it had to be relayed to reach Washington. Here is a facsimile of the message: File copy from Samuel Barr of the telegram from SS Amerika via SS Titanic on location of two large icebergs 14 April 1912. (Source: Wikimedia Commons) Jack Phillips Action taken: The location of the bergs 41°27’N, 50°08’W was 12.5 miles from where the RMS Titanic later sank. The message does not mention at what hour the bergs had been observed. However, as a message affecting navigation, it should have been taken to the bridge. The two Marconi operators on board Titanic were 25-year-old John George Phillips, better known as “Jack Phillips”, and his Deputy, 22-year-old Harold Sydney Bride. Maybe Phillips waited until the ship would be within call of Cape Race (at about 8:00 or 8:30 pm). No one on board the RMS Titanic knew about this message outside the Marconi room. The SS Californian, a tramp steamer of The Leyland Line, transporting cargo to whichever port wanted it, commanded by Captain Stanley Lord, left London on April 5, 1912, and was on her way to Boston, Massachusetts. Although she was certified to carry up to 47 passengers, she carried none during this trip. She had a crew of 55 men. At 6:30 pm she sighted three bergs to her southward, 15 miles (24 km) north of the course the RMS Titanic was heading. At 7:30 pm, Cyril Evans, the only wireless operator of the SS Californian (call sign MWL), sent a wireless message of the ship’s position to their sister ship SS Antillian: “To Captain, ‘Antillian’, 6.30 pm apparent ship’s time; lat. 42°3’N, long. 49°9’W. Three large bergs five miles to southward of us. Regards. – Lord.” Action taken: Harold Bride, the other wireless operator on RMS Titanic intercepted the message, but delivered it to the ship’s bridge only at 10:20 pm. Later, Bride said that he could not remember to whom he delivered this message. .At 9:40 pm, the Marconi station of the MV Mesaba (call sign MMU) belonging to the Atlantic Transport Line sent the following message: “From ‘Mesaba’ to ‘Titanic’ and all eastbound ships. Ice report in lat. 42°N to 41°25’N, long. 49° to long. 50°30’W. Saw much heavy pack ice and great number large icebergs. Also field ice. Weather good, clear.” Action taken: This message clearly indicated the presence of ice in the immediate vicinity of the RMS Titanic and was not delivered to the deck or to any of the officers. Harold Bride This message never left the Titanic’s radio room because the wireless set had broken down the day before, resulting in a backlog of messages that the two radio operators Jack Phillips and Harold Bride were trying to clear. At the time time this message reached Titanic’s radio room an exhausted radio operator Harold Bride was getting some much needed sleep. Phillips may have failed to grasp the significance of the message as he was preoccupied with transmitting and receiving messages for passengers via the relay station at Cape Race, Newfoundland. At Longitude 42°05’N, 50°07’W, a position to the south of the Grand Banks of Newfoundland, SS Californian was confronted by a large ice field. Captain Stanley Lord decided to halt the ship at 10:21 pm and wait until morning to proceed further. Officers of SS Californian. Front row, left to right: Captain Lord, Chief Officer Stewart. Back row, left to right: 2nd Officer Stone, 3rd Officer Groves. Around 11 pm, Lord saw a light in the east, but thought it could be a rising star. At 11:10 pm Third Officer C.V. Groves on deck, also saw the lights of a ship 10 or 12 miles away. To him, it was clearly a large liner as he saw brightly lit multiple decks. Fifteen minutes later Groves informed Captain Lord of what he saw. They tried to contact the other ship using a Morse lamp, but did not see any reciprocal reply. The Captain then asked his wireless operator Evans if he knew of any ships in the area. Evans said: “only the Titanic.” Captain Lord instructed Evans to call RMS Titanic and inform her that the Californian was stopped, surrounded by ice. When Evans tried to convey the message the RMS Titanic‘s on-duty wireless operator, Jack Phillips, was busy working on a large backlog of personal messages sent and received from the wireless station at Cape Race, Newfoundland. The relative proximity of SS Californian made signals sent from it loud in Phillips’ headphones. So, Phillips rebuked Evans with: “Shut up, shut up! I am busy; I am working Cape Race!” Evans waited and at 11:30 pm when he did not receive any reply from Phillips he switched off the wireless and went to bed. Violet Jessop was a firm believer in the power of prayer. As a devout Catholic she always had a rosary in her apron. In her memoirs, Violet says she had taken along with her belongings a copy of a translated Hebrew prayer that an old Irish woman had given her. On that fateful day, after settling down in her bunk she read the strangely worded prayer supposed to protect one who read it against fire and water. Then, she persuaded her roommate, a stewardess (according to editor John Maxtone- Graham, possibly Elizabeth Leather) to read it. . . Titanic – A painting by Ken Marschall In 1911, RMS Titanic was the second of three Olympic class ocean liners owned and operated by the White Star Line of steamships. It was the largest ocean cruiser afloat at the time it entered service. Harland and Wolff built the ship in their shipyard on Queen’s Island, now known as the Titanic Quarter, in Belfast Harbour. Thomas Andrew, the managing director and head of the drafting department for the shipbuilding company was her naval architect in charge of the plans for the ocean liner. It took about 26 months to build it. Although RMS Titanic was virtually identical to the class lead ship RMS Olympic, a few modifications were made to differentiate the two ships. RMS Titanic departing Southampton on April 10, 1912. Author: F.G.O. Stuart (1843-1923) RMS Titanic was launched at 12:15 pm on May 31, 1911 in the presence of Lord William Pirrie – a leading Irish shipbuilder and businessman, J. Pierpoint Morgan – an American financier and banker, and J. Bruce Ismay (son of Thomas Henry Ismay) – chairman and managing director of the White Star Line of steamships, and 100,000 onlookers. It is alleged that 22 tons of soap and tallow were spread on the slipway to lubricate the vessel’s passage into the River Lagan. Captain Edward John Smith, RD, RNR Captain Edward John Smith, RD, RNR Edward John Smith, RD, RNR (January 27, 1850 – April 15, 1912) joined the White Star Line in March 1880 as the Fourth Officer of SS Celtic. He served aboard the company’s liners to Australia and to New York City and quickly rose in status. In 1887, he received his first White Star command, the SS Republic. From 1895 on, Smith was captain of SS Majestic for nine years. He gained a reputation among his passengers and crew members for his quiet pomposity. Most England’s elite preferred to traverse the Atlantic only in a ship captained by him, thus he became known as the “Millionaires’ Captain“. From 1904 on, Smith commanded the White Star Line’s newest ships on their maiden voyages. In 1904, he was given command of the then-largest ship in the world, the RMS Baltic. Her maiden voyage from Liverpool to New York, that set sail on June 29, 1904, went without incident. After three years with RMS Baltic, Smith was given his second new big ship, the RMS Adriatic and once again the maiden voyage went without any untoward incident. On board the RMS Titanic Violet Jessop was one of the happiest stewardesses while working on the Olympic. But, after the Hawke incident, she was apprehensive in joining as a stewardess on any ship. However, her friends persuaded her to join the heavily advertised ‘unsinkable’ Titanic as they thought it would be a ‘wonderful experience’ to serve on her. On April 10, 1912, Violet, ‘dressed in a new ankle-length brown suit’ set out in a horse-drawn Hansom cab to join the brand new ship as a stewardess at her berth in Southampton. The same day RMS Titanic left Southampton on its maiden voyage to New York. Bruce Ismay usually accompanied his ships on their maiden voyages, and the Titanic was one of them. There were 908 crew members, including Violet Jessop on board the RMS Titanic under the command of Captain Edward Smith. Most of the crew members were not seamen. They were divided into three principal departments: Deck, Engine, and Victualling. Of these crew members only 23 were female, mainly stewardesses. Also among the crew were bakers, chefs, butchers, fishmongers, dishwashers, stewards, gymnasium instructors, laundrymen, waiters, bed-makers, cleaners, etc. The ship even had a printer, who produced a daily newspaper for passengers called the Atlantic Daily Bulletin with the latest news received by the ship’s wireless operators. Southampton is a major port and the largest city on the south coast of England. Out of the 908 crew members, 699 of the crew came from Southampton, and 40% were natives of the city. Most of the crew signed on in Southampton on April 6, 1912. Some specialist crew members were self-employed or were subcontractors. There were: five postal clerks, who worked for the Royal Mail and the United States Post Office Department; the staff of the First Class À La Carte Restaurant and the Café Parisien; the radio operators, employed by Marconi; and the eight musicians employed by an agency and travelling as second-class passengers. Violet says she became a friend of the Scottish violinist Jock Hume. The pay of crew members varied greatly. Captain Edward Smith was paid £105 a month. Violet Jessop and the other stewardesses were paid £3 10s. The lower-paid victualling staff were allowed to supplement their wages through tips from passengers. In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, millions of Europeans immigrated to the United States and Canada. White Star was among the first shipping lines to have passenger ships with inexpensive accommodation for third-class passengers, in addition to luxury first-class and second-class berths. The White Star Line’s quartet of revolutionary liners had the largest carrying capacity for third-class passengers: RMS Celtic of 1901 had a capacity for 2,352 passengers; RMS Cedric of 1903 and RMS Baltic of 1904 had a capacity for 2,000 passengers each; and RMS Adriatic of 1907 had a capacity for 1,900 passengers. The passengers on RMS Titanic included some of the wealthiest people in the world: 325 first-class and 285 second-class passengers, as well as 706 third-class passengers – mostly emigrants from Great Britain, Ireland, Scandinavia and from countries throughout Europe seeking a new life in North America. The following photos are from scenes enacted by actors for the play TITANIC at the Barrow-Civic Theatre, at 1223 Liberty Street, Franklin, Pennsylvania, USA. TITANIC – First Class Passengers. (Source: titanic-bct.blogspot.in) . TITANIC – Second Class Passengers. (Source: titanic-bct.blogspot.in) . TITANIC – Third Class Irish Immigrants (Source: titanic-bct.blogspot.in) . The proud serivce staff of the RMS TITANIC (from left to right) Stewardess Annie Robinson, Stewardess Violet Jessop, Head Steward Henry Etches, Mrs. Latimer, and Stewardess Mary Hutchinson. (Source: titanic-bct.blogspot.in) On April 10, 1912, at noon RMS Titanic left Southampton on its maiden voyage to New York. She called at Cherbourg in France at 6:35 pm. After disembarking 15 first and seven second class passengers, the ship took aboard 142 first, 30 second and 102 third class passengers. It left Cherbourg at 8:10 pm for Queenstown (now Cobh) in Ireland. The ship reached Queenstown at 11:30 am. After disembarking and embarking passengers, she set out at 1:30 pm on her fatal voyage towards New York with a total of 2,224 people: 908 crew members, 325 first class, 285 second class and 706 third class passengers. RMS Titanic, painted by 16-year-old Ken Marschall (Source : greenwichworkshop.com) In her memoirs, Violet Jessop mentions Thomas Andrews, the naval architect in charge of the plans for the ocean liner RMS Titanic. Like all other crew members, she too greatly admired him for he was the only person who heeded the requests of the crew for improvements in their quarters. She wrote: “Often during our rounds we came upon our beloved designer going about unobtrusively with a tired face but a satisfied air. He never failed to stop for a cheerful word, his only regret that we were ‘getting further from home.‘ We all knew the love he had for that Irish home of his and suspected that he longed to get back to the peace of its atmosphere for a much needed rest and to forget ship designing for awhile.” During the voyage, Bruce Ismay talked about a possible test of speed if time permitted. .	i don't know
"Which Italian foodstuff which comprises of dumplings made of flour, semolina or potatoes boiled or baked and served with grated cheese or sauce takes it’s name from the Italian for ""Knock On Wood"" ?"	Cooking Term: D Cooking Term Friday, September 16, 2011 D DAB limande Any of several related flatfish found in the North Sea, the English Channel and the Atlantic, north of the Bay of Biscay. There are several varieties of cab. The true (or European) dab is lozenge-shaped; its upper surface is brownish with orange-yellow spots. The false dab (or red dab) is a rather elongated oval in shape, brownish-grey on the upper surface and light sandy grey underneath. The lemon dab (or lemon soel) is rounder and has a superior flavour; it is reddish-bronw with darker spot, and the gills are bordered with an orange line. The American dab is similar to the European species. Dab are 20-35 cm (8-14 in) long and weight 175-250 g (6-9 oz). However; 40% of their body weigth is lost diring cleaning and filleting. They are sold either whole or filleted, and are usually grilled (broiled) or baked. DACQUOISE A traditional gateau of southwestern France, also called palois (the Dacquoise are the inhabitants of dax, the palois those of Pau). It consists of two or three layers of merique mixed with almonds ( or almonds and hazelnuts). This base, a variant of suces, is light and crisp and should be stored as for marinque. The layers are sandwiched together with whipped cream or French butter cream, variously flavoured. Fresh Fruit may be added to the filling, particularly strawberries. The top is usually dusted with icing ( confectioner’s) sugar. RECIEPT Coffee dacquoise Whisk 8 egg whites with a pinch of salt until they form stiff peaks. Then gradually add 200 g (7 oz, 1 cup) caster (superfine) sugar and 2 teaspoons vanilla sugar, whisking continuously, and continue whisking until the merinque is firm and shiny. Gently fold in 150 g (5 oz. 1 ¼ cups) ground almonds and 75 g (3 oz. ¾ cup) chopped blanched hazelnuts. Butter three 20 cm (8 in) flan (pie) rings, place them on buttered baking sheets and divide the mixture between them. Cook in a preheated oven at 180°C (350°F, gas 4) for about 20 minutes. When the meringue rounds are cooked, turn them out and allow to cool. Prepare a coffee crème au beurre (see creams) for the filing using 250 g (9 oz, 1 cup) sugar cooked with 100 ml (4 fl oz, 7 tablespoons) water, 8 egg ylks, 250 g (9 oz, 1 cup) butter and 1 tablespoon coffee essence (extract). Toast 100 g (4 oz, 1 cup) flaked almonds. Place the coffee cream in a piping (pastry) bag fitted with a fluted nozzle and sandwich the meringue rounds with thick layers of piped cream. Sprinkle the top with toasted almonds and dust with icing (congectioner’s) sugar. DEFINA The Sephardi version of Cholent. This Arab ragout of beef cooked with chick peas, potatoes and whole eggs cooked in their shells, layered with spices, can be traced back as fas as the 2nd century AD, when it was cooked in pots sealed with a flour and water paste (lute) and taken to the public bakehouse for cooking. The word dafina, used in English, is taken from Moroccan Arabic (adafina in Soanish, (fina in French and Arabic). DAIKON Also known as dai-co, mooli, Japanese radish or Satsuma radish. A type of white-skinned radish, widely cultivated as a vegetable in the Far East, for use raw, in cooked dishes or as a garnish. Its large fleshy root can grow up to 1 m (3 ft) in length and weight several kilograms. As well as being added to soups and braised dishes, finely grated or shredded white radish is a popular salad ingredient and it is used to make fresh relishes. It is also pickled in salt. DAIQUIRI A rum cocktail named after a small village on the Cuban coast near Santiago, where, in the 19th century, the Americans supposedly landed after defeating the Spanish. Generally served in a frosted glass, fresh fruit, such as streawberries, may be added and the cocktail may be diluted with mineral water. RECIPE Daiquiri To frosts a glass, dip the trim in water and then in sugar, into a cocktail shaker put I measure of care sugar syrup, 2 of lemon 3 of the white rum and 1 tablespoon crashed ice. Shake for several seconds. Then pour into the glass. DAL also dhal and various other seedlings. A Hindi word meaning leguminous and applied to split pulses as opposed to whole pulses. Known as grand vegetarian dishes are important in Indian, Pakistan and Singhalese cooking, and dale are a good source of vegetarian protein. The term is also applied so dishes of the cooked split pulses prepared to this or soup-like consistency. There are many types dale, the names of which are subject to regional variations and different spelling Common types include channa dal, are lentis, tore dale are pigeon peas; uric dale are prepared from round black beans, and debut and is a superior dale prepared from the same small black beans but washed until white. For dal, the dish, the split pulses are coked in water, often until reduced to a puree. Spices and other flabvouring ingredients, such as onion, garlic or ginger, may be added. Before serving, the dal may be garnished with a flavouring mixture, including ingredients such as whole seeds, fresh or dried spices, garlic and/or onions cooked in oil or ghee. Herbs, such as curry leaves, fenugreek leaves or fresh coriander (cilantro) may also be added. Dial are also used to make kofta (little savoury balls) or they may be soaked and ground to a batter to make light pancakes or fritters known as dosas (often with rice). Dal are added to some vegetable or meat dishes to thicken them. DAME BLANCHE Any of various desserts in which white pale colours predominate. The name applies particulary to vanilla ice cream used as a bombe filling or served with whipped cream and a chocolate sauce to provide contrast; fruit in syrup or alcohol may be added. Other kinds of dame blanche include a sponge cake filled with cream and crystallized (candled) fruits and completely covered with Italian meringue, a lemon ile flottante and an almond ice cream. RECIPE Coupes dame blanche Prepare some Chantilly cream by mixing 200g (7 oz) double (heavy) cream with 2 tablespoons milk, 25 g (1 oz, 2 tablespoons) caster (superfine) sugar, a little vanilla sugar or essence (extract) to taste and a crushed ice cube; whip until the cream forms peaks. Chill. Melt 200g (7 oz. Squares) dark chocolate in a bain marie with 2 tablespoons milk. Add 25 g (1 oz, 2 tablespoons) butter and mix well; then add 3 tablespoons single (light) cream. Keep the sauce hot in the bain marie. Take 6 individual sundae glasses and put 2 scoops of vanilla ice cream into each. Using a piping (pastry) bag fitted with a fluted nozzle, pipe a dome of Chan tilly cream into each glass. Serve the hot chocolate sauce separately in a sauceboat (gray boat). Peaches dame blache Macerate 4 slices pineapple in 1 tablespoon each of kirsch and Maraschino. Make a syrup using 250 ml (8 fl oz. 1 cup) water; 250 g (9 oz, 1 cup) caster (superfine) sugar and half a vanilla pod (bean), split in two. Peel 2 large peaches and poach gently in the syrup for about 10 minutes, turning them frequently, then remove from the heat. Prepare some Chantilly cream by whipping 150 ml ( ¼ pint, 2/2 cup) double (heavy) cream with 1 tablespoon milk, 1 tablespoon caster (superfine) sugar and a little vanilla sugar or essence (extract) to taste; chill. Drain the peaches, halve them and remove the stones (pits). Divide 500 ml (17 fl oz, 2 cups) vanilla ice cream between 4 sundae glasses, add a slice of pineapple and a peach half to each, and decorate with a ‘turban’ of Chantilly cream using a piping (pastry) bag fitted with a fluted nozzle Serve immediately. DAME-JEANNE The French name for a large glass or earthenware vessed holding up to 50 litres (11 gallons, 13 US gallons) liquid. Usually encased in basketwork, it was traditionally used to transport wines and spirits. In the Bordeaux region its capacity is about 2.5 litres ( 4 ¼ pints, 11 cups) – between a magnum and a double magnum. The close link between this region and England explains how dame-Jeanne was corrupted to demijohn in English. DAMIER A gateau made of rum-flavoured Genoese sponge cake filled with butter cream and covered with praline. The sides are coated with flaked almonds and the top is decorated in a chequerboard pattern. RECIPE Damier Make a Genoese sponge cake using 40 g (1 ½ oz. 3 tablespoons) butter, 3 egg yolks 90 g ( 3 ½ oz.7 tablespoons) caster (superfine) sugar, 90g (3 ½ oz, 1 cup) plan (all-purpose) flour and a pinch of salt. Allow the cake to rest in the tin (pan) for 24 hours. Prepare a syrup by boiling 300g (11 oz. 1% cups) caster sugar in 300 mt (1/2 pint, 1 ¼ cups) water, allow to cool and hen add 3 tablespoons rum. Prepare a butter cream (see creams using 3 egg yolks. 150 g 2/1 cup) butter, 125 g (4 ½ oz. ½ cup) caster superfine) sugar, 2 tablespoons water and 50 g (2 oz. ½ cup) ground praline. Gently melt 250 g (9oz. 9 squares) dark chocolate in a bowl over hot water. Prepare some royal icing (frosting) using 1 egg white and 75 g (3 oz. ½ cup) icing (confection) sugar. Toast some flaked almonds and coarsely chop them. Cut the sponge into two equal rounds and sprinkle the run syrup over them. Spread half the butter cream even one of the rounds with a palette knife (spatula). Cover with the second round and decorate this with the remaining butter cream. Sprinkle the sides of the gateau with flaked almonds. Using a piping (pastry) bag, pipe the royal icing over the butter cream to form a chequer board pattern of 3 cm (1 2/4 in) squares fill alternate squares with royal icing and the rest with the melted chocolate. DAMPFNUDELN A sweet desert, make in German and Alone. Consisting of sounds of leavened dought taked in the oven and served either with compote, fruits in syrup jam or vanilla cream, and dusted with sugar and cinnamon. Alternatively, it may be filled with compote of apricots in name and folded like a small turnover. Originally, dam finessed was a savory dish the name means scanned noodles usually accompanied by green salad. RECIPE dampfnadeln Prepare a starts dough by creaming 15 g (1/2 oz. 1 cake) fresh (compressed yeast in 200 ml (7 ft. oz. 1 cup) warm milk until dissolved (alternatively. sprinkle 1 ½ teaspoons dried (active dry) yeast over the milk and stir until dissolved) and leave in a warm place and frothy. Then mix into 125 g (4 ½ oz. 1 cup) strong lain (bread) flour. Leave this starter in a warm place until doubled in volume. Now gradually work into the dough 100g (4 oz. ½ cup) melted butter, a pinch of salt, the grated zest of 1 lemon 5 egg yolks. 100 g (4 oz. ½ cup) caster (superfine) sugar and 275 g (13 oz. 3 ¼ cups) strong plain flour, Roll out with a rolling pin and leave to rest for 5 minutes. Cut the dough into rounds and leave to in a warm place for 1 hour. Brush with melted butter, dust with icing (confectioner’s) sugar and bake in a preheated oven at 180°C (350°F, gas 4), for about 15 minutes until lightly browned. DAMSON Oval stone fruit similar to plan, but smaller, with blue-black skin and sharp fullflavoured flesh. Related to the failace; a small round plum either balck plum either black (black bullaces) or pale yellow- green (know as white bullaces). Originating from Eastern Europe and west Asia, the damson is named after Damascus, from where it was taken to Europe. Know as a bedge now fruit, damsons are also cultivated. Neither damson nor bullaces are eaten raw, but are used in cooking. The tart, fruity flavor of damsons makes excellent preserves, particularly fruit butters and cheeses. These thick purses have high sugar content and the cheese boils down to give a slicing consistency when cold. DANDELION a perennial flowering plant that grows wild in Europe. Pissenlit in Fench, the English name is derived from the alternative French name dent-hellion literally “lion” tooth, referring to its seated leaves); piscenlit is a reference to as supposed dietetic properties. Dandelion leaves are usually eaten in salads but may be cooked like spinach. Wild dandelion leaves should be picked before the plant has flower (January-March), when they are small and sweet. In France cultivated varieties of dandelion are available from October to March; they have longer, more lender leaves but sometimes lack flavor in salads, dandelion are traditionally accompanied by diced bacon and garlic-flavored conditions (as in salade du groits of due. Literally donkey’s snout salad; typical of Lyon), hard-boiled chard-cooked) eggs or walnuts. RECIPE dandelion and bacon salad Thoroughly wash and dry 250 g (9 oz) dandelion leaves, dice 150 g (5 oz, ¾ cup) green or smoked streaky (slab) bacon and brown gently in a frying pan. In a salad bowl prepare some vinaigrette using 1 tablespoon white wine, 2 tablespoons oil, salt and pepper. Add the dandelion leaves and toss thoroughly. Pour 1 tablespoon white wine vinegar over the diced bacon and stir with a wooden spoon, scraping the bottom of the frying pan, pour the contents of the frying pan into the salad bowl. Quartered hard-boiled (hard-cooked) eggs may be added to the bowl before adding the bacon if wished. DANICHEFF The name is used for three quite separate dishes a salad, an iced dessert and a gateau. The salad is a mixed one consisting of a julienne of cooked artichoke hearts, raw mushrooms, blanched celeriac, asparagus tips and thin slices of potato. The salad is dressed with mayonnaise and garnished with hard-boiled (hand-cooked) eggs, truffles (either sliced or in a julienne) and crayfish tails. The name danticbeff is also given to a gateau and a praline parfait ice with coffee and rum. The origin of the name is unknown, but if seems to date from the beginning of the 20th century. RECIPE Danicheff gateau Prepare a Genoese* sponge using 4 egg yolks, 50 g (2 oz. ¼ cup) butter, 125 g (4 ½ oz. ½ cup) caster (superfine0 sugar and 125 g (4 ½ oz. 1 cup) plain (all-purpose) flour; leave the cake to rest for 24 hours. Boil 300 g (1) oz. 1 ½ cups) caster sugar with 300 ml (1/2 pint, 1 ¼ cups) water in a saucepan, then allow to cool and add 2 ½ tablespoons kirsch. Prepare some confectioner’s custard (see cream) using 250 ml (8 ft oz. 1 cup) milk, 2 egg yolks, 50 g (2 oz. ¼ cup) caster sugar, and 1-1 ½ tablespoon corn-flour (cornstarch). Also make an Italian meringues* using 4 egg whites, 200 g (7 oz. 1 cup) caster sugar, and 3 tablespoons water. Cut the sponge cake into two equal rounds and spoon the sugar syrup over them. Place one of the rounds on a baking sheet and thickly spread with the confectioner’s custard. Dice a large can of pineapple, sprinkle with kirsch, and place them on top of the confectioner’s custard and cover with about 100 g (4 oz. ½ cup0 apricot jam Place the other round of sponge cake on top and completely coat the surface of the ateau, including the sides, with the Italian metingue paste, spreading it with a palette knife (spatula). Sprinkle with about 200 g (7 oz. 2 cup; flaked almonds and dust with icing (confectioner) sugar. Brown in a preheated oven at 200C (40) °F, gas 6) for about 5 minutes. Allow cooling before transferring to a serving dish. DANISH BLUE A Danish cow milk cheese, blue with a whitish and containing about 45% fat. It has strong and slightly piquant fallout and is sold, wrapped in foil, in rounds 20 cm (8 in) in diameter, 10-12 cm (4-5 in) thick and weighing 2.5-3 kg (5 ½-6 ½ lb). DANISH PASTRY A sweet pastry, made from a rich yeasted doughty rolled and folded with butter as for pull pastry. The pastry is cut and shaped to enclose a sweet filling. Shapes include combs (leammary) and pinwheels standpatters). An Almont paste or marzipan mixture is one of the classic fillings but various ingredients used, such as direct or fresh fruit, nuts, jams or conserves. The pastries are glazed or iced when conlied. Often interned to simply as Danish, these pastries are popular with coffee or tea. In Denmark they are called irrational (Vietnam bread) in Vietnam they are brown bapetheginet Danish pastries are included in Vietnamese inst not all Vientnamies are Danish pastries. The Danish dough and shapes of pastry daftest from the Vien new dough which is not as light and a sphere due to a decline parsing or rising method. DANZIG GOLDWASSER A liqueur made from spirits in which entries fruit zest. Herbs and mace has been steeple. It is filtered and sweetened, and then tiny pun tides of gold or silver leaf an added of polish origin, it was especially popular in the 19th century and it is the classic flavoring for soufflé both child. DAO A large wine region in the north of Portugal where the best vineyards are in the hillsides 200-500 m (660-1640 ft) high, with a very genetic soil. Traditionally, the red wines were lean and very tannic, but with modern winemaking techniques and a change in the minimum agring laws, younger, fruit-driven wines of excellent quality are being produced. DARBLAY A Parmentier (potato) soup mixed with a julience of vefetables, thickened with egg yolks and cream, and gamished with chervil. RECIPE potage jullenne Darblay Prepare I litre (1 ½ pints, 4 ½ cups) pureed potatoes and dilute with about 500 ml (17 ft oz. 2 cups) consommé. Add 4 tablespoons julienne of vegetables which have been gently cooked in butter. Mix 3 egg yolks with 100 ml (4 fl. Oz. 7 tablespoons) double (heavy) cream and use this liaison to thicken the soup. Before serving , blend in about 50 g (2 oz. ¼ cup) butter and garnish the soup with chervil. DARIOLE A small deep round mould with sloping sides, or the preparation cooked in such a mould. Dariole moulds are used to make small pastries, cheese flans, individual x bar, set custards or flans, small cakes, rice puddings and begetable pastries. They are sometimes referred to as castle tins or moulds. The original dariole, metioned by itabelais, was a small puff pastry case filled with frangipane; its name is derived from an old Provencial word daurar (to brown turn golden), referring to its crust. It is still traditional fare in Reims, on the feast of St Remy, and also in Reavais, where the frangipare is falavoured with kirsch and dusted with sugar. Dariole moulds are used to bake British madeleines, small cakes coated with jam and desicrated coconut, and topped with glace (candled) cherries. RECIPE almond darioles Lightly butter 6 datriole moulds are line them with puff pastry. Prepare some frangipane” cream using 75 g (3 0z. 6 tableshoops) caster (superfine) sugar, 75 g (3 oz. ¼ cup) plain (all-purpose) flour, I whole egg. 3 egg yolks, 500 ml (17 fl oz. 2 cups) milk, 6 crushed macaroons. 1 tableshpoon ground almonds and 25 g (1 oz. 2 tablespoons) butter. Allow to cool completely then fill the pastry-lined moulds with this mixture. Bake in a preheated oven at 220°C (425°F. gas 7) for about. 30 minutes. Remove the pastries from the moulds and dust with icing (confectioner’s) sugar. Alternatively, the moulds may be filled simply with franginpane cream, without the puff pastry. cheese darioles Butter 6 dariole moules. Bring 500 ml (17 ft oz. 2 cups) milk to the boil. In a mixing bowl, beat 2 whole eggs and 4 egg yolks; add 65 g (2 ½ oz. ½ cup) grated chaested, slat, adpepper. Use which to blend in the boiled milk. Fill the buttered moulds with this mixture, place them in a bain marie and bring the water to the boil; then transfer to a preheated even at 220°c (425°F gas 7) and cook for about 20 minutes. Remove the firm custards from the moulds on to a serving dish. Coat with a sauce made from very hot fondue of tomatoes to which mushroom duxelies or a light béchamel sauce has been added. Alternatively. Serve with a good tomato sauce. Serve immediately. DARNE A think transerve slice of a large raw fish, such as hake, salmon as tuna. The wond comes from the Breston dam (meaning piece). A datle, on the other hand, is a then slice or escalope facallon of ints. That and is flouhead isarel gathered almoled dilics may also be sautéed. DARPHIN A flat potato cake made of greated or judienate potato cooked in a frying pan, sthen in the oven. Until it is brown on both sides but soft in the center. Named after the chef who created the recipe, this dish is served with Madeira or Peregueras sauce to accompany fillet of beef and fried source dos stead (filed amgnotist. It may also be called pentilleasant the pommes de terre (potato doormar’) RECIPE Darphin potatoes Peel ( 2 ½ Ib) potatoes , rinse and soak in cold water for 1 hour: grate or cut into thin matchsticks and remove excess moisture with a cloth. Pour 250 ml (8 fl 1 cup ) oil into a flan tin ( pie pan ) or dish and hear in a preheated oven at 240 c (475 F, gas 9 ). Melt 50 g ( 2 oz ) butter in a frying pan, add half the potatoes and sauté them for 5 minutes. Then transfer them to the flan tin a press down. Repeat with the remaining potatoes. Sprinkle with a little extra oil and cook in the oven for about 20 minutes. Turn out the potato cake and serve very hot. DARTOIS A hot pastry or hors d’oeuvre comprising two strips of puff pastry enclosing a savoury or sweet filling. It is said to have been named after the vaudeville artist Francois-Victor Dartois, who was very well known in France in the 19th century. The fillings for savoury Dartois (also called sausselis) are the same as for allumenttes: anchovies, sardines, crayfish, chicken and truffled foie gras are most often used. Sweet Dartois are filled with confectioner’s custard (pastry cream) which is sometimes flavoured with crystallized (candied) fruits, frangipane, jam or fruit purees. Frangipane Dartois is also called gateau a la Mamon, in honour of the composer Massenet, who was very fond of it. Recipes Savoury Dartios Anchovy Dartios Prepare some puff pastry and a fish forcemeat. Roll and cut the pastry into two rectangular strip of equal size and chickness. Add some anchovy butter to the forcemeat and spread one of the strips with it, leaving a border of 1 cm ( ½ in ) all round the edge. Drain the oil from some anchovy fillets and arrange on top, cover with more fish forcemeat, then place the second pastry strip on top and seal the edges, cook and preheated oven at 220 C ( 425 f, gas 7 ) for 20 – 25 minutes. Seafood Dartois Prepare 400 g (14 oz.) pull pastry. Peach 8 scampi in a court-boullion for 5 minutes. Prepare 8 scallops and peach in a small casserole for 6-7 minutes with 100 ml (4 ft oz. 7 tablespoons) white wine 150 ml (% pint, 2/2 cup) single (light) cream, I goodsized shallot (chopped), salt and pepper. Drain the scampi, shell the tails and cut into section. Drain the scallops, reserving the liquor, and elite. Add 50 g (2 oz. ½ cup) shelled shrimps and gently heat all the seafood ingredients together in butter. Add some Calvados or mare brandy and set it alight. Pour the reserved cooking juices from the scallops over the mixture and chicken with 1 tablespoon beurre marie. Adjust the seasoning allow to cool completely and proceed as for anchony Dartoins, but using the seafood filling instead. Sweet Dartoils apricot jam Dartois Prepare 500 g (1 lb 2 oz.) pull pastry and chill for 1 hour. Then divide the pastry in half and roll each half into a rectangle 15 cm (6 in) wide, 25 cm (10 in) long and about 3 mm (1/2 in) thick. Place one of the rectangles on a baking sheet and cover with about 400 g (14 oz. 1 ¼ cups) apricot jam. Cover with the second rectangle of pastry and bake in a preheated oven at 220°C (425°F gas 7) for about 15 minutes. Dust with icing (confectioner’s) sugar and return to the oven to caramelize for 5 minutes Serve warm. frangipane Dartois Prepare 500 g (1 lb 2 oz) puff pastry and chill for 1 hour. To make the frangipane, soften 100g (4 oz. ½ cup) butter with a wooden spatula. Blend 2 egg yolks in a mixing bowl with 125 g (4 ½ oz. 1 cup) ground almonds. 125 g (4 ½ oz. ½ cup) caster (superfine) sugar, a little vanilla essence (extract) and the softened butter. Cut the pastry into two rectangles 25 cm (10 in) long and 15 cm (6 in) wide. Complete as for apricot jam Dartois. raspberry and apple Dartois Prepare 500g (1 lb 2 oz.) puff pastry and chili for 1 hour. Peel 575 g (1 ¼ lb) cooking apples, cut into guarters. Core and slice finely, then toss in 2 tablespoon leomn juice. Puit the apples into a saucepan with 125 g (4 ½ oz. Cup) caster (superfine) sugar. 40 g ( 1 ½ oz. 3 tablespoons) butters and half a vanilla pod (bean) cut in two. Add 1 tablespoon water and cook over a low heat, stirring from time to time. When the apple are reduced to a puree, remove the vanilla pod and allow to cool. Roll out the pastry to a rectangle 3 mm ( ½ in) thick, and cut it into twelve 10 cm it into twelve 10 cm ( 4 in) squares mix the stewed apples with 2 tablespoon raspberry jam and place a generous spoonful of the filling in the center of six of the pastry squares. Moisten the edges of each square with water and cover wish one of the remaining squares. Pinch the edges to seal the pastry. Complete as for apricot jam Dartois. DARTOIS Also a la of Artois, the name of various preparations, all dedicated to the Comte d Artois, future % of France. The Dartois garnish for large pieces of meat cpnsists of glazed carrots and turnings braised celery hearts and highly fried potatoes, arranged in lunpets around the meat. Dartois soap in a puree of white team with the adohigh of a high palience of vegetable in caron of lamb. Dartois the joint is surrounded by potato cases (shells) filled with petits pouts and served with Mediera sauce. DASHI the Japanese name for stock. Stocks used in Japanese cookery are very light, made by soaking dried konbu seaweed and/or other ingredients in water. Dried cured bonito flakes may be used with the konzu. Niboshi, small dried fish. May be used instead of bonito flakes, depending on the type of dashi repaired. The ingredients may be soaked more than once; the first stock, known as schiban dashi, has the best flavour and it is used for fine or light soups and dishes. Niban dashi is the stock reading from the second soaking and this is used in soups or dishes with stronger or a wider variety of ingredients. Dried Bonito and other ingredients for dashi are sold in sachets for adding to a stated quantity of water. Instant dashi powders or other types of convenience dashi are available. DATE The fruit of the date palm. Brown and fleshy, about 1 cm long and growing in clusters, the date is rish in sugar. The Greeks, who called it dediclos because of its shape. Used it in sauces for fish in meat and included it in various cakes and pastries. Thought to have originated at the pesuan Gulf, the date palm was the three of late for the haldeans what avle both the fruit and salt the sap, used its fibres for weaving and its nuts as fuel. Dates may be soft, with light tender flesh ideal for eating fresh;semi-dried with a good flavour and moderately weet, for selling as the popular dried date hand dates are very sweet, high fruit known as camel or locad dates. Dates are now cultivated throughout North Africa and Arabia, and in Pakistan the USA (California) and Australia. Only a few of the many varieties are exported, notably deglet noor (meaning date of the light). Native to Tunisia, but also grown in Algeria and the USA. This is golden brown, with a mild flavour and a light flesh which is slightly transparent. It is also known as deglet nour or ennour, or Muscat date. Others include the balauri (also hallaurt or balauy) a pale coloured date which is very sweet, and the lebaleseb, which has orange-brown skin and is very fragrant. The kbadraut date is similar to the balawl, but it is not too sweet, known as chadraunt in Israel, this variety is grown particularly in southern iraq. Medfool or medful dates are red, full flavoured and fleshy; they are grown in Egypt and California. Dates are used fresh – they are frozen for export to prevent them from over-riperning, then thaved for sale as fresh produce. Semi-dried dates are whole, tender and succulent with a good flavour balancing their sweetness. Dried dates are firm, sicky and very sweet; they are available pressed into blocks or chopped and rolled in sugar as well as whole. The sap of the date palm produces a wine; grayish and sweet, which ferments rapidly to become sparkling. This refreshing drink is also consumed in India, where dates are used to make spiced sauces, confectionery and cakes. Thibarine is a rich, sweet Tunisian date liqueur. In Iraq, date juice serves as a condiment for soaps and salads. Dates are eaten as sweetness, other stuffed or iced (frosted). North African outside makes varied use of them, notably in tafines (rafodts), sweet couscous and curry – falvoured dishes, and even for stuffing fish (shad). Dates are also used in baking fritters, nougats and jam, and are crysrallized (candied). RECIPE date fritters Remove the scones (pits) from some dates and fill each one with very thick confestioner’s custard (pastry cream) flavoured with kirsch or rum. Coat the dates in batter and deeptry them, then drain and dust wish icing (confectioner’s) sugar. date nougat Remove the stones (pits) from 1 kg ( 2 ¼ lb) dates. Toast 250 g (9 oz. 2 cups) blanced almonds in a frying pan, without fat. Prepare a syrup by boiling 250 g (9 oz. 1 cup) caster (superfine) sugar with 4 tablespoons water until the temperature reaches 110°C (230°F). Remove from the heat stir in 250 g (9 oz ¼ cup) honey, then quickly mix in the dates, almonds 2 pinches of white pepper. 1 teaspoon ground ginger and the same quantity of tahini (sesame paste) or ground sesame seeds. From the mixture into a sausage shape and slice into rounds Store in an airtight container. Staffed dates Prepare same almond paste as follows heat 150 g ( 5 oz. 2/3 cup) caster (superfine) sugar in a heavy based saucepan with 500 ml (17 ft oz. 2 cups) water and 1 tablespoon liquid glucose. When the temperature reaches soft ball 115°C (240°F), remove from the heat and add 75 g (3 oz. ¾ cup) ground almonds. Stir with a woodeb spatula to obtain a granular texture. Allow to cool. Remove the stones (pits) from about 30 dates, with our separating the two halves. When the paste is cold knead it in small quantities until supple and then form it into a large hall Hollow this out, and pour into the hollow a good tablespoon of kirsch and 3 drops green food coloring knead the paste again to spread the color evenly. With the palm of the hand, roll each slice into an olive shape; use one to fill each date. Serve the stuffed dates in individual paper pent four cases. They may also be sprinkled with crystallized sugar. DAUBE A method of dressing meat (beef, motton turke goose pleasant cabby pork. Chicken certain vegetables (bonitos mushroom. Palm hearts) and some fish (tuna) meat cooked and daubed this graced and red wine stop will season with herbs: the name is thought to come from the Spanish dobar s(to brace). The word daube alone generally means a join of beef braised in wine, a popular dish in several southern provinces of France where it is served hot or cold. RECIPES daube of beef a la béarnaise Cut 2 kg ( 41/2 lb ) top rump chuck beef into 5 cm ( 2 in ) cubes, lards each cube crossways with a small piece of pork streaky ( slab ) bacon rolled in chopped parsley and garlic seasoned with crushed thyme and bay leaf. .marinate these beef cubes for at least 2 hour in a bottle red wine and 4 table-spoon brandy with 1 large sliced onion, 2 sliced carrots and a bouquet garni of parsley, thyme and bay leaves. Drain, reserving the marined, pat the cubes of meat dry and roll them in flour. Brown the meat and vegetables separately. Line the bottom of a flameproof casserole with slices of beyonne ham, then add alternate layer of the meat cubes and vegetables. Add the bouquet garni. 2 3 crushed garlic clove to the reserved marinade and a few spoonfuls of stock: then boil for 30 minutes. Strain and pour over the meat. Cover the Casserole and seal on the lid with a flour- and- water paste. Bring to the boil on the hob ( stove top ) then cook in 4 pregexted at 120°F gas ½ ) for 4-5 hours. Serve the doube from the casserole after skimming off some of the fat. In bearn this daube as served with a commeal (manize) porridge, which is easen cold and sliced as an alternative to tread. Deube of beed a la provencale Cut 1.5 kg ( 3 ¼ lb) lean chick or silverside (bottom round) into 6 cm ( 2 ½ in) cubes. Lard each cube crossways with a piece of fat bacon roled in dhopped parsley and garlic. Put the meat into an earthenware dish or casserole with a calf’s foot, if available, and cover with 600 ml ( 1 pint, 2 ½ cups) white wine mixed with 2 tablespoon brandy, salt and pepper. Marinate for (5 oz. 1 ½ cups) mushroom, 75 g (3 oz. ½ cup) chopped raw onion, 2 crushed tomatoes, 150 g (5 oz. 1 cup) diced and blanced thick streaky (slab) bacon and 100g (4 oz. 1 cup) balck olives. Remove the fat from some bacon rinds. Blanch, wipe and use the rinds to line the bottom of an earthenware casserole just large enough to contain the meat and its garnishes. Add 2 sliced carrots then add alternating layers of meat cubes and the begetable and bacon mixture. In the center of the meat place a large bouquet gami consisting of pardried orange peel. Add the white wine mixture from the marinade plus an equal volume of beef stock so that it just covers the meat. Cover the casserole, seal the lid with a flour-and-water paste, and cook in a preheated oven at 120°C (250°F gas ½ ) for 6 hours. Remove the bouquet garmi allow to cool, then skim off the fat. Serve the daube cold in slices, like a terrine, of hot (reheated in the oven). Other recipes see goose, tung turkey. DAUBIERE A braising pot of stoneware, earthenware or gahanized copper used for making daubes and othe braised dishes which require a long slow cooking time. Like ethe braisietre (braising pan), it was originally designed for cooking over charcoal, the dambiere has a lid with a raised edgfe for holding burning charcoal or boiling water. DAUDET LEON Frensh writer and journalist (born Paris), 1867, died Saint-Remy – de –Provence, 1942) bounder, with Charles Mauras, of Eathon francatse, Daudet was an unashamed polemicis and one of the greatest gastenomes of his time. In Paris recuhe encludes Paristan life though its restauratism and its chefs, from the best known to the humblest. At the pension laveus, he invented hauback (which he sasid wa dedicated to a Bulgarian general), comprising white haricot berans, saitered potatoes and eggs sar le plant. He was a regular customer at a Grille, a where and rubbed shoulders oer the beef hash and pickled pork. But he also patamized the Tour Argent, when, with his friend Bavinsky, he discussed such topics as the merits of an endive fedocory salad, lightly crushed in absinthe, to accompany foie gras, his description of Ferederic cutting up canard au sand (duck cooked in its blood) is famous in fasronomic circle at Weber’s house. He descrebid Marcel Proust, a doe-eyed young gentleman muffled up in an enomous overxant being served with grapes or pears. A founder member of the Academic Goncourt, he organizaed the lunch at which the first Prix Goncourt was awarded. For this first lunch at the Grand Hotel and for savswqueent ones at Champeans, the Café de Paris and Droutant. Dank’t compilot the menus and favoraties cooking as well as that of Beanjodis, the third mer of layout. His famous galfments on his contemporaries reflect the accerbith of a committed journalist and his love of the good life; the eloxpuethere of Jauries was full like a Geuyene of which each hole is a metaphor. Renan was gracious with lust and sauce; Roland started to wringle like selfish wprinkled with lemon, as for Clemenceau, he was as appelizing as a cabbage soup in which the spoon of eloquence would stand up. Persuaded that the best thereapy for all ills is good food, he waxed hyrical he et a chef who fully satisfied im, such as Madame Genot, his favourite restauteur of the Rue de la Bangue, who wa to fastron my what Beethoven is to music. Baudedame for pastry, and Rembrandt to painting. Dauder’s second wife was Marthe Alland, his cousin, who was responsible under the pseudonym of Pampille, for the grestmonomic column in (Action francabe and edited les bonus plants de France (1924). DAUMONT, A LA Designating an opudent garnish dating from the time of the Restoration (and no douts dedicated to the Due d’Aumont). Designed punsquality for large brased firsh, such as shad, salmon or furded it comprises fish quenetles shoes of truth clade tails a tla shell or barquetlest, button mushroom and soft me, all coated with fresh break numbers and sautéed in butter. The deds is serveak with a nomurade same finished with crayfish butter. Today, the name is given to simpler fish dishes, as well as to a dish of soft-boiled (soft-cooked) or poatched eggs with craylish and mushroom. RECIPES poached eggs a la Daumont cook some large mushroom caps in butter, drain and top each one with a spoonful of a salpicon of craylish tails a la Nantua. Arrange a poached egg on each mushroom cap, coat with Nantua sauce and garnish with a slice of truffle. sole fillets a la Daumont Prepare about 150 ml (1/4 pint, ½ cup) salpicon of crayfish tails a la Nantua. Fillet 2 large sole. Prepare 400g (14 oz. 2 cups) fine whiting forcemeat and add 50 g (2 oz. ¼ cup) crayfish butter. Spread the sole fillets with the stuffing and fold them over. Place them in a buttered gratin dish, add sufficienet fish fumer to just cover them and poach gently. Gently cook 8 large mushroom caps in butter, drain and top each with the crayfish salpicon. Drain the sole fillets and place one on each mushroom. Coat with normande sauce and serve very hot. DAUPHIN a soft cow’s milk cheese from Haincaut in France, with a brown rind and containing at least 50% fat. Excellent from September to May, Dauphin cheese is made from the same type of curds as Maroilles cheese but is highly seasoned with parsley, tarragran pepper and cloves. It can be shaped like a croissant, heart, shield or rod. Greated in the reign of Louis XIV, it owes its name to a royal edict that exempted carters from Maroiles from the penny title payable to the Dauphin, which was levied at Cambrail on each wagon coming from Hainaut in Belfium. DAUPHINE See opposite page. DAUPHINE, A LA a method of preparing vegetables, such as celeriac (celery roof) or aubergines (eggplants), in the same way as dauphine potatoes. If the puree obtained is too watery – as can happen with courgettes (zucchini) – it is dried off in the oven. The name is also given to joins of meat or game garnished with dauphine potatoes. DAUPHONE POTATOES Potatoes reduced to a puree, added to choux paste, shaped into halls and fried in very hot fat. They are used to accompany gailed (boiled) or most meat or game. The mixture may be enriched with graed cheese or Bayonne ham, especially for eroquettes (see lorette). RECIPE Dauphine potatoes Peel 1 kg ( 2 ½ lb) floury potatoes, cut into quarters and cook in salted water until very soft. Drain thoroughly and mash to a puree. Prepare some choux paste using 500 ml (17 fl oz. 2 cups) water, 125 g (4 ½ oz. ½ cup) butter, 250 g (9 oz. 2 ¼ cups) plain (all-purpose) flour, 7 eggs, a pinch of grated nutmeg, salt and pepper. Mix the dough with an equal volume of the potato puree. Heat some cooking opil to about 175°C (347°F) and drop the mixture into a spoonful at a time. When the potato balls are puffed up and golden, drain on paper towels, dust with fine salt and serve very hot. DAUPHINOISE, A LA a method of preparing potatoes that is a specially of the country of the four mountains’ (Lans-en Veroes,-Lans, Autrains and Savenage). The potatoes are cut into tailons (pound slices) and arranged with single (light) cream in a gretin dish which has been nilubed with garlic and buttered. However, gratin dauphinois is often made by pousing a mixture of eggs, milk and cream over the potato slices and prinkling the dish with grated choose Grain saround, from the reighbouring region is made without milk. cream in eggs instead it consist of alternating layers of potato and granted beauton cheese with knobs of butter. All covered with bouillon. DEBARRASSER A French word meaning literally to clean away: used in causine to describe the transfer of food from the cooking vessel to a place. Such as a cupboard or a marble Slab. Where it can be cooled or kept for letter use.in callering. Debarrasser we muse en place is to remove from the vicinity of the oven (stove) or work station the ulensil that where employed in preparing a dish or meal. DECANT: to transfer a liquid from one vessel to another after allowing suspended imporities to settle. in French. Decanter is used in avariety of contexts: melted butter is decanted after skimming as is deep frying fat and stock after use. The same word as even used for extracting meat from the stock or sauce in which it has been cooked; the cooking liquid is then strained thickned if temporary, and used to make a sauce in a which the meat is given a final simmer. Wine is decarted by transferring it carefully into a carade so that any depself that has formed in the but the during manutation is left behind. Decaming wine also pounds oxygnatution, which is often beneficial, in practice, only old red wines are fulfioudly devantel, the batter lanner and wilid pigments they contain must ramin in the bottle. Fully matured wines should be decanted juct prior to serving they can be so fragile that exposure to the air may cause deterioration. Young concentrated wines with pronounced tannins may also benefit decanting as thus gives the flavour an opportunity to open up. DECOCTION The extraction of the conditions of a local by boding at in walter for varying length of time. In this way meat the vegetable boundling boundless and animals extracts are made. This produce should not he confined with infusion, in which boiling wate is poured over the substance but the boiling is not continued. DECOUPOIR a small sliglsy criminal cutters of stainless steel or galvanized iron, that cuts decorative slices in the form of s star, infoil heart, diamond spade or leaf, from soft foods such as truffles, tomatoes and jelly. It should not be confused with a pustry cookier cutter, used in patserie. DECUIRE A French term meaning to lower the cooking temperature of sugar syrup or jam by adding to it gradually, while stirring sufficient dold water to gave it the correct consistency. DEEP-FRYING A method of frying food by superging a completely in fat. Common as a commercial means of cooking east food, it is also a oral mixture of preparing fine ingredients when carried out by a skilled cook. Savoury and sweet items can be deep-fried from plain ingredients to delicate oxyparties and fritters, light doughnuts, crisp pastries and exotic Itallers. Carried out in deep ouns in the. Western kitchen or in the curved hose of the Oriental wok, this is an international method. The wok, stay be traditional for deep frying a few small items in a comparatively small amount of oil. But when cooking large items, such as fish fillets, or a large fruits of food out in small pieces, a deep pan is credetial prevent the lat oron holding over. The pan should be no more a third folled with cold lat as thos leved mes when ingredients are added and the fat buddles up and spoits. Deep frying is carried out at a high temperature so that the food is sealed. Becomes crisp and browns quickly. If the fat is not hot enough, some is alwarded by the food and the result is gresy. Also, at too low a temperature the outside does not become crisp ot it too long to do so, forming a thick, often and greasy cruist. · Choice of fat 1 using the right type of fat is essencial for food results and safe coking. Fats melt, boil and from at children temperature. When over beated fats being decompose or inteak dows and peture smoke – this is called the smoking point. The falvour of the fat as garlic. When gereah some fats will spontaneously makes it break down and smoke more easily, similarly, overcooked debris from deep-fried food also incourage the fat to break down. Ot only me overheated fats undertable for culinary use but they are not suitable for a healty diet and should not be consumed erergularty Animal solt as land or meat dropping are conditional fats for deep- trying because they can be heated to ahigh temperature without burning. Many vegetable oils are also suitable and they are both more convenient and versatile as they do not taint the food in the same way as same meat dripping vegetable oils are also more appropriate for balanced eating. Groundnut (peanut), soya, corn, sunflower and graperseed oils are suitable for deep-frying. Palm oil is suitable, but it is high in saturated fat and blended vegetable oils often contain a high proportion of palm oil. Olive breaks down and burns easily; although some foods are deep-fried in olive, oil, it is not generally considered sutiable for this. · Food for deep-frying Tender foods that cook quickly are suitable. The pieces should be small or thin so that they cook through before becoming too brown outside. Fish, chicken, small pieces of tender meat, vegetable, fruit, eggs and cheese can all be deep-fried. The method is also used for prepared mixtures, such as croquettes, rissoles, pastries and fritters. Chicken and meat should be cut into fingers (goujons), thin slices (escalopes/scallops) or small cubes (as for Chines-style sweet- and sour pork) to ensure they are cooked through. Slightly larger portions of chicken, such as breast fillets, quarters or drumsticks, require the temperature to be regulated carefully to ensure that they cook right through. Eggs set and become: crisp when deep-fried. Beaten eggs are an important ingredient for setting coatings in place. Whote eggs can be deep-fried from raw – they should be cracked into a cup and slid into the hot fat. Their high water content causes much spitting as it evaporates, then they rapidly set outside and puff up into crisp balls, with the yolks remaining soft in the center. They should only ever be deep-fried individually as they cook in seconds and require close attention. · Coatings for deep-frying Delicate foods or items that soften easily during cooking coated before all types of frying. This is particularly important for deep-frying. The coating should cook quickly to form a crust, preventing the food from absorbing fat and protecting the surface from overcooking. Delicate fish, light vegetables and fruit all have to be coated before dee-frying otherwise they overcook, disintegrate or fall apart. The coating should also be strong enough to contain certain ingredients or mixtures, for example the coating on deep-fried cheese prevents the cheese from running and disintegrating. Similarly, when making light croquettes bound in a sauce, the coating sets quickly to retain the mixture, which is then soft and fluid when the croquettes cut open. Flour This is a simple coating for foods that are resilient and require the minimum of protection. It is used mainly for pan frying or shallow frying, which is not as trash a method ad deep-frying but it can be used for some deep-fried ingredient. Season the flour and the roll the prepared food it in. the food should be moist or slightly damp to encourage the flour to stick and it should be added to the hot fat immideately it is coated. Sometimes the four is moistened with milk before being floured. EGG AND BREACERT SON. This is a firmer coating affonding more prodication. Dry white bread minds are usually the best as they made a line, cups coating that turns golden brown during cooking. Ready browned break nimbs tend to become too brown. Salt white breaden can be used for some foods but they tend to be slightly gresy as they absorth more fat. The food should be dasted with flour, then dipped in beaten egg and finally, coated in crundts. The coating is repeated when a thick layer is to punted as example, when preparing choppeters from a well-challed light sauce which is likely to run quickly. Similarly when making chicken Kiev. Where the fillets chicken folded around a pat of farlic butter that melts during cooking the coating must be thick and even to retain the garlic butter. Chilling found after coating in egg and breadnunths helps to set the coating and keep it in place during cooking. * BATTER A haller iis luquil coating that sets quickly and becomes brown and crisp when deep-fried. The butter may well used cooking: to give a puffy coating. Flour, eggs and water or milk are typical ingredients, but a vanity mixtures can be used, including light beer or sparking mineral water, to lighten the butter. A fairly thick flour and water, nixture may be lightened with stittly whisked egg white to give a batter with good coating properties. Becoming light, putted and crisp during cooking. The food is usually dasted in flour before being dipped in batter and added straight to the fat. The thickness of the butter depends on the type of food, fine foods that cook very quickly are coated in fine light butter, a thicker butter be used for inner foods. * PASTRIES Choux paste can be deep-fried bery successfully, enter as the main mixture for making fruitters or as a butter type coating. Puff pastry can also be deep fried it rises well to become crisp and golden ourside. It should be rolled fairly thinly and used to endose wimple ingredients that cook quickly. Filo pastry often used for deep-fried items, such as small pastries with savoury fillings of fish, vegetable cheese. · Temperatures for deep-frying These vary according to the food, tagging between fao 180°C 1275-450VF. Use a thermometer to check the temperature when heating the fat and during cooking to maintain the temperature as the ingredients are added also to prevent overheating during cooking. Another method of checking whether the fat is hot is to add a small, cube of dav-old bread to the Fat: the fat should bubble and the bread should rise to the surface, becoming brown about 30 seconds. * 140-100PC. 1275-32579 is suitable for larger items of foods that require time to become tender or cook through example include chicken and potato wedges. * 100-175°C 1325-347VF is the most popular temperature, suitable for foods that cook quckly for example these coated in breaderunds and butters. * 180°C (350°F) is a high temperature for small items, such as whitehait or fish groujons, start cook very quickly. This is also used for the second stage when double frying ingredients, for example to crisp and puff potati chips (Frech fries). · Successful frying. Deep-frying is an excellent cooking method, but one that suffers from poor implementation, particularly as a means of cooking inferior fast foods. The food must be well prepared cut evenly so that it cooks at the same rate throughout or across a batch cooked together. An appropriate coating should be used. Founds that are not coated (such as potatoes) should be thoroughly dried before being added to the hot fat otherwise they spit and the splashing fat can be dangerous. The choice of fat and temperature control is important. The fat should be heated to the right temperature’ before cooking and the food should be added in modest batches that do not lower the temperature too much. A thermometer should be used for checking temperature throughtout cooking to prevent the fat from overheating The cooked food should be thoroughly drained in a frying basket os using draining spoon, then on paper towels before serving immediately. The fat should be cooked and strained after use if it has overheated slightly, it should be discarded. Fat for deep-frying should not be used repeatedly: twice is usually enough, depending on the food and temperature. DEEP FREESING, COMMERCIAL A method of preserving food. For commercial preservation the food is subjected to rapid and interise freesing as low as 50°C (-58°F) so that the temprature at the center of the food is lower than - 18°C (0°F) but the degree of crystallization is not such as to cause moisture loss at the time of defrosting. Packaging precedes or immediately follows deep-freesing. Alter this the temperature must be kept consistently low until the product is used (-18°C, 0°F). It is very important to maintain the low temperature of deep-frozen products, and worth checking that they are best quality before buying them. Check he temperature of the freezer compartments (which should always have a thermimeter, snsure the packaging is not torn or damaged; the products may be covered by a very thin layer of frost (caused by the freesing of the surrounding air), but they should not have trails of ice; chopped vegetables and individually frozen small products must sound like pebbles rattling in the packet. Display cabinets should not be overfilled to the top, since products above a certain level are no longer cool enough. The foods should be taken home in insulated bags as quickly as possible; and stored in a freezer or in the 4-star compartment of a fridge-freezer, if these are not available, they may be stored for 24 hours only in a refrigerator or for 3 days in the ice-making compartment. The rule which applies to the use of deep-frozen foods is never to refreeze a thawed product. Many frozen products are suitable for cooking directly from frozen: check the manufacturer’s instructions carefully for cooking methods, times and temperatures. Other items have to be thawed before they can be cooked, either for best results or for reasons of food safety. Fish and meat are often better when thawed before cooking than when cooked from frozen; large portions of poutry and whole birds usually have to be thawed completely before cooking to ensure that they cook through completely. For example, although a frozen chicken may be simmered for several hours to make stock, with every confidence that it will be completely cooked rhroughout, to roast a bird from frozen would mean that the outside was overcooked before the meat in the thickest areas had properly thawed and cooked. Thawing frozen food Follow the manufacturing’s instructions for prepared products. As a general rule, when throwing plain ingredients, remove them from their wrapping and place in a clean, deep container to each any drips. Cover the dish rightly and leave it in a cool room or the refrigeration, depending on the room temperature, size of the food and likely thawing time. When poultry or meat requires lengthy thawing the drips or liquid seeps from it should be drained regularly. To thaw fuked such as bucad, unwrap and place them on a wire then cover with a clean lea towel leaving these, as pastries in their freezer bags can make them soggy. Refresh the fexture of cooked breads or pastries by heating them breiith in a hot oven. * Freezing food Home freezers are now highly efficient designed to reads lows temperatures for freezing fresh food. The better appliances are well insulated and designed for she minimum of loss of cold air when opened; with integral themmeters and alarms. In the early days of home freezing the recommended preparation of fruit and vegetables was daunting. Research into the deterisoration of food during freezing indicates that if the food is frozen rapidly to a low temperature properly packed and the low temperature maintained during storage. Reduction in quality is minimal. The technique of vegetable before freezing does not signal incatly approse the quality of the produce. Make sure that the freezer on the fast-freeze seting well in advance. Use good quality frezer bags to prevent frezer butrn and seal them well. Add food in modest vetches that will frezer quickly. Always prepare the pressure ready for cooking and food ingredients that discodit such as applied in lemon. Open the produce or pack it in qualities that will be used in one go. Always label the produce well especially prepared dishes as it is almost imposible them. Cooking fowl first can be the best soluntion, providing dishes an advance for everyday meals, especially by making batches soups and sauces for pesta are plictical and lake up minimum freezer space. Meat casseroles, bangers or pattiesm, croquetrtes, pasta bakes, fiklled pastries ready for baking and filed pancake are afew examples. Stewed fruit, compotes or purees have many excellent uses and they take up less space thean bulky packages of apples, goosecherries or rhubarbv and other fruits that falls and become watery when thaed if frozen raw. It makes sense to freeze items used frequently and in quantity, such as breads anmd others that are ideal as a special treat, such as cakes. The frezer is also idela for storing prepared ingredients ready for cooking or emergency supplies, stock butter (palin or flavoured). Bay leaves chopped fresh berbs ground roasted spices; prepared chilies; prepared fresh root ginger; fresh yeast (keeps well for up to I year); whipped double (heavy) cream, breakrumbs; grated cheese for cooking; and knobs of beurre manie (it keeps for 2 months). See freezing. · Quality. As a presenrving method, freezing is excellent for retaining nutriens as well as taste. Good quality purchased frozen vegetables are processed so quickly after harvesting that they have a better vitamins content than the slightly stale examples sometimes found on the supermarket shelves. Similarly, using the freezer for storing home-cooked dishes is a good way of having high-quality convenience foods. Batch cooking many savoury dishes and simple sweet mixtures, cakes or pastires requires barely more effort than making a standard portion – the batches do not have to be enormous to be practical, just a double or treble portion will provide two ot three meals instead of one. DEER. Reminanrts of temperature, including red deer (ceft in Frensch), me deer (cheered in Fresnhc), fallow deer (claim) in Frecnh) and the shite tail deer of North amercia. Oter related species include reindeer, sntelope, elk, moose and carobou all providing a source of meat, but they are not as important as the four main types. The meat is known as venison and its quality varies according to the type of deer, its age, sex and habitat. Traditionally game animals, deer are now harned as demand for venison has increased. Deer have been valued for their meat since prehistoric times and there is evidence of attempts to capture them in ancient Egypt, in the Middle Ages deer were the most highly prized game animals, reserved exlusively for the nobility in vast parks where they provided hunting sport as well as meat for rich tables. They inspired some highly decorative culinary dis plays, in which the beast was virtually reconsttucted lying on gigantic dishes. Deer meat was also used to land oulity. Both stag ad hind were eaten masted, stewed otr jugged, deer-knokle soup was a famous dish, in the 16th century, stag’s antlers, cut into seesion and friend, were considered fit for a king as were the menats drafts. Stag’s horn was commonly sold by groces when ground, it used to prepare jellies and sweets. Deer retained de statis as a luxury ood until the latter part of the 20th century, when farming increased availability. More a method if controlling and encouranging the growth of heads than of domesticating and applying contepentory neuring methods deer lanting has produced meat that is in elementand for its healthy properties compured to intensively neared anuimals to common with other game, deer hunting is supported conina dn seasons. DEGLAZE. To boild small quantity of wine, stock or other liquied with the cooking prices and sedums left so the pan after rosting or sauntering in order to make a saucer or gently. The sediment may be cooked first. So that excess par evaporable and the concentrated sediment caramelizes, and excess fat should be skimmed off. A small quantity of liquid is poured into the pan pver a medium to high heat and the mixture is boiled, stirring continuously to dissolve all the pan juices. The liquor is boiled and reduce until the right consistency is achieved. This may be quite syrup-like in texture. Cooking is vital to ensure a mellow, rich flavour, evaporating alcohol and making the liquor less acidic. Deglazing is sometimes preceded by flaming the contents of the pan after sprinkling with spirits. When the liquid is well reuced. It may be seasoned and served. Alternatively, further liquid, such as stock, may be added and the sauce thickened. Rich sauces can be prepared by adding cream to the deglazing liquor or by whisking in knobs of butter. Finally, the seasoning is adjusted and the sauce may be strained or sieved before being served DEGORGER. A frech term meaning to soak meat, poutry fish or offal cold water (with or without vinegar) to eliminate impurities and blood, particulary for white dishes or to dispel the muddy taste of river fish. The term is also used fo the process of sprinkling certain vegetables, particular cucumber and cabbage, with sal to draw out excess water. The same method can be used to draw out bitter juices, traditionally a method for preparing aubergines (but modern cultivars no longer bitter, so the process is not necessary for most commercial varieties). It also applies to the preparation of snails. DEGRAISSER. A French cultinary term eaning to remove excess fat from an ingredient, dish or cooking vessel. Fat is removed from raw or cooked meat using a small butcher’s knife; for hot bouillons, gravies or sauces, a small ladle or spoon Is used to skin off the fat, and for cold liquids, where the fat has solidified ladle should be used, or the liquid may be strained. Fat can be completely removed from hot clarified consommé by putting paper towels on the suraface. It uis necessary to remove excess fat from a cooking vessel before deglazing it. DEJEUNER. The French word for lunch, the midday meal, as opposed to petit defeuner (breadfast) and dinner. But according to its ctynology (from the Latin disjeporture. Later dusponare, to break one’s fast), the wood originally meant the first meal of the day, comprising essentially bread, soap and even wine thefore coffee, tea and chocolate appeared on the seemed. The introduction of the midday depetorer dates from the French Revolution. Unit that time, the midday meal was called. But because the sessions of the constituent. Assembly began at micjlay and finished about 6 p.m. dinner had to be easten at the end of the afternoon. The deputies, being unable to go without food from breakfast until dinner, acquired the habit of eating at about 11 a.m. a second breakfast that was more substantial than the first. A certain Madame Hardy, who in 1804 ran a eafe on the Boulevard near the Treasure des Italiens, invented the dejenoe a lat four battle fork lunch.) offering her customer outlets, kidneys, sausages and other grills served on a sideboard. The development of cahareta and dafes, then the birth of restaurants, turned disjeuner into an important social occasion. Nowadays in France, lunch is eastern generally at about 12:30 p.m. it is often a quick and light meal, although in professional circle it has become more substantial as the business lunch. Certain events, such as the awarding of literary prizes, often take place at a special lunch. But even today, the Sunday lunch remains a symbol of family life, not so far removed from the type of lunch served in the 1850s, mentioned by Marguerite Yourcenar: Every Sunday, Reine presides over a meal to which all the family are invited. The tablecloth laid for this ceremony, hardly less sacred than High Mass, is resplendent with silverware and the soft gleam of old porcelain. Poulty quenelles are served at midday, the dessert and sweetmeats at about five o’clock. Between the sorbet and the saddle of lamb, it is understood that the guest have the right to take a turn about the garden or even, with a slight apology for taking pleasure in such a nustie amusement, a game of bowls. (Archives du Nord, Gallimard). DELESSERT, BENJAMIN. French industrialist and financler 9bvorn Layon 177 ½ died paris, 1847). Having founded a sugar refinery in 1801 in the district of Pasay in paris, in 1812 he perfected the process of sugar extraction from sugar beet. Napoleon visited the factory and saw the potential of this discovery, which could make it unnecessary to import cane sugar from the West Indies. He granted large funds to Delicate, earmarked a great deal of land in the north for sugar beet cultivation and, on Releaser’s advice opened one of the first sugar schools’ at Diurnal. Meanwhile. Detester plunged into political life and became one of the founders of savings banks in France. DELICATESSEN A shop, or department in a store supermarket, selling high quality, luxury food and or specialist products. The word. Meaning delicacies, originated in Germany in the 18th century. Foods may be specific to one country. And which case regional specialities rarely available in general grocery departments are usually an important feature. International food specialities are more common, with canned, dried and preserved producs, including unusual herbs and spices, complemented by cheesesm cooked meats, pates and other prepared items. A range of excellent marinated foods, salads, pastries and sauces or dips frequently feature in contemporary delicatessens. High-quality breads and cakes are often. Fine wines, liqueurs spirits, as well as confectionery may be on offer. With the growth in popularity of delicatessen foods and a wide range of such outlets now open. It is important to distinguish between selling a range of prepared and slightly unusual foods and others providing true quality. Those running and working in a good establishment (or department) will have detailed knowledge of the products they sell, the suppliers and other foods of the same type. They will usually advise on the preparation, serving and accompaniments for their products. Many superior delicatessens often a hamper service or rpepare culinary gifts to order. DELICE OR DELICIEUX Fancy names given to various dessert, gateaux sweetmeats. RECIPES Apple delicious Prepare and bake 675g (1 ½ 1b) apple in baking sheet in preheated oven at 190°C (375 °F, gas 5). Reduce the pulp to a puree and allow to cool. Beat 5 egg yolks with 100g (4oz, ½ cup) caster (superfine) sugar until the mixture becomes light and foamy. Whisk the 5 whites stiffly and fold a little a time into the egg-sugar mixture alternately with the apple puree and 65g (2 ½ oz, ⅔ cup dried white breadcrumbs. Empty the mixture into a buttered and floured soufflé dish and cook in a preheated oven at 90ºC (375°F, gas 5) for 40-50 minutes. Dust with sugar and serve very hot. Delcieux surprise Gently meat 125g (4 ½ oz, 4 ½ square) dark chocolate in a bowl over hot water. Add I tablespoon single (light) cream, 20g (¾ oz, 1 ½ tablespoons butter. 1 tablespoon milk and the greated zest of an oange. Keep the sause hot over the hot water. Cut a large brioche mousseline into 6 thick slices, put them in a dish and sprinckle with 100 ml (4 ft 0z. 7 table spoons) rum. Peel 3 pears, remove the seeds, slice and place on the broche slices. Whip 150 ml (1/4 pint, ½ cup) double (heavy) cream with 1 tablespoon very cold milk and slowly add 50 g (2 oz. ¼ cup) caster (superfine) sugar. Cover the broche and pears with a dome of the whipped cream and pour over the hot chocolate sauce. Serve immediately. Lemon delice Melt 100g (4 oz. ½ cup) butter in a bain marie. Measure 250 g (9 0z. 2 ¼ cups) self-raising flour into a mixing bowl, then add the melted butter, 4 eggs. 200g (7 oz. 1 cup) caster (superfine) sugar, the grated zest and juice of a lemon, and 100g (4 oz. ¾ cup) crystallized (candied) fruits cut into very small dice. Mix until evenly blended, then turn the mixture into a 25 cm (10 in) round loose bottomed cake tin (pan) and cook for 40 minutes in a preheated oven at 190°C (375°F. gas 5). Meanwhile, prepare a French butter cream (see creams) using 125 g (4 ½ oz. ½ cup) caster sugar cooked to the thread stage (see sugar) in 3 tablespoon water, 4 egg yolks, 125 g (4 ½ oz. ½ cup) butter and the grated zest and juice of a lemon. When the cake is cooked, turn out on to a wire rack, allow to cool and cut into three rounds. Cover two of the rounds with a thick layer of the lemon butter cream and sandwich together. Dust generously with icing (confectioner’s) sugar and keep in a cool place (not the refrigerator) until ready to serve. (the layers may be sprinkled with lemon sugar syrup of liked). Nut delices Combine 125 g (4 ½ oz. 1 cup) plain (all-purpose flour with 50 g (2 oz. ¼ cup) softened butter, 1 egg yolk, 1 tablespoon water; 3 tablespoon caster (superline) sugar and a pinch of salt. When the dough is smooth, roll it into a ball and chill. Cream 65 g (2 ½ oz. 5 tablespoons) butter; add 65 g ( 2 ½ oz. Cup) caster sugar and 1 egg. Then 65 g (2 ½ oz. ½ cup) ground almonds, and finally 25 g (1 oz. ¼ cup) fecula (potato flour); mix well. Roll out the chilled dough to a thickness of 3 mm (1/3 in). cut out 8 discs and line tartlet moulds with them. Prick the bottoms and cover with the almond cream. Cook in a preheated oven at 190°C (375°F, gas 5) for 15 minutes. Meanwhile, prepare a French butter cream (see creams) using 125 g ( 4 ½ oz. ½ cup) sugar cooked to the thread stage (see sugar) in 3 tablespoons water; 4 egg yolks, 125 g (4 ½ oz. ½ cup) butter and 1 teaspoon coffee essence. Chop 100 g (4 oz. 1 cup) fresh walnuts and mix with the cream. Allow the starlets to cool, then turn out and top each with a dome of the walnut cream. Put in a cold place for 30 minutes. Warm 250 g (9 oz) fondant icing (frosting) to about 32°C (90°F), flavors it with a few drops of coffee essence and add just enough water to make it spread easily. Dip the top of each tarlet into the fondant, smoothing it evenly over the cream with a palette knife (spatula). Place a fresh walnut on each delice and store in a cool place. Strawberry delices* Work together in a mixing bowl 125 g (4 ½ oz. 1 cup) plain (all-purpose) flour with 1 egg. 50g (2 oz. ¼ cup) caster (superfine) sugar, a pinch of salt, 1 tablespoon water and 50 g ( 2 oz. ¼ cup) butter cut into small pieces. When the mixture is a smooth dought, out it in therefrigerator to chill. Meanwhile, wash and hull 175 g (6 oz. 1 cup) strawberries and macerate in 50 g (2 oz. ½ cup) icing (congectioner’s) sugar for 1 hour. Roll out the dough to a thickness of 3 mm ( 1/8 in). cut out 6 rounds and use them to line 6 buttered tarlet moulds; prick the bottom of each one with a fork and bake blind for about 10 minutes in a preheated oven at 190°C (375°F gas 5). Remove the paper and baking beans and cook for a further 3-5 minutes, until the pastry is cooked. Cool on a wire rack. Sieve the macerated strawberries and gradually beat the puree into 125 g (4 ½ oz. Cup) unsalted butter; fill the tarlet cases with this mixture and top with 175 g ( 6 oz. 1 cup) strawberries. Decorate with springs of mint and serve with a sweetened redcurrant coulis. DELTEIL JOSEPH French writer born Villar-enval, 1894 died Grabels, 19880. having figured in Parisian literary circles. Delited retired in 1930 to languendos, to house whose lacade bears the motto of Confuciou: like humbly; of Deltelf’s work, la cusine paleolithique (Robert Morel. 1964) features a selection of recipes for cuisine naturelle using unprocessed foods, such as bean soup, cassoulet, snails, grilled 9boiled) beef, poule an potand dandelion salad, as well as such aphorisms as Eat with the fingers drink with the nose and Food responds to our soul’s dream as to our stomach’s appetite. It also offers some judictions advice. Don’t prick the mast, it will bleed. Ham 40 days in salt, 40 days hanging in 40 days eaten; and a quick guide to cooking times. Pork at walking pace, beef at a trot, games at a gallop. DEMI-DEUIL Meaning literally half-mourning, this term describes dishes containing both black and white ingredients. In classic cuisine, the whitefoods (pouched poutry and eggs, sweesbreads in white stock, potato salad, shellfish) are coutises (encrusted) with slices or strips of truffle and coasted with supreme sauce. Chicken ddemi-devil is one of the most renowned dishes of Nokomis cuisine, particularly the version given by more Failure the chicken is stuffed with truffle between skin and flesh, served with the vegetable ingredients of the cooking stock and counted with the strained cooking juices. RECIPES Chicken demi deuil Poach a chicken in white place on a serving dish and keep hot. Prepare 8 tartlets or croustades and fill them with a silicone of calves or lambs sweetbreads braised in white stock, and mush rooms gently cooked in butter – all mixed with supreme auce. Garnish each tartlets with a slice of truffle heated in Madera. Arrange the tartlets around the chicken and coat it with supreme sauce. Demi-deuit salad Boil 675g ( 1 ½ lb0 potatoes until tender. Drain, cool, peel ands slice the cooked potatoes. Cut 75 – 100g ( 3-4 oz.) truffles into thin strips. Make a sauce using 3 tablespoon single (light) cream. 1 teaspoon mustanrd salt, and pepper. In a large salad bowl make a bed of lettuce sea soned with a little vinaigrette. Place the potatoes mixed with the sauce onn it, then sprinkle with the strip of truffle. Eggs demi-deuil Prepare some individual puff pastry coustades. Fill each one with mushroom in cream sauce and top with a soft-boiled (soft-cooked) or poached egg. Coat with supreme sauce and garnish with a slice of truffle. DEMIDOF A chicken dish cedicated to Prince anatole Demidof, the husband of Napoleon’s niece. Prince Mathide. Demidof was one of the celebreated bons viveus of the second emoire and an habitué of the Maison Dree, where this recipe was created. The name is also given to a dish of sautted chicken. RECIPES Chicken Demidof Stuff a large chicken with a mixture comprising one third quencile stuffing and two-thirds & groth forcement. Prepare a very shick matignos vegetable fondue using 125 g ( 4 ½ oz.) carrots. 50g (2 oz.) celery. 25 g ( 1 oz) sliced onion, half a bay leaf, a spring of threme, a pinch of salt and a pinch of suagr. Soften the vegetables in butter, moisten with 100 ml ( 4 ft oz) 7 tablespoon) Madeira and reduce until almost dry. Brown the chicken in a preheated oven at 220°c (425°F, gas 7). Cover it with the vegetables, thenwrap it in a pig’s caul or bard it with streaky (stab) bacon or pork fat. Tile it up and braise it in a covered casserole, adding a small quantity of chicken stock, at 180°C (350°F, gas 4) for about 2 hours, or until the chicken is cooked through. Add more hot stock to the casserole occasionally to prevent it from drying up. Uncover the casserole to brown the chicken for the final 15-20 minutes cooking time. Arrange the chicken on a serving dish and surround with artichoke hearts cooked in butter and topped with the vegetable fondua. Garnish each artichoke heart with an onion ring (covered in butter and deep-fried) and a slice of truffle. Deglaze the cooking vessel used for the chicken with Maderia and pour over the chicken. Sautéed chicken Demidof Remove the gablets from a chicken and out off the breast, wings and lega. Brown the remaining carcass and giblets in oil, dust with flour and brown again. Moisten with 150 ml (% pint, ½ cup) dry white wine and bouillon and cook gently for 30 minutes. Strain and reserve this cooking liquid. Cut w carrots. 1 turnip, 2 celery sticks and 1 onion into thin julienne strips. Flour the chicken portions and brown them in a saucepan. Add the egetable julienne and the strained cooking liquid cover and cook gently for 30 minutes. Add a slice of smoked ham and a ciced stuffle. Cook for a further 15 minutes then deglaze with Madeira and demi-galze sauce. DEMI-GLACE a rich brown sauce made by boiling and skimming capagsole store and adding white stock of castoffade. It usually has the addition of Madeira sherry or a similar wine. RECIPE Demi-glaze Boil down to reduce by two-thirds a mixture of 500 ml (17 ft. oz. 2 cups) espagnole sauce and 750 ml ( 1 ¼ pints 3 ¼ cups) clear brown stock. Remove from the heat, add 3 tableshpoon Madeira and strain. A handful of sliced mushroom staks may be added during cooking. DEMI-SEL. A soft French cheese made from pasteurized cow’s milk. It has a mild flavour and contains 10-4% fat and less ham 2% added soft. It is sold in small squares wrapped in foil and is used as a cheese spread. It mau be flavoured with heris paprika or pepper. Demised was first made at the end of the 19th century and is a speciality of normality. DENERVER. A French calintary term meaning to nature tende and membrances from on meat probably on game. It promses seve cooking and tender results and improces prectation. DENIS. Born Lahama Denis. French and restaurateu (borneus, 1909) died 1981). He opened the restaurant clez Denis in paris and devoted himself performing inventive and luxurious derbes. A cultured man, motivated by his love of cooking, he replaced to certain chets who critiezed him for not having worked way up through the profession: I have eatern way through six inheritances in the great restaurants, so I know what good cuising is all about; He oersuaded himself that the graimets of his time were, like him, capable of spending lotunes on such dishes as supremes of Bresse chicken chaud froids of ortolan an cham herth and fresh turtles a lot serrleth: and on bottles of Chatecan-Latour 1945 Consequently. He was runned and forced to close his restaurant. He publishe La cuisine de Deuis Claffort. 1975) in which londemental to inques, carots make of the trade and basic recipes are presented with simplicity, precision and good sense. His recipe for scallops is an follows. Sute the scallops quickly in clarified butter, without browing Moisten with fumet (use about 1 tablespoon for 6 scallops). Add a ew drops of absenthe or, failing this, of Permod, some pieces of very cold butter about 65 g (2 1.2 oz. 5 tablespoon for 6 scallops, herbs, salt and perper, keep moving the sanite pan and lorth oven a high heat. When the coking liquor boils, pour the entire contents of the pan on to the serving dish. DENMARK DENSITY. The mass of a substance per unit of volume; in practice, the weight of something divided by its volume. Density has units of grams per cubic centimeter. The term density is sometimes used loosely (especially in cookery) to mean relative density, which is the mass of a given volume of substance divided by the mass of an equal volume of water; ideally the water should be at 4°C (39 2°F) but this is unimportant in cookery. Relative density is also called specific gravity. It is used in winemaking, brewing cider making; the fats industry (oil, margarine) and the dairy industry (fat content of milk). Sugar concentration – important in making sweets, paints and other presence – is now also expressed by relative density (rather than by degrees Baume). Relative density can be measured by a hydrometer – an instrument which floats in the liquid, the relative density being read directly from its graduated stem. DENTEX dente, deenti. A Mediterranean fish of the sparidae family with long, sharp, sometimes hooked teeth and powerful jaws. The young fish are silvery grey and the adults are reddish-brown. Related to but much larger than the sea bream, up to 90 cm (36 in) long, it has firm, rather tasty flesh and iscooked in the some way as see bream. DENTS-DELOUP. Triangular croutons used for gamish, arranged as a bonder around the edge of a dish with the points to the outside (hence the name, which means wolves teeth). The dents-loup used to garnish hot dishes are triangles either cut from sandwich bread and fried in oil or butter or made from puff pastry and baked. Gold dishes are garnished with dents de loup cut out of stops of aspic; The name is also used for certain kinds of crisp biscuits cooked. One variety, a specially of Alsace, is a long pointed biscuits falvoured with lemon and brandy. Another kind is cresent-shaped and flavored with cumin or aniseed. DERBY. An English cheese made with cow’s milk, containing about 45% fat. It is a firm pressed mild cheese which resembles. Cheddar, but is slightly flakier and more moist. The cheese is traditionally wheel shaped 38 cm (15 in) diameter, 12 cm ( 5 in) high, and weighing about 14 kg (32lbs). Sage erby is marbled with green and is made by adding chopped sage leaves to the curd for additional colouring and falvouring. It was traditional to make this specially at Christmas and at harvest time. Commercially, Sage Derby is now produced using dried sage and spinach juice. DERBY, A LA. A method of preparing chicken, crened in the foods for Girois when he was chet at the hotel de Faris an Alonite Carlo. It was dedicated to a member of a destinguihed British family with a predilection for French cuisine. Chicken a la Derby is stuffed with truffed rice and loie gras; truffles cooked in port and slices of sautéed foie gras provide the garnish, and the chicken is created with the cooking juices deglazed with port. Derby soup is a cream of onion and curried rice soup, ganished with poached, quevelles of foie gras and chopped indle. DEROBER. A French culinary term meaning to remove the skins of shelled broad (fava) beans. It also means to remove the skins of blancged tomatoes or almonds and unpoered willes potatoes DERVAL. A garnish for fleet toumedos and of lamb, with anicboke quarters sutered 40 butter. DESALTING. The removed of slat from certain louds that have been personal in brine. Desalting is carned out is cooking the food in cold still or running water at that the salt desolves graduay and forms a deposit on the buttom of the vessed. Salt and revesl to be maked die thedsa before it is required changing the water several times. Traditional salted ham or gamon must be soaked for several hours before cooking. Landons cut from streaky (saly) bacon may be cesalted by blanching. As a general rule, the salt used for oreservation should not be used for seasoning – it is better to desalt too much and season again later. Drained canned or bottled anchovies may be desalted by soaking briefly in milk. Dry salted anchovies (sold packed in salt) ae soaked in water. DESAUGIERS, MARC ANTOINE. French song writer and pot (born Frejus, 1882; died Paris, 1827). The author of numerous drinking songs, he was secretary of Gaveau Modeme; a gastronomic and sonne what bacchanalian literary society. His philosophy may be summed up in this verse which he wrote in the form of an epitaph; DESCAR. A garnish for large joints of meat consisting of potato croquettes and article hoke hearts cooked gently in butter and stuffed with diced breast of chicken. The garnish was created in honour of the due des Cars, the mysal household in the reign of Oui XVII of France. He was a celebrated gourmet who unforntunately, died of indigestion DES ESSARTS (bom Denis Dechanet) French actor (born Langre, 1737; died Bareges, 1973). He practiced as a lau-yer before throwing in his lotr with the threatre. He specialized in playing financiers and peasants, roles in which he was well served by an extraordinary stoutness, due to an insatiable appetite and a legendary gluttomy. His contemporaries bore witness to his joviality and his proven lyricism for anything concerning good living, as shown in his aphorism (Good cuisine fatterns a clear conscience), or his sulinarym judgments, such as the one on the leg of lamb which, according to him, should be mortified (bung) as a bar caught in the act, golden as a young German girl, and bloody as a Garibbean. He died of apoplexy in a spa where he was taking the waters. DESSERT. The last course of a meal. The word comes from desservir (to remove that which has been served) and correquently means everything offered to guest alter the previous dishes and corresponding serving itensils have been cleared away. In former times at great banquestm dessert, which was the fifth course of the meal, was often presented in magnificent style. Large set pieces fashioned in pastry, described often and in great detail by Caurene, shoes accounts are accompanied by splendid illustrations, were placed on the table at the beginning of the meal. These owed more to arcghitecture than to the art of cooking, and had a purely decorative function. Just before the sweet course, a maltitude of desserts were elegantly arranged on the table with the set pieces, for every ceremontal table was laid in accordance with a detailed plan. The debes had to harmonize with gold plate crystal, magnificent baskets of fruit and the tall candelabra a dazzling spectable. It was not until about 1850 that word dessert took on its present meaning. In ancient time, meals generally ended with frensh or de\ried fruit, milk or cheese dishes, or hiney. In frame in the Middle Ages, the main sweet dishes when served between course considered of jellies, flans, blanemanges tarts, compotes, riecule. Foundes (fancy pastry), echaudis (poached pastry walfle and various other sall cakes. The dessert proper consisted of the issue, a glass of hippocras served with oublies (wafers, followed by boulebors) (dragees with spice and crystallized fruit). In the 17th century, deserts had become more elaborate and were decorated with flowers. They included marzipan, nougat, pyramids of fruit, dry and liquid preserves, biscuits (cookies), creams \, sugar sweets (candies), sweet almonds sugar and orange-flower water, green walnuts, pistachios and marrons glaces. At the end of the century, ice creams made their appearance, and at the same time patisserie became extremely diversified with different basic mixtures, such as puff pastry, sponge, choux pastry and meringue. In the 20th century, dessert in France evolved to include cheese and fresh fruit as well as sweet dishes. However, the term is usually taken to mean the sweet course of the meal, whether it is served before or after the cheese course. The contemporary dessert may include one of a wider range of dishes, from elaborate gateaus and pastries to simple fruit salads. It is still usual to serve two or three sweet dishes at a dinner party, especially when one may be a light fruit recipe and another a rich concoction, but the dessert course is no longer the wildly extravagant affair it once was. Instead of eleborate centerpieces, individual presentation is a popular alternative, born of restaurant style food trends. · Pudding or dessert. Whereas has long been regarded as a special or superior sweet course. Pudding was traditionally the homely, everyday alternative. Although this is still true to some extent, pudding tends to refer to traditional, hot or hearty sweets while dessert is cool or lighter, or more elaborate. Very simple, everyday sweet dishes may be referred to as a sweet. · Regional and foreign specialties. Apart from the creations of the Parisian master pastry cooks, the desserts of the provinces provide a good example of the diversity of French cuisine. Bouting-aman from Brittany, poirat from Berry, boutdelot from Normandy, electruskas from Alsace, cremets from Angers, pogue from Romans, pthiviers and falugnarde from the Auverne, clafouths from Limousin, in addition to brioches, wattles, puncaked and various fritters, not forgetting the thirteen desserts from Provencem traditionally served at Christmas. In Great Britain, Germany, Austria and Belgium, where good-quality butter, cream, milk, eggs and chocolate are also abundant, there is a wide selection of desserts and pausverie. In the Mediterranean countires, the Far East and south America, sweetmeats and fruits clearly predominate. In eastern Europe, cooked fruits, brioches and spiced biscuits (cookies) are served at the end of the meal, while in China and Japan, dessert does not exist! Ice Creams and pies are particularly popular in the United States, together with fruit and pancakes. · The choice of a suitable dessert. When choosing a dessert, the previous courses must be considered to crisitine a well-traditional menu. The choice depends largerly on the continent of the menu . hwere or not a cheese course is provided and also are the weapon of the year. To terms of dishes served the dessert does but have for the scien while it is quite acceptable to in lude cooks of didlenes countries and cooking styles in one meal. It is important that they complement early other in all aspects. Sympathetic flavours are salt light cooking net slighting mixture go well asfter full spicy must courses. When fruit features largerly in the savory courses a charge is welcome in the dessert. In avoid dashing styles, it is best moderate distinetly different types of dishes paying down their characteristics to encourage contrateous largerly than dishes. A light dessert is suitable for mounding off a substantial wicih or Lady Heavy meal. When planning a rich. Filling or elaborate dessert, the main cuise should be high and not over filling in cooke that the finale of the meal will be enjoyed. Texture important steps level are good following moved courses, to serve soup forst, followed by a casserole and then a crremy dessert would be a mistake. Finally colour and appearance are important these dishes must look attractive. The dessert should being a meal to a glorious end. Not allow it to die a said death. Where more than one dessert is served, they should countered with and complement each other as well as the nest of the meal. Many restaurant other a a ground dessert droplay or a sweet trolley, bearing a whole range of desserts from which the dinner may choice. They type of display of dessert original in Italy, where it was introudec to encourage the young moment and girls to stay at table during family gadthering. DESSERTE. The French term for the food that is left over after a meal in some instances, it may be used as a basis for another meal. The simplest type of desserte consists of slices of various cold meats with ghetkirts or pickles. Cesserte may be used to prepare certain cold dishes, such as mixed or meat salads, canapés and morses or but dishes such as shepherd various shuttling coopettes boundies pilaf and risotto. Under the Ancien the member of the meal honoraled in change food did scale indesete with oursale and restaurant in certain Fench restaurant such food (part from a few means)beberages for the water. A desserte is also a small sideboard on which the dishes are stacked after their removal from the table DETAILLER. A French term meaning to cut up various vegetables cut up in the way can be used for preparing a juiceless especially the pieces cut infro a special shape or doskness escalopes escallopse medalloines and greustadon. DETENDRE. A French culinary term meaning to solten a paste or a mixture by adding appropriate substance, such as beaten eggs, milk or stock. DETREMPE. The French culinary term for a paste made with flour and water in the first sugar of making pastry, before the addition of butter, eggs and milk. It is best to let the deirentpe rest in a cool place for about to minutes before adding the remaining ingredients. ( a Detrempe is rarely used on its own, except as a butting paste.) To detremper a paste or dough is to allow the flour to almond all the necessary water, knealing it with the fingertips without working it tooo much. DEVILLED. In French a la diable. The name given to dishes with a pogrant or but marinade, spice mixture or sauce, usually based on mustant. Wothr tenshine sauce, cayenne pepper and paprika are other typical meaning. They may be overbined with the food – for example, devilled crah is seasoned and may be furshied y grilling throiling chrologic – or used in an accompany sauce. Marinades are popular particularly for chicken and meat, or a dry rish may be used to import a typical devilled flavour. Grilling is the install cooking method, but pan frying mosting or baking are alslo used. Food may be dipped in egg and created with breakbrend before cooking and served with a picpuant devilled sauce. These dishes are very popular traditional English cookery. Devilled chicken or pigeon,pegion, for example, is prepared by slirring the bind upon along its back, spreading it out flat, seasoaning it aand then gritting it. It is served with a devilled source. The essencital characteristic of any devilled food in the prequency slight heat of flaour distinguishing from a more complex spiced mixture or very fieiry flavour. RECIPES Devilled beef Cut some cold boiled beef into fairly thick slices. Coat each slice with mustard, sprinkle with oil or melted butter, coat with fresh breadcrumbs and grill (broil) under a low heat until each side is golden bwoen. Serve with devilled sauce. Devilled herrings Scale, wash and dry the herrings, then slic them along the back and sides. Season and coat with mustard sprinkle with French white breadcrumbs and oil, and cook slowly under the grill (broiler). Serve with mustard sauce, avigore sauce or devilled sauce. Devilled meat dishes In England this is a way of using pieces of leftover poultry or game or the remains of joint to make a tasty meal. Mix together the following 1-tablespoon English mustard. 1 tablespoon mustard with herbs 2 tablespoon olive oil, 2 egg yolks, 1 teaspoon each of Worcestershire sauce, salt and anchovy paste, and a pinch of cayenne perper. Curry poweder or paste, tomato puree (paste) or a concentrated onion puree may be added if desired. Coat the meat with this mixture and grill (broil) under a medium heat until brown. Serve piping hot with a good gravy. Devilled oysters Poach, drain and remove the beards of the oysters. Thread the oyxters on small kebab skewers, coat with melted butter seasoned with a little cayenne pepper and dip them in fresh white breadcrumbs. Grill (broil) under a low heat and serve with devilled sauce. Devilled sauce (1) (English recipr) Add 1 tablespoon chopped shallots to 150 ml (1/4 cup) red white vinegar and reduce by half. Then add 250 ml ( 8ft. oz. 1 cup) espagnole sauce and 2 tablespoon tomato puree (paste). Cook for 5 minutes just before serving add 1 tablespoon. Worcestershire sauce. 1 tablespoon Harvey sauce or spiced vinegar and a dash of cayenne pepper. Strain the sauce. This sauce is generally served with grilled (broiled) meat. Devilled sauce (2) Mix 150 ml ( ¼ pint, 1.2 cup) dry white wine with 1 tablespoon vinegar, then add 1 tablespoon finely chopped shallots, a soprig thyme, a small piece of pepper. Reduce the sauce by two-thirds, then add 200 ml (7 fl. Oz.1/4 cup) demi-glace and boil for 2 – 3 minutes. Strain through a sieve. Just before serving add 1 teaspoon chopped parsley and check the seasoning adding a little cayenne pepper if liked. Alternatively, omit straining the sauce and add 1 tablespoon butter or beuree manie. Devilled tongue. Cut braised or poached cold ox (beef) or calf’s tongue crossways into fairly thick slices or cut sheeps tongues in half lengthways. Spread with mustard dip melted butter and French breadcrumbs and grill ( broil) gently until both sides are brown. Serve with devilled sauce. DIABLE. A cooking put comprising of two potatoes earthwuaware pan. One of which other as a lot. It is has halfway through cooking the double is turned upside-down. The drill from Charters resembles a small sound casserole. Each pan has a flat beetroot, chestnuts and onions, without adding ascertain vegetables, such as potatoes, ginned for cooking. The double washed and tighly finting led. The mose lends the . sometimes the inner mixtures a nabbed with a close of garlic. It was originally meant to be used when cooking on hot charoal but may also be used in an ordinary oven. If placed directly on an electric hotplate or a gas ring, it is advisable to start off the cooking very slowly over a gentic heat; otherwise, a heat diffuser should be placed under the hase. DIABLE, A LA see devilled DIABLOTIN. A very thin, small round slice of bread (cometimes first coated with reduced bechamed sauce) sprinkled with grated cheese and browned in the oven. Disavlotins are usually seved with soup, such as Roxjuctio, they can be served as cocktail snacks. Formely the name dialotin was used for a small fritter made of a deep fried thick sauce. It is also the name of a small spoon used to measure spices for cocktails. RECIPES Cheese diablotins Cut a ficelle (long thin French loaf) into slices 5 mm ( ¼ in) thick. Butter them and coat with grated cheese (Comte, emmental or Beaufort, which melt, or Parmessa, which doesn’t. a thin slice of Cruyers or Edam may be used instead Brown the slices quickly and serve with soup. Diablotins with walnuts and Roquefort Cheese Cut a long French loaf into slices about 5 mm (1/4 in) thick. Mix some butter with an equal quality of Roquefort cheese and add some coarsely chopped green walnuts, allowing 1 tablespoon per 75 g ( 3 oz. ½ cup) of the mixture. Spread the mixture on the slices of bread and quickly heat in a preheated oven at 240°C (475°F gas 9). DIABOLO. A refreshing non-alsholic drink made with lemonade and fruit syrup. The most common diabeholos are those made with mint and grenadine. DIANE, A LA. The description a la Diane is given to certain game dishes that are dedicted in the god dress Diaba (the huntress). Joints of venison a la Diana are sauleve and couted with sauce diane a highly peppeed sauce with cream and truffest. They are served with chestnut puree and cendous spread with game forcemeat. The ame may also be gives to a game puree used to gamish either soft boiled (soft-cooked) eggs on eroutes with salmis sauce or mushroom barquettes with sauce chasseur. This puree can also form the basic of a cream soup, flavored with port. Qualls a la theme are simonies in stock and tomato flavoured demi-glace; then garnished with quevuelles and braised lettaide. DIEPPOISE. A LA. A method preparing fish named after the port of Dieppe, which is famous for the exellience of the sole fished us matters. Sole whiting or brell a la dispose are cooked in white wine; garnished with masses springs and often mushrooms and masked with a white wine sauce make with te cooking of the fish and main sets. This method is also suitable for cooking piece and even an tickles. Dipodies garnish consists of mussels prawns (shripngs and mushroom cooked in white wine and is used for bounchees bonpatters salads and a seck made sauce. Mackedn and heating marinated in white wine are corrasterole be a spectality of diaper, they are also called a la diepooise. (see marinate disppaise). RECIPE Brill a la dieppoise Prepare 500 ml (17 fl oz. 2 cups) fish fumet. Clean 1 kg (2 ¼ lb) mussels and cook them a la marimere reserving the cooking stock. Make a white roux with 25 g ( 1 oz. 2 tableshpoons) butter and 25 g (1 oz. ¼ cup) plain (all-purpose) flour and gradually add the fish fumet together with 100 ml (4 fl oz. 7 tablespoons) strained cooking stock from the mussels. Add 1 tablespoon coarsely chopped mushrooms and a bounquet garni. Check the seasoning and boil gently for 20 25 minutes to reduce. Shell the mussels and keep them hot in the remainder of their cooking stock, taking care not so boiled them. Season a brill weighing about 800 g ( 1 ¼ lb) with salt and place in a buttered flameproof dish. Pour over 150 ml ( ¼ pint, 1.2 cup) white wine. Bring to the boil, uncovered then cook in a preheated oven at 220°C (475°F, gas 7) for 15.18 minutes basting the fish Frequently Mix 2 egg yolks with a little of the partially cooked mushroom sauce. Add 50 g ( 2 oz. ½ cup) peeled prawns (shelled shrimp) and the cooking liquor from the fish to the remaining mushroom sauce. Mix well, heat, add the hot drained mussels then the egg yolk mixture and coat the brill with this sauce. This recipe may also be used for fresh cod. Scallops an gratin a la dieppoise Poach the white flesh of 16 scallops very gently for 4 minutes in 500 ml ( 17 fl oz. 2 cups) fish fumer mixed with 200 ml (7 fl oz. ¼ cup) dry white wine. Cook 1 kg ( ¼ lb) small mussels a la morimeire. Prepare a sauce from a roux, the mussel cooking liquor and the fish fumet as described in the previous recipe. Add 1 tablespoon dropped mushroom stalks and a bouquet garni to the sauce, check the seasoning and cook gently for 20 – 25 minutes. Keep the scallops hot in a covered lightly buttered gratin dish over a saucepan of hot water. Shell the mussels and keep hot in the rest of their cooking liquor, without boiling. Add 75 g ( 3 oz. ½ cup) peeried prawns (shelled shrimp). When the sauce is cooked strain it and add the strained musels and prawns. Dilute 1 egg with a little of the sauce and whick it in. coat the scallon with the sauce, scatter with very fine fresh breadcrumbs, sprinkle with melted butter and btown quickly in a preheated oven at 220°C (425°F gas 7) or under the grill (boiler). Additional recipe See smelt. DIETETICS. The study of everything concerned with diet and all that relates to the therapeutic use of food. The importance of having a sensible balanced diet to maintain good health has been amply proved. The science of deities is particularly role vent in the planning of diets for those with special needs such as diabetics. DIETICIAN. A specialist in the study and regulation of local intake and food preparation (diabetics, who has had scientific and paramedical training. Diabetics may work in hospitals supervising and dealing with all aspects of the patient’s diet, in various educational establishments or with health authorities advising on and supervising the formulation of menus and various dietary aspects of health and also in the food industry. A dietician may also be called upon to carry not investigations, to give private conditions and to prepare information for the mass media. DIGESTIVE. The French alight a liqueur or spirit that may be taken after a meal, more for the pleasure of drinking it than lot any elegist action Digestives are served plain or with ice. DUONNAISE, A LA. The description a la detonates as given to various dishes prepared with a spectrally of Dijon, particularly mustard savory dishes or dark curtains (for sweet dishes. Dijon make sauce is a must floured mayonnaise type sauce served with cold meats. RECIPE Dijonnaise sauce Pound together 4 hard-boiled (hard-cooked) egg yolks and 4 tablespoon. Dijon mustard. Season with salt and pepper. Work in 500 ml (17 fl oz. Up to 2 cups) oil and lemon juice, as a mayonnaise. Sweet omelette a la dijonnaise Beat 8 eggs together then add 5-6 finely crushed macaroons, 2 tablespoon single (light) or double (heavy) cream, and 1 tablespoon caster 9superfine) sugar. Make 2 flat omelettes. Mix about 300 ml ( ½ pint, 1 ¼ cups) thick confectioner’s custard (pastry cream) with 1 tablespoon ground almonds and 2 tablespoons blackcurrant jelly. Cover one of the omelet’s with the mixture and place the second omelette’s on top. Cover completely with a meringue made with 3 or 4 egg whitens. Dust with 1 tablespoon icing (confectioner’s sugar and glaze in a preheated oven at 240°C (475°C gas 9). Serve surrounded with a border of blackcurrant jelly. DILL. An aromatic umbelluferous plant originating in the East and introduced into Europe in ancient times. It is commonly called false arise or bastard formed but in fast it has an excellent and distinct, yet dedicate flavor of its own. The French name ameth comes from the Greek amesthony (fremined) and in Roman times it was symbol of vitality. Drill leaves are used culinary in North Africa (in the preparation of the meat) the former Soviet Union and particularly in Scandinavia, where they are used in the preparation of salmon and crayfish. Drill has a particular affinity with fish and seafood, eggs, creamy dishes and dedicates vegetables. It is also used to make aromatic vinegar and a flavoring for various pickles including gherkins. DIM SUM. A Cantonese specialty, consisting of a collection of steamed and deep-fried snacks usually served from mid-morning right the afternoon. Traditionally served in tea houses dim sum are now offered in many restaurants during the day. Some restaurant specialize in these snacks. Dim sum includes a wide variety of dishes such as spring rolls, steamed dumplings filled with meat or shrimp, steamed pork wrapped in noodle dough and fluffy white wheat buns stuffed with sweet meat. Small portions of spicy spareribs may be offered. The dim sum may be ordered in one go or a few at a time until diners are satisfied steamed food are served straight from the bamboo steamers, brought to tables stacked and covered to keep their contents hot DINNER. The main meal of the day. This is the normally eaten in the evening or in the middle of the day (instead of luncheon) in finance before Revolution dinner way eaten in the morning or at midday. It is generally thought that the French word dinner is derived from the Latin disjunare (to break the fast), as is dejeuner, the French word for lunch. This is because the word was originally used for the morning meal that was eaten after Mss, first at 7 a.m. and later at 9 or 10 a.m. it consisted of bacon, eggs and fish and was one of the two main meals of the day, the other being supper (take at about 5 p.m.) however, other theories concerning its origin have also been put forward diner might have been derived from decium bont (the tenth hour, to o’clock), or from the words of the blessing dignare dominum, or from the Greek word defination the meal called after sunset). The hour of eating dinner became progressively later when the daily time of Mass was observe less straightly and in time, the habit of serving a light meal on using developed. This meal the dejeumer, later became the peted dejeumet breakfast) Dinner was at midday at the reigns of Louis XIII and Louis XIV, and Furetiere describes the meal thus. Midday is the normal time for dinner. When one wants to go and we people, it is advisable to do so between eleven o’clock and midday, certainly not later, for then one. Would be preventing them from taking their meal In the 18th century, dinner was moved on to 2 p.m. but supper often remained the principal meal of the day. Finally, at the time of the Revolution dinner was eaten at the end of the afternoon, lunch was taken at midday, and supper was served (in the towns) when there was a soiree. In the country there was less change and supper continued to be the main meal for a considerable period of time. Today, dinner usually takes place at about 7 p.m. earlier in Scandinavian countries, later in Mediterranean countries. It may be a formal occasion for receiving guests. Alexandre Duman defined dinner as the principal act of the day that can only be carried out in a worthy manner by people of wit and humour; for it is not sufficient just to eat at dinner. One has to talk with a calm and discreet gaiety. The conversation must sparkle like the rubies in the entremets wines, it must be delightfully suave with the sweetmeats of the dessert, and become very profound with the coffee. According to the chef Denis, the composition of a formal dinner must be varied and abundant, and hot dishes must alternate with cold ones. For a big occasion, he recommends consommé, followed by a cold entrée, a large hot roast, vegetables sweet dessert, patisserie and fruit. This prescription is now simplified to consommé, fish served in a sauce, roast meat and garnish, and patisserie. Some gastronomes advise against serving cheese at dinner. In family households the main meal of the day varies according to the working patterns of the adults and whether they have children. Whether the evening meal consists of dinner or supper is very much a matter of lifestyle. Where both adults work, dinner is likely to be an evening meal and lunch a light snack. Children at home may well be served a main meal in the middle of the day, and the whole family may have dinner at this time on a Sunday Although few people live close enough to their place of work and have someone at home to prepare dinner during the day, in retired households the main meal may be eaten instead of lunch. It is also worth remembering that the major social changes of the 20th century greatly influenced eating patterns. Meals are no longer subject to rigid definition, eating patterns vary between weekdays and weekends, and individual or family choices dominate. DIOT. A small vegetable and pork sausage made in Savory. Diots may be dried like saucissons, fresh diots are browned in land (shortening) with sliced onions, then gently simmered in a little white wine. DIPLOMATE, A LA. The description a la diplomate is given to dishes that include truffles and lobster, thus evoking the idea of luxury and refinement. Diplomat sauce, also called ride sauce, is made with lobster butter, truffles and lobster flesh and accompanies dedicate fish, such as John Dory (St. peter’s fish), sole and turbot. RECIPE Diplomat omelette Prepare a salpicon with 7 tablespoons diced lobster flesh cooked in court bouillon and 1 tablespoon diced truffles. Mix 3 tablespoon béchamel sauce (or thick cream sauce) with 1 tablespoon lobster butter flavoured with brandy. Add the salpicon. Make 2 flat omelettes (each containing3 eggs). Cover one of the omelettes with the lobster and truffle mixture and place second omelette on top. Mix 200 ml (7 fl. Oz. ¼ cup) thin béchamel sauce, 3 tablespoon double (heavy) cream and 40 g ( 1 ½ oz. ¼ cup) mixed red Gruyere and Parmesan cheese. Add 1 tablespoon 1 lobster butter. Cover the top of the second omelete with this sauce, sprinckle lightly with grated cheese, them with a little melted butter, and brown quickly, either in a preheated oven at 240°C (465°F, gas 9) or under the grill (broiler). Diplomat sauce Add 2 tablespoon truffle parings or chopped mushroom stalks to 200 ml (7 fl oz. ¼ cup) fish fumet and reduce by half. Make 75 g ( 3 oz.) white roux and add 750 ml ( 1 ¼ pints, 3 ¼ cups) fish stock (use the cooking liquid of the fish specified in the recipe). Strain the reduced fumer and add it, together with 200 ml (7 fl. Oz ¼ cup) double (heavy) cream, to the sauce. Reduce again by half. Add 50 g ( 2 oz. ¼ cup) lobster butter, 4 tablespoons double cream, 1 tablespoon brandy and a pinch of cayenne pepper. Strain if the sauce is served separately, add to it 1 tablespoon diced lobster flesh (cooked in a court bouillon) and 1 tablespoon diced truffles. Sole diplomat Remove the skin from a good sized sole, slit its flesh along the backbone and free the top fillets, working outwards from the center. Cut the backbone at the head and tail and remove it completely. Prepare 125 g (4 ½ oz, ½ cup) whiting forcemeat a la crème, adding 1 tablespoon diced truffles. Insert the forcement underneath the top fillets. Gently poach the sole in a fish fumet but do not cover. Drain remove the small lateral bones, arrange on the serving dish and surround with diced lobster flesh. Keep hot. Use the cooking liquid to make some diplomat sauce and coat the fish with it. DIPLOMAT PUDDING a cold dessert prepared in a mould by one of two different methods. The more common version consists of sponge fingers (ladyfingers) soaked in syrup flavoured with rum or kirsch, layered with crystallized (candled) fruits, apricot jam and a cooked egg custard or a Bavarian cream. After chilling and setting the pudding is unmoulded and coated with fruit sauce or custard cream. In the second version, the sponge fingers are replaced by layers of brioche. The pudding is soaked with a custard mixture and baked in a bain marie. It is them chilled and unmoulded. Individual diplomat are barquettes filled with a cream containing crystallized fruits, glazed with apricot jam, covered with fondant icing (frosting) and decorated with a crystallized cherry. Bombe diplomate is made with ice cream and crystallized fruits (see bombe glacee) RECIPE Baked diplomat pudding* Coarsely chop 100 g (4 oz.) crystallized (candied) fruits. Put in a bowl with 75 g (3 oz. ½ cup) raising and add 100 ml (4 fl oz. 7 tablespoons) rum. Leave to macerate for 1 hour. Sloce a loaf of brioche. Remove the ccrusts, butter and lightly toast the slices until golden. Butter a 1.5 litre (2 ¼ pint, 6 ½ cups) charlotte mould and sprinkle with king (confectioner’s) sugar. Line the bottom with brioche slices and cover with a layer of the drained macerated fruit, reserving the rum. Fill the mould in this with alternate layers of bread and fruit. Beast 200 g (7 oz. 1 cup) caster (superfine) sugar, 100 ml (4 fl oz. 7 tablespoons) milk and 1 teaspoon vanilla sugar with 6 eggs the rum in which the fruit was macerated. Gradually pour this mixture into the mould, slowing the brioche to soak up the liquid. Cook for 1 hour in a bain marie in a preheated oven at 150°C (300°F, gas 2) making sure the liquid in the bain marie does not come to the boil. Allow to cool completely. Remove from the mould and serve with crystallized fruit. Diplomat pudding Make a syrup with 100 ml (4 fl oz. 7 tablespoons) water and 100g (4 oz. ½ cup) caster (superfine) sugar. Bring to the boil and add 50 g (2 oz. ½ cup) crystallized (candied) fruits and soak in 3 tablespoons rum. Make a Bavarian cream: soak 15g ( ½ oz, I table spoon ) gelatin in 3 tablespoon cold water. Boil 500 ml (17 fl oz, 2 cups) milk with half a vanilla pod (bean). Beat 4 large egg, yolks with 125 g (4 ½ oz, ½ cup) caster sugar until mixture is light and creamy, then add the boiling milk a little at a time, stirring with a wooden spatula. Pour the mixture into a saucepan and cook over a low heat, stirring continuously, until the custard cream is just thick enough to coat the spoon. Stir the gelatine into the custard cream, then press through a sieve. Leave to cool. Whip 200 ml (7 fl. Oz, ¾ cup) double (heavy cream until stiff with l tablespoon very cold milk and fold into the cold custard. Strain the rum from the crystallized fruit and add it to the reserved syrup. Use the rum-flavoured syrup to soak 200 g (7 oz) sponge fingers (lady-fingers). Put some of the crystallized fruit in the bottom of the greased mould, cover with a layer of the Bavarian cream, and then with a layer of sponge fingers sprinkled with sultanas and crystallized fruit. Coat with a little apricot jam. Continue to fill the mould with layers of Bavarian cream, sponge fingers, stulatanas, crystallized fruits and apricot jam. Chill for at least 2 hours. Heat some apricot jam until melted and add to it 3 tablespoons rum. Unmould the diplomat pudding, on to a dish and coat it with the apricot sauce on, if preferred, with a little thin custard. Diplomat pudding with prunes Place 200 g (7 oz. L l/4 cups) dried prunes in a small bowl and add just enough weak tea to cover them. Cover and leave to soak for 24 hours. Place the tea and the prunes in a saucepan, add 4 tablespoons caser (superfine) sugar, bring to the boil and cook ently for l5 minutes. Put 2 egg yolks in another saucepan together with 3 tablespoons caster sugar. L tablespoon vanilla sugar and l tablespoon cornflour (cornstarch). Slowly add 250 ml (8 fl oz. 1 cup) cold milk and stir over a low heat until the mixture boils and the custard thickens. Set aside to cool. Drain and stone (pit) the prunes, reserve the cooking liquid and add to it l liquer glass of rum of kirsch. Soak 28 sponge fingers (ladyfingers) in this syrup. Cover the bottom of a greased charlotte mould with some of the soaked sponge fingers, ensuring that the rounded surface of each finger is in contact with the mould. Place successive layers of custard cream, prunes and sponge fingers in the mould, finishing with sponge fingers. Chill thoroughly and turn the pudding out just before serving. Serve with a thin rum or kirsch-flaboured custard cream. Individual diplomats with crystallized fruit Make a short pastry with l25 g (4 l/2 oz. 1 cup) plain (all-purpose) flour, a pinch of salt, 3 tablespoons) softened butter. Roll the dough into a ball; wrap and chill. Mix 75 g (3 oz. 6 tablespoons) softened butter with 75 g (3 oz. 6 tablespoons) caster sugar, l egg and 75 g (3 oz. 6 tablespoons) caster sugar, l egg and 75 g (3 oz. ¾ cup) ground almonds. Roll 50 g (2 oz, l/3 cup) sultanas (golden raisins) and 50 g (2 oz, l/3 cup) diced crystallized (candied) fruits in 3 tablespoons plain flour. Stir the fruit into the almond mixture, then add 3 tablespoons light rum and mix well. Roll out the pastry until it is about 3 mm ( l/2 in.) thick, then cut out about 10 oval shapes with a pastry (cookie) cutter. Butter some barquette moulds and line them with the pastry shapes, leaving an excess of about 3 mm (l/8 in) thick, then cut out about 10 oval shapes with a pastry(cookie) cutter. Butter some barquette moulds and line them with the pastry shapes, leaving an excess of about 3 mm (l/8 in) around the edges. Fill with the fruit-almond mixture and bake in a pre-heated over at 200°C (400°F gas 6) for 30 minute. Remove the moulds from the oven and cool. Turn the barquettes out of the moulds and glaze with apricot jam that has been melted over a low heat. Heat 100 g (4 oz.) ondant icing (frosting) very gently so that it melts, and use to coat the diplomats. Decorate each diplomat with a glace (candied) cherry and keep in a cool place. DIPPING PIN. A small confectionery utensil consisting of a stainless steel rod with a wooden handle and a spiral, a ring, or a two or three-pronged forlk at the end. The pin for ring is used for plunging a sweet in sugar fondant or melted chocolate to coat it or to dipping a petit four or a sugar coated fruit in boiling sugar to glaze it. DISTILLATION. The process of boiling a liquid and cooling and collecting the vapour, so as to separate components of the liquid miture. It is the basic process used in making strong alcoholic spirits, either from wine or from other fermented material such as grain or potatoes. It depends on the fact that different sustaces boil at different temperatures; alcohol, in particular, boils more easily than water, so the vapour from, for instance, boiling wine will contain more alcohol than the original wine. Distillation, then, is a method of increasing the alcohol content-over and above that possible by normal fermentation. The distilled liquor also contains other substances from the original mixture, to give flavour. In many distillation processes, a second distillation for rectification is used. This is sometimes followed by the addition of aromatic substances – for example. Cognac is matured in oak barrels; gin is flavoured with juniper berries. Usually, the process is carried out in an alembic-a large copper vessel with a long neck in which the vapour condenses and from which the distillate drips. (The word “distillatio” comes from the Latin distillare – to all dropby drop.). DIVAN-LE PELETIER. A brasserie situated in the Rue Le Peletier in Paris, founded in l837 and called the Café du Divan. At that time, the Opera was situated nearby in the same street and so the café was frequented by writers and actors, Balzac and Gavani rubed shoulders with Alfred de Musset (who sent there todrink beer laced with asinthe), Meissonier, Daumier and Henri Monnier. Besides the beer the clientele enjoyed the brasserie’s sweet liqueurs, which were sold under such picturesque names as “Parfait Amour”, “Crinoline’, Alma, “Sebastopol”, “Lique”, Imperiale”, and “Le Retour de Banni”. The establishment closed in l859. DODINE. A dish of boned, stuffed and braised poultry (particularly duck) or meat, similar to a ballotine. In medieval cookery the term dodine was used for a classic sauce for whichTaillevent gives three recipes; white dodine (milk boiled with giner, egg yolkds and suar), red dodine (toasts soaked in red wine, pressed through a sieve and boiled with fried onions, bacon, cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves, sugar and salt, and erjuice dodine (egg yolks, ver-juice, crushed chicken livers, ginger, parsley and bouillon). These sauces were placed under roasting poultry, sothat the fat and meat juices ran into the sauce and were thusblended in. Dodines were used to accompany duck, teal, plover and capons. The dish was served with roast potatoes. Nowadays, the names duck a la dodine or ‘guinea fowl en dodine” are still given to certain haute cuisine dishes in which the bird is roasted and carved, the legs and sliced breast meat are set aside, and the carcass is browned withcarrots and onios for mushrooms), wine, spices and the cooking juices. The sauce is then sieved and the uncooked chopped liver of the bird is added, together with fresh cream. The sauce is poured over the joints before serving. Dodine of dock is a well-known speciality in Aquitaine, Burgundy (served withChambertin wine), the Morvan nd Touraine. RECIPE Dodine of duck Bone a duck without damaging the skin, keeping the breast meat intact as far as possible. Remove all the fresh from the skin. Cut the breast meat into thin slics (arguillettes) and marinate them for 24 hours in 2 tablespoons brandy, a pinch of ground fennol seeds, salt and pepper. Chop the remaining flesh and mix it with 250 g (9 oz. 1 cup) chopped fat bacon, 250 g (9 oz, 1 cup) chopped veal, 250 g (9 oz. 3 cups) chopped button mushrooms, 50 g (2 oz, ½ cups) ground almonds and a chopped small bunch of parsley. Work 2 tablespoons truffle parings (or diced truffles), l egg salt and pepper into the mixture. Cook a knob of the mixture in a sauce pan and taste it, then adjust the seasoning if necessary. Spread out the skin of the duck and cover it with half of the stuffing. Arrange the slices of breast on top and cover with a remaining stuffing. Fold the skin towards the center at the neck and the tall, roll and tie up the dodine. Either wipe a soaked pig’s cauland tie it around the dodine or tie the dodine in shape with string. Pork fat or streaky (slab) bacon may be used to bard the dodine. Braise the dodine in a little white wine in a pre-heated over at 180°C (350°F, gas 4), basting it several times. Cook for l l/2-l ¾ hours, until the juices that run out when it is pricked are clear. If the dodine is to be served hot, cut the thread and remove any parts of thecaul that have not melted. Skim the fat from the cooking juices and add 2 tablespoons port and a few tablespoons of stock. Reduce by half. Cut the dodine into slices, garnish with watercress and serve with the sauce. If the dodine is to be served cold, allow it to cool completely before cutting the thread. Serve with a green or mixed salad. DOGFISH. Fish of the Seiorbinidae family, called dogfish because its small round fins at four corners make it look like a dog running underwater. Appreciated in Mediterranean countries as a cheaper alternative to swordfish, the larger spotted dogfish is known as cazon in Spain. Called buss in Australia and Britain, where until the late l970s it was known as rock salmon (the term was outflawed as misrepresentative). The large spotted dogfish, up to l20cm (48 in) long, is also known as nurse-hound; the lesser-spotted, up to 75 cm (30 in), and regarded as better tasting, is also known as rough hound. DOLICHOS. A genus of pulses of which several varieties are cultivated in warm and tropical regions. The most common is the mongetter dolicho, which is widely cultivated in China and Louisiana (United States) and is also grown in the south of France (where it is known as bunnette) and in Italy. It is similar to a haricot (navy) bean, but the seeds are smaller. The young pods may be cooked and eaten like French (green) beans. The asparagus bean has very long pods – up tol metre (3 feet) – and it’s beans vary in colour. The lablab dolicho for bonavist bean is cultivated in Africa and the West Indies. DOLMA. A stuffed vine leaf. A popular Tukish and Greek dish, the main form of whichcomprises a vine leaf stuffed with cooked rice and/or minced (ground) lamb, rolled into a cylinder and braised in a little stock with olive oil and lemon juice added. Dolmas (or dolmades) are served warm or cold as hors d’oeuvres. They may alsobe made with cabbage or fig leaves, or even with the leaves of the hazel tree. In Turkey, they are traditionally cooked in sheep-tail fat. Recipe YALANCI DOLMAS Choose large sound wine leaves. Blanch for a maximum of 2 minutes, cool under running water and wipe dry. For about 50 dolmas, half-cook l25 g (4 l/2 oz, 2/3 cup) long-grain or pilaf rice in meat stock. Peel and coarsely chop 400 g (14 oz) onions and cook gently in olive oil until soft but not brown. Mince (grind) 250 g) 9 oz. 1 cup) mutton or lamb and gently brown it. Finally chop l tablesppon mint. Mix all these ingredients together. Place a small ball of stuffing on each vine leaf, fold up the tip and base of the leaf, roll into a cylinder and tie with kitchen thread. Oil a sauce pan and place the dolmas in it, packing them closely together. Sprinkle with 4 tablespoons olive oil, the juice of 2 lemons and about l75 ml (6 fl oz, ¾ cup) stock flavoured with l tablespoon coriander (cilantro) seeds. Cover and simmer gently for about 30 minutes. Allow the dolmas to cool completely before removing the thread. DOMYOJI AGE. A Japanese dish of prawns (shrimp) coated with dried rice and deep-fried, served with sliced green (bell) pepper, aubergine (eggplant) and lemon. It is a classic example of the type of dish that combines contrasting textures, colours and flavours much favored in Japanese cookery. DONKEY. A mammal used essentially as a draught or pack animal: its meat is only a subsidiary edible product. In some oriental countries young donkey meat is very popular, as it was in France at the time of the Renaissance. Now a days, the meat of large donkeys (the Poitou breed) is put intothe same class as horsemeat. In the south of France, where donkeys are smaller, then meat, which is liquer and has a stronger flaour, is used mainly in such products as the Arles sausage. Asses’ milk, which has a composition similar to leman ilk, was used for a long time to feed nursing babies, it was also considered to have restorative properties. In the Balkans it is made into cream cheese. This is what Alexandre Dums says of thedonkey in his grand dictionnaire de cuisine. Tastes change. We have recently seen the horse on the verge of replacing the ox, which would be quite just, since the ox had replaced the donkey. Maecenas was the first in Roman times to make use of the flesh of the domestic donkey…..Monsieur Isonard of Malta reports hat, as a result of the blockade of the island of Malta by the English and the Neapolitans, the inhabitants were reduced to eating all the horses, dogs, cats, donkeys and rats. “This circumstance”, he says, “led to the discovery that donkey meat was very good, so much so, in fact, that gourmands in the city of Valetta preferred it to the best beef and even veal. Particularly boiled, roast, or braised, its flavour is esquisite. The meat is blackish and the fat verging on yellow. However, the donkey must only be three or four years old and must be fat.” DORIA. The name of various classic dishes, probably dedicated to a member of the famous Gernoese Doria family who was an habitué of the Café Anglais in Parts in the l9th century. These dishes evoke the image of Italy, either by combining the colours of the Italian flag (green white and red) or by including Predomonitese white truttles. RECIPE Bombe Doria Coat a bombe mould with pistachio ice cream. Macerate some pieces of marrons glaces in Curacao, then add them to a vanilla-flavoured bombe mixture. Fill the mould with this mixture and place in the refrigerator to set. Doria salad Dress shreddedcelerac (celery root) with remoulade sauce and pile it in a deep salad bowl. Cover with thin slices of white truffle. Surround with a borer of cooked green asparagus tips and thin strips of cooked beertroots (red beer) that has been seasoned with vinagrette. Sprinklewith sieved hard-boiled (hard-cooked) egg yolk and chipped parsley. Sautéed chicken Doria Brown a small chicken in 1 tablespoon oil and 25 g (1 oz. 2 tablespoons) butter in a flameproof casserole. Add salt and pepper, cover the casserole and continue cooking over a low heat for 30 minutes. Brown 675 g ( l l/2 lb. 6 cups) peeled chopped cucumber in butter in a separate an and add to the chicken. Cook for a further 20-30 minutes, or until brown and tender. Remove the chicken, drain and carve. Arrange the slices on the serving dish surrounded by the cucumber. Keep hot. Make a sauce by deglazing the casserole with the juice of a lemon and pour it over the chicken and cucumber. DORMOUSE. A small rodent that nests in the branches of trees and feeds on nuts, berries and seeds. In ancient times it was considered to be a delicacy, but is no longer eaten. The Romans were so fond of dormice that they bred them in special containers made of muds with holes through which the animals were fed with chestnuts, acorns and nuts. When the dormice had been fattened up, they were either stewed or roasted and then coated with a sauce made from honey and poppyseeds. As late as the l7th century, it was still possible to find dormouse pie in France. DOSA. Indian pancake made from a batter of rice and/or dal. The uncooked rice and dal are washed, soaked and ground or processed to a puree with enough water to make a batter. The batter may be flaoured with chillies, ginger or other ingredients before being cooked on a greased griddle. The pancakes may be thick or thin, served plain or with a filling. Dosas are usually grouped with Indian breads and served as snacks, for example for breakfast, or instead of bread to scoop up a main dish. DOUGH. The name given to a moistened mixture of ingredients that is firm enough to handle. A dough is usually brought together with the fingers or hand into a ball or solid lumps and it may be kneaded until smooth. The consistency of the dough depends on type, ranging from dry and crumbly or firm to soft and sticky. A dough is never soft enough to be beaten (when it would be a mixture or batter.) Wheat flour and water are basic dough ingredients but other cereals and liquids may be used. Salt is often added for flavour and sugar for sweetening. Fat (lard, butter, shortening or oil) and eggs enrich dough milk or other liquids may be used instead of water to bind the ingredients. Raising agents, such as yeast or baking powder, may be used to make the dough rise during baking. · TYPES OF DOUGH. Yeasted bread dough is the most common mixture to take the name. Made from flour, salt and water, with yeast as a raising agent, this type of dough may have a small proportion of fat added. This type of dough has a comparatively high moisture content and is kneaded until smooth and elastic. Flour with a high protein content is used as it becomes stretchy when kneaded, which is important for trapping the gas produced by the fermenting yeast to make the dough rise. Although the dough is smooth and easy to handle, if it is allowed to rest for too long in the hand, it tends to become sticky (Dusting with flour prevents this.) Doughs made with self-raising flour or using baking powder or similar raising agents are softer in texture. They may include more liquid or fat and are kneaded briefly or pressed into shape. Examples, include Irish soda bread and British scones. The mixture for pastry is also referred to as dough. These vary according to the type of pastry, but a typical short pastry has a high proportion of fat with a small amount of water. Plain (all-purpose) flour is used without a raising agent. The result is a firm, crumbly dough. It should not be sticky from the moisture content but may be so from the fat it contains. When cooked, the dough is very light and crumbly (short), with a slight crispness to its texture. The more fat used, the shorter (more crumbly) the result; when slightly more water is used, the dough will become crisp but too much water and heavy handling will result in a tough, heavy and close, not crumbly, texture. Biscuit (cookie) doughs are similar to pastry, but usually richer with more fat or added egg, plus flavouring ingredients. Pasta dough differs from yeast and pastry dough. A typical Italian pasta dough is moistened with eggs, a little oil and sometimes with a little water to give a firm, not short or soft dough. It does not contain a raising agent and, although more stretchy than a short pastry dough, it is not elastic in the same way as yeast dough. Examples of other mixtures usually referred to as dough during preparation include almond paste or marzipan and sugarpaste or roll-out icing. DOUGHNUT. A traditional patisseries of Quebec prepared from leaveaned dough (flour, eggs, milk and butter), often made in the shaped of a ring, and deep-fried. It is eaten hot or at room temperature, plain or sprinkled with caster (superfine) sugar. The soufflet doughnut or croquignole is made from choux pastry. The French item beigne also describes the doughnut topped with sugar icing (frosting), made commercially, which is a fast-food item in North America. Recipe Doughnuts Mix 15 g ( ½ oz, 1 cake) fresh (compressed) yeast with 150 ml (1/4 pint, 2/3 cup) warm milk. (Alternatively, use ½ teaspoons dried yeast.) Put 500 g. (18 oz. 4 l/2 cups) strong white (bread) flour, 100-125 g (4 ¼ oz, ½ cup) caster (superfine) sugar, a generous pinch of salt and ½ teaspoon grated nutmeg into a large bowl. Make a well in the center and mix a beaten egg with thedry ingrediens as thoroughly as possible. Add 2 more eggs, one at a time. Work 65 g (2 ½ oz, 5 tablespoons) melted butter into the mixture, then add the warm yeast mixture. Knead the dough until it becomes elastic. Leave to rise until doubled in size. Roll out the dough on a floured surface to a thickness of about 1 cm (1/2 in) and cut it into rounds with a pastry (cookie) cutter 6 cm (2 ½ in) in diameter. Fry the doughnuts in hot fat – at least 185 °C (365 °F)-until they swell up and become golden brown. Drain on paper towels, dust with caster (superfine) sugar and serve very hot with maple syrup or a cranberry compote. DOUGH TROUGH. A large wooden trough used in the past for kneading dough or for keeping bread. A regional name for this trough is la mate. DOUILLON. A speciality of Normandy, consisting, of an apple or pear wrapped in a pastry case and baked in the oven. Recipe Douillons Mix 500 g (18 oz, 4 ½ cup) plain (all-purpose) flour, 350 g (12 oz, 1 ½ cups) softened butter, 2 eggs, 3 tablespoons milk, 1 ½ tablespoons caster (superfine) sugar and 1 teaspoon salt to make a smooth dough. Roll it into a ball and place in the refrigerator while cooking the pears. Peel 8 small pears, remove the cores and place a knob of butter in the center of each. Cook in a preheated oven at 190°C (375°F, gas 5) for 10 minutes. Remove and allow them toget completely cold. (Do not turn the overn off.) Roll out the pastry to a thickness of about 3 mm (1/8 in) and cut it into 8 squares of equal size. Place a well-drained pear in the center of each square and fold the corners upwards, stretching the pastry a little. Seal the sides and the top by pinching with damp fingers. Draw the lines on the pastry with the point of a knife. Glaze the douillons with an egg yolk beaten in 2 tablespoons milk and bake in the oven for 25-30 minutes. Serve hot, warm, or cold, with crème fraiche. DOUM PALM. An African palm tree with edible fruits. Palm wine is made from the sap of this tree. Alexandre Dumas writes in his Grand Dictionnaire de cuisine. The coum palm produces a refreshing fruit, in which I was able to detect the taste of gingerbread. A lady in Cairo….once offered me a cool sorbet of doum fruit.’ DOURO River with its source in Spain, where it crosses several wine regions, before continuing its course through. Portugal, where the demarcated Douro valley is the birthplace of port wine and is gaining a reputation for excellent table wines. Port is produced in the three regions of Cima (Higher) Cargo, Baixo (Lower) Cargo and the Upper Douro. DOVE. Tourterell. A bird similar and related to the pigeon, but smaller, There are several varieties, including the rock dove and ring dove (see pigeon), the turthledove, the collated dove, the palm dove, and the rufous turtledove. The latter four species are hunted in France, though they are of minor gastronomic interest. Plump young doves were formerly considered to make a delicious meal. In the 16th century, doves, together with curfews, wood pigeons, squabs and egrets, were more highly prized by some than beef, veal and pork. In Arab cookery, doves cooked in a cocotte with artichokoke hearts nutmeg and raisins are chore dish. DRAGEE An item of confectionery consisting of an almond with a hard coating of sugar. The coating may be white or coloured, and hazelnuts, pistachio nuts, nougat, almond paste, chocolate or liqueur may also be used as centers for these sweets (candies). Honey coated almonds were popular sweethearts with the ancient Greeks and Romans, and the name dragee’ was mentioned for the time in 1220 in the archives of the town of Verdun. At that time, the apothecaries (with whom confectioners were still confused) coated certain spieces – anseed, container and fennel with oney. These epices de chamber were considered to be medicinal spices, eaten to sweeten the breath or as an aid to digestion. When cane sugar was introduced into Europe, dragees as we now know them appeared-sugar-coated almonds, pumpkin seeds or cucumber seeds. In 1660, Colbert noted that Verdun was the center of trade in dragees, and it remains famous for their production to the present day. Dragees are traditionally given at christenings, first communions and weddings. The obus De erdun is a chocolate novelty fitted with a fuse which, when lighted, explodes to release dragees and small party novelties. Before l850, dragees were hand-made by crafts-men. The almonds were suspended in rotating vats of sugar syrup so that they would be evenly coated. In that year, however, the first mechanical turbine was invented, and the process is now carried out mechanically by spraying sugar syrup on the kernels under pressure and drying them to warm air. · The range of dragees. The sugar-coating process is the same for every type of filling. The most popular varieties of almonds are the flat Italian avolas and the slightly rounded Spanish plametas. The alonds are put into the turbine, dipped three times in a mixture of gum Arabic and sugar, dried and coated with a concentrated sugar syrup. They are then blanched in a sugar syrup with added starch, smotthed and coloured if required. Chocolate, nougat, londant icing thrusting, almond paste or liqueor fillings are moulded before being coated with sugar. Specialities include olives de Provence, different types of catholoux and galets, and ants de Flarigny. Perles d argent are made by coating a sugar center with a gelative-based solution, then with pure silver. Soft dragees (also called dragees a frud or dragees Julienne) are shaped like beans or peas and their centers consist of clear or opaque boiled sugar coated with a dilute glucose slution and then with icing (confectioner’s sugar). DRAGON FRUIT See pitabaya. DRAIN. To pour a liquid off a solidwith the primary intention of saying the solid. For example, water is drained from raw foodstuffs that have been washed or from foods that have been cooked or blanched in water. A colander or sieve is used for the purpose, if the cooking liquid is required the colander should be placed over a bowl. Alternatively, a pan may be covered with a lid, leaving a small gap for the liquid to be poured off – this is a useful method for potatoes. Small items can be lifted from cooking water (or fat) on a draining spoon and held over the pan until excess liquid has dripped off. Spinach can be squeezed with the hands or excess water can be pressed out with the back of a spoon. Bread soaked in milk (used to make a stuffing) can also be squeezed by hand. Foods that have been deep-fried are also drained to remove the excess oil or fat. DRAMBUIE. A Scotch whisky-ased liqueur, which can be drink at any time. Its formula is the property of the Mackinnon family, who keep it a secret. The origin of the name apparently comes from the Gaelic expression an dram buidbech (the liqueur that satisfies’). Drambuie, little known in the continental Europe, is popular in the United States. DRESSER..A French culinary term with several different meanings. In cooking, it means to arrange attractively on the serving dish all the items that comprise a particular preparation, including the principal ingredient, the garnish, the sauce and any decorations. In patisseries dresser means to roll out pastry for lining a mould or flan tin (pie pan), or to force dough through a piping (pastry) bag. In restaurants, dressage takes place as soon as the dishes are a point (ready to be served). Garnishes must always be kept in perfect condition for use. For example, sprigs of parsley and bunches of water-cress are kept in fresh water, maitre d’hotel butter is kept cold in water with ice cubes’ mushrooms are sprinkled with lemon juice; and flavoured butters are shaped into rolls, wrapped in foil and stored in the refrigerator. The items used in dressage include serving dishes, radish dishes, hors-d’oeuvre dishes (divided into sections), sundae glasses, timbale dishes, copper platters for serving game, vegetable dishes, sauceboats (gravy boats), salad dishes, soup tureens, terrine dishes, fruit dishes and toast racks. Fonds de plat and bords de plat were used at one time. The former were either round or oval pieces of wool that were placed on the bottom of a plate to form a raised base for cold dishes. They were usually covered with silver paper. Bords de plat were wide-rimmed decorative dishes made of solid silver or silver plate on which the garnishes were arranged around the principal item. Certain dishes require a particular style of dressage, for example, oysters and other seafood are served on a large plate covered with crushed ice. Certain items call for secific utensils, such as special plates and tongs for snails or asparagus cradles. · Methods of dressage. The items of food may be presented in various ways. Game and poultry are often served on slices of fried bread. Potatoes are often used in various ways for dressage-borders, duches potatoes, nests of potato straws, little piles of noisetie potatoes. Artichoke hearts, tomatoes and mushrooms are also used in this way. The plates and dishes for dressage must be kept at the correct temperature for the food they are to hold (for example, sundae glasses must be ice-cold). The present tendency in French restaurants is for service a Passiette in which the individual portion is placed directly on the plate, coated with sauce and garnished with vegetables. DRESSING FISH, POULTRY AND GAME The preparation of fish, poultry and game birds for cooking. · DRESSING FISH. The fish must be necessary trmmed, sealed gutted (cleaned) and washed (some of this may be carried out by the fishmonger). The dressing will vary depending on the type of fish (flat, round, small or large) and on the way it is to be served. For example, if a whole sole fillet is not trimmed, but the skin is removed completely). · DRESSING POULTRYand Game birds. The bird must first be plucked carefully picked over and singed. Poultry is then drawn, sualy trussed, and often larded, but the preparation will varry according to the type of bird. Feathered game is not always completely guffed; trussing or trying, and sometimes landing, complete the dressing. All the above operations apply to birds that are to be cooked whole. When they are to be cut into portions, the giblets, white meat and breasts are removed, and it is, therefore, only necessary to pluck, singe and draw the bird. DRIED VINE FRUITS. Currants, sultanas (golden raisings) and raisins. These dried fruits are all produced by exposing ripe grapes to hot dry air so that the moisture is drawn out. This leaves the flesh and skin so concentrated that the activities of enzymes and the growth of moulds and bacteria are inhibited. It takes 1.8 kg (1 lb) grapes to produce 450 g (1 lb.) currants, sultanas or raisins. For all types of dried vine fruit, the grapes are dried naturally in the sun or artificially by hot air. The dried fruit is sorted and graded, the seeds and stalks are removed, and the fruit is then usually spin-washed, dried and a light coating of preservative applied before it is finally packed. · CURRANTS Produced mainly in Greece, the quality varies with the type of grape used and the soil conditions. Traditionally, the finest are Vostizza but excellent fruit is produced in the Zante Gulf and also grown in Australia, California and South Africa, but the limited production is usually for domestic consumption. · SULTANAS (GOLDEN RAISINS). These come from grapes that are green when fresh but darken in colour when dried. Light-coloured fruit is generally obtained by drying in the shade, and darker fruit by sun-drying. In both cases drying is natural, using the hot dry harvest weather. Many countries in the northern hemisphere produce sultanas – Greece, France, Turkey, Iran, Afghanistan, China, the United States and Mexico. In the Southern hemisphere the producers are Australia, South Africa and Chile. · SEEDLESS RAISINS. Produced in the United States, Mexico and South Africa, they are obtained from the Thompson sultana grape and are green when harvested. They are sun-dried, the action of the sun caramelizing the sugars and causing the fruit to darken to a purplish-brown colour. A red raising grape is produced in Afghanista, after drying, it is essentially of the same appearance as the other. · STONED (PITTED) Raisins. These come from large red grapes that are generally used as wine and table grapes, although some are sun-dried. To extract the seeds, the fruit is steamed to soften it, then put through special machinery that squeezes the seeds out. The skin is then sealed by a light coating to prevent the fruit is steamed to soften it, then put through special machinery that squeezes the seeds out. The skin is then sealed by a light coating to prevent the fruit from sugaring. Australia, SouthAfrica and Spain are the main producers. Dried vine fruits are widely used in all areas of cookery. They are used in savoury or sweet recipes, rawo cooked, including salads, casseroles and stuffings for meat or poultry. They are added to rice dishes and cooked with some vegetales. Dried vine fruits are also essential in many chutneys and pickles. In sweet cookery, they contribute sweetness and a rich flavour to compotes, sauces, salads and baked desserts or puddings. In baking they are essential for a wide variety of cakes and pastries; and they bring character tomany sweet breads. Recipe Raisin tart Soak 500 g (18 oz, 3 cups) raising in brandy. Beat 8 whole eggs lightly, then whip them together with l litre (l l/4 pints, 4 l/3 cups) double (heavy) cream, 350 g (l2 oz, l l/2 cups) caster (superfine) sugar and 2 teaspoons vanilla sugar or a few drops of vanilla essense (extract). Line a flan tin (pie pan) at least 28 cm (11 in) in diameter with 450 g (l lb) puff pastry. Pour the cream into the pastry case, add the raisins and bake in a preheated oven at 220°C (425°F, gas 7) for at least 30 minutes. DRINK. The simplest and most natural drink, and the only one essential for the survival of all living organisms, is water. The average consumption of liquid in a temperate climate is l litre ( l ¾ pints, 4 l/3 cups) per day, but needs to vary according to the climate and the diet. For example, meat and salted spiced or sweetened dishes al increase the thirst. Human kind has used its intelligence to vary the flavour of drinks, which may be sweet aromatic fermented or spirit-based. Water-based drinks, which may be still or sparkling hot or cold, include lemonades soads and syrups, broths, infusions, tea, coffee, chocolate and chovory. Drinks of vegetable origin may or may not be alcoholic, for example; fruit and vegetable juices, wine, cider, beer and perry. Such drinks can be transformed by ditillation into brandy, liqeurs and spirits. These different liquids have given rise to countless variations-coctails, liqueurs, apertitifs, punches and grogs. Milk from animals is really a liquid food, but may also be used to prepare drinks such as milk shakes and kefir. Drinking habits vary considerably depending on the customs of a country and the latitude. As a general rule, Orientals and Russians do not drink with their meals, but take tea at the end of a meal. Tea is the most widely consumed drink in the world after water. In France, mineral water, beer and wine are the drinks that traditionally accompany meals. Family and social life also ofer numerous other occasions to consume drinks for pleasure. · Drinking establishments. These considerably predate restaurans, they include pubs and taverns, bars, milk bars, and tea rooms. Such establishments may even vary from region to region in the same country; in France, for example, there are the bouchons of Lyon, the estaminets of the north and the guinguettes (pleasure gardens) and bistros of Paris. The code of drinking establishments classifies drinks into five groups non-alcoholic drinks (water, fruit juice, lemonade), lenmented non-distilled drinks, (wine, beer, rider), wine-based apentifs and red fruit liqueus, juices and spirits obtained by distillation, and all other alcoholic drinks. In former times, most drinks were either produced in the home or by local makers-home-made beers and liqueurs, orgeat, mulled wine. Today, drinks are produced commercially and the market has grown considerably particularly for the sale of fruit juices. Drinks are sold in various packagings (bottles and cans) and in variety of forms (concentrated, powdered, frozen). DRIPPING PAN. A metal pan to catch juices or melted fatfrom a roasting joint, poultry or any meat or when grilling broiling) food. The French word, lechfite, has been used since the end of the l2th century before this the pan was called a belle bottebe. In former times these receptacles were made of wrought iron and were fitted with a long handle, so that they would be slipped under meat being roasted in huge fire places. They were also made of silver. DROIT DE BANWIN. The monopoly on the sale of new wine reserved the landlords of their own land durting a set period 9generally 60 days before the opening of the selling season.) In some areas feudal right, dating back to the time of Charlemagne, began at Easter and ended at Whitsun, seven weeks later. DROUANT. A restaurant opened in Paris in l880 by an Alsatian. Charles Drouant, on the corner of Place Gallon and Rue Saint-Augustin. Specializing in seafood, it attracted a clientele of writers and journalists, such as Jean Ajalbent, Leon Daudet, Octave Mirbeau and the Rosny brothers, Drouant expanded his business and his fame spread, thanks to his cellar (particularly white vintages). In October l9l4 the restaurant really found a place in literary history, when the Academie Goncourt decided to hold its lunches, there. There are numerous gourmets among the Goncourt academicians, particularly Leon Daudet, who introduced the serving of blanc, de blames. Edmond de Goncourts will stipulated that the meal must cost 20 francs per person, and the academicians still pay that modest sum. Here are a few menus for oncourt lunches, which are traditionally served in the Louis XVI salon on the second floor, at a round table with a damask tablecloth. · 1933 (prize winner: Andre Malraux for La Coondition bumaine); oysters, pike boulangere, roast turkey with thinly sliced roast potatoes cep mushrooms with thinly sliced roast potatoes, cep mush-rooms is let bordelaise, cheeses praline ice and fruit. · 1954 (prize winner: Simone de Beauvoir for les Mandarins) oysters, grilled tubot, bresse chicken with champagne, cheeses, liqueur soufflé and fruit. · 198l (prize winner: Lucien Bodard for Anne marie); beluga caviar, foie gras in port apie, lobster drouant, haunch of venison Saint-Hubert, chestnut cream, cheeses, iced hazelnut soubble with migmaradises (small biscuits or cakes). DRUMSTICK. The lower leg of a fowl or game bird, consisting of the bone, meat and a thin layer of fat, gvig it the shape of a pestle (hence the French name pilon, which means pestle). It is fleshier and juicier than the white meat, but inferior to the thigh. DRYING. One of the oldest methods of preserving food. Drying slows down the proliferation and activity of the bacteria that a cause spoilage and decay, but it considerably alters the appearance of food, due to the loss meat in the meat in the same way to make pemmican. Pastram and various salted meats are dried quite heavily, and may subsequently be smoked. The process of drying in the open air and wind is applied to fish (generally salted fish) in Scandinavia, Senegal and India. The drying of fruits and vegetables has been widely practiced since time immemorial-in Greece (for grapes), in Turkey (for apricots), in Iran and Spain (for tomatoes), in Hungary (for peppers), and in most other countries for spears, sliced apples, plums, whole cherries and grapes. Vegetables are usually dried flat on trestles in the sun, the drying often being completed in the oven. With the success of freezing and its characteristics for retaining the food value of ingredients, drying is no longer an essential means of preserving food for times when it may be out of season or expensive. However, it is an important method of preparing specific ingredients such as dried benas and pulses, and dried fruit, as well as a wide-variety of specialist fod products, many of which were originally dried for local and domestic preservation. Sun dried tomatoes and pepers are godo examples, available seasoned or reconstituted in a marinade. Dring is still the method used to preserved wild mushrooms. Drying is often supplemented for preceded by smoking, salting, fumigation (dried vegetables) or spraying with sulphur dioxide (dried fruit). · Modern commercial drying. In industry, the selection of the drying process depends mainly on the texture and size of the foodstuff, but factors such as ease of transport and convenience in use must also be considered. For modern industrial methods of drying, which eliminate a vary large proportion of voter, the term dehydration is used. Dehydration is carried out in the food industry for several reasons, to preserve the product for a considerable period of time; to reduce the weight and usually the volume of the product, thus making it easier to transport and store; and to reduce the preparation time (as with instant coffee and dried soups). The concentration of a product involves partial dehydration by evaporation, filtration or centrifugation. Certain products (such as milk, soups, meat extracts, vegetable concentrates and fruit juices) retain between a third and half of their natural water content and always remain in a liquid form. Dessication or dehydration in the sense sense of the word, is achieved by different processes. · DRINKING ON TRAYS. Solid foods are cut into small pieces and constantly moved forward in an oven or tunnel through which a current of hot dry air is directed in the opposite direction. The moisture is gradually absorbed. · DRYING ON DRUMS. Soft foods (purees, baby foods, soups) are spread in a thin layer on the outside wall of a rotating drum that is heated from the inside. Special knives scrape off the dry film, which is subsequently reduced to a powder or to flakes. · ATOMIZATION. Liquids such as milk or coffee) are atomized to form a tine spray. The tiny particles in the vapour are dehydrated with a current of hot air and collected in powder form. Products subject to discussion no more than on average. ( 0/0 of their original water content, and will keep for very long periods and hermetically sealed containers see also freeze dying RECIPES Drying apples and pears Peel and core some cooking apples. Cut them into slices 1 cm ( ½ in) think and put into water containing lemon juice or 2 teaspoons citric acid per 1 litre ( 1 ¼ pints. 4 ½ cups) water. Drain and place flat, without overlapping on a wooden trestle in the sun. leave the fruit (bringing it in at night) for 2-3 days, if necessary finish off the drying in the oven on its coolest setting. The apple rights should be flexible but must contain no more water. Pears 9sound ones only) may be dried whole and unpeeled in the sun. finish off in the oven as for apples. When cooled, fried may be flattened between boards. In countries where the weather is not so clement, the fruit may be dried in the oven or suspended from the ceiling, threaded on string Drying herbs Gather the herbs just before they flower (avoid picking them after it has been raining). Wash, then shake off the water. Roll up small leaved herbs (thyme, rosemary and avory) in muslim (cheese cloth0 loosely, without squashing them together, then hang them up in a warm place. Herbs with large leaves (bay, mint sage, parsley and basll) can be dried in bunches, tied together by the stalks and hung upside down. Alternatively the leaves may be removed and wrapped in muslim. When the herbs are dried, leave them whole or crush them with a rolling pin. Keep them in sealed jars in a dark dry place. Drying a microware gives perfect results. Drying vegetables Using a needle, thread some young sound French (green) beans on to shick thread. Ensure that they are not too tightly packed together tying a knot occasionally to separate them. Dip in boiling salted water use 2 teaspoons salt per 1 litre ( 1 ¼ pins, 4 ½ cups) water – drain them, and hang them in a fairly shady for 3-4 days, bringing them inside at night (or suspend from the ceiling). Mushrooms can be dried in the same way, once the earthy part of the stalk has been cut off. Small green chili peppers, which become dark red when dried, can be threaded through the stalk, as can baby onions, garlic bulbs and shallots. Store green beans, peppers and mushrooms out of the light in sealed jars. Dehydrate before use by soaking for 12 hours in tepid water. DRYING OFF. Eliminating excess water from cooked food by heating it over a low beat. It is necessary to dry off potatoes before mashing with milk and butter. Tossing them rapidly in a saucepan before coating may evaporate the excess moisture absorbed by vegetables during cooking with butter. In France, the term dessecher is used particularly for the initial cooking of choux paste. The mixture of water, butter and flour is worked vigorously over a high heat with a wooden spatula until the paste detaches itself from the walls of the pan and forms a full. Thus, excess water evaporates before the eggs are added and the choux is baked. Drying off is not synonymous with reducing, which refers only to the princess of boiling down certain liquids so that they are reduced in volume. DU BARRY. The name given several dishes that contain cauliflower A Dan Barry garnish for joints of meat consists of chateau potatoes and small florets of blanched cauliflower coated with moray sauce, sprinkled with grated cheese browned under the grill and arranged it lot serviette. These dishes were dedicated to the Comtesse do Barry, the favourite of louis XV. Recipes Croutes Du Barry Prepare some individual croutes and top with cauliflower florets cooked gently in butter. Coat with Mornay sauce, sprinkle with grated cheese and brown in a preheated oven at 240°C (475°F. gas 9). Du Barry salad Steam some very small white cauliflower florets for about 4 minutes in a pressure cooker or about 12 minutes in an ordinary saucepan. Drain and cool completely, and heap them in a salad bowl. Garnish with radishes and small sprigs of watercress. Pour some well-seasoned vinaigrette with added lemon over the salad and sprinkle with chopped herbs. Toss the salad just before serving. Du Barry soup Cook a cauliflower in salted water, then press it through a sieve (or puree in a blender). Mix with it a quarter of tis weight of potato puree, then add enough consommé or milk to obtain a creamy consistency. Finally, add some single (light) cream-about 150 ml (¼ pint, ¾ cup) for 5 portions. Adjust the seasoning, and sprinkle with chopped parsley. Battuer may alsobe added. DUBLEY. A garnish for large joints of meat, consisting of grilled (broiled) mushrooms and duchess potato crouslades surrounded by a border of mushroom puree. DUBOIS, URBAIN FRANCOIS. French chef doom bets, ISIS cried Nice. POD. Dubois began his career in Paris with Tortoni, then moved to the Rocher de Caneale, and later to the Café Anglais. Most of his life, however was spent abroad in Russia was chef to Prince Odott, and in Germany he was joint chef of Walhelm I with Paule Bernard, who had been in the service of Napoleon III. Dubois produce a large collection of written work but is remembered mainly for la cuisine olds square written in collaboration with Emile Bernard. His other publications include La Cuisine debois les pawn ciso, la cuisine artistiqua (l8700, Ecode de cuisimeres, l876, La Nourelle Cuisine bourgeoise pour la ville et pour la campagne (l878). Le Grand lierre des patissiers et des confiseurs la major work for pastrycooks and confectioners. (l883), La Cuisine d’anjourd’bui (l889) and Le Patisseries d’anjournd’bui (l894). DUCHESSE. A sweet or savoury preparation of choux pastry that may be served as an entire, a garnish or a dessert (like profiteroles). Savoury duchesses are filled with a mouse or a salpicon. Duchesses for dessert are filled with vanilla-flaoured confectioner’s custard (pastry cream) or whipped cream, dusted with icing (confectioner’s) sugar, and scattered with chopped pistachio nuts, flaked almonds or dusted with cocoa. Duchesses are also petits fours consisting of meringue shells or circles of langue-de-chat biscuit (cookie) mixture, stuck together in pairs with flavoured butter cream. Duchesse is also the name of a variety of winter pear, and of certain desserts that include pears. Recipe Duchesse petits fours Grease 3 baking sheets and dust with flour. Mix together 100 g (4 oz. 1 cup) ground almonds, 100 g (4 oz ½ cup) caster (superfine) sugar, and 40 g (1½ oz, 3 tablespoons) butter and add to the mixture. Put the mixture into a piping (pastry) bag and pipe small rounds on to the baking sheets. Cook in a preheated oven at 190°C (375°F, gas 5) for 7-8 minutes, remove from the oven and carefully lift off the rounds of meringue with a palette knife (spatula). Mix 200 g (7 oz. L cup) ground praline with 225 g (8 oz. 1 cup) crème au beurre (see creams) and use to sandwich the duchesses together. Store in a cool place. DUCHESSE, A LA The description a la duchesse is given in French cuisine to various dishes garnished, surrounded or served with duchess potatoes. In patisseries, the name applies to certain preparations containing almonds. Recipes Amandines a la duchesse Make a dough with 150 g (5 oz. 1½ cup), plain (all purpose) flour, 75 g (3 oz, 6 tablespoons) softened butter, 3 tablespoons caster (superfine) sugar, a pinch of salt, 1 egg yolk and 4 teaspoons water. Roll it into a ball and place in the refrigerator. Beat 100 g (4 oz, l/2 cup) butter until soft and mix into it 100 g (4 oz, ½ cup) caster sugar. Add 2 egs, one at a time, and beat the mixture. Stir in 100 g (4 oz, 1 cup) ground almonds, then 50 g (2 oz, ½ cup) cornflour (cornstarch), and mix well. Add 100 ml (4 fl oz. 7 tablespoons) kirsch. Rol our the chilled dough to a thickness of about 3 mm (1/8 in) and cut out 8rounds with a pastry (cookie) cutter. Use these to line 8 buttered tartlet moulds and prick the bottom of each one with a fork. Put a few cooked redcurrants into each of the tartlets and cover with the almond mixture. Bake in a preheated oven at 200°C (400°F, gas 6) for 20 minutes. Allow the amandines to cool completely before turning them out of the moulds. Warm 100 g ( 4 oz, 1/3 cup) redcurrant jelly and use to glaze the amandines. Decorate thetopswith redcurrants and keep in a cool place. Peaches a la duchesse Make a dough with 150 g (5 oz, 1½cups) plain (all-purpose0 flour, a pinch of salt, 3 tablespoons caster (superfine) sugar, 75 g (3 oz. 6 tablespoons) softened butter. 1 tablespoon water and 1 egg yolk. Roll into a ball and place in the refrigerator. Dice 8 slices canned pineapply and macerate them in kirsch. Put 50 g (2 oz, ½ cup), flaked almonds on to a baking sheet, moisten with water, dust with sugar and bake in a preheated oven at 200°C (400°F, gas 6), until golden brown, turning often. Roll out the chilled dough to a thickness of about 3 mm (1/8 in) and cut out 8 circles with a pastry (cookie) cutter. Use to line 8 tarlet moulds prick the bottom of each one with a fork, place a piece of greaseproof (wax) paper in each and fill with baking beans. Cook for 5 minutes in the oven, remove the paper and baking beans, and cook for a further 7 minutes. Cool and then turn out of the moulds. Prepare a zabaglione by whicking 100 g (4 oz, ½ cup) caster sugar and 3 egg yolks in a bain m arie until the mixture is warm and frothy. Add 3 tablespoons of both kirsch and Mraschino, whisking until the mixture has thickened. Soften 500 ml (17 ft oz, 2 cups) vanilla ice cream by crushing it with a wooden spatula. Add the diced pineapple. Place some of the ice-cream mixture in the bottom of each tartlet, put a canned peach half on each, and coat with the zabaglione. Sprinkle with flaked almonds and chill briefly. The peaches may be replaced by pears. Poached eggs a la duchesse Spread some cold duchess potato mixture on a buttered dish and cut out circles about 7 cm (2 ¼ in) in diameter. Bake in a preheated oven at 220°C (425°F, gas 7) until golden brown and arrange a poached egg on each. Coat with béchamel sauce. Mornay sauce, tomato sauce, cream sauce or any other suitable sauce. DUCHESS POTATOES. Potatoes pureed with butter and egg yolk, piped into decorative shapes and baked duchess potatoes are served with roast meat or they may be used as a garnish. The mixture is also used to make croquettes. Berny potatoes (mixed with chopped truttles, coated with flaked almonds, shaped into rounds and fried) and Saint-Florentine potatoes (mixed with chopped ham, coated with fine uncooked vermicelli, shaped into small corks and fried). Recipes Duchess potato mixture Cut 500 g (18 oz) peeled potatoes into thick slices or quarters. Boil them briskly in salted water. Drain, put in a warm oven for a few moments to evaporate excess moisture, and press through a sieve. Put the puree into a saucepan and dry off for a few moments on the hob (stovetop), turning with a wooden spoon. Add 50 g (2 oz, ¼ cup) butter and season with salt, pepper and a little grated nutmeg. Mix in 1 egg and 2 yolks. This mixture is easier to pipewhile hot; it may be piped for borders or into swirls on a greased baking sheet to be served as duches potatoes proper. Brush the cooled swirls of potato with beaten egg and brown them in a hot oven. Alternatively, spread the puree on a buttered baking sheet, leave until cold and shape as indicated in the recipe. Fried duchess potatoes Heat some oil for deep-frying to about 180°C (350°F). Put some cooled duchess potato mixture in a piping (pastry) bag with a plain nozzle about 2 cm (3/4 in) in diameter and pipethe mixture into the hot oil, cutting it off into about 4 cm ( 1 l/2 in) lengths. Cook until golden brown, drain on paper towels and serve very hot. Instead of piping the mixture, it may be spread out on a buttered baking sheet, cooled and cut into even-sized rectangles. These can be rooled into cylinders and then deep-friend. DUCK A web-footed bird that was domesticated in China over 2000 years ago. In France, the most common breeds are the Nantes duck and the Barbary duck. The mulard duck, produced by crossing these twobreeds, is reared mainly in south-western France for the production of fole gras since the l970s and is highly esteemed by gourmets. Whatever the breed, duck should be consumed within three days of killing. · Aylesbury British breed originally from the town of the same name, this is a white chick with light, tender flesh. · Barbary Duck French breed. Raised in the wild; firmer and leaner flesh with a slightly musky flavour. · Gressingham. A British wild-domestic crossbreed between the mallard and a domestic duck. · Long Island Descending from the Peking duck, this is the popular American duck. · Long Island Descending from the Peking duck, this is the popular American duck. · Nantes Duck (or Challans duck-after the name of the marshland where it is raised in a semi-wild state). Smaller but latter, with fine, delicately flavoured flesh. · Norfolk British duck from the country of the same name, a primary area for rearing poultry. · PekingDuck. A small white duck crossed with the Aylesbury in Britain and the bird from which the long Island duck has developed in America. Originally bred only in the Imperial palace in China before being taken to America. Very fine, with delicate flesh. · Rouen Duck. The excellent Rouen duck, in particular the Duclain (named after a village in Normandy), is mainly sold locally. Very fine flesh, tinged with red, with a special flavour due to the fact that the bire is smothered, not bled, so that the blood remains in the muscles. Modern breeding methods have made duck leaner and more widely available in large supermarkets, as whole birs or in portions and prepared breast fillets. In French cookery, the term canard applies to birds two to four months old, Cameton (duckling) is used for younger birds and in grande cuisine. The female duck 9came) is smaller but plumper than the drake, it is preferred for roasts because its meat is liner and tastier. A female duckling is called a canette. Duck’s eggs which have a greenish white shell and weigh 75-125 g (3-4/2 oz), are very popular in the far East. However, because they often carry salmonella bacteria, duck’s eggsshould only be eaten cooked. Cooking methods. Very tender birds roast on a spit; tender birds; roast in the oven (for both these methods, the cooked meat should be pale pink); less tender birds braise or roast (stuffed), and garnish with onions, turnips, olives and acid fruits; very large birds; use for pates; balotines and cassoulets. Choose for preference a fairly young bird with a flexible beak; the piston flesh as well as the skin should be supple and the breast plump. When a duckling is killed too young, the breastbone is still soft and the flesh is not developed sufficiently. The current tendency in restaurants is to use ducklings, although some preparations can only be successfully made with more mature birds. The cold dishes using duck are the same as those made with roasting chicken. Pressed duck. Created at the beginning of the l9th century by a restaurateur from Rouen called Mechenet, the recipe for pressed duck owed much of its immediate success to the duke of Cahrtres, who commended it highly in Paris. When the renowned cook Frederic took over the restaurant La Tour d’Argent, he began numbering all the pressed ducks that he served, intending tomake the dish the speciality of his restaurant. By the end of l996, a million had been served. No 328 was served to Edward VIII, then Prince of Wales, in l890 No. 33.642 was provided for Theodore Roosevelt and No. 253.652 for CharlieChaplain. Leon Daudet, in Paris vecu, describes the cook at work. You ought to have seen Fredric with his monocle, his graying whiskers, his calm demeanour, carving his plump quack quack trussed and already flamed throwing it into the pan, preparing the sauce, salting and peppering like Claude Monet’s paintings, with the seriousness of a judge and the precision of a mathematician, and opening up, with a sure hand, in advance, every perspective of taste.’ Pressed duck is prepared in front of the customer. Thin slices of breast (atiguillettes) are cut from the bird and placed in a dish of well-reduced red wine standing on a hotplate. The rest of the duck, except for the legs, which are served grilled (broiled), is pressed in a special screw press. The juice obtained is flavoured with Cognac, thickened with butter and poured over the arguillettes, which finish cooking in the sauce. Wild duck. There are many breeds ofwild duck. The most commn species include the mallard (colvert) also the largest and with exquisite flesh. The male has green and grey plumage with a touch of brown and white. The female is brown. Practically sedentary from October to March, the mallard migrates south only in very cold wether. Teal (sarcelle) is another popular duck of which there are several types. Other wild ducks that are well known in gastronomy include the shoveler duck (souchet), which has a spatulate beak, the gadwall (chapeau), which is grey and white with a brown border on the wings (in easter France), the baldpate (stiffleur), which is a smaller, coastal species, and the pintail (pilet), which is less highly regarded. The sheldrake (tadorne) and the pintail (pilet), which is less highly regarded. The sheldrake (tadorner) and the merganser (barle) are now protected species. Generally speaking, only the legs and fillets of wild ducks are eaten (this is why one bird is required for every two servings). These game birds are not hung, but used fresh: young tender birds are roasted on a spit or in the oven’ older birds are prepared as a salmis or fricassee. Dishes made using domestic duck are also applicable to wild duck. The shooting of wild duck is subject to regulation in the same way as other game. In Britain, mallard and teal are in season from September to January and best in November and December. Recipes Amiens duck pate Preparing the pastry spread 500 g (l lb. 2 oz, 4 l/2 cups) plain (all-purpose) flour out on a board or work surface, make a wel in the center and put in l teaspoon table salt. Break an egg into the well and mix with the salt, then add l tablespoon olive oil. Soften 125 g (4 l/2 oz, l/2 cup) lard (shortening) by kneading if necessary, then mix it with the liquid part in the center of the flour. Then blend the flour and lard, without moistening at all. When the pastry is well blended, spread it out and sprinkle with about l l/2 tablespoons cold water. Roll the pastry together into one lump and leave to rest in a coll place for at least 2 hours before use. (This pastry has the advantage of rising very little during cooking). · Preparing the duck. To make this pate, use only young ducklings, which can be cooked very quickly. Pluck draw and singe the bird, carefully removing any innards that may remain. Cut off the wing tips just below the first joint from the shoulder. Cut off the feet at the joint. Season the inside and outside with spieced salt. Cut up a side of streaky (slab) bacon and fry over a low heat in a little cooking fat. Remove it and brown theduck in the fat over a low heat, turning it so that it browns all over. Drain the duck on a dish and leave to cool before making the pate. · Preparing the forcemeat. A gratin forcemeat is always used for this pate. The ingredients may vary, depending on what is available, and may include veal or poultry liver, in addition to the liver from the duck. Melt l50 g (5 oz, 2/3 cup) finely chopped far over a low heat and use it tobrown 500 g (l lb 2 oz) veal or poultry liver, which has been suitably trimmed and coarsely diced. When the liver is well browned, add l chopped onion and 2 chopped shallots, and season with l tablespoon spiced salt, some chopped thye and bay leaves. Cover and leave for a few minutes on a low heat. Remove and allow to cool, then pound the mixture in a mortar and pass through a fine sieve. · Making the pate Divide the pastry into two equal portions and roll one half into an oval about l cm (l/2 in.) thick so it is a little longer and wider than the duck. Place this pastry in the center of a metal baking sheet or ovenproof pie dish that has been lightly moistened with a little cold water. Next, spread a quarter of the forcemeat in the middle of the pastry and lay the duck, on its back, on top: season the duck with more spiced salt and a little cayenne pepper. Completely cover the duck with the remaining forcemeat. Roll our the remaining pastry in an oval shape and place over the duck, sealing it well at the edges. Crimp up the sides, garnish the top with some pieces of pastry cut into fancy shapes and make an opening in the center for the steam to escape. Finally, glaze the pastry with beaten egg. Bake the pate in a preheated oven at 220°C (425°F, gas 7) for 1 ¼- 1 l/2 hours, depending on the size. Braised duck Singed and truss a duck weighing about 2 kg (4 ½ lb.) Put it into an ovenproof braising pan lined with fresh bacon rind and containing a carrot and a medium-sized onion cut into rounds and tossed in butter. Add a bouquet garni, season and cook, covered, for 15 minutes, browning theduck on all sides. Moister with 100 ml (4 fl oz. 7 tablespoons) white wine, reduce and add 300 ml (1/2 pint, 1 1/4cups) chicken stock. Boil, then transfer toa preheated oven at 220°C (425°F, gas 7), and cook, covered, for about l hour. Drain the duck, untruss it, arrange on a serving dish and surround with fresh garden peas. Sprinkle with a few spoonfuls of the braising juices, reduced and strained, and serve the remainder in a sauceboat (gravy boat.) The same method is used for duck a l’alsacienne, which is surrounded with braised sauerkraut and a garnish of streaky (slab) bacon and Strasburg sausages; duck a la chipolata, which is garnished with braised chestnuts, small glazed onions, lean rashers (slices) of blanched bacon and chipolata sausages cooked in butter; and duck with olives, in which uses green olives, stoned (pitted)and blanched. Braised Rouen duck Rouen duck may be braised, although this is an unusual way of cooking it. It may be prepared a la bigarade (see Seville orange), with cherries – use a stoned (pitted) morello cherries and dilute the pan juices with Madeira: with chanmpagne-dilute the pan juices with 300 ml (l/2 pint, l l/4 cups) dry champagne and, if liked, a few tablespoons of thickened veal stock; or au chambertin-finish off the cooling with 25 g (4 l/2 oz) blanched and fried larding bacon and mushroom caps tossed in butter. Cold duck pate This is made using a boned duck, stuffed with d grotin forcemeat to which foie gras and truffles have been added, either en pantin (see pate pantin), like cold lark pate, or in a mould, like cold timbale of woodcock. Duck a pagenaise Singe a duck weighing about 2 kg (4 l/2 lb). Season the inside with salt and pepper, stuff with a dozen or so stoned (pitted) prunes soaked in Armagnac and sew up. Brown theduck in a pan containing 25 g (l oz, 2 tablespoons) butter, sprinkle with a glass of Armagnac and set alight. Cover the pan and cook for about 40 minutes. Meanwhile, poach the grated zest of half an orange for 5 minutes in half a bottle of Bordeaux wine, together with 2 cloves, a little grated nutmeg, 5 or 6 crushed peppercorns, a sprig of thyme and a bay leaf. In a saucepan, brown l0 g (4 oz, l/2 cup) very small lardoons of smoked bacon, 2 tablespoons diced carrot. L tablespoon diced celery and a large chopped onion, adding a knob of utter if required. Sprinkle with l tablespoon flour, then add the orange-flavoured wine, having strained it. Season with salt and pepper, stir well and cook slowly for 20 mintues. Drain the duck and keep it hot. Pour the wine sauce into the juices from the duck and add a small glass of armagnac and about 20 stoned (pitted) prunes. Reheat the sauce. Garnish the duck with prunes and cover with the sauce. Duck a l orange Lasserre Prepare a Nantes duck weighing about 2 kg (4 l/2 lb.), brown it in butter, then cook gently for 45 minutes. Sprinkle with l00 ml (4 fl oz, 7 tablespoons) Grand Marnier and leave to cook for a further 5 minutes. Remove the duck from the pan and keep hot. Strain the liquor and pour it into a saucepan, adding l tablespoon each vinegar and caster (superfine) sugar, the juice of 3 oranges and l00 ml (4 fl. Oz, 7 tablespoons) each of mandarin and apricot liqueur to make the sauce. Peel 6 oranges down to the flesh, cut them into slices, removing all fibres and seeds, and place them in a frying pan with a few spoonfuls of the sauce. Heat without boiling. Now carve the duck, arrange it on a hot dish and surround with slices of orange. Cover with some of the sauce and serve the remainder in a saceboat (gravy boat). Duck supremes with truffles This is made with the breast filters (supremes) of a Rouen duck. Roast the duck in a preheated oven at 200°C (400°F, gas 6) for about 30 minutes, so it is still slightly pink. Ct the fillets into large slices and arrange them in a timbale mould together with thick slices of truffle which have been tossed in butter. Keep hot. Roughly chop the remaining carcass and trimmings moisten with Madeira, port of sherry, and reduce. Add a few tablespoons of reduced demi-glace and boil for a few seconds, then stream. Return to theboil, then add l tablespoon flamed brandy and 2 tablespoons butter. Pour the sauce over the fillets. Duck with crystallized turnips and cider Make a stock with the roast giblets from a 2 kg (4 l/2 lb) duck, l sliced onion and l slicedcarrot. Add l litre ( l l/4 pints, 4 l/3 cups) cider, l apple and 2 large turnips, peeled and cut into pieces. When the liquid has reduced to half its original volume, add l litre ( l ¾ pints, 4 l/2 cups)clear stock and cook gently for 20 minutes. Pour the liquid through a strainer. Roast the duck in a preheated oven at 200°C (400°F, gas 6), lying on each leg for l0 minutes and on its back for 5 minutes. Remove from the oven and allow to rest. In a sauté pan, heat 50 g (2 oz. L/4 cup) butter, add a pinch of sugar and 24 small turnips and fry until golden. Put the duck in a cast-iron casserole with the turnips and stock and simmer for l0 minutes. Thicken the sauce with 50 g (2 oz, l/4 cup) butter and add l bunch of cornander culantro), chopped, and a dash of cider. Duck with peas Cut 200 g (7 oz) larding bacon into large dice, and blanch. Brown these, together wth l2 small onions, in butter in a casserole. Remove the onions and diced bacon from the pan and replace with a trussed Nantes duck. Brown the duck on all sides and then drain, retaining the juices. Dilute the pan juices with l00 ml (4 fl. Oz 7 tablespoons) dry white wine and 250 ml (8 fl oz, l cup)veal or chicken stockand put the duck into this liquor. Add l litre ( l l/4 pints, 4 l/2 cups)shelled fresh garden peas, the onions, the bacon and a bouquet garni. Season and add 2 tablespoons sugar. Simmer gently with the lid on for 35-40 minutes. Drain the duck and arrange on a serving dish, surrounding it with the peas. Reduce the pan juices, and pour over the duck. Arrange a lettuce, shredded into a chiffonnade or cutinto quarters, on the peas. Alternatively, cook the duck in the same way but leave it slightly underdone. Add l litre ( l ¾ pints, 4 l/2 cups) freshgarden peas cooked a la francoise and simmer gently for a few mintues. Jelled fillets of Roonen duck a Porange Cook a 2 kg (4 l/2 lb) duck for about 35 minutes in a preheated oven at 240°C (475°F gas 9) so that it remains slightly pink. Remve the legs and cutthe breast fillets diagonally into slices, leaving them attached at the base. Coat the breast fillets with a brown chaud-froid sauce a l’orange. Glazed with a aspic and chill. Prepare a mousse using the flesh off the legs, adding diced truffles. Fill tiny dome-shaped moulds 9or a parfait mould) with the mousse and place in the refrigerator to set. From a loag, cut croutons to the size of the moulds and butter them, then toast or fry until crisp and golden. Cool. Turn the set mousses out on to the croutons. Arrange the fillets of duck on plates, taking care to keep the tops of the slices neatly closed together. Pour a few spoonfuls of half-set aspic on to the plates and arrange some orange segments as a garnish. Garnish theduck fillets with shreds of pared orange zest and add a mouse-topped crouton to each plate. Chill before serving. Mallard with green peppercorns Select a mallard duck weighing about l.4 kg. (3 lb.) Season theinside and outside with salt and pepper and place in a roasting pan. Sprinkle with 2 tablespoons oil and oil and cook for 30 minutes in a preheated oven at 200°C (475°F, gas 9) sothat it remains slightly pink. Removed the legs and cut the breast fillets diagonally into slices, eaving them attached at thebase. Coat the breast fillets with a brown chaud-froid sauce a l’ orange. Glaze with a aspic and chill. Prepare a mousse using the flesh off the legs, adding diced truffles. Fill tiny dome-shaped moulds (or a parfait mould) with the mousse and place in the refrigerator to set. From a loaf, cut croutons to the size of the moulds and butter them, then toast or fry until crisp and golden. Cool. Turn the set mousses out on to the croutons. Arrange the fillets of duck on places, taking care to keep the tops of the slices neatly closed together. Pour a few spoonsfuls of half-set aspic on to the plates and arrange some orange segments as a garnish. Garnish theduck fillets with shreds of pared orange zest and add a musse-topped crouton to each plate. Chill before serving. Mallard with green peppercorns Select a mallard duck weighing about l.4 kg. (3 lb). Season the inside and outside with salt and pepper and place in a roasting pan. Sprinkle with 2 tablespoons oil and cook for 30 minutes in a preheated oven at 200°C (400°F, gas 6). Then cover the dish with foil to keep the duck hot. Peel 2 good-sized Granny Smith apples, cut them into halves, ad remove the seeds and cores. Cook in a preheated oven at l80°C (350°F, gas 4) for about l0 minutes. For the sauce, pour 5 tablespoons white wine and l tablespoon. Armagnac into a saucepan, and reduce by about two-thirds. Add the juice from a can of green peppercorns and 4 tablespoons stock (duck or other poultry). Reduce again for 2-3 minutes. Add 200 ml (7 fl. ¾ cup)single (light) cream, lightly season with salt and cook until the sauce achieves a uniform consistency. Check the seasoning and at the last moment add 4 teaspoons port and l l/2 tablespoons green peppercorns. Cut off the breast fillets of the duck and arrange on a serving dish. Cover with the sauce and garnish with the apple, cut into quarter. Roast duck Season the duck with salt and pepper both inside and out, truss and roast in the oven or on a spit. A duckling weighing about l.25 kg (2 ¾ lb) should be cooked in a preheated oven at 220°C (425°F, gas 7) for 35 minutes, or for 40-45 minutes on a spit. Roast duck with peaches Roast the duck. Meanwhile, peel some medium-sized peaches and poach them whole in a light syrup. When the duck is roasted, drain it and keep it hot. Dilute the pan juices with a little peach syrup and reduce to the consistency of a sauce. Add the peaches to the sauce to flavour them, heat them through and arrange them around the duck. Serve the sauce in a sauceboat (gravy boat). Roast duck with maple syrup Peel 2 Williams (Barlett) pears, cut in half lengthways and remove the cores. In a frying pan, combine 50 g (2 ox. L/4 cup) caster (superfine) sugar with 250 ml (8 fl. Oz.l cup) dry white wine and the juice of 2 lemons and 2 oranges. Bring to the boil. Add the pears, 250 ml (8 fl. Oz., l cup) pure maple syrup and a pinch f ground allspice. Simmer, until the pears have softened, then remove them from the liquor and put aside in a warm place. Reserve the maple syrup liquor. Meanwhile, wash 2 ducks. Prick the skin of the breasts with a fork and season. Place in an ovenproof dish and roast in a preheated oven at 200°C (400°F, gas 6) for 15 minutes. Peel and chop 2 carrot. 2 onions, 3 celery sticks, l salsify and 2 garlic cloves. Add to the ducks with 2 cloves, 2 bay leaves and l bunch of thyme, chopped. Reduce the oven temperature to l50°C (300°F, gas 2). Skim the excess fat from the dish and baste the ducks every 10 minutes with the reserved maple syrup mixture. As soon as the vegetables begin to turn slightly brown, pour in 500 ml (17 fl oz. 2 cups) chicken stock. Continue the cooking process ( l l/2 hours in all), basting regularly with the juices in the hours in all), basting regularly with the juices in the dish. When the ducks are cooked, remove them from the dish and put aside in a warm place. Remove as much fat as possible from the liquid in the dish, leaving the duck juices. Put the vegetables and juice in a smaller saucepan and heat. Add l tablespoon tomato puree (pastre) and cook for 2-3 minutes. Add a further 500 ml (l7 fl. Oz. 2 cups) chicken stock and any remaining maple syrup mixture. Simmer for 15 minutes and strain. Bone the ducks. Place the pieces of duck on a serving dish and garnish with slices of pears, arranged in a fanshape. Pour the cooking juices over the pieces of duck. Rouen duck en chemise Remove the breastbone from a Rouen duck. Prepare a stuffing by frying l heaped tablespoon chopped onion with l25 g ( 4 l/2 z, 2/3 cup) diced bacon, without browning the onion. Add an entire duck’s liver and 2 or 3 additional duck or chicken livers cut into thin fillets, salt and pepper, a pinch of allspice and some chopped parsley. Cook all the ingredients in butter, cool, and blend in a food processor. Stuff the duck with this mixture, truss and roast in a preheated oven at 240°C (475°F, gas 9) for 8-l2 minutes. Leaves to cool. To follow the traditional method, place the duck, head downwards, in a large pork bladder that has been soaked in cold water. Tie the opening with string and poach in clear braising bladder, on a serving dish. Alternatively the duck can be cooked wrapped in a piece of muskin (cheesecloth) or a white talbe napkin with both ends tied, like a galantine. It is then served unwrapped, surrounded with orange quarters. Serve rouennaise sauce separately. Rouen duck in port Cook a trussed Rouen duck in butter for 30-40 minutes, so that the flesh remaining slightly pink. Drain the duck and arrange it on a long dish. Prepare the sauce as follows: dilute the pan juices with 250 ml (8 fl. Oz. L cup) port, add 250 ml (8 fl oz, l cup) thickened brown veal stock, soil for a few moments, add some butter and strain. Pour a few spoonfuls of the sauce over the dusk and serve the rest separately in a sauceboat (gravy boat). The boat can be replaced by Basting regularly with the juices in the dish. When the ducks are cooked, remove them from the dish and put aside in a warm place. Remove as much fat as possible from the liquid in the dish leaving the duck juices. Put the vegetables and juice in a smaller saucepan and heat. Add l tablespoon tomato puree (paste) and cook for 2-3 minutes. Add a further 500 ml (l7 fl oz. 2 cups) chicken stock and any remaining maple syrup mixture. Simmer for 15 minutes and strain. Bone theducks. Place the pieces of duck on a serving dish and garnish with slices of pears, arranged in a fan shape. Pour the cooking juices over the pieces of duck. Rouen duck en chemise Remvoe the breasfbone from a Rouen duck. Prepare a stuffing by frying l heaped tablespoon chopped onion with l25 g (4 l/2 oz, 2/3 cup) diced bacon, without browning the onion. Add an entire duck’s liver and 2 or 3 additional duck or chicken livers cut into thin fillets, salt and pepper, a pinch of allspice and sme chopped parsley. Cook all the ingredients in butter, cool, and blend in a food processor. Stuff the duck with this mixture, truss and roast in a preheated oven at 240°C (475°F , gas 9) for 8-l2 minutes. Leave to cool. To follow the traditional method, place the duck, head downwards, in a large pork bladder that has been soaked in cold water. Tie the opening with string and poach in clear braising stock for 45 minutes. Arrange the duck, still in the bladder, on a serving dish. Alternatively the duck can be cooked wrapped in a piece of muslin (cheesecloth) or a white table napkin with both ends tied, like a galantine. It is then served unwrapped, surrounded with orange quarters. Serve rouennaise sauce separately. Rouen duck in port Cook a trussed Rouen duck in butter for 30-40 minutes so that the flesh remains slightly pink. Drain the duck and arrange it on a long dish. Prepare the sauce as follows: dilute the pan juices with 250 ml (8 fl. Oz. L cup) port, add 250 ml (8 fl. Oz, l cup) thickened grown veal stock, boil for a few moments, add some butter and strain. Pour a few spoonfuls of thesauce over the duck and serve the rest separately in a sauceboat (gravy boat). The port can be replaced by Banyuls, Frotignan, Madeira, sweet sherry or any other dessert wine. Rouen duck (or duckling) souffie This very stylish dish is made with 2 birds, the larger to be served and the smaller to make the forcemeat. Roast a trussed Rouen duck in a preheated oven at 200°C (400°F, gas 6) for 10-15 minutes; the meat should still be very rare. Remove the breast fillets, which sould be kept for the final garnish, and remove the breasbone, so that the carcass forms a hollow case. Season the inside with salt, pepper and spieces, and sprinkle with a spoonful of brandy. Fill the carcass with a forcemeat made from the raw meat of the smaller duck, boned and prepared as for mousseline forcemeat, l50 g (5 oz.) raw fole grass and the livers of the 2 ducks used. Stuff the carcass so it is re-formed into its original shape. Cover the duck with buttered greaseproof (wax) paper and tie it so that it will hold the forcemeat during cooking. Place the stuffed duck on a baking sheet, coat with melted butter and roast in a preheated oven at l50°C (400°F, gas 6) for 10-15 minutes; the meat should still be very rare. Remove the breast fillets, which should be kept for the final garnish, and remove the breastbone, so that the carcass forms a hollow case. Season the inside with salt, pepper and spieces, and sprinkle with a spoonful of brandy. Fill the carcass with a forcemeat, l50 g (5 oz) raw fole grass and the livers of the 2 ducks used. Stuff the carcass so it is re-formed into its original shape. Cover the duck with buttered greaseproof (wax) paper and tie it so that it will hold the forcemeat during cooking. Place the stuffed duck on a baking sheet, coat with melted butter and roast in a preheated oven at 150°C (300°F, gas 2)for 30-35 minutes. Remove the greaseproof paper and arrange the duck on a serving dish. Make some tarlet cases from short pastry (basic pie dough), bake blind, heap with a salpicon of truffles and mushrooms bound with concentrated Madeira sauce, and cover each with a slcie of duck breast filelt and a thick slice of truffle heated in butter. Arrange the tartlets around the duck. Serve with rouennaise sauce or Perigueux sauce. Instead of being used to fill the tarlets, the duck fillets can be cutinto thin slices and embedded in the mousselines. The former are made in large charlotte mulds and the latter in small individual moulds. They are poached in a bain marie in the oven. The forcemeat can also be used for duck soufflé en timbole; put it in buttered soufflé timbale moulds and bake as for other souffies. Wild duck a la tyrollenne Stew some cooking apples, adding a little cinnamon and mace to form a hot aple puree. Stuff a wild duck with this puree, tie securely and place the duck on spit for roasting. Boil 2 tablespoons red wine vinegar together with a small knob of butter (about the size of a walnut), l/2 teaspoon caster (superfine) sugar and a few grains of coarsely ground pepper. Baste the duck constantly with this preparation while it is cooking on the spit, placing a small pan beneath to catch the juices. Cooking should take about 30-35 minutes. When finished, take the duck off the spit, untruss and arrange on a dish. Strain the collected juices into a saucepan and heat, adding l l/2 teaspoons redcurrant jelly. Finally, pourthis sauce over the duck. Wild duck a la Walter Scott Draw, singe and trss a wild duck. Cook in a pre-heated oven at 200°C (425°F, gas 7). Meanwhile, fry the duck’s liver in butter, mash and mix it with 20 g (3/4 oz) foie gras. Fry 2 croutons in clarified butter and spread them with the liver paste. Core 2 apples, stud each with 4 cloves and cook as for apples bonne femme. Dilute some Dundee marmalade with 2 tablespoons whisky and heat gently. When the duck is cooked, arrange it on a serving dish. Remove the cloves from the apples and place the latter on the croutons, then pour the marmalade into the holes in the apples. Arrange the croutons around the duck. Serve the juice in a saucboat (gravy boat), without skimming off the fat. Wild duck an Chambertin Roast the duck for 18-20 minutes in a preheated oven at 240°C (475°F, gas 9) or fry over a brisk heat, so that the flesh stays slightly pink. Arrange on a serving dish and cover with Chambertin sauce to which the pan juices have been added. Garnish with mushrooms and, if liked, with strips of truffle. Duglere, adolphe. French chef born Bordeau, l805; died paris, l880). A pupil of Careme, he became head of the kitchens of the Rothschild family and later managed the restaurant les Preres Proveneauz. In l866 he became head chef at the Café Anglais, with which his name is always associated. He is described as a laciturn artist who reveled in contemplative isolation; and his culinary creations made the Café Anglais one of the most famous restaurants in Paris during the Second Empire. His creations included potage Germiny, Anna potatoes, sole and sea bream it la Duglere and soufflé a Panglaise. It was Duglere who drew up the menu for the historic dinner of the “Three Emperors’. Among the illustrious guests who attended were Alexander. If the Russian emperor, his son the future Alexander III, Wilhelm I of Prussia (the German Emperor) and Bismarck. The dinner, it is said, cost 100 francs a head. Recipes Bass a la Duglere Butter a shallow flameproof dish. Peel and chop l large onion, l-2 shallots, a small bunch of parsley, a garlic clove and, if liked (it is not traditional), l50 g (5 oz. L 2/3 cups) button mushrooms. Skin, seed and chop 4 tomatoes. Spread all these ingredients on the bottom of thedish, then add a sprig of thyme and half a bay leaf. Scale a l kg ( 2 l/4 lb) bass and cut into sections. Arrange these sections in the dish, dot with knobs of butter, moisten with 200 ml (7 fl. Oz, ¾ cup) dry white wine and cover with foil. Bring to the boil, then transfer to a preheated oven at 220°C (425°F, gas 7) and cook for 12-15 minutes. Drain the pieces of bass and arrange on a serving dish in the original shape of the fish. Remove the thyme and bay leaf from the oven dish and add 2 tablespoons veloute made with fish stock. Reduce by one-third, then add 50 g (2 oz. L/4 cup) butter. (The veloute and butter may be replaced by l tablespoon beurre manie.) Pour the sauce over the fish and sprinkle with chopped parsley. Sea bream and brill may be prepared and served in the same way. Sole a la Duglere Skin and clean a sole weighing about 500 g (18 oz) and prepare the ingredients as for bass a la Duglere, but halving the quantities. Cook in the same way but reduce the cooking time in the oven to 7 minutes. Drain the sole and keep it hot reduce the cooking liquidand thicken it with butter and veloute sauce made with fish stock. DUMAINE, ALEXANDRE. French chef (born Digoin, l895; died Digoin, l974) At the age of l2 he became an apprentice at a hotel in Paray-le-Monial, and gradually worked his way up in the profession, eventually becoming grande toque (head chef) in such famous establishemtns as the Carton (in Vichy, then in Cannes), the Café de Paris and the Hotel Louvois in Pais, and the Oasis Hotel at Biskra. In l932 he opened a restaurant at Saulieu, which, with the help of his wife, Jeanne, became a gastronomic shrine. The Hotel de la Cote-d was with Point at Vienne and Pic at Valence, on of the three outstanding centers of provincial cuisine in France from 1930 to 1950. After retiring in l964, Dumaine collaborated with Henry Cloy Jouve in producing Ma cuisine, a book of recipes and various reminiscences, from which the following recipes for braised beef and a coffee and chocolate ateau are taken. RECIPES Braised beef Brown a joint of bee in a large pan. Remove the joint and brown a large mirepoix of carrots and onions in the fat from the meat. Brown some small pieces of bone from a join of veal and some chicken ones in butter. Put into a braising pan with the skimmed mirepoix, the point of beef, a blanched pig’s foot and some crushed tomatoes. Season withsalt and pepper, add 250 ml (8 fl. Oz. L cup)white wine and boil gently until all the liquid has evaporated. Then add a bouquet garni and sufficient red wine and stock (l part wine to 2 parts stock) to cover three-quarters of the beef. Cover and cook gently for 3 hours, turning the meat occasionally. Gateau le prelat Prepare l litre ( l ¾ pints, 4 l/2 cups) strong, lightly sweetened coffee, flavoured with white rum. Allow to cool. Beat together 2 whole eggs and 6 egg yolks, add 300 g (ll oz. L l/2 cups) sugar boiled to the thread stage and whisk until cold. Blend in 300 g ( ll oz, 2 cups) melted butter (semisweet) chocolate pieces, some grated orange zest and 750 ml ( l l/4 pints, 3 l/4 cups) lightly whipped double (heavy) cream. Mix well. Cover the buttom of a buttered rectangular mould with sponge fingers (ladyfingers)soaked in a little of the cold coffee. Cover with some of the chocolate mixture. Top with another layer of soaked sponge fingers and continue layering until the mould is full, finishing with a layer of sponge fingers. Place in the refrigerator with a layer of sponge fingers. Place itfor 24 hours before turning out of the mould. Melt 450 g (l lb) dark chocolate and mix with l50 g (5 oz, 2/3 cup) butter and 2 tablespoons light oil. Coat the gateau with this mixture. DUMAS, ALEXANDRE FRENCH AUTHOR (BORN Villers-Cotterest, l802) died Dieppe, l870. In l869 Dumas, best known as theauthor of The Three Musketeers and other historical romances, accepted an assignment from a young publisher, Alphonse Lemerre, to write a Grand Dictionnaire de Cuisine. To find the peace and quiet necessary to compile such a monumental work (ll52 pages). Dumas retired to Roscoff (Finisterre)with this cook Marie. The work was completed in March l870, a few weeks before his death, and was published in l872. It is not considered to be a very reliable work from a strictly culinary point of view, in spite of the friendly collaboration of Joseph Vuillemot, a pupil of Carme, who published a revised and abridged version in l882. But in spite of its errors, its gaps and its trenchant opinions, the work is written in an alert and amusing style and full of anecdotes. Dumas was a great habitué of Parisian restaurants, he had his own private room at the Maison Doree, and attended the “Brixio dinners”at Brevant-Vachette, the Rocher de Cancale, the Jockey club where his protégé Jules Gouffe presided, and theRestaurant de France in the Place de la Madeleine. Here his friend Vullemot gave a famous dinner in h is honour which included lobster a la Porthos, ‘fillet of beef Monte Cristo,” salad, a la Dumas’ and gorenflot (rumsoaked sponge cake). Dumas made it a point of honour to dress the salad himself. “I place in a salad bowl one hard broiled egg ;yolk for every two persons. I pound it in oil tomake a paste, l then add chervil, crushed thyme, crushed anchovies, chopped gherkins, the chopped whites of the hard-boiled eggs, salt and pepper. 1 mix it all with a good vinegar, then l put the salad into the salad bowl. Then l call a servant and ask him to toss the salad. When he has finished, l scatter a pinch of paprika over it. It remains only to be served. Another famous dumas salad was made with truffles ‘peeled with a silver knife’ and seasoned, according to the mood of the h ost, with champagne, a liqueur or almond milk. DUMPLING A hall of dough, originally saoury and served as an accompaniment to meat or as a dessert. Sweet versions are also prepared. A simple satisfying food, dumplings were boiled and served to extend small amounts of meat. Originally made by shaping small portions from a hatch of bread dough before specific mixtures were developed using flour, cereals, pulses, stale bread, potatoes or cheese, sometimes with raising agent added or enriched with fat in theform of suet, were developed. Local ingredients and methods are used across Europe to make a variety of large or small dumpling, plain or flavoured with herbs, vegetables, spices or other ingredients. Germany (particularly Bavaria) and Austria in particuar are known for excellent examples, along with Czechoslovakia, Poland and Hungary. Fresh or dry bread; mashed or grated raw potatoes, soft cheese; or semolina are just as likely to be used as flour and the dumpings may be bite-sized or large enough for slicing into portions. The tradition in Czechoslovakian kitchens was to shape the bread-based dumpling mixture into a long, thick sausage on clean napkins and suspend it over simmering water or broth. Instead of a knife, thedumpling was traditionally sliced with string, rather like cutting through a cheese with a wire. Spinach, herbs, caraway or bacon may be added for flavour and the dough enriched with butter or eggs. Finely chopped liver flavours leberknodel served Austrian-style in light broth r as a main dish in Germany. Dumplings are closely related to pasta. Italian gnocchi are good examples of small dumplings usually grouped with pasta and the spatzle of Germany and Austraia, made from batter simmered until set in finger noddles, also hover between the two descriptions. Polish plain or fileld dumplings are also very similar to gnocchi or filled pasta. In Britain dumplings were originally made with either a bread or suet dough and served with boiled beef and carrots and pease pudding. Suet dough became more widely used, withregional variations on the basic dough developing. Some doughs were unleavened, others used local cereals such as oats. As well as being served with boiled meat, dumplings are traditional with soupsand stews. Sweet versions are also prepared, no longer as simple accompaniments but as dishes in their own right. An apple dumpling (an apple encased I n pastry) is made with suet crust and boiled or with shortcrust pastry and baked. Large fruit dumplings are not the only sweet option-they may be yeasted and cooked in milk; filled with small whole fruit (plums or cherries) or jam and simmered in water). In the United States, dumplings can accompany roast and boiled meat dishes. Made with flour, baking powder. Egg and milk, they are shaped into walnut-sized balls and simmered very gently in vegetable soups, stews and beef and poultry consommés. They may also contain commeal, potatoe puree, grated cheese or breadcrumbs. Sweet-pastry dumplings sometimes made with a yeast dough are poached in fruit juice and served with compotes, fruit purees, melted butter or cream. They are sometimes stuffed with fruit. The name dumpling is also used for Oriental specialtieis, such as the small filled dumplings of Chinese cookery, related more closely to pasta than to Euroepan in style dumplings. Dunand. The surname of two Swiss cooks, father and son, also spelt Dunan and Dunant. The father was in charge of the kitchens of the Prince of Conde. His son inherited the psot and, in l793, followed the prince into exile. He returned to France l2 years later and entered the service of Napoleon I. Chicken Marengois attributed to himeven though the French victory over the Austrians tok place in l800, and dunand remained in the service f the Prince of Conde until l805. On the other hand, it is known that Napoleon greatly enjoyed his crepinettes. On the fall of the Empire, Dunand went into the service of the Duc of Berry, but resumed his post with the emperor during the Hundred days. DUNDEE CAKE. A Scottish fruit cake. This is a light cake, not as dark as the classic BritishChistmas or wedding cake, but rich with butter and still containing sufficient dried fruit to keep well for 2-3 months. Flavoured with ground almonds and candied peel, the cake’s defining feature is a slightly domed top studded with neat concentric circles of whole blanched almonds. The almonds are arranged on the uncooked cake tobecome a ich golden brown when baked. Dundee cake is thought to have originated in the l9th century, in the city of the same name, where it was made by Keller, the company known for orange marmalade. The lefover orange peel from themarmalade was used up in the cakes, the manufacture of which rovided work when seasonal Seville oranges were not available and marmalade was out of production. The commercial cakes were glazed with an orange syrup while still warm. Later versions of the cake were sold in decorative tins and were popular alternatives to Christmas cake. Dundee cake Cream 225 g (8 oz. L cup) butter with 225 g (8 oz l l/4 cup) caster (superfine) sugar and the grated zest of l orange until pale and soft. Sift 225 g (8 oz, 2 cups) self-raising flour with l00 g (4 oz, l cup) plain (all-purpose ) flour. Beat 4 eggs with l-2 drops oil of bitter almonds. Stir the eggs into thebutter mixture, adding the occasional spoonful of the sifted flours to prevent the mixture from curding. Mix 225 g (8 oz l l/2 cups) each of raisins and sultanas (white raisins) with l00 g (4 oz,. ¾ cup) chopped mixed candied orange, lemon and citrus peel. Add l00 g (4 oz. Lcup)chopped blanched almonds, l00 g (4 oz, l cup) ground almonds and a spoonful of themeasured flours, then mix well. Fold the remaining flour into the cake mixture, then stir in the fruit and almond mixture. Line and grease a 20 cm (8 in) round deep cake tip (pan) and turn the mixture into it. Spread the mixture out eveny. Cover the top with whole blanched almonds, starting with a circle around the edge and working in towards the middle. Press the nuts lightly into the mixture placing them close together as they separate slightly when the cake rises during baking. Bake in a preheated oven at l60oC (325oF, gas 3) for about 4 hours. Cover the top of the cake loosely with foil, if necessary to prevent the nuts from becoming toodark. Insert a clean metalskewer into the middle of thecake to check if it is cooked; if it has sticky mixture on it, the cake is not ready, continue baking for l5 minutes before testing again. Leave the cake to cool in the tin (pan) for 30 minutes, then turn it out on to a wire rack and leave to cool completely. Wrap the cake in grease-proof (wax) paper and place in an airtight container, then leave to mature for 2-4 weeks before serving. DUNDEE MARMALADE British preserve made frm butter Seville oranges by Keller a company in Dundee, Scotland, Mrs. Keller first created the sharp-sweet preserve and ice Her son set up the company and sd the preserve in its characteristic white pots. By the mid to late l9th century, the company was making l.5 million jars of marmalade annually. DURAD A Parisian restaurants that was situated in the place de la madelene. In the l800s according to a luchet, it was considered to be the third wonder in the art of good living rather the café riche and thecake handy. It was frequented bywriters and politicians, notably boulanger, anatole france and emile zola who wrote faccus there. The chef vortion created monry sauce in this restaurant. DURAND CHARLES FRENCH CHEF BORN ALES, L700 DIED NIMS, L850. called the Careme of Provincial cooking, he was chef to the bishops of Alex nunes and Montpellier before opening restaurants on Alex and Nunes, Cl80. Above all, he was responsible for popularizing Frenchregional cuisine at a time when it was practically unknown elsewhere le Cuisimer (l8030) is a collection of authentic provencial recipes that enabled brandade dish of salt cod and ther specialtieis of the south to be enjoyed in Paris. DURIAN A tree that is widely cultivated in Southeast Asia, especially in Northern and the Philippiens for its fruit. Durian fruits are round or oval up to 20 cm (8 in) with a har greenish rind covered with large thorns. The flesh is whitish or coffee coloured with a creamy texture and a strong, unpleasant and distinctive smell that becomes nauseating when thefruit is overripe. The flesh contains large seeds that are edible when cooked baked or roasted, when they may be eaten with rice. The fruit is ready to eat whenthe skin begins to crack and is usually eaten raw either as an hors d’oeuvre or as a dessert. Its flavour is complex and contradictory to those unfamiliar with a mixture of sweet. Fruity characteristics with it a mixture of sweet, with savoury lones almost cheese like but sometimes compared to garlic or cooked onion because of the alternaste. It may also be eaten as a compote with sugar and fresh cream, and in Java, it is made into a fruit jelly with coconut milk. Durian is also used to flavour confectionery, such as little boiled sweets candies in which its flavour is evident, but less intense. The large shiny seals may be prepared in the same way as chestnuts. DUROC A dish dedicated to General Dutoc, a soldier at the time of the Empire. It consists of small joints of meat or sautéed poultry garnished with new potatoes browned in butter, covered with crushed tomatoes and coated with chasseur sauce. DURUM WHEAT A type of hard wheat with a high gluten content valued particularly for making semolina and pasta. DUSE. A garnish named in honour of the great Italian actess. Eleonora Duse. It consists of fresh green beans cooked in butter, with seeded steamed tomatoes and parmentier potatoes. It accompanies large joints of meat. The name is also given to poached stuffed fillets of sole arranged in a ring with rice coated with Mornay sauce and glazed. The center is filled with a salpicon of shrimps bound with a white wine sauce and sprinkled with chopped truffles. DUTCH CHEESES. The best known utch cheeses are Edam and Grouda. Heeses made in the Netherlands always carry a government control stamp which gives the name of the cheese, the fat content in the dry matter, the ountry of origin expressed as Holland the number indicating where, on what date, and from which curd batch the cheese was made, and the code of the relevant governement control station. They are made only from pasterurized milk. DUTCH OVEN. A large, heavy cooking pot with a close fitting lid, authentically made of cast iron and hung over an open fire. Thought to be f l6th century Pennsylvania Dutch origin, the pot was used for stewing and braising, however, other types of dishes, such as breads, were also cooked in it. the term has also been applied to a va riety of other utensils used for cooking over an open fire, including a type of plate or rack fitted to the ront of a fire grate and on which to stand cooking pans or dishes. In modern terms, it is sometimes used for glazed pots for cooking in the oven or on top of the stove. DUVAL, PIERRE-LOUS. French butcher (born Montlbery, l8ll, died Paris, l870). He supplied the Tuileries kitchens and wned several retail butcher’s shops in Paris. In l860 he had the diea of creating a number of small restaurants serving a signle dish-boiled beef and consommé – at a fixed price. The first boullon, in the Rue de Montesquieu, was soon fllowed by a dozen others. His son Alexandre successfully developed the chain of restaurants and made an immense fortune. A well-known figure of Parisian life, n icknamed Godefroi de Boullon, by humorists of the time, he composed a Marche de petites hones in honour of his waitresses who all wore a colf of white tulle and, for the frist time, replaced the traditional gargons in restaurants. DUXELLES. A basic preparation of chopped muchrooms, onions and shallots sautéed in butter. Duxelloes is used as a stuffing or garnish, as a complementary ingredient of a sauce, and in the preparation of various dishes called a la duxelles. The derivation of the word is disputed some claim that duxelles was created at Uzel, a small town in the Gotesco-Nord, while others attribute it to la Varenne, chef of theMarquis d’uxelles. Recipe Preparation Clean and trim 250 g (9 oz, 3 cups)button mushrooms and chop them finely, together with l onion and l large shallot. Melt a large knob of butter in a frying pan and add the chopped vegetables, salt and pepper and a little grated nutmeg (unless the duxelles is to accompany fish). Cook over a brisk heat until the vegetables are brown and the water from the mushrooms has evaporated, if the duxelles is for use as a garnish, add l tablespoon cream. Duxelles sauce Prepare 4 tablespoons mushroom duxelles. Add l00 ml (4 fl oz. 7 tablespoons) white wine and reduce until almost completely dry. Add l50 ml (l/4 pint, 2/3 cup) demi-glaced sauce and l00 ml (4 fl. Oz. 7 tablespoons) sieved tomatosauce. Boil (4 fl. Oz. 7 tablespoons) sieved tomato sauce. Boil for 2-3 minutes, pour into a sauceboat (gravy boat), and sprinkle with chopped parsley. Alternatively, theduxelles may be moistened with l50 ml (l/4 pint, 2/3 cup) consommé and l00 ml (4 fl. Oz 7 tablespoons) sieved tomato sauced and thickened with l tablespoon beurre manie. Eggs en cocttee a la duxelles Prepare 4 tablespoons mushroom duxelles. Butter 6 ramekin dishes and divide the duxelles between them. Break an egg into each ramekin, then add to each a spoonful of single (light) cream, salt and pepper. Cover with foil and cook the eggs in a bain marie on the hob (stovestop) for about 4 minutes. Timing from when the water in thebain marie begins to boil Omelette a la duxelles Prepare 4 tablespoons mushroom duxelles with cream added. Make an omelettewith 8 eggs and fill it with the duxelles. Stud the omeltte with small fried crutons and serve with duxelles sauce. Sautéed veal chosp a la duxelles Prepare 4 tablespoons mushroom duxelles. Saute 4 veal chops in butter. When the chops are almost cooked, add the duxelles to the pan and complete the cooking over a low heat. Drain the chops and arrange on a serving dish; keep hot. Add l00 ml (4 fl. Oz. 7 tablespoons)double (heavy) cream and half a glass of white wine or 2 tablespoons Madeira to the duxelles in the pan and reduce until the mixture thickens. Coat the chops with this sauce and serve very hot. Posted by	Gnocchi
Which European capital city is served by Henri Coanda Airport ?	BBC Good Food ME - 2014 November by BBC Good Food ME - issuu EUROPEAN HIGH QUALITY POULTRY, BEEF and its products 24 â€“ 26 November 2014 Abu Dhabi National Exhibition Centre Live cooking shows and food tasting at the booth www.eu-meat.eu BBC_Good_Food_230x275_reklama.in1 1 2014-09-18 11:56:41 Now open for voting! 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All rights reserved. While the publishers have made every effort to ensure the accuracy of all information in this magazine, they will not be held responsible for any errors therein. BBC Worldwide DIRECTOR OF PUBLISHING: Nicholas Brett HEAD OF PUBLISHING: Chris Kerwin PUBLISHING COORDINATOR: Eva Abramik [email protected] www.bbcworldwide.com Immediate Media Co. Ltd CHAIRMAN: Stephen Alexander DEPUTY CHAIRMAN: Peter Phippen CEO: Tom Bureau DIRECTOR OF INTERNATIONAL LICENSING AND SYNDICATION: Tim Hudson INTERNATIONAL PARTNERS MANAGER: Anna Brown SYNDICATION MANAGER: Richard Bentley UK Good Food Team EDITOR: Gillian Carter CREATIVE DIRECTOR FOOD GROUP: Elizabeth Galbraith PUBLISHING DIRECTOR: Alfie Lewis bbcgoodfoodme.com/awards/2014 #bbcgfawards2014 Welcome! Notice something different this month? Yes, we’ve unveiled a brand new look! I’m very excited about this bold, modern new logo that underpins how we are keeping up with the times, while maintaining our 25-year-old heritage (the BBC Good Food brand celebrates its silver anniversary this year). What does this mean for you? Nothing much, except you’ll have to get used to this new look across all our platforms – the magazine, our website, our various other digital communications, events and of course, the awards. (Trust me, it won’t be hard!) Apart from that, we will continue to bring you our rich assortment of content, with a few new tweaks and updates. One of which is the introduction of our new Editorial Panel. This seemed like an appropriate time to acknowledge the select group of industry leaders we work with closely – the local and international culinary heroes whose knowledge and expertise we rely on, and are privileged to be professionally associated with. Meet them on p7, as well as get a behind-the-scenes look at what we’ve been up to while putting this issue together. The picture of our Marketing Manager, Marizel, chained to her desk working on the awards nominations doesn’t do justice to the scope of admin work the awards involve. This year we’ve received a whopping number of nominations, and with an ever-growing list of categories, the team had their work cut out for them. But, the job is done, and the shortlists are out – you’ve got until the end of this month to vote for your favourites, so don’t waste any time. Before we know it, it will be time to announce the winners at our glittering gala night in January. Can you guess what this year’s awards night theme will be? The hint is in the design of all the messaging we’ve been sharing so far… go on, give it a stab. And don’t forget to hashtag us with #bbcgfawards2014, so we know when you’re talking about us. While you’re at it, do also share all your outdoor cooking and eating experiences this month with us on social media, and let us know if you found this, our gorgeous alfresco-themed issue inspiring. I’ll be waiting to hear from you! Editors’s pick These cups are almost too pretty to drink from! p11 I’m always looking for gluten-free dessert o options, so I can’t wait to try this new take on rice pudding, p66 A bit of trufﬂe honey drizzled over crackers can take a quick snack to a whole other level, p81 BBC Good Food ME is published by CPI Media Group under licence from BBC Worldwide Limited, Media Centre, 201 Wood Lane, London W12 7TQ. The BBC logo is a trade mark of the British Broadcasting Corporation and are used under licence by Immediate Media Company London Limited. Copyright © Immediate Media Company London Limited. All rights reserved. Reproduction in whole or part prohibited without permission. November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 1 Pg1 Eds Letter_Nov14.indd 1 16 26 ✴STARTERS 6 YOUR SAY Write in to us with your views and comments. 7 EDITORIAL PANEL Meet our industry experts and the team. 8 FOODIE FILE The latest food news, trends and happenings. 11 AISLE FILE Kitchen gadgets, and gorgeous home décor. 12 HERE TO HELP Expert answers for your cooking questions. 15 TRIED AND TASTED: ITALIAN We review two of the city's top tables. 16 FLAVOURS OF THE MONTH The best restaurant offers this month. ✴HOME 26 MAKE IT TONIGHT Quick suppers that will instantly make your weeknights more enjoyable. COOKING 41 FIRE UP THE BBQ Fab new ideas to chuck on the grill. 31 EATING WELL FOR WINTER Nutritious dishes for the new season. 46 SIMPLE SIDES Tasty and nutritious accompaniments for your next BBQ. 34 EASY ONE-POTS A hearty family meal can be uncomplicated yet delicious. 48 POSH PICNIC FOR TWO Gourmet menu for a special alfresco outing. Just add a hamper! 39 KITCHEN NOTES Essential knowhow for home chefs. 53 COOK IN THE GREAT OUTDOORS Meals to take you through the day on your next camping trip. 41 58 RUB IT IN! Homemade chef-style spice mixes for everything from chicken and meat to seafood. 21 CULINA-READS Cookbooks, TV shows and app reviews. 62 CHEF SKILLS: LEARN TO MAKE BAGELS A baking pro shares his secrets to making this breakfast treat. 22 DOHA DIARIES The latest in Doha's dining scene. 64 DELICIOUS DESSERTS Classics given a gluten-free bake-over! 4 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg4-5 Contents_Nov14.indd 4 10/30/14 3:06 PM November 2014 72 EAT TO BEAT DIABETES This DIabetes awareness month, eat smart to prevent the onset of this lifestyle disease. Suitable for vegetarians You can freeze it Not suitable for freezing Easy Simple recipes even beginners can make A little effort These require a bit more skill and confidence – such as making pastry More of a challenge Recipes aimed at experienced cooks Low fat 12g or less per portion Low cal 500 calories or less per main. Superhealthy Low in saturated fat, 5g or less per portion; low in salt, 1.5g or less; and at least one of the following: provides onethird or more of your daily requirement of fibre, iron, calcium, folic acid and/or vitamin C, or counts at least one portion of your recommended 5-a-day fruit and veg. Good for you Low in saturated fat, low in salt. Heart healthy Low in saturated fat, with 5g or less, and low in salt, with 1.5g or less, and high in omega-3 fatty acids 1 of 5-a-day The number of portions of fruit and/or veg contained in a serving 86 ✴GOURMET Our recipe descriptions Vit C Iron LIFESTYLE 94 CHICKEN MASTERCLASS A look back at our Food Club event where we learnt delicious ways to cook with chicken. 104 74 CUT TO THE CHASE Celebrity chef Wolfgang Puck opens up. Omega-3 Calcium Folate Fibre Indicating recipes that are good sources of useful nutrients GLUTEN FREE Indicates a recipe is free from gluten Some recipes contain pork & alcohol. These are clearly marked and are for non-Muslims only. Look for these symbols: P Contains pork Contains alcohol 81 BURIED TREASURES All you ever wanted to know about truffles. Store Directory 83 ON TRACK FOR F1 Gastronomic hotspots to head to over the Abu Dhabi Formula 1 weekend. 84 3'S A TREND: PROGRESSIVE DINNERS We take a look at a new foodie trend in town. 86 FOOD SAFARI: TURKEY An insight into this popular cuisine's origins. 91 TASTE OF THE WORLD Travel news and global gastronomy. 92 LA DOLCE VITA IN DUBAI A ready reckoner to The Italian Cuisine World Summit taking place in Dubai this month. Contact numbers for outlets featured in this issue 104 MEET THE BLOGGER Get to know the face behind the food blog you’ve been savouring. COMPETITIONS & OFFERS WIN! 97 A weekend break at Sofitel Dubai Downtown. 100 A relaxed getaway at Al Ain Rotana. 102 Dining vouchers for UAE restaurants. Ace: 04-3411906 Bloomingdale’s Home: 04-3505333 Carluccio's: 04-4341320 Cities: 04-3434301 Crate & Barrel: 04-3990125 Home Centre: 04-3414441 Homes R Us: 04-4469820 Jashanmal Bookstores: 04-3406789 Kas Outlet: 04-4255949 Silica: 04-2525614 The One: 04-3955889 Virgin Megastore: 04-3414353 Note: Prices in Qatari Riyals are approximately the same as UAE Dirhams. November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 5 Pg4-5 Contents_Nov14.indd 5 We love to hear from you! HOME COOKING WEEKEND FIRST TIME FOR EAT, DRINK AND BE SCARY! EVERYTHING I’ve never made anything for Halloween before, but now that my child is five, and wants to celebrate it, I have decided to. A few of his friends are coming over and all the adults will take them around trick or treating, so I can’t wait to make the slime bug cups, scary bat bunting and spider nest cakes (Eat, Drink and Be Scary, October 2014). Thank you BBC Good Food ME for these wonderful recipes. Anya Dean Halloween is on 31 October Throw your little monsters a party they won’t forget with this spooky spread. Recipes CASSIE BEST Photographs SAM STOWELL Cheesy popcorn brains Spider nest cakes The winner of the Star Letter gets a Dhs1,000 shopping voucher from Tavola, the leading retailer of European products and essential items for the kitchen. Tavola is a one-stop shop for bake ware, tableware, high quality cookware and premium brands such as Mauviel, Le Creuset, and Zwilling kitchen knives. They have stores in the UAE and Qatar, as well as across the GCC. Witch’s cauldron with glow-in-the-dark goo Sausage mummy dippers October 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 63 A HELPING HAND Well dressed! Hats off to BBC Good Food ME for publishing scrumptious, simple and healthy recipes, and for being a great help for culinary enthusiasts and foodies like me. Last week I had a few guests at home and I wanted to make a simple healthy salad. I made the delicious roasted grape, carrot and wild rice salad with balsamic maple dressing (Well Dressed! September 2014) and the mindblowing Asian lamb and grapefruit noodle salad. It was so easy to make and moreover, I was glad that all the ingredients were easily accessible. My guests loved it so much that they went for a second helping. I also couldn’t resist making There are few ingredients that can’t be incorporated into a satisfying salad. These imaginative recipes are delicious, nutritious and beautiful. Recipes Roasted grape, carrot & wild rice salad with balsamic maple dressing CASSIE BEST Photographs DAVID MUNNS SERVES 6 PREP 20 MINS 1 of 5-a-day 45 MINS Easy COOK Gluten Free 200g brown basmati & wild rice mix 300g baby carrots, peeled 250g red seedless grapes, picked from the stalk 1 tbsp extra virgin olive or rapeseed oil 200g green beans 100g bag pecans 2 good handfuls rocket leaves 200g pack feta, crumbled into chunks FOR THE BALSAMIC MAPLE DRESSING 2 tbsp maple syrup 3 tbsp balsamic vinegar Juice of ½ a lemon 2 tbsp extra virgin olive or rapeseed oil 1 Cook the rice following pack instructions. Meanwhile, heat oven to 200C/180C fan. Place the carrots and grapes on a large baking tray, keeping the grapes at one end and the carrots at the other (the grapes will bleed some of their juice onto the tray, which will stain the carrots). Drizzle the carrots with the oil and season. Roast for 10 mins, then remove from the oven and set aside to cool a little. When the rice is cooked, drain and run under the cold tap to cool a little, then set aside to drain completely. 2 Bring a saucepan of water to the boil, add the beans and cook for 2 mins or until just tender. Drain and set aside to cool a little. In a large bowl, whisk the dressing ingredients together with some seasoning. Add the rice, carrots, beans, pecans, rocket and half the feta, and toss everything together. Transfer to a serving plate, then scatter over the remaining feta and the roasted grapes. Drizzle any juice from the baking tray over the salad and serve. PER SERVING 446 kcals, protein 11g, carbs 43g, fat 25g, sat fat 6g, fibre 5g, sugar 16g, salt 1.3g KIDS IN THE KITCHEN My 12-year-old son has been asking if he can help with the cooking for years now. Thinking about it immediately conjures fears of a child with sharp knives, hot stoves and boiling water, leading me to gently postpone his endeavours in the kitchen every time he asks. The Cooking With Kids: Chicken Satay feature (September 2014) was the answer to the problem of how to get my son started in the kitchen. It’s a great recipe, got an easily accessible range of ingredients that we always keep in the house, and taught us about marinades, sauces and grilling. All fundamental cooking techniques that we use in our regular meals. Kids love Cooking with kids: satay, and the only Chicken n satay thing they love more than satay is taking pride in the fact that they helped make them. That’s teaching children the joy of cooking, and getting to taste the outcome of their labour, which in turn teaches people about the love of recipes and food discovery for life. Can’t thank you enough for helping us solve this conundrum! Scott Richards Help children learn key skills and watch how much more they enjoy eating something they’ve made themselves! Cheeky chicken satay MAKES 12 PREP 30 MINS COOK 10 MINS Easy Low fat UNCOOKED Small piece of ginger 2 garlic cloves Zest and juice of 1 lime 1 tsp clear honey 1 tbsp soy sauce 1 tbsp mild curry powder 3 tbsp smooth peanut butter 500g pack skinless chicken breast fillets 165ml can coconut milk 1 tsp vegetable oil Cooked rice and lime wedges, to serve FOR THE CUCUMBER SALAD 1 cucumber 2 tbsp white vinegar 1 tbsp golden caster sugar Sweet chilli sauce (optional) Bunch of coriander, leaves picked (optional) PER SKEWER 117 kcals, protein 12g, carbs 4g, fat 6g, sat fat 3g, fibre 1g, sugar 3g, salt 0.3g Fun to make and eat 60 BBC Good Food Middle East September 2014 Food styling JENNIFER JOYCE \| Styling VICTORIA ALLEN Incredible flavours and textures Star Letter items from the lunchbox feature (Pack a healthy lunchbox, September 2014). Keep the great informative ideas coming! Thank you once again BBC Good Food ME. Hannah Joji WEBSITE WATCH Just a quick note to congratulate you on your gorgeous website. I did not have a chance to From our social media pages 7 Happy Anniversary BBC Good Food ME – Rifat Tahir 7 Thank you so much Ishita for sharing the Food Safari piece with us – it made our day! – Barbecue Delights 7 @Rachelannmorris loved your article on dining out alone in the September issue! Been meaning to connect with you since I read it! – Nada Al Ghowainim see it before, and surfed in today and loved it! You have done a fantastic job on the site – it is so inspiring. Thanks for a great read! Lejla Charif TALK TO US! Email us on [email protected] with your thoughts and comments, and send us your photos with your copy of BBC Good Food ME! You can also connect with us on social media! Find us on: @bbcgoodfoodmiddleeast @bbcgoodfoodme Or, you could write to us at: The Editor, BBC Good Food Middle East. Grosvenor Business Tower, Tecom, Office 804 PO Box 13700, Dubai, UAE. Compiled by NICOLA MONTEATH \| Photographs: SUPPLIED, PHOTOS.COM 46 BBC Good Food Middle East September 2014 6 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg6 Letters_Nov14.indd 6 10/29/14 5:17 PM Menu planner Whip up a delicious meal with recipes from this issue Meet our Editorial Panel The exclusive group of experts who are part of the BBC Good Food ME family: Uwe Micheel A veteran chef, Uwe has been cooking since he was 12, and in the interim 30 odd years, he has picked up numerous awards, and has been serving as President of the Emirates Culinary Guild since 1999. A member of several international chefs’ groups, he is one of the UAE’s most respected culinary personalities. Michael Kitts The Director of Culinary Arts at the Emirates Academy of Hospitality Management has hung up his chef’s whites, wearing which he had spent over 20 years working at various leading establishments in London and won numerous accolades, to turn mentor and teacher to young aspirants of the hospitality industry in the UAE’s leading training centre. Alison Van Camp Nutritionist Alison has been promoting a holistic approach to good health through diet for the past ﬁve years, not only to private clients but also in the capacity of a recipe and nutritional consultant for various leading corporate brands and hotels. The Netherlands-based nutritionist has developed her own nutrition analysis system based on USDA nutrient values. Marta Yanci Founder of bespoke catering company Marta’s Kitchen, and more recently, a boutique cafe in JLT, Marta’s workshop, Marta is a self-taught chef who took her passion for good food and turned it into a career ﬁve years ago. Now a recognised face on the UAE culinary circuit, the former lawyer has appeared on TV in Dubai and her home country, Spain. Danielle Nierenberg President of Food Tank, a United Nations Food and Agriculture Organizationsupported non-proﬁt body focused on sustainable agriculture and food systems, Danielle is a world-renowned expert on food issues, and a widely published and quoted personality. Qualiﬁed in Agriculture, Food, and Environment from Tufts University, New York-based Danielle aims to build a global network to promote safe, healthy eating. Andy Campbell A Scottish celebrity chef who now calls Dubai home, Andy has trained at Westminster College, and previously worked at various restaurants, including Michelin-starred ones, and also ran his own restaurant in London, before moving here to work as a private chef for exclusive events. He currently also consults with Arabian Health Care in Ras al Khaimah. Modern Thanksgiving family dinner Give the meal a healthy start with this chicken & quinoa salad, p33 Main course Move over turkey, this slow-cooked lamb with onions and thyme will be a crowd-pleaser, p35 Side Roasted squash with crushed pistachios gives the meal seasonal flavour, p46 Dessert This decadent chocolate and pecan tart is a classic American treat! p64 Behind the scenes Marizel Salvador was Take a look at what the BBC Good Food ME team members got up to this month! ofﬁce supervising the hard at work in the tabulations of the awards nominations! Anas Cherur works all angles to get the best Nicola Monteath got trufﬂe-savvy with shot at this month’s Massimo Vidani in his Trufﬂe Cave. Food Safari shoot. November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 7 Pg7 Editorial Panel_Nov14.indd 7 10/30/14 3:35 PM Foodie file What’s hot and happening in the culinary world, here and around the globe. Who loves candy? Olive Garden DINE IN THE CITY FOUR FAB NEW RESTAURANTS TO CHECK OUT 7 Popular American-Italian restaurant chain, Olive Garden, has opened its first Dubai outlet. Try the chicken marsala, shrimp alfredo with scampi, and a platter of crisp calamari, stuffed mushrooms and fried mushroom ravioli in the upscale yet homely setting – it’s like the Italian version of Chilli's! Call 04-4409302. 7 Biryani-lovers are in for a treat, as they can tuck into contemporary versions of the well-loved dish, such as quinoa biryani, from the newly opened Biryani Pot on Jumeirah Beach Road. Delicious tandoor grills and sandwiches, curries and salads are on offer too, at our new favourite Indian takeout option! Call 04-3382277. 7 The latest celebrity-favoured restaurant to open up here is Geales Dubai at Le Royal Meridien Beach Resort and Spa. The established British seafood restaurant is split into a bar, lounge and restaurant, and offers gourmet fish and chips, in a glamorous setting which sprawls out to an outdoor terrace. Call 04-3165550. 7 Kitsch Cupcakes has rebranded to become Kitsch Counter, a café offering lots more than just their signature cupcakes – stop by their outlets across UAE to pick up wholesome treats like Paleo muffins, kale salad, and homemade nut butters. Call 04-3956963. This just in: We love this Bokja Table To Go which will look stunning out in the patio or garden, and can be taken along to alfresco parties and picnics too. Dhs8,235 at Cities, The Galleria on Al Wasl Road. One man’s junk is another man’s treasure We’ve heard of the phrase eating out of a bin, but cooking a banquet for 5,000 people from binned ingredients? Now there’s a new way to repurpose food! Five celebrity chefs including TV personality, restaurateur and the creator of this banquet Cyril Lignac, recently served a ‘dustbin feast’ in Lille, Northern France, which included gourmet items like fish rillettes, potato and endive velouté and a tandoori vegetable stew – all made from waste. The ingredients were checked by the health authorities to prevent food poisoning. Do you think you can make a dish out of binned ingredients? Try it and tag us on Instagram at bbcgoodfoodmiddleeast. Compiled by NICOLA MONTEATH \| Photograps SUPPLIED, SHUTTERSTOCK.COM Biryani Pot We may have been indulging in it from time to time since we were little, but what exactly is candy made up of, and what are the different variations available around the world? The Candy Project, a research project launched by Andoni Luis Aduriz (from two Michelin-starred restaurant Mugaritz in Northern Spain), in association with Slow Food International, the University of Gastronomic Sciences, and sociologist Iñaki Martínez de Albeniz, aims to analyse everything there is to candy, with a series of studies and how it is linked to traditions and cultures. Visit thecandyproject.org to find out more. 8 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg8-9 Foodie file_Nov14.indd 8 Compiled by NICOLA MONTEATH \| Photograps SUPPLIED, SHUTTERSTOCK.COM STARTERS FOOD NEWS SOMETHING’S BREWING Fres Freshly brewed leaves, fine china with pinky up there’s something about the elegant ritual of – th drinking tea! Now you can enjoy teatime in drin style with the spate of gourmet tea parlours sty opening up all over the place. Tea Club at op Downtown Dubai (0553710456) offers over Do 3,000 fusion teas – sourced from all over the 3 world – in a relaxed space designed in the w style of a library. In Abu Dhabi, The East s India Company has opened shop in the Avenues at Etihad Towers (02-6810813), bringing back colonial-era sophistication with the finest teas, coffee, and chocolates can also buy hand-crafted bone china and on offer. You ca porcelain made from mineral paints and 18 carat gold here. Beverage fest Coffee and tea connoisseurs can gather at The International Coffee and Tea Festival taking place from November 12-14 at The Meydan Gallery, Dubai to meet the best baristas from across the globe, pick up tips from latte artists and indulge in high-quality coffee and tea. There are tons of activities, workshops and championships that will take place over the three days as well. Free entry for all, visit coffeeteafest.com. Tech checks Dubai does everything in the most stylish way possible, and why should food safety inspection be any different? Inspectors from the Food Control Department of the Dubai Municipality will start using Google Glass from February 2015, to record their inspections with photos, videos and voice comments, and send immediate feedback to senior officials. You cannot get an influence from the cuisine of a country if you don’t understand it. You’ve got to study it. – Celebrity chef Ferran Adria What’s trending #wintersquash This vegetable is being featured in restaurant menus, and sold at most markets, now that it’s in season. We’ve come across a winter squash and apple soup recipe on Twitter, as well as seasoning suggestions on how to take your squash to the next level – by roasting it with olive oil, salt, cinnamon and maple sy syrup! up We can’t wait to try itt mashed with quinoa as a bake – as seen on Pinterest. Home Star-studded line-up The InterContinental Hotels Group have recently announced their Culinary Panel of ambassadors including top names like Theo Randal for Italian, Ian Kittichai for Thai, Sam Leong for Chinese, Ross Lusted for contemporary Australian, and Dean Brettschneider for pastry and baking. Each chef has created 20 signature dishes which will be available in select restaurants across the hotels in Asia, Middle East and Africa, with the celeb chefs personally training the teams in serving up the delicacies to customers. www.ihg.com. November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 9 Pg8-9 Foodie file_Nov14.indd 9 10/29/14 5:19 PM Friday Brunch Our Friday Brunch on the stunning terrace has returned with a family zone for kids to enjoy cartoons, a kidsâ€™ buffet, and activities. Guests will get the chance to wander around the large buffet spread featuring the cuisine of the hotelâ€™s signature restaurants including live stations and a trip inside the Benihana kitchen. We offer four packages, including the Premium French Bubbly Brunch for a more refined brunch experience complete with a dedicated waiter, paired menu and premium beverages. Prices from AED 235 net per person. For reservations or more information, please call +971 (0)4 428 000 or email: [email protected]. Vote for us in the 2014 edition of the BBC Good Food Awards Amwaj Rotana, The Walk, Jumeirah Beach Residence P. O. Box: 86834, Dubai, UAE. T: +971 (0)4 428 2000, F: +971 (0)4 434 3666, [email protected] STARTERS PRODUCT PICKS Aisle file Gorgeous gourmet buys, kitchen gear, home décor and more. Inject colour to your dining chairs with these patterned, vibrant coloured CUSHIONS. Dhs49 each at KAS AUSTRALIA OUTLET. Combine cheese, herbs and your favourite minced meat to make perfect gourmet patties with this BURGER PRESS – ideal for large barbecue gatherings. Dhs55 at ACE. Compiled by NICOLA MONTEATH, SUDESHNA GHOSH \| Photograps SUPPLIED This elegant SOGA VINCI CANNISTER can hold chocolate truffles and wrapped salted caramel bars – great as a coffee table centrepiece. Dhs45 at SILICA. Pack coffee or hot chocolate in this BODUM THERMAL JUG for your next picnic or alfresco gathering. Dhs229 at CRATE AND BARREL. Pop a pizza into the oven on this SUPERSTONE PIZZA STONE, to ensure the bottom crust doesn’t get burnt – you can even serve the pizza on it! Dhs149 at VIRGIN MEGASTORE. That morning cuppa shouldn’t be sipped in anything other than this chic VINTAGE MUG WITH A BELL from THE ONE's autumn collection, Dhs39. ON THE STORE FRONT Bring out these IMAGES D’ORIENT CUPS for espresso or gahwa (Arabic coffee), when hosting a dinner party. Dhs225 for a set of two at BLOOMINGDALE’S HOME. Move over stick-on hooks! These retro-style WOODEN HOOKS are a great alternative for those who want to hang their aprons on something a bit more stylish. Dhs29 at HOMES R US. Indigo Living has just launched its Autumn Winter collection, and we’re loving their globally inspired looks for the season. The collection is divided into five different looks to recreate uptown London, a Zen modern look for Japan, an Ode to Africa, laid-back glam for LA, and a relaxed Scandinavian vibe. To get a Zen vibe in your home, choose from neutral colours and dark wood oak pieces as well as striking wall art – think Geishas! – or perhaps give your home a contemporary vibe with LA-style glamorous black and gold vases and candleholders. A touch of urban London chic can be added with union jack-adorned trunks and accessories, while a modern safari look can be recreated with tribal prints, and sophisticated leather accents. They also have a gorgeous new kids’ collection that will make any parent giddy with delight! Call 04-3466934. November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 11 Pg11 Aislefile_Nov14.indd 11 10/29/14 5:19 PM STARTERS COOKERY Q&A Here to help Our expert chef Marta Yanci, founder of bespoke catering company Marta’s Kitchen, offers practical advice to tackle all your cooking dilemmas. If I make a smoked salmon and cream cheese sandwich for lunch in the morning, will it spoil if I wrap it in foil? A. Dairy products and ﬁsh are both high risk products. That means that you shouldn’t keep it at room temperature for more than four hours. If you plan on having lunch within that time span, you will be ﬁne, otherwise pack an ice pack and carry the sandwich in a thermal bag to be safe. Can I make seared ahi tuna with the tuna ﬁllets I ﬁnd at the pre-packed ﬁsh section in supermarkets? A. I know tuna can be a bit tricky. When eating any ﬁsh raw or just seared, it is important to ensure it is very fresh. You can use the prepacked, as long as you make sure it was packed that same day – read the label! Make sure you keep it refrigerated at all times before preparing it, and eat it right away once cooked. Ingredient of the month Pumpkin is back in season and this versatile ingredient can be used both for savoury and sweet recipes. I personally like roasting it before using it for anything else, to extract all its flavour and sweetness. It is also an excellent source of carotenes, vitamin A and minerals. I see a lot of clementine and mandarin in supermarkets lately, could you suggest what to cook with them? A. Citrus fruits are in season and they are just as delicious as a refreshing snack, as they are in cooking. Use it in salads with beetroot and bocconcini (small mozzarella cheese balls). You could also juice it and prepare a nice sauce to serve with poultry. I’m planning on investing in a sous vide machine. Do you have any tips for making chicken or ﬁsh in the machine, and is it easy to use? A. Sous vide is a wonderful cooking technique! It allows for food to stay juicy and keeps it from overcooking. You will need a vacuum machine as well as a circulator to allow you to maintain a constant temperature when cooking, and the best part is, it isn’t difﬁcult at all – you just have to understand the process to achieve the desired result. For a chicken breast, for example, cook for 3 hours at 67C. I ﬁnd the perfect temperature for a salmon ﬁllet is 62C, and this can be prepared in just 20 minutes. Compiled by NICOLA MONTEATH \| Photographs PHOTOS.COM My children have recently become such fussy eaters. Do you have any tips to get them to eat their vegetables? A. As a mother of two, I understand your concern! There are two methods that I ﬁnd work really well. One is getting your children involved in the cooking process – they will be proud of their creations and will be more open to trying it! The other way is to transform vegetables. For instance, my oldest doesn’t eat spinach, so I blend it into one of his favourite dishes, crêpes, and we have now green crêpes for supper. 12 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg12 Cookery Q&A option_Nov14.indd 12 10/29/14 5:20 PM The Art of Coffee & Milk Discover our range of products on www.nespresso.com Created by you and Nespresso Iced Lungo Macchiato Latte Macchiato by you and Lattissima+ Whatever your favourite coffee and milk recipes, Nespressoâ€™s machines will make them exceptional. Choose from our 22 incomparable Grands Crus and create your own genuine work of art. Nespresso Boutiques: Bahran, Jordan, Kuwait, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, Lebanon, Oman, Qatar, United Arab Emirates Share your recipes with #NespressoAndMilk 14694-UAEoct14 BBCGoodFood Milk_Expertise_SP 230x275_CB.indd 1 29/10/14 11:33 STARTERS RESTAURANT REVIEWS Tried & tasted Each month, we review two of the city's top tables. Italian Where: Don Alfonso 1890, Shangri-La Dubai What’s it like: The Don Alfonso name is #berrylicious #f #fr #fruity uit ui ity y Photographs SUPPLIED and by REVIEWER c aprese #st ylish nfave #Italia Where: Merletto, Marriott Al Jaddaf What’s it like: Merletto is the sort of place you’d really want to get dressed up for, but what you get here is a fine-dining experience, with a bill that doesn’t leave a gaping hole in your pocket. The contemporary eatery is one of the newest Italian restaurants to join the fray, and boasts Venetian influences in the décor, comprising of masks, hot pink fixtures, a bar to one end, and open kitchen on the other, as well as on the menu, with dishes like the super light poached veal loin dressed in tuna sauce – a specialty from Venice that we polished off within minutes. The dishes can be ordered in small or large plates and are all absolutely tasty and innovative. Creamy, gooey burrata cheese with crunchy fava beans and tomato, was our starter of choice, along with warm baked eggplant with buffalo mozzarella, tomato sauce and parmesan cheese. My main course choice was a rather large, grilled fall-off-the-bone style veal chop placed atop roasted sweet potato – the sweet potato was just right, and not overly sweet, while the green herb pesto provided added texture. While I enjoyed the pesto, I also helped myself to the sweet reduction that my partner’s beef tenderloin was drenched in. The dish was accompanied by a soft, tender slab of sautéed foie gras, and fluffy, creamy truffle-mashed potato. We ended with a light dessert of fresh cream, Best for: figs and berries that rounded off the meal perfectly. An affordable yet If you want to go: Around Dhs450 for two elegant meal (without drinks). Call 04-3177700. renowned internationally when it comes to Italian cuisine, and has picked up multiple awards for its establishments – in Rome and Sant’Agata Sui Due Golfi (Don Alfonso’s hometown); the brand #c aviari ndu has outposts in China and Morocco as well. #fishco lgence urse Upon arrival, you will experience the wow factor right from the red carpet in the doorway, to the pistachio and dark brown ceiling fixtures that resemble chocolate, in this glamorous, intimate space. Everything on the menu is made from fresh produce that comes from Don’s farm back home, which is why the cherry tomatoes and buffalo mozzarella that we devoured for appetisers were absolutely juicy and flavoursome – especially when eaten with the smooth basil cream and extremely good crusty bread. My partner and I tried a pasta course, as recommended by the lovely restaurant manager Claudio, and went for the potato gnocchi – tiny bites of soft, puffy potato, doused in a heavenly mushroom sauce – and mezze maniche with tender chicken, pistachio, and heaps of sauce, a signature dish on the menu that's a must-try! For mains, I chose the seabass with poached chewy asparagus complemented by tomato confit topped with generous amounts of caviar – the fish was fresh and meaty, while the sweet tomatoes complemented bites of the caviar and fish. My partner opted for the Irish beef tenderloin with foie gras and a reduction, with every bite being absolutely moreish. Lemon fritters with yoghurt, cream and a palate-cleansing lemon sorbet were polished off between the two of us for dessert, along with ricotta, caramelised pear and gingerbread crumble, which reminded me a little bit of Christmas thanks to the lingering flavour and aroma. If you want to go: Around Dhs650 for two (without drinks). Call 04-3551591. Best for: November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 15 Pg15 Restaurant review_Nov14.indd 15 10/29/14 5:20 PM Flavours of the month Our pick of the best restaurant offers, promotions and deals this month. ✴ Brunch Mexican-style The Mas Mas Maya brunch at Maya - Modern Mexican Kitchen and Lounge, Le Royal Meridien Beach Resort and Spa, is the place to be seen at over the weekend. Tuck into an unlimited sharing menu of dishes like marinated shrimps, barbecue chicken, fajita skillet with beef rib eye steak, and adobo marinated chicken breast, among other delights. End with sherbet, freshly carved watermelon and ice cream, before lounging by the pool and listening to tunes from the DJ. Every Friday and Saturday, from Dhs350 per person. Call 04-3165550. Maya - Modern Mexican Kitchen and Lounge Money, Murder and Mayhem, is the new theme of the dinner show at The Act, Shangri-La Hotel Dubai. Get ready to take part in this show which features a murder mystery plot. All this with a mouthwatering Peruvian tasting menu – ideal for an exciting dinner date. Every Monday, Tuesday and Wednesday, from Dhs320 per person. Call 04-3551116. ✴ Modern Indian menu When those Indian cuisine cravings kick in, make a beeline for Zafran, to try their new menu which focuses on fresh ingredients. Some of the dishes to savour are the vegetarian mixed grill, malai kofta curry, and biryani made the traditional dum style. The little ones can relish chicken fried rice and cheese naans from a special children's menu. À la carte prices. Call 04-3997357. ✴ French fare To get a taste of both classic and contemporary French cuisine, visit Traiteur, Park Hyatt Dubai. The restaurant has launched the Classique versus modern menu featuring six courses on each – try duck à l’orange and truffled beef tartare, and leek-essence oyster and mussel soup, among other dishes. Available daily, call 04-3172222. Compiled by NICOLA MONTEATH \| Photographs SUPPLIED ✴ Dinner theatre 16 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg16-18 Restaurant Promos_Nov14.indd 16 Compiled by NICOLA MONTEATH \| Photographs SUPPLIED STARTERS EATING OUT ✴ Brunch wonderland ✴ Thai festivity Celebrate Loy Krathong, the annual Thai festival, at Benjarong, Dusit Thani Abu Dhabi, and try the special à la carte menu created for the occasion which features delicacies like spicy prawn salad, and Thai-style fried noodles. Every Tuesday for dinner, call 02-6988137. The Bubbalicious brunch at The Westin Dubai Mina Seyahi Beach Resort and Spa brings together all the restaurants, and has now become even more enticing with the addition of new stations. Visit the Alice in Wonderland station for liquidnitrogen drinks and cakes, the French village which features foie gras, crepes and charcuterie, as well as a boat with men dressed like sailors shucking oysters. A barbecue station for succulent, tender beef brisket, the American diner corner for sliders, and the Asian, Belgium section, and Cider Garden (for pork chops and sausages) are also available. In addition to this, the adult-only zone at Hunters also offers champagne and a bucket chockfull of fresh, juicy seafood! From Dhs450 per person. Call 04-3994141. ✴ Taste of Asia ✴ International chef alert! Chef Vivek Singh from The Cinnamon Club, a renowned establishment in London, is making his way to Amala, Jumeirah Zaabeel Saray to offer an exclusive tasting menu available for a limited period only. The chef will also be hosting a spice masterclass and lunch. The class takes place on November 14 and 15 for Dhs265, per person, while the menu is available from November13-15 for Dhs325 per person. Call 04-4530444. Take your pick from over 20 new dishes on the menu at Thai Chi, Pyramids Restaurants at Wafi, and try authentic Thai and contemporary Chinese specialties. Slow braised lamb shank in massaman curry, and a Thai style ceviche with diced raw salmon are both interesting options that are sure to be devoured. À la carte menu prices. Call 04-3244100. ✴ Themed dining Make your way down to Shores, Ramada Plaza Jumeirah Beach, with family and friends to try their new Mediterranean theme night showcasing delicious dishes like roast lamb leg, roast turkey roulade, kefta tagine and veal scaloppini from a lavish buffet. Don't miss their fresh pasta and paella stations, which offers a lovely Valencian paella, among other treats. Every Wednesday, Dhs175 per person. Asian theme nights are on Mondays, call 04-4398888. ✴ From food truck to café Ghaf Kitchen, Dubai’s very first vintage-style food truck, have launched a new pop up concept, Deus Café, at the Capital D Studio in Al Quoz. Try delicious dishes made from fresh, high quality ingredients – their all-day breakfast items, roast beef, carrot cake and coffee are not to be missed! Ever Sunday to Thursday, call 04-3415339. ✴ Big birthday celebrations World renowned Asian restaurant chain Benihana is celebrating its 50th anniversary this month, and diners get to try special commemorative platters of gold sushi of crab, avocado, Japanese omelette with gold, and corn fed-chicken, prawns and steak. From Dhs50 per platter, available until November end at all UAE outlets. Call 04-4282000 or 02-6979011. ✴ Street treats ✴ Spice it up! When you’re in the mood for brunch with a twist, make your way to the Street Food Festival at Sofitel Dubai Downtown. Gourmet offerings at this poolside brunch include streetfoods such as Japanese rolls, tempura and sushi, Texas barbecue grills, as well as more substantial dishes like pecking duck, curries, Arabic grills and French cheese. Upbeat tunes make this brunch a lively one! Every Friday, from Dhs220 per person. Call 04-5036666. Asia Asia at Pier 7 have launched the Spice Route brunch so that you and your friends can try dishes all the way from the Far East to India and the Middle East. The buffet at this glam late afternoon brunch (from 2-5pm), includes Asian tapas (calamari, dim sum and tempura), noodles, curries from Thailand and India, as well as teriyaki chicken carvery and a selection of tempting desserts. Every Friday, from Dhs295 per person. Call 04-2765900. November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 17 Pg16-18 Restaurant Promos_Nov14.indd 17 10/29/14 5:21 PM STARTERS EATING OUT ✴ American festivities If you aren’t preparing the whole meal at home this Thanksgiving, why not enjoy a meal outside? The Ivy have created a special set menu featuring classics like American turkey roast, roast ham, and pumpkin pie, among other tempting dishes. Available through the last week of November, Dhs350 per person. Call 04-3198088. ✴ Dine in the ‘hood Jumeirah’s friendly neighbourhood eatery Mozzo Centrale has launched a new menu featuring mascarpone stuffed French toast, baked stuffed pita, pizza, and Black Angus tenderloin, among other Italian-inspired treats. Round off the meal with cannoli and homemade cakes, pies and cookies for an indulgent meal. Call 04-3948081. ✴ Lovely Lebanese The recently launched Middle Eastern menu at Marjan, Waldorf Astoria Ras Al Khaimah, has been created by Lebanese chef and TV personality, Joe Barza. You can look forward to innovative dishes like hummous with saffron, seafood falafel, and smoked green wheat with slow roasted lamb, roasted nuts and yoghurt – it's worth a visit to Ras al Khaimah for! À la carte menu, call 07-2035555. Pg16-18 Restaurant Promos_Nov14.indd 18 ✴ Italian for everyone! The recently opened Oregano outlet at Dubai Silicon Oasis is the one to flock to for traditional homemade Italian food in a relaxed alfresco setting. Try the newly launched wild rice fettuccini, among other authentic dishes like ravioli, gnocchi, pasta and pizza, at affordable prices. Call 04-3793300. 10/29/14 5:21 PM l e i m o n o r t s a ’art de la g ating e of good e ctic (n.) the pra C’est La Vie at Le Classique Gastronomique French Friday Brunch at Le Classique Join us on Fridays between 12.30pm and 4pm for an afternoon of traditional French fare, live music and entertainment for the whole family in the stunning surrounds of Emirates Golf Club. Our gastronomique brunch offers sharing style starters, an array of delicious á la carte main courses, delightful desserts and a formidable fromage counter. AED 180 for food and soft beverages AED 310 for food and selected grape beverages AED 365 for food and selected grape and house beverages AED 55 for children between 6 and 12 years Children below 5 dine for free For reservations please contact Le Classique at Emirates Golf Club on +971 4 417 9999, email [email protected] or visit www.dubaigolf.com STARTERS BOOKS & ENTERTAINMENT On my bookshelf… ✴ We ask the pros to tell us about the cookbook they can’t live without! Andrew Fletcher, executive chef of Movenpick Hotel JLT “Currently I am reading Beyond Essence by David Everitt-Matthias (Absolute Press). It is one of the most unique cookbooks you will ever ﬁnd, by one of the world’s greatest and least known chefs. He emphasises on using local wild ingredients that you have never used before and executes the dishes to perfection.” Watch this: ✴ The World’s Best Chefs on Nat Geo People, every Monday at 8:05pm Some of the most celebrated chefs from around the globe, including Ferran Adrià and Massimo Bottura are proﬁled in this series hosted by Katie Button, a chef herself. The show explores their culinary philosophy, kitchens, and innovative creations, which they also demonstrate to viewers – giving them a feel of what it’s like to dine at these special restaurants. Text SUDESHNA GHOSH \| Photographs SUPPLIED, JAY COLINA Download this: ✴ Coffee Planet app Free for Apple and Android Taking their brand experience to an interactive level, the app not only offers info on their locations and menu, but also includes a brew guide – to help you perfect the coffee you make at home. You can also collect stamps by scanning the QR code at their stores, to earn free coffees, and upload creative coffee cup drawings for a chance to win a prize. Culina-reads Reviews of the latest cookbooks, food shows and mobile apps. ✴ Hottie’s handbook: Lose 10 kgs in 10 weeks by Ahlaam Ali (self published) Dubai-based wellness entrepreneur Ahlaam Ali has built up a loyal following over the years with her no-nonsense approach to weight-loss. Her popular Powwer Eat programme is now taken to the next level with this, her debut publishing effort. The title makes a tall claim, but early on in the book you will ﬁnd testimonials from satisﬁed clients, motivating you to read further. Although it’s designed in a typical American fad diet book style, that is exactly the sort of thing it eschews, professing a more common sensebased approach to eating well and losing weight. The book contains everything from food philosophies that Ahlaam advocates, to tips and tricks for eating healthy – including cooking methods, and recommended ingredients. It then goes into the recipes, which are divided according to meal timings – to be used in line with the recommended meal plan. The recipes are all simple, and clearly developed from a home cook’s perspective, giving familiar ﬂavours a healthy twist. Ingredients like quinoa and mung bean feature heavily, as do steamed and grilled dishes. There’s also a journal for weekly meal entries, to keep track, making this a complete guide for those who want to follow the programme. And loaded with practical advice as it is, we deﬁnitely see this as a more balanced approach to weight-loss than most. Dhs135, available at Virgin Megastore ✴ Gordon Ramsay’s desserts (Quadrille) Sweets may not be the ﬁrst thing you associate with this TV chef – better known for his penchant for abusive language – but this book reveals his expertise with desserts. In his introduction he reveals how, early in his career, in the kitchens of Guy Savoy, he honed his pastry skills, alongside his French! After detailing a few dessert essentials, such as syrups, coulis and glazes, he then dives into the sections which are divided under fruit; ices and creams; mousses; crepes and batters; homely puddings; special occasions; accompaniments and chocolates; and basics – such as puff pastry and so on – ensuring there is a dessert for everyone in this book, from novices to skilled bakers. The range is vast, from something as simple as a red berries with basil syrup fruit salad – note how the basil syrup adds a chef-y touch to even the simplest of dishes – to more stylish mousses and tarts. None of the recipes are intimidating however, making this a go-to book for everyone who has a sweet tooth! Dhs83, available at Jashanmal bookstores ✴ The Australian Women’s Weekly Quick & Fast (ACP books) While we wouldn’t usually recommend another magazine’s recipes, in this case we make an exception – because we love how practical this book is, and honestly, we are using it all the time! A straightforward compilation – it even looks like a magazine – of triple-tested recipes using no more than six ingredients, the paperback even looks a bit like a magazine. With a fuss-free approach, the recipes are all fast, easy yet stylish – think gorgonzola and sage stuffed chicken, and spiced apple and fruit mince tarts – with clean, minimalist photography and design. Naturally there are a few stir-fry style dishes in there – what is faster and tastier than a stir-fry? – with lots of Asian-inspired ﬂavours, but the mix of ﬂavours is quite international. A useful buy, without doubt, but only for those of you who aren’t saving up your back issues of BBC Good Food ME each month! Dhs49, available at Jashanmal bookstores November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 21 Pg21 Culinareads_Nov14.indd 21 The latest food news and happenings in the city. Healthy? What healthy? A new Nobu restaurant ike many women (and men) of a certain age, I am forever watching what I eat. Sadly this involves more eating than watching usually, but you get the sentiment. I can work out in the gym all I want, swim laps or walk the entire length of the Corniche (it’s 8km by the way), but it all still comes down to what you put in your mouth. Temptation lurks on every corner of this city. In Qatar we are blessed with some excellent restaurants, from celebrity chef-led venues through to neighborhood eateries serving up tasty grub for the masses. On demand. There are even apps where I can order from more than 50 different local restaurants on my way home and have the delivery guy waiting for me once I fend off the Doha trafﬁc snarls. Then there are the portion sizes. Recently, on one of my health kicks, I ordered a salad at a well-known eatery. I asked for dressing on the side. That couldn’t be done apparently. “The salad comes with the dressing included. That’s how it comes,” I was told. You can imagine the ensuing conversation. Beaten by this brilliant logic, I acquiesced and ordered the said salad. I recently asked a friend in the hospitality industry about this and he said diners/consumers in Qatar want value for money – that is more bang for their riyal. “Food here isn’t cheap, so people want to see they get value. There is also an expectation that portion sizes will be large,” he said. This reminded me of having dinner one night in a hotel restaurant in Doha whose concept was ‘family-style’ dining with small portions, similar to a tapas. A diner at a neighbouring table was taking the manager to task as the size of his dishes was tiny. A larger portion was dutifully brought to his table. There is also the economics of eating well. For example, a salad in a midpriced café in Doha could set you back upwards of QR60. Meanwhile, a burger meal deal at one of the big fast food chains (with large fries and a coke) is less than QR20 and you can even get it in a drive through without leaving your car! In a country where 90 per cent of our food is imported, this also poses challenges. A bag of imported lettuce leaves crunches in at QR30. I also saw a 500g packet of quinoa for an eye-watering QR65 recently. That said, there are strategies I employ to ensure doesn’t have to cost the earth to eat well. The Qatar Farmers’ Market has reopened, where you can ﬁll your car boot with locally grown and organic veggies for less than QR100. Chains are offering ‘healthy options’ and even closer to home, my local Indian takeaway has grilled meats and salads on their menu. Back to the disputed salad. When the salad arrived, it was coated in the dreaded creamy dressing. It also came with fries on the side. And garlic bread. Go ﬁgure! - Rachel Morris is a Qatar-based writer and food blogger (lifeonthewedge.net). Guess who’s setting up shop in Doha? Celebrity chef Nobu Matsuhisa is opening a new restaurant at the Four Seasons Hotel Doha which will feature three levels with views of the Arabian Gulf – we can’t wait! Call +974 4494 8888. Street-food beckons Spice Market at the W Doha Hotel and Residences have added eight new Southeast Asian street-food inspired dishes to their menu. Go on a culinary journey through the streets of Vietnam and Thailand, as you tantalise your tastebuds with sharing style dishes like a lobster cake avocado and cucumber appetiser, and monkﬁsh with wok-fried Napa cabbage water chestnuts and cucumber for mains; sushi and sashimi are on offer too! Call +974 4453 5343. Thank you for the cake! Celebrate Thanksgiving at home with this special Marzipan chocolate fudge cake from Jones the grocer, Doha, which has a layer of chocolate sponge, homemade fudge ﬁlling and roasted cashew nuts. QR320 per cake. Call +974 4407 7175. European gourmet Gather a bunch of friends and head to the upscale Torch Tea Garden at the Torch Doha to indulge in a selection of classic wafﬂes with fresh berries and cream, chocolate ganache, and other delectable toppings. The tea lounge willl also be serving a variety of fondues ranging from sweet to savoury. Call +974 4446 5600. Additional text NICOLA MONTEATH \| Photos SUPPLIED Our Doha-based columnist has her finger on the pulse of the city’s foodie scene. 22 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg22 Doha diaries_Nov14.indd 22 10/29/14 5:22 PM An ode to Arabian cuisine. Join us on a culinary journey through Arabia and savour enchanting dishes from the shores of the Arabian Gulf to the highland peaks of Sinai. Rediscover timeless classics that pay tribute to age-old recipes in an elegant five-star setting. Indulge in the many flavours and mysteries of Arabian cuisine at Nawwara with our delectable array of mezze, mains and desserts. Nawwara â€“ Authentic Arabian Dining Sheikh Zayed Road, Business Bay, Dubai, UAE \| Tel: +971 4 414 3000 \| jwmarriottmarquisdubailife.com AUTHENTIC ARABIAN DINING Anytime eggs & potatoes, recipe p54 IN THIS SECTION ✴ Simple suppers for weeknights, P26 ✴ Make the most of barbecue season! P41 ✴ Who says glutenfree can't be delicious? P64 Home Cooking Inspiring recipes for easy everyday meals and stylish weekend entertaining November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 25 Pg25 Home Cooking Opener_Nov14.indd 25 10/29/14 5:23 PM Fast, fresh family suppers that everyone will love! Photographs ROB STREETER Frying pan pizza bianco with mushrooms & egg SERVES 1 MINS Easy PREP 20 MINS COOK 30 1 of 5-a-day 1 In a large bowl, mix the flour with the oil, 85ml water and a pinch of salt to make a dough. Tip onto the work surface and knead for 1-2 mins to bring together into a smooth ball, then return to the bowl, cover with a tea towel and set aside. 2 Heat a drizzle of oil in a flameproof frying pan, roughly 22cm wide. Add the garlic and most of the rosemary and sizzle for 1-2 mins until just turning golden. Add the mushrooms and cook for 10 mins or until golden and tender. Season and tip out onto a plate. Shape the dough into a thin disc roughly the same size as your pan â€“ you can do this with your hands, no need to use a rolling pin. Place in the pan and cook for 4-5 mins over a low-medium heat, until the underside is golden. Use a fish slice to flip over, then cook for another 4-5 mins. 3 Heat the grill to high. Season the cream cheese and spread over the pizza. Top with the mushrooms, leaving space in the centre for the egg. Crack the egg into the space and season, then place the pan under the grill for 3-4 mins until the white has set but the yolk is still a little runny. Sprinkle with the chilli flakes and remaining rosemary before serving. PER SERVING 865 kcals, protein 37g, carbs 130g, fat 22g, sat fat 7g, fibre 10g, sugar 5g, salt 2.8g Food styling KATY GREENWOOD \| Styling REBECCA NEWPIORT Â 175g self-raising flour 2 tsp oil, plus a drizzle for frying 1 garlic clove, thinly sliced 4 rosemary sprigs, chopped 140g mushrooms, sliced 85g light cream cheese 1 egg A good pinch of chilli flakes 26 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg26-28 Make it tonight_Nov14.indd 26 10/29/14 5:23 PM Food styling KATY GREENWOOD \| Styling REBECCA NEWPIORT HOME COOKING EVERYDAY Jumbo sausage roll with salsa beans SERVES 6 MINS Easy Sticky sesame chicken & corn with slaw Perfect party food COOK 40 2 of 5-a-day 400g sausagemeat, or pack of 8 sausages, squeezed from their skins 2 tbsp dried mixed herbs 300g jar hot salsa dip 1 egg, beaten 375g ready-rolled puff pastry sheet 3 x 400g cans cannellini or haricot beans (or a mixture), drained 400g can chopped tomatoes 1 green chilli, thinly sliced (deseeded if you don’t like it too hot) 1 Heat oven to 200C/180C fan and line a baking tray with baking parchment or foil. In a large bowl, mix together the sausagemeat, herbs, half the salsa and roughly half the egg until well combined. 2 Unroll the pastry sheet on your baking tray. Pile the sausage mixture onto one side of the pastry – along the longer side – leaving a gap of 4cm around the edge. Brush a little of the egg around the edges, then fold the pastry over the filling. Press the edges together with a fork and score a few air holes through the top with a knife (to let steam escape). Brush with the remaining egg and bake for 40 mins. 3 Meanwhile, tip the beans, tomatoes, remaining salsa and some seasoning into a saucepan and cover with a lid. Simmer for 20 mins or until the sauce is thick and clings to the beans. To serve, scatter the beans with the chilli and serve with slices of sausage roll. PER SERVING 639 kcals, protein 21g, carbs 53g, fat 37g, sat fat 11g, fibre 4g, sugar 4g, salt 2.0g SERVES 4 PREP 15 MINS COOK Folate Fibre Vit C 2 of 5-a-day 40 MINS Easy 900g chicken wings 4 frozen corn cobs 2 tsp vegetable oil 1 small white cabbage, quartered, core removed, and finely sliced 1 red onion, finely sliced 2 large carrots, grated 200g natural yoghurt Zest and juice of 1 lemon 3 tbsp clear honey 2 tbsp smooth peanut butter 2 tbsp sesame seeds 1 Heat oven to 200C/180C fan. Place the chicken and frozen corn cobs on a large baking tray, drizzle with oil, season and bake for 20 mins. 2 Meanwhile, combine the cabbage, onion, carrots, yoghurt, lemon zest and juice, and some seasoning in a bowl. Set aside until ready to serve. In another bowl, mix the honey, peanut butter and sesame seeds with a pinch of salt. 3 Remove the tray from the oven and brush or drizzle the sauce over the chicken and corn, then toss everything together to coat. Return to the oven and roast for a further 15-20 mins until sticky and caramelised. Serve with the coleslaw. PER SERVING 675 kcals, protein 42g, carbs 59g, fat 29g, sat fat 8g, fibre 9g, sugar 35g, salt 1.3g November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 27 Pg26-28 Make it tonight_Nov14.indd 27 10/29/14 5:24 PM Sicilian-style tuna lasagne SERVES 4 MINS Easy Minty roast veg & hummous salad SERVES 4 PREP 15 MINS COOK 40 MINS Easy Folate Fibre Iron 4 of 5-a-day Â 4 parsnips, peeled and cut into wedges 4 carrots, cut into wedges 2 tsp cumin seeds 400g can chickpeas, drained 2 tbsp vegetable oil 500g pack cooked beetroot (not in vinegar), drained and cut into wedges 2 tbsp clear honey 200g pot hummous 2 tbsp white wine vinegar Small bunch of mint, leaves picked 200g block Greek-style salad cheese or feta PER SERVING 611 kcals, protein 23g, carbs 1 Heat oven to 200C/180C fan. Tip the tomatoes, peppers, olives, cinnamon and herbs into a pan, cover and simmer for 10 mins until the tomatoes have broken down a little. Add the tuna and season. 2 Tip the cream cheese into a bowl, season and mix to loosen a little, adding a splash of water (or milk, if you have some) to make a thick white-sauce consistency. Assemble the lasagne in a baking dish, approx 20 x 30cm. Pour roughly a third of the tuna sauce into the bottom of the dish, top with 4 lasagne sheets, a third of the cream cheese sauce, then repeat the layers twice more. Scatter over the mozzarella and bake for 35 mins until golden and bubbling. 61g, fat 26g, sat fat 9g, fibre 20g, sugar 36g, PER SERVING 565 kcals, protein 24g, carbs 40g, salt 3.5g fat 34g, sat fat 20g, fibre 4g, sugar 6g, salt 2.3g 1 Heat oven to 200C/180C fan. Toss the parsnips, carrots, cumin seeds and chickpeas with the oil and some seasoning in a large roasting tin. Cook for 30 mins, tossing halfway through. 2 Add the beetroot to the tin and drizzle over the honey, then return to the oven for 10 mins. Spread the hummous thinly over a large platter, or divide between 4 dinner plates. When the veg is ready, drizzle with the vinegar and toss together in the tin. Tip the roasted vegetables on top of the hummous, scatter over the mint and cheese, drizzle with any juices from the tin and serve. 28 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg26-28 Make it tonight_Nov14.indd 28 10/29/14 5:24 PM Celebrate every day in true Belgian style at Dubaiâ€™s original Belgian CafĂŠ. Enjoy classic Belgian specialities and international dishes all served with unparalleled views of the Dubai Skyline and Creek. 04 701 1127/28 [email protected] For more information, visit diningdfc.com BBC Good food.indd 1 10/23/14 8:50 AM HOME COOKING EVERYDAY Eating well Increasing your vitamin C intake and your 5-a-day quota means you’ll soon strengthen your immune system for the colder months. Lemon cod with basil bean mash SERVES 2 PREP 8 MINS COOK Vit C Omega-3 2 of 5-a-day 18 MINS Easy 2 small bunches of cherry tomatoes on the vine 1 tbsp olive oil 2 x 140g chunks skinless cod or other white fish fillet Zest of 1 lemon, plus juice of ½ 240g frozen soya beans 1 garlic clove for wınter Bunch of basil, leaves and stalks separated 100ml chicken or vegetable stock 1 Heat oven to 200C/180C fan. Put the tomatoes onto a baking tray, rub with a little oil and some seasoning, then roast for 5 mins until the skins are starting to split. Add the fish to the tray, top with most of the lemon zest and some more seasoning, then drizzle with a little more oil. Roast for 8-10 mins until the fish flakes easily. 2 Meanwhile, cook the beans in a pan of boiling water for 3 mins until just tender. Drain, then tip into a food processor with the rest of the oil, garlic, basil stalks, lemon juice and stock, then pulse to a thick, slightly rough purée. Season to taste. 3 Divide the tomatoes and mash between 2 plates, top with the cod, then scatter with basil leaves and the remaining lemon zest to serve. PER SERVING 372 kcals, protein 44g, carbs 17g, fat 15g, sat fat 3g, fibre 6g, sugar 3g, salt 0.5g Delicious, vitamin C-rich supper for two November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 31 Pg31-33 Eat well all winter_Nov14.indd 31 10/29/14 5:24 PM Grilled mackerel with soy, lime & ginger SERVES 2 PREP 10 MINS PLUS MARINATING COOK 15 MINS Easy Vit C Omega-3 1 of 5-a-day Heart healthy 300g mackerel (or herring or gurnard for more sustainable alternatives) 100g jasmine rice 4 spring onions, sliced 1 red pepper, deseeded and diced FOR THE MARINADE 1 tbsp low-sodium soy sauce Juice of 1 lime Small piece of fresh ginger, grated 1 garlic clove, crushed 2 tbsp honey 1 To make the marinade, mix all the ingredients together and pour over the mackerel. Cover and chill for 30 mins. 2 Heat the grill and put the mackerel, skin-side up, on a baking sheet lined with foil. Grill for 5 mins, then turn and baste with the remaining marinade. Grill for 5 mins more. 3 Cook the rice following pack instructions, then drain and toss with the spring onions and pepper. Serve with the mackerel. PER SERVING 587 kcals, protein 33g, carbs 61g, fat 25g, sat fat 5g, fibre 1g, sugar 17g, salt 1.10g Kale tabbouleh SERVES 6 PREP 15 MINS COOK 10-15 MINS Easy Vit C 2 of 5-a-day Good for you 100g bulghur wheat 100g kale Large bunch of mint, roughly chopped Bunch of spring onions, sliced ½ cucumber, diced 4 tomatoes, deseeded and chopped Pinch of ground cinnamon Pinch of ground allspice 6 tbsp olive oil Juice and zest ½ lemon 100g feta, crumbled 4 Baby Gem lettuces, leaves separated, to serve 1 Tip the bulghur wheat into a heatproof bowl and just cover with boiling water, then cover with cling film and set aside for 10-15 mins or until tender. Put the kale into a food processor and pulse to finely chop. 2 Stir the kale, mint, spring onions, cucumber and tomatoes through the bulghur wheat. Season with the cinnamon and allspice, then dress with the olive oil and lemon juice to taste. Scatter over the lemon zest and feta. To serve, let everyone scoop the salad onto leaves of Baby Gem lettuce. PER SERVING 235 kcals, protein 6g, carbs 17g, fat 15g, sat fat 4g, fibre 2g, sugar 4g, salt 0.7g TIP Kale can be boiled, steamed, stir-fried or, like other cabbages, eaten raw. It should be bouncy and vibrant; don’t buy any with signs of yellowing. 32 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg31-33 Eat well all winter_Nov14.indd 32 10/29/14 5:24 PM Orange & mint salad SERVES 4 PREP 15 MINS Low fat NO COOK Easy Vit C 2 of 5-a-day 4 oranges 12 soft dates, stoned, sliced lengthways Small bunch of mint, leaves finely chopped, plus a few left whole 1 tbsp rose syrup or rosewater Peel then segment the oranges, removing the white pith. Place in a bowl along with any juices, then add the dates, chopped mint and rose syrup and toss gently. Divide between 4 dessert bowls, scatter on the mint leaves and serve. PER SERVING 222 kcals, protein 4g, carbs 54g, fat 1g, sat fat none, fibre 5g, sugar 54g, salt 0.04g Chicken & quinoa salad with beetroot yoghurt SERVES 4 PREP 10 MINS COOK 45 MINS Easy Folate Fibre Iron 2 of 5-a-day 4 chicken thighs, skin left on 2 red onions, cut into wedges (keep the roots intact) 3 carrots, cut into batons 1 tbsp olive oil 1 lemon, sliced 2 tbsp clear honey 250g quinoa 140g vacuum-packed beetroot (not in vinegar), finely chopped 5 tbsp Greek-style yoghurt 1 garlic clove, crushed Small handful of dill, chopped, plus a few fronds to garnish the oil and nestle lemon slices around. Bake for 30 mins. Stir everything, drizzle with the honey and bake for another 15 mins until the chicken is cooked through and tender. 2 Meanwhile, cook the quinoa following pack instructions, then rinse with cold water and drain thoroughly. 3 Mix the beetroot, yoghurt, garlic, chopped dill and some seasoning in a bowl. In a separate bowl, mix the quinoa, roasted veg and 2 tbsp of the cooking juices. Pop the chicken thighs and lemon slices on top, then scatter with dill fronds. Serve with a dollop of the beetroot yoghurt on the side. PER SERVING 535 kcals, protein 28g, carbs 57g, fat 19g, sat fat 5g, fibre 10g, sugar 21g, salt 0.4g TIP Cooking chicken with the skin 1 Heat oven to 200C/180C fan. Place the chicken thighs, onions and carrots in a roasting tin. Season, drizzle with on keeps the meat juicy, but remove it once cooked for a healthier dish. November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 33 Pg31-33 Eat well all winter_Nov14.indd 33 10/29/14 5:24 PM Easy one-pots Hearty, heart-warming suppers that are fuss-free yet fabulous! Warm chickpea, chorizo & pepper salad SERVES 2 PREP 5 MINS COOK 10 MINS Easy P 200g chorizo, see Know-how, below (or use spicy chicken sausages) 410g can chickpeas, rinsed and drained 250g jar roasted mixed peppers, drained and roughly chopped Handful coriander leaves, chopped 2 tbsp natural yoghurt 1 Cut the chorizo into 3cm thick slices. Heat 1 tbsp oil in a large frying pan over a high heat. Cook the chorizo for 4-5 mins, turning occasionally until the edges start to crisp and it has released its red oil. 2 Tip the chickpeas into the pan and cook for a couple of mins until hot. Add the peppers and cook for a few mins until everything is juicy. Remove from the heat, stir in the coriander, ladle into two bowls and top each with a spoonful of yoghurt. PER SERVING 629 kcals, protein 29g, carbs 30g, fat 45g, sat fat 11g, fibre 7g, sugar none, salt 3.61g On the table in 15 minutes Try something different Replace the chickpeas with butter beans or cannellini beans, or try replacing the peppers with a jar of grilled aubergine slices. You could also omit the chickpeas and serve this as a meaty sauce for pasta. KNOW-HOW The spicy, paprika-spiked Spanish sausage chorizo comes in two varieties, the large salami type and the smaller, more traditional sausage-shape, which is better for cooking. Use the smaller one for this recipe, or buy a large piece of slicing chorizo and chop into chunks. Both are available at the deli counter. 34 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg34-36 Easy One-pot_Nov14.indd 34 Slow-cooked lamb with onions & thyme SERVES 4 PREP 5 MINS HRS 20 MINS COOK 3 Half a leg of lamb about 1.25kg 1kg onions (about 4 large ones), thinly sliced Handful of thyme sprigs 300ml red wine Large handful of flat-leaf parsley 1 Heat oven to 160C/140C fan. Wipe the meat all over and season well. Heat 3 tbsp olive oil in a large heavy flameproof casserole, add the meat and fry all over on a fairly high heat for about 8 mins, turning until it is evenly well browned. Remove to a plate. 2 Add the onions to the pan and fry for about 10 mins, until softened and tinged with brown. Add a few thyme sprigs and cook for a further min or so, then season. 3 Sit the lamb on top of the onions, then add the wine. Cover tightly. Cook for 3 hrs. You can make to this stage up to 2 days in advance, then reheat for 45 mins. 4 To serve, strip the leaves from 2 thyme sprigs and chop them with the parsley. Scatter over before serving. PER SERVING 731 kcals, protein 63g, carbs 21g, fat 39g, sat fat 19g, fibre 4g, sugar none, salt 0.87g Meltingly tender Spicy lamb with chickpeas SERVES 4 PREP 10 MINS COOK 1 HR 5 MINS-1 HR 20 MINS Easy 700g cubed lamb 400g can tomatoes in rich juice 2-3 tsp harissa paste 410g can chickpeas, drained Handful of coriander 1 Tip the lamb into a large pan and add the tomatoes. Half-fill the tomato can with water and add to the pan along with the harissa paste, then season. 2 Bring the liquid to the boil, then reduce the heat, cover and simmer for 1-1Âź hrs, until the lamb is tender. Rinse the chickpeas and add them to the pan, then simmer for a further 5 mins. 3 Taste and season if needed. Roughly chop the coriander and scatter it over the dish. Serve with couscous or rice. PER SERVING 410 kcals, protein 40g, carbs 13g, fat 22g, sat fat 9g, fibre 4g, sugar none, salt 0.91g November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 35 Pg34-36 Easy One-pot_Nov14.indd 35 10/29/14 5:25 PM HOME COOKING EVERYDAY Braised beef with red wine & cranberry SERVES 4 PREP 30 MINS COOK 1Â˝ HRS Easy 1kg braising steak 3 onions 300ml red wine 300ml stock 3 rounded tbsp cranberry sauce 1 Cut the meat into large slices, about 8cm square. Tip 2 tbsp flour and some salt and pepper into a large food bag, add the beef and shake to coat the pieces. Thinly slice the onions. 2 Heat 2 tbsp olive oil in a large heavy-based pan. Add the beef and fry on all sides until evenly browned. You may need to do this in two batches. Remove to a plate. 3 Heat a little more oil in the pan if you need it, then add the onions and fry quickly for 5 mins until tinged brown. Return the beef to the pan and add the wine and stock. Bring to the boil, stirring to scrape up the juices, then season. 4 Reduce the heat, cover tightly with a lid and cook at a gentle simmer for about 1Â˝ hrs until the beef is tender. Stir in the cranberry sauce, taste and add seasoniong if necessary. Simmer for a further 5 mins and serve with mash, and a scattering of flat-leaf parsley. PER SERVING 481 kcals, protein 57g, carbs 19g, fat 15g, sat fat 6g, fibre 1g, sugar 4g, salt 0.92g Smoked salmon & pea frittata SERVES 4 PREP 20 MINS COOK 30 MINS Easy 500g cooked new potatoes 200g pack smoked salmon 8 large eggs 2 tbsp chopped dill 100g frozen petits pois (baby peas) 1 Thickly slice the potatoes. Cut the salmon into wide strips. Crack the eggs into a bowl, beat with a fork until lightly foamy, then stir in the smoked salmon, dill, peas, then seaon. Finally, stir in the potatoes. 2 Heat 3 tbsp olive oil in a large non-stick frying pan, carefully pour in the egg mixture and cook over a fairly low heat for 10-15 mins, until the egg is starting to set just under the surface. 3 Put a plate that is slightly larger than the top of the pan on top and invert the frittata onto it. Slide it back into the pan and cook for a further 5 mins to brown the underside. Slide on to a plate and leave to cool for 5 mins before cutting into wedges. A tomato and chive salad tastes very fresh with this. PER SERVING 423 kcals, protein 31g, carbs 22g, fat 24g, sat fat 5g, fibre 3g, sugar none, salt 3.15g Make double and freeze Extra-special lunch 36 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg34-36 Easy One-pot_Nov14.indd 36 Kitchen notes Nutrition advice, cooking tips and product picks for your pantry. Reader tip of the month To make cookies crisp, place them on a wire rack to cool as soon as they are baked. - Rifat Tahir Got a great tip you want to share? Get in touch with us on facebook or twitter SMART FOOD SWAPS 409 Dairy queen Forget burnt butter when cooking (unless you want a brown butter ssauce!), Lurpak’s premium new Cook’s Range has been C thoughtfully developed to avert exactly these sort of culinary disasters. The Cooking liquid contains a unique formulation of butter with vegetable oil that is perfect for frying and roasting, while the baking butter, created expressly for oven use, is easy to scoop off even straight from the fridge, thanks to the softer texture. The range also includes a cooking mist – ideal for glazing and greasing pans, plus regular butter blocks in convenient portioned sizes, and clariﬁed butter. It’s just what home chefs need to take their creations to the next level! Prices start from Dhs16, available at leading supermarkets. Just add onions! The selection of onions available nowadays can be a little intimidating. Here’s a helpful guide of the uses of various types: Compiled by NICOLA MONTEATH \| Photographs SUPPLIED; SHUTTERSTOCK.COM 7Shallots add a subtle taste to a dish and should be used for vinaigrettes or as garnish. 7Yellow onions are an all-rounder to be used in stew, soup, braised meat dishes and sauces. 7Red onions taste great raw, in salads, sandwiches and guacamole. 7White onions add a bit of crunch. Have it in chutneys, stir-fries and salsa. 7Sweet onions are used for frying and to make onion rings and gratins. calories 242 calories 200g seafood risotto 220 1 serving (232g) beef stew calories 1 serving (150g) of shepherd’s pie Health update> WHAT’S THE BUZZ ABOUT? It adds vibrancy, texture and a hint of sweetness, but what exactly is bee pollen? Bee pollen, also known as ambrosia, is created by honeybees and has 40 per cent protein, antioxidants, vitamin B-complex, folic and amino acids. Eat it sprinkled over smoothies, porridge and yoghurt to boost energy levels, assist the body with digestion, and protect cells from damage caused by free radicals. The real truth In case you needed any further conﬁrmation – organic foods are about 60 per cent higher in antioxidants than conventionally-grown produce, and have reduced levels of pesticides and toxic metals as well, according to a new study published in the British Journal of Nutrition this year. Don’t forget to look for the certiﬁer’s seal on the product packaging! Look what we found! 3 great new products for your kitchen Quench your thirst with the 2B natural fruit-ﬂavoured carbonated drinks, which are free from artiﬁcial ﬂavours, colouring and preservatives. From Dhs8, at leading supermarkets. These Porcini dried mushrooms will taste great in everything from a risotto to pasta. Dhs50 at Carluccio’s. Smear this Maison Francis Miot Blueberry and ginger jam over soft cheese on a cracker. Dhs20 at secretsﬁnefoods.com. November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 39 Pg39 Kitchen notes_Nov14.indd 39 HOME COOKING WEEKEND Alfresco special Fire up the BBQ Food styling CASSIE BEST and SARAH COOK \| Styling MARY CADOGAN \| Wine notes SARAH JANE EVANS MW Seafood, pineapple & coconut kebabs, p44 Looking for something new to cook for a special occasion? Our fresh new recipes provide inspiration for relaxed outdoor eating, from family gatherings to bring-a-dish parties. Recipes CASSIE BEST Photographs DAVID MUNNS November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 41 Pg41-44 Fire up the BBQ- THIS LAYOUT TO BE USED-_Nov14.indd 41 10/29/14 5:31 PM Smoky mushroom burgers with roasted garlic mayo, recipe p44 42 2 BBC BB B BC B CG Go Good oo ood od Foo Food ood Middle oo Miidd id ddle dd e East Eas Eas ast November ast No Nov N ovvem o mb m be err 2014 201 2 0 4 Pg41-44 Fire up the BBQ- THIS LAYOUT TO BE USED-_Nov14.indd 42 10/29/14 5:31 PM Ginger beer chicken & ribs, recipe p44 November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 43 Pg41-44 Fire up the BBQ- THIS LAYOUT TO BE USED-_Nov14.indd 43 10/29/14 5:31 PM Seafood, pineapple & coconut kebabs MAKES 8 PREP 10 MINS COOK 10 MINS Easy Good for you 16 large, unpeeled raw king prawns 500g mixture of boneless salmon and white fish fillets, skinned and cut into chunky pieces 200ml can coconut milk 100g fresh pineapple, cut into chunks 85g desiccated coconut Drizzle of oil Lime wedges, to serve 1 You’ll need 8 skewers. If using wooden ones, soak for 30 mins before Smoky mushroom burgers with roasted garlic mayo SERVES 4 (EASILY DOUBLED) PREP 25 MINS COOK 50 MINS Easy 2 of 5-a-day Good for you 4 large flat mushrooms 1 tbsp olive oil, plus extra for frying 2 roasted red peppers (from a jar), finely chopped ½ small pack thyme, leaves picked and chopped 50g fresh breadcrumbs 1 tbsp sundried tomato paste 2 tsp smoked paprika 3 red onions, thinly sliced 1 tbsp golden caster sugar 1 tbsp Sherry vinegar FOR THE ROASTED GARLIC MAYO 3 garlic cloves, unpeeled 50g good-quality mayonnaise TO SERVE 4 crusty bread rolls (we used ciabatta) salad leaves 25g cheddar or Manchego, grated 1 Heat up the barbecue. To make the garlic mayo, wrap the garlic cloves in a foil parcel, position on a hot spot of the barbecue and cook for 20 mins until really soft. Alternatively, bake in a hot oven for 20-30 mins. Leave to cool, then squeeze the cloves out of their skins and mash with a fork. Mix the garlic cooking. Fire up the barbecue and allow the flames to subside before cooking, or heat a griddle pan until smoking hot. 2 Toss together the prawns, fish, coconut milk and some seasoning in a bowl, then thread onto skewers, together with the pineapple chunks. Tip the desiccated coconut onto a plate and roll each fish kebab in it, pressing on the coconut to help it stick. Dab the kebabs with a little oil and cook for 3-4 mins each side until the prawns turn pink and the fish is cooked through. Serve with lime wedges. Ginger beer chicken & ribs SERVES 8 PREP 15 MINS PLUS 1 HR MARINATING COOK 1 HR 45 MINS Easy purée with the mayonnaise, then chill until ready to serve. 2 Remove the stalks from the middle of the mushrooms and finely chop them. Heat a drizzle of oil in a pan (on the barbecue or hob), add the stalks and fry for a few mins until golden and soft. Add the peppers, thyme, breadcrumbs, tomato paste, paprika and some seasoning. Cook for 5 mins more, then set aside to cool a little. Rub the mushroom caps with a little oil, season, then top each one with ¼ of the mixture. Can be chilled for up to 1 day. 3 Meanwhile, heat a little oil in another frying pan (on the barbecue or hob), and add the onions. Cook for 15 mins until soft and golden, then add the sugar, vinegar and some seasoning. Cook for 5 mins more until caramelised and sticky. Can be chilled for up to 2 days. 4 Put the mushrooms on the barbecue (stuffed side up), close the lid or cover with foil, and cook for 20 mins until soft and cooked through. Be sure to keep an eye on the heat and move to the upper shelf if the bottoms of the mushrooms start to burn. Split the rolls and heat these on the barbecue, too. Spread each roll with some garlic mayo, top with salad leaves, a filled mushroom, some sticky onions and a grating of cheese. 8 pcs of chicken (we used thighs and drumsticks), bone in and skin on 1kg spare ribs, cut between the bones, if a whole rack 2 tsp ground ginger 2 tsp ground allspice 2 star anise 1 litre ginger beer 100g ginger, sliced FOR THE GLAZE 500ml ginger beer Juice of 2 limes, plus extra wedges to serve 300g tomato ketchup 75ml soy sauce 75ml clear honey 1 Toss the chicken and ribs in the ground ginger, allspice and lots of seasoning. Cover and marinate for 1 hr (or up to 24 hrs). 2 Heat oven to 160C/140C fan. Tip the meat into a deep roasting tin, add the star anise, ginger beer and sliced ginger, then top up with enough water to just cover the meat. Cover with foil and cook for 1 hr 30 mins. Uncover, pour away the cooking liquid and pat the chicken pieces and ribs dry with kitchen paper. Chill until ready to use. 3 Meanwhile, to make the glaze, pour the ingredients into a saucepan and boil until thick and sticky – this will take about 30 mins. Can be made 2 days before up to this point. 4 Heat up the barbecue and let the flames subside. Brush the sticky glaze all over the meat, making sure each piece is well coated. Place on the barbecue and cook for 15-20 mins, brushing with the glaze from time to time, until hot and charred in places. Serve with extra lime wedges for squeezing over. PER SERVING 283 kcals, protein 6g, carbs 27g, PER SERVING 519 kcals, protein 31g, carbs 49g, fat 17g, sat fat 2g, fibre 4g, sugar 13g, salt 0.4g fat 22g, sat fat 6g, fibre 1g, sugar 46g, salt 3.8g PER KEBAB 217 kcals, protein 17g, carbs 3g, fat 15g, sat fat 10g, fibre 2g, sugar 2g, salt 0.9g 44 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg41-44 Fire up the BBQ- THIS LAYOUT TO BE USED-_Nov14.indd 44 10/29/14 5:32 PM ADVERTISING FEATURE food store, Market & Platters, a homegrown premium chefs. is your one-stop destination to shop like the Looking for gourmet ingredients and fresh produce? Look no further than Market & Platters, where you’ll find everything from the freshest seafood, seasonal fruits & vegetables, to specialty cheeses, the choicest meats, wholesome bakery goods and the finest condiments and pantry products. The homegrown outlet, the first retail initiative of Fresh Express International – the leading supplier of gourmet food stuffs to restaurants and hotels in the region – gives consumers access to an array of high-quality products used by top chefs, at prices that won’t break the bank. Step inside the store to find a true European artisanal food market environment, where you are welcome to touch, try, sniff and taste your way through the gourmet finds. A true foodie haven, Market & Platters source the best ingredients from all over the world, following the seasons, and bringing new produce not easily found on supermarket shelves. While you can find everything you will need for your kitchen here, the store is renowned for its fresh seafood – whether it’s yellowfin tuna, live lobsters, and the finest oysters, or Japanese fish specialties and King Crab from Norway, some of which cannot be found anywhere else in Dubai. In-store fishmongers will prepare according to your requirements and also share their tips and expertise. Market & Platters also offer a range of specialty ‘ready-to-eat’ platters, focusing on shellfish and sushi, which are perfect for stylish entertaining, when you haven’t got much time. Who says you can’t cook like the pros? With a little help from Market & Platters, one of the best kept secrets of Dubai’s foodie world, your kitchen can give any restaurant a run for its money. Just don’t tell the professional chefs you might bump into on your shopping spree! Call 04-4504466. We've been shortlisted in the BBC Good Food ME awards! Vote for us on WONDERING WHAT TO DO WITH THE FRESH SEAFOOD FROM THE STORE? TRY THIS RECIPE FROM MARKET & PLATTERS CULINARY MANAGER AND EXECUTIVE CHEF, ERIC MARTINET: Bouillabaisse (Fisherman’s pot) SERVES 4 \| PREP 5 MINS \| COOK TIME 25 MINS 500g Ratte potato (or any other variety) 1 piece fennel 1l fish stock 2 whole red mullet (totaling 240 g) 280g monkfish loin 4 tiger prawns u-10 (explain this?) 280g John Dory fillet ½ kg mussels 1g saffron Salt and pepper, to taste Rosemary and thyme sprigs, for garnish (optional) French bread, to serve with Pg37 Advertorial_Market & Platters.indd 37 bbcgoodfoodme.com/ awards/2014 1 Peel and slice potatoes into 1cm slices. Wash and dry carefully. 2 Divide fennel into 6 pcs. Wash and dry carefully. 3 Pour fish stock into large pot and bring to the boil. 4 Turn the heat down to a simmer and add fennel and potatoes into the stock. Once potatoes and fennel are cooked (about 10-15 mins), remove and keep side. 5 Place all fish fillets and mussels into stock until cooked through – about 10 mins. 6 Add saffron, potatoes and fennel. Season to taste with freshly ground sea salt and black pepper. Garnish with rosemary and thyme sprigs, if using. Serve hot in bowls with toasted rustic French bread. 10/30/14 2:45 PM Simple sides Alfresco special Give your barbecue dinners a healthy makeover with these tasty accompaniments. Recipes KATY GILHOOLY Photograph CRAIG ROBERTSON Wild rice with orange & fennel Roasted squash with crushed pistachios SERVES 4 PREP 10 MINS Low fat COOK 25 MINS Easy SERVES 4 PREP 10 MINS COOK 40 MINS Easy Vit C Good for you Gluten Free 200g basmati & wild rice 1 large fennel bulb, halved then cut into slices 1 tbsp olive oil 2 large oranges Small pack of coriander, chopped 1 butternut squash, peeled and cut into chunks 2 tbsp olive oil 50g pistachios, toasted 4 thyme sprigs, leaves only Juice of 1 lemon 1 Cook the rice following pack instructions. Meanwhile, toss the fennel with olive oil and season. Cook the fennel in a griddle pan on a mediumhigh heat for 5 mins until softened. 2 Juice Â˝ an orange. Peel the remaining oranges, slice them and cut each slice into quarters. Drain the rice, then stir through the orange juice, orange pieces, fennel and coriander. PER SERVING 253 kcals, protein 6g, carbs 46g, 1 Heat oven to 200C/180C fan. Toss the butternut squash with 1 tbsp of the olive oil and season. Roast in the oven for 40 mins until tender and caramelised. 2 Meanwhile, roughly crush the pistachios with the thyme and a pinch of salt using a pestle and mortar, or with the end of a rolling pin. Stir in the lemon juice and remaining oil, and check the seasoning. Spoon the pistachios over the squash to serve. fat 4g, sat fat 1g, fibre 5g, sugar 10g, salt none PER SERVING 209 kcals, protein 5g, carbs 19g, fat 11g, sat fat 2g, fibre 6g, sugar 10g, salt none Green beans with tomato & feta 300g green beans, trimmed 6 large tomatoes, roughly chopped 100g feta, cubed 1 tbsp olive oil Boil a pan of water. Once boiling, add the beans and cook for 4 mins until tender. Drain the beans, then mix with the tomato and feta. Drizzle over the olive oil and season generously with black pepper. PER SERVING 139 kcals, protein 6g, carbs 8g, fat 9g, sat fat 4g, fibre 4g, sugar 6g, salt 1.0g Food styling LIZZIE HARRIS \| Styling VICTORIA ALLEN SERVES 4 PREP 5 MINS COOK 2 of 5-a-day Gluten Free 5 MINS Easy 46 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg46 Simple sides_Nov14.indd 46 10/29/14 5:36 PM Enjoy an exquisite dining experience savouring USDA Prime steaks and ocean favourites Block B1, Building 2 (Unit 3) City Walk, Al Safaa St. Dubai, UAE 04 705 9794 www.salehbinlahejgroup.com Egg ’n’ bacon dippers, recipe p50 Apricot & crème fraiche Eton mess, recipe p51 Food styling JENNIFER JOYCE \| Styling REBECCA NEWPORT \| Wine notes SARAH JANE EVANS Poached salmon with courgette & lentil salad & lemon relish, recipe p50 48 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg48-51 Posh picnic for two_Nov14.indd 48 10/29/14 5:37 PM HOME COOKING WEEKEND Alfresco special Whether youâ€™re picnicking at the park or planning a special day out, this homemade hamper is heaving with delicious treats! Recipes CASSIE BEST Photographs DAVID MUNNS Walnut scones, recipe p51 Food styling JENNIFER JOYCE \| Styling REBECCA NEWPORT \| Wine notes SARAH JANE EVANS Zingy blackberry lemonade, recipe p50 November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 49 Pg48-51 Posh picnic for two_Nov14.indd 49 10/29/14 5:37 PM Egg ’n’ bacon dippers SERVES 2 PREP 10 MINS P COOK 15 MINS Easy 6-10 quail’s eggs Asparagus spears or Tenderstem broccoli FOR THE BACON CRUMBS 2 rashers smoked streaky bacon 50g fresh white breadcrumbs FOR THE WATERCRESS MAYO Large handful of watercress 100g good-quality mayonnaise 1 tbsp Dijon mustard 1 First, make the bacon crumbs. Put the bacon in a dry frying pan and cook until really crisp. Transfer to a plate lined with kitchen paper, then pour all but a drizzle of oil out of the pan. Add the breadcrumbs, cook for a few mins until they turn golden and crisp, then tip these out too and leave to cool. Once the bacon is cool, put in a food processor and blitz to fine crumbs, add Zingy blackberry lemonade MAKES 4 GLASSES PREP 10 MINS Low fat Vit C 1 of 5-a-day NO COOK Easy 2 lemons, cut into quarters, pips removed 150g punnet blackberries Few mint sprigs, leaves picked 50g icing sugar Fizzy water or Prosecco, to serve Put the lemons, blackberries, mint leaves, sugar and 200ml water into a food processor. Blitz until everything is finely chopped and juicy. Strain through a fine sieve, bottle and chill until ready to drink. Will keep for up to a week. Top up with an equal measure of chilled fizzy water or Prosecco to serve. PER GLASS 69 kcals, protein 1g, carbs 15g, fat none, sat fat none, fibre 1.6g, sugar 15g, salt none Poached salmon with courgette & lentil salad & lemon relish SERVES 2 PREP 20 MINS COOK 10 MINS Easy Folate Fibre Omega-3 3 of 5-a-day Handful of mint and parsley stalks (save the leaves for the relish) Peeled rind of 1 lemon (save the rest for the relish) 2 salmon fillets, bones removed 1 small courgette, peeled into ribbons with a vegetable peeler ½ fennel bulb, halved then very thinly sliced 8 radishes, cut into wedges 250g pouch ready-cooked Puy lentils FOR THE LEMON RELISH 2 tbsp extra virgin rapeseed or olive oil 1 tsp clear honey 1 tsp Dijon mustard Small handful each of mint and parsley leaves, finely chopped 1 shallot, very finely chopped 2 lemons (1 from above) the breadcrumbs and give it another quick blitz to combine. Tip into a jar or tub and chill until ready to serve. Will keep for 2 days. Bring back to room temperature before eating. 2 Bring a large pan of water to the boil and fill a large bowl with ice-cold water. Add the quail’s eggs to the pan and cook for 2 mins, then fish out and plunge straight into the cold water. Repeat with the asparagus or broccoli, if using, cooking for just 1 min. Once cool, drain the veg and dry the eggs, put in a container or pop the eggs back in their egg box to transport. 3 Whizz the ingredients for the watercress mayo in a food processor, or just finely chop the watercress and mix everything together. Spoon this into a container for transporting, too. To serve, peel an egg (or take a piece of veg) and dip into the mayo, then into the bacon crumbs. PER SERVING 565 kcals, protein 13g, carbs 21g, fat 48g, sat fat 9g, fibre none, sugar 3g, salt 2.8g 1 Fill a pan big enough to fit both salmon fillets with water. Add the herb stalks and lemon rind. Bring to a gentle simmer, then leave to bubble for 5 mins to allow the flavours to infuse. 2 Add the salmon to the pan, simmer gently for 1 min, then turn off the heat, cover with a lid and leave to poach for 5 mins. Transfer the salmon to a plate, peel off the skin and scrape away any brown flesh. Leave to cool, then chill until ready to serve. 3 To make the lemon relish, put the oil, honey and mustard in a bowl along with some seasoning, and whisk together. Add the herbs, shallot and the juice of 1 lemon. Cut the skin and pith away from the second lemon, then segment the pieces, catching any juice in the dressing bowl. Cut each segment into 3 or 4 small pieces, then add these too. 4 Assemble the salad ingredients in containers, then top each salad with a salmon fillet. Take the lemon relish in a jar for pouring over just before serving. PER SERVING 622 kcals, protein 47g, carbs 34g, fat 30g, sat fat 4g, fibre 13g, sugar 9g, salt 1.8g 50 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg48-51 Posh picnic for two_Nov14.indd 50 10/29/14 5:37 PM HOME COOKING WEEKEND These go well with goat’s cheese and fig jam, but are also lovely with clotted cream Apricot & crème fraiche Eton mess SERVES 2 COOLING 1 of 5-a-day PREP 10 MINS PLUS COOK 5 MINS Easy Gluten Free 6-8 apricots, halved and stoned 2 tbsp apricot jam 2 tbsp dessert wine, such as Sauternes, or water 100ml crème fraiche 150ml pot natural yoghurt 1 tbsp icing sugar 8 ready-made mini meringues 1 Place the apricot halves, jam and dessert wine or water in a small saucepan. Bubble for 2-3 mins until syrupy – the apricots should still be holding their shape. Divide between 2 pots or jam jars, leave to cool, then chill until ready to assemble. 2 Mix the crème fraîche, yoghurt and icing sugar, then pour over the apricots and chill until ready to serve. Transport in a cool bag. Take the meringues in a separate container, for crumbling over just before serving. PER SERVING 354 kcals, protein 8g, carbs 53g, fat 10g, sat fat 7g, fibre 3g, sugar 52g, salt 0.3g Walnut scones MAKES 6 PREP 20 MINS COOK 15 MINS Easy 225g self-raising flour, plus extra for dusting 1 tsp baking powder 50g butter, cubed 50g walnuts, finely chopped, plus 6 walnut halves for the tops 125-150ml whole milk 1 egg, beaten Soft goat’s cheese and fig jam, to serve (optional) 1 Heat oven to 220C/200C fan and lightly dust a baking sheet with flour. Mix the flour, baking powder and a good pinch of salt in a large bowl. Add the butter and rub together with your fingertips until the mixture resembles fine breadcrumbs. Add the chopped walnuts and the milk, mix together using a cutlery knife until clumping together, then tip onto your work surface and squash together to form a ball – try not to work the dough too much or your scones will be heavy. Flatten the dough a little with your hand to make a disc roughly 3cm thick, then use a sharp knife to cut into 6 triangles. 2 Transfer to a baking sheet, brush with a little beaten egg, then place a walnut half on each scone. Bake for 15 mins until golden and puffed, then transfer to a wire rack to cool. Serve with soft goat’s cheese and fig jam, if you like. PER SERVING 278 kcals, protein 7g, carbs 28g, fat 15g, sat fat 6g, fibre 2g, sugar 2g, salt 0.8g November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 51 Pg48-51 Posh picnic for two_Nov14.indd 51 10/29/14 5:37 PM BBC good food October 14 - Friday brunch.pdf C HOME COOKING WEEKEND Cook in the great outdoors Alfresco special Whether you’re camping, glamping, caravanning or dune-bashing, these triedand-tested recipes make casual cooking a breeze. Recipes MARY CADOGAN Photographs DAVID MUNNS Niçoise pasta, recipe p55 November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 53 Pg53-56 Cook in the great outdoors_Nov14.indd 53 10/29/14 5:37 PM Rustle up a big breakfast Camping usually makes people hungrier, so breakfast has got to be hearty. Make a big batch of granola beforehand, plus a ready-weighed pancake mix that can be made up into a batter in minutes. When only a cooked brekkie will do, try this pan-fried variation of egg & chips. No-weigh cinnamon & yoghurt pancakes MAKES 4 BATCHES OF DRY MIX (EACH BATCH MAKES 10-12 SMALL PANCAKES) PREP 10 MINS COOK 20 MINS Easy FOR THE DRY MIX 500g self-raising flour 4 rounded tbsp golden caster sugar 1 rounded tbsp ground cinnamon TO MAKE ONE BATCH 125g pot natural yoghurt 1 large egg 2 tbsp milk A little butter, for frying Maple syrup or Nutella, to serve Anytime eggs & potatoes SERVES 2 PREP 10 MINS 2 of 5-a-day 40 MINS Easy COOK Gluten Free 400g new potatoes 4 tbsp olive oil 1 onion, thinly sliced 2-4 eggs Few large pinches of paprika Handful of parsley, chopped 1 Cut the potatoes into medium-sized chips, then dry in a clean tea towel. Heat the oil in a large frying pan, add the potatoes and onion, and cook fairly gently for 20-25 mins, stirring occasionally, until the potatoes are cooked and golden. Season well. 2 Make 2-4 spaces in the pan and crack in the eggs. Cook until the whites are set, then break the yolks. Sprinkle with paprika and parsley, and serve from the pan. 1 Before you go, tip the flour, sugar and cinnamon into a bowl and mix thoroughly to distribute the cinnamon evenly. Transfer to a rigid container and seal. 2 To make a batch of pancakes, tip the yoghurt into a bowl or jug and add the egg and milk, then mix with a fork. Rinse the yoghurt pot and dry well. Measure a scoop of dry mix into a bowl, make a well in the centre, and add the yoghurt mixture. Beat together to make a smooth batter. 3 Heat a frying pan with a knob of butter. Spoon tablespoons of mixture, a little apart, into the pan and cook until bubbles appear on the surface, about 2-3 mins. Flip them over and cook until firm to the touch, then transfer to a plate. Add a little more butter and continue to cook the pancakes until all the batter is used up. Serve with toppings of your choice. PER SERVING 457 kcals, protein 11g, PER PANCAKE (10) 75 kcals, protein 3g, carbs 37g, fat 30g, sat fat 5g, fibre 4g, carbs 12g, fat 2g, sat fat 1g, fibre 1g, sugar 3g, sugar 7g, salt 0.3g 54 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg53-56 Cook in the great outdoors_Nov14.indd 54 10/29/14 5:37 PM Quick & easy lunches No-fuss dinners Holiday lunches are often eaten on the go, so need to be quick and sustaining. The Deli couscous improves with keeping and packs plenty of energy while not weighing you down. Evenings are often the highlight of the trip, as you talk over the events of the day and make plans for the next over a drink and a good supper as the sun goes down. Niรงoise pasta SERVES 4 PREP 15 MINS COOK Fibre 2 of 5-a-day 15 MINS Easy 300g green beans 350g penne 3 tbsp olive oil 2 fat garlic cloves, chopped 70g can anchovies, drained and chopped 400g cherry tomatoes, halved Handful of black olives, stoned 160g can tuna, drained Juice of 1 lemon Handful of basil leaves Deli couscous SERVES 4-6 PREP 5 MINS 1 of 5-a-day COOK 10 MINS Easy 400g couscous 1 tbsp vegetable stock powder 5 tbsp olive oil 1 garlic clove, finely chopped Zest and juice 2 lemons 200g feta 400g deli veggies such as roasted peppers, artichokes, sundried tomatoes or aubergines, cut into bite-sized pieces Small bunch of basil leaves (optional) 1 Trim the beans and cut in half. Bring a large pan of water to the boil and add 1 tsp salt. Add the penne, bring to the boil and cook following pack instructions. Throw in the beans 5 mins before the end of the cooking time. 2 Meanwhile, heat the oil in a frying pan, add the garlic and anchovies, and fry gently for a couple of mins, stirring to dissolve the anchovies in the oil. Add the tomatoes and cook for a few mins until softened but not pulpy. 3 Drain the pasta and return to the pan, then add the tomato sauce and olives. Flake in the tuna and add the lemon juice and basil. Heat through and serve. PER SERVING 504 kcals, protein 24g, carbs 70g, Merguez beanpot SERVES 4 MINS Easy PREP 10 MINS Vit C Iron COOK 45 Calcium Folate Fibre 2 tbsp olive oil 500g merguez sausages, cut into bite-sized pieces 2 onions, chopped 1 red pepper, chopped 2 x 400g cans chopped tomatoes 2 tbsp each Worcestershire sauce, Dijon mustard and brown sugar 2 x 400g cans cannellini or red kidney beans, drained Coriander or parsley and tortillas, to serve fat 15g, sat fat 2g, fibre 6g, sugar 7g, salt 1.7g 1 Tip the couscous into a large bowl with the stock powder and mix well. Pour over boiling water to come 1cm above the level of the couscous, cover with a plate and leave for 5 mins. Fluff up with a fork, then add the oil, garlic and lemon zest and juice and fluff up again. 2 Cut the feta into small chunks and add to the couscous with the deli vegetables and basil, if using. Season and mix lightly. 1 Heat the oil in a large pan, add the sausages and fry until browned. Add the onions and pepper, and fry for 5 mins until softened. Add the tomatoes and 1 can of water, the Worcestershire sauce, mustard and sugar. Season and bring to the boil. Give it a stir, then reduce the heat, cover and simmer for 15 mins. 2 Stir in the beans, return to a simmer and cook for a further 5 mins. Scatter with parsley or coriander and serve in bowls with tortillas. PER SERVING (6) 522 kcals, protein 15g, carbs 47g, PER SERVING 658 kcals, protein 25g, carbs 47g, fat fat 29g, sat fat 8g, fibre 5g, sugar 2g, salt 2.3g 39g, sat fat 12g, fibre 10g, sugar 28g, salt 4.8g November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 55 Pg53-56 Cook in the great outdoors_Nov14.indd 55 10/29/14 5:37 PM HOME COOKING WEEKEND Ready in 20 minutes Take-along bake Oat & cranberry bars MAKES 12 PREP 15 MINS COOK 20-25 MINS Easy 100g self-raising flour 100g porridge oats 100g light muscovado sugar 100g dried cranberries 100g butter, melted 1 tbsp golden syrup 1 large egg, beaten 1 tsp vanilla or almond extract 3 tbsp flaked almonds Icing sugar, for dusting BBQ lamb steaks with garlicky white beans SERVES 2 PREP 10 MINS COOK 10 MINS Easy Fibre Iron 3 of 5-a-day Gluten Free 2 lamb leg steaks A little lemon juice 1 tbsp olive oil, plus a little extra 1 tsp chopped fresh rosemary or Â˝ tsp dried 1 onion, chopped 2 garlic cloves, chopped 200g cherry tomatoes, halved 400g can haricot beans, drained Handful of coriander leaves (optional) 1 Heat the barbecue, if using, and let the flames die down a little. Sprinkle the lamb with lemon juice, a little oil, rosemary and seasoning. Set aside. 2 Heat the oil in a pan, add the onion and fry for 5 mins until softened. Add the garlic and tomatoes and fry until the tomatoes are just softened but not pulpy. Stir in the beans and heat through. 3 Meanwhile, cook the lamb on the barbecue for 3-4 mins each side, or use a hot griddle pan. Roughly chop the coriander, if using, and scatter over the beans to serve. PER SERVING 463 kcals, protein 39g, carbs 1 Heat oven to 180C/160C fan. Line the base of a 20cm square tin with baking parchment. 2 In a large bowl, mix together the flour, oats, sugar and cranberries. Make a well in the centre and add the butter, golden syrup, egg and vanilla extract. Stir well until evenly damp. 3 Tip into the tin and spread out evenly. Sprinkle with almonds and bake for 20-25 mins until lightly golden. Cool in the tin for 10 mins, then cut into 6 one way and 2 the other to make 12 bars. Dust with icing sugar. 29g, fat 22g, sat fat 7g, fibre 10g, sugar 8g, PER BAR 216 kcals, protein 4g, carbs 27g, fat salt 0.3g 10g, sat fat 5g, fibre 2g, sugar 15g, salt 0.2g 56 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg53-56 Cook in the great outdoors_Nov14.indd 56 10/29/14 5:37 PM Rub it in Take your barbecue to the next level by making these spice rubs at home in minutes. Ryan Waddell, head chef at Reform Social and Grill, shares his favourite spice mixes. Photographs ANAS CHERUR Alfresco special Self-trained Scottish chef Ryan Waddell has been working in the culinary ﬁeld for 13 years. He has previously worked in Scotland, and also opened the Hoxton Grill and The Canbury Arms pub in London, before moving to Dubai to launch Reform Social and Grill as head chef. Cajun dry rub MAKES 250G PREP 10 MINS Easy Toast 1 tbsp cumin seeds in a dry pan and place 50g cayenne pepper, 125g smoked paprika, 1 tbsp onion powder, 1 tbsp garlic powder, 1 tsp peppercorn, 1 tbsp cumin seeds, 1 tsp dried oregano, and 1 tsp dried thyme, into a mortar and pestle. Grind until it becomes a powder and rub on beef or pork. Lemon and herb fish rub MAKES 250G PREP 10 MINS Easy Toast 1 tbsp fennel seeds in a dry pan, transfer to a mortar and pestle and grind to a powder. In a bowl, mix zest from 2 lemons, ½ tsp garlic powder, 1 tsp chopped fresh dill, 1 tsp chopped fresh thyme, 1 tsp chopped fresh tarragon, ½ tsp celery salt and 10ml olive oil. Coat the fish with this paste before cooking it. 58 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg58-59 Spice rubs_Nov14.indd 58 Sweet and spicy rub MAKES 250G PREP 5 MINS Easy Mix together 6 tbsp soft dark brown sugar, 2 tbsp smoked paprika, 2 tbsp chilli powder, 1 tsp cumin powder, 2 tsp garlic powder, Â˝ tsp ground nutmeg and 2 tsp salt. Rub on lamb or beef. Moroccan lamb rub MAKES 250G PREP 5 MINS Easy Blend 1 red onion (cut into 4 pieces), 20 mint leaves, 5 garlic cloves, 2 tsp ground cumin, 2 tsp ground coriander, 1 tsp ground turmeric, 1 tsp ground cinnamon, Â˝ tsp ground ginger, 1 tbsp fresh thyme, 2 tsp smoked paprika, 2 red chillies (deseeded), 1 tbsp salt, 1 tsp freshly ground black pepper, juice of 1 lemon, and 100ml olive oil, to make a paste. If possible, marinate the lamb for 30 mins before cooking. SHELF LIFE Five-spice mix How long these spice mixes will keep: The dry rubs like the five-spice, sweet and spicy, and Cajun will last for up to two months, when placed in an airtight container. The lemon and herb rub should be used within a day, while the Moroccan rub should be used within three days. MAKES 250G PREP 5 MINS Easy Toast 1 tbsp of fennel seeds in a dry pan and transfer to a mortar and pestle to grind to a fine powder. Mix this with 1 tbsp five-spice powder, 1 tbsp onion powder, 1 tbsp garlic powder, 100g soft light brown sugar and 100g salt. Smear this spice mix on chicken or pork. November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 59 Pg58-59 Spice rubs_Nov14.indd 59 10/30/14 2:46 PM ADVERTISING FEATURE A Spanish favourite In the second of a three-part series, Alvaro Roa, Sous Chef at Salero Tapas and Bodega, Kempinski Hotel Mall of the Emirates, shows us how to make a traditional seafood paella. STEP-BY-STEP GUIDE TO PREPARING THE SEAFOOD 1 2 FOR PRAWNS Use both your hands and pull apart the prawn head from the body. Cut the side of the prawn to carefully take out the vein. Keep the tail on. 1 FOR LANGOUSTINE Make a slit on top of the langoustine through the middle, but make sure it doesn’t cut through the flesh completely. 2 Seafood paella SERVES 4 \| PREP 10 MINS \| COOK 15 MINS Easy 50g white onions, chopped 50g cuttlefish 50ml olive oil 10g garlic, chopped 50g red peppers, brunoise 50g green bell peppers, brunoise 300g bomba rice 5g Spanish smoked paprika 1 tsp saffron 20g tomato sauce 250g clams, cleaned 250g mussels, cleaned 600ml fish stock 4 langoustines 10 medium size prawns Salt, to taste 6 snap peas, for garnish 6 red and yellow pepper strips, for garnish 6 lemon wedges, for garnish Pg60 Advertorial_SALERO_NOV14.indd 60 1 Sauté the chopped onions on medium fire until it becomes golden in color and all of the liquid disappears. Remove the onions from the heat and add the cubed cuttlefish to the pan. Sauté on high fire until the cuttlefish is slightly cooked, then add the onion and cook on medium heat until the cuttlefish is cooked but still tender. 2 Heat the pan and fry the garlic and bell peppers in the olive oil. Add the rice, smoked paprika, saffron and the tomato sauce. Continue cooking at medium heat for a couple of mins so that the rice absorbs all the flavour. Add the cuttlefish, mussels and clams, followed by the stock – the pan must be really hot in order to make it boil fast. Do not stir the paella. 3 Place the prawns on top of the rice to let it cook with the steam. The paella needs about 15 mins to cook. In case the rice at the top of the pan is not cooked, remove it from the fire and cover the pan for 10 mins with a cloth – the moisture will make it cook quicker. Set aside to rest for 5 mins before garnishing with the peppers, lemon wedges and snap peas. Remove the shell off the langoustine by pulling it out. 1 FOR CUTTLEFISH Cut the cuttlefish horizontally and open it out so that it is one large butterflied piece. 2 Slice and cube the cuttlefish. TIP: How to brunoise To brunoise vegetables, first cut into long strips, then quarter and dice to make tiny cubes. For restaurant reservations, Chef skills Learn to: Make bagels Baking guru and former Great British Bake Off winner Edd Kimber shares his foolproof recipe. Photographs DAVID MUNNS Edd’s bagels 7g sachet fast-action dried yeast 500g strong white flour, plus a little extra for shaping 2 tbsp light brown sugar A little oil, for greasing 1 tbsp bicarbonate of soda 1 egg white, to glaze Seeds of your choice for the topping z MAKES 10 PREP 30 MINS PLUS PROVING AND RISING COOK 35 MINS A little effort PER BAGEL 207 kcals, protein 7g, carbs 39g, fat 2g, sat fat none, fibre 1g, sugar 4g, salt 0.9g ien Now for a bit of sc of soda to ate on arb bic g din Ad to the tes the water contribu finished the of ’ ew ‘shine’ and ‘ch bagel crust. HOW TO FREEZE Once baked, you can freeze the bagels for up to two months. Simply wrap individually first in cling film and then foil. Defrost at room temperature. DIFFERENT TOPPINGS I’ve used sesame seeds on my bagels, but vary this as you like – try linseed, poppy, pumpkin or sunflower seeds, or a mixture. Food styling EMILY KYDD \| Styling VICTORIA ALLEN z 62 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg62-63 Learn to make bagels_Nov14.indd 62 10/29/14 5:39 PM Food styling EMILY KYDD \| Styling VICTORIA ALLEN HOME COOKING CHEF SKILLS Making bagels is surprisingly easy – it’s just a simple bread dough with two added steps. There are a number of different methods for adding the hole, but I’ve used what I think is the easiest. I always recommend boiling the uncooked dough, which does two things – it creates a darker colour and it gives the bagel its delicious chewiness. - Edd Kimber Mix the yeast with 300ml lukewarm water. Put the ﬂour, sugar and 1 tsp salt in a large bowl and mix together. Pour over the yeasty liquid and mix into a rough dough. Leave for around 30 mins or until risen and puffy, then remove the cling ﬁlm. n TIP To make sweet cinsunagamor extra bagels, add 1 tbsp namon cin d un gro tsp and 2 p 1. when mixing in ste Tip out onto the work surface and knead together until smooth and elastic – this should take around 10 mins. Use a ﬂoured ﬁnger to make a hole in the centre of each bagel, swirling it around to stretch the dough a little, but being careful not to knock out too much air. Heat oven to 180C/160C fan. Put the dough in a lightly oiled bowl and cover with a piece of oiled cling ﬁlm. Place in a warm area and leave until doubled in size, about 1 hr, then uncover and tip onto your work surface. Divide the dough into 10 portions and form into balls – weigh them to make sure that they’re all the same size. Line up on 2 parchment-lined baking trays and cover lightly with cling ﬁlm. Fill a large saucepan with water and bring to the boil. Add the bicarbonate of soda to alkalise the water (see box, previous page). Place 1-2 of the bagels in the water at a time and boil for 1 min (2 mins if you want a chewier bagel), turning over halfway through. Using a slotted spoon, lift out the bagels, drain well and place back on the baking tray. Brush the bagels with the egg white and sprinkle with your chosen seeds. Bake for 20-25 mins or until golden brown. Transfer to a wire rack to cool before eating. They will keep for 3-4 days, or freeze for 2 months (see How to freeze, previous page). November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 63 Pg62-63 Learn to make bagels_Nov14.indd 63 10/29/14 5:39 PM Delicious desserts Classic bakes go gluten-free and taste as good, if not better! Indulgent treat 64 B BB BBC BC Go G Good ood Foo Food d Middle Mid Midd ddle dd le East Eas ast November a Novemb Nov embe emb mber er 2014 20 20 201 014 Pg64-66 Delicious desserts_Nov14.indd 64 10/29/14 5:39 PM HOME COOKING WEEKEND Chocolate & pecan tart SERVES 6-8 PREP 15 MINS PLUS CHILLING COOK 1 HR 15 MINS Easy Gluten Free 175g dark chocolate 50g salted butter 4 eggs, beaten 250ml maple syrup 250g whole pecan nuts Vanilla ice cream or double cream, to serve FOR THE PASTRY 150g chilled butter, diced 250g gluten-free plain flour, plus a little extra for dusting 1Â˝ tsp xanthan gum 2 tbsp icing sugar 1 To make the pastry, rub butter into the flour until the mixture resembles fine breadcrumbs. Stir in the xanthan gum and icing sugar. Add 5 tbsp water, mixing with a cutlery knife until the dough starts to come together. Knead lightly, wrap in cling film and chill for at least 30 mins. 2 Heat oven to 180C/160C fan. Roll the pastry out on a lightly floured surface and use to line a 20cm round loosebottomed tart tin. Fill the tart with baking parchment and baking beans, bake for 25 mins, then remove the parchment and beans. Continue to cook for 10 mins until golden. Remove from the oven and cool. 3 Melt the chocolate and butter together in a large bowl over a pan of simmering water. Whisk the eggs and maple syrup together, then stir into the chocolate with most of the nuts. Pour into the tart shell, top with the remaining nuts, then bake for 30-40 mins until set. Cool and serve with vanilla ice cream or double cream. PER SERVING (6) 898 kcals, protein 13g, carbs 75g, fat 63g, sat fat 19g, fibre 4g, sugar 47g, salt 0.6g Also works in a 20cm round tin Biscuity lime pie SERVES 6 PREP 20 MINS Gluten Free COOK 40 MINS Easy 300g gluten-free ginger nut biscuits 100g butter, melted 3 egg yolks 50g golden caster sugar Zest and juice of 4 limes, plus thin lime slices (optional) to serve Zest and juice of 1 lemon 397g sweetened condensed milk 1 Heat oven to 180C/160C fan. Tip the biscuits into a food processor and blitz to crumbs. Add the butter and pulse to combine. Tip the mix into a fluted rectangular tart tin, about 10 x 34cm (or 20cm round tin) and press into the base and up the sides, right to the edge. Bake for 15 mins until crisp. 2 Meanwhile, tip the egg yolks, sugar, and lime and lemon zests into a bowl and beat with an electric whisk until doubled in volume. Pour in the condensed milk, beat until combined, then add the citrus juices. 3 Pour the mix into the tart case and bake for 20 mins until just set with a slight wobble in the centre. Leave to set completely, then remove from the tin, cool and chill. Serve in slices topped with thin lime slices, if you like. PER SERVING 633g kcals, protein 10g, carbs 85g, fat 30g, sat fat 15g, ďŹ bre 1g, sugar 64g, salt 0.93g November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 65 Pg64-66 Delicious desserts_Nov14.indd 65 10/29/14 5:39 PM HOME COOKING WEEKEND Baked lemon & vanilla rice pudding SERVES 4-6 PREP 5 MINS COOK Gluten Free 1 HR 35 MINS Easy Schooldays treacle sponge SERVES 4 PREP 30 MINS COOK Gluten Free 1 HR 30 MINS Easy 175g unsalted butter, softened, plus extra for greasing 3 tbsp golden syrup, plus extra for drizzling (optional) 1 tbsp gluten-free white breadcrumbs 175g golden caster sugar Zest of 1 lemon 3 large eggs, beaten 175g gluten-free plain flour 1 tsp gluten-free baking powder 2 tbsp milk Custard or clotted cream, to serve 1 Use a small knob of butter to heavily grease a 2-litre pudding basin. In a small bowl, mix the golden syrup with the breadcrumbs, then tip into the pudding basin. 2 Beat the butter with the sugar and zest until light and fluffy, then gradually add the eggs. Fold in the flour and baking powder, then finally add the milk. 3 Spoon the mix into the pudding basin. Cover with a double layer of buttered foil and baking paper, making a pleat in the centre to allow the pudding to rise. Tie the foil securely with string, then place in a steamer or large pan containing enough gently simmering water to come halfway up the sides of the basin. Steam for 1Â˝ hrs. Turn out onto a serving dish. Serve drizzled with extra golden syrup if you like, and lashings of custard or clotted cream. 600ml milk 450ml single cream Zest of 1 unwaxed lemon 1 vanilla pod, split 25g caster sugar 100g short-grain pudding rice 25g butter, diced 1 Heat oven to 140C/120C fan. Put the milk, cream, zest and vanilla pod in a saucepan. Gently bring to a simmer, then stir in the caster sugar and rice. 2 Transfer mixture to a shallow ovenproof dish and dot the butter on top. Bake for 30 mins, then stir well and cook for 1 hr more until the pudding is soft and creamy, and a golden skin has formed on top. The depth and type of dish you use will affect the cooking time, so if the pudding seems too loose, return to the oven and check every 10 mins or so. Once cooked, rest for 10 mins before serving. PER SERVING (6) 309 kcals, protein 6g, carbs PER SERVING 763 kcals, protein 10g, carbs 90g, 27g, fat 20g, sat fat 12g, fibre none, sugar 10g, fat 43g, sat fat 25g, fibre 1g, sugar 56g, salt 0.71g salt none 66 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg64-66 Delicious desserts_Nov14.indd 66 10/29/14 5:39 PM Vote now! Known for celebrating the best foodie brands and experiences in the region, the fifth annual BBC Good Food Middle East awards is now open for 2nd round of voting. Voting ends November 27. Turn over to find a list of all the shortlisted nominees. HOW IT WORKS In the nomination phase, which runs from August 4 -September 30, we are calling consumers to nominate their favourites in each category online. After September 30, the top ten nominees in each category (with the highest votes) will be listed on our website. Between October 15 and November 27, consumers will then get to vote again for the winner, from that list. The winners will be revealed at our gala awards event in January 2015. * Winners for Restaurant of the Year (Dubai & Abu Dhabi), Best New Restaurant (Dubai & Abu Dhabi), Best sustainable restaurant and Chef of the Year will be chosen by an independent judging panel. Mystery Box sponsor September 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 67 Pg67 Awards Page Opener_Nov14.indd 67 10/30/14 2:46 PM SHORTLISTED NOMINEES RESTAURANTS - FINE DINING CHEF OF THE YEAR J AMRISH SOOD – Rang Mahal by Atul Kochhar, JW Marriott Marquis Dubai J ANDY TOH – Hakkasan Dubai, Jumeirah Emirates Towers J COLIN CLAGUE – Qbara Dubai J DARREN VELVICK – Table 9 by Darren Velvick, Hilton Dubai Creek J IZU ANI – La Serre Bistro & Boulangerie, Vida Downtown Dubai J JUSTIN GALEA – Le Royal Meridien, Abu Dhabi J LIJ HERON – Lexington Grill, Waldorf Astoria Ras Al Khaimah J LUIGI VESPERO – The Rib Room, Jumeirah Emirates Towers Hotel J REIF BIN OTHMAN – Zuma J ROBERTO SEGURA – The Act Dubai, Shangri-La Hotel, Dubai RESTAURANT OF THE YEAR DUBAI ABU DHABI J GAUCHO, DIFC J HAKKASAN DUBAI, Jumeirah Emirates Towers J LA PETIT MAISON, DIFC J LA SERRE BISTRO AND BOULANGERIE, Vida Downtown Dubai J NOBU, Atlantis the Palm J RANG MAHAL BY ATUL KOCHHAR JW Marriott Marquis Dubai J RHODES TWENTY 10, Le Royal Meridien Beach Resort and Spa J ROBERTO’S, DIFC J TRAITEUR, Park Hyatt Dubai J ZUMA, DIFC DUBAI J BÃ, Fairmont the Palm J CUT BY WOLFGANG PUCK, The Address Hotel Downtown J DON ALFONSO 1890, Shangri-La Hotel, Dubai J EL SUR, The Westin Dubai Mina Seyahi Beach Resort and Spa BEST EUROPEAN RESTAURANT J BORD EAU, Shangri-La Hotel, Qaryat Al Beri J BRASSERIE ANGELIQUE, Jumeirah Etihad Towers J ELIA, Majestic Hotel Tower Dubai J LA PETIT MAISON, DIFC J LA SERRE BISTRO AND BOULANGERIE, Vida Downtown Dubai J MARKET BY JEAN-GEORGES, W Doha J PICANTE, Four Points by Sheraton Bur Dubai J REFLETS PAR PIERRE GAGNAIRE, InterContinental Dubai J SOCIAL BY HEINZ BECK, Waldorf Astoria Palm Jumeirah J TRAITEUR, Park Hyatt Dubai BEST LATIN AMERICAN RESTAURANT BEST STEAKHOUSE J THE FORGE, The Ritz Carlton Abu Dhabi J GAUCHO, DIFC J HUNTERS, The Westin Mina Seyahi Beach Resort and Spa J LEXINGTON GRILL, Waldorf Astoria Ras Al Khaimah J MARCO PIERRE WHITE STEAKHOUSE & GRILL, Fairmont Bab Al Bahr J PRIME 68, JW Marriott Marquis Dubai J RUTH’S CHRIS STEAK HOUSE, The Address Dubai Marina J THE MEAT CO. Madinat Jumeirah J THE RIB ROOM, Jumeirah Emirates Towers J WEST 14TH, Oceana Beach Club, Palm Jumeirah J AGORA, Grand Heritage Doha Hotel And Spa J CHI’ZEN, Oryx Rotana Doha J GORDON RAMSAY, The St Regis Doha J HAKKASAN DOHA, The St. Regis Doha J HWANG, Intercontinental Doha J IL TEATRO, Four Seasons Hotel Doha J LA PIAZZA, Al Bidda Boutique Hotel J LA VARENNE FRENCH BRASSERIE, West Bay J MARKET BY JEAN GEORGES, W Doha J PAPER MOON, W Doha BEST NEW RESTAURANT J FÜMÉ, Pier 7 Dubai Marina J IZEL, Conrad Dubai J QBARA, Wafi J TOKO, Vida Downtown Dubai J TORTUGA MEXICAN KITCHEN, Mina A’ Salam, Madinat Jumeirah J YUAN, Atlantis the Palm J ASADO, The Palace Downtown Dubai J CHAMAS, InterContinental Abu Dhabi J FREVO, Fairmont The Palm J GAUCHO, DIFC J LA PARILLA, Jumeirah Beach Hotel, Dubai J MAYA, Le Meridien Beach Resort and Spa J PACHANGA, Hilton Dubai Jumeirah Resort J THE ACT Dubai, Shangri-La Hotel Dubai J TORO TORO, Grosvenor House Dubai J TORTUGA MEXICAN KITCHEN, Madinat Jumeirah DOHA J 55&5TH THE GRILL, The St. Regis Saadiyat Island Resort J BORD EAU, Shangri-La Hotel, Qaryat Al Beri J BRASSERIE ANGÉLIQUE, Jumeirah at Etihad Towers J CATALAN, Rosewood Abu Dhabi J HAKKASAN, Emirates Palace Abu Dhabi J INDIGO, Beach Rotana Abu Dhabi J MARCO PIERRE WHITE STEAKHOUSE & GRILL, Fairmont Bab Al Bahr J PACHAYLEN, Eastern Mangroves Hotel & Spa by Anantara J RHODES 44, The St Regis Abu Dhabi J VASCO’S, Hilton Abu Dhabi ABU DHABI J AMALFI, Le Royal Meridien Abu Dhabi J AVASA, The St. Regis Saadiyat Island Resort J BENTLEY BISTRO & BAR, The Galleria J BOA STEAKHOUSE, Eastern Mangroves Promenade J CARAMEL RESTAURANT & LOUNGE, Abu Dhabi BEST ASIAN RESTAURANT J BENIHANA RESTAURANT, Amwaj Rotana Hotel J BENJARONG Thai Restaurant, Dusit Thani Dubai J BLUE JADE, Ritz Carlton Dubai J HAKKASAN, Jumeirah Emirates Towers Dubai J HOI AN, Shangri-La Hotel, Abu Dhabi J OKKU, The H Dubai J QUEST, Jumeirah Etihad Towers J THAI KITCHEN, Park Hyatt Dubai J TONG THAI, JW Marriott Marquis Dubai J UMAI, The Oberoi, Dubai BEST CONTEMPORARY BRITISH RESTAURANT J D&A, Jumeirah Beach Hotel J HARVESTERS PUB, Crowne Plaza Dubai J MARCO PIERRE WHITE GRILL, Conrad Dubai J REFORM SOCIAL & GRILL DUBAI, The Lakes Club J RHODES TWENTY 10, Le Royal Meridien Beach Resort and Spa J RIVINGTON GRILL, Souk al Bahar J SCOTTS, Jumeirah at Etihad Towers J TABLE 9 BY DARREN VELVICK, Hilton Dubai Creek J THE IVY DUBAI, Jumeirah Emirates Towers J WHEELER’S OF ST JAMES’S, DIFC BEST INDIAN RESTAURANT J AMALA, Jumeirah Zabeel Saray J ANANTA, The Oberoi Hotel Dubai J INDEGO BY VINEET, Grosvenor House Dubai J IZ, Grand Hyatt Dubai J LA PORTE DES INDES, The Address Dubai Mall J OPTIONS, DWTC J PATIALA, Souk Al Bahar J RANG MAHAL BY ATUL KOCHHAR, JW Marriott Marquis Dubai J SPICE MELA, Rosewood Abu Dhabi J USHNA, Abu Dhabi J KOI RESTAURANT & LOUNGE, The Collection, Saadiyat Island J MARKET KITCHEN, Le Royal Meridien Abu Dhabi J THE CAPITAL GRILL, Dusit Thani Abu Dhabi J THE FOUNDRY, Southern Sun Abu Dhabi J ZUMA, The Galleria Mall BEST MIDDLE EASTERN RESTAURANT J AL NAFOORAH, Jumeirah Emirates Towers J ATAYEB, Yas Viceroy Abu Dhabi J EWAAN, The Palace Downtown Dubai J LEVANTINE, Atlantis The Palm J NA3NA3, The Address Hotel Dubai Mall J NAWWARA, JW Marriott Marquis Dubai J OTTOMANS, Grosvenor House Dubai J QBARA, Wafi City J SHABESTAN, Radisson Blu Dubai Deira Creek J TAGINE, One & Only Royal Mirage BEST BRUNCH J AL BAHOU FRIDAY BRUNCH, Mövenpick Hotel Ibn Battuta Gate J AL QASR FRIDAY BRUNCH, Madinat Jumeirah J BUBBALICIOUS, The Westin Dubai Mina Seyahi Beach Resort and Spa J FIZZ FACTORY ROYALE, Le Royal Meridien Abu Dhabi J FRIDAY BRUNCH, Radisson Blu Hotel, Dubai Deira Creek J FRIDAY FORK & CORK BRUNCH, CRESCENDO, Anantara Dubai The Palm Resort & Spa J THE BIG BRUNCH at Eastern Mangroves Hotel & Spa by Anantara J JAZZ & BUBBLES FRIDAY BRUNCH, The Talk and Soul Mövenpick JBR J TORO TORO, Grosvenor House Dubai J TRAITEUR BRUNCH, Park Hyatt Dubai BEST ITALIAN RESTAURANT J ALTA BADIA, Jumeirah Emirates Towers J BICE, Hilton JBR J BUSSOLA, The Westin Dubai Mina Seyahi Beach Resort and Spa J CERTO, Radisson Blu Hotel Dubai Media City J FRANKIE’S ITALIAN BAR & GRILL, Al Fattan Tower, JBR J PAX ITALIAN RESTAURANT, Dusit Thani Dubai J POSITANO, JW Marriott Marquis Dubai J ROBERTO’S Restaurant & Lounge DIFC J RONDA LOCATELLI, Altantis, The Palm J ROSSO, Amwaj Rotana, Log on to bbcgoodfoodme.com/awards/2014 to vote for your favourite restaurants and food brands of the region. Pg68-69 Awards page DPS_Nov2014 v2.indd 68 10/30/14 5:25 PM BEST SEAFOOD RESTAURANT BEST EXPERIENTIAL DINING VENUE J AL MAHARA, Burj al Arab Dubai J BICE MARE, Souk Al Bahar, Downtown J FISH MARKET, Radisson Blu Hotel Dubai Deira Creek J FLOOKA, Dubai Marine Beach Resort and Spa J OSSIANO, Atlantis The Palm J PEARLS & CAVIAR, Shangri-La Hotel, Qaryat Al Beri Abu Dhabi J PIERCHIC, Al Qasr J SAYAD, Emirates Palace Abu Dhabi J SEAGRILL ON 25° RESTAURANT & LOUNGE, Fairmont The Palm J TURQUOIZ, The St.Regis Saadiyat Island Resort J BATEAUX DUBAI, Dubai Creek J BLUE FLAME, Jumeirah Creekside Hotel J DINING BY DESIGN, Qasr al Sarab Desert Resort by Anantara J GHAF KITCHEN, Various locations J JAZZ@PIZZAEXPRESS, JLT J DINE AROUND THE WORLD TASTING EVENING, Mövenpick Hotel Ibn Battuta Gate J MUSIC HALL, Jumeirah Zabeel Saray J EPICUREAN ESCAPADES at Jumeirah Etihad Towers J THE ACT Dubai, Shangri-La Hotel Dubai J URBAN PICNIC, 3in1, Vida Downtown Dubai J BAKER & SPICE DUBAI, Dubai J BESTRO, Lafayette Gourmet, Dubai Mall J COMPTOIR 102, Jumeirah J ORGANIC FOODS & CAFE, UAE J QBARA, Wafi City J THE CHINA CLUB, Radisson Blu Hotel Dubai Deira Creek J THE FARM, Al Barari J TRAITEUR, Park Hyatt Dubai J URBAN BISTRO, Media City J RANGOLI, Yas Island Rotana RESTAURANTS - CASUAL DINING BEST INDIAN RESTAURANT BEST ASIAN RESTAURANT BEST INTERNATIONAL RESTAURANT J CARLUCCIO’S, UAE J THE CHEESECAKE FACTORY, UAE J CRAVIN’ CAJUN, Novotel Al Barsha Dubai J EGGSPECTATION, JBR J JAMIE’S ITALIAN, Jumeirah Beach Hotel J LAFAYETTE GOURMET, Dubai Mall J MARKETTE RESTAURANT, Dubai Mall J SALERO TAPAS & BODEGA, Kempinski Hotel MOE J SOCIAL HOUSE, Dubai Mall J THE FARM, Al Barari J CHOP SUEY, Dubai J CHOPSTIX, Marco Polo Hotel J LEMONGRASS Thai Restaurant, UAE J LITTLE BANGKOK, Dubai J NOODLE HOUSE, UAE J P.F.CHANG’S, UAE J PINGPONG, Dubai mall J SIZZLING WOK, Citymax Hotel J SMILING BKK, Dubai J YO SUSHI, UAE J ANTIQUE BAZAAR, Four Points by Sheraton BurDubai J ASHA’S, UAE J BARBECUE DELIGHTS, JBR J CALICUT PARAGON, Dubai J CLAYPOT, City Max Hotels Bur Dubai J GAZEBO RESTAURANT, Dubai J MAHESH LUNCH HOME, Bur Dubai J RAVI’S, Satwa J THE BOMBAY, Marco Polo Hotel J ZAFRAN, UAE BEST CAFÉ BEST MIDDLE EASTERN RESTAURANT J ALMAZ BY MOMO, Harvey Nichols Mall of Emirates J ARZ LEBANON, UAE J BAIT AL MANDI, UAE J KARAM BEIRUT, Dubai J LEILA, Dubai J MAYRIG Boulevard Restaurant, Dubai J REEM AL BAWADI, dubai J WAFI GOURMET. Wafi Dubai J ZAATAR W ZEIT, UAE J ZAROOB RESTAURANT, Dubai J ANGELINA, Dubai Mall J BAKER & SPICE DUBAI, Dubai J BOOKMUNCH CAFE, Al Wasl Square J CAFÉ BATEEL, UAE J JONES THE GROCER, UAE J THE LIME TREE CAFÉ, Dubai J MORE CAFÉ, UAE J PASCAL TEPPER FRENCH BAKERY, Dubai J PAUL CAFÉ, UAE J THE ONE, Khalidiya Theatre and Restaurant HOME COOKING - INGREDIENTS FAVOURITE SUPERMARKET FAVOURITE SPECIALTY FOOD STORE J AL MAYA J CARREFOUR J CHOITHRAMS J GEANT J HYPERPANDA J LULU HYPERMARKET J PARK N SHOP J SPINNEYS J UNION COOPERATIVE J WAITROSE J BIORGANIC J GALLERIES LAFAYETTE J WAFI GOURMET J GREEN HEART ORGANIC GROCER J JONES THE GROCER J MARKET & PLATTERS J MARKS AND SPENCER J ORGANIC FOODS & CAFE J RIPE FOOD & CRAFT MARKET J THE FARMERS MARKET ON THE TERRACE FAVOURITE DAIRY BRAND J AL AIN DAIRY J AL RAWABI J ALMARAI J DANONE J KERRY GOLD J LACNOR J LURPAK J MARMUM J RACHEL’S J TOTAL YOGHURT FAVOURITE OLIVE OIL BRAND J BARBERA J BERTOLLI J BORGES J CARLUCCIO’S J FIGARO J FILIPPO BERIO J JAMIE’S J RAHMA J RAFAEL SALGADO J SERJELLA FAVOURITE STORE CUPBOARD PRODUCT BRAND J CALIFORNIA GARDEN J DOWN TO EARTH ORGANIC J GREEN GIANT J GYMA J NESTLE J PAXO J SACLA J SHAAN J SPINNEYS FOOD SPICES J SUNFOODS FAVOURITE TEA BRAND J ALOKOZAY J BROOK BOND RED LABEL TEA J DILMAH J JING TEA J LIPTON FAVOURITE JUICE BRAND J PG TIPS J TEAPIGS J TETLEY’S J TWG J TWININGS J ALAIN MILLIAT JAL MARAI J AL RAWABI J BARAKAT J CERES J DEL MONTE J FLORIDA’S NATURAL JMASAFI J OCEAN SPRAY J TROPICANA FAVOURITE COFFEE BRAND J ALI CAFÉ J COFFEE PLANET J DAVIDOFF J ILLY J LAVAZZA J MAXWELL HOUSE J NESCAFÉ J NESPRESSO J RAW COFFEE J STARBUCKS HOME COOKING - ACCESSORIES FAVOURITE LARGE KITCHEN APPLIANCE BRAND J ARISTON J HITACHI J INDESIT J LG J MIELE J SAMSUNG J SIEMENS J SMEG J TEKA J WHIRLPOOL FAVOURITE SMALL KITCHEN APPLIANCE BRAND J BLACK & DECKER J BOSCH J BRAUN J CUISINART J KENWOOD BEST FOOD BLOGGER J DEBBIE ROGERS – Coffee Cakes and Running J DEBBIE STEEDMAAN – Geordie Armani J DIMA AL SHARIF – Dimasharif Pg68-69 Awards page DPS_Nov2014 v2.indd 69 FAVOURITE TABLEWARE STORE J KITCHENAID J MAGIMIX J MOULINEX J PANASONIC J PHILIPS J HESSA K. AL KHALIFA – Hkfinds J ISHITA SAHA – IshitaUnblogged J JASMINE PEREIRA – Peartreediaries J BLOOMINGDALE’S J CRATE AND BARREL J GALLERIES LAFAYETTE J HOME CENTRE J IKEA J JASHANMAL J LAKELAND J TAVOLA J THE ONE J ZARA HOME NEW J RUPAL BHATIKAR – Foodienfabulous J SALLY PROSSER – My Custard Pie J SAMANTHA WOOD – Foodiva J SARAH WALTON – The Hedonista 10/30/14 5:25 PM t e m r u Go Lifestyle Travel, global cuisines, health, interviews, kitchens and more IN THIS SECTION ✴ Smart tips for fending off diabetes with food, P72 ✴ An interview with über chef Wolfgang Pück P74 ✴ Your ultimate guide to Formula 1 weekend in Abu Dhabi, P83 ✴ A journey into Turkish cuisine, P86 November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 71 Pg71 Gourmet Opener_Nov14.indd 71 Eat to beat Diabetes Your complete guide to what, how and when to eat, to prevent the onset of this increasingly prevalent lifestyle condition. T he fact that recent years have seen a rapid rise in Type 2 diabetes across all age groups, right around the globe, isn’t exactly breaking news. Indeed, the Diabetes Atlas from International Diabetes Federation (IDF) published in November 2013 suggests that 382 million people worldwide, are living with diabetes. But what needs to make the headlines is – what can we do to curb this alarming statistic? The issue is particularly pressing in this region – according to IDF research, 18.98 per cent of the UAE population is living with diabetes. As a nation, this ranks the UAE 15th worldwide, with many neighbouring countries in the top ten. These statistics indicate that the region has high risk factors for diabetes, pointing mainly to rising obesity rates and physical inactivity. This Diabetes Awareness month, we look at the dietary dos and don’ts you need to follow, as well as offer lifestyle tips from the experts to ensure you don’t become just another statistic! Up to WHAT IS DIABETES? Diabetes is a long-term condition that causes high blood sugar levels because the body is not producing enough insulin or is not able to use insulin properly. Insulin is a hormone secreted by the pancreas, and without insulin the body cannot use sugar in the correct way. There are two main types of diabetes: w Type 1 diabetes is where the body does not produce insulin. This is a genetic condition and necessitates treatment with insulin. 58% of type 2 diabetes is preventable by adopting a balanced diet and increasing physical activity. w8]TIHMEFIXIW is mainly caused by an unhealthy, inactive lifestyle and excess weight gain. In this type of diabetes, there is insulin in the body, but the body becomes resistant to it so the insulin becomes largely ineffective. Traditionally, type 2 diabetes is referred to as adult-onset diabetes, but in recent years, with diabetes reaching epidemic levels, children as young as seven are developing the condition. This is essentially a lifestyle condition that can be prevented. 72 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg72-73 Nutrition Diabetes_Nov14.indd 72 10/29/14 5:45 PM GOURMET LIFESTYLE NUTRITION More or Less EAT MORE w Fibre: Include more foods that are highh iin fibre like whole-grain bread, oats, lentils, beans, peas, fresh fruits and vegetables. w Fruit & veg: Eat a rainbow of colours, as each fruit or vegetable colour holds a different health benefit. Choose red, orange and dark green leafy vegetables, such as tomatoes, sweet potatoes and broccoli in your main dishes and snacks. Gen up on GI The Glycemic Index (GI) is a tool that ranks carbohydrate-containing foods according to their effect on blood glucose levels. High GI foods are quickly absorbed by your body and raise your blood sugar levels rapidly. Whereas, low GI foods are slowly absorbed by your body and raise your blood sugar levels gradually â€“ which is better for preventing imbalance of sugar levels and lowering diabetes risk. t Opt for multi-grain, whole wheat, rye or pumpernickel breads, avoid refined flour. tSelect long-grain rice like Basmati, whole-wheat pasta and grains like bulghur, and barley. t While fruit and veg are all good for you, bear in mind fruits such as watermelon, mangoes, dates, bananas and grapes are all considered high-GI. Oranges, strawberries, raspberries, blueberries, apples, kiwi and cherries fall in the low-GI range. SMART SHORTCUTS EAT LESS t Add tofu, bulgur, or brown rice to casseroles and cut down on the amount of meat. t Use smaller amounts of stronger cheeses, instead of more mild cheese to decrease quantity butter, ghee, and mayonnaise, and choose lower-fat options such as skinless chicken, lean meats and trim fats on meat. w Sugar: Limit your intake of â€˜sugaryâ€™ foods like cakes, cookies, honey, sugar, and regular soft drinks. w Salt: Reduce â€˜saltyâ€™ foods like processed cheeses and meat, avoid adding salt while cooking and do not add salt direct from the shaker â€“ rather use a spoon so you can see exactly how much you are adding. without sacrificing on flavour. t Chill a soup or stew to bring the fat to the top for easy removal before re-heating and enjoying. w Fat: Avoid fried food, saturated fats such as its or 1 portion of fruua ls: eq vegeta bles HRIIU XLW Â‡$PHG LXPSLHF J RUĂľFXSI UX LWVD ODGU VR EOH WD JH YH DZ Â‡FXSU ĂľFXSFRRNHGYHJHWD EOHV TIPS FOR HEALTHIER COOKING w Make time to schedule weekly meal plans, and give yourself time the time to buy the right ingredients in advance. w Choose seasonal produce and pick fruits and vegetables of the brightest colours; in general, the darker the colour, the higher the nutrients â€“ think bright red peppers, or dark green broccoli. w Opt for cooking methods that reduce or eliminate high fat ingredients from your favourite recipes. You donâ€™t have to stop eating your favourite dishes â€“ just swap certain ingredients for healthier ones, and try steaming, baking and grilling instead of frying. w Cut down on salt, and store-bought sauces, and use fresh herbs and spices instead for flavour â€“ everything from parsley, sage, rosemary, and thyme to whole and ground spices, such as cinnamon, cloves, and nutmeg add flavour. Build your plate Rem ember! Portion control is an important part of healthy eating, Most plates are successful weight loss and weight management. 12 inches wide, but the pl An easy way to make sure youâ€™re eating the right amount is ate method uses a 9-inch pl called the â€˜plateâ€™ method: Fill Â˝ your plate with non-starchy ate. This means you need to leav vegetables, like spinach, carrots, lettuce, greens, cabbage, e space around the outs broccoli, cauliflower, tomatoes; Fill Âź of your plate with ide of your 12-inch plate to low GI starches, like rice, â€˜al denteâ€™ pasta, fibre-rich cereals; make sure youâ€™re not eatin Fill Âź of your plate with lean meat or non-meat protein, g too much. like fish, chicken, meat, eggs. The remaining wedge is for healthy fats, such as olive oil, avocados, nuts and seeds. 1 serving of fruit and 1 cup of low-fat milk may accompany your meal. Reduce the risk Just 10 minutes of moderate-intensity physical activity three or more times a day together with a balanced diet can result in the prevention, management and even reversal of diabetes. A healthy diet and a brisk walk for 30 minutes every day has been shown to reduce the risk of type 2 diabetes by up to 58 per cent. 'LG<RX .QRZ" $OPRVWSHUFHQW of people living ZLWKGLDEHWHVDUH QRWDZDUHRI WKHLUFRQGLWLRQ GET INVOLVED Hereâ€™s how you can do your bit for diabetes awareness this month: t5IF#FBU%JBCFUFT8BMLBUIPOPO/PWFNCFSJTPSHBOJTFECZ-BOENBSL(SPVQoUIFXBMLXJMM be held at Zaabeel Park, and you can get your blood glucose checked on the day, as well as a healthy breakfast, while the children listen to music and take part in childrenâ€™s activities. Free entry for all, visit beatdiabetes.me. t8BMLJTBGVOĂĽMMFEXBMLBUIPOBSPVOEUIFLN'USBDLBU:BT.BSJOB$JSDVJUTDIFEVMFEGPS /PWFNCFSUI QBSUPGUIF%JBCFUFT,OPXMFEHF"DUJPODBNQBJHOMBVODIFECZNQFSJBM$PMMFHF -POEPO%JBCFUFT$FOUSF%PPSTPQFOBUQN XXXXBMLDPN 5IFZIBWFBMTPMBVODIFEB TPDJBMNFEJBA4IPFĂĽFDBNQBJHO5BLF"4UFQ'PS%JBCFUFT+VTUUBLFBQJDUVSFPGZPVJOZPVS walking shoes, and post on Instagram or Twitter. Information courtesy Imperial College London Diabetes Centre, www.icldc.ae November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 73 Pg72-73 Nutrition Diabetes_Nov14.indd 73 10/29/14 5:45 PM modern cooking with Michelin star class – with a firm focus on produce, ingredients and simplicity. The mix was irresistible. Then the empire building began – over 20 fine dining restaurants, 40 restaurants in the US premium catering services sector, more than 80 Wolfgang Puck Express operations, kitchen and food merchandise, cookbooks and canned foods. Now, with Cut by Wolfgang Puck at The Address Downtown already a hot seat in the city, a restaurant in the pipeline in Bahrain, and a Dubai airport outlet scheduled for 2015, he is set to take over this part of the world. Excerpts from an interview: With more than 20 restaurants around the world, plus a host of books and TV appearances, Austrian-American chef to the stars, Wolfgang Puck is far from crossing the finish line. As he expands his empire further into this region with the recent opening of his Dubai restaurant, and more to come, he tells Dave Reeder why he is still excited by life. W olfgang Puck might be excused for wanting to slow down a little, especially as he approaches his mid60s, so there is definitely some reordering of priorities. But, having come as far as he has, from his hometown in Austria, he is still raring to go. His early life in the small town of Sankt Veit an der Glan wasn’t happy. His father abandoned his mother before he was born and he disliked his stepfather, so much so that he left home as soon as he could, working almost five years in a kitchen. At that point his life changed – he realised this was the job he wanted for life and moved to the USA, beginning a starry rise up the industry in the mid-1970s. The time was right for a young, ambitious chef and Puck’s bold reinvention of Californian food made it ideal for the glitzy LA celebrity audience that he cultivated – his bold, clean style is credited with helping redefine the fine dining scene in the US. The rest of the country watched and adopted much of the West Coast style and concepts. At the age of 26, he was chef and part owner at Ma Maison. His next move, opening Spago on Sunset Strip, sealed his success and combined What are the particular challenges here? Well, produce of course. On my next visit, I’m going out to the farms and to Oman, I hear they have some wonderful organic farms – I’ll make a trip back just for that. Across the region, I think there is great potential, I remember being very excited by the fish market in Bahrain. I grew up on a farm so vegetables and fruits have always been a big part of my life. When we opened Spago 32 years ago, the first thing I did was look for a farmer who could grow our produce, so I found the Chino farm. Hopefully, we’ll do the same thing in the Middle East. But it’s very different from the produce scene in California, isn’t it? You know, there are similar challenges everywhere. Look at Scandinavia and the whole shift to foraging - amazing food but there are no fresh vegetables in winter. Just like when I was growing up in Austria, my family had a cellar and stored food. Now we’re all so used to being able to get anything at any time… So, what got you into food in the ﬁrst place? It seems like I was born a chef since my mother was one. It was a very easy decision for me to step Additional inputs from SUDESHNA GHOSH \| Photographs ANAS CHERUR, SUPPLIED Cut to the chase Why do you think this was the right time to enter the Middle East market? I was here about eight years ago as a guest of a member of the Abu Dhabi royal family to look at possibilities in the capital but the market wasn’t ready. I remember we stayed at Jumeirah Beach in a villa and the chef served quite ‘international’ food. Now I think the time is right and we’ll do what we always do which is do things better than anyone else. We expect lots of others to follow us here. I do believe that we change a market. Look at Cut in Singapore – we got all the details right and now it’s the number one restaurant for meat in Asia. Same in London – Cut is still the best. 74 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg74-76 Chef Interview Wolfgang Puck_Nov14.indd 74 10/30/14 2:48 PM Additional inputs from SUDESHNA GHOSH \| Photographs ANAS CHERUR, SUPPLIED GOURMET LIFESTYLE INTERVIEW into the same profession since I was always in the kitchen beginning around the time I was eight years old. But to be honest, it gave me an opportunity to get away from my stepfather. We did not have a good relationship. It was really at Baumanière in the south of France where I found my mentor whose name was Raymond Thuilier. He was really the inspiration for me to open my own restaurant and to write books – he was someone I wanted to emulate. Plus, he loved the way I cooked. What’s your chief characteristic, would you say, and how do you deﬁne your culinary philosophy? Most of us have to be reactive in life, leaving it to the youngsters to take the risks. However, for me I still like to take risks, as we did with Spago. In terms of philosophy, I believe in only buying the best ingredients and keeping it simple. What is the secret of your success? It’s all about repetition. In this business, it’s hard work and talent that work together to make success, but the more hard work the better. The more you’re able to replicate quality the better. Opening a new restaurant like this is like putting on a play with all the excitement, but we have to deliver service after service. It’s also important to have original ideas – I think, back in 1982, that we were about the first at Spago to have an open kitchen. I think my pizza with goat’s cheese was a game changer and so on. What makes a celebrity chef? And how do you strike that balance between being a celebrity and being a chef? Early on after we opened Spago, we had all the big stars coming to our restaurant so we were known as a celebrity hangout. As for me becoming well known, though I hate the term ‘celebrity chef,’ I guess television has really helped chefs all over the world get recognition, but at the end, it’s about the food and hospitality.We are relatively well known today throughout the world but we are only as good as our last meal, so even today with many restaurants around the globe we’re building an experimental kitchen in LA so I can try and perfect new recipes – it’ll be a centre of innovation. Tell us more about it! We will be using lots of new technology, which will allow us to discover the absolute best way to cook anything. People ask is this like the elBulli research lab but it’s not really – don’t get me wrong, I love Ferran’s work and expertise but I couldn’t say which single dish of his I’d want to eat. What we’re doing instead, for example, is to take salmon and work out that the best way, the most consistent way to get quality is to cook it and then finish it on the grill. So you’re getting back to what you love, the cooking? Yes, nowadays you can’t be a chef without also being a businessman. If you haven’t got good numbers, then you’re out of business. What I do now is more complicated than the life I used to have, but I still love simple pleasures like going to a fish market or a farm. I have one rule, though – I go home every day at 5pm and cook for my children. That I really enjoy. Food for me is more enjoyable than being in the office, but the financial side is part of the deal and, frankly, I don’t hate it so much that I won’t do it. Are you like most chefs, dreaming one day of a simple place on the beach, grilling ﬁsh and cooking barefoot? Not exactly. I’d like a small restaurant that would only be for my friends. Invitation only. Of the various brands and options, why did you decide on Cut for Dubai? It’s perhaps the easiest concept to roll out to multiple locations – meat and fish kept simple but delivered with perfect execution. I’m a great fan of simplicity – young chefs tend to add to much, to overcomplicate. Give me a simple grill. It’s food that you can eat often, maybe several times a week. As food gets more and more complicated, you want to eat it less often. At the end of the day, you need to ask: is this food for the customer or the critic? I believe that customers are our greatest critics. So customers are always right? What’s your take on the whole fad for social media? Everybody now in some sense is a food critic – it’s a crazy thing but customers want it. As a young chef, I didn’t need the media; now, I’m on Twitter. But for me, personally, I’d rather read a newspaper! What keeps you interested and excited? The fact there’s always something new, I think. For instance, this outlet – I’ll probably be here six times in the first year and then reduce that. The thing to remember is that I’m not alone – I have a great team and they develop all the time. I do what I love to do but I realise I can’t keep up the pace. Now I’m 64, I need to reorder my life a little so, instead of making specific trips, now I’ll combine them, so maybe LA to London to Dubai to Singapore. A round-trip twice a year would let me spend more time with my family, which is important to me. What would you have done if you hadn’t been a chef? An artist. Art is something I love even though I don’t really do it. I think it’s important that when you do something, you do it well. When you ﬁrst moved to America after working in Michelin-starred restaurants in Europe, were you surprised by the state of the food? Oh yes. I think the US has changed more in the last 30 years than anywhere else. When I arrived you couldn’t even get fresh basil. Napa Valley then had less than 40 vineyards – now there are more than 300. Nobody made fresh cheeses. People used to drink cocktails throughout a meal. And the ‘fine dining’ food was old school continental – it was really different. And has American food as a whole gone too far down the unhealthy route to be saved? Well, the good news is that many people are now paying more attention to what they eat and their nutrition, but the reality remains that good ingredients are expensive. Sugar is the easiest pacifier but I do believe we’re getting slowly better and real change will be down to the home cook. I think one of the biggest changes to the food scene has been changes in work habits, though that’s as true of Europe as the US. People don’t know how to cook any more! You’ve recently been evolving in the direction of ‘healthy eating’ quite a bit? I believe in the saying – “show me what you eat and I’ll tell you who you are.” So it’s really important that we use only the best ingredients, cook them the right way and moderation, above all, is important. I believe that eating right and exercising makes a healthy lifestyle. And for me personally, I feel I am in better shape today than I was 20 years ago! You’re also very active in charity, tell me a bit more about what drives you to that? We use only sustainable, organic or humanelyraised animals in our food preparations because I really believe we have to protect the environment. I personally feel lucky to be successful in this world, so to give back to the less fortunate is an important part of my life. Naturally we can’t participate in everything, but we support research, on Alzheimer’s disease, and cancer; help with feeding the elderly and infirm; and many children’s projects. So probably 30 days of my year are involved in charitable work. November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 75 Pg74-76 Chef Interview Wolfgang Puck_Nov14.indd 75 10/30/14 2:48 PM GOURMET LIFESTYLE INTERVIEW SIGNATURE RECIPES SERVES 8 225g stale country-style whole wheat or multigrain bread 1 garlic clove, halved Olive oil–flavored nonstick cooking spray 1 cup finely shredded reduced-fat Swiss cheese 1 large red bell pepper, roasted, peeled, seeded, and torn into thin strips 2 large ripe tomatoes, cored and thinly sliced 3 large eggs 3 large egg whites 2 cups buttermilk ½ tsp red pepper flakes ½ tsp dried oregano ½ tsp sea salt Freshly ground black pepper 1 Preheat the oven to 175C. 2 With a sharp bread knife, cut the bread into slices ¾ inch thick. Rub one or both sides of each bread slice with the cut sides of the Buttermilk French toast with fresh berry compote SERVES 4 2 large eggs, lightly beaten 2 large egg whites garlic clove halves, using more or less depending on how garlicky you want the strata to be. Then, cut the bread into ¾-inch cubes. 3 Lightly coat the inside of a 12X10-inch baking dish, gratin dish, or a heavy nonstick 10-inch skillet with nonstick cooking spray. 4 Place the bread cubes in the dish in a single, even layer. Evenly sprinkle half of the cheese over the bread. Layer the bell pepper strips and tomato slices on top, and then sprinkle the remaining cheese over the layer of peppers and tomatoes. 5 Put the eggs and egg whites in a mixing bowl and beat lightly with a fork. Add the buttermilk, red pepper flakes, oregano, and salt and pepper to taste and beat until thoroughly combined. 6 Pour the egg mixture evenly over the layered ingredients in the baking dish. 7 Bake the strata until it looks slightly puffed up and the top is golden brown, 45 mins to 1 hr. Remove the dish from the oven and let it set at room temperature for at least 10 mins before using a large serving spoon to scoop it onto individual serving plates. 475ml buttermilk 1 tbsp honey 1 tsp pure vanilla extract 1 tsp ground cinnamon 1 tsp ground ginger 1/8 tsp freshly grated nutmeg ¼ tsp kosher salt 8 slices good-quality whole wheat bread, each about 1 inch thick, halved diagonally Butter-flavored nonstick cooking spray Confectioners’ sugar, for dusting (optional) Fresh berries (optional) FOR FRESH BERRY COMPOTE ¾ cup fresh blueberries ¾ cup fresh raspberries 3 tbsp honey 1 tbsp grated orange zest 3 ounces fresh orange juice (from about 1 large orange) Pinch of kosher salt 1 In a large, wide bowl, whisk together the eggs, egg whites, buttermilk, honey, vanilla, cinnamon, ginger, nutmeg, and salt. 2 Over medium heat, heat a heavy nonstick skillet, or a pair of skillets, large enough to hold all the French toast slices in a single layer without crowding. Dip the bread slices into the egg mixture, turning them and making sure they are completely saturated. 3 Spray the heated skillet or skillets with nonstick cooking spray. Add the soaked bread pieces and cook until golden brown on both sides, 5 to 7 minutes total. 4 To make the fresh berry compote, in a non-reactive saucepan, combine the blueberries, raspberries, honey, orange zest, orange juice, and salt. Bring to a simmer over medium heat, stirring occasionally, and continue simmering just until the berries have given up some of their juices and have turned slightly syrupy, 3 to 4 mins. Transfer to a serving bowl and keep warm. 5 Arrange 2 slices of the French toast on each of four heated serving plates. Spoon some of the compote over each serving. If you like, spoon a little confectioners’ sugar into a small, fine-mesh sieve held over each plate and tap the sieve lightly to dust the French toast. Garnish with fresh berries and serve with more berry compote on the side. Recipes from WOLFGANG PUCK MAKES IT HEALTHY (Grand Central Life & Style) Italian strata with tomatoes, bell pepper, and Swiss cheese 76 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg74-76 Chef Interview Wolfgang Puck_Nov14.indd 76 10/30/14 2:48 PM THE UAEâ€™S LATEST TAX-FREE beverage STORE XJUIGSFF FOUSZUP5FOOJT$PVOUSZ$MVC 'VKBJSBI 'VKBJSBI BOEUIFOFX.D(FUUJHBOTCSJOHUIFGBNJMZ Z EVERY FRIDAY UIFÃ STUDVTUPNFST BU Fujairah Cellars get a gift worth AED 200 off your total bill for Dubai ID holders EVERY WEEKEND! BBC GOOD FOOD DPS.indd 1 A scenic and easy 60 minutes from dubai 1. Dubai â€“ Al Ain Rd (E66). Passing Falcon City of Wonders on right. 2. E611 towards Sharjah. 3. E102 to Kalba Rd. 4. E84 (Bypass Rd) towards Fujairah. 5. Continue on Bypass Rd, as you enter take 2nd signal left as you come out of the mountains. 6. Turn left from the roundabout at the end of road, near the mountain. Download a detailed map at www.fujairahcellars.com GPS: 25.133425 56.295600 Pool, tennis courts, squash courts and play areas Tennis & Country Club FUJAIRAH 'SFF FOUSZUPUIFDMVCGPSBMM'VKBJSBI$FMMBSTDVTUPNFST For more information please call 09 222 0665 Terms and conditions apply 10/16/14 12:45 PM GOURMET LIFESTYLE INGREDIENT FOCUS Buried treasures Truffles are the most expensive edible fungi on earth, and a chef’s most prized possession when in season. But what’s all the fuss about? Massimo Vidani, Dubai’s very own 'Truffle Man', tells us everything he knows about this delicacy. T FOR TRUFFLE This type of fungi (mushroom), is found one foot below the ground around the base of trees like oak, chestnut, lime, hazelnut, willow, red addler and beech. A good truffle is firm and never spongy and the size varies from the size of a marble and golf ball, to a tennis ball or grapefruit. Outside, they are slightly bumpy, while inside they are smooth. Truffles are an acquired taste, with a rare and unusual aroma, but a few characteristics that can be sniffed out offer a combination of musk, nuts, and dampened oak leaves, with a hint of umami. Truffles are valued so highly because they are only available a couple of months per year – with white truffles being available mostly from one part of Italy – and grow in very specific land and climatic conditions, making them a rare commodity. The foraging also plays a big role, as truffle harvesters (also known as trufolau) who use a narrow spade with a long handle, have to dig it out without damaging it. Truffles are found by trained pigs and dogs, mainly in Italy, France, and Spain. Although certain types are now being farmed and also found in Australia, China, Yugoslavia, Turkey, Northern Africa, and the US. When they are stored fresh, they decrease in size every day, which decreases in the value as well. THE DIFFERENT TYPES The truffles you need to know about: Text NICOLA MONTEATH \| Photographs: SUPPLIED, SHUTTERSTOCK.COM WHITE TRUFFLES (Tuber Magnatum Pico) These are the most expensive kind, and are usually priced at Dhs100 per gram. White truffles are available from October to December, and the most sought after are found in Italy’s Piedmont region. It is off-white or beige in colour, and has the strongest flavour and aroma, when compared to other truffles. BLACK WINTER TRUFFLES S (Tuber Melanosporum Vitt) Also known as the black diamond of Provence, these are grown under oak trees and are black or dark brown outside, and black on the inside with white vein-like lines. December to March is the harvest season, and it can also be found in Norcia, Italy as well. Black truffles have a slightly nutty texture and flavour profile and usually cost about Dhs10-12 per gram. BLACK SUMMER TRUFFLES (Tuber Aestivum) These are the most common n and affordable truffles (around Dhs1.30 per gram) compared to the others, with a black exterior and light beige or cream flesh. They aren’t as perfumed as black winter truffles and are found in Italy, Spain and the South of France from May to September. These truffles can be re-produced, unlike white truffles, and are farmed in Yugoslavia as well. HOW TO KEEP AND USE THEM Truffles are expensive and should be stored correctly to make sure they don’t spoil. Wrap them in a paper towel and refrigerate in an air-tight container or jar. It should always be kept dry or a mould will develop when moisture forms. All fresh truffles should be used within two to three days. Here’s how you can use them: WHITE TRUFFLES: Serve it raw, shaved over pasta, eggs, and with warm or hot dishes, so that you can taste and smell the truffles while eating it. It also pairs well with prosciutto, salami and foie gras. BLACK TRUFFLES: These can be mixed with mascarpone and cream cheese to use as a spread, or shaved over red meat and salads. It can also be mixed into a dip to give it some oomph. 2,600 7TIGMIWSJXVYJÀIWEVI available around the world, and their existence harks back to the Roman times. GOURMET FINDS As fresh truffles are hard to come by, and may cause a hole in your pocket, they are also available in various preserved form – as oils, paste, sauce, or chopped up in jars with olive oil, which lets the truffle flavour be infused in dishes, even if you don’t have the real thing. While the paste, sauce and carpaccio-style truffles in jars may have actual bits of truffle in it, the oil usually doesn’t. Truffle oil is made up of olive oil infused with truffle aroma, which is derived from a chemical compound which resembles truffles closely, and can be used as a finishing oil for everything from pasta and risotto, to grilled cheese sandwiches, popcorn and chips. Truffle juice and salt are available as well, and can be added to a cream to make a pasta sauce. And if you want to add a more luxurious, sweet touch to your porridge or yoghurt, you could add in a swirl of truffle honey which has small pieces of truffle that give it crunch. 2 TO TRY t Truffle butter, Dhs40 at Carluccio’s. t Italtouch’s Truffle Honey with gold flakes, Dhs195 at Eataly. LOCAL TOUCH Did you know, a desert truffle called Fagga can be found in the Oman and Hatta region, after rain and thunderstorms. November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 81 Pg81 Truffle feature_Nov14.indd 81 10/29/14 5:47 PM SOUK FESTIVE MARKET EXPERIENCE MAGICAL MOMENTS WITH US FROM THE 17 - 27 DECEMBER Visit Souk Festive Market at Madinat Jumeirah and enjoy fabulous family entertainment, festive shopping and dining experiences. Fun attractions for the little ones include North Pole train, ice rink, Santaâ€™s Grotto and more. Deliciously tempting food offers and chocolate creations. Complimentary entry for all, special family access available. For more information, call +971 4 366 6730 or visit jumeirah.com/mjfestive #soukfestivemarket /madinatjumeirah JU028 Jumeirah Christmas Market_Ad_230x275mm_version3.indd 1 10/20/14 11:42 AM GOURMET LIFESTYLE F1 WEEKEND We’ve rounded up some of the hottest and most happening foodie activities for the 2014 Formula 1 Abu Dhabi Grand Prix weekend taking place from November 21-23. Tantalise your tastebuds with a three-course set menu at Hakkasan Abu Dhabi, specifically created for the Formula 1 weekend. You can look forward to trying charcoal grilled silver cod, jasmine tea smoked Wagyu beef ribs, and steamed dim sum. On November 22 and 23, Dhs528 per person (minimum of two people). Call 02-6907999. Compiled by NICOLA MONTEATH \| Photographs: SUPPLIED Party at the Foster’s Lounge at C.Mondo, Centro Yas Island, and listen to tunes from DJ Darryl Rees, while tucking into barbecue delights and beverages at the open-air terrace. If you’re lucky, you may also spot a few F1 drivers after hours! Dhs100 per person for the barbecue, call 02-6564000. Head to Rozanah for shisha and a selection of Lebanese and Middle Eastern delights including everything from mezze to mixed grills. The restaurant is based at Yas Marina and is a great dining venue before and after the races and concerts. No minimum spend during F1, call 02-4963411. Dine at the renowned Cipriani at Yas Island, Abu Dhabi, to enjoy a meal with a stunning view. The restaurant overlooks the yachts and circuit, and makes for a great place to indulge in traditional Italian cuisine. Call 02-6575400. Indulge at the F1 Grand Prix Brunch – the only F1 brunch Stay at Shangri-La Hotel, Qaryat Al Beri, Abu Dhabi, experience available around the globe – at Yas Marina Circuit. The brunch is served at the air-conditioned Marina Suites, where you can watch the practice sessions. After you have indulged, watch the after-race concerts on Thursday and Friday. Dhs1,495 per person, call 8000927. for a minimum of four nights (from November 20-23) and get complimentary buffet breakfast, free wi-fi, F1 entrance tickets from Friday to Sunday, access to the public-pit land walk on Thursday and tickets to the after-race concerts. From Dhs3,590, call 02-5098888. Splurge on the Ultimate RaceWeekend Experience from Yas Viceroy Abu Dhabi featuring a seaplane transfer to your Presidential Suite, champagne, a chauffeur -driven Rolls Royce , personal chef , VIP tour of Ferrari World, plus first class flight tickets for a two-night stay in Viceroy Maldives for two. Dhs467,500, call 02-6560700. Enjoy the Weekend Hospitality package from Yes Chef catering and GP Management, which offers access to a yacht, trackside views, guest passes to Yas Marina, premium beverages, buffet lunches, and a meet - and greet with an F1 star. Dhs13,800 per person, call 0505574792. November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 83 Pg83 F1 weekend AUH_Nov14.indd 83 10/29/14 5:47 PM GOURMET LIFESTYLE FOOD TRENDS 3’s a trend: PROGRESSIVE DINNERS We’ve been telling anyone who’ll listen, for a while now – there should be more progressive dining options here! With most good restaurants clustered within hotels in this region, it lends itself perfectly to a dine-around sort of evening, where you can have a different course at a different outlet, getting to try out a range of cuisines and chefs’ creations in the span of one evening – and without having to leave the building! Hotels like Burj al Arab, Park Hyatt Dubai and Ritz Carlton Abu Dhabi have been doing it for a while now, whilst some others have hopped on to the bandwagon more recently. It makes for a fun, unique activity, where you’re not spending hours sitting at a table, and for hotels, it’s a really good way to showcase their outlets. Next stop? Private ‘Come dine with me’ experiences, we think! Dine around the world tasting evening, Mövenpick hotel Ibn Battuta Gate This newly launched experience reveals some hidden gems of this hotel, starting with the ﬁrst stop – Moroc bar, a venue with a lovely terrace. A selection of cocktails are included in the offer, and some contemporary Arabic-inspired canapes to kick-start the evening with (think hummous in mini-cones, smoked salmon and tabbouleh rolls, and shrimp kunafa). Luckily, the hotel’s layout has all the restaurants located on the same ﬂoor, so you don’t have to walk too far to head to Sicilia, the Italian restaurant where you can enjoy tuna tartare on burrata cheese sauce, cheese-stuffed ravioli, and cold cut platters, as part of a four-course spread. By now you might be quite full, so it’s worth pacing yourself for the Chinese delicacies awaiting at the stylish Shanghai Chic – which include dumplings, roast duck, fried prawns, and black pepper beef tenderloin – but fortunately, all served in one platter. The main course, if you can call it that, is at the renowned Indian restaurant, Chor Bazaar, where the menu includes traditional dahi puri (potato masala in a ball served with yoghurt sauce), aloo tikki (potato cutlets), tandoori chicken, and a spicy prawn curry served with mini ﬂat-breads. Think you’ve had enough? You get a refresher taste of all the ﬂavours in the dessert platter, with delicacies like kulﬁ (Indian ice cream) and yuzu crème brulee back at Moroc, to end the four-hour culinary journey. Dhs499 per head, including select beverages. Call 04-4445613. The Foodie hop at Melia Hotel This newly launched progressive dining experience combines a plethora of cuisines in one lavish meal, with an affordable price tag. It all begins with a refreshing aperitif at Quantum, where you can choose a wine or contemporary cocktail as you build up your hunger pangs for the gourmet journey ahead. Alfonso X is the next stop and this compact, stylish space with cocktail tables and a smoking area is where you can nibble on freshly prepared California and vegetable sushi rolls as well as sashimi, to complement glasses of sake. If you love aromatic Indian delights, then the main course at Signature by Sanjeev Kapoor is sure to be a hit – where you get to sit down and enjoy the meal at your own pace in a reﬁned Indian-themed setting. The menu comprises of mild spicy Delhi butter chicken, chicken stuffed with cottage cheese in a delectable creamy sauce, and lentils, accompanied by fresh, hot naans (ﬂatbread); a vegetarian menu is available too. The evening then takes a turn to offer a more relaxed vibe at the hotel’s rooftop restaurant, Estrellas, where tunes from the DJ play in the background as you tuck into the Spanish restaurant’s dessert offerings. Choose between Crème Catalana – similar to crème brulee – and tarta da manzan (apple pie) which are both served in large portions, and offer a satisfying end to the meal. You can also sit back and enjoy shisha here. From Dhs179 per person, raffle draw prize for overnight stay with meals is offered for all diners. Call 04-3868111. Epicurean escapades at Jumeirah at Etihad Towers, Abu Dhabi This hotel has rapidly built up a reputation as one of the leading dining establishments in the capital, so what better way to show off their award-winning culinary chops than with a progressive dining experience? The evening begins with a drink at Scotts, a seafood and drinks haven – accompanied by delicious canapes enjoyed in the glamorous surroundings. The meal then travels to Lebanon for the next course at Li Beirut, followed by Japan at Tori No Su. After you’ve had your ﬁll of teppanyaki washed down by their creative cocktails, and the edgy, modern design of the restaurant, you get to travel back in time and across the planet to France. Brasserie Angelique offers divine French cuisine in a lovely retro-French setting which would be hard to leave behind, only if you weren’t heading onwards to Quest, the stylish modern-Asian culinary destination boasting unbeatable views of the city from its vantage point on the 63rd ﬂoor, for dessert. That’s not all – digestifs at the lively nightspot Ray’s Bar concludes the night. From Dhs850 per person, overnight stay packages are available, from Dhs800 for a deluxe room including breakfast. Call 02-815666. Reviews by SUDESHNA GHOSH, NICOLA MONTEATH \| Photographs SUPPLIED We take a look at some of the most interesting foodie trends in town. 84 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg84 3's a trend_Nov14.indd 84 10/30/14 2:49 PM Partner Food Safari: Turkey We dip into the UAE’s multicultural melting pot to discover a new cuisine from a foodie. T urkish women are all food critics, we learn from Merve Selcuk, as we start talking a little about the country, its food, and people. Merve is half Cypriot and half Turkish, but grew up in the capital of Turkey, Ankara. She moved to Dubai seven months ago with her husband, and now works in PR. When we met Merve at her apartment in the Downtown area, we knew her world revolved around food, and that it is, and has always been, a big part of her life – her pug’s name is Chef too! She tells us that it’s not just her, but in fact, all Turkish who love food. In Turkey, most girls are in the kitchen from a very young age, but Merve only realised her love for cooking when she moved to England to study. “I had friends from all over the world staying with me in the dorm, and I found that some of us had similar dishes, with slight differences in Ankara, capital city of Turkey Merve puts the finishing touches to the main course Little Merve trying to coo k up a Turkish dish seasoning,” she says. Merve loves cooking, and entertaining, and feels a sense of satisfaction when she sees her friends enjoying the food she prepared. Turkey is spread over two continents – the large portion of the country in Western Asia, and a smaller part in the Southeastern European region. The Anatolian peninsula, on which most of Turkey lies, was once the centre of civilisation, and is still the oldest inhabited area in the world. The region was part of the ancient Greek empire, but by around 330AD, the Byzantine Empire occupied most of Anatolia, making Constantinople (Istanbul) the capital. About a thousand years later, the Byzantine empire was felled by the Ottoman Turks; the Ottoman empire is one of the largest empires that ever existed. It was only in 1923 that the empire was officially overthrown and the modern nation we know as Turkey was formed. Other countries like Syria, Jordan, Iraq and Lebanon were also formed Text & styling NICOLA MONTEATH \| Photographs ANAS CHERUR, SHUTTERSTOCK.COM THE COUNTRY 86 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg86-89 Food safari Turkey_Nov14.indd 86 10/30/14 2:49 PM Text & styling NICOLA MONTEATH \| Photographs ANAS CHERUR, SHUTTERSTOCK.COM GOURMET LIFESTYLE GLOBAL CUISINE around the same time. In 1945, Turkey became a democracy, and it now comprises of 81 provinces, including Istanbul and Ankara. Turkey has a rich history, with several monuments that have been preserved over the years bearing testament to this. The nation is bordered by Bulgaria to the northwest, Greece to the west, Georgia to the northeast, Armenia and Iran to the east, and Iraq and Syria to the southeast. Its enjoys plenty of coastline, with the Mediterranean Sea in the south, Aegean Sea to the west, Black Sea to the north, and The Sea of Marmara in the north-west region – which is why seafood plays a significant role in the cuisine. The Bosphorus strait runs across the country from west to east, and the country features diverse landscapes with arid plateaus making up most of the inland regions, rimmed by mountains and hills. The climate is equally varied, with central and eastern Turkey experiencing snow in the winters, and summers near the Syrian border touching 40C. Ankara, where Merve is from, is a cosmopolitan city where politicians from all over Turkey reside. “My house had a lovely garden and a large kitchen, and I remember enjoying barbecues at home every weekend,” she says. All food was made from local produce, and for the longest time no one ate exotic produce such as avocados, pineapples and tropical fruits, as it wasn’t grown in the region. Mediterranean-style produce such as tomatoes, peppers, eggplant, olives, garlic, figs, and nuts, are predominantly used in the cuisine, since the soil is very fertile and the country mostly experiences dry summers and rainy winters. “You inherit everything from your grandparents and take care of it for generations. Most farms are family-owned and you get great dairy, poultry and meat,” says Merve. THE CUISINE Think of Turkish cuisine, and the images that are most likely to pop into your head are of doner kebabs. While the Turkish are experts in doner, the cuisine goes way beyond that. “Seafood is a big part of our cuisine, because we have areas along the coast, but not many people know of our seafood culture,” says Merve. Turkish cuisine owes its origins to the Ottoman era, which is known for being rich in taste – as it was cooked for the Sultans in the palace – with influences from the Middle East, Mediterranean region, Europe, and Central Asia. The Turkish were nomads and migrated from Far East Asia (Western China, Tibet, and Mongolia) bringing along with them cooking techniques and dishes like manti (bread stuffed with meat) for instance, which has been adopted from Chinese dumplings. Other Traditional Turkish tea Cityscape with Galata Tower over the Golden Horn in Istanbul Turkish ice cream being made at a stall dishes part of Ottoman cuisine, that are still widely eaten in Turkey are stuffed aubergines with ground meat (karniyarik), cucumber and yoghurt dip (cacik), and stuffed vine leaves with meat (Etli Yaprak Sarma), all of which can be found in Greek, Lebanese and Mediterranean cuisines too. The cuisine varies according to regions, with the Eastern Turkish population consuming a lot of meat, while the people living inland eating hearty comfort food. Those by the coast naturally eat a lot of fish, while cosmopolitan cities like Istanbul and Ankara offer a mix of everything. The Turkish diet is heavily centered around meat, lamb, and goat, as well as seasonal produce. Anyone familiar with their food will know it features a wide variety of delicious, succulent kebabs mixed with potatoes, tomato paste, yoghurt, and seasoning like chilli, sumac, salt, pepper, as well as herbs such as fennel and dill. The difference between kebabs found in Turkey and elsewhere, is in the way it is cooked or served. For instance, susuz is a waterless lamb kebab made in a saucepan with salt and cinnamon after excess fluid is drained, while tas kebab is stewed meat in a bowl with vegetables, and /P£MMWQEHI[MXLW[SVHJMWL Turkish meals are healthy, and almost always baked, steamed or grilled, rather than fried. Dishes are eaten in small portions with plates of grilled tomatoes, eggs, sucuk (spicy sausage), and Turkish cheeses like ezine, kaser, and tulum being popular breakfast items. “The Turkish prefer quality over quantity, which is why we eat small plates of many dishes,” she says. The oven is used a lot at home, and every kitchen has a small one on the counter as well, as we like to slow cook everything from meat to rice and vegetables,” she says. Lentils, chickpeas, a selection of kebabs like Adana (mixed meat with chilli), plain steamed rice, white beans, and meat with tomato paste make up a typical meal. Sardines, seabream, seabass, swordfish and anchovies can also be found amongst a Turkish spread. To season food, they use olive oil and pomegranate molasses as a drizzle over meat and fish, which gives it a mixture of sweet and savoury flavours – usual for most Turkish dishes. Börek (flaky pastry pies with meat, cheese and potatoes) are also eaten, with a yoghurt dip –in Turkey, yoghurt is considered a great digestive. Snacking in Turkey usually means fresh fruit or walnuts and almonds, along with Turkish coffee or tea. “We make a pot of tea in the morning and refresh it throughout the day. I think we consume about five cups of herbal tea in one go!” she says. The gooey, stretchy ice cream we all know as Turkish ice cream comes from an area called Marash in southern Turkey. This ice cream is eaten with chopped pistachios or chocolate. Other desserts popular in Turkey are halva, baklawa and kunafeh. THE CULTURE In Turkey, when a person reaches a milestone in their life, they celebrate by sacrificing an animal. “People sacrifice a cow or goat, to keep away the evil eye. This meat is then given to the poor,” says Merve. The Turkish have a lot of traditions which include donating food to the poor, or helping people in need. One such is also when a person passes away. “We take Turkish helwa to the person who is mourning, as it is light, has starch, and balances the blood sugar. This dessert is also given to the poor, 40 days after a person’s death, as an act of kindness,” she says. Auspicious occasions like Eid are celebrated with roasted meat or lamb (kavurma), as well as sweets like kunafeh and baklawa. But apart from these major events, the Turkish like to spend family time on weekends going out to eat. “This is how we like to catch up with family and friends,” says Merve. But she makes a special occassion of eating in as well, as she shows with these traditional recipes she has shared with us. November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 87 Pg86-89 Food safari Turkey_Nov14.indd 87 10/30/14 2:49 PM bell peppers and grill for 1 hr and 15 mins. Serve hot. PER SERVING 183 kcals, protein 8g, carbs 10.5g, fat 13g, sat fat 7g, fibre 2.2g, sugar 5g, salt 8g Artichoke hearts with eggplant cream SERVES 4 PREP 10 MINS COOK 65 MINS Easy 4 artichoke hearts 2 medium eggplants 25ml fresh orange juice 1 tbsp whole-wheat flour 2 garlic cloves, finely chopped 50g feta cheese 1 tbsp Greek yoghurt 1 tbsp of olive oil A pinch of sea salt 1 bunch of dill TRY THESE TURKISH MEZZE 1 Preheat the oven to 150C for 30 mins. 2 Place the green peppers on a baking sheet and grill for 45 mins. 3 Slice the tomatoes in half and grill in a separate pan for 30-40 mins. Remove and drizzle olive oil over the tomatoes and the grilled peppers. Season and serve. Rocket salad with tomatoes SERVES 4 PREP 15 MINS NO COOK Easy 2 bunches of fresh rocket leaves 3 kumato tomatoes 4 tbsp olive oil 3 tbsp pomegranate syrup PER SERVING 180 kcals, protein 1.4g, carbs 12g, fat 14g, sat fat 0g, fibre 1g, sugar 8.8g, salt 0g Grilled tomatoes and peppers COOK 40 MINS 7.4g, sat fat 2g, fibre 11.5g, sugar 9.7g, salt 1g Grilled eggplant with yoghurt Grilled bell pepper stuffed with cheese SERVES 4 PREP 10 MINS PER SERVING 170 kcals, protein 1.2g, carbs 9.7g, fat 14g, PREP 5 MINS PER SERVING 170 kcals, protein 6.4g, carbs 22.4g, fat sat fat 0g, fibre 1.2g, sugar 10.4g, salt 2g Cut the kumato tomatoes into tiny slices and mix with the rocket leaves. Drizzle the pomegranate syrup and olive oil on top and serve. SERVES 4 1 Preheat oven to 150C for 30 mins and grill the eggplants for 1hr 15mins. 2 Place artichoke hearts in a pan filled with enough water to cover the artichokes. Add the orange juice and boil for 20-25 mins. Remove from the heat and set aside to dry and cool. 3 Remove the skin off the grilled eggplants. 4 Heat oil in a stainless steel pan and add the garlic – sauté for 1-2 mins. Add the eggplants, whole-wheat flour, yoghurt and feta cheese – stir until smooth. Remove from heat and spoon the mixture into the artichokes hearts. Garnish with chopped dill and serve. Easy 4 green chilli peppers 2 medium tomatoes 4 tbsp olive oil 3 tbsp pomegranate syrup 2 tsp sea salt 2 tsp black pepper 200g feta cheese 1 tsp black pepper 2 tsp olive oil 1 tsp chilli powder 4 small bell peppers (all colours), chopped 1 Preheat oven to 150C for 30 mins. 2 Place the peppers on a baking sheet and grill for 45 mins. Cut the lids off and remove the seeds. 3 Mix together the cheese, olive oil, chilli and black pepper until smooth. Spoon into PREP 10 MINS COOK 45 MINS Easy 1 medium eggplant 500g Greek yoghurt 1 tbsp olive oil 2 tsp sea salt 2 tsp black pepper 1 Preheat oven to 150C for 30 mins. 2 Grill the eggplant for 1hr 15mins and then slice from top to bottom to remove the insides. Mix the flesh with the Greek yoghurt and drizzle olive oil on top. Season with sea salt and black pepper, mix and serve. PER SERVING 175 kcals, protein 11.3g, carbs 12.5g, fat 9g, sat fat 4g, fibre 4.8g, sugar 8.7g, salt 2g 88 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg86-89 Food safari Turkey_Nov14.indd 88 10/30/14 2:49 PM Turkish semolina halva SERVES 4 PREP 20 MINS COOK 30 MINS Easy 400g semolina 350g white sugar 450ml skim milk 2 tbsp pine nuts 2 tbsp unsalted butter 100ml corn oil 4 tbsp vanilla ice cream 4 cinnamon sticks Sea bass with pomegranate syrup SERVES 4 PREP 30 MINS COOK 45 MINS Easy 4 medium-sized sea bass 1 garlic clove A bunch of parsley, finely chopped 6 tbsp vinaigrette 6 tbsp olive oil 4 tbsp pomegranate syrup A bunch of dill 4 tsp sea salt 4 tsp black pepper Two handfuls of fresh pomegranate seeds 1 Preheat oven to 175C. 2 Flip each sea bass so it is lying belly up. Open the incisions and place a handful of parsley inside. Place the garlic into the centre of each fish, near the parsley. 3 Line a baking tray with parchment paper and place the fish on it. Season and cover each fish with a thin layer of vinegar and olive oil. Cook for 40 mins, drizzle pomegranate syrup on top and continue cooking for 10 mins. Garnish with finely chopped dill and pomegranate seeds. 1 In a large saucepan, mix the butter and oil gently on high heat. Add in the pine nuts and stir to make it slightly darker in colour. Reduce the heat and add the semolina. Stir until it absorbs all the oil in the pan. 2 In a separate bowl, mix together the sugar and milk until the sugar dissolves. Add the milk mixture to the semolina pan, and stir gently until all the semolina is mixed with milk. Cover with a lid and keep the pan on the heat until all the milk is absorbed. Set aside for 30 mins and serve with a cinnamon stick and scoop of ice cream. PER SERVING 398 kcals, protein 19.5g, carbs 12.5g, fat PER SERVING 1,032 kcals, protein 17g, carbs 168g, fat 30g, sat fat 2.1g, fibre .1g, sugar 11g, salt 4g 34g, sat fat 7.8g, fibre 3.5g, sugar 95.5g, salt .1g November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 89 Pg86-89 Food safari Turkey_Nov14.indd 89 10/30/14 2:49 PM NOW OPEN AED100 PROCEEDS TO SUPPORT AL JALILA FOUNDATION Official Hospitality Partner RT LU X U O P R IR Y A In an innovative move to bring its culinary expertise to the people, the Four Seasons hotels group has introduced a new Food Truck concept that takes menus created by local hotel chefs to the streets. Having had a successful run on the culinary epicentres of the US west coast last year, the truck is now travelling through nine cities on the East coast, including Philadelphia and Boston, spending six days in each. With the imminent launch of the first Four Seasons hotel in Dubai-town this year, we’re wondering if we’ll get to see some of these cool ideas brought to our shores! All the foodie news from around the globe. GASTRO-PLEASURES IN GREECE If you love food and wine, then this is where you need to be between November 11-16 – enjoying the best of harvest season in the Pelopponese. A five-night retreat at the Amanzoe resort will see you visiting local cheese farms, wineries, markets and olive oil presses, just as the grape and olive harvest season begins, while enjoying the ultimate luxury of the classic Greek-style resort overlooking the Aegean sea. Every evening, you can see the foodie activities of the day brought to life by the chefs in the form of gourmet dinners prepared using straight-from-the-market produce, fresh seafood, and local game, all washed down with award-winning wines. The package includes a luxe spa treatment, unforgettable views of the rolling hills of the Argolida region come free! Prices from €6,100 (around Dhs28,400) for five nights for ttwo, www.amanresorts.com. Text SUDESHNA GHOSH \| Photograps SUPPLIED Scandi-licious! The newly opened Hamad International Airport in Doha is set to make itself the transit destination of choice, with an array of dining and shopping options, plus a lounge to impress even the most jaded of travellers. The luxe business class lounge not only comes with Ipad stations, game rooms and snooze pods, but an array of fresh dining options. Outside the lounge, there are over 30 cafés and restaurants to choose from. Our pick? Marmalade Market, a homegrown gourmet food shop stocking delectable finds from around the world! There’s nothing quite as trendy as Scandinavian cuisine at the moment, so if you’d like to get to the heart of the matter, then make a beeline for the quirky new Miss Clara hotel in the heart of Stockholm. The eponymous restaurant, helmed by wellknown chef Danny Guest, serves up classicwith-a-twist Swedish dishes, made using fresh, local, and seasonal ingredients, with a free-from-additives e-from-additives approach to the menu – think porchetta of Swedish pig with caramelised fennel and watercress, and gluten-free, agave-sweetened carrot cake. With atmospheric alfresco seating in the hotel’s chic, designer setting, and creative science-inspired cocktails on the menu too, this is making it right to the top of our hot tables right now! Room rates start from SEK 1290 (around Dhs650), www.designhotels.com/hotels/sweden/ stockholm/miss-clara. November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 91 Pg91 Taste of the world_Nov14.indd 91 10/29/14 5:49 PM a DolceVita in Dubai The Italian Cuisine World Summit is back again for its sixth edition, from November 7-10, and diners in Dubai are in for a treat as Michelin star-and celebrity-chefs flock to the emirate to show us what Italian cuisine is all about. NTS E V E G I B E H T 1001 NIGHTS OF ITALIAN CUISINE: NOVEMBER 7 The summit will launch with a gala opening party at The Rixos Hotel, where over 30 Michelin-star Italian chefs will showcase and promote the cuisine, along with chefs from the region. Tano Passami, Claudio Sadler and Tommaso Arrigoni, are some of the renowned chefs who will be presenting exclusive creations on the night. THE PIAZZA GRANDE FOOD SHOW: NOVEMBER 14 AND 15 The Dubai Polo and Equesterian Club will spring to life with music, entertainment, food tastings and competitions like Casinetto’s Best Pizza in the UAE, Lavazza’s Espresso Contest – Best Espresso in the UAE, and the Risotto World Contest. Visitors to the event will also get a chance to watch three acrobatic pizzaiolos in action. THE NIGHT OF THE SEVEN STARS: NOVEMBER 19 This charity dinner, hosted by the Italian Consul General, will see four guest chefs with a total of seven Michelin stars between them (to match the number of emirates in the UAE) stunning diners with their creations at Armani Ristorante. The evening will bring together fashion, food and Italy’s finest wine in one venue. I talian cuisine is not just pizza and pasta. In fact, the Italians don’t like associating the cuisine with just those foods, as it’s much more than that – the cooking techniques, fresh produce, and way in which the ingredients are used. The Italian Cuisine World Summit is a two-week international long celebration of all things Italian being hosted in Dubai, and comprises of master classes, events and restaurant promotions. Here’s all the information you need to know to get your Italian food fix this month. THE SPECIALTY FOOD FESTIVAL: NOVEMBER 9-11 The Italian Cuisine World Summit will have a stand at the festival where celebrity chefs will be conducting cooking demonstrations. Stop by to watch the action and sample culinary creations. 92 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg92-93 Italian summit preview_Nov14.indd 92 10/29/14 5:49 PM GOURMET LIFESTYLE EVENT PREVIEW HONE YOUR SKILLS Looking to sharpen your Italian cooking skills, or to pursue a career as a chef? Here’s your chance to enroll in masterclasses, whether just a single one or a package – conducted by guest chefs – and get a qualification too. GET CERTIFIED The Professional Italian Cooking Certificate of Proficiency is a comprehensive course on Italian cooking which will be taking place at The Emirates Academy of Hospitality Management. Some of Italy’s best known celebrity chefs like Giorgio Locatelli, among others, will be teaching students about pasta, bread, risotto, antipasti, classic Italian techniques for main course dishes, the secrets behind the perfect gelato, sorbet and semifreddo, and Italian grills. So you will leave not only with hands-on experience and tips, but also a great understanding of produce and cooking methods. The course takes place over seven days from November 8-14, and 15-21, and includes a graduation ceremony as well. For Dhs9,500 per person. A single class is available from Dhs250 and includes lunch. BECOME A TRUFFLE CONNOISSEUR Truffles are quite an expensive mushroom to work with, and not to forget absolutely divine with Italian food. But if you shave it, or use it wrong, you risk ruining it. If you want to know more about truffles, read our feature on p81, or attend the masterclass to watch cooking demonstrations, learn about truffle and wine pairing, and find out how to buy the best truffles and use them. Massimo Vidani from Italtouch (one of the main distributors of truffles in the region), Italian food writer Luigi Cremona, truffle hunters, and sommeliers, will bring their knowledge to the table in a 12-hour course which takes place over four sessions. Dhs2,500 per person on November 8,13,17 and 19. WATCH OUT FOR Some of the celebrity chefs who are part of this year’s summit include: NICO ROMITO CLAUDIO SADLER The founder of Ristorante Reale in Castel di Sangro is a self-taught chef, and the educational director of Niko Romito Formazione (a culinary academy). Niko’s father owned a pastry shop which he turned into a restaurant, and from thereon began Niko’s career. He focuses on seasonal, high-quality ingredients in dishes, all prepared with contemporary techniques. Learn all about antipasti at his masterclass on November 8. He is known for his innovation with regional Italian cuisine and has worked as a gastronomic consultant for a number of food brands. The chef and cookbook author is also one of the founders of the Jeunes Restaurateurs d'Europe, an association for young chefs in Europe, and Q.B. centro di cucina enogastronomico (a culinary school), and is at the helm of a number of Michelin-starred restaurants. Catch him at the Dry pasta masterclass on November 9, at The Emirates Academy of Hospitality Management. TOMMASO ARRIGONI This Italian chef graduated from Port Charles School in Milan and stepped foot into popular establishments in Liguria and Sardinia. He has worked at Claudio Sadler’s Michelin-starred restaurant in Milan, and is known for his TV appearance on Detto Fatto on Rai Due TV channel. Tommaso will be creating something spectacular for the 1001 Nights of Italian cuisine event. GIORGIO LOCATELLI The Italian chef based in UK has had a passion for food ever since he was a child – his family ran a Michelin-starred restaurant in Italy. With several cookbooks and TV shows under his belt, Giorgio has helped make the Locatelli brand a household name. He will be at his restaurant Ronda Locatelli, Atlantis The Palm, from November 16-19. VISIT WWW.ITCHEFS-GVCI.COM FOR MORE, AND ALSO FIND UPDATED INFORMATION ON WWW.BBCGOODFOODME.COM. November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 93 Pg92-93 Italian summit preview_Nov14.indd 93 10/29/14 5:49 PM Chicken Masterclass Our latest Food Club event in association with Tegel chicken, held at the Spinney’s kitchen last month, saw Mark Ward, Executive operations chef at Emirates Leisure Retail, demonstrating three delicious chicken dishes. Members also learnt about the importance of quality when it comes to cooking with chicken, and taste the difference as they sampled the dishes. A few lucky winners got to take home raffle draw prizes, while everyone left with goodie bags containing Tegel chicken products. a d der an Tend delicious! Sous vide corn-fed chicken thigh pesto skewers with pearl barley in tomato sauce SERVES 4 PREP 30 MINS COOK 1 HR 30 MINS Easy Chef Mark sharing his culinary expertise TIP If you do not want to cook sous vide, you could barbecue the chicken skewers or cook them in the oven. 1 Soak the skewers in cold water for 30 mins. 2 Cut the chicken thighs into 2.5cm squares and place in a sealable bag in a single layer. Vacuum seal and cook in a water bath at 65C for 90 mins. You could put the chicken in a pan on the stove, and add hot or cold water to heat or cool down – keep temperatue at 65C. 3 Add onions and 1 garlic clove to the pan, and cook until softened – do not let it change colour. Add the barley and stir for 2 mins, followed by the stock. Bring to a boil, cover and simmer for 20 mins. Drain and set aside. 4 Combine the tomatoes, cherry tomatoes, garlic, capers and olive and simmer for 20 mins, stirring occasionally until thickened. Add the cooked barley, fresh oregano and season. 5 Divide the chicken between skewers with the skin facing the same direction. Sear skin side down, in a hot dry pan until golden. Brush each with pesto and serve with the warm barley. PER SERVING 962kcals, protein 54g, carbs 71g, fat 50g, sat fat 7.75g, fibre 14g, sugar 5.3g, salt 2.5g Photographs ANAS CHERUR 1kg corn fed skin on chicken thighs 3 garlic cloves, finely chopped 80g white onions, finely chopped 400g tomatoes, chopped 150g pearl barley 80g cherry tomatoes, cut in half 1 tbsp small capers 2 tbsp fresh oregano, chopped 20ml olive oil 200g pesto A pinch of salt and pepper 8 wooden skewers 94 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg94-96 Food club Tegel Spinneys_Nov14.indd 94 10/30/14 2:50 PM FOOD CLUB SPONSORED EVENT Slow roast chicken with Yorkshire puddings SERVES 4 PREP 30 MINS COOK 4 HRS Easy 2kg whole corn-fed chicken 50g salted butter block, sliced into two 25g slabs 50ml sunflower oil 3 carrots, 3 parsnips, 3 large potatoes, to serve with 240ml gravy (optional) FOR THE YORKSHIRE PUDDINGS 140g plain flour 4 large free-range eggs 200ml full fat milk A pinch of salt and pepper 60ml sunflower oil 1 Pre heat the oven to 110C. 2 Whisk together the flour and eggs until smooth, and gradually add the milk, whisking until there are no lumps. Season with salt and pepper and refrigerate for 1 hr. 3 Carefully remove the wishbone from the roast chicken and French trim by making a cut perpendicular to the bone and through the skin (2.5cm away from the end of each leg). Continue the incision around the bone to release the skin and using the back of the knife, push the skin towards the end of the bone and cut off the joint of each leg leaving a clean and tidy bone (this is optional, but it helps the heat move into the thigh meat). Wrap the legs in foil. 4 Slide the butter slabs under the skin of each breast and place in a lightly oiled roasting tray. Season and cook for 2-2 Â˝ hrs or until it reaches 71C on a thermometer. Set aside to rest for 30-45 mins. 5 Brush the chicken with a little sunflower oil and place under the hot grill in the oven for 5-6 mins, or fry, until the skin turns golden and crispy. 6 Increase the temperature to 190C. 7 Pour 5ml sunflower oil into each Yorkshire pudding tin and place in the oven for 5 mins. Pour the batter in until it reaches about Âž of each pudding cup. Cook for 20 mins, and open after to release all the steam. Close the door and reduce the heat of the oven to 170C, and cook for a further 10 mins. 8 Serve the Yorkshire puddings with the roast chicken, roasted vegetables and gravy. PER SERVING 1,155 kcals, protein 68g, carbs 77g, fat 63g, sat fat 20g, fibre 10g, sugar 10g, salt 1.3g Photographs ANAS CHERUR A pe Frid rfect d ay r i oast sh for . November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 95 Pg94-96 Food club Tegel Spinneys_Nov14.indd 95 10/30/14 2:50 PM SNAPSHOTS FROM THE EVENT Editor Sudeshna welcomes the Food Club members Alastair Cullwick from Tegel tells guests about how they ensure the quality of their chicken chef-y Add a o baked t h c tou with chicken 's so easy it foam, e! to mak Slow baked corn-fed chicken breast with caramelised onions, warm broad beans, baby potato salad and a light vinaigrette SERVES 4 PREP 45 MINS Chef Mark shared tips on working with chicken All eyes on the chef! Easy 4 corn-fed chicken breasts (with skin on) A pinch of salt and pepper 300g white onions, peeled and thinly sliced 50ml sunflower oil 1kg baby potatoes 200g podded broad beans 50g fresh chives, finely chopped 235ml French salad vinaigrette 3g lecithin powder (optional, for foam) 1 Pre heat the oven to 100C. 2 Place the chicken skin side down on a lightly oiled baking tray, and season lightly. Cover with a thick, even layer of the onions and bake for 1 ½-2 hrs or until the core reaches 71C. 3 Cook the potatoes in salted boiling water until tender. Leave to cool, and quarter. 4 Blanch the broad beans in boiling water for 1-2 mins, then skin. 5 Combine the beans, half of the vinaigrette and fresh chives and season before setting aside. 6 If making the foam, blend the remaining vinaigrette and lecithin powder with a hand blender until it foams up. 7 Heat a sauté pan over high heat and add the oil. Sear the chicken skin side down until it becomes brown and crispy – about 2-3 mins. Remove from the pan and cook the onions in the same oil on medium heat, until it caramelises – 3-4 mins. Slice the chicken and serve with the salad, caramelised onions, and foam, if you like. PER SERVING 805 kcals, protein 45g, carbs 83g, fat 20g, sat Mouthwatering samplers were served Tegel, a range of premium chicken and cuts from New Zealand , offers natural fresh and frozen produce that is low in fat, free from added hormones, and high in protein. The line also includes corn fed and free range chicken, stuffed chicken breasts, and ready to eat grills. One of the five lucky winners who each won a cookbook from New Zealand's top chefs Want to be a part of our next Food Club event? Then sign up for a Premium membership (details on p120) to get priority confirmation. You can also like us on facebook.com/bbcgoodfoodme and follow us on twitter.com/ bbcgoodfoodme to get all our latest updates and join the foodie conversation! fat 3g, fibre 14.5g, sugar 7g, salt 1.1g 96 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg94-96 Food club Tegel Spinneys_Nov14.indd 96 10/30/14 4:08 PM WI N! A la at S vish c Do oﬁ ity b wn tel re ove tow Dub ak r D n, w ai hs8 or ,00 th 0 One lucky winner can win a two-night stay, inclusive of breakfast, an indulgent dinner, and a spa treatment. The downtown area is home to a number of luxurious hotels, with the Sofitel Dubai Downtown being the newest addition. Offering stunning views of Sheikh Zayed Road, striking architecture and elegant décor, this hotel is ideal for those who want to be close to all the urban attractions. To relax on this mini-break, you can head to the spa, laze on a lounger, or take a dip in the swimming pool surrounded by lush lawns. The plethora of restaurants at this chic hotel include Les Cuisines (International), The Green Spices (Thai), and The Red Grill (steakhouse), while The 31, Mosaic Pool and Lounge, and Above, are some of the lounge destinations. One lucky winner can enjoy a two-night stay for two in a Junior Suite, along with breakfast at Les Cuisines, dinner at The Red Grill and The Green Spices, and a rejuvenating couple’s spa treatment. Scan this QR code to go straight to our website. Log on bbcgoodfoodme.com to enter this competition and simply answer this question: How many restaurants are housed at Sofitel Dubai Downtown? Terms & conditions apply. Flights are not included in this prize. Employees of CPI Media Group are not eligible to enter. Winners will be selected on random basis from correct entries. November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 97 Pg97 Competition Sofitel dubai_Nov14.indd 97 10/29/14 5:52 PM Download your digital issue of BBC Good Food ME for just Dhs7.3 Plus: Automatic Food Club Premium membership with exclusive offers and benefits Details on p99 Each month, BBC Good Food ME brings you fresh, fabulous recipes and a host of foodie news and features, so you don’t want to miss an issue! 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Welcome to the Sign up for a Premium food club membership and receive exclusive privileges: t A subscriber copy of the magazine delivered to your door each month t A selection of hand-picked discounts and offers t Invites to free foodie events, from gourmet dinners to cooking classes t Plus: All the usual Food Club membership offers including regular masterclasses and discounts And lots more subscriber-only benefits… Food Club Premium member offers g in ok o C s se as l c se ee h C SCHOOL OF CULINARY & FINISHING ARTS 7 Over 50% off on Cooking Classes for two (just Dhs450). ub cl ie od o F JONES THE GROCER 7 50% discount on Cheese Club annual memberships 7 20% discount on cooking master classes. el av tr CULINARY JOURNEYS Escape to some of the world’s most exciting gastronomic destinations with us! Details on bbcgoodfoodme.com/ culinaryjourneys. od Fo ng ni i D ng pi p o sh LAFAYETTE GOURMET 7 10% discount on all Canadian beef and veal from the Butchery, cheeses from La cave a Fromage, and premium fruits and vegetables. t ou u en M LIME & TONIC 7 50% discount on select Lime & Tonic experiences. r ne an l p FREE! 7 Customised weekly menu planner printable from Moushii Log on to bbcgoodfoodme.com/bbcGF/fcpremium/ for offer details and to avail select offers online. Membership fee is Dhs120 \| Terms and conditions apply \| Valid for Premium Food Club members only \| All Premium members will receive further communications over email on how to avail of the offers up n g Si ow! n Pg99 Foodclub Premium_Nov14.indd 99 All you have to do is send an email to [email protected] or [email protected], and we’ll sort you out. Once that’s done, you will receive regular newsletters from us with unique promo codes that you can use to avail of the discounts. 10/29/14 5:53 PM ! N I W end k e e w d e ay at x a l A re getaw otana, R 00 n 5 i , 7 A Al h Dhs t wor One lucky winner can win a two-night stay, inclusive of breakfast, lunch, dinner, and a revitalising massage. Al Ain Rotana, located in the heart of Al Ain, is a great escape from Abu Dhabi and Dubai if you’re looking for the ultimate in relaxation, amidst tranquil surroundings. A selection of poolside chalets, villas, and rooms and suites make up the accommodation at this hotel, while amenities include a swimming pool, steam, sauna, jacuzzi, squash courts, Zen the spa, and a fully equipped gym to suit all needs. To sate hunger pangs, make a trip to the all-day dining restaurant, Zest, Mina Zaman for traditional Lebanese fare with entertainment, or popular Polynesian French restaurant, Trader Vic’s. One winner can take their partner along to the hotel for a two-night stay in an Exclusive Premium room, inclusive of breakfast and a foot massage for two adults. The winner can also invite two other friends to enjoy lunch for four at Trader Vic’s, and dinner for four at Zest, as part of the prize package. Scan this QR code to go straight to our website. Log on bbcgoodfoodme.com to enter this competition and simply answer this question: When did Zen the spa at Al Ain Rotana receive the World Luxury Spa award? Terms & conditions apply. Employees of CPI Media Group are not eligible to enter. Winners will be selected on random basis from correct entries. 100 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg100 Competition Al Ain Rotana_Nov14.indd 100 10/29/14 5:53 PM e h t n i o J It’s abs olutely F Membership gives you special privileges including: REE! t&YDMVTJWFJOWJUBUJPOTUPDVMJOBSZNBTUFSDMBTTFT t8FFLMZFNBJMOFXTMFUUFSTQBDLFEXJUIGPPEOFXT WJFXTBOESFDJQFT t"MPZBMUZDBSEPGGFSJOHSFTUBVSBOUEJTDPVOUT Learn to master delicious dishes Cook with top chefs Get discounts at various restaurants Food Club membership card discounts offered at the following outlets ! NEW AMWAJ ROTANA TIME GRAND PLAZA HOTEL Enjoy discounts at the awardwinning Rosso, plus Benihana and Horizon restaurants, at this JBR hotel. Enjoy discounts at Petals all-day dining restaurant, Vanilla cafe and Waves pool bar. Enjoy discounts at Brio all-day dining Restaurant, Splash pool bar, and Courtyard cafe. Discount: 30% off F&B www.timeoakhotelandsuites.com Discount: 30% off F&B www.timegrandplazahotel.com AL RAHA BEACH HOTEL DANAT AL AIN RESORT DANAT JEBEL DHANNA RESORT This corniche hotel’s outlets are Sevilla, Azur, Café Mozart, Black Pearl Bazar, Enigma, Wanasah and Al Manzil. Sevilla, Azur, Café Mozart, Black Pearl Bar, Enigma, La Piscine Poolbar & Restaurant, Al Manzil Clubhouse and Wanasah. The beach resort’s outlets include Tides, Zaitoun, C View café, Latitude bar and Waves. Discount: 25% off F&B at all outlets www.danathotels.com Discount: 25% off F&B at all outlets www.danathotels.com/JebelDhanna Discount: 20% on Food only www.rotana.com Discount: 25% off F&B at all outlets www.danathotels.com SANDS HOTEL This Abu Dhabi hotel’s restaurants include LaPiazza, Harvesters Pub, Chequers, Tipar Bar, Cappucino Royal Café and Pool Corner. Discount: 25% off F&B at all outlets www.danathotels.com SHANG THAI RESTAURANT An authentic Thai restaurant in Jumeirah. Discount: 10% Discount on Thai Cooking Classes 10% Discount on Regular Menu (not valid in conjunction with promotions or special menus) www.shang-thai.com DHAFRA BEACH HOTEL TILAL LIWA HOTEL Located amidst secluded dunes off the Rub Al Khali desert, the hotel’s resturants are Al Badiya, Layali Bar, and Al Liwan. Discount: 25% off F&B outlets www.danathotels.com Enjoy discounts at this beachside getaway’s restaurants Mayadeen and Al Hana. Discount: 25% off F&B outlets www.danathotels.com/ Hotels-Resorts/Dhafra-Beach-Hotel Terms & conditions apply. View full list of partner outlets on our website. Visit www.bbcgoodfoodme.com and sign up today. November 2014 BBC Good Food Middle East 101 Pg101 Foodclub page_Nov14.indd 101 Competitions Fabulous prizes, from dining vouchers to event passes, up for grabs. WIN! SATURDAY LUNCH VOUCHERS FOR TWO AT POSITANO, JW MARRIOTT MARQUIS DUBAI, WORTH OVER DHS900. Two adults and a child can enjoy a leisurely Italian lunch on Saturday. Antipasti, pasta, pizza, and roast or fish are part of the gourmet offerings at this stylish Italian restaurant. WIN! BRUNCH FOR FOUR AT LE CLASSIQUE, EMIRATES GOLF CLUB, WORTH OVER DHS1,450. WIN! Take three friends along to the French Friday brunch, and tuck into traditional French delights like escargot, pan fried foie gras, and mussels mariniere, as well as sharing style platters of smoked salmon, and octopus salad, among other delights. Listen to live music playing in the background, while indulging in desserts and cheeses from the dedicated counters. PICNIC BRUNCH FOR TWO AT BLADES, AL BADIA GOLF CLUB, WORTH DHS750. One winner can take a dining partner to this exciting brunch, where you get a picnic basket chockfull of delicious treats, to enjoy while relaxing on the lawn overlooking the Al Badia Golf Course. There’s no better way to dine alfresco on a weekend afternoon! WIN! A BREVILLE MULTI-CHEF COOKER, WORTH OVER DHS500. One lucky winner can win this one-pot gadget that’s ideal for professional and novice cooks. The appliance combines a 3.7 litre slow cooker, a 10-cup rice cooker, risotto maker, and steamer all in one handy piece, to help you make your favourite dishes without much effort. You can also sauté and sear ingredients in it, and prepare soups and casseroles – ideal for make-ahead meals in large batches. WIN! THE BOTANICAL DELIGHT PROGRAMME FROM DETOX DELIGHT, WORTH DHS1,500. Three lucky winners can try the programme worth Dhs500 each, which comprises of three vegan meals and two detox juices. The botanical delight menu features easy to digest, nutritious dishes that are free from gluten, and artificial additives, to help detox your body and kick-start a healthy eating regime. WIN! A DINING VOUCHER AT MAZINA, THE ADDRESS DUBAI MARINA, WORTH DHS500. Those who love seafood and steak will get a chance to enjoy the Steak and Sushi night on Thursdays, at this all-day dining restaurant. A selection of high-quality meat is available on offer, to be cooked to your liking, along with freshly made sushi. To stand a chance to win these prizes, visit our competitions page on www.bbcgoodfoodme.com, or simply scan this QR code with your mobile to go directly to the website, and answer the simple questions. Terms & conditions apply. Employees of CPI Media Group and entrants below 21 years old are not eligible to enter. Winners will be selected on random basis from correct entries. 102 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg102 Competition small_Nov14.indd 102 MARKET PLACE YACHT CHARTERS & FISHING Enjoy the Thrill and Fun of DESERT SAFARI Turn Wonderful Moments into Priceless Memories Proud to be SAFARI LEADERS Charter with Family and Friends AED 500/- Per Hour Onwards LUXURY PRIVATE CHARTER DEEP SEA FISHING SUNSET CRUISE Pick up & Drop-off facility from Hotels in Dubai Safari Trip Includes Dune Bashing - Sand Boarding & Camel Riding - BBQ Dinner - Arabic Tea & Coffee - Soft Drinks & Refreshments - Photographs in Local Dress - Henna Painting - Tattoos and a lot more entertainment throughout the evening Per Person Pick-up & Drop-off facility from anywhere in Dubai & Sharjah 24 Hrs. Reservation UAE F&B GUIDE: Published annually, FREE with your copy of BBC Good Food ME O Capture the essence of loved ones lives by representing their hobbies, newborn celebrations and memorable moments in a tailormade miniature gift set. May issue O M: With detailed information on each restaurant profile, easy to navigate layouts, and user-friendly icons, so you know exactly what to expect, books are your THEMES these CAN exclusive BE CUSTOMISED TO ultimate ORDERguides to dining out CAROL OWEN For advertising enquiries, please contact: Carol Owen [email protected] / +971 55 880 3817 Direct: +971 4 440 9110 / Mobile: +971 55 880 3817 [email protected] Pg95 Marketplace_June13.indd 111 Market place 2014.indd 1 Timing: Pick up: 3:00 - 3:30pm Drop-off: 9:00 - 9:30pm AED 200/- UAE IFTAR GUIDE: Published annually, FREE with your copy of BBC Good Food ME June issue PLUS: Available at leading food and lifestyle events free! VANESSA LINNEY Direct: +971 4 440 9137 / Mobile: +971 52 962 2460 [email protected] 5/23/13 11:05 AM 10/30/14 3:15 PM SWEET ENDINGS Helping you connect to the region's foodie community, one blog post at a time. About the blog ✴ Foodienfabulous.com was My inspiration stems from: Markets! Nothing is more inspiring than a trip to the local market, to pick fresh, seasonal ingredients, and plan your week’s menu around it! Our Friday morning starts with a trip to local markets either in Deira or Karama when in Dubai, and Mina Port in Abu Dhabi. Culinary icons Deﬁnitely my mother, because she taught me that love really is the secret ingredient to good food! If you love cooking, you are bound to make something that will leave an impression on people’s tastebuds. gravitate towards oysters, clams and lobster, as the way a restaurant executes it, sets it apart from other restaurants. Dunking a cookie or digestive biscuit in my coffee is a childhood habit I’ve never grown out of! FONDEST Y R O M E M D FOO I used to er since I was five. ev um m y m ith w e way. I’ve been cooking anecdotes along th e ar sh d an s nt ie ed stir dishes, add ingr A chefo MY TIPSFROM KITCHEN I’d like t dine with Anthony Bourdain! I’d love to hear about his wild travel escapades and would cook him a traditional Goan meal of rice with fish curry, prawn pickle and a side of greens. We’d end the meal with caramel custard. On a menu, my eyes always My favourite dessert Sweet sticky rice and Thai mango – a bite of this tropical treat takes me back to dining by the beach in Thailand. When cooking Indian food, a teaspoon of raw sugar perfectly balances all the spices and brings together all the ﬂavours. When buying ﬁsh, check that the eyes are clear and the body or ﬂesh is ﬁrm, to ensure they are fresh. Text by NICOLA MONTEATH \| Photographs SUPPLIED, SHUTTERSTOCK.COM 28-year old RUPAL BHATIKAR is the blogger whose posts you can’t help but like on Instagram when you come across them, as the Indian national from Goa documents every meal she eats. The founder of cookery blog, Foodienfabulous has lived in the UAE for almost five years, currently residing in Abu Dhabi. Rupal’s day job is as a Brand Manager and she can be found reading, snapping pictures of dishes at restaurants, and planning her travels, in her spare time. launched in 2013 to document foodie finds from around the globe, as well as successful experiments in the kitchen. I also feature traditional Goan recipes on the blog, and share my dining experiences in the UAE. The blog captures the essence of my love for all things related to food – the joy that comes from one bite of scrumptiousness, either making it or finding it! 104 BBC Good Food Middle East November 2014 Pg104 Meet the blogger_Nov14.indd 104 10/29/14 5:54 PM	i don't know
Which African bird is famous for it’s ability to be able to walk up to twenty miles a day and also for it’s ability to kill snakes by stamping on them with it’s large feet ?	Secretary Bird \| San Diego Zoo Animals & Plants San Diego Zoo Animals & Plants SPECIES: serpentarius ABOUT Crazy name: The secretary bird’s English name was once thought to come from the 1800s, when Europeans first spotted these birds. Back then, male secretaries wore gray tailcoats and dark knee-length pants. They also used goose-quill pens that they carried behind their ears. This long-legged bird shares many of these same physical features: long, dark quills at the back of the head; long, gray wing and tail feathers that resemble a tailcoat; and black feathers that go midway down the legs like short pants. It's fun to imagine how the two "secretaries" compare! Secretary birds are distantly related to buzzards, vultures, harriers, and kites. But unlike their raptor cousins, secretary birds spend most of their time on the ground. But can they fly? Of course! They may spend their days on the ground, but secretary birds are good fliers and nest and roost high up in acacia trees at night. In flight, their long legs trail behind them in the air. HABITAT AND DIET Long, stork-like legs hold most of the bird’s body above vegetation, giving it a better view of potential prey. Native to Africa, secretary birds are found south of the Sahara Desert, from Senegal east to Somalia and south to South Africa. Standing over four feet tall, the elegant birds cruise through grasses on long legs while looking for a bite to eat. Secretary birds prefer savannas with scattered acacia trees and short grasses where they can easily see while strolling. A few hours after dawn, secretary birds drop down to the ground from their nighttime roost to start the daily hunt. Pairs of secretary birds keep track of what's happening in their territory, which can be up to 19 square miles (50 square kilometers) in size. They are known to cover more than 20 miles (32 kilometers) in a day of hunting. Secretary birds search for food throughout the day—resting in the shade of a tree during the hottest part of the day—and return to their roost just before sunset. Secretary birds and caracaras are the only terrestrial birds of prey, hunting for their food on foot. Adults are often seen working in loose pairs, or even small family groups, stalking through grass in search of small mammals, reptiles, birds, and large insects. They are well known for their ability to catch and kill snakes of all sorts, even venomous ones! Secretary birds are clever enough to take advantage of recent fires, scavenging throughout the burn site for small animals that were unable to escape the blaze. These clever birds use two different hunting techniques. They catch prey by chasing it down, and then they either strike it with their bill or stomp on it until the prey is dead or stunned enough for the bird to swallow, usually whole. When attacking prey, the birds spread both wings and raise the feathered crest at the back of the head. Some studies suggest that dinosaur-like terror birds that wandered the Earth five million years ago may well have used this same attack strategy! A venomous snake might try to bite the secretary bird’s flapping feathers, but they serve as safe distractions or targets, since a bite to a hollow feather wouldn’t hurt the bird at all! The secretary bird's feet are adapted for walking and lack significant grasping ability. Rather than carrying prey with the feet, food is usually either eaten right away or taken away in the beak. At the San Diego Zoo and San Diego Zoo Safari Park, secretary birds are offered a combination of a commercial diet made for zoo carnivores and thawed mice. FAMILY LIFE Although they spend their days on the ground, secretary birds take to the trees for roosting at night and for nesting. Courtship for secretary birds takes place at any time of year, depending on how much food is available. Both male and female soar in wide circles and perform swoops and downward plunges, sometimes clasping talons in midair. The monogamous pair works together to build a large nest reaching up to 8 feet (2.4 meters) across. The nest is built of twigs, sticks, animal fur and dung, leaves, and grasses. The busy couple works on and visits the nest for up to six months; pairs often use the same nest for many years. One to three pale-green eggs are laid every two to three days, and the female does most of the incubation duties. The eggs hatch in the order they were laid, a few days apart. Both parents feed regurgitated and liquefied insects and small animals directly to the youngsters. Unlike other birds of prey, secretary bird parents often raise more than one chick successfully. Secretary bird chicks fledge at about 12 weeks of age. For the first few weeks, one parent is always on the nest, feeding and caring for the chick. Within 10 days, the secretary bird’s distinctive bare patch becomes visible on the face but without the bright orange coloration. By the third week, the chick has an unmistakable secretary bird face, crest feathers start to emerge, and long eyelashes become visible. In the beginning, the parents tear up small pieces of meat for the chicks to eat. At about 40 days old, the down-covered babies learn to eat small mammal and reptile parts that the parents drop directly into the nest. By six weeks, the chicks look like fully feathered, miniature versions of an adult. They exercise their wings at around 9 weeks and fledge at 12 weeks of age. Fledging for a secretary bird usually means a somewhat controlled fall out of the nest with lots of wing flapping until the youngster hits the ground! Parents then teach their offspring how to hunt, kick, and fly; the youngsters wander off on their own soon after. Usually quiet, secretary birds do vocalize if needed. A deep, low croak or a roaring groan can be made during a courtship flight, during fights, or to defend territory or a nest, as crows and kites often attack secretary bird nestlings, which are easy targets in their treetop nests. A single high croak is made when the bird is alarmed, and soft clucks and whistles are used between mates. To beg for food, chicks use a soft cheeping call that changes to squeals and loud brays as they get older. AT THE ZOO The San Diego Zoo’s first secretary birds arrived in 1939. At that time, no secretary birds had bred in any zoo facility. It was thought perhaps zoos did not have enough room to give the birds, which perform aerial courtship rituals. In 1971, the San Diego County Council of Camp Fire Girls raised money to fund the purchase of a pair of the birds for the fledgling San Diego Zoo Safari Park. In 2002, a secretary bird pair at the Safari Park’s off-exhibit Bird Breeding Complex, housed in a large flight aviary with several other bird species, showed an interest in breeding. The pair was seen carrying nesting material to a tree, and before long, they had a very large nest built of sticks, twigs, and grasses at the top of a tree. After two eggs were laid, the eggs were placed in an incubator for safekeeping, due to the parents’ lack of experience, and replaced with plaster-filled artificial eggs for the parents to incubate. The chicks hatched and were hand reared, and the parents laid more eggs. After three chicks were successfully hand reared, the parents were given a chance to raise their own. After two unsuccessful tries, they succeeded in hatching and raising one chick in 2004, a first for our organization! Since that time, we’ve welcomed 22 more secretary bird chicks. In recent years, the San Diego Zoo Safari Park has been one of only two North American zoos to have successfully raised this species. With our success, we will continue to be able to collaborate with other zoos to help expand the breeding program throughout the US. Currently, there is a pair of secretary birds in the Zoo’s Elephant Odyssey. They can be seen across from a life-size statue of another long-legged, but now extinct, bird: the Daggett’s eagle, a predator whose hunting behavior was similar to that of the secretary bird’s. At the Safari Park, we have over a dozen secretary birds, including a pair on exhibit in the Park’s African Outpost, and two (Karani and Aren) that are part of our Frequent Flyers bird show. Karani is a mature female who hatched in 2008; Aren, a young male, hatched in 2012. They can both be seen performing a natural secretary bird behavior: stomping a snake! However, the snake used in the show is made of rubber. We are the only facility in the US to feature trained secretary birds, and there are only an estimated four other trained secretary birds worldwide. CONSERVATION We still have much to learn about these amazing birds and how they raise their young. At this time, the secretary bird is common over much of its range and is protected in many African countries. However, habitat loss and deforestation could affect its future. In 1968, the species was protected under the Africa Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Its popularity among Africans may help protect the secretary bird in the future, while zoos such as San Diego Zoo Global do our part to increase awareness about the importance of habitat protection. LIFE SPAN	Secretarybird
What is the money currency of the country of Croatia ?	Secretary Bird \| San Diego Zoo Animals & Plants San Diego Zoo Animals & Plants SPECIES: serpentarius ABOUT Crazy name: The secretary bird’s English name was once thought to come from the 1800s, when Europeans first spotted these birds. Back then, male secretaries wore gray tailcoats and dark knee-length pants. They also used goose-quill pens that they carried behind their ears. This long-legged bird shares many of these same physical features: long, dark quills at the back of the head; long, gray wing and tail feathers that resemble a tailcoat; and black feathers that go midway down the legs like short pants. It's fun to imagine how the two "secretaries" compare! Secretary birds are distantly related to buzzards, vultures, harriers, and kites. But unlike their raptor cousins, secretary birds spend most of their time on the ground. But can they fly? Of course! They may spend their days on the ground, but secretary birds are good fliers and nest and roost high up in acacia trees at night. In flight, their long legs trail behind them in the air. HABITAT AND DIET Long, stork-like legs hold most of the bird’s body above vegetation, giving it a better view of potential prey. Native to Africa, secretary birds are found south of the Sahara Desert, from Senegal east to Somalia and south to South Africa. Standing over four feet tall, the elegant birds cruise through grasses on long legs while looking for a bite to eat. Secretary birds prefer savannas with scattered acacia trees and short grasses where they can easily see while strolling. A few hours after dawn, secretary birds drop down to the ground from their nighttime roost to start the daily hunt. Pairs of secretary birds keep track of what's happening in their territory, which can be up to 19 square miles (50 square kilometers) in size. They are known to cover more than 20 miles (32 kilometers) in a day of hunting. Secretary birds search for food throughout the day—resting in the shade of a tree during the hottest part of the day—and return to their roost just before sunset. Secretary birds and caracaras are the only terrestrial birds of prey, hunting for their food on foot. Adults are often seen working in loose pairs, or even small family groups, stalking through grass in search of small mammals, reptiles, birds, and large insects. They are well known for their ability to catch and kill snakes of all sorts, even venomous ones! Secretary birds are clever enough to take advantage of recent fires, scavenging throughout the burn site for small animals that were unable to escape the blaze. These clever birds use two different hunting techniques. They catch prey by chasing it down, and then they either strike it with their bill or stomp on it until the prey is dead or stunned enough for the bird to swallow, usually whole. When attacking prey, the birds spread both wings and raise the feathered crest at the back of the head. Some studies suggest that dinosaur-like terror birds that wandered the Earth five million years ago may well have used this same attack strategy! A venomous snake might try to bite the secretary bird’s flapping feathers, but they serve as safe distractions or targets, since a bite to a hollow feather wouldn’t hurt the bird at all! The secretary bird's feet are adapted for walking and lack significant grasping ability. Rather than carrying prey with the feet, food is usually either eaten right away or taken away in the beak. At the San Diego Zoo and San Diego Zoo Safari Park, secretary birds are offered a combination of a commercial diet made for zoo carnivores and thawed mice. FAMILY LIFE Although they spend their days on the ground, secretary birds take to the trees for roosting at night and for nesting. Courtship for secretary birds takes place at any time of year, depending on how much food is available. Both male and female soar in wide circles and perform swoops and downward plunges, sometimes clasping talons in midair. The monogamous pair works together to build a large nest reaching up to 8 feet (2.4 meters) across. The nest is built of twigs, sticks, animal fur and dung, leaves, and grasses. The busy couple works on and visits the nest for up to six months; pairs often use the same nest for many years. One to three pale-green eggs are laid every two to three days, and the female does most of the incubation duties. The eggs hatch in the order they were laid, a few days apart. Both parents feed regurgitated and liquefied insects and small animals directly to the youngsters. Unlike other birds of prey, secretary bird parents often raise more than one chick successfully. Secretary bird chicks fledge at about 12 weeks of age. For the first few weeks, one parent is always on the nest, feeding and caring for the chick. Within 10 days, the secretary bird’s distinctive bare patch becomes visible on the face but without the bright orange coloration. By the third week, the chick has an unmistakable secretary bird face, crest feathers start to emerge, and long eyelashes become visible. In the beginning, the parents tear up small pieces of meat for the chicks to eat. At about 40 days old, the down-covered babies learn to eat small mammal and reptile parts that the parents drop directly into the nest. By six weeks, the chicks look like fully feathered, miniature versions of an adult. They exercise their wings at around 9 weeks and fledge at 12 weeks of age. Fledging for a secretary bird usually means a somewhat controlled fall out of the nest with lots of wing flapping until the youngster hits the ground! Parents then teach their offspring how to hunt, kick, and fly; the youngsters wander off on their own soon after. Usually quiet, secretary birds do vocalize if needed. A deep, low croak or a roaring groan can be made during a courtship flight, during fights, or to defend territory or a nest, as crows and kites often attack secretary bird nestlings, which are easy targets in their treetop nests. A single high croak is made when the bird is alarmed, and soft clucks and whistles are used between mates. To beg for food, chicks use a soft cheeping call that changes to squeals and loud brays as they get older. AT THE ZOO The San Diego Zoo’s first secretary birds arrived in 1939. At that time, no secretary birds had bred in any zoo facility. It was thought perhaps zoos did not have enough room to give the birds, which perform aerial courtship rituals. In 1971, the San Diego County Council of Camp Fire Girls raised money to fund the purchase of a pair of the birds for the fledgling San Diego Zoo Safari Park. In 2002, a secretary bird pair at the Safari Park’s off-exhibit Bird Breeding Complex, housed in a large flight aviary with several other bird species, showed an interest in breeding. The pair was seen carrying nesting material to a tree, and before long, they had a very large nest built of sticks, twigs, and grasses at the top of a tree. After two eggs were laid, the eggs were placed in an incubator for safekeeping, due to the parents’ lack of experience, and replaced with plaster-filled artificial eggs for the parents to incubate. The chicks hatched and were hand reared, and the parents laid more eggs. After three chicks were successfully hand reared, the parents were given a chance to raise their own. After two unsuccessful tries, they succeeded in hatching and raising one chick in 2004, a first for our organization! Since that time, we’ve welcomed 22 more secretary bird chicks. In recent years, the San Diego Zoo Safari Park has been one of only two North American zoos to have successfully raised this species. With our success, we will continue to be able to collaborate with other zoos to help expand the breeding program throughout the US. Currently, there is a pair of secretary birds in the Zoo’s Elephant Odyssey. They can be seen across from a life-size statue of another long-legged, but now extinct, bird: the Daggett’s eagle, a predator whose hunting behavior was similar to that of the secretary bird’s. At the Safari Park, we have over a dozen secretary birds, including a pair on exhibit in the Park’s African Outpost, and two (Karani and Aren) that are part of our Frequent Flyers bird show. Karani is a mature female who hatched in 2008; Aren, a young male, hatched in 2012. They can both be seen performing a natural secretary bird behavior: stomping a snake! However, the snake used in the show is made of rubber. We are the only facility in the US to feature trained secretary birds, and there are only an estimated four other trained secretary birds worldwide. CONSERVATION We still have much to learn about these amazing birds and how they raise their young. At this time, the secretary bird is common over much of its range and is protected in many African countries. However, habitat loss and deforestation could affect its future. In 1968, the species was protected under the Africa Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources. Its popularity among Africans may help protect the secretary bird in the future, while zoos such as San Diego Zoo Global do our part to increase awareness about the importance of habitat protection. LIFE SPAN	i don't know
Which American cartoonist was the creator of the popular 1931 comic strip Dick Tracy ?	Chester Gould \| American cartoonist \| Britannica.com American cartoonist Gil Kane Chester Gould, (born Nov. 20, 1900, Pawnee, Okla., U.S.—died May 11, 1985, Woodstock, Ill.), American cartoonist who created “Dick Tracy,” the detective-action comic strip that became the first popular cops-and-robbers series. Gould studied cartooning through a correspondence school, briefly drew sports cartoons in Oklahoma , then worked for the Chicago Daily News. “Dick Tracy” was first distributed in 1931 by the Chicago Tribune–New York News Syndicate, Inc.; its underlying code of “crime doesn’t pay” and its support of tough and often violent law enforcement were widely appealing. Drawn with hard outlines and bright colours and accurate in the details of crime and criminal investigation, the comic strip features Dick Tracy , a clean-cut, plainclothes detective with a hard, jutting jawline, whose methods, reminiscent of Sherlock Holmes’s , made him the nemesis of a gallery of grotesquely caricatured criminals. Gould retired from the strip in 1977. Learn More in these related articles: in comic strip: The United States ...researched, was evolved by Milton Caniff in his Terry and the Pirates (begun 1934). Caricatural simplifications and grim forms of humour were introduced into the genre by Chester Gould’s Dick Tracy (begun 1931), the detective strip par excellence, which is laced with science-fiction gadgetry and bizarre eroticism. Truly satirical forms of... in Dick Tracy (comic strip character) the hard-boiled hero of Dick Tracy, a newspaper comic strip created by Chester Gould in 1931. Gould originally wanted to name both the detective and the strip Plainclothes Tracy, but he was overruled by Joseph Medill Patterson, owner of The Chicago Tribune–New York News Syndicate. 2 References found in Britannica Articles Assorted References creation of Dick Tracy (in Dick Tracy (comic strip character) ) External Links Gould, Chester - Student Encyclopedia (Ages 11 and up) (1900-85), U.S. cartoonist. Chester Gould was born on Nov. 20, 1900, in Pawnee, Okla. He began cartooning while in college and in 1924 began drawing "Fillum Fables," comic-strip spoofs of popular movies. In 1931 Gould’s creation Dick Tracy, a stern, lean-jawed police detective who was eventually the subject of several films, made his first appearance. The "Dick Tracy" strip continued for 46 years under Gould’s pen. Gould retired in 1977, turning the strip over to other artists. Article History Corrections? Updates? Help us improve this article! Contact our editors with your feedback. MEDIA FOR: You have successfully emailed this. Error when sending the email. Try again later. Edit Mode Submit Tips For Editing We welcome suggested improvements to any of our articles. You can make it easier for us to review and, hopefully, publish your contribution by keeping a few points in mind. Encyclopædia Britannica articles are written in a neutral objective tone for a general audience. You may find it helpful to search within the site to see how similar or related subjects are covered. Any text you add should be original, not copied from other sources. At the bottom of the article, feel free to list any sources that support your changes, so that we can fully understand their context. (Internet URLs are the best.) Your contribution may be further edited by our staff, and its publication is subject to our final approval. Unfortunately, our editorial approach may not be able to accommodate all contributions. Submit Thank You for Your Contribution! Our editors will review what you've submitted, and if it meets our criteria, we'll add it to the article. Please note that our editors may make some formatting changes or correct spelling or grammatical errors, and may also contact you if any clarifications are needed. Uh Oh There was a problem with your submission. Please try again later. Close Date Published: July 20, 1998 URL: https://www.britannica.com/biography/Chester-Gould Access Date: January 20, 2017 Share	Chester Gould
In mythology, if Mars was the Roman god of war, who was the Greek equivalent ?	In the light of day – Dick Tracy.. \| pearlsofprofundity In the light of day – Dick Tracy.. by viawit in Uncategorized Dick Tracy is a comic strip featuring Dick Tracy (originally Plainclothes Tracy), a hard-hitting, fast-shooting and intelligent police detective. Created by Chester Gould, the strip made its debut on October 4, 1931, in the Detroit Mirror. It was distributed by the Chicago Tribune New York News Syndicate. Gould wrote and drew the strip until 1977. Chester Gould (November 20, 1900 – May 11, 1985) was an American cartoonist, best known as the creator of the Dick Tracy comic strip, which he wrote and drew from 1931 to 1977, incorporating numerous colorful and monstrous villains. (1929 model A Ford). Although a few large Metropolitan police forces in America began using mobile radios in their (cruisers) earlier than 1930, – the equipment was heavy, cumbersome and less than dependable. Far beneath the aesthetics and utility of Dick Tracy’s two-way wrist radio. Galvin Manufacturing Corporation introduced its Motorola brand car radio, one of the first commercially successful car radios, in June 1930. The radio was intended for the general public, but soon police departments and city governments across the Chicago area and United States ordered radios for public safety use. This was the beginning of Motorola’s expertise in mobile communications and long customer relationships. Question: So what does Dick Tracy have to do with the price of tea in China? – or anything? America, (at least throughout my lifetime) all “seventy-one” years, (to my recollection) is referred to, (at least in America) as the most powerful Nation on the Earth, and/or, the world’s police department. Not since America began electing buffoons to serve in the Oval Office, beginning with “buffoon” number one… (George “Duba” Bush). Culminating with our current “low-brow” catastrophe, … ..and/or, clown, (Barack Hussein Obama). According to Webster: “low·brow,” One having uncultivated tastes; vulgar. According to Webster: “vul·gar,” (in context) Marked by a lack of good breeding; boorish. Speaking of vulgar and boorish, ..what could be more (vulgar and boorish) than a candidate vying for the presidency of the United States, ..than for said candidate, (Barack Obama) ..to wade in the proverbial gutter and explicate;… Interesting Article: By Ben Zimmer, \|Posted Wednesday, Sept. 10, 2008. When Barack Obama told a crowd at a campaign event on Tuesday, “You can put lipstick on a pig, but it’s still a pig,” the McCain campaign swiftly took offense, claiming the analogy was directed at vice-presidential nominee Sarah Palin. Obama campaign spokeswoman Jen Psaki countered the accusation, saying, “That expression is older than my grandfather’s grandfather and it means that you can dress something up but it doesn’t change what it is.” Question: Is the expression really that old? The concept is an old one, but the phrasing used by Obama is rather new. Many porcine proverbs describe vain attempts at converting something from ugly to pretty, or from useless to useful. (Sidebar). In my world, nothing is more “useless and unattractive ” than an individual who uses a (personal attack) ..to further “his” or “her” agenda and career. Continuing… The famous maxim that “You can’t make a silk purse from a sow’s ear” dates back at least to the mid-16th century. Other old sayings play on the ludicrousness of a pig getting dressed up. “A hog in armour is still but a hog” was recorded in 1732 by British physician Thomas Fuller. As Francis Grose later explained in “A Classical Dictionary of the Vulgar Tongue” (1796), a “hog in armour” alludes to “an awkward or mean looking man or woman, finely dressed.” Charles H. Spurgeon noted another variation in his 1887 compendium of proverbs, The Salt-Cellars: “A hog in a silk waistcoat is still a hog,” meaning, “Circumstances do not alter a man’s nature, nor even his manners.” The “lipstick” variation is relatively novel, – not surprising, since the word lipstick itself dates only to 1880. The incongruity of pigs and cosmetics was expressed as early as 1926 by the colorful editor Charles F. Lummis, writing in the Los Angeles Times: “Most of us know as much of history as a pig does of lipsticks.” But the exact wording of “putting lipstick on a pig (or hog)” doesn’t show up until much later. In 1985, the Washington Post quoted a San Francisco radio host on plans for renovating CandlestickPark (instead of building a new downtown stadium for the Giants): “That would be like putting lipstick on a pig.” Ann Richards did much to boost the saying’s political popularity when she used a number of variations while governor of Texas in the early ’90 In 1991, in her first budget-writing session, she said, “This is not another one of those deals where you put lipstick on a hog and call it a princess.” The next year, at a Democratic barbecue in South Dakota, she criticized the George H.W. Bush administration for using warships to protect oil tankers in the Middle East, which she considered a hidden subsidy for foreign oil. “You can put lipstick on a hog and call it Monique, but it is still a pig,” she said. Richards returned to the theme in her failed 1994 gubernatorial race against the younger Bush, using the “call it Monique” line to disparage her opponent’s negative ads. Since then, “lipstick on a pig” has spiced up the political verbiage of everyone from Charlie Rangel to Dick Cheney. John McCain himself used it last year to describe Hillary Clinton’s health care proposal. And even though the folksy expression is one that sounds old (and connects back to genuinely old proverbs), it’s not quite the vintage of anyone’s grandfather’s grandfather. Which of course, is shocking at this late date to learn that someone (Jen Psaki) specifically, on Barack Obama’s campaign team would deliberately mislead the public with her statement that the adage was older than her grandfather’s grandfather, …NOT! So what’s my point? With his proclivity for ranking his adversaries and misleading the public, if anyone deserves the label of a pig behind a veil of lipstick, (in my humble opinion) ..my first choice would be (unequivocally) the individual who’s “caricature” is displayed directly above At the risk of sounding like the proverbial broken record to those of you who follow my blather regularly, I announced prior to Barack Obama’s election in 2008, that he would be the largest collective mistake the adult population of America could make. However since I detest this individuals “ideology and agenda,” ..so fervently, I never get tired of putting it out there again; … “Electing Barack Obama as President of the United States, is (unequivocally) ..the stupidest thing the collective “adult” population of this Nation has ever done.” As long as Barack “no birth certificate” Obama resides in the White House and rules the roost, America will continue to fail and be seen as weak and waning by every man woman and child on this planet who has the intellect to pour water from a boot without alluding to the instructions printed on the sole. Truth forges understanding, I’ll be back tomorrow Crusader Rabbit…	i don't know
Which European capital city is served by Vaclav Havel Airport ?	Václav Havel Airport Prague Václav Havel Airport Prague photo: (czechtourism.com) The name of the international airport in the capital city of the Czech Republic has changed. From 5 October 2012, it will be called Václav Havel Airport Prague. The largest airport in the Czech Republic thus commemorates the first democratic president of our modern history. The airport that was formerly known as Prague – Ruzyně was renamed on 5 October to celebrate what would have been the 76th birthday of Václav Havel . The initiator of the idea of renaming the airport was film director Fero Fenič with this reasoning: “Havel’s journey from Ruzyně* Prison to Prague Castle, the demolition of frontiers and opening and promoting our country to the whole cannot be more aptly commemorated and symbolised in everyday life than by renaming the Ruzyně airport in Prague to Václav Havel Airport Prague. The airport is the junction of roads, a place of mixing and meeting of nations, a symbol of free movement of people and ideas. It has been a gate to freedom for the Czech Republic and the first place that foreigners see on entering our country.” This thought was immediately supported by tens of thousands people and the government of the Czech Republic also supported the name change. * Ruzyně is a Prague quarter (Map) , where you can find a well-known prison as well as the airport.	Prague
In mythology, if Vulcan was the Roman god of fire, who was the Greek equivalent ?	Czech Mate for Ryanair in Prague :: Routesonline Czech Mate for Ryanair in Prague Czech Mate for Ryanair in Prague Share Follow @routesonline 6,178 followers Ryanair first introduced flights into Prague in November 2007 and currently offers at least daily flights from Brussels Charleroi, Dublin and London Stansted. The launch of the base will support the introduction of new daily flights to Bergamo and Rome in Italy and will boost annual capacity by around 100,000 to 625,000 seats. Irish budget carrier Ryanair is to open a first aircraft base in the Czech Republic. The low-fare operator will station two Boeing 737-800s at Václav Havel Airport in Prague from this winter, growing its network in the capital city to 40 weekly flights across five routes. Ryanair first introduced flights into Prague in November 2007 but suspended flights in October 2010 . It resumed operations in April 2014 and currently offers at least daily flights from Brussels Charleroi, Dublin and London Stansted. The launch of the base will support the introduction of new daily flights to Bergamo and Rome in Italy and will boost annual capacity by around 100,000 to 625,000 seats. “This growth is an integral part of our continued expansion plans for both the Czech Republic and Eastern Europe, as we connect Prague with Europe’s key centres of business with high frequency business-friendly services,” said Kenny Jacobs, chief marketing officer, Ryanair. Over the eight plus years since Ryanair first served the Prague market it has offered more than 1.6 million seats to and from the city, also previously serving markets such as Birmingham, Bremen, East Midlands, Frankfurt and Stockholm. Despite strong competition from legacy and low-cost operators, the base announcement could provide a platform for the airline to further grow its activities in the Czech Republic. “We are pleased that Ryanair keeps expanding its aviation business at Václav Havel Airport,” said Jiří Vyskoč, aviation business director, Prague Airport. “With nearly half a million passengers transported a year, the carrier ranks among the largest top five airlines in Prague. The plan to launch two new routes confirms the continued interest of foreign tourists in trips to Prague,” he added. Since returning to the airport in 2014, Ryanair has grown its share of capacity at Václav Havel Airport from just 1.5 percent in 2014 to 5.0 percent this year, based on published schedules from intelligence provider, OAG, for the calendar year. It is the fifth largest operator by capacity in Prague after flag carrier Czech Airlines, Travel Service Airlines, easyJet and Lufthansa. Elsewhere, Ryanair is to introduce its first flights into Serbia with the launch of flights to Niš Constantine the Great Airport, the largest air gateway into the country outside of its capital city, Belgrade. The airline will offer a twice weekly link from Berlin Schönefeld from September 4, 2016 carrying an estimated 30,000 annual passengers on the route. Serbia will be Ryanair’s 32nd country market and further highlights its continued expansion into Central and Eastern Europe during 2016. Share Article	i don't know
"Which famous song from the musical Oklahoma contains the lyrics ""The Corn Is High As An Elephant’s Eye"" ?"	Lyrics for the album "Oklahoma" by Musical Lyrics for the album "Oklahoma" by Musical Oh, What A Beautiful Morning There's a bright golden haze on the meadow There's a bright golden haze on the meadow The corn is as high as an elephant's eye And it looks like it's climbing right up to the sky Oh what a beautiful morning Oh what a beautiful day I've got a beautiful feeling Everything's going my way All the cattle are standing like statues All the cattle are standing like statues They don't turn their heads as they see me ride by But a little brown mav'rick is winking her eye Oh what a beautiful morning Oh what a beautiful day I've got a beautiful feeling Everything's going my way All the sounds of the earth are like music All the sounds of the earth are like music The breeze is so busy it don't miss a tree And an ol' weeping willow is laughing at me Oh what a beautiful morning Oh what a beautiful day I've got a beautiful feeling Everything's going my way The Surrey With The Fringe On Top [Curly] When I take you out, tonight, with me Honey, here's the way it's gonna be You will set behind a team of snow white horses In the slickest gig you ever see Chicks and ducks and geese better scurry When I take you out in the surrey When I take you out in the surrey with the fringe on top Watch that fringe and see how it flutters When I drive them high steppin' strutters Nosy folks'll peek thru' their shutters and their eyes will pop The wheels are yeller, the upholstery's brown The dashboard's genuine leather With isinglass curtains y' can roll right down In case there's a change in the weather Two bright sidelight's winkin' and blinkin' Ain't no finer rig I'm a-thinkin' You c'n keep your rig if you're thinkin' 'at I'd keer to swap Fer that shiny, little surrey with the fringe on the top All the world'll fly in a flurry When I take you out in the surrey When I take you out in the surrey with the fringe on top When we hit that road, hell fer leather Cats and dogs'll dance in the heather Birds and frogs'll sing all together and the toads will hop The wind'll whistle as we rattle along The cows'll moo in the clover The river will ripple out a whispered song And whisper it over and over Don't you wisht y'd go on forever Don't you wisht y'd go on forever Don't you wisht y'd go on forever and ud never stop In that shiny, little surrey with the fringe on the top I can see the stars gettin' blurry When we drive back home in the surrey Drivin' slowly home in the surrey with the fringe on top I can feel the day gettin' older Feel a sleepy head on my shoulder Noddin', droopin' close to my shoulder, till it falls kerplop The sun is swimmin' on the rim of a hill The moon is takin' a header And jist as I'm thinkin' all the earth is still A lark'll wake up in the medder Hush, you bird, my baby's a-sleepin' Maybe got a dream worth a-keepin' Whoa! you team, and jist keep a-creepin' at a slow clip clop Don't you hurry with the surrey with the fringe on the top Kansas City [Will] I got to Kansas City on a Frid'y By Saturdy I learnt a thing or two For up to then I didn't have an idy Of whut the modren world was comin' to! I counted twenty gas buggies goin' by theirsel's Almost ev'ry time I tuk a walk 'Nen I put my ear to a Bell Telephone And a strange womin started in to talk! [Aunt Eller] Whut next!? [Will's friends] Yeah whut!? [Will] Whut next? Ev'rythin's up to date in Kansas City They've gone about as fur as they c'n go! They went and built a skyscraper seven stories high About as high as a buildin' oughta grow Ev'rythin's like a dream in Kansas City It's better than a magic lantern show! Y' c'n turn the radiator on whenever you want some heat With ev'ry kind o' comfort ev'ry house is all complete You c'n walk to privies in the rain and never wet your feet! They've gone about as fur as they c'n go [All] Yes sir! They've gone about as fur as they c'n go! [Will] Ev'rythin's up to date in Kansas City They've gone about as fur as they c'n go! They got a big theayter they call a burleeque Fer fifty cents you c'n see a dandy show [One of the men] Girls?! [Will] One of the gals was fat and pink and pretty As round above as she was round below I could swear that she was padded from her shoulder to her heel But later in the second act when she began to peel She proved that ev'rythin' she had was absolutely real! She went about as fur as she could go [All] Yes sir! She went about as fur as she could go! (Will begins doing the two-step alone) [One of the men (spoken)] Watcha doin' Will? [Will (spoken)] It's called the two step! It's all they're doin' nowadays. The waltz is through. Catch on? Of course they don't do it alone. Come on Aunt Eller! (Will grabs Aunt Eller and they dance for a while) [Aunt Eller (falling back into her place, exhausted)] And that's about as fur as I c'n go! [All] Yes sir! And that's about as fur as she c'n go! (Will begins to do ragtime alone) [Another man (spoken)] Watcha doin' now, Will? [Will (spoken)] It's called Ragtime, seen a couple fellers doin' it (All men and a few passing women stop to dance for a while.) [All (while still dancing)] And that's about as fur as we c'n go! I Cain't Say No! [Ado Annie] It ain't so much a question of not knowin' what to do I knowed whut's right and wrong since I been ten I heared a lota stories and I reckon they are true About how girls're put upon by men I know I mustn't fall into the pit But when I'm with a feller, I fergit! I'm jist a girl who cain't say no I'm in a turrible fix I always say "come on, let's go" Jist when I orta say nix! When a person tries to kiss a girl I know she oughta give his face a smack But as soon as someone kisses me I somehow, sorta, wanta kiss him back! I'm jist a fool when lights are low I cain't be prissy and quaint I ain't the type that can faint How c'n I be whut I ain't? I cain't say no! Whut you goin' to do when a feller gits flirty And starts to talk purty? whut you goin' to do? S'posin' 'at he says 'at yer lips're like cherries Er roses, er berries? Whut you goin' to do? S'posin' 'at he says 'at you're sweeter 'n cream And he's gotta have cream er die? Whut you goin' to do when he talks that way Spit in his eye? I'm jist a girl who cain't say no Cain't seem to say it at all I hate to disserpoint a beau When he is payin' a call! Fer a while I ack refined and cool A settin on the velveteen setee Nen I think of thet ol' golden rule And do fer him what he would do fer me! I cain't resist a Romeo In a sombrero and chaps Soon as I sit on their laps Somethin' inside of me snaps I cain't say no! People Will Say We're In Love [Laurey] Why do they think up stories that link my name with yours? [Curly] Why do the neighbors chatter all day, behind their doors? [Laurey] I know a way to prove what they say is quite untrue Here is the gist, a practical list of "don'ts" for you Don't throw bouquets at me Don't please my folks too much Don't laugh at my jokes too much People will say we're in love! Don't sigh and gaze at me Your sighs are so like mine Your eyes mustn't glow like mine People will say we're in love! Don't start collecting things Give me my rose and my glove Sweetheart they're suspecting things People will say we're in love [Curly] Some people claim that you are to blame as much as I Why do you take the trouble to bake my favrite pie? Granted your wish, I carved our initials on that tree Just keep a slice of all the advice you give, so free Don't praise my charm too much Don't look so vain with me Don't stand in the rain with me People will say we're in love! Don't take my arm too much Don't keep your hand in mine Your hand feels so grand in mine People will say we're in love! Don't dance all night with me Till the stars fade from above They'll see it's alright with me [both] People will say we're in love Pore Jud Is Daid [Curly] Poor Jud is dead Poor Jud Fry is dead All gather round his coffin now and cry He had a heart of gold And he wasn't very old Oh why did such a feller have to die? Poor Jud is dead Poor Jud Fry is dead He's lookin' oh so peaceful and serene ([Jud] and serene) He's all laid out to rest With his hands acrost his chest His fingernails have never been so clean [spoken] Then the preacher'd get up and he'd say "Folks, we are gathered here to mourn and groan over our brother Jud Fry Who hung hisself up by a rope in the smokehouse" And then there'd be weepin' an' wailin' --- from some of those women --- Then he'd say, "Jud was the most misunderstood man in this territory People used to think he was a mean ugly fella and called him a dirty skunk and an ornery pig stealer [Jud gives him a dirty look] But [sung] The folks that really knowed him Knowed that beneath them two dirty shirts he always wore There beat a heart as big as all outdoors ([Jud] as big as all outdoors) Jud Fry loved his fellow man ([Jud] he loved his fellow man) [spoken] He loved the birds of the forest And the beasts of the fields He loved the mice and the vermin in the barn And he treated the rats like equals (which was right) He loved all the little children He loved everything and everybody in the world Only . . . only he never let on And nobody ever knowed it [sung] Poor Jud is dead Poor Jud Fry is dead His friends are weepin' wail for miles around ([Jud] miles around) The daisies in the dell Will give out a different smell Because poor Jud is underneath the ground [Jud] Poor Jud is dead A candle lights his head He's layin' in a coffin made of wood ([Curly] wood) And folks are feelin' sad 'Cuz they used to treat him bad And now they know their friend has gone for good ([Curly] good) [both] Poor Jud is dead A candle lights his head [Curly] He's lookin' oh so purty and so nice He looks like he's asleep It's a shame that he won't keep But it's summer and we're runnin' out a' ice [both] Poooooor Juuuuuuud Poooooor Juuuuuuud The Farmer And The Cowman [Andrew Carnes] The farmer and the cowman should be friends Oh, the farmer and the cowman should be friends One man likes to push a plough The other likes to chase a cow But that's no reason why they cain't be friends Territory folks should stick together Territory folks should all be pals Cowboys dance with farmer's daughters Farmers dance with the ranchers' gals [All] Territory folks should stick together Territory folks should all be pals Cowboys dance with farmer's daughters Farmers dance with the ranchers' gals [Andrew] I'd like to say a word for the farmer He come out west and made a lot of changes [Will] He come out west and built a lot of fences [Curly] And built 'em right acrost our cattle ranges! [Andrew] The farmer is a good and thrifty citizen No matter what the cowman says or thinks You seldom see him drinkin' in a barroom [Curly] Unless somebody else is buying drinks! [Andrew] The farmer and the cowman should be friends Oh, the farmer and the cowman should be friends The cowman ropes a cow with ease The farmer steals her butter and cheese But that's no reason why they cain't be friends [All] Territory folks should stick together Territory folks should all be pals Cowboys dance with farmer's daughters Farmers dance with the ranchers' gals [Aunt Eller] I'd like to say a word for the cowboy The road he treads is difficult and stony He rides for days on end With jist a pony for a friend [Ado Annie] I sure am feelin' sorry fer the pony! [Aunt Eller] The farmer should be sociable with the cowboy If he rides by and asks for food and water Don't treat him like a louse Make him welcome in yer house [Andrew] But be sure that you lock up yer wife and daughter! (fight breaks loose, Aunt Eller fires a gun and everyone freezes) [Aunt Eller] Ain't nobody gonna slug out anythin'. Sing it Andrew! (Points gun at Carnes) Dum- didy-dum-dum-dum! [Andrew] The farmer and the cowman should be friends [Added voices] Oh, the farmer and the cowman should be friends [All] One man likes to push a plough The other likes to chase a cow But that's no reason why they can't be friends [Aunt Eller] I'd like to teach you all a little sayin' And learn the words by heart the way you should I don't say I'm no better than anybody else But I'll be damned if I ain't jist as good! [All] I don't say I'm no better than anybody else But I'll be damned if I ain't jist as good! Territory folks should stick together Territory folks should all be pals Cowboys dance with farmer's daughters Farmers dance with the ranchers' gals! All Er Nothin' [Will] [Ado Annie] You'll have to be a little more standoffish When fellers offer you a buggy ride . I'll give a imitation of a crawfish . And dig myself a hole where I can hide I heared how you was kickin' up some capers When I was off in Kansas City M-O I heard some things you couldn't print in papers From fellers who been talkin' like they know! . Foot! . I only did the kind of things I orta, sorta . To you I was as faithful as c'n be fer me . Them stories 'bout the way I lost my bloomers - Rumors! . A lot of tempest in a pot o' tea! The whole thing don't sound very good to me . Well, y' see.... I go and sow my last wild oat I cut out all shenanigans I save my money, don't gamble or drink In the back room down at Flannigans I give up lotsa other things A gentleman never mentions But before I give up anymore I wanta know your intentions With me it's all er nuthin' Is it all er nuthin' with you? It cain't be "in between" It cain't be "now and then" No half and half romance will do I'm a one woman man, Home lovin' type All complete with slippers and pipe Take me like I am, er leave me be If you cain't give me all, give me nuthin' And nuthin's whut you'll git from me . Not even sump'n? Nuthin's whut you'll git from me . Would you build me a house . All painted white . Neat and clean and shiny and bright? Big enough fer two but not fer three! . Supposin' that we should have a third one....? He better look a lot like me! . The spittin' image! He better look a lot like me! . With you it's all er nuthin' . All fer you and nuthin' fer me! . But if a wife is wise, she's gotta realize . That men like you are wild and free . So I ain't gonna fuss, ain't gonna frown . Have your fun, go out on the town . Stay up late and don't come home till three . And go right off to sleep if you're sleepy . There's no use waitin' up fer me! Oh, Ado Annie! . No use waitin' up fer me! Come on and kiss me Oklahoma They couldn't pick a better time to start in life It ain't too early and it ain't too late Starting as a farmer with a brand new wife Soon be living in a brand new state Brand new state, gonna treat you great! Gonna give you barley, carrots and pertaters Pasture fer the cattle, spinach and termayters Flowers on the prarie where the June bugs zoom Plen'y of air and plen'y of room Plen'y of room to swing a rope Plen'y of heart and plen'y of hope Oklahoma! Where the wind comes sweeping down the plain Where the waving wheat Can sure smell sweet When the wind comes right behind the rain Oklahoma! Every night my honey-lamb and I Sit alone and talk And watch a hawk Making lazy circles in the sky We know we belong to the land And the land we belong to is grand And when we say Yeeow! Ayipioeeay! Yeeow! We're only saying "You're doin' fine Oklahoma" Oklahoma O-K O-K-L-A-H-O-M-A Oklahoma!	Oh, What a Beautiful Mornin'
What is the money currency of the country of Hungary ?	Oh What A Beautiful Morning! - YouTube Oh What A Beautiful Morning! Want to watch this again later? Sign in to add this video to a playlist. Need to report the video? Sign in to report inappropriate content. Rating is available when the video has been rented. This feature is not available right now. Please try again later. Uploaded on Apr 7, 2008 Oklahoma my country...	i don't know
Which American cartoonist was responsible for the popular 1934 comic strip Flash Gordon ?	Super-Hero Films: Flash Gordon Flash Gordon Greatest Super-Hero Films: Flash Gordon (chronological by time period and film title) Flash Gordon - was a super-hero derived from the science-fiction adventure comic strip by Alex Raymond, first published as a King Features syndicated Sunday comic strip on January 7, 1934. Cartoonist Austin Briggs began a daily Flash Gordon strip beginning on May 27, 1940. Raymond's authoring of the Sunday comic strip lasted until April 30, 1944, although the strip (both daily and Sunday) continued to exist with new stories until March 16, 2003. First Flash Gordon Comic Strip January 7, 1934, Sunday comic strip Earth Bombarded by Meteors Another Example of Flash Gordon Sunday Strip February 25, 1934 Reprints of the Austin Briggs Comic Strip Dailies Flash Gordon Dailies Flash Gordon Dailies (1940-42) Many iterations of the character were developed (to compete with Buck Rogers) in the adventurous, sci-fiction/fantasy Flash Gordon serials of the late 1930s (with Buster Crabbe as Flash Gordon and Jean Rogers as blonde Dale Arden). Flash fought daring intergalactic battles to save mankind. The action-oriented episodes were filled with fantastic spaceships, androids, death rays, futuristic scenes and cities, monsters, exotic enemies and other imaginative creations. Title Screen Poster Flash Gordon (1936) - Theatrical Serial A 13-installment serial from Universal, the first Flash Gordon screen adventure, and the first pure science-fiction serial. The original and the best of its type, with Buster Crabbe as adventurer Flash Gordon, Jean Rogers as girlfriend Dale Arden, Frank Shannon as scientist Dr. Zarkov, and Charles Middleton as Planet Mongo tyrant Ming the Merciless. Later retitled for its home video release in the mid-1950s as Flash Gordon's Space Soldiers, to differentiate it from the same-titled TV series. It was condensed from the 245-minute serial into two feature films (cutting out the repetitive opening titles, duplicate footage, etc.), both released in 1966: Rocket Ship (1966), 66 minutes, released theatrically, and Spaceship to the Unknown (1966) (aka Atomic Rocketship), 97 minutes, released to TV and non-theatrical rental markets: Theatrical release - 1966 TV feature film - 1966 Flash Gordon's Trip to Mars (1938) - Theatrical Serial A 15-episode serial from Universal, the sequel to the 1936 serial, with Jean Rogers as a brunette. It was the final appearance of Jean Rogers as Dale Arden. Later retitled for TV viewing in the mid-1950s as Space Soldiers' Trip to Mars, to differentiate it from the same-titled TV series. There were two edited or condensed versions of the 15-part 1938 Universal serial, both released in 1966: the 99 minute The Deadly Ray From Mars (1966) released to TV in a syndication package, without the cliffhangers, the repetitive openings, etc. Another version that condensed the 15 parts of the 1938 serial into a 68 minute theatrically-released film was Mars Attacks the World (1966). TV feature film - 1966 Theatrical release - 1966 Flash Gordon Conquers the Universe (1940) - Theatrical Serial A 12-part serial from Universal, the third of three serials in the late 1930s, and the last of the trilogy of serials. With Carol Hughes as Dale Arden. Later retitled for TV viewing in the mid-1950s as Space Soldiers Conquer the Universe, to differentiate it from the same-titled TV series. The multi-part serial from 1940 was edited into two halves, for two feature films shown on TV: the 88-minute The Purple Death from Outer Space (1966) (the feature-length edited version of Chapters 1-6), and the 85-minute The Peril from Planet Mongo (1966) (the feature-length edited version of Chapters 7-12). Two TV movies in 1966 Flash Gordon (1954-1955) (aka The Space Adventures of Flash Gordon) - TV series This was a syndicated, live-action TV version produced in Germany. Steve Holland portrayed the superhero Flash Gordon. It aired throughout the US - and specifically was broadcast by the DuMont TV Network on the East Coast. Set in the year 3203, Flash was joined by pretty Dale Arden (Irene Champlin) and bearded Dr. Zarkov (Joe Nash). They journeyed to the planet Mongo to defeat Emperor Ming. There was one season of half-hour TV shows, for a total of 39 episodes, running from October 1, 1954 to July 15, 1955. The premier episode was titled: "Flash Gordon and the Planet of Death." The New Adventures of Flash Gordon (1979-1982) Flash Gordon: The Greatest Adventure of All (1982) The New Adventures of Flash Gordon (1979-1982) (aka The Adventures of Flash Gordon, or Flash Gordon) - TV series Flash Gordon: The Greatest Adventure of All (1982) - TV movie Filmation's Saturday morning cartoon TV series was notable as the first Flash Gordon animated TV series. In the familiar story, Flash Gordon (Robert Ridgely was the voice of Flash) rocketed to the planet Mongo with girlfriend Dale Arden and scientist Hans Zarkov to prevent evil dictator Ming the Merciless from dominating the universe. It was broadcast on NBC-TV for two seasons (a total of 24 episodes) from September 22, 1979 to November 6, 1982. Season 1: 16 episodes, Sept. 22, 1979 to January 5, 1980 Season 2: 8 episodes, Sept. 18, 1982 to Nov. 6, 1982 The first 16 episodes of the first season were serialized the same way as the old 1930's Alex Raymond comic strips. The second season suffered when NBC decided to change the format of the show by cutting them down to 12 minute chapters (2 unrelated stories per episode), dumbed-down the story for younger audiences, and introduced a kid-friendly, comic-relief character, a squeaking pink dragon named Gremlin. After the TV series was cancelled, the footage was re-edited and assembled as a full-length, 95 minute made-for-TV animated film that aired in 1982, titled: Flash Gordon: The Greatest Adventure of All (1982). Flash Gordon (1980, UK/US) This feature-length Flash Gordon film revived interest in the super-hero, following in the wake of the immensely-successful space opera Star Wars (1977). Now a major cult film. Director Mike Hodges' campy, sometimes witty, and cartoonish super-hero film starred Sam Jones as the heroic space warrior (with Melody Anderson as his attractive female companion Dale Arden). They fought against Emperor Ming the Merciless (Max von Sydow) on the planet Mongo and his plans for world domination - with cliff-hanger action. Accompanied by a rock musical score from the band Queen.	Alex Raymond
Who was executed in 1955 at Holloway Prison for the murder of racing driver David Blakely ?	Chronology of Comic Strips and Comic Books in America Chronology of Comic Strips and Comic Books in America 1865 ï¿½ Wilhelm Busch's "Max und Moritz" introduced in German papers. This strip had a direct influence on Rudolph Dirks who would plagiarize the strip for the Katzenjammer Kids. ï¿½ A.N. Kellogg News Company established. First newspaper syndicate in the U.S. consolidated during the final days of the Civil War for faster news reporting. 1877 ï¿½ Puck magazine begins publication in America. 1881 ï¿½ Judge magazine begins publication. 1883 ï¿½ Life magazine begins publication 1894 ï¿½ The first color newspaper page is published in the New York Recorder. ï¿½ One week later, the New York World under Joseph Pulitzer publishes it's first color page. ï¿½ "The Little Bears" by James Swinnerton begins in the San Francisco Examiner under William Randolph Hearst . 1895 ï¿½ Richard Felton Outcault's "Yellow Kid" makes his first appearance in Pulitzer's the World. 1896 ï¿½ The Yellow Kid begins publication as a weekly feature. 1897 ï¿½ R.F.Outcault moves from Pulitzer's "The World" to Hearst's "Examiner". ï¿½ Hearst's "Journal American" establishes it's Sunday comic supplement, called the American Humorist it features Outcault's "Yellow Kid" and ï¿½ Dirk's "Katzenjammer Kids" make their first appearance. 1900 ï¿½ "Foxy Grandpa" by Carl Schultze makes first appearance in the New York Herald. ï¿½ Frederic Burr Opper's "Happy Hooligan" first appearance. 1902 ï¿½ R.F.Outcault's "Buster Brown" makes first appearance in the New York Herald. 1903 ï¿½ Gustave Verbeck's "The Upside Downs" begins in the New York Herald. ï¿½ Clare Briggs's "A.Piker Clerk" makes first appearance the Chicago American. 1904 ï¿½ First appearance of "The Newlyweds" by George McManus. ï¿½ Winsor McCay's "Dream of the Rarebit Fiend" makes first appearance in the Evening Telegram. ï¿½ James Swinnerton's "Little Jimmy" makes his first appearance. 1905 ï¿½ Winsor McCay's epic "Little Nemo in Slumberland" makes first appearance in the New York Herald. ï¿½ Gustave Verbeck's "The Terrors of the Tiny Tads" makes first appearance. 1906 ï¿½ C.W.Kahles "Hairbreadth Harry" makes first appearance. ï¿½ Lyonel Feininger's "The Kin-der-Kids" & "Wee Willie Winkie's World" begin in the Chicago Tribune 1907 ï¿½ Bud Fisher's "Mutt & Jeff" makes it's first appearance as "Mr. A.Mutt" in the San Francisco Chronicle. Accredited as the first successful daily comic strip. 1910 ï¿½ Harry Hershfield's "Desperate Desmond" first appearance. ï¿½ George Herriman's "Dingbat Family" makes it's first appearance. On July 26 Krazy Kat makes first transformed appearance 1911 ï¿½ Sidney Smith's "Old Doc Yak" makes first appearance. 1912 ï¿½ William Randolph Hearst creates "International Feature Service", later renamed King Features. ï¿½ Rudolph Dirks quits Hearst's Journal American and goes to Pulitzer's the World. Move results in lawsuit against Dirks that he may not take the Katzenjammer Kids with him. A landmark decision handed down in 1914 ï¿½ Cliff Sterrett's "Positive Polly" makes first appearance. Later renamed Polly & Her Pals. ï¿½ Edgar Rice Burrough's "Under the Moons of Mars" published in All Story. ï¿½ Edgar Rice Burrough's "Tarzan of the Apes" published in All Story Magazine 1913 ï¿½ George McManus' "Bringing Up Father" makes first appearance in the Journal American ï¿½ George Herriman's Krazy Kat appears as it's own strip with title on October 28 1914 ï¿½ On appeal, Hearst v. Dirks suit settled. Landmark decision retains the rights of Hearst's Journal American to publish the Katzenjammer Kids without Dirks, while Dirks retains the right to draw his characters under a different title for the rival New York World. ï¿½ Harold H.Knerr's first Katzenjammer Kids appears. ï¿½ Dirk's "Hans and Fritz" makes first appearance. Later renamed "the Captain and the Kids" after America enters World War I. ï¿½ Harry Hershfield's "Abie the Agent" makes first appearance. 1915 ï¿½ Fontaine Fox's "Toonerville Folks" makes first appearance as a regular feature. ï¿½ Rube Goldberg's "Boob McNutt" makes first appearance. ï¿½ Merrill Blosser's "Freckles and His Friends" makes first appearance. ï¿½ Moses Koenigsberg consolidates all of Hearst's syndication companies under one banner and calls it King Features Syndicate. 1917 ï¿½ Sidney Smith's "the Gumps" makes first appearance in the Chicago Tribune. ï¿½ Felix the Cat appears in animated cartoons. 1918 ï¿½ Frank King's "Gasoline Alley" makes first appearance in the Chicago Tribune 1919 ï¿½ Billy DeBeck's "Barney Google" makes first appearance in the Journal American. ï¿½ Elzie Crisler Segar creates "Thimble Theater" in the Journal American. ï¿½ Carl Ed's "Harold Teen" makes first appearance in the Chicago Tribune. 1920 ï¿½ Martin Branners "Winnie Winkle" makes first appearance. 1921 ï¿½ Ed Wheelan's. "Minute Movies" first appearance. ï¿½ Russ Westover's "Tillie the Toiler" first appearance. ï¿½ J.R.Williams' "Out Our Way" first appearance. 1922 ï¿½ Walter Berndt's "Smitty" makes first appearance. 1923 ï¿½ Pat Sullivan's "Felix the Cat" first appearance as a newspaper strip in the Journal American. ï¿½ Sol Hess' "The Nebbs" makes first appearance, illustrated by W.A.Garrison. ï¿½ Frank Willard's " Moon Mullins" makes first appearance in the Chicago Tribune ï¿½ Ad Carter's "Just Kids" makes first appearance. 1924 ï¿½ Harold Gray's "Little Orphan Annie" makes first appearance in the New York News ï¿½ Roy Crane's "Wash Tubbs" first appearance in the Chicago Tribune. ï¿½ Edgar Martin's "Boots and Her Buddies" makes first appearance. 1925 ï¿½ Charles Plumb and Bill Conselman's "Ella Cinders" first appearance. 1926 ï¿½ "Amazing Stories" begins publication. 1927 ï¿½ Frank Godwin's marvelous adventure (later sci-fi) comic strip "Connie" makes first appearance. 1928 ï¿½ Buck Rogers Makes first appearance in Amazing Stories, August 1928. ï¿½ Lyman Young's "Tim Tyler's Luck" first appearance. ï¿½ Hal Forrest creates "Tailspin Tommy" with Glenn Chaffin. ï¿½ Ham Fisher's "Joe Palooka" makes first appearance. ï¿½ Percy Crosby's "Skippy" makes first appearance in the Journal American. 1929 ï¿½ Dick Calkin's "Buck Rogers" first appearance, January 7. ï¿½ Tarzan introduced as a comic strip illustrated by Harold R. Foster, January 7. ï¿½ Popeye makes his first appearance in Segar's "Thimble Theatre". ï¿½ Clifford McBride's "Napoleon" first appearance. ï¿½ Internationaly famous strip "Tintin" appears in Belgium created by Herge (Georges Remi).< 1930 ï¿½ Walt Disney's "Mickey Mouse" introduced as a comic strip drawn by animator Ub Iwerks. ï¿½ Chic Young's "Blondie" makes her first appearance. Becomes the quintessential family strip a la "All in the Family". ï¿½ John Terry's "Scorchy Smith" makes first appearance. 1931 ï¿½ Chester Gould's immortal "Dick Tracy" makes his first appearance in the Detroit Free Press on October 4. 1932 ï¿½ Martha Orr's "Apple Mary" makes first appearance, becomes "Mary Worth" in 1940 by Dale Allen (Allen Saunders & Dale Conners). ï¿½ C.D. Russell's "Pete the Tramp" first appearance nationally. 1933 ï¿½ Eastern Publishing prints "Funnies on Parade" the first comic book for Procter & Gamble as a promotional item. The contents of the book were entirely comic strip reprints. ï¿½ Zack Mosley's "On the Wing" makes first appearance on October 1, becomes "Smilin' Jack" in December. ï¿½ Brick Bradford by William Ritt & Clarence Gray makes first appearance. ï¿½ Milton Caniff's "Dickie Dare" makes first appearance. ï¿½ Vincent T. Hamlin's "Alley Oop" makes first appearance. 1934 ï¿½ Alex Raymond's "Flash Gordon", "Jungle Jim" and "Secret Agent X-9" all begin in January. Secret Agent X-9 written by Dashiell Hammett. ï¿½ "Famous Funnies" #1 published in May becomes the first continuing comic book publication. ï¿½ "Skippy's Own Book of Comics" published. The first four-color comic book. ï¿½ Al Capp's "Lil Abner" makes first appearance. ï¿½ Milton Caniff's "Terry & The Pirates" makes first appearance. ï¿½ Will Gould's "Red Barry" first appearance. ï¿½ Lee Falk & Phil Davis' "Mandrake the Magician" makes first appearance. ï¿½ Otto Soglow's "Little King" first appearance. ï¿½ F.Martinek & L.Beroth's "Don Winslow" first appearance. ï¿½ Noel Sickles becomes artist & writer on "Scorchy Smith" 1935 ï¿½ National Publications publishes "New Fun Comics", the first comic book with original content. ï¿½ Mickey Mouse Magazine begins publication. ï¿½ Bill Holman's "Smokey Stover" first appearance in the Chicago Tribune. ï¿½ Zane Grey's "King of the Royal Mounted" becomes a strip illustrated by Allen Dean. ï¿½ Ralph Fuller's "Oakey Doakes" first appearance. ï¿½ Bob Moore and Carl Pfeufer's "Don Dixon" makes first appearance. 1936 ï¿½ The advent of Eastern's success with comic books prompts newspaper syndicates to issue their own titles. ï¿½ King Comics begins by King Features Syndicate. ï¿½ Tip Top Comics by United Features Syndicate. ï¿½ Popular Comics by Tribune syndicate. ï¿½ The Funnies by NEA Syndicate. ï¿½ Lee Falk & Ray Moore's "the Phantom" makes first appearance. 1937 ï¿½ Harold Foster leaves the Tarzan strip (for the second time) to create his own strip "Prince Valiant" for King Features. ï¿½ Burne Hogarth becomes artist on the Tarzan Sunday page. ï¿½ Detective Comics #1 published by National. 1938 ï¿½ Jerry Siegel & Joe Shuster's "Superman" makes first appearance in Action Comics #1. One of the most important events in comics history. ï¿½ Jumbo Comics begins publication. ï¿½ Alfred Andriola's "Charlie Chan" strip makes it's first appearance. ï¿½ Vernon Greene's "the Shadow" comic strip makes it's first appearance. ï¿½ Fred Harmon's "Red Ryder" makes his first appearance. ï¿½ Fran Stiker's "Lone Ranger" become a comic strip illustrated by Charles Flanders and written by Ed Kressy. ï¿½ In Italy, Benito Mussolini bans publication of American comic strips with the exception of Mickey Mouse. ï¿½ First Donald Duck comic published. 1939 ï¿½ Bob Kane's "Batman" written by Bill Finger makes his first appearance in Detective Comics #27. ï¿½ Motion Picture Funnies #1 featuring Bill Everett's "Sub-Mariner" ï¿½ Carl Burgos' "Human Torch" and Bill Everett's "Sub-Mariner" make their first appearances in "Marvel Comics" #1, the first Marvel comic book. ï¿½ Superman #1 published. The first comic book devoted to a single superhero. ï¿½ Motion Picture Comics #1 published by DC. First adaptation comic of movies. ï¿½ All American Comics #1 published. ï¿½ New York World's Fair Comics Published with Superman, Batman, others. ï¿½ Batman #1 published. ï¿½ Jerry Robinson creates "the Joker" in a Batman #1. 1940 ï¿½ Will Eisner's "the Spirit" makes his first appearance. ï¿½ Dale Messick's "Brenda Starr" makes her first appearance in the Chicago Tribune. ï¿½ "Robin the Boy Wonder" makes his first appearance in Detective #38 ï¿½ C.C.Beck & William Parker create "Captain Marvel", he makes his first appearance in Whiz Comics #1. ï¿½ "Daredevil" makes his first appearance in Silver Streak #6. ï¿½ Gardner Fox & Harry Lampert create "the Flash" for DC. Flash Comics #1. ï¿½ The Shadow & Doc Savage get comic book titles. ï¿½ All-Star Comics #1 published. The third issue creates the Justice Society of America, the first superhero group. ï¿½ Walt Disney's Comics & stories #1 published. ï¿½ Planet Comics published. The first comic book devoted to science fiction. 1941 ï¿½ Jack Kirby & Joe Simon create "Captain America". Captain America #1. ï¿½ Jack Cole's "Plastic Man" makes his first appearance in Police Comics #1 ï¿½ Gus Arriola's "Gordo" first appearance. ï¿½ William Marsten & H.G. Peters' "Wonder Woman" makes her first appearance in All Star Comics #8. ï¿½ Bob Montana's "Archie" makes his first appearance in Pep Comics #4. ï¿½ George Papp's "Green Arrow" first appearance in More Fun # ï¿½ Looney Tunes & Merrie Melodies #1 published, featuring Bugs Bunny, Elmer Fudd and Porky Pig. ï¿½ Classic Comics #1 published, title becomes Classic Illustrated in 1943. 1942 ï¿½ Crime Does Not Pay #22, the first crime comic appears. ï¿½ George Baker's "the Sad Sack" makes his first appearance. ï¿½ Crockett Johnson's "Barnaby" first appearance. ï¿½ Carl Barks first "Donald Duck" story appears in Four Color Comic #9. ï¿½ Wonder Woman #1 published. ï¿½ Archie Comics #1 published. 1943 ï¿½ Roy Crane's "Buz Sawyer" makes first appearance. ï¿½ Alfred Andriola's "Kerry Drake" makes first appearance. ï¿½ Walt Kelly's Pogo makes his first appearance in Animal Comics #1 1944 ï¿½ Frank Robbins' "Johnny Hazard" makes first appearance. ï¿½ Alex Raymond does his last Flash Gordon Sunday page. 1945 ï¿½ "Little Lulu" becomes a comic book. ï¿½ Burne Hogarth leaves Tarzan to create his own strip "Drago". ï¿½ Ray Bailey's "Bruce Gentry" makes first appearance. ï¿½ "Frankenstein" comics #1 published. 1946 ï¿½ The National Cartoonists Society founded. Rube Goldberg serves as President. ï¿½ Alex Raymond's "Rip Kirby" daily strip makes first appearance. ï¿½ Milton Caniff does his last Terry & the Pirates strip. 1947 ï¿½ Max Gaines dies in boating accident, his son William M. Gaines takes over EC Comics. ï¿½ Eerie Comics #1 published by Avon Publishing, the first horror comic. ï¿½ Milton Caniff's "Steve Canyon" first appearance. ï¿½ George Wunder takes over Terry & The Pirates. ï¿½ Coulton Waugh's book "The Comics" published by MacMillen Publishing Company. It is the first in depth discussion and study of the comic strip's history in America. Reprinted by Luna Press in 1974. (Gilbert Seldes touched on comics as popular culture in his book "The Seven Lively Arts", 1924 Harper Bros.). 1948 ï¿½ Walt Kelly's Pogo introduced as a comic strip in the New York Star. ï¿½ Frank Godwin's "Rusty Riley" first appearance. ï¿½ Rex Morgan, M.D. created by Nicholas Dallis & Allen Saunders. 1950 ï¿½ Charles Schulz's "Peanuts" released as a comic strip. Previously the strip appeared in a magazine and was called "Lil Folks". ï¿½ Mort Walker's "Beetle Baily" ï¿½ EC Comics launches its "new trend" of horror comics signaling a new era in comics. Titles published are Crypt of Terror (Tales From the Crypt), Vault of Horror, Haunt of Fear, Weird Science, Weird Fantasy, Crime Suspenstories and Two Fisted Tales. 1951 ï¿½ Jose Luis Salinas' "Cisco Kid" comic strip makes first appearance. ï¿½ Hank Ketcham's "Dennis the Menace" make his first appearance. (five days later British cartoonist David Law creates a strip of the same name). 1952 ï¿½ Judge created by Nick Dallis and Dan Heilman. ï¿½ Mad Comics #1 published, the most popular humor comic of all time, it continues a successful run after more than 40 years. 1953 ï¿½ Fawcett publications ceases comic publication after years of litigation over Captain Marvel, November. DC gets rights to Fawcett's characters. ï¿½ Planet Comics ceases publication in October with issue #73. ï¿½ Captain America, Human Torch & Sub-Mariner return for short time at Atlas (Marvel Comics). ï¿½ Weird Science & Weird Fantasy cease publication. Becomes a single title, Weird Science Fantasy in 1954. 1954 ï¿½ Senate Committee on Juvenile Delinquincy holds hearings on comic books. EC publisher William Gaines testifies. ï¿½ Fredric Wertham's book "Seduction of the Innocent" is published in April. It's paranoid concepts lead to the Comics Code being created in October of the same year. ï¿½ World's Finest Comics #71, first Superman/Batman team-up. ï¿½ Mort Walker & Dik Browne create "Hi & Lois". ï¿½ Jimmy Olsen #1 published. 1955 ï¿½ EC ceases publication of all horor titles, revamps entire line of comics. ï¿½ Mad Comics becomes Mad Magazine. ï¿½ Brave & the Bold comics #1 published. ï¿½ Gus Edson & Irwin Hasen co-create "Dondi". 1956 ï¿½ EC ceases publication of all comic book titles. ï¿½ Showcase Comics #4 introduces the new Flash, signaling a new age of superheroes. ï¿½ Alex Raymond dies in car crash. 1957 ï¿½ Showcase Comics #6 "Challengers of the Unknown" created by Jack Kirby. The prototype creation that led to The Fantastic Four in 1961. ï¿½ Reg Smythe's "Andy Capp" first published in England. ï¿½ Leonard Starr's "On Stage" first appearance. ï¿½ Mell Lazarus' "Miss Peach" first appearance. 1958 ï¿½ Challengers of the Unknown #1 published. ï¿½ Johnny Hart's "B.C." first appearance. ï¿½ Jules Feiffer's "Feifer" syndicated. ï¿½ Stan Lynde's "Rick O'Shay" first appearance. ï¿½ Irving Phillips' "The Strange World of Mr. Mum" first appearance. ï¿½ James Warren introduces the influential magazine "Famous Monsters of Filmland" edited by fan favorite Forrest J. Ackerman. ï¿½ Lois Lane #1 published. 1959 ï¿½ Stephen Becker's "Comic Art in America" published by Simon and Schuster. ï¿½ the Flash #105 (first issue) published. ï¿½ Jack Kirby returns to Marvel Comics writing & illustrating fantasy & sci-fi stories. ï¿½ The Green Lantern returns in Showcase #22 1960 ï¿½ the Justice League of America first appearance in Brave & Bold #28. They get their own title in December. ï¿½ Green Lantern #1 published. 1961 ï¿½ Jack Kirby (& Stan Lee) create "the Fantastic Four"(Fantastic Four #1) and the Marvel Age begins. ï¿½ Nick Dallis & Alex Kotsky's "Apartment 3-G" first appearance. Jack Kirby, the King of of the Comics 1962 ï¿½ Steve Ditko (& Stan Lee, with Jack Kirby) create "Spiderman" for Amazing Fantasy comics #15. ï¿½ Harvey Kurtzman & Will Elder's "Little Annie Fanny" first appearance in Playboy (October 1962) ï¿½ Jack Kirby creates "the Mighty Thor" and "the Hulk". 1963 ï¿½ Jack Kirby creates the "X-Men". ï¿½ The first "Comic Book Convention" takes place in the basement of a comic book store in New York City. 1964 ï¿½ Johnny Hart & Brant Parker's "Wizard of Id" makes first appearance. 1965 ï¿½ Jack Kirby (& Stan Lee) create "Nick Fury, Agent of SHIELD", Strange Tales #135. ï¿½ Jules Feiffer's book "the Great Comic Book Heroes" published by Dial Press (Crown Publishers). ï¿½ Robert Crumb's "Fritz the Cat" first publication. ï¿½ Creepy and Eerie magazines begin publishing by Warren Pubs. These magazines re-unite the EC artists. 1966 ï¿½ The City Museum of Cartoon Art inaugurated in Omiya, Japan. The first museum devoted to comic art. 1967 ï¿½ Underground comix get a big boost with the printing of "Zap Comics" #0. The book features Gilbert Shelton's "Fabulous Furry Freak Brothers" and Robert Crumb's "Mr. Natural". ï¿½ Bill Blackbeard founds "The Academy of Comic Art" in San Francisco. ï¿½ In Paris, the Musee des Art Decoratifs exhibits a comprehensive overview of comic art "Bande Dessinee et Figuration Narrative". 1968 ï¿½ Maurice Horn's book "A History of the Comic Strip" published (co-authored with Pierre Couperie). ï¿½ Jack Kirby creates "the Silver Surfer" ï¿½ Al Saunders & Al McWilliams's "Dateline: Danger" first appearance. ï¿½ Phil Seuling, a high school English teacher sponsors the New York Comic Art Convention over the July fourth weekend at the Statler Hilton Hotel signaling the organization of comics fandom. 1969 ï¿½ "Collected Works of Buck Rogers in the 25th Century" published by Chelsea House. 1970 ï¿½ "Conan the Barbarian" #1 published by Marvel, illustrated by Barry Smith. ï¿½ Garry Trudeau's "Doonesbury" syndicated. ï¿½ Russell Myers' "Broom Hilda" first appearance. 1971 ï¿½ Maurice Horn organizes the exhibition "75 Years of the Comics" at the New York Cultural Center, the first comic exhibition ever held in a major American museum. 1972 ï¿½ "The Comics, an Illustrated History of Comic Strip Art" by Jerry Robinson published, Putnam Books. ï¿½ "Swamp Thing" makes first appearance in House of Secrets #92. 1973 ï¿½ Dik Browne's "Hagar the Horrible" makes first appearance. ï¿½ the Shadow returns to comic books at DC. ï¿½ Captain Marvel returns to comic books at DC. 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Who was executed in 1953 at Wandsworth Prison for the murder of Police Constable Sidney Miles ?	BBC ON THIS DAY \| 28 \| 1953: Derek Bentley hanged for murder About This Site \| Text Only 1953: Derek Bentley hanged for murder Teenager Derek Bentley has been executed at Wandsworth Prison in London for his part in the murder of Pc Sidney Miles. The 19-year-old was hanged at 0900 hours after last-minute appeals for clemency were rejected. Bentley was sentenced to death on 11 December for killing Pc Miles during a bungled break-in at a warehouse in Croydon, Surrey. The court was told his co-defendant, Christopher Craig, fired the fatal shot but because he was still a juvenile in the eyes of the law he escaped the death sentence and was ordered to be detained at Her Majesty's pleasure. Bentley must not die A large crowd began gathering outside Wandsworth jail from early this morning. Some sang the hymn Abide With Me and the 23rd Psalm. Others began booing when a prison warder came out carrying a glass-covered board containing the execution notice. Bentley's sentence was sealed last night when the Home Secretary, Sir David Maxwell Fyfe, said he could not see any reason for intervening in the case. A deputation of MPs had earlier gone to see the home secretary with a petition, said to have been signed by about 200 members. They urged him to ask the Queen to exercise her royal prerogative of mercy. They pointed out Craig was the ringleader of the two and that Bentley's mental age was probably younger than his partner - a fact that had not been disclosed to the jury. They also claimed big public support for a reprieve. But the home secretary said he could see no grounds for modifying the sentence. Earlier, he had written to Bentley's parents saying the same thing. A crowd of up to 300 gathered outside the Houses of Parliament last night, chanting "Bentley must not die!" The demonstrators marched to the Home Office and later to Downing Street. The crowd eventually dispersed in the early hours of this morning after handing in a petition at Deputy Prime Minister Anthony Eden's home. Bentley's execution comes just three months after the warehouse break-in in Croydon in which Pc Miles died. Bentley was convicted on the basis of police evidence. Three officers told the court they had heard him encourage Craig to shoot by shouting "Let him have it". Bentley's defence claimed he was already under arrest at the time the shots were fired and was simply urging Craig to give up his gun.	Derek Bentley case
Which 1972 novel by Frederick Forsyth tells the story of a Peter Miller, a young German crime reporter who is attempting to find an SS concentration camp commander who had Killed his father ?	Sidney Miles : definition of Sidney Miles and synonyms of Sidney Miles (English) Wandsworth Prison Derek William Bentley (30 June 1933 – 28 January 1953) was a British teenager hanged for the murder of a police officer , committed in the course of a burglary attempt. The murder of the police officer was committed by a friend and accomplice of Bentley's, Christopher Craig, then aged 16. Bentley was convicted as a party to the murder, known under English law as ' joint enterprise '. This created a cause célèbre and led to a 46-year-long campaign to win Derek Bentley a posthumous pardon , which was granted partially in 1993, then finally completely By Her Majesty's Pleasure Of The High Court in 1998. Contents 7 External links Early life Derek Bentley had a difficult upbringing. During World War II the house Bentley lived in as a child was bombed and collapsed around him, leaving Derek with serious head injuries. The event left Bentley concussed and brain damaged . Bentley attended Norbury Secondary modern school in 1944, after failing the eleven-plus examination . When Bentley was approaching school leaving age, he was sent to Kingswood approved school for theft. Derek Bentley was found to have a mental age of 11, and was lower than average intelligence, having scored 66 and 77 on two separate IQ tests. At the time of his arrest in early November 1952, he was found to be illiterate . Christopher Craig, who had dyslexia , attended the same school, but they had not met at the time, as Craig was almost three years younger than Bentley. Bentley was released from Kingswood school on 28 July 1950, and became a recluse for six months. In March 1951, Bentley found a job working for a furniture removal firm, later injuring his back in 1952, leaving the job. After leaving, Bentley first worked for the Croydon Corporation, and later as a waste collector but his work was found unsatisfactory and changed to street cleaning , later being sacked from that position also. On 11 February 1952, Bentley was deemed unfit for National Service , due to his EEG test findings. On the night of 2 November 1952, Christopher Craig and Bentley tried to break into the warehouse of confectionery manufacturers and wholesalers Barlow & Parker on Tamworth Road, Croydon , England . The two youths were spotted climbing over the gate and up a drain pipe to the roof of the warehouse by a nine-year-old girl in a house across from the building. She alerted her parents and her father walked to the nearest telephone box and called the police. When the police arrived, the two youths hid behind the lift-housing. One of the Police officers , Detective Sergeant Frederick Fairfax , climbed the drain pipe onto the roof and grabbed hold of Bentley. Bentley broke free and was alleged by a number of police witnesses to have shouted the words "Let him have it, Chris". Both Craig and Bentley denied that those words were ever spoken. Craig, who was armed with a revolver, opened fire, grazing Fairfax's shoulder. Nevertheless, Fairfax arrested Bentley, who is said to have told him that Craig had plenty of ammunition for his Colt New Service .455 Eley calibre revolver, for which Craig had a variety of undersized rounds, some of which he had had to modify to fit the gun. Craig had also sawn off half of the weapon's barrel, so that it would fit in his pocket. In his pocket Bentley had a sheath knife and a spiked knuckle-duster , though he never used either that night. Craig made the knuckle-duster himself and gave both weapons to Bentley. Following the arrival of uniformed officers, a group was sent onto the roof. The first to reach the roof was Police Constable Sidney Miles , who was immediately killed by a shot to the head. After exhausting his ammunition and being cornered, Craig jumped some thirty feet from the roof, fracturing his spine and left wrist when he landed on a greenhouse . At this point, he was arrested. Various medals were awarded to the several participating police officers, including one – posthumously – to Miles and the George Cross to Fairfax. Trial Craig would not have faced execution if found guilty, as he was below the age of 18 when PC Miles was shot. Bentley, on the other hand, was not. The trial took place before the Lord Chief Justice of England and Wales, Lord Goddard , at the Old Bailey in London between 9 and 11 December 1952. The doctrine of 'constructive malice' meant that a charge of manslaughter was not an option, as the "malicious intent" of the armed robbery was transferred to the shooting. Bentley's best defence was that he was effectively under arrest when PC Miles was killed; however, this was only after an attempt to escape, during which a police officer had been wounded. As the trial progressed the jury had more details to consider. The prosecution was unsure how many shots were fired and by whom and a forensic ballistics expert cast doubt on whether Craig could have hit Miles if he had shot at him deliberately: the fatal bullet was not found, Craig had used bullets of different under-sized calibres and the sawn-off barrel made it inaccurate to a degree of six feet at the range from which he fired.[citation needed] There was also the question of what Bentley had meant by "Let him have it", if indeed he had said it.[citation needed] Though in the gangster movies of the time the expression meant "shoot", it could also be construed as signifying that Bentley wanted Craig to surrender the gun.[citation needed] The Principal Medical Officer responsible was Dr Matheson and he referred Bentley to Dr. Hill, a psychiatrist at the Maudsley Hospital . Hill's report stated that Bentley was illiterate and of low intelligence, almost borderline retarded . However, Matheson was of the opinion that whilst agreeing that Bentley was of low intelligence, he was not suffering from epilepsy at the time of the alleged offence and he was not a "feeble-minded person" under the Mental Deficiency Acts. Matheson said that he was sane and fit to plead and stand trial. English law at the time did not recognise the concept of diminished responsibility due to retarded development , though it existed in Scottish law (it was introduced to England by the Homicide Act 1957 ). Criminal insanity – where the accused is unable to distinguish right from wrong – was then the only medical defence to murder. Bentley, while suffering severe debilitation, was not insane. The jury took 75 minutes to decide that both Bentley and Craig were guilty of PC Miles's murder. Bentley was sentenced to death with a plea for mercy on 11 December 1952, while Craig was ordered to be detained at Her Majesty's Pleasure (he was eventually released in 1963 after serving 10 years' imprisonment and has been a law abiding citizen ever since). Bentley's lawyers filed appeals highlighting the ambiguities of the ballistic evidence, Bentley's mental age and the fact that he did not fire the fatal shot. These efforts failed to reverse his conviction, however and the death sentence was mandatory . David Maxwell Fyfe , who had helped to draft the European Convention on Human Rights , had become Home Secretary when the Conservatives returned to office in 1951. After reading the Home Office psychiatric reports he refused to request clemency from the Queen , despite a petition signed by over 200 of his fellow MPs. Parliament was not allowed to debate Bentley's sentence until it had been carried out.[citation needed] The Home Office also refused Dr. Hill permission to make his report public. At 9am on 28 January, 1953, Derek Bentley was hanged at Wandsworth Prison , London by Albert Pierrepoint . When it was announced the execution had been carried out, there were protests outside the prison and two people were arrested and later fined for damage to property. To Encourage the Others In his 1971 book To Encourage the Others, David Yallop documented Bentley's mental deficiencies, inconsistencies in the police and forensic evidence and the conduct of the trial. He proposed the theory that PC Miles was actually killed by a bullet from a gun other than Craig's sawn-off .455 revolver. Yallop drew this conclusion from an interview with Dr. David Haler, the pathologist who carried out the autopsy on Miles, who Yallop reports estimated the head wound was inflicted by a bullet of between .32 and .38 calibre fired from between six to nine feet away. Craig had been firing from a distance of just under 40 feet and had used a variety of under-sized .41, and .45 calibre rounds in his revolver; Yallop asserted it would have been impossible for him to use a bullet of .38 or smaller calibre. Haler did not offer in his trial evidence any estimate of the size of the bullet that had killed Miles. Craig accepts that the bullet that killed Miles came from his gun, but maintains that all of his shots were fired over the rear garden of a house adjacent to the warehouse, approximately 20 degrees to the right of Miles's location from where Craig had been firing. The standard Metropolitan Police pistol at the time was the .32 Webley automatic, a number of which were issued on the night, although it was claimed[citation needed] that they arrived on the scene after Miles was killed and that the only ammunition not returned was two rounds fired by Fairfax. At least one witness, however, claims[citation needed] to have seen armed officers on the scene before Miles was shot. In his book The Scientific Investigation of Crime, the prosecution's ballistics expert Lewis Nickolls stated that he recovered four bullets from the roof, two of .45, one of .41 and one of .32 calibre. The last was not entered as an exhibit in the trial, nor mentioned in Nickolls' evidence to the court. When Yallop telephoned Haler the day after the initial interview, he reportedly confirmed his estimate of the bullet size. Shortly before the publication of Yallop's book, Haler was provided with a transcript of the interview, and Yallop says Haler again confirmed as accurate. After the subsequent broadcast of the BBC Play for Today adaptation of To Encourage the Others (directed by Alan Clarke ) and starring Charles Bolton , Haler sought to deny that he had given any specific estimate of the size of the bullet that killed Miles beyond being "of large calibre". Posthumous pardon Following the execution there was a public sense of unease about the decision, resulting in a long campaign, mostly led by Bentley's sister Iris, to secure a posthumous pardon for him. In March 1966 his remains were removed from Wandsworth Prison and reburied in a family grave. Then on 29 July 1993 Bentley was granted a royal pardon in respect of the sentence of death passed upon him and carried out. However in English law this did not quash his conviction for murder. Eventually, on 30 July 1998, the Court of Appeal set aside Bentley's conviction for murder 45 years earlier. Though Bentley had not been accused of attacking any of the police officers being shot at by Craig, for him to be convicted of murder as an accessory in a joint enterprise it was necessary for the prosecution to prove that he knew that Craig had a deadly weapon when they began the break-in. Lord Chief Justice Lord Bingham of Cornhill ruled that Lord Goddard had not made it clear to the jury that the prosecution was required to have proved Bentley had known that Craig was armed. He further ruled that Lord Goddard had failed to raise the question of Bentley's withdrawal from their joint enterprise. This would require the prosecution to prove the absence of any attempt by Bentley to signal to Craig that he wanted Craig to surrender his weapons to the police. Lord Bingham ruled that Bentley's trial had been unfair, in that the judge had misdirected the jury and, in his summing-up, had put unfair pressure on the jury to convict. It is possible that Lord Goddard may have been under pressure while summing up since much of the evidence was not directly relevant to Bentley's defence. It is important to note that Lord Bingham did not rule that Bentley was innocent, merely that there had been defects in the trial process. Had Bentley been alive in July 1998 or had been convicted of the offence in more recent years, it would have been likely that he would have faced a retrial. Another factor in the posthumous defence was that a "confession" recorded by Bentley, which was claimed by the prosecution to be a "verbatim record of dictated monologue", was shown by forensic linguistics methods to have been largely edited by policemen. Linguist Malcolm Coulthard showed that certain patterns, such as the frequency of the word "then", and the grammatical use of "then" after the grammatical subject ("I then" rather than "then I"), was not consistent with Bentley's use of language (his idiolect ), as evidenced in court testimony [1] . These patterns fitted better the recorded testimony of the policemen involved. This is one of the earliest uses of forensic linguistics on record. In a case with similarities to the Bentley case, a House of Lords judgment of 17 July, 1997, cleared Philip English of murdering Sergeant Bill Forth in March 1993, the reasons being given by Lord Hutton . English had been handcuffed before his companion Paul Weddle killed Sgt Forth with a concealed knife. The existing joint enterprise law allowed the conviction of English for murder because they had both been attacking Sgt Forth with wooden staves, making English an accessory to any murder committed by Weddle as part of that assault. Lord Hutton made the 'fine distinction' that a concealed knife was a far more deadly weapon than a wooden stave, so that proof of English's knowledge of it was necessary for conviction. The appeal may have influenced the allowing of a posthumous referral of the Bentley case. Lord Mustill had asked for new laws on homicide when setting out his reasons at the time of Lord Hutton's ruling on English's appeal. However, Lord Bingham's ruling blamed Lord Goddard for a miscarriage of justice without making further alteration to the law on joint enterprise. The English judgment, delivered just over two months after the Labour government took office, remained the most recent precedent in joint enterprise law, though the Bentley verdict attracted far more media attention. In popular culture The 1991 movie Let Him Have It , starring Christopher Eccleston as Bentley and Paul Reynolds as Craig, relates the story, as do the songs "Derek Bentley" by Ewan MacColl and Peggy Seeger , " Let Him Dangle " by Elvis Costello , "Let Him Have It" by The Bureau, and "Bentley and Craig" by Ralph McTell . References ↑ R.M. Coulthard (2000): "Whose text is it? On the linguistic investigation of authorship", in S. Sarangi and R.M. Coulthard: Discourse and Social Life, London, Longman, pp270–87 Yallop, David (1991). To Encourage/Others. New York: Bantam Books. ISBN 9780552134514. External links	i don't know
"Which six letter word of Japanese origin means ""Ten Thousand Years Of Life"" although foreigners confuse it with a war cry referring meaning ""Human Wave Attacks"" ?"	As Long as It Sounds Foreign - TV Tropes As Long as It Sounds Foreign You need to login to do this. Get Known if you don't have an account Share As Long as It Sounds Foreign × You can't say the Swedish Chef doesn't have a way with (made-up vaguely Swedish) words. Sol Dibbler: I don't think "bwanas" is the right word, Uncle. CMOT Dibbler: It's Klatchian, isn't it? Sol Dibbler: Well technically, but I think it's the wrong part of Klatch and maybe "effendies" or something... CMOT Dibbler: Just so long as it's foreign. — Moving Pictures Many shows and movies don't bother getting a foreign language right when they portray them. The incidence of this increases along with the obscurity of the language. It is easily explained away as native speakers are hard to get, especially if the country of origin is on the other side of the globe and the language is fairly obscure. Even if you finally get one, he might not be so helpful if he has a poor knowledge about the aspects of his own language that the work specifically needs to use. Or simply he's a poor actor or a poor choice for the role (while non-native actors won't be able to correctly pronounce phrases in a language they don't speak). And that's assuming there even still are any native speakers. The real reason is oftentimes that if the intended audience won't be able to tell the difference , why bother? Naturally, this paves the way for Unfortunate Implications . A somewhat more redeeming justification is that the show isn't supposed or expected to accurately portray a real-life language - though it still gives a false image. A variation on this is that the foreigners speak English, but are identified as foreign by an accent or are parading universally known national images . Names appear especially hard to get right, even European ones, which is all the stranger as most American naming conventions haven't ventured far from their origin. This is why we see female Russians with masculine surnames and patronymics used as names or surnames, or why most French characters in comedic works tend to have a name composed of an English word preceded by a random "Le" or "La". This could be explained if their name was anglicized, though the practice has fallen out of favor in recent decades. Contrast with Gratuitous Foreign Language (and all its subtropes), where the writers take care to give characters lines in a foreign language — which are often poorly rendered by the actors. Contrast also with Poirot Speak , where everyone in the native country has only an elementary education in their native language but can only say the hard words in heavily accented English. Contrast also with Famous-Named Foreigner , when in an attempt to avert this trope, the author manages to give his foreign character a real name... albeit belonging to a famous historical character, which often leads to ridiculous results. When a work is named with this trope, it may result in a Word Puree Title . For hilariously inverted examples of this trope, watch here (fake German) and here open/close all folders Advertising An ad for Bertolli features an "Italian" chef lamenting that Bertolli is stealing his business, to the tune of the Habanera from Bizet's Carmen, a French opera that's set in Spain (and a Spanish form of music). from about 2007 has a Take That jingle from They Might Be Giants (and narrated by John Goodman !) aimed at Starbucks, complaining about the gratuitous foreign-sounding gibberish in its drink orders: Is it French? Or is it Italian? Perhaps Fritalian ? A German commercial used quasi-Italian sentences that really were German phrases spoken with a strange tone, like "Pasta ber prima" (=Passt aber prima / That fits [you] really good!) A South African ad for an Italian restaurant / coffee place had a husband pretending to say romantic things to his wife. Actually, he is surreptitiously reading the take-away ("takeout") menu, only with dramatic / passionate intonation. The wife goes all weak-kneed and says that she loves it when he speaks Italian to her. "Oh Frikkie, I love it when you speak foreign!" An Israeli insurance company has a series of commercials featuring the secretary of a sleazy independent insurance agent who canï¿½t keep up with the competition, bemoaning how he would have to give up the preposterous luxuries heï¿½s accustomed to. A Running Gag involves his daughterï¿½s deteriorating English (because her parents can no longer provide a tutor for her); among other things, this involves frequently misusing the word ï¿½felicityï¿½ in a variety of ways , including ï¿½skinï¿½ . The classic 1969 Alka-Seltzer commercial features a stereotypical Italian couple with the man eating meatballs and spaghetti. It turns out it's the filming of a TV commercial with the actor putting on a fake accent and dropping it between takes. He keeps flubbing his line requiring him to eat and eat his way through takes, until he needs Alka-Seltzer. Anime & Manga Used by Hayao Miyazaki in maybe a full half of his productions. Those which don't take place specifically in Japan have a sort of Not-Quite-Japanese, Not-Quite-European flavor that leaves the viewer to wonder where, exactly, he's supposed to be. But in the end, we rarely care, because the storytelling works for us. Word of God says that most of his films are set in an alternate version of Europe, one in which World War II never happened. Except Porco Rosso , which is explicitly set on the Adriatic coast of mid-20s Italy, and whose protagonist Marco Paggot is named after Miya-sensei 's Real Life Italian friend, who's also a pilot (but obviously not a pig). Excel Saga : Although the English used by the paramilitaries in the action movie episode is grammatically perfect, it's apparently delivered by actors who haven't a clue what the words are intended to mean (and only the vaguest grasp of English pronunciation). This is deliberate parody of the trope - the Japanese subtitles (which the English subs of the scene follow) are far more eloquent, often to the point where they have very little to do with what is spoken. It's also lampshaded in the English dub. Originally, when the soldier asks her "What is your purpose?" in a really strong Japanese accent, Excel just responds "I don't know." In the dub, she says "A big fish?" ARIA : Singer Eri Kawai admitted that a lot of songs have nonsensical lyrics, in an attempt to make them sound vaguely Italian. One song, a canzone sung by Alice during her graduation ceremony, has some verses in Esperanto , likely to achieve the same effect without becoming too silly. The Tales of Symphonia OVA has the song "Almateria", and while it has some significant words thrown in here and there, it's mostly pleasant-sounding gibberish. Done to a ridiculous degree in episode 52 of Hayate the Combat Butler where "Italian" ranges from reciting Italian foods to saying anime/manga related references with bad pseudo-Italian accents. Considering the nature of the show , this trope was almost certainly done deliberately. There are panels from Urusei Yatsura of Lum's mom speaking in Mah-Jong tiles that combined with her Chinese-style dress (implies "As Long As It Looks Chinese") and a French lady speaking in... interesting picture combinations in Lupin III. And early in the manga, where French and Chinese commentators on Ataru's game of tag with Lum spoke in, respectively, inane phrasebook style questions and Chinese food names. In the manga Peace Maker , which is set in the American Southwest during the late 1800s (you know, a Western), a lot of the character names are... unlikely. The main character (who is male) is called Hope, and his Disappeared Dad 's name is Peace. At one point, they encounter an elderly woman named Joshua. The series is otherwise enjoyable, but it's apparent that the mangaka didn't know what names were for what. Ditto Rally Dawson . Baccano! - Expect characters to be given names like Jacuzzi Splot and board a train graciously named the Flying Pussyfoot. "Claire Stanfield" is a perfectly normal woman's name. The problem is, Claire Stanfield is a man . This one got lampshaded in the dub during an episode preview. In the thirties, when the series took place, that could be a man's name. The problem is that the masculine version of the name was spelled Clare. In Plawres Sanshiro , the closing titles song ends with the lyrics "Craft Love", that make absolutely no sense either in the context of the song or indeed any context. Saiyuki gives the female name Hazel to a male priest... Slightly offset by the fact that he is rather Bishōnen , anyway. Word of God said it was by combining the words "Beisun" (a type of alcohol) and "angel" and mucking with the pronunciation until you get "Heizeru." His full name is "Hazel Grouse," a type of bird, thematically linking him to Ukoku, who is heavily associated with crows. Bleach : Quincy techniques are German-influenced that either translate into nothing or are very bad uses of German words and grammar. For example, Seeleschneider, "soul-cutter/tailor", should be Seelenschneider. The Vandenreich's kanji mean "unseen empire". While "reich" is German, "vanden" or "wanden" doesn't seem to be an actual word. It might be a misreading of "vonden" ("of the") or an example of Kubo's musical obsession by being a nod to German metal band Vanden Plas (who themselves are car fans and named themselves after the Flemish coachbuilders that eventually gave their names to a Jaguar brand). Several members' names are similarly foreign sounding, and by far the most unusual has to be BG9, (pronounced as the German "Be Ge Neun"). The Arrancar have Spanish-named zanpakuto, with a few strange exceptions, such as video game-exclusive Arturo Plateado having a zanpakuto named "Fenice" (not "Fénix" as has been erroneously claimed), which is Italian. Gantenbainne Mosqueda's zanpakuto, though, is named "Dragra", which doesn't seem to mean anything in any language. The Arrancar themselves have some curious vaguely European names, although several have been confirmed as deliberate misspellings based on real people. The Hollows have some reasonable variation names such as "Demi Hollow", "Huge Hollow", and "Menos Grande" (presumably broken Spanish for "big minus", but it literally means "less big"), but the names of the Menos stages, "Gillian", "Adjuchas", and "Vasto Lorde", just seem to be made-up words. All of the Mobile Suit Gundam series are positively rife with foreign-ish names, some more successful than others. Might be justified because most of the series take place at an undetermined point in the future where Earth has become a One World Government and half of humanity lives in orbital colony superstructures. The one series with a date solidly pinned down in relation to modern day does fairly well with the names. Gundam Build Fighters meanwhile takes place in the "real" world (albeit 20 Minutes into the Future ), and yet features an African-American character named Nils Nielsen. Unless he has some Scandinavian ancestry, the name comes off as kind of odd. In one episode of Sailor Moon , Ami gives a student a printout of what she says is a NASA website. The printout is not gibberish. What it is, however, is the lyrics to "Danger Zone" from the movie Top Gun . There are English-spoken phrases being a combination of English and Japanese or simply very grammatically incorrect. "Let's dancing" is actually rather common in Japan. Fafner in the Azure: Dead Aggressor has a supposedly Irish character named "Kanon Memphis", which doesn't sound like the sort of name anyone would have, let alone an Irish person. It's actually spelled Canon and an in-universe case of Musical Theme Naming . Memphis still goes unexplained, though. Somewhat subverted in episode 10 of Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex , where in-show foreigners Suzuki Sato and Tanaka Watanabe, both CIA agents, don't bother to check their Japanese aliases for simple things like using two surnames as a full name before entering the country. The Japanese officials with whom they interact are understandably befuddled upon seeing their calling cards. They're obnoxious Americans with their own sinister agenda and we're supposed to dislike them anyway. To add insult to injury, they look and act very much like some racist stereotypes of the Japanese, which is probably supposed to reflect their opinions of the country they've been assigned to. D.Gray-Man , spectacularly so with the "Portuguese" Tyki Mikk's name. There are at least 4 blatant errors in this name alone. "Arystar Krory" was named after a real person called "Aleister Crowley", but the author deliberately went with a different spelling. There is also a Mexican man with the name "Winters Socalo", a German woman named "Miranda Lotto", two Chinese siblings named "Lenalee" and "Komui", and an American man named "Tup Dop". "Marie" is a man, and it seems that's his last name, meaning his first name is "Noise". A woman whose name was spelled "Crea" in the series itself has her name more correctly spelled "Claire" in a data book . "Jasdevi" are supposed to be American and while "Devitto" is apparently "David" mispronounced his brother "Jasdero" did not get so lucky. Mai-Otome has most of its characters with obviously Japanese given names, but because they all come from Fantasy Counterpart Cultures , a lot of their surnames are non-Japanese. Katekyo Hitman Reborn! is a repeated offender for its attempts at Italian names, most notably Bianchi is used as a (female) first name — it is actually a surname. Aura Battler Dunbine has a classic example of this. A female character is introduced as "Marvel Frozen", to which the Japanese lead hero responds, "'Marvel Frozen'? You must be American!" In the Kyoto Arc of Rurouni Kenshin , Yahiko come across three girls who say nothing but "chow" while gushing over a dog (an official Chinese translation just went with wingdings); he thinks to himself that they can't possibly be speaking Japanese. Considering the time period and that Yahiko, born and raised in Tokyo, is in Kyoto, it's probably a (rather well-known, actually) Kansai Regional Accent joke. ("Chigau", a word meaning "that's wrong", gets shortened to "chau" in Kansai, and since the dog they're talking about is a Chow-Chow, Watsuki just had a little too much fun with it. ) In Chrono Crusade , most of the English names of the American characters make sense, like Joshua and Rosette Christopher. But then you have the German character Satella Harvenheit (which might have been meant to be "Stella", but is officially spelled with the extra "A"), and the Portuguese immigrant Azmaria Hendrich...(although to be fair, her last name is her adoptive father's....but it still doesn't sound right). For Weiï¿½ Kreuz , Takehito Koyasu apparently picked the name because "Weiss" sounded cool, and "Kreuz" sounded cool with it. Randomly from a German dictionary. This was after the producers firmly vetoed his original title: "Cat People". In English. It really could have gone much worse. In the Tokyo Mew Mew anime, Ichigo meets an English speaking pianist and is only able to say a few English words, one of them being her own name translated, which is "strawberry". 07-Ghost is a series set in a European-style world. That explains the use of western words and names. Especially when the names in question arenï¿½t actual names. Usually they are random German words, or just Gibberish. Combined with proper Japanese names. And in cases of in-universe terms, they probably just pick a word from a random language. One example would be the god of death, who is from some reason named ï¿½Verlorenï¿½ which means ï¿½lostï¿½ in German. Or the terms ï¿½Korï¿½ and ï¿½basculeï¿½. Or the seven ghosts, who are called Zehel, Fest (means firm/firmly/feast in German), Profe, Randkalt (German again. ï¿½Randï¿½ is edge and ï¿½Kaltï¿½ is cold, and therefore ï¿½Randkaltï¿½ means ï¿½edge coldï¿½) , Rilect (maybe itï¿½s supposed to be ï¿½Relictï¿½), Ea, and Vertrag (contract in German). And then there are the names Wahrheit Tiashe Raggs (Wahrheit means truth in German), Weldeschtein Krom Raggs (Krom means ï¿½furthermoreï¿½ in Czech, but thatï¿½s probably not what they meant. And Weldeschtein could be ï¿½Waldsteinï¿½ which sounds enough like a German surname, or a rather believable Yiddish surname, though they probably werenï¿½t meant to be Jewish with all the crosses around the place). Fea isnï¿½t a word, but it resembles a few real names. Female ones. And Frau. Okay, heï¿½s a womanizer, but is that really a reason to name him ï¿½womanï¿½?! Used for humorous effect in G-On Riders : two American street thugs speak entirely in random quotes from the Gettysburg Address. "Government!" "Of the people!" The episode titles of 11eyes were also written in Hungarian on the title cards, most of them badly translated, so we got such gems as: The maiden of Crystal Palace -> In a girl crystal; Twisted Awakening -> Curving/Zig-zagging awakening; The choice called destruction -> Sleep off to allstars, etc. Admittedly they're based on the Japanese titles, not the English ones, but they're still wrong. The one character of European racial stock on Ichigo Mashimaro , Ana Coppola, is said to be from England despite having an obviously Italian surname, though it's not that rare for real Brits to have Italian surnames, to be fair. Silent Mï¿½bius : Katsumi Liqueur, Kiddy Phenil, Lebia Maverick, Rally Cheyenne, Robert "Roy" De Vice , Ralph Baumers/Bombers, Ganossa Maximillian, Gigelf Liqueur. In Mai The Psychic Girl, one of Mai's enemies is the daughter of the East-German ambassador. Her name is Turm Garten — Tower Garden. In German, Tower is a male noun. Jackals is set in America at the tail end of the 19th century. Its main protagonists are Nicole D. Heyward (a Puerto Rican man) and Huya Godfrey (a white guy). Some translations try to soften the blow by romanizing the first guy's name as "Nichol", but they're not fooling anyone. Also, his mother, who is actually from Puerto Rico, is Lokishii Heyward. The fan translation has tried to make that less ridiculous by changing it to "Roxy", but that's not quite what the kana spells out. And no, she's never been married. Roxy Heyward from late 19th century Puerto Rico. Sheeeeesh. This also overlaps with Unfortunate Implications if you take into account how the many countries outside the American continent looks Puerto Rico. Transformers: Super-God Masterforce doesn't even try to give believable names to characters who aren't the Autobot Headmaster Juniors. The Decepticon Headmaster Juniors, for instance, are Bullhorn, Wilder, and Cancer — respectively Mexican, American, and Chinese. That said, since those names are bizarrely appropriate for their transtectors' altmodes (a hellish bull, a crazed wolf, and a sickening crab creature), they might simply be aliases — not that there's ever any indication of this being the case. Most of the other characters who hail from the west are only afforded, well, Transformer names like "Road King" and "Doubleclouder". Averted in Nodame Cantabile . When German director Stresemann uses the alias Milch Holstein, which sounds and is correct German. Chiaki, who speaks German, realises that Milch (Milk) is not a name Germans would use, especially in combination with Holstein, which is a cattle breed well-known in Germany. Fay's language in an early episode of Tsubasa Reservoir Chronicle . Apparently the director wanted it to be French-sounding gibberish, which it most definitely is. In the manga, it's written in Cyrillic. In BECK , two of the main characters are American and speak English because it's easier for them. This becomes hilarious because they don't actually speak English correctly, none of the characters do, and the entire series suffers from a severe case of this. Fullmetal Alchemist has a strange mishmash of numerous European cultures, names, and words in the fictional country of Amestris in which it is set, resembling many northwestern European locales but not really fitting any. This may have been an attempt to make Amestris less of an obvious Fantasy Counterpart Culture for Imperial Germany , but the pieces just don't fit together right, resulting in awkward things like a man named "Basque Grand". The translation makes things even worse by virtue of some questionable romanizations. Edward Elric's home town is Rizenburu in the original Japanese. The most obvious transliteration would be "Riesenburg", which is valid German (although "giant city" is a most inappropriate name for a small rural dairy farming community), but the translators dropped the ball and called it Resembool, which is complete gibberish. The second anime, at the very least, makes the romanization Resembool official. But there's no telling if that's official by the manga's Word of God (or Executive Meddling ) and imposed on the English translation, or contrariwise the anime studio based their romanization on the English translation. Invoked by the Ooji family's mochi shop in Tamako Market , which uses this trope as their theme. They changed the name from Ooji-ya to Ricecake Oh!Zee, staff wear western-style chef costumes, and labelling their mochi with romaji tags. The characters in Claymore often have more or less vaguely European names. They can be perfectly reasonable, like "Priscilla" or "Beth", but then there is also a female Warrior called "Dietrich", a distinctly male German name, a random Red Shirt named Queenie, or one of the Abyssals called "Riful" (sometimes rendered "Rifle" in translations, which does not make for any better a name), whose companion's name is commonly rendered as "Dauf". Queen's Blade has this in spades, despise the setting being in a Fantasy Western Medieval world, especially with the few characters with full names : We have the main heroine and her sister Leina and Elina Vance respectively (Spanish first name with a American English last name) and her elder sister Claudette (French), and from the sequel Rebellion, we have Annelotte Kreuz (French first name with German last name). The rest of the cast aren't better: We have Menace from the Egyptian-inspired Amara (a pun from the Pharaoh Menes), Airi, despite from not being from the Japan-inspired Hinomoto (From which Tomoe and Shizuka came from) or even being alive for that matter, and many others. In the second season of Digimon , this happened in the dub. Yolei sounds Japanese to non-speakers but can't actually be written in Japanese characters. Near the end of Dr. Slump , one character was a German biker named Kibalt Skurzen, which is not a German name at all. In Cat Street , the school's called El Liston, which according to its principal means "walking path" in French. However, El Liston isn't French but Spanish, where it means "long and slim piece of wood" and not "walking path" (and it should actually be El Listón). Freezing has the supposedly English protagonist bear the decidedly non-English sounding name Satellizer El Bridget, which sounds almost French, if not for the fact that Satellizer is an obviously made-up name which just sounds like a portmanteau of 'satellite' and 'laser'. Maybe Stella is what the author was going for? Divergence Eve : Lieutenant Commander Lyar von Ertiana is German, which we know because her name has "von" in it. Luxandra Frail is similarly supposed to be Mexican and is colored right for a mestiza, but her name is blatantly not Latin American. Comic Books Batman example: Ra's Al-Ghul's daughter, Talia, uses the "surname" Al-Ghul, despite the Arabic patronymic not working that way, but kind of makes sense as her name would thus be "Talia, of the Demon". The trouble is that she then uses the "Anglicized" variant, "Talia Head", which translates the wrong word. Maybe "Talia Demon" wasn't subtle enough. The time-displaced DC character Manitou Raven is said to be from the native American tribe that eventually became the Apache. Manitou (meaning "spirit") is actually an Algonquin word. For Europeans and others who may not know where the Apaches and Algonquins live relative to each other, this is about the equivalent of assuming a Norwegian word or myth can equate to a Georgian one . Manitou Raven's power word for becoming a giant is the same as the Super Friends character he's an Expy for, Apache Chief: "Inukchuk". There is a word that is very similar to this, "inukshuk", which in its language means "something that substitutes for a human", and is applied to giant stone columns and statues. So it would almost be viable as a symbolic magic word, in the vein of "make me as big as an inukshuk", if it weren't for the fact the language in question is Inuktitut, an Inuit language. To carry on the example above, this would be like taking that Norwegian-Georgian mythological mix and throwing in a dash of Swahili. Then there's the fact that Inuit did not build giant stone columns or statues: inukshuks are only a few feet high. "Becoming as big as an inukshuk" would cause the average human to shrink. Hendy of the Blackhawk squadron is a nice example too, Hans is OK, Hendrickson is slightly un-Dutch, fitting a Dutch-American better than an unhyphenated Dutchman, "Hendricksen" is genuinely Dutch, but "Ritter" is the German word for "Knight", Dutch would be "Ridder", a title, not a name. X-Men The Cajun mutant, Gambit , likes to toss some French into his dialogue. He sometimes calls Rogue "chéri" (darling)... which would be nice if he weren't using the masculine form of the word. Luckily for our grammatically-challenged hero, there is no audible difference between "chéri" and "chérie". Kurt (aka Nightcrawler)'s Gratuitous German often gets misspelled so that he ends up calling girls "camisole" instead of the intended "sweetheart" or "darling" ("Liebchen"). Hudlin had him utter "Lieberstesh" . Blackwing (previously known as Beak) is a mutant who was said to be from Rotterdam, the Netherlands. His real name is Barnell Bohusk, which isn't much of a Dutch name at all. Sunpyre has the highly implausible first name of Leyu, which isn't even remotely Japanese. Colossus' real name is Piotr Nikolayevitch Rasputin. Rasputin is a common surname in the area of Russia where he's from, which is fine. And the patronymic is correct, even better. Then his sister Illyana Rasputin is introduced. Slight oops; her last name ought to be Rasputina. The Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe eventually gives her full name as "Illyana Nikolaivitch Rasputina (Anglicized to Rasputin)", but even that isn't right — Nikolayevitch is a masculine middle name, translating as "son of Nikolai." Since Ilyana's a girl, her middle name should be "Nikolayevna" (daughter of Nikolai). Eventually, about forty years after her introduction, this was corrected. New Mutants ' Roberto da Costa sometimes says sentences in Spanish... even though he came from Brazil, where the language is Portuguese. Silver Samurai's real name is Kenuichio Harada. You won't find a single person in Japan called Kenuichio. In Japanese translations, his name is Kenichiro. In the movie , "Kenuichio" is dropped entirely . We never learn his given name, or if Harada is erroneously being used as such. Apocalypse 's birth name is said to be "En Sabah Nur", which is said to mean "The First One", hinting at the fact that he's one of the first documented mutants in history. Not only does "En Sabah Nur" not actually mean "The First One" (it roughly means "The Morning Light"), it's an Arabic phrase; Apocalypse was born in Egypt around 3,000 B.C., several millennia before the Arabic language existed. Quicksilver , who hails from the fictional Eastern European country of Transia , was born "Pietro Maximoff". While "Maximoff" is a real Eastern European surname (albeit a very rare one), the writers apparently missed the fact that "Pietro" is an Italian name, being the Italian variant of "Peter". "Piotr" might have been a bit more believable, but that name was already taken (see above). Bushido from Teen Titans has the civilian identity Ryuku Orsono. Ryuku (well, Ryukyu) is the name of a chain of islands, not a given name, while Orsono is simply not a real Japanese surname by any stretch and doesn't even kind of sound like one. The names of his weapons are also really poorly researched, but that's another matter. In-media example: In one Lucky Luke album, the Daltons disguise as Chinese. Jack decides to make his disguise by speaking "Chinese". Which means that he says "ching chang chong" all the time. A crowning moment of funny is when he is talking to a Chinese man who dislikes Rin-Tin-Can very much: Averell: Ching chang chong. Chinese man: While I agree, I would not use such words even about someone as horrible as Rin-Tin-Can. Black Widow was first introduced as "Natasha Romanov." One writer finally got her name right, "Natalia Romanova." About half the writers still get it wrong, and it's still wrong in her film adaptations . In the fine tradition of cool Russian nicknames, however, "Natasha" is an acceptable nick for "Natalia". We still have to paper over "Romanoff" as her Anglicizing her surname, though. Fear Itself introduced Splitlip, a dwarf blacksmith whose speech is peppered with profanities, covered up by writing them in Norse runes. If you actually translate the runes, you will find out it's gibberish. Even the Asgardean version of the old Norse language probably does not have words like "eabrkmthw". When being interviewed about Mandrake the Magician , cartoonist Lee Falk reportedly explained that he named the African sidekick in the strip "Lothar" because that sounded like an African name to him. "Lothar" is actually a name from Germany, which, both geographically and culturally, is about as far from sub-Saharan Africa as one can get. Although there were a number of German colonies there until 1918, which left a bit of a cultural imprint that e.g. in Namibia lasts until this day. Michael Morbius is supposed to be Greek, but his name really isn't—probably because it wasn't decided he was Greek until 19 years after his introduction. On at least one occasion it's questioned why his first name is not Michalis (the Greek version of Michael), the answer simply being that "[his] mother preferred Michael". Nico Minoru is of Japanese descent; however, her surname is actually a masculine given name in Japanese. Her teammates Victor Mancha and Klara Prast have outright made-up surnames. In the WW2-set Wonder Woman of the late 70's, there was a Japanese-American villain loyal to the Emperor called "Kung", which isn't a Japanese word or name. His real name is Thomas Mashuda; "Mashuda" isn't a real Japanese name either, though it may be a misspelling of the authentic and relatively common surname "Matsuda". Most of the names in Astï¿½rix are just puns of similar sounding words. Asterix = asterisk, Obelix = obelisk, Vitalstatistix = vital statistics, and so forth. In Reginald Hudlin 's run on Black Panther , the titular hero marries Storm from the X-Men so of course all of the X-Men were invited to the royal wedding. When Storm shows up in her Pimped-Out Dress designed by actual dress designer Shawn Dudly, the very German Nightcrawler utters "Lieberstesh" to which Wolverine, who's also fluent in German, replies "Ditto little buddy." The word ''Lieberstesh'' doesn't mean anything, the prefix "Lieber" can mean "Better" or "Dear" but stesh?? In fact if you google the word you get results for people being confused about it . Minor Marvel Comics hero El Aguila hails from the Spanish village of San Elainya - San means "Saint" in Spanish, Elainya means nothing. El Aguila's cousin Migdalia is a surprising aversion : This name exists in Spanish , though it is extremely uncommon. Films — Animation In-universe example in Despicable Me : After carefully checking that Miss Hattie doesn't know Spanish, Gru tells her in a romantic tone "You have a face como un burro." ("You have a face like a (male) donkey.") Unfortunately, she later gets a Spanish dictionary and is not amused. The Chinese Cat Shun Gon from The Aristocats he sings one line in his "native Chinese" during "Everybody Wants to Be A Cat" which goes like "Shanghai, Hong Kong, Egg Foo, Yung!". At one point he says something along the lines of "Fortune cookie always wrong!" All while using chopsticks to play the piano. Any signage shown in Aladdin is either English in a Foreign-Looking Font or meaningless scribbles that resemble Arabic. (There's a possible exception in a sign above Jafar's door that might possibly have his name and the word wazir on it, which leads to a bit of Fridge Logic ; why would he need a sign that nobody else sees to just have his name and title on it?) In the Astï¿½rix animated movie Asterix Conquers America , the Native Americans are saying a random mix of North American place names that were taken from words in the languages of the Native American tribes that lived in those regions. Leading the medicine man to say such things as "Minnesota Manitoba. MIAMI!" In Disney's Peter Pan , the Indians play with this in the song "What Makes the Red Man Red?" Hana-mana-ganda, hana-mana-ganda, we translate for you: hana means what mana means and ganda means that too! Films — Live-Action Prince Caspian : The sinister magic words the hag uses in her ceremony to summon the White Witch? They're actually the lyrics to an Arabic love song ! According to the director's commentary, the actress's grandmother used to sing her that song, which she then used for the chant. In The Devils Wedding Night , the devil-worshippers' chant includes a recognizable 'Om Mani Padme Hum' - a meditation mantra. Invoked in Hot Tub Time Machine . When pretending to be a Russian spy, Nick brandishes the can of Chernobly like it was a bomb and repeatedly shouts "Dosvedanya!", which is Russian for "Goodbye" or "Farewell." As a matter of fact, a more exact translation would be "Until next time", which makes sense in their case, since they're jumping forward into the future. The non-English portion of the "gypsy drinking song" Danny Kaye sings in The Inspector General is actually a mix of Russian and Ukrainian folk music. Amistad : Both the crew of the Amistad (a Spanish ship registered in Cuba) and the Tecora (a Portuguese ship) speak Mexican Spanish. The two Spaniards that claim damages for the loss of the Amistad are played by a Mexican-American and a Puerto Rican actor who use their native accents. Georgia Rule has a Basque character named Hiztegi Argitaletxea Sarrionandia (but you can call him "Izzy"). His name is genuine Basque for "Dictionary of the Sarrionandia Publishing House". In Speed Racer Royalton's German is off when quoting a phrase from his childhood "When I was a child, we used to say: Pänkuchen sind Liebchen! ï¿½ï¿½ Pancakes are love." Vantage Point's Big Bad is named Tehuel Suarez. He is Moroccan. His last name is Spanish. And his first name is the name of a native tribe in Argentina. In Sur la piste du Marsupilami , the language of the Paya tribesmen is mostly funny-sounding gibberish, with a few obscure references thrown in. The Adventures of Buckaroo Banzai Across the 8th Dimension : Buckaroo Banzai has a Japanese father, but "Banzai" isn't a Japanese surname. It's associated with the Japanese "banzai charge" and literally means "ten-thousand years." True Lies : Lampshaded . Harry isn't paraphrasing when he translates the tail end of one of Aziz's speeches as, "Now no man can stop us. We are set on our course. No force can stop us, we're cool, we're badasses, blah blah blah blah ." The actual line is literally just Arabic-sounding gibberish. The titular vampire of Nosferatu ; the word is presented as being a Transylvanian/Romanian analogue for "vampire". In actual fact, it has absolutely no counterpart in any of the languages spoken in that part of the world, though it is relatively close to two different words: the Romanian "Necuratu," meaning "unclean spirit," and the Greek "Nosophoros," meaning "bringer of plague." Literature Dune : The original novel contains a Fremen funerary hymn, which is actually a real-world Serbian song. The Russian translator mistook it for garbled Russian, and, in the preface, he chastised Frank Herbert for "picking up the most pleasant-sounding words out of a Russian dictionary"; to convey the purported effect, he translated the song into (grammatically-correct) Hindi. Nanny Ogg of the Discworld novels usually manages to make herself understood no matter where she goes, although her linguistic approach is described as "gabbling away in her own personal Esperanto ". "Excuse me, young homme! Trois beers avec us, silver plate", or 'Mein herr! Mucho vino avec zei grassy ass', for instance. A straight example in The Colour of Magic , where Rincewind's identity in our world is a Swedish scientist named "Dr. Rjinswand", which is nothing like a Swedish name. (In the Swedish translation, his nationality is changed to Dutch; though, confusingly, they left in the bit about his language sounding "Hublandish", the Discworld's equivalent of "northern".) Twoflower becomes a German tourist with the last name "Zweiblumen", which is correct, but translates to "Twoflowers" (a straight translation of his name would be "Zweiblume"). In the Dutch version, he is named Tweebloesem (Twoblossom); the literal translation of Twoflower would be 'Tweebloem'. Possibly the "Rjinswand" discrepancy is justified, as he's also said to have been raised in New Jersey. Ethnic naming conventions are so intermingled in the United States, he could've had a Dutch-American dad and a Swedish immigrant mom, who happened to give birth to him while visiting her family. In any case, it's an instance of "as long as it looks foreign". Real Dutch has ij as a frequent digraph, not ji. In Tales of MU , the Yokai Girls from Japan-like "Yokan" fall into this category, with names like "Maliko" that almost sound Japanese but not quite. However, a recently revealed bit of plot indicates that all Yokano names are originally Japanese-derived, but that there is a story-related reason why all 4 of the characters introduced from that region have "jarringly" un-Japanese nicknames. Harry Dresden, of The Dresden Files , uses mostly fake and/or ungrammatical Latin for magic words. This is explained as a sort of emotional boundary from the spells, and it's noted that, when working spells, the important bit is not so much the words themselves, but rather that the words sound right to the individual using the spell. (It's also established in one of the novels that Harry's grasp of actual Latin, used instead of English in meetings of the White Council of wizards, is terrible. As he repeatedly says, "Damn correspondence course.") In another book, he mentions that a female wizard he grew up with prefers using pseudo-Egyptian in her spells. It's likely that this is intended as a joke in a very Genre Savvy series, since the author clearly knows proper Latin. It isn't exactly a joke; the words themselves don't matter to the spell itself, but they are the way a wizard's mind relates itself to magic. Thus, every wizard uses some kind of fake, foreign-sounding nonsense-words for spells, in order to avoid shooting magic around by accident when simply speaking normally. In other words, if Harry's spells were in proper Latin, he'd run the risk of triggering them while speaking Latin to other wizards. (That is, assuming his real Latin wasn't so horrific.) In Dead Beat, there was a book titled Die Lied der Erlking . Presumably Jim got a lot of mail correcting him, because when Harry runs into the guy who wrote it , he mocks him for his terrible grammar. In Daniel Pinkwater 's Alan Mendelsohn, Boy from Mars, Samuel Klugarsh responds to the protagonists' skepticism by stating that he knows way more than they do: "Waka waka. Needle noddle noo. Hoop waka dup dup. Baklava. That's Turkish." Actually, that's one Turkish word ("baklava") among a whole lot of nonsense. The French policeman in Dan Brown 's The Da Vinci Code is named Bezu Fache. While Fache is a real French name, the first name Bezu comes out to most French people as a. unheard of — there is not one Bezu X in the Paris phonebook, and b. hilarious, as the name evokes André Bézu, a "comic" singer from the eighties, mostly known for the very corny tune La Queuleuleu . Making things worse, Bézu — the singer — usually donned a caricatural French attire complete with a beret and a blue, red, and white bowtie, perhaps making Dan Brown's choice of a name an elaborate joke on cliches about France — or not. Aringarosa is not a Spanish name either. It means " Pink Herring " in Italian. Let us quietly draw a veil over any foreign-language dialogue in Dan Brown's books, which is almost invariably wrong. For example, one character asks another "Dov'è la plata?", which is supposed to mean "Where is the dough [money]?" in Italian. "Plata" is not even Italian ï¿½ it is Latin-American Spanish. In Digital Fortress , one of David Becker's many assets is that he can convincingly fake a Burgos accent. So convincing is his accent, he fools a Spaniard used to spot people faking accents over the phone into thinking that he's a native of Burgos before even dropping the city's name. In reality, Burgos, being the heart of Old Castile, has no accent but Standard Castilian, the same used by most people and media in Spain. Spaniards jokingly say that people from Burgos have no accent. In The Silence of the Lambs , Hannibal Lecter is eventually given a dead little sister named Mischa, which is ordinarily a diminutive form of a male name Mikhail (Michael). (However, as the website hannotations.com explains, this may be deliberate due to various symbolic elements in the name.) This is one of the many reasons why among fans of The Silence of the Lambs , Hannibal is often excluded from canon . However, "Mischa" (or "Misha") has migrated over to being largely a female name in the US, especially as a nickname for a girl named "Michelle". In H.P. Lovecraft's fiction, the Necronomicon was penned by an Arab named Abdul Alhazred, a fictitious name Lovecraft came up with in his childhood. The name "Alhazred" doesn't exist in Arabic and couldn't exist, given that "Abdul" ends with a suffix synonymous with the prefix of "Alhazred", so if the name were real, then it would be something like "abd-el-Hazred". It is quite common however, for Arabic names to be mangled as they get sifted through European/American sources. In Arabic, "'abd" ("عبد") means "servant". "El" is "the" or "of the", depending on context, and "Hazred", obviously, looks just like the English word "hazard", which means "danger". So, "servant of the danger"... amazing Fridge Brilliance on Lovecraft's part, if intentional, and spooky if not. Not that surprising since "Alhazred" was coined after "Hazzard", Lovecraft mother's maiden name. (Oh, and by the way, the English word "hazard" come from the arabic "az-zar": "dice game".) In Twilight , the name of the Quileute chief in the legend about "the cold ones" is Kahela. Kahela was the name of a semi-legendary Hawaiian chief. Twilight fails foreign languages in general throughout the series. There are scenes that feature characters speaking, say, Spanish or Portuguese (which they are supposedly fluent in) that feature text that was clearly written in English and then run through an online translator. In Lazarillo de Tormes, the seller of indulgences speaks in faux-Latin around people who won't know better, in order to win their trust. Stephen King 's novel, Thinner, contains passages supposedly in the Romani language. In fact, they're in Swedish, and mostly gibberish. On the other hand, Song Of Susannah features a supposedly Swedish character with the distinctly Dutch-sounding name Mathiessen van Wyck. Best of all is King's little-known short story "The Crate", where the evil crate is found on a remote island in the Drake Passage. The name of the island is... Paella. His Italian (or Italian-American) mafia characters speak a language which is not Sicilian dialect and not much like Italian. It does have a bit of Spanish in it, though. In the short story "Seventh Grade" by Gary Soto, a boy is in his first French class on the first day of school and tries to impress the girl he likes by pretending he already knows some French. The teacher tries to start a conversation with him, and he mumbles, "La me vava me con le grandma" and "Frenchie oh wewe gee in September." The teacher is nice enough not to rat him out, and the girl is fooled. In Neil Gaiman and Terry Pratchett 's Good Omens , a character shouts confusedly in a number of languages. While "Sprechen Sie Deutsch" and "Parlez-vous Francais" are German and French for "Do you speak German/French?", the following "Wo bu hui shuo zhongwen" is Mandarin Chinese for "I can't speak Chinese". The fact that it's followed by a question mark makes it all the funnier. In the parody travel guide Molvania, travellers are advised to add random j's and z's to words if they get stuck. For example, the Molvanian for 'hotel' is 'hotjl'. Journey to the Center of the Earth features an Icelandic alchemist named Arne Saknussemm. Evidently, Verne had heard of Nordic -sson names... In Spike Milligan 's first novel, Puckoon, the Irish parish priest muses that his parishioners are all ignorant bumpkins. He recalls once giving a sermon in Latin, at the end of which everyone said "Amen". He'd actually just told a dirty story. R. J. Rummel ran into this a lot regarding his non-historical, foreign characters in his Never Again series. Chinese and Muslim characters got the most of this (and perhaps coincidentally, they were the villains of the second and third books.) The Mole of the second book (who is also the Evil Counterpart of the female lead) is a Chinese assassin named Khoo Jy-ying, which is gibberish. She has Vietnamese ancestry as well, but that doesn't justify the name as it is still gibberish in that language also. Robert Ludlum is a faithful practitioner of this with Russian names like Nikolai Yurievich Yurievich. The English equivalent of this would be someone named Peterson Peterson. Russian middle names are patronymic, derived from the father's name, and Russian family names rarely end in -vich, unless the person is of Polish heritage. The Japanese-sounding name "Moto" has been adopted by the fictional character Mr. Moto and by Filipino-Japanese actress Iwa Moto, though "Moto" is not a Japanese name. Iwa Moto's real name is Eileen Iwamoto. In the Gemma Doyle Trilogy, French was clearly provided courtesy of a translation website. The (apparently) French Mademoiselle La Farge asks the titular character "Comment vous appelez-vous?" instead of just saying "Comment t'appelle-tu?" For those who don't speak French, "vous" is used when addressing strangers, elders who are not your family, and "tu" is used with acquaintances, and those of your own age and below. Google Translate always use "vous" whatever the situation. Some of the German names in Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow sound quite odd to a native speaker. Gnahb? The Railway Series : The Welsh-sounding name of Ffarquhar (The town where Thomas' branch line terminates) is in fact derived from "Far-away quarry". Raphael from The Mortal Instruments , being Mexican, tends to interject phrases in Spanish when he speaks. In City of Ashes, he tells Clary that Simon "no es muerto," which is incorrect; it should be "no está muerto." It seems like a classic Google Translate error rather than it being intentional. Averted in Wilson's Masks of the Illuminati, where a supposed Russian diplomat introduces himself by the name of Salmonovitch. The credulous hero thinks this sounds convincingly Russian, but Albert Einstein [ It Makes Sense in Context ] spots this as the deliberately planted clue that the whole scene was phoney: "Salmonovitch" means "Son of Solomon," and there's no way a Jew could have held a diplomatic post in 1910s Russia. The first book of Rivers of London features a Danish trophy wife named August Coopertown, née Fischer. August Fischer is a perfectly acceptable, if a bit archaic-sounding, Danish man's name. The city of Santé Benedicte in Sandpaper Kiss is a case of this, being a completely fictional possibly-Central or South American city. The language spoken there is vaguely based on Dutch. The loose "research" about Spain displayed by Sidney Sheldon in The Sands of Time (who after a few pages seems to be rather aiming to get things as wrong as he can, and this is a 400 pages long novel ) extends to the various characters names. Several are named after famous Spanish people with no regard for ethnicity (notably, none of the Basque nationalist characters has a Basque name), are often misspelled (there is a "Pedros" rather than Pedro and a " Patricko " instead of Patricio, to say nothing of last names), used in the wrong context (a little boy is called "Manolo" by his grandfather, the way someone older named Manuel would be called by his buddies; a prison guard meeting the Prime Minister in a serious context is called "Juanito" - an endearing diminutive for people named Juan) or are actually last names used as first names. This happens in English, especially in the USA, but not in Spanish. Since Sheldon also seems ignorant that Spaniards have two last names instead of one, he likely mistook first last names for middle names and used them as first names. That there is more than one language in Spain seems an idea hard to understand by English-speaking writers. Michael Eisner's The Crusader is set in Medieval Catalonia two centuries before the unification of Spain, but every character has a Spanish name. A bland , modern Spanish name. And this is despite the book citing the words "Catalan language" together twice. In Trojan Odissey by Clive Cussler , a Nicaraguan maid replies "me casi acaban" when the main characters find her cleaning their hotel room. What she's supposed to say from context is that she is almost finished cleaning. What she's actually saying (in crude grammar) is that someone almost finished her. In-Universe example in Cassandra Kresnov when a League representative tells the title character, a Ridiculously Human Robot , that her surname more properly ought to be Kresnova. Sandy points out she only looks like a Sensual Slav because she was designed to, and she didn't get to pick her name either . Live Action TV The A-Team : In the Season 5 Episode "The Crystal Skull", the Aboriginal natives pay homage to Murdock with chanting. While it's supposed to be in a native language, the words are clearly, Who wrote this? Who wrote this? In the season six finale of 30 Rock , we see Hasidic Jews speaking in their native tongue (presumably Yiddish) and complaining about the sale of pork hot dogs in a Jewish area. The actual language that they're speaking is surprisingly decent Hebrew. It's also possible that the writers thought Hasidic Jews from New York speak Hebrew (they generally do not). Impractical Jokers : When challenged to get free yogurt, this was Sal's weapon of choice . Parodied in The Nanny in a flashback where Fran went to Israel as a teen. Fran hooks up with an Israeli guy and he asks her a question in Hebrew. She replies with "Uh, yeah, yeah, bagel bagel, shalom, matzo ball, shalom." Frasier : One episode had Roz break up with a French boyfriend who didn't speak English so Frasier translates. The boyfriend immediately reveals he was planning to break it off himself, so the French parts of the conversation drift off into where he can find a good steak while Roz works through the whole speech she had prepared. The IT Crowd : An in-universe example, played for laughs. Jen convinces her boss she can speak Italian by using a translation program, which works fine until she's asked to provide translation for a visiting Italian businessman and can't bring her laptop into the meeting. She bluffs her way through by babbling a mixture of Italian-sounding words and heavily-accented English, to the confusion and eventual anger of the visitor. In Farscape , D'Argo's Luxan language is very clearly the actor simply spitting out some vaguely harsh and alien-sounding syllables, usually the same three or four ones repeated over and over. Averted, however, with Aeryn Sun's Sebacean language, which is the actress speaking English in reverse. (Not reversing the words, but actually reversing the sounds.) In Miss Fisher's Murder Mysteries, at one point, Dot has to pose as a Russian race car driver. Bert and Ced, being the wags they are, give her the pseudonym "Valentina Ranemalova". Say that last name to yourself a few times. In a Black Books episode, Bernard, Fran and Manny each have different assumptions as to which country their connecting flight took them, and each tries to talk with a bartender in a different "language". (As it turns out, they're back in England.) Most of the Wesen names in Grimm are in Faux-German, usually two Real Life words smashed together in an illogical manner. The Agency 's episode "Soft Kills" has a Spanish Defense Minister called Efron Montes. "Efron" is not a Spanish name. The closest would be Efraín or Efraim, but these are so uncommon in Spain that they would most likely be pegged as belonging to a Latin American immigrant. His wife's name being Adalia Montes might just be a coincidence, or an implication that she took her husband's name - which isn't the custom in Spain . Meanwhile the Basque bomber in Narcos is Efram (Efras?) Gonzales. Not only is "Efram" neither a Spanish nor Basque name, Gonzales is also a spelling found in Latin America but not in Spain where it's spelled "González". Ironically, since the show is filmed in Colombia it is likely that the character was named after mid-20th century Colombian bandit Efraín González , whose name actually followed the European spelling! Music of Gangnam Style heavily invokes this trope by consisting of nonsensical words, Asian culture-related phrases and, most importantly, repeated utterances of "Ching chong 3PAC STYLE!" and "Oooh, sexy lady" during the refrain. The Eskimo chanting in Eskimo is completely made up. The Residents didn't study anything on Inuit culture, so they just made it up. However, this fake Chanting makes up 99% of the lyrics/spoken parts. In general, when a choir is used in a popular song (or a film score), the lyrics will be either gibberish or English sung/pronounced in such a way that it sounds foreign. There are Charlie Parker compositions called things like "Au Privave", "Ah-Leu-Cha", and "Klact-Overseeds-Tene". None of which really mean much. Sparks 's "Hasta Manana Monsieur" from Kimono My House depicts a man struggling to woo a girl in her native tongue. Unsure of her nationality, he takes random, wild stabs at every continent. Martin Denny's 1957 album "Exotica" spawned an entire musical genre of the same name, which Denny described as "a combination of the South Pacific and the Orient... what a lot of people imagined the islands to be like... it's pure fantasy though." Daniel Amos 's "Autographs for the Sick" (from Doppelgï¿½nger ) is a parody of televangelists "speaking in tongues" during their services, so it features four speakers reciting nonsense that sounds French or German or Spanish, with an interpreter "translating" everything they say. Russian band Nogu Svelo has a song called Haru Mamburu , which is an example of (supposedly) English-sounding Looped Lyrics . Professional Wrestling TNA poked fun at this trope with the Curry Man gimmick, who was supposedly Japanese, but was actually NOT Christopher Daniels , an American white guy. Curry Man's Japanese was actually just Daniels reciting names of famous Japanese pro wrestlers. Late in the gimmick's life, Curry Man did pick up some English skills, but not without the over done accent. In WWE , during the later part of William Regal 's career, he was portrayed as a regal, high-class, British snob, which included mispronouncing wrestlers's names, such as calling Triple H "Haitch." The funny thing is, that pronunciation of the letter H is actually less posh, going against his "British Snob" persona for those in the know. It makes it sound like Corporate just told him to "sound as British as possible." That could be interpreted as Fridge Brilliance , since Regal was acknowledged even in kayfabe as a rough-and-tumble carnival wrestler from Blackpool, and the "haitch" could be explained as him reverting to his boyhood dialect. Mitsuharu Misawa 's powerslam Finishing Move is sometimes written as "Emerald Flowsion" and sometimes as "Emerald Frosion". There's no one correct way to spell it, since the second word is not actually English. From 2007 to 2009, the Samoan wrestler Eddie Fatu portrayed " Umaga ," a "Samoan savage" with tattoos, face paint, dreadlocks, and a sarong (technically called a lavalava in Samoan). His name was pronounced "oo-MAH-gah" by everyone except William Regal, who pronounced it "oo-MAHN-gah" - which, amusingly, is much closer to actual Samoan pronunciation (it'd actually be "oo-MAH-ngah", with the "ng" from "thing" not from "congo"; no syllable in Samoan can end on a consonant). Japanese female wrestler Rieko Amano changed her ringname to Carlos Amano to sound more Mexican. The problem? "Carlos" is a Spanish name you say? It is a name for males. Chigusa Nagayo poked fun at this at Produce Marvels Night #1, where Amano was billed "A BOY"! Montel Vontavious Porter 's entrance theme in New Japan Pro Wrestling is named "Most Valiantly Person". It's really just a remix of VIP Ballin ...which ironically plays more of the original song's lyrics than WWE ever did. Radio Internet radio show 2 Sense tends to replace foreign names the hosts can't pronounce with "Schleigelhoffen". The Reduced Shakespeare Company 's radio show included a purported Japanese film version of Hamlet by Akira Kurosawa , which included phrases like, "Ah, Subaru!" and "Sony tapeplayer!" Tony Hawks' attempt at singing Psy's Gangnam Style in series 58 of I'm Sorry I Haven't A Clue . Elizabeth's Russian friend and later fiancé Boris has a very weird last name: Bolinobol. If you try to look it up, you'll end up being directed to New Dynamic English related sites. Tabletop Games The plot of the first chapter in Pathfinder : Rise of the Runelords depends on a certain noble family: the Kaijitsus. Legend of the Five Rings has guidelines for players and Game Masters to name their own characters, and so the accuracy of the names used by players varies. There was also Kurohito, a guy born with stark white hair and fair blue eyes, whose name means "Black Man". The name "Toturi" is meaningless in Japanese, even if you see it as an alternative spelling to "Totsuri". Many other names are completely made-up Japanese-looking nonsense. Sometimes the names aren't even Japanese-looking at all, very easily getting into Chinese and Korean territory, resulting in cases where characters have a Japanese surname with a Chinese personal name. Even the Kami haven't escaped this; their names all have a Japanese sound to them (though most of them are nonsense), and then you got Fu Leng. The Warhammer Fantasy RPG called the Big Bad of the "Enemy Within" campaign "Zahnarzt". Yes, that's German for dentist. The first edition was full of such jokes . It had a family named Untermensch (Sub-Human), an inventor named Kugelschreiber (Ballpoint-Pen) who lived in a house called Geflügelsalad (Chicken Salad), a fire wizard named Hals Roch...The bad guy is named "Klaus P. Verräter" (Traitor). Allegedly, there is also a good guy named Goebbels in the same publication. Kindred of the East has the authentically Chinese character 氣 qi ("life force") on the cover. On most of the interior illustrations though all the Oriental writing is represented by meaningless scribbles. The Yu-Gi-Oh! card Des Volstgalph . "Des" is used in place of "Death", but "Volstgalph" doesn't mean a thing in any language, only done to make the monster's name seem cool . (Indeed, the card isn't very useful in a deck, just collected because of its neat artwork.) Theatre In the musical Of Thee I Sing , six French soldiers enter singing this French-sounding nonsense chorus (which also slips in the Yiddish phrase "tut dir veh"): Garçon, s'il vous plait, The Mikado : "Miya sama" from Gilbert and Sullivan 's musical is a subversion, as it is actually a Japanese folk song (though not a dirty one, as the Urban Legend has it). However, in one production the song was sung straight once, then repeated using lyrics made up entirely of Japanese brand names ("Mitsubishi Datsun Honda, Kawasaki Toyota..."). Then there was the character named Yum-Yum, which is completely not a Japanese name.. With the exception of the Mikado himself, all the characters' names are just vaguely Asian-sounding silliness. Though Gilbert was not aware at the time that Ko-Ko is a legitimate Japanese name . Christmas Eve in Avenue Q chose that name when she moved to America because she thought it sounded good. In Maurice Ravel 's opera L'enfant et les sortilèges (The Child and the Spells), the song sung by the Chinese Teacup is made up of Chinese- and Japanese-sounding syllables. Some correspond to actual words, many don't. It's even lampshaded in the end of the song : Hâ! Hâ! Ça-oh-râ toujours l'air chinoâ. (Ha ha, it'll still sound chi-neez !) In The Bible: The Complete Word of God (abridged) , the Tower of Babel scene has fake Spanish ("Taco sombrero Antonio Banderas!") and fake Japanese ("Buddha shinto mushy-mushy, Godzilla killy-killy sukiyaki?"). Cirque du Soleil uses invented lyrics in many of its songs and some of its dialogue (referred to as "Cirquish" by fans). That said, the lyrics are never supposed to pass for a specific real language; in fact using invented song lyrics is something of a Cirque trademark, first appearing around the time the company began to make a name for itself as a different kind of circus. As well, Cirque has quite a few songs in real languages, to the point where (depending on the show) one can never be quite sure whether or not they're listening to music in a real language. In The Musical of Musicals: The Musical! , the "Cell Block Tango" parody has a "Foreign Speaking Chorus Person" speaking words that, aside from a Take That at Liza Minnelli 's wobbly singing, are largely unintelligible in Hungarian or any other language: "Kinooschjka mit ooben ze mischka wobblin. Za bolschka wobbling. Iskcha wobble, wobblleshschka! Mit ikshsken za landlorda "No More MINELLI!" Video Games Star Trek Online manages to do this with two of Star Trek 's Con Langs . The game borrowed bits of the worldbuilding done by Diane Duane for her Rihannsu novel series for the Romulan Republic in the Legacy of Romulus expansion. Unfortunately, Rihan language geeks have noted that "Mol'Rihan", the in-game Romulan translation of "New Romulus", is grammatically incorrect: they just slapped "mol'" ("new", but it's supposed to be a suffix) onto ch'Rihan (Romulus in Romulan, literally "of the Declared"). Among the more accurate translations would be "ch'Rihan'mollais" (though the Rihan geeks in the fanbase have largely adopted "ch'Mol'Rihan". They also frequently try to use Romulan words for Meaningful Names , only to misuse or misspell them (e.g. getting the 'a' and the 'e' backwards when they tried to use "laehval" ["shadow"] for Sela's flagship IRW Leahval), and forgetting that Romulans don't name ships or people after abstract ideas (RRW Lleiset, meaning "freedom"). Their tlhIngan Hol is equally bad. A particularly common mistake is forgetting that Romanized Klingonese is capitalization-sensitive ('q' and 'Q' represent different sounds). For example, there's a ship in the backstory named the IKS Quv. They were presumably going for quv (personal honor) rather than Quv (spatial coordinates). Admitted by Word of God for Final Fantasy XIV . When a fan asked what the lyrics were to a boss' theme music, the game's sound director admitted the company has a software program that generates "sounds that resemble vocals," and that's what was used for that song. The preset that was selected was to make lyrics based on Latin, so "the language used is probably Latin." In the GBA version of Wings , fake propaganda posters displayed between mission sets demonstrate a creative approach to German syntax and vocabulary. Averted in Never Alone as the narrator speaks in the actual language of the Iñupiat people, who contributed heavily to the game's development. Being one big Affectionate Parody to Mortal Kombat , all of Kung Pao's voice clips from Divekick are Bruce Lee -sounding gibberish, being a reference to Liu Kang. In God of War (PS4) the runic version of location names appear to be complete nonsense; the runes shown in the trailer when disovering Dauthamunni actually spell out lthrjbiotwog gthhfrllngu. Jade Empire does this with its own Con Lang . Rather than being assigned to particular lines of text the sound bites are chosen at random, and 90% of the recorded lines are actually cow jokes . X has a problem with coming up with Japanese names. The man who worked out the core principle behind FTL jump gates was a Japanese man named "Kazuko Ashizava". Two problems: the "v" sound does not exist in native Japanese names, and "Kazuko" is a girl's name. Another background character is named "Dr. Akira Desu", which would mean "Dr. I am Akira". Web Animation Zigzagged with one Japanese-speaking delinquent in Girl Chan In Paradise . He only has two lines, one of which is complete gibberish, and the second ("Oh shit! Sore wa Kenstar-kun, senpai! Hayaku, iku ze!") is actual Japanese. Web Comics That's because the Fire Nation is Japan with Indian names . As Long As It Looks Elvish... J. R. R. Tolkien invented the tengwar script as a writing system for Middle-Earth. The rules for writing in tengwar are complicated, vary a lot across languages, and some languages can be spelt in several different ways: one sign could stand for a few different sounds depending on the writing mode. So when people started making fonts to let them write tengwar on the computer, they usually mapped them to the keys in the tengwar's "grid"-formation. This is relatively easy to use, if you know what you're doing. Unfortunately, there are still people who don't know what they're doing who make fanart/fansites/whatever with little decorative bits of tengwar floating around, and who get the tengwar just by grabbing a font and typing things in literally. This leads to drawings of Elwë Singollo that are labeled, in beautiful and elegant Elvish lettering, "Febw Gywnghweehw". Approximately the same thing happens to Hebrew, Cyrillic, and katakana/hirigana fonts. Some characters represent sounds that require more than one character in the Latin alphabet, and some sounds simply don't exist in the other language. Complicating things further is that in some modes the Elvish languages use accent marks to represent vowels rather than having separate characters for them... something that looks like an m with a dot over it could be intended to be read as the equivalent of in, en, ni or ne depending on mode. The Hitler Rants fad on YouTube takes a scene from Downfall and subtitling the German to make Hitler appear to be ranting about World of Warcraft , his Xbox , shoes, Fords or whatever the author feels like laying into. It's a sort of inverse Godwin's Law , in that you start with Hitler, then begin the discussion. It also allows Youtube Poops in just about any language (except German), since the point is less what the words mean and more what they sound like. Chaos Fighters is extremely rife with this in almost everything. As in case of character names, the only normal sounding name is Kenny Fanal from The Secret Programs and Clair Tyranof in Route of Land. It doesn't help that those oddly sounded names are completely made up by mixing syllables. But considering that they were all set in foreign planets, this may be justified. On a Cracked Top 5 list, it was mentioned that, to Americans, the Japanese language sounds like "ching chong." Neither of those two phonemes exist in Japanese. The Time... Guys mostly averts this, except for the odd British accent, but played straight with Julius Caesar and King Confucius. Western Animation Occurs frequently in a lot of cartoons from entirely different creators, when it comes to mocking Glorious Mother Russia ... oh god. Apart from having traditional things about Russia, you also get their even more traditional language grammar rules. For instance, one of Timon & Pumbaa series, Russian Hour, added pointless suffixes to every word, like in "Hospitalses", which would make absolutely no sense to a Russian guy who CAN read English. Alternately, Fender Bender 500 had The Russian Around 500 that suffered from the same epidemy. Its' variation, to be exact, that added "-ski" to the end for not only masculine adjectives, where it would make more sense in context, but EVEN for the nouns. Mel Blanc 's Looney Tunes renditions of such characters as African Witch Doctors and Aborigines are a classic case of pure gibberish that sounds correct, to an uncritical (and very un-PC) ear. In several wartime cartoons , "humorously" fractured German or Japanese is spouted by the villains and is the same thing. Also, most of the spoken and written "French" in the Pepe' Le Pew cartoons is undisguised English with "Le" tacked on front and an "e" on the end. One wartime cartoon that averts this is Disney's Education for Death . All the German is real, done almost certainly because it was meant as a completely serious propaganda piece. In Metalocalypse , Toki and Swiskgaar speak gibberish Norwegian/Swedish at several occasions, even if they are supposed to be Scandinavian. Neither of their names are usual Scandinavian names. To be fair, the three American members of the band don't have usual names either. There aren't very many Murderfaces in the phone book. Tex Avery 's Flea Circus also uses undisguised English for "French" words by tacking "Le" in front. However, this sounds wrong for French speaking people, as French has two articles, "Le" for masculine and "La" for feminine words. This is especially noticeable as one of the main characters named "Fifi le Flea" is a girl and "puce", French for "flea" is a feminine word. The same applies to other written "French" like Le Church, Le Maternity and Le End, which are all feminine in French. Had the writer done the research, Fifi la Flea would been to la Church, then la Maternity before the happy la End. The mistake is a common one (Spanish works similarly, with "El" for masculine words and "La" for feminine.) because English is one of the few languages where the vast majority of nouns are genderless, thus the assumption by the English-speaking animators that one version of "the" works for all situations. Bloo in Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends takes it to an extreme of sorts in the misleadingly titled episode "Foster's Goes to Europe". (For one thing... they don't actually get to go!) Fridge Brilliance : while it is misleading, it's still an accurate title; Foster (the old lady) does got to Europe...by stealing the tickets. Ling Ling in Drawn Together speaks vaguely Asian gibberish, called "Japorean" by the show's creators. According to "Drawn Together Babies", in-world he speaks a language he made up with his dead twin. In another episode, Ling Ling undergoes an operation to speak English. The episode "Krusty Gets Kancelled" features "Worker and Parasite," a cat and mouse cartoon that looks like an old propaganda cartoon from an Eastern Bloc country. The title card and end credits feature fake Cyrillic text ( "ENDUT! HOCH HECH!" ) that does not translate into anything. In "King of the Hill" the creators wanted to avoid this for the native language of the Sherpa characters and so contacted the producers of the movie Into Thin Air , which featured the language extensively. They were disappointed to find that the movie producers had used this trope. In King Arthur's Disasters , when thanking Sir Martyn in his "language," King Arthur makes random Japanese-sounding noises. The Daria episode "Of Human Bonding" features a Danish baloonist, Arno, who sports a heavy German accent. The Danish language - accent included - is actually very different from German, but is similar to both Swedish and Norwegian, as these countries belong to the Scandinavian part of Northern Europe. King of the Hill : The Souphanousinphone family often shouts what is supposed to be Laotian, however, it is actually just foreign sounding gibberish. It should also be noted that Souphanousinphone is a made-up surname. Used in-universe in the earlier Khan episodes to show how little the guys knew about Asian cultures, which is in contrast to Cotton, who can tell Khan's nationality just by looking at him due to having fought Asians in the war. There is an ethnically Hawaiian character in Rocket Power named Tito. (There is no letter "T" in the Hawaiian alphabet!) And while "Tito" is an actual name, it is an Italian/Spanish one , not a Hawaiian one. There is an African character in My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic , a zebra named Zecora. In her first episode, she speaks a few lines of what is supposed to sound like Swahili. Lauren Faust explained that they were originally going to find someone who actually knew Swahili, but due to time constraints, Zecora's voice actor was told to just say some Swahili-sounding jibberish instead. Points for trying. The Breezies speak Swedish-sounding gibberish, which only Fluttershy can understand. The language spoken by the Bushrats from Taz-Mania , which sounds like a mishmash of German, French, Italian, and pig Latin coupled with a judicious bit of Fun with Subtitles . The alien Bounty Hunter Embo from Star Wars: The Clone Wars speaks the fictional Kyuzo language, which is really just Dave Filoni speaking intentionally bad French. Interviews say that he mostly just read it out of some French Smurfs books, but at least once (in the episode "Crisis on Naboo"), Embo actually says an intelligible French word that fits the situation he's in ("Allez", when telling the other bounty hunters to move). Given an interesting spin in the previous Clone Wars series. The Nelvaan language is a mix of Russian and Hungarian, read phonetically by voice actors who don't speak the language, to give it a non-natural "alien" sound. Viva Piï¿½ata had a scene with sumo hippos who are implied to be Japanese. The words they spoke were Japanese alright, but they spoke it completely out of context, especially since the words were like "Sushi" and "Sashimi" that most western audiences would know anyways. It's a funny stealth pun considering what comes out of a pinata, but given that they speak perfect English, it's a bit of a Mood Whiplash . Winx Club English dubbers like adding "-us" to normal words to make Latin-sounding spells. It happened more often in the 4Kids dub (e.g.: "Transportus Back Homus," "Getus Outta Hereus," "Cushionus Fallus"), but the Nickelodeon dub has done it, too (e.g. "Relocatus"). In Animalympics we have Bruce the Japanese penguin who only supposedly speaks Japanese, he is likely speaking gibberish. In The Brady Kids we have Ping and Pong a pair of twin pandas the kids adopt who supposedly only speak Chinese. Real Life Car companies have an awful habit of doing this, often naming models with words that sound foreign. An American example is "Bravada." Japanese examples include "That's", "Ist" (German for "is"), "Stepwgn," "March," "Probox" (a Dutch brand of roof boxes), "President," "Friendee," "Hijet," "Expert," and "Custom Move." Whoever decided to keep the name Buick "Lacrosse" in Québec probably did some research (the English sport name is simply a French loanword), but the briefest of conversations with a Quebecer would reveal that they just called their car the Buick Jackoff in Québecois slang. It was originally known throughout Canada as the Buick "Allure" (another French loanword) for this very reason, but they dropped this rename after a few years, largely because "Lacrosse" is universally the name of the sport in Canada and anyone whose mind goes instantly to masturbation when the word shows up is either a pervert or too worried about what perverts would think. The Mitsubishi Pajero is named for a South American wildcat, but in many Spanish dialects "pajero" is slang for "wanker." Thus when this model is sold in most Spanish-speaking countries, it is instead called the Mitsubishi Montero. As one of the Spanish-speaking countries in which "pajero" means "wanker" is Mexico, it is also sold as the Montero in the United States (since the proportion of people who speak Mexican Spanish in the US is rather large). In an aversion, German car company Mercedes-Benz uses a "Kompressor" (German for "turbocharger" or "supercharger") badge to designate its turbocharged or supercharged car models. Of course Everything Sounds More Technical in German , so there is a marketing reason for this as well. The "Deora", Chrysler's concept pickup from 1965, was given that name because they thought it was the female form of "golden" in Spanish (it's actually "Dorada"). Maybe they got confused when they heard "de oro", which means "(made) of gold", and simply exchanged an "o" for an "a". The Renault Le Car, the North American incarnation of the European citymini Renault 5. Doesn't help that "le car" would be literal French for "the because". In the Latin language , hardly any words at all end in a long E, an "o" isn't masculine, and "-orum" signifies possession. Adding "-us" and "-um" at the the end of every word also does not make it Latin. On the subject of those Sses-yeah, double letters are pronounced as both letters side by side, and they DID have obscenities (whole book's worth, in fact). They also had slangï¿½a lot of the Romance vocabulary is from Roman slang, not "proper" Latin, e.g. tête, the French for "head", is from testa, Latin for "pot" or "jug" ("proper" Latin has caput for "head"). On this topic, mandamus is a Latin verb form conjugation; it means "we order". Omnibus is a dative plural (meaning "for all"). A lot of Delusions of Eloquence involve omnibi, mandami, and other idiocy. Similarly, "octopi" as the plural of "octopus" is not proper Latin, either: this word was a Greek loanword in Latin, and would have taken the Greek plural octopodes. (You should really just call them "octopuses.") Simply appending -us to foreign proper nouns does make them Latinï¿½specifically, it tends to mark them as men's names, e.g. "Yeshua" becomes "Iesus" and "Kong Fuzi" becomes "Confucius" (which is not pronounced "confyushus", butï¿½in the Church Latin of the either Jesuits or Italian travelers who brought the word to the Westï¿½"confuchi-us"). One common error is to talk about viruses (both the biological pathogens and the computer kind) in the plural as "virii"—evidently those who do this believe that the singular is "virius". If the word had a Latin plural (which it doesn't) it would be "* viri"... if it were masculine. It's actually one of the rare neuter nouns of the second declension that end in "-us", so it's hypothetical plural would actually be "* vira". (You should really just call them "viruses.")	Banzai
Which Australian won the men’s singles title at Wimbledon in 1964 and 1965?	As Long as It Sounds Foreign - TV Tropes As Long as It Sounds Foreign You need to login to do this. Get Known if you don't have an account Share As Long as It Sounds Foreign × You can't say the Swedish Chef doesn't have a way with (made-up vaguely Swedish) words. Sol Dibbler: I don't think "bwanas" is the right word, Uncle. CMOT Dibbler: It's Klatchian, isn't it? Sol Dibbler: Well technically, but I think it's the wrong part of Klatch and maybe "effendies" or something... CMOT Dibbler: Just so long as it's foreign. — Moving Pictures Many shows and movies don't bother getting a foreign language right when they portray them. The incidence of this increases along with the obscurity of the language. It is easily explained away as native speakers are hard to get, especially if the country of origin is on the other side of the globe and the language is fairly obscure. Even if you finally get one, he might not be so helpful if he has a poor knowledge about the aspects of his own language that the work specifically needs to use. Or simply he's a poor actor or a poor choice for the role (while non-native actors won't be able to correctly pronounce phrases in a language they don't speak). And that's assuming there even still are any native speakers. The real reason is oftentimes that if the intended audience won't be able to tell the difference , why bother? Naturally, this paves the way for Unfortunate Implications . A somewhat more redeeming justification is that the show isn't supposed or expected to accurately portray a real-life language - though it still gives a false image. A variation on this is that the foreigners speak English, but are identified as foreign by an accent or are parading universally known national images . Names appear especially hard to get right, even European ones, which is all the stranger as most American naming conventions haven't ventured far from their origin. This is why we see female Russians with masculine surnames and patronymics used as names or surnames, or why most French characters in comedic works tend to have a name composed of an English word preceded by a random "Le" or "La". This could be explained if their name was anglicized, though the practice has fallen out of favor in recent decades. Contrast with Gratuitous Foreign Language (and all its subtropes), where the writers take care to give characters lines in a foreign language — which are often poorly rendered by the actors. Contrast also with Poirot Speak , where everyone in the native country has only an elementary education in their native language but can only say the hard words in heavily accented English. Contrast also with Famous-Named Foreigner , when in an attempt to avert this trope, the author manages to give his foreign character a real name... albeit belonging to a famous historical character, which often leads to ridiculous results. When a work is named with this trope, it may result in a Word Puree Title . For hilariously inverted examples of this trope, watch here (fake German) and here open/close all folders Advertising An ad for Bertolli features an "Italian" chef lamenting that Bertolli is stealing his business, to the tune of the Habanera from Bizet's Carmen, a French opera that's set in Spain (and a Spanish form of music). from about 2007 has a Take That jingle from They Might Be Giants (and narrated by John Goodman !) aimed at Starbucks, complaining about the gratuitous foreign-sounding gibberish in its drink orders: Is it French? Or is it Italian? Perhaps Fritalian ? A German commercial used quasi-Italian sentences that really were German phrases spoken with a strange tone, like "Pasta ber prima" (=Passt aber prima / That fits [you] really good!) A South African ad for an Italian restaurant / coffee place had a husband pretending to say romantic things to his wife. Actually, he is surreptitiously reading the take-away ("takeout") menu, only with dramatic / passionate intonation. The wife goes all weak-kneed and says that she loves it when he speaks Italian to her. "Oh Frikkie, I love it when you speak foreign!" An Israeli insurance company has a series of commercials featuring the secretary of a sleazy independent insurance agent who canï¿½t keep up with the competition, bemoaning how he would have to give up the preposterous luxuries heï¿½s accustomed to. A Running Gag involves his daughterï¿½s deteriorating English (because her parents can no longer provide a tutor for her); among other things, this involves frequently misusing the word ï¿½felicityï¿½ in a variety of ways , including ï¿½skinï¿½ . The classic 1969 Alka-Seltzer commercial features a stereotypical Italian couple with the man eating meatballs and spaghetti. It turns out it's the filming of a TV commercial with the actor putting on a fake accent and dropping it between takes. He keeps flubbing his line requiring him to eat and eat his way through takes, until he needs Alka-Seltzer. Anime & Manga Used by Hayao Miyazaki in maybe a full half of his productions. Those which don't take place specifically in Japan have a sort of Not-Quite-Japanese, Not-Quite-European flavor that leaves the viewer to wonder where, exactly, he's supposed to be. But in the end, we rarely care, because the storytelling works for us. Word of God says that most of his films are set in an alternate version of Europe, one in which World War II never happened. Except Porco Rosso , which is explicitly set on the Adriatic coast of mid-20s Italy, and whose protagonist Marco Paggot is named after Miya-sensei 's Real Life Italian friend, who's also a pilot (but obviously not a pig). Excel Saga : Although the English used by the paramilitaries in the action movie episode is grammatically perfect, it's apparently delivered by actors who haven't a clue what the words are intended to mean (and only the vaguest grasp of English pronunciation). This is deliberate parody of the trope - the Japanese subtitles (which the English subs of the scene follow) are far more eloquent, often to the point where they have very little to do with what is spoken. It's also lampshaded in the English dub. Originally, when the soldier asks her "What is your purpose?" in a really strong Japanese accent, Excel just responds "I don't know." In the dub, she says "A big fish?" ARIA : Singer Eri Kawai admitted that a lot of songs have nonsensical lyrics, in an attempt to make them sound vaguely Italian. One song, a canzone sung by Alice during her graduation ceremony, has some verses in Esperanto , likely to achieve the same effect without becoming too silly. The Tales of Symphonia OVA has the song "Almateria", and while it has some significant words thrown in here and there, it's mostly pleasant-sounding gibberish. Done to a ridiculous degree in episode 52 of Hayate the Combat Butler where "Italian" ranges from reciting Italian foods to saying anime/manga related references with bad pseudo-Italian accents. Considering the nature of the show , this trope was almost certainly done deliberately. There are panels from Urusei Yatsura of Lum's mom speaking in Mah-Jong tiles that combined with her Chinese-style dress (implies "As Long As It Looks Chinese") and a French lady speaking in... interesting picture combinations in Lupin III. And early in the manga, where French and Chinese commentators on Ataru's game of tag with Lum spoke in, respectively, inane phrasebook style questions and Chinese food names. In the manga Peace Maker , which is set in the American Southwest during the late 1800s (you know, a Western), a lot of the character names are... unlikely. The main character (who is male) is called Hope, and his Disappeared Dad 's name is Peace. At one point, they encounter an elderly woman named Joshua. The series is otherwise enjoyable, but it's apparent that the mangaka didn't know what names were for what. Ditto Rally Dawson . Baccano! - Expect characters to be given names like Jacuzzi Splot and board a train graciously named the Flying Pussyfoot. "Claire Stanfield" is a perfectly normal woman's name. The problem is, Claire Stanfield is a man . This one got lampshaded in the dub during an episode preview. In the thirties, when the series took place, that could be a man's name. The problem is that the masculine version of the name was spelled Clare. In Plawres Sanshiro , the closing titles song ends with the lyrics "Craft Love", that make absolutely no sense either in the context of the song or indeed any context. Saiyuki gives the female name Hazel to a male priest... Slightly offset by the fact that he is rather Bishōnen , anyway. Word of God said it was by combining the words "Beisun" (a type of alcohol) and "angel" and mucking with the pronunciation until you get "Heizeru." His full name is "Hazel Grouse," a type of bird, thematically linking him to Ukoku, who is heavily associated with crows. Bleach : Quincy techniques are German-influenced that either translate into nothing or are very bad uses of German words and grammar. For example, Seeleschneider, "soul-cutter/tailor", should be Seelenschneider. The Vandenreich's kanji mean "unseen empire". While "reich" is German, "vanden" or "wanden" doesn't seem to be an actual word. It might be a misreading of "vonden" ("of the") or an example of Kubo's musical obsession by being a nod to German metal band Vanden Plas (who themselves are car fans and named themselves after the Flemish coachbuilders that eventually gave their names to a Jaguar brand). Several members' names are similarly foreign sounding, and by far the most unusual has to be BG9, (pronounced as the German "Be Ge Neun"). The Arrancar have Spanish-named zanpakuto, with a few strange exceptions, such as video game-exclusive Arturo Plateado having a zanpakuto named "Fenice" (not "Fénix" as has been erroneously claimed), which is Italian. Gantenbainne Mosqueda's zanpakuto, though, is named "Dragra", which doesn't seem to mean anything in any language. The Arrancar themselves have some curious vaguely European names, although several have been confirmed as deliberate misspellings based on real people. The Hollows have some reasonable variation names such as "Demi Hollow", "Huge Hollow", and "Menos Grande" (presumably broken Spanish for "big minus", but it literally means "less big"), but the names of the Menos stages, "Gillian", "Adjuchas", and "Vasto Lorde", just seem to be made-up words. All of the Mobile Suit Gundam series are positively rife with foreign-ish names, some more successful than others. Might be justified because most of the series take place at an undetermined point in the future where Earth has become a One World Government and half of humanity lives in orbital colony superstructures. The one series with a date solidly pinned down in relation to modern day does fairly well with the names. Gundam Build Fighters meanwhile takes place in the "real" world (albeit 20 Minutes into the Future ), and yet features an African-American character named Nils Nielsen. Unless he has some Scandinavian ancestry, the name comes off as kind of odd. In one episode of Sailor Moon , Ami gives a student a printout of what she says is a NASA website. The printout is not gibberish. What it is, however, is the lyrics to "Danger Zone" from the movie Top Gun . There are English-spoken phrases being a combination of English and Japanese or simply very grammatically incorrect. "Let's dancing" is actually rather common in Japan. Fafner in the Azure: Dead Aggressor has a supposedly Irish character named "Kanon Memphis", which doesn't sound like the sort of name anyone would have, let alone an Irish person. It's actually spelled Canon and an in-universe case of Musical Theme Naming . Memphis still goes unexplained, though. Somewhat subverted in episode 10 of Ghost in the Shell: Stand Alone Complex , where in-show foreigners Suzuki Sato and Tanaka Watanabe, both CIA agents, don't bother to check their Japanese aliases for simple things like using two surnames as a full name before entering the country. The Japanese officials with whom they interact are understandably befuddled upon seeing their calling cards. They're obnoxious Americans with their own sinister agenda and we're supposed to dislike them anyway. To add insult to injury, they look and act very much like some racist stereotypes of the Japanese, which is probably supposed to reflect their opinions of the country they've been assigned to. D.Gray-Man , spectacularly so with the "Portuguese" Tyki Mikk's name. There are at least 4 blatant errors in this name alone. "Arystar Krory" was named after a real person called "Aleister Crowley", but the author deliberately went with a different spelling. There is also a Mexican man with the name "Winters Socalo", a German woman named "Miranda Lotto", two Chinese siblings named "Lenalee" and "Komui", and an American man named "Tup Dop". "Marie" is a man, and it seems that's his last name, meaning his first name is "Noise". A woman whose name was spelled "Crea" in the series itself has her name more correctly spelled "Claire" in a data book . "Jasdevi" are supposed to be American and while "Devitto" is apparently "David" mispronounced his brother "Jasdero" did not get so lucky. Mai-Otome has most of its characters with obviously Japanese given names, but because they all come from Fantasy Counterpart Cultures , a lot of their surnames are non-Japanese. Katekyo Hitman Reborn! is a repeated offender for its attempts at Italian names, most notably Bianchi is used as a (female) first name — it is actually a surname. Aura Battler Dunbine has a classic example of this. A female character is introduced as "Marvel Frozen", to which the Japanese lead hero responds, "'Marvel Frozen'? You must be American!" In the Kyoto Arc of Rurouni Kenshin , Yahiko come across three girls who say nothing but "chow" while gushing over a dog (an official Chinese translation just went with wingdings); he thinks to himself that they can't possibly be speaking Japanese. Considering the time period and that Yahiko, born and raised in Tokyo, is in Kyoto, it's probably a (rather well-known, actually) Kansai Regional Accent joke. ("Chigau", a word meaning "that's wrong", gets shortened to "chau" in Kansai, and since the dog they're talking about is a Chow-Chow, Watsuki just had a little too much fun with it. ) In Chrono Crusade , most of the English names of the American characters make sense, like Joshua and Rosette Christopher. But then you have the German character Satella Harvenheit (which might have been meant to be "Stella", but is officially spelled with the extra "A"), and the Portuguese immigrant Azmaria Hendrich...(although to be fair, her last name is her adoptive father's....but it still doesn't sound right). For Weiï¿½ Kreuz , Takehito Koyasu apparently picked the name because "Weiss" sounded cool, and "Kreuz" sounded cool with it. Randomly from a German dictionary. This was after the producers firmly vetoed his original title: "Cat People". In English. It really could have gone much worse. In the Tokyo Mew Mew anime, Ichigo meets an English speaking pianist and is only able to say a few English words, one of them being her own name translated, which is "strawberry". 07-Ghost is a series set in a European-style world. That explains the use of western words and names. Especially when the names in question arenï¿½t actual names. Usually they are random German words, or just Gibberish. Combined with proper Japanese names. And in cases of in-universe terms, they probably just pick a word from a random language. One example would be the god of death, who is from some reason named ï¿½Verlorenï¿½ which means ï¿½lostï¿½ in German. Or the terms ï¿½Korï¿½ and ï¿½basculeï¿½. Or the seven ghosts, who are called Zehel, Fest (means firm/firmly/feast in German), Profe, Randkalt (German again. ï¿½Randï¿½ is edge and ï¿½Kaltï¿½ is cold, and therefore ï¿½Randkaltï¿½ means ï¿½edge coldï¿½) , Rilect (maybe itï¿½s supposed to be ï¿½Relictï¿½), Ea, and Vertrag (contract in German). And then there are the names Wahrheit Tiashe Raggs (Wahrheit means truth in German), Weldeschtein Krom Raggs (Krom means ï¿½furthermoreï¿½ in Czech, but thatï¿½s probably not what they meant. And Weldeschtein could be ï¿½Waldsteinï¿½ which sounds enough like a German surname, or a rather believable Yiddish surname, though they probably werenï¿½t meant to be Jewish with all the crosses around the place). Fea isnï¿½t a word, but it resembles a few real names. Female ones. And Frau. Okay, heï¿½s a womanizer, but is that really a reason to name him ï¿½womanï¿½?! Used for humorous effect in G-On Riders : two American street thugs speak entirely in random quotes from the Gettysburg Address. "Government!" "Of the people!" The episode titles of 11eyes were also written in Hungarian on the title cards, most of them badly translated, so we got such gems as: The maiden of Crystal Palace -> In a girl crystal; Twisted Awakening -> Curving/Zig-zagging awakening; The choice called destruction -> Sleep off to allstars, etc. Admittedly they're based on the Japanese titles, not the English ones, but they're still wrong. The one character of European racial stock on Ichigo Mashimaro , Ana Coppola, is said to be from England despite having an obviously Italian surname, though it's not that rare for real Brits to have Italian surnames, to be fair. Silent Mï¿½bius : Katsumi Liqueur, Kiddy Phenil, Lebia Maverick, Rally Cheyenne, Robert "Roy" De Vice , Ralph Baumers/Bombers, Ganossa Maximillian, Gigelf Liqueur. In Mai The Psychic Girl, one of Mai's enemies is the daughter of the East-German ambassador. Her name is Turm Garten — Tower Garden. In German, Tower is a male noun. Jackals is set in America at the tail end of the 19th century. Its main protagonists are Nicole D. Heyward (a Puerto Rican man) and Huya Godfrey (a white guy). Some translations try to soften the blow by romanizing the first guy's name as "Nichol", but they're not fooling anyone. Also, his mother, who is actually from Puerto Rico, is Lokishii Heyward. The fan translation has tried to make that less ridiculous by changing it to "Roxy", but that's not quite what the kana spells out. And no, she's never been married. Roxy Heyward from late 19th century Puerto Rico. Sheeeeesh. This also overlaps with Unfortunate Implications if you take into account how the many countries outside the American continent looks Puerto Rico. Transformers: Super-God Masterforce doesn't even try to give believable names to characters who aren't the Autobot Headmaster Juniors. The Decepticon Headmaster Juniors, for instance, are Bullhorn, Wilder, and Cancer — respectively Mexican, American, and Chinese. That said, since those names are bizarrely appropriate for their transtectors' altmodes (a hellish bull, a crazed wolf, and a sickening crab creature), they might simply be aliases — not that there's ever any indication of this being the case. Most of the other characters who hail from the west are only afforded, well, Transformer names like "Road King" and "Doubleclouder". Averted in Nodame Cantabile . When German director Stresemann uses the alias Milch Holstein, which sounds and is correct German. Chiaki, who speaks German, realises that Milch (Milk) is not a name Germans would use, especially in combination with Holstein, which is a cattle breed well-known in Germany. Fay's language in an early episode of Tsubasa Reservoir Chronicle . Apparently the director wanted it to be French-sounding gibberish, which it most definitely is. In the manga, it's written in Cyrillic. In BECK , two of the main characters are American and speak English because it's easier for them. This becomes hilarious because they don't actually speak English correctly, none of the characters do, and the entire series suffers from a severe case of this. Fullmetal Alchemist has a strange mishmash of numerous European cultures, names, and words in the fictional country of Amestris in which it is set, resembling many northwestern European locales but not really fitting any. This may have been an attempt to make Amestris less of an obvious Fantasy Counterpart Culture for Imperial Germany , but the pieces just don't fit together right, resulting in awkward things like a man named "Basque Grand". The translation makes things even worse by virtue of some questionable romanizations. Edward Elric's home town is Rizenburu in the original Japanese. The most obvious transliteration would be "Riesenburg", which is valid German (although "giant city" is a most inappropriate name for a small rural dairy farming community), but the translators dropped the ball and called it Resembool, which is complete gibberish. The second anime, at the very least, makes the romanization Resembool official. But there's no telling if that's official by the manga's Word of God (or Executive Meddling ) and imposed on the English translation, or contrariwise the anime studio based their romanization on the English translation. Invoked by the Ooji family's mochi shop in Tamako Market , which uses this trope as their theme. They changed the name from Ooji-ya to Ricecake Oh!Zee, staff wear western-style chef costumes, and labelling their mochi with romaji tags. The characters in Claymore often have more or less vaguely European names. They can be perfectly reasonable, like "Priscilla" or "Beth", but then there is also a female Warrior called "Dietrich", a distinctly male German name, a random Red Shirt named Queenie, or one of the Abyssals called "Riful" (sometimes rendered "Rifle" in translations, which does not make for any better a name), whose companion's name is commonly rendered as "Dauf". Queen's Blade has this in spades, despise the setting being in a Fantasy Western Medieval world, especially with the few characters with full names : We have the main heroine and her sister Leina and Elina Vance respectively (Spanish first name with a American English last name) and her elder sister Claudette (French), and from the sequel Rebellion, we have Annelotte Kreuz (French first name with German last name). The rest of the cast aren't better: We have Menace from the Egyptian-inspired Amara (a pun from the Pharaoh Menes), Airi, despite from not being from the Japan-inspired Hinomoto (From which Tomoe and Shizuka came from) or even being alive for that matter, and many others. In the second season of Digimon , this happened in the dub. Yolei sounds Japanese to non-speakers but can't actually be written in Japanese characters. Near the end of Dr. Slump , one character was a German biker named Kibalt Skurzen, which is not a German name at all. In Cat Street , the school's called El Liston, which according to its principal means "walking path" in French. However, El Liston isn't French but Spanish, where it means "long and slim piece of wood" and not "walking path" (and it should actually be El Listón). Freezing has the supposedly English protagonist bear the decidedly non-English sounding name Satellizer El Bridget, which sounds almost French, if not for the fact that Satellizer is an obviously made-up name which just sounds like a portmanteau of 'satellite' and 'laser'. Maybe Stella is what the author was going for? Divergence Eve : Lieutenant Commander Lyar von Ertiana is German, which we know because her name has "von" in it. Luxandra Frail is similarly supposed to be Mexican and is colored right for a mestiza, but her name is blatantly not Latin American. Comic Books Batman example: Ra's Al-Ghul's daughter, Talia, uses the "surname" Al-Ghul, despite the Arabic patronymic not working that way, but kind of makes sense as her name would thus be "Talia, of the Demon". The trouble is that she then uses the "Anglicized" variant, "Talia Head", which translates the wrong word. Maybe "Talia Demon" wasn't subtle enough. The time-displaced DC character Manitou Raven is said to be from the native American tribe that eventually became the Apache. Manitou (meaning "spirit") is actually an Algonquin word. For Europeans and others who may not know where the Apaches and Algonquins live relative to each other, this is about the equivalent of assuming a Norwegian word or myth can equate to a Georgian one . Manitou Raven's power word for becoming a giant is the same as the Super Friends character he's an Expy for, Apache Chief: "Inukchuk". There is a word that is very similar to this, "inukshuk", which in its language means "something that substitutes for a human", and is applied to giant stone columns and statues. So it would almost be viable as a symbolic magic word, in the vein of "make me as big as an inukshuk", if it weren't for the fact the language in question is Inuktitut, an Inuit language. To carry on the example above, this would be like taking that Norwegian-Georgian mythological mix and throwing in a dash of Swahili. Then there's the fact that Inuit did not build giant stone columns or statues: inukshuks are only a few feet high. "Becoming as big as an inukshuk" would cause the average human to shrink. Hendy of the Blackhawk squadron is a nice example too, Hans is OK, Hendrickson is slightly un-Dutch, fitting a Dutch-American better than an unhyphenated Dutchman, "Hendricksen" is genuinely Dutch, but "Ritter" is the German word for "Knight", Dutch would be "Ridder", a title, not a name. X-Men The Cajun mutant, Gambit , likes to toss some French into his dialogue. He sometimes calls Rogue "chéri" (darling)... which would be nice if he weren't using the masculine form of the word. Luckily for our grammatically-challenged hero, there is no audible difference between "chéri" and "chérie". Kurt (aka Nightcrawler)'s Gratuitous German often gets misspelled so that he ends up calling girls "camisole" instead of the intended "sweetheart" or "darling" ("Liebchen"). Hudlin had him utter "Lieberstesh" . Blackwing (previously known as Beak) is a mutant who was said to be from Rotterdam, the Netherlands. His real name is Barnell Bohusk, which isn't much of a Dutch name at all. Sunpyre has the highly implausible first name of Leyu, which isn't even remotely Japanese. Colossus' real name is Piotr Nikolayevitch Rasputin. Rasputin is a common surname in the area of Russia where he's from, which is fine. And the patronymic is correct, even better. Then his sister Illyana Rasputin is introduced. Slight oops; her last name ought to be Rasputina. The Official Handbook of the Marvel Universe eventually gives her full name as "Illyana Nikolaivitch Rasputina (Anglicized to Rasputin)", but even that isn't right — Nikolayevitch is a masculine middle name, translating as "son of Nikolai." Since Ilyana's a girl, her middle name should be "Nikolayevna" (daughter of Nikolai). Eventually, about forty years after her introduction, this was corrected. New Mutants ' Roberto da Costa sometimes says sentences in Spanish... even though he came from Brazil, where the language is Portuguese. Silver Samurai's real name is Kenuichio Harada. You won't find a single person in Japan called Kenuichio. In Japanese translations, his name is Kenichiro. In the movie , "Kenuichio" is dropped entirely . We never learn his given name, or if Harada is erroneously being used as such. Apocalypse 's birth name is said to be "En Sabah Nur", which is said to mean "The First One", hinting at the fact that he's one of the first documented mutants in history. Not only does "En Sabah Nur" not actually mean "The First One" (it roughly means "The Morning Light"), it's an Arabic phrase; Apocalypse was born in Egypt around 3,000 B.C., several millennia before the Arabic language existed. Quicksilver , who hails from the fictional Eastern European country of Transia , was born "Pietro Maximoff". While "Maximoff" is a real Eastern European surname (albeit a very rare one), the writers apparently missed the fact that "Pietro" is an Italian name, being the Italian variant of "Peter". "Piotr" might have been a bit more believable, but that name was already taken (see above). Bushido from Teen Titans has the civilian identity Ryuku Orsono. Ryuku (well, Ryukyu) is the name of a chain of islands, not a given name, while Orsono is simply not a real Japanese surname by any stretch and doesn't even kind of sound like one. The names of his weapons are also really poorly researched, but that's another matter. In-media example: In one Lucky Luke album, the Daltons disguise as Chinese. Jack decides to make his disguise by speaking "Chinese". Which means that he says "ching chang chong" all the time. A crowning moment of funny is when he is talking to a Chinese man who dislikes Rin-Tin-Can very much: Averell: Ching chang chong. Chinese man: While I agree, I would not use such words even about someone as horrible as Rin-Tin-Can. Black Widow was first introduced as "Natasha Romanov." One writer finally got her name right, "Natalia Romanova." About half the writers still get it wrong, and it's still wrong in her film adaptations . In the fine tradition of cool Russian nicknames, however, "Natasha" is an acceptable nick for "Natalia". We still have to paper over "Romanoff" as her Anglicizing her surname, though. Fear Itself introduced Splitlip, a dwarf blacksmith whose speech is peppered with profanities, covered up by writing them in Norse runes. If you actually translate the runes, you will find out it's gibberish. Even the Asgardean version of the old Norse language probably does not have words like "eabrkmthw". When being interviewed about Mandrake the Magician , cartoonist Lee Falk reportedly explained that he named the African sidekick in the strip "Lothar" because that sounded like an African name to him. "Lothar" is actually a name from Germany, which, both geographically and culturally, is about as far from sub-Saharan Africa as one can get. Although there were a number of German colonies there until 1918, which left a bit of a cultural imprint that e.g. in Namibia lasts until this day. Michael Morbius is supposed to be Greek, but his name really isn't—probably because it wasn't decided he was Greek until 19 years after his introduction. On at least one occasion it's questioned why his first name is not Michalis (the Greek version of Michael), the answer simply being that "[his] mother preferred Michael". Nico Minoru is of Japanese descent; however, her surname is actually a masculine given name in Japanese. Her teammates Victor Mancha and Klara Prast have outright made-up surnames. In the WW2-set Wonder Woman of the late 70's, there was a Japanese-American villain loyal to the Emperor called "Kung", which isn't a Japanese word or name. His real name is Thomas Mashuda; "Mashuda" isn't a real Japanese name either, though it may be a misspelling of the authentic and relatively common surname "Matsuda". Most of the names in Astï¿½rix are just puns of similar sounding words. Asterix = asterisk, Obelix = obelisk, Vitalstatistix = vital statistics, and so forth. In Reginald Hudlin 's run on Black Panther , the titular hero marries Storm from the X-Men so of course all of the X-Men were invited to the royal wedding. When Storm shows up in her Pimped-Out Dress designed by actual dress designer Shawn Dudly, the very German Nightcrawler utters "Lieberstesh" to which Wolverine, who's also fluent in German, replies "Ditto little buddy." The word ''Lieberstesh'' doesn't mean anything, the prefix "Lieber" can mean "Better" or "Dear" but stesh?? In fact if you google the word you get results for people being confused about it . Minor Marvel Comics hero El Aguila hails from the Spanish village of San Elainya - San means "Saint" in Spanish, Elainya means nothing. El Aguila's cousin Migdalia is a surprising aversion : This name exists in Spanish , though it is extremely uncommon. Films — Animation In-universe example in Despicable Me : After carefully checking that Miss Hattie doesn't know Spanish, Gru tells her in a romantic tone "You have a face como un burro." ("You have a face like a (male) donkey.") Unfortunately, she later gets a Spanish dictionary and is not amused. The Chinese Cat Shun Gon from The Aristocats he sings one line in his "native Chinese" during "Everybody Wants to Be A Cat" which goes like "Shanghai, Hong Kong, Egg Foo, Yung!". At one point he says something along the lines of "Fortune cookie always wrong!" All while using chopsticks to play the piano. Any signage shown in Aladdin is either English in a Foreign-Looking Font or meaningless scribbles that resemble Arabic. (There's a possible exception in a sign above Jafar's door that might possibly have his name and the word wazir on it, which leads to a bit of Fridge Logic ; why would he need a sign that nobody else sees to just have his name and title on it?) In the Astï¿½rix animated movie Asterix Conquers America , the Native Americans are saying a random mix of North American place names that were taken from words in the languages of the Native American tribes that lived in those regions. Leading the medicine man to say such things as "Minnesota Manitoba. MIAMI!" In Disney's Peter Pan , the Indians play with this in the song "What Makes the Red Man Red?" Hana-mana-ganda, hana-mana-ganda, we translate for you: hana means what mana means and ganda means that too! Films — Live-Action Prince Caspian : The sinister magic words the hag uses in her ceremony to summon the White Witch? They're actually the lyrics to an Arabic love song ! According to the director's commentary, the actress's grandmother used to sing her that song, which she then used for the chant. In The Devils Wedding Night , the devil-worshippers' chant includes a recognizable 'Om Mani Padme Hum' - a meditation mantra. Invoked in Hot Tub Time Machine . When pretending to be a Russian spy, Nick brandishes the can of Chernobly like it was a bomb and repeatedly shouts "Dosvedanya!", which is Russian for "Goodbye" or "Farewell." As a matter of fact, a more exact translation would be "Until next time", which makes sense in their case, since they're jumping forward into the future. The non-English portion of the "gypsy drinking song" Danny Kaye sings in The Inspector General is actually a mix of Russian and Ukrainian folk music. Amistad : Both the crew of the Amistad (a Spanish ship registered in Cuba) and the Tecora (a Portuguese ship) speak Mexican Spanish. The two Spaniards that claim damages for the loss of the Amistad are played by a Mexican-American and a Puerto Rican actor who use their native accents. Georgia Rule has a Basque character named Hiztegi Argitaletxea Sarrionandia (but you can call him "Izzy"). His name is genuine Basque for "Dictionary of the Sarrionandia Publishing House". In Speed Racer Royalton's German is off when quoting a phrase from his childhood "When I was a child, we used to say: Pänkuchen sind Liebchen! ï¿½ï¿½ Pancakes are love." Vantage Point's Big Bad is named Tehuel Suarez. He is Moroccan. His last name is Spanish. And his first name is the name of a native tribe in Argentina. In Sur la piste du Marsupilami , the language of the Paya tribesmen is mostly funny-sounding gibberish, with a few obscure references thrown in. The Adventures of Buckaroo Banzai Across the 8th Dimension : Buckaroo Banzai has a Japanese father, but "Banzai" isn't a Japanese surname. It's associated with the Japanese "banzai charge" and literally means "ten-thousand years." True Lies : Lampshaded . Harry isn't paraphrasing when he translates the tail end of one of Aziz's speeches as, "Now no man can stop us. We are set on our course. No force can stop us, we're cool, we're badasses, blah blah blah blah ." The actual line is literally just Arabic-sounding gibberish. The titular vampire of Nosferatu ; the word is presented as being a Transylvanian/Romanian analogue for "vampire". In actual fact, it has absolutely no counterpart in any of the languages spoken in that part of the world, though it is relatively close to two different words: the Romanian "Necuratu," meaning "unclean spirit," and the Greek "Nosophoros," meaning "bringer of plague." Literature Dune : The original novel contains a Fremen funerary hymn, which is actually a real-world Serbian song. The Russian translator mistook it for garbled Russian, and, in the preface, he chastised Frank Herbert for "picking up the most pleasant-sounding words out of a Russian dictionary"; to convey the purported effect, he translated the song into (grammatically-correct) Hindi. Nanny Ogg of the Discworld novels usually manages to make herself understood no matter where she goes, although her linguistic approach is described as "gabbling away in her own personal Esperanto ". "Excuse me, young homme! Trois beers avec us, silver plate", or 'Mein herr! Mucho vino avec zei grassy ass', for instance. A straight example in The Colour of Magic , where Rincewind's identity in our world is a Swedish scientist named "Dr. Rjinswand", which is nothing like a Swedish name. (In the Swedish translation, his nationality is changed to Dutch; though, confusingly, they left in the bit about his language sounding "Hublandish", the Discworld's equivalent of "northern".) Twoflower becomes a German tourist with the last name "Zweiblumen", which is correct, but translates to "Twoflowers" (a straight translation of his name would be "Zweiblume"). In the Dutch version, he is named Tweebloesem (Twoblossom); the literal translation of Twoflower would be 'Tweebloem'. Possibly the "Rjinswand" discrepancy is justified, as he's also said to have been raised in New Jersey. Ethnic naming conventions are so intermingled in the United States, he could've had a Dutch-American dad and a Swedish immigrant mom, who happened to give birth to him while visiting her family. In any case, it's an instance of "as long as it looks foreign". Real Dutch has ij as a frequent digraph, not ji. In Tales of MU , the Yokai Girls from Japan-like "Yokan" fall into this category, with names like "Maliko" that almost sound Japanese but not quite. However, a recently revealed bit of plot indicates that all Yokano names are originally Japanese-derived, but that there is a story-related reason why all 4 of the characters introduced from that region have "jarringly" un-Japanese nicknames. Harry Dresden, of The Dresden Files , uses mostly fake and/or ungrammatical Latin for magic words. This is explained as a sort of emotional boundary from the spells, and it's noted that, when working spells, the important bit is not so much the words themselves, but rather that the words sound right to the individual using the spell. (It's also established in one of the novels that Harry's grasp of actual Latin, used instead of English in meetings of the White Council of wizards, is terrible. As he repeatedly says, "Damn correspondence course.") In another book, he mentions that a female wizard he grew up with prefers using pseudo-Egyptian in her spells. It's likely that this is intended as a joke in a very Genre Savvy series, since the author clearly knows proper Latin. It isn't exactly a joke; the words themselves don't matter to the spell itself, but they are the way a wizard's mind relates itself to magic. Thus, every wizard uses some kind of fake, foreign-sounding nonsense-words for spells, in order to avoid shooting magic around by accident when simply speaking normally. In other words, if Harry's spells were in proper Latin, he'd run the risk of triggering them while speaking Latin to other wizards. (That is, assuming his real Latin wasn't so horrific.) In Dead Beat, there was a book titled Die Lied der Erlking . Presumably Jim got a lot of mail correcting him, because when Harry runs into the guy who wrote it , he mocks him for his terrible grammar. In Daniel Pinkwater 's Alan Mendelsohn, Boy from Mars, Samuel Klugarsh responds to the protagonists' skepticism by stating that he knows way more than they do: "Waka waka. Needle noddle noo. Hoop waka dup dup. Baklava. That's Turkish." Actually, that's one Turkish word ("baklava") among a whole lot of nonsense. The French policeman in Dan Brown 's The Da Vinci Code is named Bezu Fache. While Fache is a real French name, the first name Bezu comes out to most French people as a. unheard of — there is not one Bezu X in the Paris phonebook, and b. hilarious, as the name evokes André Bézu, a "comic" singer from the eighties, mostly known for the very corny tune La Queuleuleu . Making things worse, Bézu — the singer — usually donned a caricatural French attire complete with a beret and a blue, red, and white bowtie, perhaps making Dan Brown's choice of a name an elaborate joke on cliches about France — or not. Aringarosa is not a Spanish name either. It means " Pink Herring " in Italian. Let us quietly draw a veil over any foreign-language dialogue in Dan Brown's books, which is almost invariably wrong. For example, one character asks another "Dov'è la plata?", which is supposed to mean "Where is the dough [money]?" in Italian. "Plata" is not even Italian ï¿½ it is Latin-American Spanish. In Digital Fortress , one of David Becker's many assets is that he can convincingly fake a Burgos accent. So convincing is his accent, he fools a Spaniard used to spot people faking accents over the phone into thinking that he's a native of Burgos before even dropping the city's name. In reality, Burgos, being the heart of Old Castile, has no accent but Standard Castilian, the same used by most people and media in Spain. Spaniards jokingly say that people from Burgos have no accent. In The Silence of the Lambs , Hannibal Lecter is eventually given a dead little sister named Mischa, which is ordinarily a diminutive form of a male name Mikhail (Michael). (However, as the website hannotations.com explains, this may be deliberate due to various symbolic elements in the name.) This is one of the many reasons why among fans of The Silence of the Lambs , Hannibal is often excluded from canon . However, "Mischa" (or "Misha") has migrated over to being largely a female name in the US, especially as a nickname for a girl named "Michelle". In H.P. Lovecraft's fiction, the Necronomicon was penned by an Arab named Abdul Alhazred, a fictitious name Lovecraft came up with in his childhood. The name "Alhazred" doesn't exist in Arabic and couldn't exist, given that "Abdul" ends with a suffix synonymous with the prefix of "Alhazred", so if the name were real, then it would be something like "abd-el-Hazred". It is quite common however, for Arabic names to be mangled as they get sifted through European/American sources. In Arabic, "'abd" ("عبد") means "servant". "El" is "the" or "of the", depending on context, and "Hazred", obviously, looks just like the English word "hazard", which means "danger". So, "servant of the danger"... amazing Fridge Brilliance on Lovecraft's part, if intentional, and spooky if not. Not that surprising since "Alhazred" was coined after "Hazzard", Lovecraft mother's maiden name. (Oh, and by the way, the English word "hazard" come from the arabic "az-zar": "dice game".) In Twilight , the name of the Quileute chief in the legend about "the cold ones" is Kahela. Kahela was the name of a semi-legendary Hawaiian chief. Twilight fails foreign languages in general throughout the series. There are scenes that feature characters speaking, say, Spanish or Portuguese (which they are supposedly fluent in) that feature text that was clearly written in English and then run through an online translator. In Lazarillo de Tormes, the seller of indulgences speaks in faux-Latin around people who won't know better, in order to win their trust. Stephen King 's novel, Thinner, contains passages supposedly in the Romani language. In fact, they're in Swedish, and mostly gibberish. On the other hand, Song Of Susannah features a supposedly Swedish character with the distinctly Dutch-sounding name Mathiessen van Wyck. Best of all is King's little-known short story "The Crate", where the evil crate is found on a remote island in the Drake Passage. The name of the island is... Paella. His Italian (or Italian-American) mafia characters speak a language which is not Sicilian dialect and not much like Italian. It does have a bit of Spanish in it, though. In the short story "Seventh Grade" by Gary Soto, a boy is in his first French class on the first day of school and tries to impress the girl he likes by pretending he already knows some French. The teacher tries to start a conversation with him, and he mumbles, "La me vava me con le grandma" and "Frenchie oh wewe gee in September." The teacher is nice enough not to rat him out, and the girl is fooled. In Neil Gaiman and Terry Pratchett 's Good Omens , a character shouts confusedly in a number of languages. While "Sprechen Sie Deutsch" and "Parlez-vous Francais" are German and French for "Do you speak German/French?", the following "Wo bu hui shuo zhongwen" is Mandarin Chinese for "I can't speak Chinese". The fact that it's followed by a question mark makes it all the funnier. In the parody travel guide Molvania, travellers are advised to add random j's and z's to words if they get stuck. For example, the Molvanian for 'hotel' is 'hotjl'. Journey to the Center of the Earth features an Icelandic alchemist named Arne Saknussemm. Evidently, Verne had heard of Nordic -sson names... In Spike Milligan 's first novel, Puckoon, the Irish parish priest muses that his parishioners are all ignorant bumpkins. He recalls once giving a sermon in Latin, at the end of which everyone said "Amen". He'd actually just told a dirty story. R. J. Rummel ran into this a lot regarding his non-historical, foreign characters in his Never Again series. Chinese and Muslim characters got the most of this (and perhaps coincidentally, they were the villains of the second and third books.) The Mole of the second book (who is also the Evil Counterpart of the female lead) is a Chinese assassin named Khoo Jy-ying, which is gibberish. She has Vietnamese ancestry as well, but that doesn't justify the name as it is still gibberish in that language also. Robert Ludlum is a faithful practitioner of this with Russian names like Nikolai Yurievich Yurievich. The English equivalent of this would be someone named Peterson Peterson. Russian middle names are patronymic, derived from the father's name, and Russian family names rarely end in -vich, unless the person is of Polish heritage. The Japanese-sounding name "Moto" has been adopted by the fictional character Mr. Moto and by Filipino-Japanese actress Iwa Moto, though "Moto" is not a Japanese name. Iwa Moto's real name is Eileen Iwamoto. In the Gemma Doyle Trilogy, French was clearly provided courtesy of a translation website. The (apparently) French Mademoiselle La Farge asks the titular character "Comment vous appelez-vous?" instead of just saying "Comment t'appelle-tu?" For those who don't speak French, "vous" is used when addressing strangers, elders who are not your family, and "tu" is used with acquaintances, and those of your own age and below. Google Translate always use "vous" whatever the situation. Some of the German names in Thomas Pynchon's Gravity's Rainbow sound quite odd to a native speaker. Gnahb? The Railway Series : The Welsh-sounding name of Ffarquhar (The town where Thomas' branch line terminates) is in fact derived from "Far-away quarry". Raphael from The Mortal Instruments , being Mexican, tends to interject phrases in Spanish when he speaks. In City of Ashes, he tells Clary that Simon "no es muerto," which is incorrect; it should be "no está muerto." It seems like a classic Google Translate error rather than it being intentional. Averted in Wilson's Masks of the Illuminati, where a supposed Russian diplomat introduces himself by the name of Salmonovitch. The credulous hero thinks this sounds convincingly Russian, but Albert Einstein [ It Makes Sense in Context ] spots this as the deliberately planted clue that the whole scene was phoney: "Salmonovitch" means "Son of Solomon," and there's no way a Jew could have held a diplomatic post in 1910s Russia. The first book of Rivers of London features a Danish trophy wife named August Coopertown, née Fischer. August Fischer is a perfectly acceptable, if a bit archaic-sounding, Danish man's name. The city of Santé Benedicte in Sandpaper Kiss is a case of this, being a completely fictional possibly-Central or South American city. The language spoken there is vaguely based on Dutch. The loose "research" about Spain displayed by Sidney Sheldon in The Sands of Time (who after a few pages seems to be rather aiming to get things as wrong as he can, and this is a 400 pages long novel ) extends to the various characters names. Several are named after famous Spanish people with no regard for ethnicity (notably, none of the Basque nationalist characters has a Basque name), are often misspelled (there is a "Pedros" rather than Pedro and a " Patricko " instead of Patricio, to say nothing of last names), used in the wrong context (a little boy is called "Manolo" by his grandfather, the way someone older named Manuel would be called by his buddies; a prison guard meeting the Prime Minister in a serious context is called "Juanito" - an endearing diminutive for people named Juan) or are actually last names used as first names. This happens in English, especially in the USA, but not in Spanish. Since Sheldon also seems ignorant that Spaniards have two last names instead of one, he likely mistook first last names for middle names and used them as first names. That there is more than one language in Spain seems an idea hard to understand by English-speaking writers. Michael Eisner's The Crusader is set in Medieval Catalonia two centuries before the unification of Spain, but every character has a Spanish name. A bland , modern Spanish name. And this is despite the book citing the words "Catalan language" together twice. In Trojan Odissey by Clive Cussler , a Nicaraguan maid replies "me casi acaban" when the main characters find her cleaning their hotel room. What she's supposed to say from context is that she is almost finished cleaning. What she's actually saying (in crude grammar) is that someone almost finished her. In-Universe example in Cassandra Kresnov when a League representative tells the title character, a Ridiculously Human Robot , that her surname more properly ought to be Kresnova. Sandy points out she only looks like a Sensual Slav because she was designed to, and she didn't get to pick her name either . Live Action TV The A-Team : In the Season 5 Episode "The Crystal Skull", the Aboriginal natives pay homage to Murdock with chanting. While it's supposed to be in a native language, the words are clearly, Who wrote this? Who wrote this? In the season six finale of 30 Rock , we see Hasidic Jews speaking in their native tongue (presumably Yiddish) and complaining about the sale of pork hot dogs in a Jewish area. The actual language that they're speaking is surprisingly decent Hebrew. It's also possible that the writers thought Hasidic Jews from New York speak Hebrew (they generally do not). Impractical Jokers : When challenged to get free yogurt, this was Sal's weapon of choice . Parodied in The Nanny in a flashback where Fran went to Israel as a teen. Fran hooks up with an Israeli guy and he asks her a question in Hebrew. She replies with "Uh, yeah, yeah, bagel bagel, shalom, matzo ball, shalom." Frasier : One episode had Roz break up with a French boyfriend who didn't speak English so Frasier translates. The boyfriend immediately reveals he was planning to break it off himself, so the French parts of the conversation drift off into where he can find a good steak while Roz works through the whole speech she had prepared. The IT Crowd : An in-universe example, played for laughs. Jen convinces her boss she can speak Italian by using a translation program, which works fine until she's asked to provide translation for a visiting Italian businessman and can't bring her laptop into the meeting. She bluffs her way through by babbling a mixture of Italian-sounding words and heavily-accented English, to the confusion and eventual anger of the visitor. In Farscape , D'Argo's Luxan language is very clearly the actor simply spitting out some vaguely harsh and alien-sounding syllables, usually the same three or four ones repeated over and over. Averted, however, with Aeryn Sun's Sebacean language, which is the actress speaking English in reverse. (Not reversing the words, but actually reversing the sounds.) In Miss Fisher's Murder Mysteries, at one point, Dot has to pose as a Russian race car driver. Bert and Ced, being the wags they are, give her the pseudonym "Valentina Ranemalova". Say that last name to yourself a few times. In a Black Books episode, Bernard, Fran and Manny each have different assumptions as to which country their connecting flight took them, and each tries to talk with a bartender in a different "language". (As it turns out, they're back in England.) Most of the Wesen names in Grimm are in Faux-German, usually two Real Life words smashed together in an illogical manner. The Agency 's episode "Soft Kills" has a Spanish Defense Minister called Efron Montes. "Efron" is not a Spanish name. The closest would be Efraín or Efraim, but these are so uncommon in Spain that they would most likely be pegged as belonging to a Latin American immigrant. His wife's name being Adalia Montes might just be a coincidence, or an implication that she took her husband's name - which isn't the custom in Spain . Meanwhile the Basque bomber in Narcos is Efram (Efras?) Gonzales. Not only is "Efram" neither a Spanish nor Basque name, Gonzales is also a spelling found in Latin America but not in Spain where it's spelled "González". Ironically, since the show is filmed in Colombia it is likely that the character was named after mid-20th century Colombian bandit Efraín González , whose name actually followed the European spelling! Music of Gangnam Style heavily invokes this trope by consisting of nonsensical words, Asian culture-related phrases and, most importantly, repeated utterances of "Ching chong 3PAC STYLE!" and "Oooh, sexy lady" during the refrain. The Eskimo chanting in Eskimo is completely made up. The Residents didn't study anything on Inuit culture, so they just made it up. However, this fake Chanting makes up 99% of the lyrics/spoken parts. In general, when a choir is used in a popular song (or a film score), the lyrics will be either gibberish or English sung/pronounced in such a way that it sounds foreign. There are Charlie Parker compositions called things like "Au Privave", "Ah-Leu-Cha", and "Klact-Overseeds-Tene". None of which really mean much. Sparks 's "Hasta Manana Monsieur" from Kimono My House depicts a man struggling to woo a girl in her native tongue. Unsure of her nationality, he takes random, wild stabs at every continent. Martin Denny's 1957 album "Exotica" spawned an entire musical genre of the same name, which Denny described as "a combination of the South Pacific and the Orient... what a lot of people imagined the islands to be like... it's pure fantasy though." Daniel Amos 's "Autographs for the Sick" (from Doppelgï¿½nger ) is a parody of televangelists "speaking in tongues" during their services, so it features four speakers reciting nonsense that sounds French or German or Spanish, with an interpreter "translating" everything they say. Russian band Nogu Svelo has a song called Haru Mamburu , which is an example of (supposedly) English-sounding Looped Lyrics . Professional Wrestling TNA poked fun at this trope with the Curry Man gimmick, who was supposedly Japanese, but was actually NOT Christopher Daniels , an American white guy. Curry Man's Japanese was actually just Daniels reciting names of famous Japanese pro wrestlers. Late in the gimmick's life, Curry Man did pick up some English skills, but not without the over done accent. In WWE , during the later part of William Regal 's career, he was portrayed as a regal, high-class, British snob, which included mispronouncing wrestlers's names, such as calling Triple H "Haitch." The funny thing is, that pronunciation of the letter H is actually less posh, going against his "British Snob" persona for those in the know. It makes it sound like Corporate just told him to "sound as British as possible." That could be interpreted as Fridge Brilliance , since Regal was acknowledged even in kayfabe as a rough-and-tumble carnival wrestler from Blackpool, and the "haitch" could be explained as him reverting to his boyhood dialect. Mitsuharu Misawa 's powerslam Finishing Move is sometimes written as "Emerald Flowsion" and sometimes as "Emerald Frosion". There's no one correct way to spell it, since the second word is not actually English. From 2007 to 2009, the Samoan wrestler Eddie Fatu portrayed " Umaga ," a "Samoan savage" with tattoos, face paint, dreadlocks, and a sarong (technically called a lavalava in Samoan). His name was pronounced "oo-MAH-gah" by everyone except William Regal, who pronounced it "oo-MAHN-gah" - which, amusingly, is much closer to actual Samoan pronunciation (it'd actually be "oo-MAH-ngah", with the "ng" from "thing" not from "congo"; no syllable in Samoan can end on a consonant). Japanese female wrestler Rieko Amano changed her ringname to Carlos Amano to sound more Mexican. The problem? "Carlos" is a Spanish name you say? It is a name for males. Chigusa Nagayo poked fun at this at Produce Marvels Night #1, where Amano was billed "A BOY"! Montel Vontavious Porter 's entrance theme in New Japan Pro Wrestling is named "Most Valiantly Person". It's really just a remix of VIP Ballin ...which ironically plays more of the original song's lyrics than WWE ever did. Radio Internet radio show 2 Sense tends to replace foreign names the hosts can't pronounce with "Schleigelhoffen". The Reduced Shakespeare Company 's radio show included a purported Japanese film version of Hamlet by Akira Kurosawa , which included phrases like, "Ah, Subaru!" and "Sony tapeplayer!" Tony Hawks' attempt at singing Psy's Gangnam Style in series 58 of I'm Sorry I Haven't A Clue . Elizabeth's Russian friend and later fiancé Boris has a very weird last name: Bolinobol. If you try to look it up, you'll end up being directed to New Dynamic English related sites. Tabletop Games The plot of the first chapter in Pathfinder : Rise of the Runelords depends on a certain noble family: the Kaijitsus. Legend of the Five Rings has guidelines for players and Game Masters to name their own characters, and so the accuracy of the names used by players varies. There was also Kurohito, a guy born with stark white hair and fair blue eyes, whose name means "Black Man". The name "Toturi" is meaningless in Japanese, even if you see it as an alternative spelling to "Totsuri". Many other names are completely made-up Japanese-looking nonsense. Sometimes the names aren't even Japanese-looking at all, very easily getting into Chinese and Korean territory, resulting in cases where characters have a Japanese surname with a Chinese personal name. Even the Kami haven't escaped this; their names all have a Japanese sound to them (though most of them are nonsense), and then you got Fu Leng. The Warhammer Fantasy RPG called the Big Bad of the "Enemy Within" campaign "Zahnarzt". Yes, that's German for dentist. The first edition was full of such jokes . It had a family named Untermensch (Sub-Human), an inventor named Kugelschreiber (Ballpoint-Pen) who lived in a house called Geflügelsalad (Chicken Salad), a fire wizard named Hals Roch...The bad guy is named "Klaus P. Verräter" (Traitor). Allegedly, there is also a good guy named Goebbels in the same publication. Kindred of the East has the authentically Chinese character 氣 qi ("life force") on the cover. On most of the interior illustrations though all the Oriental writing is represented by meaningless scribbles. The Yu-Gi-Oh! card Des Volstgalph . "Des" is used in place of "Death", but "Volstgalph" doesn't mean a thing in any language, only done to make the monster's name seem cool . (Indeed, the card isn't very useful in a deck, just collected because of its neat artwork.) Theatre In the musical Of Thee I Sing , six French soldiers enter singing this French-sounding nonsense chorus (which also slips in the Yiddish phrase "tut dir veh"): Garçon, s'il vous plait, The Mikado : "Miya sama" from Gilbert and Sullivan 's musical is a subversion, as it is actually a Japanese folk song (though not a dirty one, as the Urban Legend has it). However, in one production the song was sung straight once, then repeated using lyrics made up entirely of Japanese brand names ("Mitsubishi Datsun Honda, Kawasaki Toyota..."). Then there was the character named Yum-Yum, which is completely not a Japanese name.. With the exception of the Mikado himself, all the characters' names are just vaguely Asian-sounding silliness. Though Gilbert was not aware at the time that Ko-Ko is a legitimate Japanese name . Christmas Eve in Avenue Q chose that name when she moved to America because she thought it sounded good. In Maurice Ravel 's opera L'enfant et les sortilèges (The Child and the Spells), the song sung by the Chinese Teacup is made up of Chinese- and Japanese-sounding syllables. Some correspond to actual words, many don't. It's even lampshaded in the end of the song : Hâ! Hâ! Ça-oh-râ toujours l'air chinoâ. (Ha ha, it'll still sound chi-neez !) In The Bible: The Complete Word of God (abridged) , the Tower of Babel scene has fake Spanish ("Taco sombrero Antonio Banderas!") and fake Japanese ("Buddha shinto mushy-mushy, Godzilla killy-killy sukiyaki?"). Cirque du Soleil uses invented lyrics in many of its songs and some of its dialogue (referred to as "Cirquish" by fans). That said, the lyrics are never supposed to pass for a specific real language; in fact using invented song lyrics is something of a Cirque trademark, first appearing around the time the company began to make a name for itself as a different kind of circus. As well, Cirque has quite a few songs in real languages, to the point where (depending on the show) one can never be quite sure whether or not they're listening to music in a real language. In The Musical of Musicals: The Musical! , the "Cell Block Tango" parody has a "Foreign Speaking Chorus Person" speaking words that, aside from a Take That at Liza Minnelli 's wobbly singing, are largely unintelligible in Hungarian or any other language: "Kinooschjka mit ooben ze mischka wobblin. Za bolschka wobbling. Iskcha wobble, wobblleshschka! Mit ikshsken za landlorda "No More MINELLI!" Video Games Star Trek Online manages to do this with two of Star Trek 's Con Langs . The game borrowed bits of the worldbuilding done by Diane Duane for her Rihannsu novel series for the Romulan Republic in the Legacy of Romulus expansion. Unfortunately, Rihan language geeks have noted that "Mol'Rihan", the in-game Romulan translation of "New Romulus", is grammatically incorrect: they just slapped "mol'" ("new", but it's supposed to be a suffix) onto ch'Rihan (Romulus in Romulan, literally "of the Declared"). Among the more accurate translations would be "ch'Rihan'mollais" (though the Rihan geeks in the fanbase have largely adopted "ch'Mol'Rihan". They also frequently try to use Romulan words for Meaningful Names , only to misuse or misspell them (e.g. getting the 'a' and the 'e' backwards when they tried to use "laehval" ["shadow"] for Sela's flagship IRW Leahval), and forgetting that Romulans don't name ships or people after abstract ideas (RRW Lleiset, meaning "freedom"). Their tlhIngan Hol is equally bad. A particularly common mistake is forgetting that Romanized Klingonese is capitalization-sensitive ('q' and 'Q' represent different sounds). For example, there's a ship in the backstory named the IKS Quv. They were presumably going for quv (personal honor) rather than Quv (spatial coordinates). Admitted by Word of God for Final Fantasy XIV . When a fan asked what the lyrics were to a boss' theme music, the game's sound director admitted the company has a software program that generates "sounds that resemble vocals," and that's what was used for that song. The preset that was selected was to make lyrics based on Latin, so "the language used is probably Latin." In the GBA version of Wings , fake propaganda posters displayed between mission sets demonstrate a creative approach to German syntax and vocabulary. Averted in Never Alone as the narrator speaks in the actual language of the Iñupiat people, who contributed heavily to the game's development. Being one big Affectionate Parody to Mortal Kombat , all of Kung Pao's voice clips from Divekick are Bruce Lee -sounding gibberish, being a reference to Liu Kang. In God of War (PS4) the runic version of location names appear to be complete nonsense; the runes shown in the trailer when disovering Dauthamunni actually spell out lthrjbiotwog gthhfrllngu. Jade Empire does this with its own Con Lang . Rather than being assigned to particular lines of text the sound bites are chosen at random, and 90% of the recorded lines are actually cow jokes . X has a problem with coming up with Japanese names. The man who worked out the core principle behind FTL jump gates was a Japanese man named "Kazuko Ashizava". Two problems: the "v" sound does not exist in native Japanese names, and "Kazuko" is a girl's name. Another background character is named "Dr. Akira Desu", which would mean "Dr. I am Akira". Web Animation Zigzagged with one Japanese-speaking delinquent in Girl Chan In Paradise . He only has two lines, one of which is complete gibberish, and the second ("Oh shit! Sore wa Kenstar-kun, senpai! Hayaku, iku ze!") is actual Japanese. Web Comics That's because the Fire Nation is Japan with Indian names . As Long As It Looks Elvish... J. R. R. Tolkien invented the tengwar script as a writing system for Middle-Earth. The rules for writing in tengwar are complicated, vary a lot across languages, and some languages can be spelt in several different ways: one sign could stand for a few different sounds depending on the writing mode. So when people started making fonts to let them write tengwar on the computer, they usually mapped them to the keys in the tengwar's "grid"-formation. This is relatively easy to use, if you know what you're doing. Unfortunately, there are still people who don't know what they're doing who make fanart/fansites/whatever with little decorative bits of tengwar floating around, and who get the tengwar just by grabbing a font and typing things in literally. This leads to drawings of Elwë Singollo that are labeled, in beautiful and elegant Elvish lettering, "Febw Gywnghweehw". Approximately the same thing happens to Hebrew, Cyrillic, and katakana/hirigana fonts. Some characters represent sounds that require more than one character in the Latin alphabet, and some sounds simply don't exist in the other language. Complicating things further is that in some modes the Elvish languages use accent marks to represent vowels rather than having separate characters for them... something that looks like an m with a dot over it could be intended to be read as the equivalent of in, en, ni or ne depending on mode. The Hitler Rants fad on YouTube takes a scene from Downfall and subtitling the German to make Hitler appear to be ranting about World of Warcraft , his Xbox , shoes, Fords or whatever the author feels like laying into. It's a sort of inverse Godwin's Law , in that you start with Hitler, then begin the discussion. It also allows Youtube Poops in just about any language (except German), since the point is less what the words mean and more what they sound like. Chaos Fighters is extremely rife with this in almost everything. As in case of character names, the only normal sounding name is Kenny Fanal from The Secret Programs and Clair Tyranof in Route of Land. It doesn't help that those oddly sounded names are completely made up by mixing syllables. But considering that they were all set in foreign planets, this may be justified. On a Cracked Top 5 list, it was mentioned that, to Americans, the Japanese language sounds like "ching chong." Neither of those two phonemes exist in Japanese. The Time... Guys mostly averts this, except for the odd British accent, but played straight with Julius Caesar and King Confucius. Western Animation Occurs frequently in a lot of cartoons from entirely different creators, when it comes to mocking Glorious Mother Russia ... oh god. Apart from having traditional things about Russia, you also get their even more traditional language grammar rules. For instance, one of Timon & Pumbaa series, Russian Hour, added pointless suffixes to every word, like in "Hospitalses", which would make absolutely no sense to a Russian guy who CAN read English. Alternately, Fender Bender 500 had The Russian Around 500 that suffered from the same epidemy. Its' variation, to be exact, that added "-ski" to the end for not only masculine adjectives, where it would make more sense in context, but EVEN for the nouns. Mel Blanc 's Looney Tunes renditions of such characters as African Witch Doctors and Aborigines are a classic case of pure gibberish that sounds correct, to an uncritical (and very un-PC) ear. In several wartime cartoons , "humorously" fractured German or Japanese is spouted by the villains and is the same thing. Also, most of the spoken and written "French" in the Pepe' Le Pew cartoons is undisguised English with "Le" tacked on front and an "e" on the end. One wartime cartoon that averts this is Disney's Education for Death . All the German is real, done almost certainly because it was meant as a completely serious propaganda piece. In Metalocalypse , Toki and Swiskgaar speak gibberish Norwegian/Swedish at several occasions, even if they are supposed to be Scandinavian. Neither of their names are usual Scandinavian names. To be fair, the three American members of the band don't have usual names either. There aren't very many Murderfaces in the phone book. Tex Avery 's Flea Circus also uses undisguised English for "French" words by tacking "Le" in front. However, this sounds wrong for French speaking people, as French has two articles, "Le" for masculine and "La" for feminine words. This is especially noticeable as one of the main characters named "Fifi le Flea" is a girl and "puce", French for "flea" is a feminine word. The same applies to other written "French" like Le Church, Le Maternity and Le End, which are all feminine in French. Had the writer done the research, Fifi la Flea would been to la Church, then la Maternity before the happy la End. The mistake is a common one (Spanish works similarly, with "El" for masculine words and "La" for feminine.) because English is one of the few languages where the vast majority of nouns are genderless, thus the assumption by the English-speaking animators that one version of "the" works for all situations. Bloo in Foster's Home for Imaginary Friends takes it to an extreme of sorts in the misleadingly titled episode "Foster's Goes to Europe". (For one thing... they don't actually get to go!) Fridge Brilliance : while it is misleading, it's still an accurate title; Foster (the old lady) does got to Europe...by stealing the tickets. Ling Ling in Drawn Together speaks vaguely Asian gibberish, called "Japorean" by the show's creators. According to "Drawn Together Babies", in-world he speaks a language he made up with his dead twin. In another episode, Ling Ling undergoes an operation to speak English. The episode "Krusty Gets Kancelled" features "Worker and Parasite," a cat and mouse cartoon that looks like an old propaganda cartoon from an Eastern Bloc country. The title card and end credits feature fake Cyrillic text ( "ENDUT! HOCH HECH!" ) that does not translate into anything. In "King of the Hill" the creators wanted to avoid this for the native language of the Sherpa characters and so contacted the producers of the movie Into Thin Air , which featured the language extensively. They were disappointed to find that the movie producers had used this trope. In King Arthur's Disasters , when thanking Sir Martyn in his "language," King Arthur makes random Japanese-sounding noises. The Daria episode "Of Human Bonding" features a Danish baloonist, Arno, who sports a heavy German accent. The Danish language - accent included - is actually very different from German, but is similar to both Swedish and Norwegian, as these countries belong to the Scandinavian part of Northern Europe. King of the Hill : The Souphanousinphone family often shouts what is supposed to be Laotian, however, it is actually just foreign sounding gibberish. It should also be noted that Souphanousinphone is a made-up surname. Used in-universe in the earlier Khan episodes to show how little the guys knew about Asian cultures, which is in contrast to Cotton, who can tell Khan's nationality just by looking at him due to having fought Asians in the war. There is an ethnically Hawaiian character in Rocket Power named Tito. (There is no letter "T" in the Hawaiian alphabet!) And while "Tito" is an actual name, it is an Italian/Spanish one , not a Hawaiian one. There is an African character in My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic , a zebra named Zecora. In her first episode, she speaks a few lines of what is supposed to sound like Swahili. Lauren Faust explained that they were originally going to find someone who actually knew Swahili, but due to time constraints, Zecora's voice actor was told to just say some Swahili-sounding jibberish instead. Points for trying. The Breezies speak Swedish-sounding gibberish, which only Fluttershy can understand. The language spoken by the Bushrats from Taz-Mania , which sounds like a mishmash of German, French, Italian, and pig Latin coupled with a judicious bit of Fun with Subtitles . The alien Bounty Hunter Embo from Star Wars: The Clone Wars speaks the fictional Kyuzo language, which is really just Dave Filoni speaking intentionally bad French. Interviews say that he mostly just read it out of some French Smurfs books, but at least once (in the episode "Crisis on Naboo"), Embo actually says an intelligible French word that fits the situation he's in ("Allez", when telling the other bounty hunters to move). Given an interesting spin in the previous Clone Wars series. The Nelvaan language is a mix of Russian and Hungarian, read phonetically by voice actors who don't speak the language, to give it a non-natural "alien" sound. Viva Piï¿½ata had a scene with sumo hippos who are implied to be Japanese. The words they spoke were Japanese alright, but they spoke it completely out of context, especially since the words were like "Sushi" and "Sashimi" that most western audiences would know anyways. It's a funny stealth pun considering what comes out of a pinata, but given that they speak perfect English, it's a bit of a Mood Whiplash . Winx Club English dubbers like adding "-us" to normal words to make Latin-sounding spells. It happened more often in the 4Kids dub (e.g.: "Transportus Back Homus," "Getus Outta Hereus," "Cushionus Fallus"), but the Nickelodeon dub has done it, too (e.g. "Relocatus"). In Animalympics we have Bruce the Japanese penguin who only supposedly speaks Japanese, he is likely speaking gibberish. In The Brady Kids we have Ping and Pong a pair of twin pandas the kids adopt who supposedly only speak Chinese. Real Life Car companies have an awful habit of doing this, often naming models with words that sound foreign. An American example is "Bravada." Japanese examples include "That's", "Ist" (German for "is"), "Stepwgn," "March," "Probox" (a Dutch brand of roof boxes), "President," "Friendee," "Hijet," "Expert," and "Custom Move." Whoever decided to keep the name Buick "Lacrosse" in Québec probably did some research (the English sport name is simply a French loanword), but the briefest of conversations with a Quebecer would reveal that they just called their car the Buick Jackoff in Québecois slang. It was originally known throughout Canada as the Buick "Allure" (another French loanword) for this very reason, but they dropped this rename after a few years, largely because "Lacrosse" is universally the name of the sport in Canada and anyone whose mind goes instantly to masturbation when the word shows up is either a pervert or too worried about what perverts would think. The Mitsubishi Pajero is named for a South American wildcat, but in many Spanish dialects "pajero" is slang for "wanker." Thus when this model is sold in most Spanish-speaking countries, it is instead called the Mitsubishi Montero. As one of the Spanish-speaking countries in which "pajero" means "wanker" is Mexico, it is also sold as the Montero in the United States (since the proportion of people who speak Mexican Spanish in the US is rather large). In an aversion, German car company Mercedes-Benz uses a "Kompressor" (German for "turbocharger" or "supercharger") badge to designate its turbocharged or supercharged car models. Of course Everything Sounds More Technical in German , so there is a marketing reason for this as well. The "Deora", Chrysler's concept pickup from 1965, was given that name because they thought it was the female form of "golden" in Spanish (it's actually "Dorada"). Maybe they got confused when they heard "de oro", which means "(made) of gold", and simply exchanged an "o" for an "a". The Renault Le Car, the North American incarnation of the European citymini Renault 5. Doesn't help that "le car" would be literal French for "the because". In the Latin language , hardly any words at all end in a long E, an "o" isn't masculine, and "-orum" signifies possession. Adding "-us" and "-um" at the the end of every word also does not make it Latin. On the subject of those Sses-yeah, double letters are pronounced as both letters side by side, and they DID have obscenities (whole book's worth, in fact). They also had slangï¿½a lot of the Romance vocabulary is from Roman slang, not "proper" Latin, e.g. tête, the French for "head", is from testa, Latin for "pot" or "jug" ("proper" Latin has caput for "head"). On this topic, mandamus is a Latin verb form conjugation; it means "we order". Omnibus is a dative plural (meaning "for all"). A lot of Delusions of Eloquence involve omnibi, mandami, and other idiocy. Similarly, "octopi" as the plural of "octopus" is not proper Latin, either: this word was a Greek loanword in Latin, and would have taken the Greek plural octopodes. (You should really just call them "octopuses.") Simply appending -us to foreign proper nouns does make them Latinï¿½specifically, it tends to mark them as men's names, e.g. "Yeshua" becomes "Iesus" and "Kong Fuzi" becomes "Confucius" (which is not pronounced "confyushus", butï¿½in the Church Latin of the either Jesuits or Italian travelers who brought the word to the Westï¿½"confuchi-us"). One common error is to talk about viruses (both the biological pathogens and the computer kind) in the plural as "virii"—evidently those who do this believe that the singular is "virius". If the word had a Latin plural (which it doesn't) it would be "* viri"... if it were masculine. It's actually one of the rare neuter nouns of the second declension that end in "-us", so it's hypothetical plural would actually be "* vira". (You should really just call them "viruses.")	i don't know
Which 1974 novel by Frederick Forsyth features a small group of African and European mercenary soldiers hired by a British industrialist to depose the government of the fictional African country of Zangaro ?	The Dogs of War (novel) The Dogs of War (novel) The Dogs of War Ian West / Michael Brett [1] Country Media type Print (hardback & paperback) The Dogs of War (1974) is a war novel by Frederick Forsyth featuring a small group of European and African mercenary soldiers hired by a British industrialist to depose the government of the fictional African country of Zangaro. An eponymous film was released in 1980, based upon the novel and directed by John Irvin . The movie was filmed on location in Belize. The mercenary protagonists, like the protagonist in the author’s earlier novel The Day of the Jackal (1971), are professional killers—ruthless, violent men, heroic only in the loosest sense of the word. Thus, they are anti-heroes . Initially introduced as simply killers, as the novel progresses they are gradually shown to adhere to a relatively moral mercenary code; however as the mercenary leader Shannon tries to explain at one point, it is difficult for civilians to understand this. The story details a geologist’s mineral discovery, and the preparations for the attack: soldier recruitment, training, reconnaissance, and the logistics of the coup d’état (buying weapons, transport, payment). Like most of Forsyth’s work, the novel is more about the protagonists’ occupational tradecraft than their characters. The source of the title, The Dogs of War, is Act III, scene 1, line 270 of Julius Caesar (1599), by William Shakespeare : Cry, ‘Havoc!’, and let slip the dogs of war. Forsyth draws upon his journalistic experiences in reporting the 1970 Biafran War between Biafra and Nigeria ; though fictional, the African ‘Republic of Zangaro’, is based upon Equatorial Guinea , a former Spanish colony. [2] The novel’s dedication to five men named Giorgio, Christian, Schlee, Big Marc and Black Johnny and “the others in the unmarked graves” concludes: “at least we tried”—and clearly alludes to Forsyth’s time in Biafra; the dark tone and cynical plot of the story stem from the same source. Contents 5 References Plot summary 1970: The prologue shows “Cat” Shannon and his fellow mercenaries leaving a West African war they have lost, saying their goodbyes to the General , who employed them for six months. Subsequently, a prospector employed by British-based company Manson Consolidated sends mineral samples, acquired from the “Crystal Mountain” in the remote hinterland of the African republic of Zangaro, to headquarters. When they are analysed, ruthless British mining tycoon Sir James Manson realises that there is a huge platinum deposit in Zangaro. Despite this, thanks to the president of Zangaro, Jean Kimba, being Marxist , homicidal, insane, and under Soviet influence, any public announcement of the findings would benefit only the Russians. Confiding only in his top assistants, security chief Simon Endean and financial expert Martin Thorpe, Manson plans to depose Kimba and install a puppet leader who, for a pittance, will sign over Zangaro’s mining rights to a shell company secretly owned by Manson. When Manson Consolidated eventually acquires the shell company for a fair market price, Sir James Manson and his aides will pocket £60 million. Upon being recommended from a freelance writer, Endean hires Anglo-Irish mercenary soldier “Cat” Shannon to reconnoitre Zangaro, and to investigate how Kimba might be deposed. After visiting the country posing as a tourist, Shannon reports that the army has little fighting value and that Kimba has concentrated the national armoury, treasury and radio station within the presidential palace in Clarence, the Zangaran capital city and principal port. If the palace is stormed and Kimba killed, there will be no opposition to any new regime. Because there is no organised dissident faction in Zangaro, the attacking force will have to be assembled outside the country and land near Clarence to launch the attack. Shannon prices the mission at £100,000, with £10,000 for himself. Although Shannon has dealt only with Endean who is using a false name, he has had Endean tailed by a private investigator and has discovered his true identity and his involvement with Sir James Manson. Although Manson has taken steps to silence the few people aware of the Crystal Mountain platinum deposit, the chemist who analysed the samples has inadvertently revealed his findings to the Soviets, who assign a KGB bodyguard to Kimba while they prepare to send in their own geological survey team. Manson learns from a Foreign Office bureaucrat that the Soviets have got wind of the deposit. He commissions Shannon to organise and mount the coup, to take place on the eve of Zangaro’s independence day, one hundred days hence, although he does not tell Shannon of the Soviet involvement. Preparation Shannon assembles his old team to execute the attack on Kimba’s palace: German ex-smuggler Kurt Semmler, South African mortar expert Janni Dupree, Belgian bazooka specialist “Tiny” Marc Vlaminck, and Corsican knife-fighter Jean-Baptiste Langarotti. Semmler travels Europe looking for a suitable cargo ship to transport them and their equipment to Zangaro. Dupree remains in London to buy all their uniforms, boots, haversacks and sleeping bags. Langarotti travels to Marseilles to acquire inflatable boats for the amphibious assault. Vlaminck accompanies Shannon to Belgium to obtain one hundred “ Schmeisser ” submachine guns from a former member of the SS , then remains in Belgium to prepare them to be smuggled out in oil drums. Shannon then travels to Luxembourg to establish a holding company to handle the purchase of the ship, to Spain to buy 400,000 rounds of 9mm ammunition for the Schmeissers with a forged end user certificate , walkie-talkies , foghorns and flares , and to Yugoslavia to buy bazookas, mortars, and ammunition for them. Shannon also finds time for a brief sexual liaison with Julie Manson, Sir James’s daughter, from whom he learns the bare essentials of Manson’s true plan. Simultaneously, Charles Roux, one of Shannon’s rivals, tries to have Shannon killed since he was frustrated that Endean did not approach him for the contract despite the freelance writer recommending him. Hearing of this, Langarotti tips Shannon off and they lure the assassin hired by Roux into a trap, sending his severed head to Roux to permanently silence him. Martin Thorpe has meanwhile secretly purchased the controlling share in Bormac Trading, a mining and plantation-owning company which has long ceased trading, from Lady MacAllister, the ailing widow of the company’s founder. His and Manson’s involvement is concealed behind the names of several fictitious shareholders. Endean has simultaneously obtained the agreement of Colonel Antoine Bobi, a former commander of the Zangaran Army who fell out with Kimba and is now in exile, to participate in Manson’s scheme. Once installed as president, the venal and illiterate Bobi will sign over the mineral rights to the Crystal Mountain to Bormac Trading for a nominal price but a large bribe for himself. The mercenaries get underway after Semmler acquires a nondescript tramp cargo ship, the Toscana, for the operation. Hidden in oil drums, the Schmeissers are smuggled across the Belgian border into France and loaded aboard the Toscana at Marseilles, along with the uniforms and inflatable boats, marked supposedly for watersports in Morocco . They then sail to Ploče in Yugoslavia to load the mortars and rocket launchers purchased legitimately from an arms dealer , without telling the Yugoslav authorities that they already have arms aboard. These weapons are then concealed below deck and the ship sails to Castellon in Spain to collect the ammunition (supposedly sold to the Iraqi police force). The ship then travels to Freetown in Sierra Leone to pick up six African mercenaries, disguised as casual stevedores, who will also participate in the attack, and Dr Okoye, an African academic. The assault The attack on President Kimba’s palace takes place as planned. In the early hours of the morning, the mercenaries land on the shores of Zangaro and set up foghorns and flares to disorient the defenders and light their way through the attack. Dupree and two of the African mercenaries begin the assault by using mortars to bombard both a nearby army camp and the interior of the palace compound, thereby eliminating the palace guard, while Vlaminck destroys the compound gates with anti-tank rockets. As the bombardment ceases, Semmler, Shannon, Langarotti and the other four African mercenaries storm the palace, with Semmler shooting Kimba as he tries to escape through his bedroom window. Kimba’s KGB bodyguard escapes the firefight and shoots Vlaminck in the chest, but Vlaminck retaliates, killing him with his last bazooka rocket as he dies. Meanwhile, Dupree and his two African mercenaries attack the nearby army camp. A Zangaran soldier throws a grenade at them as he flees and one of the African mercenaries throws it back, but it falls short and Dupree, deafened by the mortar and gunfire, fails to hear the warnings and is accidentally killed in the blast. Around midday, Endean arrives in Clarence to install Colonel Bobi as the new Zangaran president. He has his own bodyguard, a former London East End gang enforcer. When Endean and Bobi arrive at the palace, Shannon lures Bobi into a room where a shot is heard; just as Endean realizes that Shannon has killed Bobi, Shannon then shoots Endean’s bodyguard in self-defense when the guard tries to draw his gun, and casually introduces Dr. Okoye as the new head of government. At Shannon’s request, the Soviet geological survey team’s request to land in Zangaro is permanently refused. The aftermath As Shannon drives Endean to the border, he explains that Endean’s otherwise comprehensive research failed to note the 20,000 immigrant workers who did most of the work in Zangaro, but were politically disenfranchised by the Kimba government. A hundred of them, in new uniforms and armed with Schmeissers, have already been recruited as the nucleus of the new Zangaran Army. When Shannon tells Endean that the coup was really conducted on behalf of the General , Endean is furious but Shannon points out that this government will at least be fair, and if Manson wants the platinum, he will have to pay the proper market price. Endean threatens revenge if he ever sees the mercenary in London, but Shannon is unconcerned with the warning. In the novel’s epilogue, it is revealed that Dupree and Vlaminck were buried in simple unmarked graves near the shore. Semmler, having sold the Toscana to its captain, died while on another mercenary operation in Africa and Langarotti’s fate is ambiguous; the novel tells only that after he took his pay, he was last heard of going to train a new group of Hutu partisans in Burundi against Michel Micombero , telling Shannon “It’s not really the money. It was never for the money.” The final scene of The Dogs of War reveals that before embarking on the Zangaro operation, Shannon was diagnosed with terminal lung cancer ( skin cancer in some American editions). He posts the remainder of his earnings to the surviving family members of his fallen teammates, and also sends a manuscript (presumably outlining the entire plan) to a journalist in London (presumably the aforementioned freelance writer). Later, Shannon walks into the African bush, humming a favourite tune (“ Spanish Harlem “), to end his life on his own terms with “a gun in his hand, blood in his mouth, and a bullet in his chest”. Characters Carlo Alfred Thomas Shannon – nicknamed CAT, an Anglo-Irish former Royal Marine turned mercenary soldier “Tiny” Marc Vlaminck – Huge Belgian mercenary and bazooka expert, bartender Kurt Semmler – German World War II veteran turned mercenary soldier, smuggler Janni Dupree – a South African mercenary and mortar expert Jean-Baptiste Langarotti – Corsican-born former French Paratrooper turned mercenary soldier, expert knife-fighter and member of the Unione Corse Sir James Manson – owner of Manson Consolidated Simon Endean – Manson’s chief of security and the man who hires Shannon Martin Thorpe – Manson’s top financial expert Jean Kimba – Zangaro’s President turned dictator Antoine Bobi – Kimba’s exiled former aide who Endean recruits as a puppet leader Dr Okoye – African academic installed as acting leader of government by Shannon after the coup Julie Manson – Daughter of Sir James Manson and Shannon’s lover Research While researching the story of The Dogs of War, Frederick Forsyth pretended to be preparing a coup d’état against Equatorial Guinea on behalf of the Igbo people whom he passionately supports; he was told it would cost 240,000 US dollars. [3] Five years after the 1973 attempted coup d’état, Forsyth’s research was subject of a feature story in the London Times, in 1978, that posited he had commissioned the operation in earnest; many people believed he was planning a real coup d’état in Equatorial Guinea. Later, Forsyth said that arms dealers were the most frightening people he had ever met; the mercenaries Mike Hoare , Bob Denard , “Black Jack” Schramme and Rolf Steiner are all name-checked in the novel. Forsyth’s African activities of that time are an extremely controversial subject, and it is difficult to separate fact and fiction; however, as UK National Archives documents released in 2005 disclose, in early 1973 several people in Gibraltar were planning a coup d’état against Equatorial Guinea , in the manner described in The Dogs of War. Spain arrested several mercenaries in the Canary Islands on 23 January 1973, foiling the plot (cf. Roberts, The Wonga Coup [2006]). Although it is difficult to separate what Forsyth pretended to do from what he might have planned to do, it is now reasonably clear, in view of the released documents, that several people were planning a coup d’état, as described by Forsyth, at the time he was researching his novel. Ironically there was a coup d’état in Equatorial Guinea in 1979 – the left-wing dictator of Equatorial Guinea was overthrown and killed by his nephew, the current right-wing dictator of Equatorial Guinea. In 2004, in a copycat plan based on Forsyth’s fictional book, an actual attempted coup d’état against Equatorial Guinea, intended to secure lucrative mining rights granted by a client puppet government, involved Mark Thatcher , who was intending to trade on his mother’s (British prime minister Margaret Thatcher ) connections and reputation to call favours, and the mercenary Simon Mann , who subsequently stood trial and was convicted. [4] {Thatcher received a suspended 4-year sentence; Mann was sentenced to 34 years in 2008 but was pardoned in 2009} In Ken Connor’s book How to Stage a Military Coup, the author praises The Dogs of War [5] as a textbook for mercenaries; in much the same way that The Day of the Jackal [6] is appreciated as a guide for assassins. Film adaptation	The Dogs of War
Apart from England, which European country was a chief setting for the James Bond film Goldfinger ?	[Englisch] Frederick Forsyth - The Dogs of War (1974) - myGully.com [Englisch] Frederick Forsyth - The Dogs of War (1974) Willkommen Frederick Forsyth - The Dogs of War (1974) Frederick Forsyth - The Dogs of War (1974) The Dogs of War (1974) is a war novel by Frederick Forsyth featuring a small group of European and African mercenary soldiers hired by a British industrialist to depose the government of the fictional African country of Zangaro. An eponymous film was released in 1980, based upon the novel and directed by John Irvin. The movie was filmed on location in Belize. The mercenary protagonists, like the protagonist in the author's earlier novel The Day of the Jackal (1971), are professional killers ï¿½ ruthless, violent men, heroic only in the loosest sense of the word. Thus, they are anti-heroes. Initially introduced as simply killers, as the novel progresses they are gradually shown to adhere to a relatively moral mercenary code; however as the mercenary leader Shannon tries to explain at one point, it is difficult for civilians to understand this. The story details a geologist's mineral discovery, and the preparations for the attack: soldier recruitment, training, reconnaissance, and the logistics of the coup d'ï¿½tat (buying weapons, transport, payment). Like most of Forsyth's work, the novel is more about the protagonists' occupational tradecraft than their characters. The source of the title, The Dogs of War, is Act III, scene 1, line 270 of Julius Caesar (1599), by William Shakespeare: Cry, 'Havoc!', and let slip the dogs of war. Format: mp3 Grï¿½ï¿½e: 375.32 MiB Hoster: Uploaded	i don't know
Donald Tusk aged 56 is the current Prime Minister of which country ?	Remarks to the Press by Vice President Joe Biden with Prime Minister Donald Tusk of Poland \| whitehouse.gov Remarks to the Press by Vice President Joe Biden with Prime Minister Donald Tusk of Poland Prime Minister’s Chancellery Warsaw, Poland 1:56 P.M. (Local) VICE PRESIDENT BIDEN: Mr. Prime Minister, these are challenging times. And I've known you for a while and the President and I have great respect for you, and we're absolutely confident that we are up to the challenge. It’s more important today than ever that friends stand with one another and be unequivocal about it. That's why I'm here in Poland, as a steadfast ally, an ally as -- a country -- as strong an ally as a country can wish to have, and you are among the best allies America has, Mr. Prime Minister. Ukraine -- it's an almost unbelievable set of events that has brought us here. The President asked me to come to Warsaw today to reaffirm the United States’ solemn commitment, solemn NATO commitment, and to consult with Poland’s leaders about the situation in Ukraine. The people of Ukraine have shown tremendous courage and they’ve worked very hard to realize their aspirations for a more democratic future, free of oligarchy and corruption; for a Ukraine connected to institutions and markets of Europe, but respectful of Ukraine’s deep cultural and economic ties to its neighbors. Unfortunately, Russia’s leaders have responded with a brazen -- brazen military incursion, with a purposeful ratcheting up of ethnic tensions inside Ukraine, with a rushed and illegal referendum in Crimea that was, not surprisingly, rejected by virtually the entire world, and now, today, with steps to annex Crimea. We join Poland and the international community condemning the continuing assault on Ukraine’s sovereignty and territorial integrity, and the blatant -- the blatant violation of international law by Mr. Putin and Russia. Russia has offered a variety of arguments to justify what is nothing more than a land grab, including what was said today. But the world has seen through -- has seen through Russia’s action and has rejected the logic -- the flawed logic behind those actions. Countries like Poland have shown that real progress comes from open societies who, in fact, have open markets, not from invasion and aggression. Thirteen of the 15 countries on the Security Council of the United Nations voted to condemn the referendum in Crimea as illegitimate. Even China decided it could not support it and abstained, and Russia -- Russia stood alone, naked in front of the world, for the aggression that they had undertaken. It's a simple fact that Russia’s political and economic isolation will only increase if it continues down its current path and it will, in fact, see additional -- additional sanctions by the United States and the EU. As the Prime Minister and I discussed in a fairly long meeting we had this morning, as we impose costs on Russia for violating international law we have to be equally resolute in supporting the regime -- supporting the government in Ukraine right now. The United States is working to provide a billion-dollar loan guarantee, technical assistance to prepare for free and fair elections, and support for reforms that will allow the IMF to provide a stronger stabilization package for Ukraine. The Prime Minister and I discussed how the United States and Europe can carry forward its support for Ukraine and the Ukrainian people in the face of their immediate needs. The Prime Minister and I reviewed our mutual commitments as NATO allies. The United States and Poland stand shoulder-to-shoulder in vital missions around the world. But recent events remind us that the bedrock of our alliance remains collective self-defense, as enshrined in Article 5 of the NATO Treaty. Our intent is that NATO emerge from this crisis stronger and more unified than ever. If you want to know what we think, President Obama and I view Article 5 as a solemn commitment not only for our time, but for all time. We take it deadly serious, and our commitment is absolutely unwavering and unshakeable. That's why the United States has just deployed 12 F-16 fighter jets to the Lask Airbase in Poland. We've augmented the U.S. rotation of NATO’s Baltic air policing program protecting the skies over Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuanian, where I'll be traveling tomorrow. Instead of four F-15s we have sent 10. Today, the combatant commander for Europe is convening a meeting in Croatia with the chiefs of defense of Central and Eastern European countries to discuss the current situation, which Poland will be attending, and we'll pursue additional steps that will strengthen our alliance for the future. At NATO, we'll encourage allies to update contingency planning and threat assessments. Working with our Polish friends, we want to recognize our Polish aviation detachment to offer opportunities for other allies to work with combined training and expand our training to include U.S. Army planners as well as taking further steps. It goes without saying that collective defense is a shared responsibility, and the United States of America strongly supports Poland’s military modernization and we look forward to being a partner in that modernization. We appreciate Poland’s commitment to carry its share of the financial burden, as all ally NATO should do. For our part, U.S. plans for a European phased adaptive approach to ballistic missile defense, which we announced almost five years ago -- those plans are on schedule. We've met our target so far and we will -- we will, in fact, bring it to fruition. That is our firm commitment, an operational missile defense site here in Poland by 2018. Mr. Prime Minister, we also spoke about energy. In the coming weeks, we'll be meeting with our European partners to discuss ways to further diversify their source and supplies of energy. This will help improve energy security and it will ensure that no nation can use the supply of gas as a political weapon against any other nation. Today, the Prime Minister and I spoke about steps Poland is taking to reverse natural gas flows into some pipelines to help the Ukrainians access additional supplies of gas if needed. Finally, we talked about a negotiations toward the Transatlantic Trade and Investment Partnership between the United States and Europe. This is already, that trade, is already the largest commercial relationship in the world. But we have an additional chance to significantly expand together, creating jobs on both sides of the Atlantic. So, Mr. Prime Minister, we are profoundly grateful for your friendship and the friendship of the people of Poland. It is said that Joshua’s trumpet brought down the walls of Jericho. But I watched personally that it was Poland’s courage that unleashed the forces that brought down the Berlin Wall. You set a standard, Mr. Prime Minister, and your country set a standard for what a country can achieve when it has the courage to reach for its freedom. And we look forward to continue to work very closely together in the days ahead, Mr. Prime Minister. May God bless Poland, and may God protect our troops. Thank you very much for all you’ve done. END	Poland
Viktor Orban aged 50 is the current Prime Minister of which country ?	Polish PM expresses commitment to battered euro after talks with Harper Polish PM expresses commitment to battered euro after talks with Harper The Canadian Press Pin it Share OTTAWA - Poland's prime minister says his country remains committed to adopting the euro as its currency, despite the financial woes that threaten Europe. Donald Tusk says Poland has coped well during the economic downturn and will continue to work with the European Union to strengthen the currency used by 17 of its 27 members. Tusk says Europe's future depends on a common currency, despite the current political stalemate in Greece that has raised the possibility of its exit from the eurozone. Tusk was speaking in Ottawa after a meeting with Prime Minister Stephen Harper. Harper says it's up to European leaders — not him — to say whether Greece should be kicked out of the eurozone. Canada and Poland agreed to an expanded energy partnership and signed a new tax convention during Tusk's visit. Reblog	i don't know
What is the name of Oxford University’s Cricket Ground ?	Men's Cricket \| Oxford University Sport Men’s Cricket Club OUCC is one of the most prestigious cricket clubs in the country. The First-Class facilities at the University Parks have been graced by some of the most famous cricketers of all time, producing many Blues who have gone on to represent their country such as Imran Khan, Douglas Jardine, and M.J.K Smith Today the club has two men’s teams the Blues (1st Team) and the Authentics (2nd team) also known as the Tics! Both teams play many friendly matches and compete in BUCS leagues and knockout competition. Both teams seasons are building towards their respective Varsity matches in varying forms of the game. Players who excel are also included in the Oxford MCCU programme, Oxford is one of the six centres in the UK. Contact details	Park
On TV, if Pete Waterman was the Hitman, who was Her ?	Buildings \| University Parks University Parks Creating beautiful green spaces for everyone to enjoy Search form Buildings Cricket Pavilion The Parks’ Cricket Pavilion, completed in 1881, was designed by Sir Thomas Jackson . Jackson was one of the most distinguished architects of his generation. His other designs include the University's Examination Schools and the iconic Bridge of Sighs over New College Lane. University cricket has been played in the Parks since 1881. It is the only first-class cricket ground in the UK where spectators can watch free of charge. The Pavilion is sited at the same distance from the wicket as the Pavilion is at Lord’s. The detailed Conservation Plan for the Pavilion is available to view on the University’s Estates Services website. The Tentorium This is the operational and administrative centre for the University Parks team. It was built in 2002 to a design by Gray, Baines & Shew. South Lodge South Lodge was specifically constructed in 1893, at a ‘cost to not exceed £500’, to house the University Parks Superintendent. The Superintendent at this time was Mr Henry Mount, the third Superintendent, who managed the Parks between 1892 and 1919. Designed by a Mr Drinkwater, South Lodge was built in the beautiful setting of a lime tree avenue which stretched right up South Parks Road (then no more than a cart track) to the site of another Lodge which housed the Keeper of the University Museum. This Lodge was later demolished to make way for the Radcliffe Science Library. The outer line of these trees still survives along the north side of South Parks Road.	i don't know
In which year was corporal punishment officially banned in British State Schools ?	CORPORAL PUNISHMENT IN BRITISH SCHOOLS An over-the-desk slippering in the fictional film "Melody" (1971) Corporal punishment in schools With comments by C. Farrell External links on this page were all working in July/August 2016. UNITED KINGDOM: School CP Corporal punishment in British state schools, and also in private schools receiving any element of public funding, was banned by parliament in 1987. For an overview of the events leading up to abolition, and its aftermath, see a Jan 2007 newspaper article, "Sparing the rod" . In the remaining private schools it was banned in 1999 in England and Wales , 2000 in Scotland , and 2003 in Northern Ireland . Most had anticipated the legislation and abandoned CP voluntarily several years earlier. A few Christian private schools held out, and fought the ban through the courts, ultimately without success (see links below). What did CP in British schools involve? There is no single, simple answer. This page is mainly about state schools in England and Wales. Because Scotland has its own distinct education system with different traditions, there is a separate article about CP in Scottish schools . Private schools, about which even fewer generalisations are possible, will have to await separate treatment elsewhere. (But see this 1973 newspaper article for a round-up of the caning situation then prevailing at seven "top" private schools.) The state education system in England and Wales used to be highly decentralised, and there were always wide variations of practice between schools, even between different schools of the same kind in the same area. The only rule laid down by central government was that all formal CP was supposed to be recorded in a punishment book.(1) (1) Department of Education, Administrative Memorandum 531, 1956 (but this was only a codification of a requirement laid down much earlier). The 100+ local education authorities (LEAs) in England and Wales -- created in 1902 to replace the old local school boards -- formulated their own rules, or in some cases decided not to have any rules.(2) These varied a lot, but most were not very specific about the modus operandi. It is easier to list the few maverick oddities than to try to summarise the majority: thus, the tawse was specified instead of the cane in a handful of places, including Newcastle, Gateshead, Manchester (which changed over from the cane in 1907 ), and Walsall . Just one LEA, Coventry, bizarrely required all canings for both sexes, even at secondary level, to be applied to offenders' hands and not to their backsides. Two others, Kingston and Richmond, in my view much more sensibly, came close to saying the opposite -- that caning of the hands was strongly discouraged as potentially injurious.(3) Richmond was also unusual in adding that girls, unlike boys, must not be caned at all, though they could be slapped with the open hand. (2) Under Section 23 of the Education Act 1944. (3) A point of view dating back at least to 1903 . Only two LEAs laid down a maximum number of strokes (East Sussex, 3 strokes; Durham, 6 strokes). 18 required the act to be done in private; 10 mandated a witness to be present. About half of all LEAs said that only women teachers could punish girls, but only two, Inner London and Oxfordshire, also laid down that only men could cane boys. Some (Barnet, Brent, Clwyd, Derbyshire, Mid-Glamorgan, Oxfordshire) forbade the caning of girls other than on their hands while explicitly stating that boys could be disciplined either on the hands or on the clothed buttocks. Some LEAs confined themselves to prohibiting teachers from hitting pupils' heads or boxing their ears. Some restricted the number of staff permitted to inflict CP, e.g. to the head teacher and those specifically delegated by him or her. At least one (Bradford) laid down that the punishment must follow as soon as possible after the offence. Three (Newcastle, Shropshire, Wiltshire) said just the opposite: that there should be a cooling-off period before discipline was administered.(4) (4) Guide to LEAs' Corporal Punishment Regulations in England and Wales, Society of Teachers Opposed to Physical Punishment, Croydon, 1979. All that was the situation as at 1979. LEA rules from earlier periods include the long-defunct Middlesex in 1950 (girls to be caned "only in exceptional circumstances" and only on the hands; boys could be caned on the hands or buttocks) and Somerset in 1954 (CP only as a last resort; girls to be caned only in extreme cases, and never by male teachers). There had been disputes about CP since the early days of universal state education. In this 1894 court case , a clearly out-of-control teacher was successfully prosecuted and fined for assault. It is interesting that the judge in that case deprecated caning on the hands and boxing the ears, and said they were "exceedingly dangerous forms of punishment". He went on to observe that "nature provided a special place for boys to be punished upon and it should be used". Much more often, though, in the rare instances where corporal punishment cases reached the stage of prosecution, heads and teachers were vindicated by the courts, which generally upheld the punishment as "reasonable" and therefore lawful. For some early such cases, see this Dec 1900 news item and this May 1903 one (the latter being interesting also for its use by the magistrate of the colloquial term "to be swished" meaning to be caned) and this Nov 1933 one . Another example is this 1937 appeal hearing , in which a headmaster's conviction for assault was overturned, even though the caned boy was said in evidence to be severely bruised. So too is this 1945 case in which a bare-bottom slippering at a prep school was held not to be excessive or unreasonable. And in this Aug 1959 case , a six-stroke slippering for a 12-year-old was deemed reasonable by magistrates. But anti-CP campaigners used to complain that aggrieved parents rarely got a fair hearing in the courts. Of course, we must always remember that the CP cases that got into the courts and hence into the newspapers were, more or less by definition, highly untypical. The idea of parental consent was largely unknown, but a few schools did send a letter home with the student after the event, or listed the punishments received in the pupil's end-of-term report. More often, though, "getting the cane" was a punishment that (unlike detention) at least had the advantage, from the student's point of view, that with any luck one's parents might not get to hear about it. Any individual school could choose not to use CP. Some 20% of secondary schools did so in the 1970s, according to informal guesstimates by STOPP. The remainder were spread between those where canings took place every day and those where CP was almost unheard of, with every possible variation in between. Among the majority of mainstream state secondary schools, caning (usually across the seat of a bending student's trousers) had been particularly prevalent in boys-only schools of all types, from mediaeval grammar schools(5) to brand-new secondary moderns. (5) But the old boys' grammar schools, like most of the independent schools, would generally have used the birch until the mid- to late 19th century. Manchester Grammar School was exceptional in going back from caning to birching in 1904 and in 1907 staunchly defending the practice as greatly preferable to caning. It is not clear how long this eccentric policy lasted: MGS seems to have reverted to caning by the postwar era and was certainly using the cane in the 1970s. Records show that third-, fourth- and fifth-formers (ages 13 to 16 inclusive) were by far the most frequent recipients. The caning of sixth-formers (up to and including age 18) was much less common, but by no means unknown, as in this 1959 grammar-school case and at two Croydon boys' schools as late as the early 1980s. Probably the most popular caning offence was smoking. Other crimes normally punished corporally included bullying, cheating, insolence, missing detention, and truancy. Lesser sins in very many boys' schools were often dealt with by a slippering (see below). Rugby at a traditional boys' school in the 1960s. "Getting your detentions caned off" was an offer aimed especially at sportsmen at some schools, where the student's presence at an important match, which he would otherwise miss, might be crucial. Some of the rugby shorts seen here probably cover painful "tramlines" acquired during a recent visit to the headmaster's study -- in some cases perhaps voluntarily. As far as is known, corporal punishment was nowhere systematically made a matter of choice either for parents or students, as is now routine in some American schools. However, there was one element of "voluntary CP" at some state boys' schools, like Maidenhead Grammar School (as also at some independent schools, such as Emanuel School in London), where it was understood that a student who had accumulated other punishments, such as detentions or impositions, could at any time present himself at the headmaster's office and apply to be "swished" instead. The request, if granted, would be fulfilled forthwith, and the slate thereby wiped clean. The culprit would emerge sore and stinging, but with suddenly a lot more free time. This optional facility was known as "getting your detentions caned off". At secondary level, a rattan cane perhaps 36 to 40 inches in length would be a typical implement, especially for punishing boys. If administered vigorously, this would leave painful weals or "tramlines" across the student's posterior lasting several days, and often some bruising as well. The cane was also not uncommon, at least up to the late 1970s, in many mixed-sex schools, whether comprehensive or other, though boys invariably needed a lot more disciplining than girls. In these schools the punishment might be applied either to hands (especially in the case of girls) or to behinds, often depending on the whim of the teacher. Anecdotal evidence suggests that boys were likely to be caned harder than girls. Concern had been raised among doctors as long ago as 1934 about the possible medical dangers of caning schoolgirls, who (it was suggested) might well be suffering nervous strain and/or pain already as a consequence of menstruation. Opinions seem to have differed quite widely; at all events, the national authorities remained unpersuaded that CP for girls should be banned altogether, though one or two LEAs did so, and several others strongly discouraged it. The new Sex Discrimination Act generated a certain amount of nonsense in the tabloid press in early 1976, with speculation that girls would thenceforth have to be caned as much as boys. In fact it had no such effect, and the Head Teachers' union advised its members to continue to be "cautious" about using CP on girls. A retrospective myth seems to have grown up in some quarters that this issue was one of the causes of eventual total abolition, but I know of absolutely no evidence for this claim. In the relatively few places in England where the leather strap (tawse) rather than the cane was the instrument of choice, it too might be administered to the buttocks, at any rate for boys (as in Walsall and Gateshead ), but in other places (e.g. Newcastle) this was given to both sexes on the hands, as in Scotland. In Manchester it seems to have been left up to individual schools, with a culprit at boys-only establishments such as St Augustines RC being asked to bend over a chair to be strapped, while his opposite number at one of the city's mainstream co-ed schools would often have to hold out his hands, following the Newcastle/Scotland model. A humorous take on how to bend over for the cane, from Terry Deary, "Cruel Crime And Painful Punishment", illustrated by Mike Phillips, in the "Horrible Histories" series, Scholastic Children's Books, London, 2002. "Bend over!" was the traditional command to a pupil about to receive posterial discipline, but there was no consensus across different schools as to how this should be done. One common method was to have the offender stretch across a desk, as in the fictional film still reproduced at the top of this page (from Melody, 1971). A variation on this is described in our article on Sharmans Cross High School in Solihull . Some teachers required students to touch their toes, as illustrated on the front cover of the STOPP booklet shown above; this presented a particularly taut target (in fact too much so, according to some practitioners), but it had the disadvantage of lacking stability -- the recipient might fall forwards with nothing to hold on to. Probably the most frequently used aid to punishment was a chair. The student might be told to stand in front of it and put his or her hands or elbows on the seat, or to stand behind it and bend over its back. By the late 1960s the traditional "six of the best" had given way in most places to milder penalties of only two or three strokes as the norm, though to some extent this was compensated for by the fact that, with the advent of synthetic textiles, trouser material became significantly thinner in the 1960s. Underwear, too, got briefer and more lightweight as fashions changed. Other things being equal, each stroke of the cane was therefore sharper in its effect than in the days when trousers were made of wool and underpants of heavy flannel. At many schools these formal canings tended to be administered privately, often in the head's office or the staffroom. "Public" ceremonies of formal caning in front of the whole school were rare in modern times, though not completely unknown. (One education committee, Romford in Essex, unusually banned public CP in 1961 after six girls were caned in front of 600 schoolmates .) Some schools did cane in classrooms or halls or corridors, witnessed by whoever happened to be present. It depended partly on who was allowed to use the cane: in some places all teachers were permitted to do so, other schools restricted it to the head and deputy head, or perhaps to senior teachers or heads of department only. Again, practice varied widely. More informally, the "slipper" -- something of a euphemism: in fact it was normally a big, heavy gym shoe or plimsoll -- was widely used for instant, unofficial discipline over the clothed seat of both sexes (though, again, many more boys than girls), typically in the presence of classmates. Most teachers would hold the implement by its heel and apply the sole to the offender, but some maintained that it was even more effective the other way round, with the heavier heel end being the part that made contact. In some schools, every teacher had his or her own "slipper". Its use was particularly prevalent in the gym in the hands of physical education or "PE" teachers. Slippering was usually a brisk affair: the student was typically made to come to the front, bend over on the spot, be whacked two or three or four times, and return to his or her seat as the lesson continued without further ado. Although there was usually less ceremony about it than the cane, the slipper, if wielded sufficiently enthusiastically, could deliver a salutary lesson. Certainly a hard slippering of several whacks would be eye-wateringly more painful than a feeble caning, and could leave the student's backside bruised for a day or two. A few schools made the slipper their "official" implement , administered it formally in the office, entered the slipperings in the punishment book, and did not use the cane at all. But this was fairly unusual, and the great majority of slipperings in British schools went unrecorded. If challenged on the legality of this, teachers would probably claim that they did not need to be entered in the book because they did not constitute formal CP. This article gives a first-person account of slippering practice at a traditional boys' grammar school in the 1960s, at which the cane was administered in the office for serious offences, but the slipper, applied in the classroom by individual teachers, was much more prevalent. This kind of arrangement seems to have been typical of many secondary schools. The article is illustrated with pictures of a gym shoe said to have been used for the purpose at a different school in the 1970s. See also this May 1978 news item about unofficial slippering at a famous boys' comprehensive school in inner London. This was a rare case of the media writing about the existence of the slipper in their coverage of school CP, which usually dealt only with the cane. In this instance the local newspaper evidently thought it remarkable; but journalists have more often than not been poorly informed on these matters, and the anecdotal evidence suggests that there were more, maybe a lot more, slipperings than canings in English schools, at least in the 1960s and 1970s. CP in girls-only schools was, by all accounts, very rare. There was the odd exception like Northwich Girls' Grammar School; but even there, the formidable Miss Janet Dines claimed she had hardly used the cane in ten years before the event that got her into all the papers in 1976. In primary schools (ages 5 to 11), and in the pre-1950s all-through elementary schools (age up to 13), slapping with the hand, applied to bottoms or hands or arms or legs, appears to have been the physical punishment of choice. One also hears of rulers having been rapped across knuckles, but I am not sure if this was common. Slippering and caning were used to some degree, but the cane here was more likely to be applied, if at all, to the palm of the hand than elsewhere, and would tend to be a shorter and lighter instrument than the 36-inch cane often used at secondary level. Quite a few primary schools, like quite a few secondary schools (though by no means all), chose to exempt girls entirely from all these kinds of punishment, even where boys received it rather often. CP in primary schools seems generally to have tailed off rather earlier than in secondary schools: common enough in the early 1950s, it was clearly less so by the end of the 1960s, though it had by no means disappeared everywhere even in the early 1980s, as these punishment book extracts show . "Pants-down" punishment, not unknown in some private schools, was almost unheard of in the state sector in relatively modern times, especially from the 1960s onwards. Even if it was not explicitly forbidden anywhere, the authorities probably would not have tolerated it. Probably the most significant exception is that gym/PE teachers, at any rate in some boys' secondary schools, would occasionally mete out slipperings in the changing room, where recipients might happen to be in a state of undress at the crucial moment. It was a mild example of what Americans call "locker-room culture", an often semi-jocular experience in an often somewhat "macho" atmosphere. (To a cynical young audience today, this will no doubt sound like what is inevitably nowadays called "abuse", but it felt perfectly reasonable in the context of the time.) Another marked difference from the private sector is that few state schools in the modern era allowed prefects (selected senior pupils) to administer CP. Some old-established boys' secondary grammar schools, such as Stamford Grammar School , did so until around the middle of the 20th century. An outlier in this regard was Royal Grammar School in High Wycombe , where big boys were empowered to formally slipper smaller ones until as recently as 1965. (At my own similarly ancient grammar school, this practice was always said to have been stopped in the 1940s.) Of course, a prefect in any school could always send an errant student to the headmaster, which at some schools would automatically mean a caning, and in some cases the prefect might be a witness to the castigation. Also, some schools, even new-built comprehensive ones, introduced a system of "students' courts" at which a recommendation for CP might be one of the "sentencing" options available, but this was subject to confirmation by the teachers in charge, and it would be a member of staff who delivered the actual punishment. I have heard of at least one Birmingham secondary modern school in the 1960s where this caning allegedly took place "there and then", in front of the members of the "court", but I suspect this, if true, was quite unusual. It cannot be emphasised too strongly that these are all broad generalisations, to which exceptions could always be found. A left-wing back-bench move in Parliament to ban CP at national level failed by 181 votes to 120 in 1976 . Attempts to push through local bans in Cardiff (1968) and Liverpool had both collapsed in the face of hostility from head teachers. No LEA banned corporal punishment altogether until 1979/80, when three Labour-controlled outer London boroughs took the abolitionist plunge, followed more famously in 1981 by the huge, Labour-controlled Inner London Education Authority (ILEA), which covered 12 London boroughs, a population of nearly 3 million, and getting on for 1,000 schools. The ILEA had already banned CP in primary schools with effect from 1973. Several more Labour-controlled LEAs followed suit in the early 1980s. It is a matter of conjecture how much part the anti-CP organisation STOPP played in causing this snowballing trend. Certainly, from the late 1970s onwards, it put out plenty of controversial propaganda , especially in the form of letters to local newspapers, but there is some evidence that the real push for abolition within a number of LEAs came rather more from leftwing Labour councillors in collaboration with a far-left ginger group within the National Union of Teachers (NUT) called "Rank and File", with which STOPP's (always small) membership somewhat overlapped. To put this in context, it should be remembered that the 1970s and early 1980s in Britain was a period when the far left was successfully infiltrating many local Labour Parties and several trade unions. Many NUT members in the union's mainstream, and certainly the great majority of members of all the other teaching unions, were not at all in favour of abolition.(6) NUT's main rival, the more male-dominated NASUWT,(7) campaigned aggressively in favour of keeping the cane . NASUWT members tended to complain that NUT was much too dominated by female primary-school teachers who had no experience of the problems facing teaching staff in tough secondary schools. (6) Back in 1914 that same union went so far as to claim that all teachers, not just head teachers, had the right to cane, and that this right "must not be interfered with by local regulations" -- a position they never in fact achieved. (7) National Association of Schoolmasters/Union of Women Teachers. This campaign gave rise to a joke on the left of the NUT that NASUWT stood for "National Association of Sadists and Union of Women Torturers". Headmasters, too, could be robust in defence of their right to use corporal punishment, as seen in this June 1968 report from their annual conference. It is a myth that abolition was overwhelmingly demanded by school pupils themselves. True, a flurry of activity by the very short-lived "Schools Action Union" in 1972 briefly gained some press publicity , but this was a tiny, and almost certainly highly unrepresentative, group based entirely in a small number of London schools and manipulated, if not indeed created, by older students on the far left. Then in 1977/78 came the National Union of School Students, marginally longer-lasting but scarcely any more representative of pupils generally. It campaigned more against unofficial and irregular CP, as in this Aug 1977 report and this May 1978 one , than against CP as a whole. A 1977 survey of young people found that half of them were in favour of retaining CP at school, including many who had themselves been caned or strapped. A quarter-century after CP was removed from state schools in 1987, it is remarkable that there is still a lack of consensus on the issue, with many parents and commentators , some teachers and community leaders and even young people continuing to believe that moderate and properly regulated caning (or belting, in Scotland) helped to maintain order, and was a much more constructive response to serious misdeeds than suspension or expulsion, which merely grant a "holiday" to those who refuse to behave. Clearly, it is widely felt that the anarchy and chaos now evidently prevailing in so many state schools -- and the poor educational standards that result -- are due at least in part to the enforced absence of corporal punishment. Others, though, including probably most politicians and "experts", will still defend abolition as the right decision on balance, or at least as inevitable under European human rights legislation. The only thing on which nearly everybody seems to agree is that, for better or worse, there is now no realistic prospect of CP ever being restored in Britain. In 2008 a new round of controversy over the issue was set off when a survey found that one teacher in five, and almost a quarter of all secondary school teachers, would still like to see corporal punishment reinstated. In 2011 another survey found that half of parents and 19% of students also wanted to bring back the cane. And as recently as 2012 the co-founder and chairman of the governors of the most high-profile of the present government's brand-new so-called "Free Schools" said he would happily restore CP if it were allowed. One consequence of the perceived collapse in school discipline has been a tendency for some (especially immigrant-descended) parents to send their teens abroad to complete their secondary studies, often to Africa or the Caribbean, where a stricter and more structured education, including CP where necessary, is still available. See e.g. this Nov 1997 news item about an under-achieving 13-year-old whose parents sent him to school in Ghana, with miraculous results, and this similar Nov 2007 report in which a British 17-year-old, sent away, also to Ghana, to study for his GCSEs, admitted he had been caned several times and agreed he was benefiting academically from the novel experience of strict discipline. See likewise Children sent to Caribbean for 'basic' schooling , a news report from July 1996, and UK Ugandans rush kids to Kampala schools , from May 1998. DOCUMENTS: Caning in Private Schools, 1960s [HISTORY] Extract from a sociological study of 166 elite boys' private schools in 1964, giving statistics for how many senior boys and how many teachers were allowed to administer corporal punishment and a discussion of the frequency of use of the cane. An article by one who received school CP in the 1960s: what it was like, and how he feels about it now. EXTERNAL LINKS: (these will open in a new window) Spare the Rod Short article in History Today (Nov 2012) asserts that it was only in the 1890s that ordinary class teachers gained the right to use CP; before that, only head teachers were legally entitled to do so, under the common-law doctrine of in loco parentis. No source is cited for this claim. The author finds that, "far from being a relic of a cruel Victorian past, corporal punishment became more frequent and institutionalised in 20th-century England", but seems to overlook the obvious fact that the main reason it became more prevalent was that the number of secondary-school students soared, as the age up to which education was compulsory was steadily increased by law over the decades. Corporal Punishment Archive [HISTORY] Covers the UK only, with a major emphasis on school CP but also some interesting material about judicial and military juvenile punishments of the past. Includes an excellent gallery of historical drawings and numerous other illustrations as well as some well-chosen historical texts. Stephen Fry on Corporal Punishment [HISTORY] An extract from the ubiquitous polymath's memoir Moab Is My Washpot (1997). He was often caned at Stouts Hill prep school around 1970, but harbours no grudges. He takes the view, which I tend to share, that corporal punishment, in the great scheme of things, is not actually a very important issue one way or the other. But it has now become "so culturally loaded as to be almost impossible to inspect", with all the talk of "abuse" causing "hysteria, madness and stupidity in almost everybody". Other kinds of punishment were more damaging, he suggests. Corporal punishment [HISTORY] Encyclopaedia entry from 1911 summarising the state of the law at the time: teachers had the common-law right to chastise their pupils, not only for offences at school but also, under a court ruling of 1893, for those committed on the way to or from school, or during school hours. However, these powers were subject to any regulations made by the local education authority. R v Secretary of State for Education and Employment and Others ex parte Williamson and Others This important document is the full Law Lords ruling in the case brought by a group of Christian schools against the 1998 legislative ban on corporal punishment in all schools, even private ones. The schools claimed that their "freedom of belief", as protected by human rights legislation, was infringed because it was their Christian belief that naughty children should be spanked. As reported in these February 2005 news items , the highest court in the land has now dismissed their claims, upholding government and parliament in the 1998 blanket prohibition of all and any school CP. YOUR EDITOR'S PERSONAL VIEW ... I think we can probably view this case as the absolutely final and definitive nail in the coffin of school CP in Britain. There are actually three different opinions here, by three judges who appear somewhat to disagree with each other, arriving at the same conclusion by different routes. In my own personal view as a non-lawyer, I find some of the argumentation quite difficult to follow. Much of it seems rather subjective, and I can't entirely avoid the feeling when reading judgments of this kind that the judges are, to put the matter in demotic terms, "just playing with words" or "making it up as they go along". My suspicion that there isn't really a solid consensus about this, and that perhaps an apparent consensus on the final outcome is being fabricated for reasons of political expediency, is strengthened by the fact that one of the judges here, Baroness Hale, goes so far as to say that she is "deeply troubled" by the approach adopted by the Court of Appeal. In effect she seems to be saying that the Court of Appeal reached the right conclusion but for quite the wrong reasons. Her approach is an extreme "children's rights" one - she clearly holds that it is quite immaterial what the teachers and parents might think, and that the child's supposed "right" not to be spanked overrides anything his parents say. I seriously doubt whether more than a minute fraction of ordinary people share this view. (She doesn't, as far as I can see, comment on the possibility that the child himself might take a different view, perhaps preferring being spanked to some other punishment.) At all events, I have to say that after over an hour's careful perusal I put this document down feeling completely unconvinced that these private schools should be prevented by law from mildly spanking their students when necessary, if that is what the parents want. C.F. Application No. 9146/80 [HISTORY] This document, in which the European Human Rights Commission ruled in 1986 that the case was inadmissible, describes the two-stroke caning of an 11-boy in 1979 for throwing a conker at a girl, breaking her glasses. The medical evidence was that the marks on his bottom were already fading by the following day. Note that the Commission emphasises that such a school caning in a headmaster's study is an entirely different matter from judicial birching of the kind considered in the Isle of Man case, reaffirming once again that corporal punishment is not per se necessarily contrary to the Human Rights Convention. However, in the end it is on a legal technicality (time limits expired) that the case is thrown out. Application No. 14229/88 [HISTORY] This is the Human Rights Commission's full report on the case of Matthew Prince, who in 1983 at age 15 received four strokes of the cane across the seat of his trousers for bullying at Brighton College, a private school. The punishment was administered by the headmaster, Mr Blackshaw, who allegedly took a run up at each stroke (though this was denied by the authorities). The case for indignation on the part of the boy seems slightly undermined by the evidence that he "subsequently showed off the marks of his punishment to other boys with pride". The Commission was divided (there are three dissenting opinions) but the majority thought this particular caning, which caused weals, swelling and bruising, was, unlike other school cases considered, serious enough to be "degrading treatment" under Article 3 of the Convention. See news report of 14 November 1992, Public schoolboy awarded £8,000 for caning ordeal , which includes a picture of Matthew, by then aged 25. YOUR EDITOR'S PERSONAL VIEW ... To me, this decision seems perverse. After all, the boy had a history of bullying, and was a tough lad -- captain of the rugby team, for heaven's sake. He had previously been caned at his prep school, without complaint. Some might feel that it would be difficult to think of a more appropriate case for a smart swishing. (At my school he would certainly have got six.) We are solemnly informed that the caning brought tears to his eyes and that he was in severe pain for an hour -- well, that is actually the object of the exercise! I note from former Brighton College students' reminiscences at Friends Reunited that Mr Blackshaw was not averse to dishing out six of the best in other cases, so arguably he let Matthew off rather lightly. Anyway, the issue was never tested in the Human Rights Court, as the applicant eventually accepted a "friendly settlement", i.e. a payoff from the government to withdraw the case. The original application was by the boy's mother, who was "horrified" when she saw the "injuries" on Matthew's backside, but it is interesting that he showed them to her only after his sister called attention to them, and he himself had not spontaneously thought the matter worthy of mention upon his arrival home that day. Reading between the lines, I wonder whether the whole thing was pursued by the mother rather against the boy's wish, and since by the time the case reached Strasbourg he had become an adult, he was able to decide for himself to back out. C.F. Campbell and Cosans case [HISTORY] A key European Court of Human Rights judgment (1982), which hastened the demise of corporal punishment in British state schools. The case concerned two Scottish boys whose parents refused to allow them to be given the belt at school. In fact neither of them ever did actually receive the belt. One of them was never even threatened with it, but his mother failed to get an assurance from the school that he would not be belted in some future hypothetical circumstance. The other boy was ordered to be strapped but refused, whereupon he was suspended from school. Contrary to popular myth, the court found that corporal punishment, of the kind then routinely administered in Scottish schools, was not of itself a breach of the Human Rights Convention. To that extent the plaintiffs, who had initially claimed a breach of Article 3 ("inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment"), in fact lost their case, a fact almost unnoticed when the outcome was reported. However, the court did hold that the boys had been deprived of their right to an education in keeping with their parents' views, contrary to Article 2 ("the State shall respect the right of parents to ensure such education ... in conformity with their own religious and philosophical convictions"). The UK government argued, unsuccessfully, that opinions about corporal punishment did not amount to "philosophical convictions". See news reports of 30 October 1996, Scottish cases helped to ban the beatings ; and also 26 February 1982, Parents win right to forbid school caning , in The Archive, and the related video clip on the same page. YOUR EDITOR'S PERSONAL VIEW ... The Court's reasoning here against the British Government's submission seems to me pretty feeble (the UK judge on the Court wrote a dissenting opinion on this point) and one cannot help wondering how they would wriggle out of it now if someone were to claim that their views in favour of c.p. also constituted "philosophical convictions" and that they were therefore being denied an education in accordance therewith, since no schools are now allowed to use any corporal punishment. [UPDATE: This is more or less what later happened in Williamson, the "Christian schools" case, see above.] It should also be noted that the Article 2 claim stood up only because there were no alternative non-belting state schools within reach, and the parents in question could not afford private schools. If the present-day system of "school choice" had been in operation then -- or even if the local education authority had made an effort quietly to find ways of satisfying the requirements of a tiny number of (in my personal view) cranky parents, instead of being so arrogant and rigid about the whole thing -- the case would never have got off the ground and things might have gone quite differently over the last 25 years. C.F. Costello-Roberts v United Kingdom [HISTORY] 1992 judgment by the Human Rights Court about a seven-year-old boy who was slippered at a boarding prep school. The boy's mother removed him from the school shortly afterwards, but persisted with this legal action, which must have cost the taxpayer many thousands of pounds. The court held that three whacks on the buttocks through shorts with a rubber-soled gym shoe, applied by the headmaster in private, did not constitute inhuman or degrading punishment. Nor, it judged, did the punishment violate the boy's "moral or physical integrity". Clearly, all the school authorities actually did wrong was to fail to spell out, in their information to prospective parents, that corporal punishment was a possible consequence of misbehaviour -- though I think they might have been forgiven for assuming that anybody who knew anything about anything would have been perfectly well aware that that was an entirely normal practice at boys' independent prep schools at the time.	one thousand nine hundred and eighty six
Reaching number one in the British pop charts in May 1996, what was the two word title of the record that was performed by David Baddiel and Frank Skinner accompanied by the band The Lightning Seeds that was the official England song for the 1996 European Football Championships ?	Corporal Punishment Corporal Punishment Corporal Punishment What is corporal punishment? Corporal punishment refers to the use of physical punishment to correct behaviour. The term derives from the Latin corpus, meaning body. As an officially administered or sanctioned method of enforcing discipline, corporal punishment is in decline. Despite persistent enthusiasm for physical chastisement in significant sections of the population, social scientists are virtually unanimous in arguing that corporal punishment has more negative than positive effects. Background The infliction of physical pain as an official means of punishment is as old as human history. In the UK's schools and prisons, until relatively recently, physical punishment was perceived as part of the educative and disciplinary process, and was often viewed as 'character building'. Although the various methods of corporal punishment were steadily outlawed throughout the 20th Century, it was not until after the 1967 Plowden report, 'Children and their Primary Schools', that the abolition of corporal punishment in state schools was treated as a major issue, and in 1986 it was outlawed altogether. It was not until 1998 that corporal punishment was outlawed for the few remaining independent schools that retained the practice. The issue of corporal punishment must now be considered in light of the Human Rights Act 1998 and the European Convention of Human Rights, particularly Article Three on protection against torture, inhuman or degrading treatment or punishment. The provisions of the Convention on the Rights of the Child 1989 is also important for child punishment, as Article 19 states: "Parties shall take all appropriate legislative, administrative, social and educational measures to protect the child from all forms of physical or mental violence, injury or abuse, neglect or negligent treatment, maltreatment or exploitation." Controversies Corporal punishment remains legal when used by parents, except in Scotland, which has legislated to ban parental corporal punishment. In 1995 the Committee on the Rights of the Child, after examining the UK's first report under the UN Convention on the Rights of the Child, recommended that corporal punishment in the family should be prohibited, and criticised the existence of the defence of "reasonable chastisement". Following the 1997 case of A v. UK in the European Court of Human Rights, which found that the defence of 'reasonable chastisement' did not provide sufficient protection for the rights of the child, the Government promised a review. Section 58 of the Children Act 2004 removed the reasonable chastisement defence for parents or adults acting in loco parentis where they are charged with wounding, causing grievous bodily harm, assault occasioning actual bodily harm or cruelty to children. However, the reasonable chastisement defence remains available for parents and adults acting in loco parentis charged with common assault. In early 2010, the Government commissioned Sir Roger Singleton, then chief adviser on the safety of children, to produce an independent report on physical punishment. Sir Roger's report, published in March 2010, recommended that: "The Government should continue to promote positive parenting strategies and effective behaviour management techniques directed towards eliminating the use of smacking. Parents who disapprove of smacking should make this clear to others who care for their children." Statistics States’ overall human rights records are examined by the Human Rights Council in the Universal Periodic Review (UPR). The first cycle of this four-year process ended in 2011; the second cycle will take place during 2012-2016 47 states accepted recommendations on corporal punishment: Andorra; Armenia; Azerbaijan; Bangladesh; Belize; Bolivia; Brunei Darussalam; Chad; Comoros; Dominican Republic; El Salvador; Estonia; Ghana; Honduras; Hungary; Jamaica; Japan; Jordan; Kuwait; Kyrgyzstan; Latvia; Lesotho; Mali; Mexico; Mongolia; Nicaragua; Niger; Palau; Panama; Papua New Guinea; Qatar; Rwanda; Samoa; San Marino; Sao Tome and Principe; Saudi Arabia; Senegal; Serbia; Slovakia; Slovenia; Solomon Islands; Suriname; Switzerland; Turkey; Tuvalu; Vanuatu; Yemen 22 states rejected recommendations on corporal punishment: Albania; Australia; Bahamas; Barbados; Belgium; Botswana; Brunei Darussalam; Comoros; Dominica; Eritrea; Ethiopia; Georgia; Italy; Malta; Myanmar; Saudi Arabia; Singapore; St Lucia; St Vincent and the Grenadines; Sudan; UK; United Arab Emirates 23 states which have yet to achieve full prohibition neither accepted nor rejected recommendations on corporal punishment, or have still to make their responses: Argentina; Belarus; Bhutan; Canada; Cape Verde; Djibouti; Gabon; Gambia; Grenada; Guatemala; Guyana; Kiribati; Libyan Arab Jamahiriya; Malawi; Malaysia; Maldives; Mauritania; Republic of Korea; Seychelles; Somalia; South Africa; St Kitts and Nevis; TFYR Macedonia Source: Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children – December 2011 Percentage of global child population legally protected from all corporal punishment Protected in all settings including the home: 4.9% Protected in some settings: 61.2% Not protected fully in any setting: 33.9% Source: Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children – December 2011 Quotes "Physical punishment is prohibited in all maintained and full-time independent schools, in children’s homes, in local authority foster homes and Early Years provision." "Parents have not been explicitly prohibited from smacking their children." Department for Education 2011 "Corporal punishment of children breaches their fundamental rights to respect for their human dignity and physical integrity. Its legality breaches their right to equal protection under the law. Urgent action is needed in every region of the world to respect fully the rights of all children – the smallest and most fragile of people." Global Initiative to End All Corporal Punishment of Children - December 2011	i don't know
What was the famous two word title that was given to Henry Stewart who was King Consort Of Scotland between 1565 and 1567 and was married to Mary Queen Of Scots ?	Mary Stewart, Queen of Scots (1542 - 1587) - Genealogy Mary Stewart, Queen of Scots Scots Gaelic: Mairi Stiùbhairt, Queen of Scots Also Known As: "Mairi Stiùbhairt", "Mary I.of Scotland", "Marie Stuart", "Mary Queen of Scots", "Marie Queen Consort of France", "Mary", "Queen Of Scots", "42nd Queen of Scots" Birthdate: Linlithgow Palace, Linlithgow, West Lothian, Scotland Death: in Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire, England Cause of death: Queen of Scotland, Queen of Scots, Queen of the Scots Managed by: Dec 8 1542 - Linlithgow Palace, Linlithgow, West Lothian, Scotland Death: Feb 8 1587 - Fotheringhay, Northamptonshire, England Parents: Henry Stuart, François II, Earl Child: About Mary I, Queen of Scots Mary Stuart http://familypedia.wikia.com/wiki/Mary_of_Scotland_%281542-1586%29 Mary I Stewart, Queen of Scots was born on 8 December 1542 at Linlithgow Palace, Linlithgow, Scotland and was executed on 8 February 1587 at Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire, England. She was also known as Mairi Stiùbhairt, Mary, Queen Consort of France. She was Queen of Scotland from 14 December 1542 to 24 July 1567 Preceded by: James V (9 September 1513 - 14 December 1542) Succeeded by: James VI (James I of England and Ireland) (4 July 1567 - 27 March 1625) Coronation: 9 September 1543 Daughter of James V and Mary of Guise Married: François II de France m. 1558; dec. 1560 Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley m. 1565; dec. 1567 James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell m. 1567; dec. 1578 Children: James VI of Scotland and I of England Biography Mary Stewart(Mairi Stiùbhairt) was the only surviving legitimate child of King James V of Scotland. She was 6 days old when her father died and she was crowned nine months later. In 1558, she married François, Dauphin of France, who ascended the French throne as François II in 1559. Mary was not Queen of France for long; she was widowed on 5 December 1560. Mary then returned to Scotland, arriving in Leith on 19 August 1561. Four years later, she married her first cousin, Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley. Their union was unhappy and in February 1567, there was a huge explosion at their house, and Darnley was found dead, apparently strangled, in the garden. She soon married James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell, who was generally believed to be Darnley's murderer. Following an uprising against the couple, Mary was imprisoned in Loch Leven Castle on 15 June and forced to abdicate in favor of her one-year-old son, James VI. After an unsuccessful attempt to regain the throne, Mary fled to England seeking the protection of her first cousin once removed, Queen Elizabeth I of England, whose kingdom she hoped to inherit. Mary had previously claimed Elizabeth's throne as her own and was considered the legitimate sovereign of England by many English Catholics, including participants in the Rising of the North. Perceiving her as a threat, Elizabeth had her arrested. After 19 years in custody in a number of castles and manor houses in England, she was tried and executed for treason for her alleged involvement in three plots to assassinate Elizabeth. During the 15th-century reign of Robert III of Scotland, it had been confirmed that the Scottish Crown would be inherited only by males in the line of Robert's children—all sons—who were listed in that parliamentary Act. Females and female lines could inherit only after extinction of male lines. Mary ascended to the throne because, with the demise of her father, James V, Robert III had no remaining direct male descendants of unquestionably legitimate origins. John Stewart, Duke of Albany, grandson of James II of Scotland and at one time regent for the young James V, was the last direct male heir of Robert III (other than the king himself) when he died in 1536. Mary was the first member of the royal House of Stuart to use the Gallicised spelling Stuart, rather than the earlier Stewart. Mary adopted the French spelling Stuart during her time in France, and her descendants continued to use it.[1] Mary at the age of thirteenMary was born on 8 December 1542 at Linlithgow Palace, Linlithgow, Scotland to King James V of Scotland and his French second wife, Mary of Guise. She was the only legitimate child of James to survive him, and she was said to have been born prematurely.[2] A popular legend, written by John Knox, states that James, hearing on his deathbed that his wife had given birth to a daughter, ruefully exclaimed, "It came with a lass, it will pass with a lass!"[3] The House of Stewart, which originated in Brittany, had gained the throne of Scotland by the marriage of Marjorie Bruce, daughter of Robert the Bruce, to Walter Stewart, 6th High Steward of Scotland. James thus felt that since the crown came with a woman, a woman would be responsible for the loss of the crown from their family. This legendary statement came true much later, but not through Mary, whose son in fact became King of England. Eventually Sophia of Hanover, daughter of Elizabeth of Bohemia, became the heir to Anne, Queen of Great Britain and with her son George Louis of Hanover becoming King of Great Britain, replacing the House of Stuart in England. Mary was baptised at the Church of St. Michael, situated close to the palace, shortly after she was born. Rumours were spread suggesting Mary was weak and frail; on 14 December, six days after her birth, her father died following what may have been a nervous collapse following the Battle of Solway Moss, meaning she was now queen.[2] An English diplomat, Ralph Sadler, saw the infant at Linlithgow Palace in March 1543, unwrapped by her nurse, and wrote, "it is as goodly child as I have ever seen of her age, and as like to live."[4] As Mary was still an infant when she became queen, Scotland was ruled by regents until she became an adult. From the outset, there were two different claims to the Regency: the next heir James Hamilton, 2nd Earl of Arran claimed based on his hereditary right, the other claim came from Cardinal Beaton. However, Beaton's claim was based on an allegedly forged version of the late king's will,[5] so Arran became the regent,[6] until 1554 when Mary's mother succeeded him.[7] The young queen was crowned at Stirling in September 1543, with 'such solemnity as they use do use in this country, which is not very costly' according to the report of Ralph Sadler and Henry Ray[8] Coin of 1553: obverse, coat of arms of Scotland; reverse, royal monogramHenry VIII of England took the opportunity of this regency to propose England and Scotland be united through the marriage of Mary and his own son, Prince Edward. On 1 July 1543, when Mary was six months old, the Treaty of Greenwich was signed, which among other points, promised Mary to be married to Edward. It was Henry's wish that Mary should also move to England where he could oversee her upbringing.[9] However, feelings among the Scottish people towards the English changed somewhat when Cardinal Beaton rose to power again, and began to push a pro-Catholic and French agenda, which angered Henry who wanted to break the alliance with France and the papacy. When French ships were spotted on the Scottish coast in July, it was felt they were a threat to Mary, and she moved with her mother to Stirling Castle which was considered safer.[10] On 9 September 1543 Mary was crowned Queen of Scots in the chapel at this castle.[11] Shortly before Mary's coronation, the occupants of some Scottish ships headed for France were arrested by Henry, who claimed they were not allowed to trade with France even though that was never part of the agreement. These arrests caused anger among people in Scotland. Arran decided to join Beaton following this,[10] and he became a Catholic. The Treaty was eventually rejected by Parliament in December.[11] This new alliance and the rejection of the treaty caused Henry to begin his rough wooing, designed to impose the marriage to his son on Mary. This consisted of a series of raids on Scottish and French territory and other military actions. It lasted until June 1551, costing over half a million pounds and many lives. In May 1544, the English Earl of Hertford (later created Duke of Somerset by Edward VI) arrived in the Firth of Forth hoping to capture the city of Edinburgh and kidnap Mary, but Mary of Guise hid her in the secret chambers of Stirling Castle. On 10 September 1547, known as "Black Saturday", the Scots suffered a bitter defeat at the Battle of Pinkie Cleugh. Mary of Guise, fearful for her daughter, sent her temporarily to Inchmahome Priory, and turned to the French ambassador Monsieur D'Oysel for help. The French, remaining true to the Auld Alliance, came to the aid of the Scots. The new French King, Henry II, was now proposing to unite France and Scotland by marrying the little Queen to his three-year old son, the Dauphin François. This seemed to Mary of Guise to be the only sensible solution to her troubles. In February 1548, hearing that the English were on their way back, Mary of Guise moved Mary to Dumbarton Castle. The English left a trail of devastation behind once more and seized the strategically located town of Haddington. By June, the much awaited French help had arrived. On 7 July 1548 a Scottish Parliament held at a nunnery near Haddington agreed a French Marriage Treaty. Mary (age 17) and Francis (age 15) shortly after Francis became king in 1559With her marriage agreement in place, five-year-old Mary was sent to France to spend the next thirteen years at the French court, mainly at Amboise, near Tours. Henry II had offered to guard and raise her. The French fleet sent by Henry II, commanded by Nicolas Durand de Villegagnon, sailed with the five-year-old Queen of Scots from Dumbarton to Roscoff (or nearby Saint-Pol-de-Léon)[12] in Brittany and arrived on 18 August 1548.[13] She was accompanied by her own little court consisting of two lords, two half-brothers, and the "four Marys", four girls her own age, all named Mary, and the daughters of some of the noblest families in Scotland:Beaton, Seton, Fleming, and Livingston. Vivacious, beautiful, and clever (according to contemporaneous accounts), Mary had a promising childhood. While in the French court, she was a favourite. She received the best available education, and at the end of her studies, she had mastered French, Latin, Greek, Spanish, and Italian in addition to her native Scots. She also learned how to play two instruments and learned prose, poetry, horsemanship, falconry, and needlework. She formed a close friendship with her future sister-in-law, Elisabeth of Valois, of whom Mary retained the most nostalgic memories in later life.[14] Her grandmother Antoinette de Bourbon exerted one of the strongest influences on her childhood,[15] and acted as one of her principal advisors. Coin of Francis II and Mary Stuart, 1558Portraits of Mary show that she had a small, well-shaped head, a long, graceful neck, bright auburn hair, hazel-brown eyes, under heavy lowered eyelids and finely arched brows, smooth lustrous skin, a high forehead, and regular, firm features. While not a beauty in the classical sense, she was an extremely pretty child who would become a strikingly attractive woman. In fact, her effect on the men with whom she later came into contact was certainly that of a beautiful woman.[16] Despite the fact that Mary was tall for her age (she attained an adult height of 5 feet 11 inches, especially tall by sixteenth century standards)[17] and fluent in speech, while Henry II's son and heir Francis was abnormally short and stuttered, Henry commented that "from the very first day they met, my son and she got on as well together as if they had known each other for a long time"[18] On 24 April 1558 Mary married the Dauphin Francis at Notre Dame de Paris, Francis assuming the title King consort of Scots.[19] When Henry II died on 10 July 1559, Mary, Queen of Scots, became Queen consort of France; her husband becoming Francis II of France. Mary's Arms as Queen of Scots and Queen consort of FranceAfter the death of Mary I of England, Henry II of France caused his eldest son and his daughter-in-law to be proclaimed king and queen of England.[20] From this time on, Mary always insisted on bearing the royal arms of England, and her claim to the English throne was a perennial sticking point between Elizabeth I and her, as would become obvious in Mary's continuous refusal to ratify the Treaty of Edinburgh. Under the ordinary laws of succession, Mary was next in line to the English throne after her father's cousin, Elizabeth I, who was childless. Yet, in the eyes of many Catholics, Elizabeth was illegitimate, thus making Mary the true heir as Mary II of England. However the Third Succession Act of 1543 provided that Elizabeth would succeed Mary I of England on the throne. The anti-Catholic Act of Settlement was not passed until 1701, but the last will and testament of Henry VIII, (given legal force by the Third Succession Act), had excluded the Stuarts from succeeding to the English throne. Mary's troubles were still further increased by the Huguenot rising in France, called le tumulte d'Amboise (6–17 March 1560), making it impossible for the French to help Mary's supporters in Scotland. The question of the succession was therefore a real one. Francis died on 5 December 1560, of an ear infection which led to an abscess in his brain. Mary's mother-in-law, Catherine de' Medici, became regent for the late king's brother Charles IX, who inherited the French throne. Under the terms of the Treaty of Edinburgh, signed by Mary's representatives on 6 July 1560 following the death of her mother, France undertook to withdraw troops from Scotland and recognize Elizabeth's right to rule England. The 17-year-old Mary, still in France, refused to ratify the treaty. Mary landing in Leith, 19 August 1561Mary returned to Scotland soon after her husband's death, arriving in Leith on 19 August 1561. Despite her talents, Mary's upbringing had not given her the judgment to cope with the dangerous and complex political situation in Scotland at the time.[citation needed] As a devout Catholic, she was regarded with suspicion by many of her subjects, as well as by Elizabeth, her father's cousin. Scotland was torn between Catholic and Protestant factions, and Mary's illegitimate half-brother, James Stewart, 1st Earl of Moray, was a leader of the Protestant faction.[21] The Protestant reformer John Knox also preached against Mary, condemning her for hearing Mass, dancing, dressing too elaborately, and many other real and imagined offences.[22] To the disappointment of the Catholic party, however, Mary tolerated the newly established Protestant ascendancy, and kept her brother James Stewart as her chief advisor. Her privy council, (listed below), was mainly composed of Protestants. In this, she was acknowledging her lack of effective military power in the face of the Protestant Lords, while also following a policy which strengthened alliance with England. She joined with James in the destruction of Scotland's leading Catholic magnate, Lord Huntly, in 1562 after he led a rebellion in the Highlands against her.[23] Mary's arms of 1565 originally from her Tollbooth in LeithMary was also having second thoughts about the wisdom of having crossed Elizabeth, and attempted to make up the breach by inviting Elizabeth to visit Scotland (however, still she would not ratify the Treaty of Edinburgh). Elizabeth refused, and the bad blood remained between them. Mary then sent William Maitland of Lethington as an ambassador to the English court to put the case for Mary as a potential heir to the throne. Elizabeth's response is said to have included the words "As for the title of my crown, for my time I think she will not attain it." However, Mary, in her own letter to her maternal uncle Francis, Duke of Guise, reports other things that Maitland told her, including Elizabeth's supposed statement that, "I for my part know none better, nor that my self would prefer to her." Elizabeth was mindful of the role Parliament would have to play in the matter. In December 1561 arrangements were made for the two queens to meet, this time in England. The meeting had been fixed for York "or another town" in August or September 1562, but Elizabeth sent Sir Henry Sidney to cancel in July because of the Civil War in France. In 1563, Elizabeth made another attempt to neutralize Mary by suggesting her marrying Robert Dudley, 1st Earl of Leicester (Sidney's brother-in-law and the English queen's own favorite), whom Elizabeth trusted and thought she could control. Dudley, being as well an Englishman as a Protestant, would have solved a double problem for Elizabeth. She sent an ambassador to tell Mary that, if she would marry "some person – yea perchance such as she would hardly think we could agree unto"[24] of Elizabeth's choosing, Elizabeth would "proceed to the inquisition of her right and title to be our next cousin and heir". This proposal came to nothing, not least because the intended bridegroom was unwilling.[25] Mary with her second husband, Lord DarnleyAt Holyrood Palace on 29 July 1565, Mary married Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley, her half first cousin. Henry was a member of the House of Stuart like Mary was, but he was not an agnatic descendant of Stewart Kings, but rather of their immediate ancestors, the High Stewarts of Scotland. Mary had fallen head over heels in love with the "long lad" (Queen Elizabeth's words) after he had come to Scotland from England earlier in the year (with the permission of the English Privy Council).[citation needed] On the other hand, Elizabeth felt threatened by the prospect of such a marriage, because both Mary and Darnley were claimants to the English throne, being direct descendants of Margaret Tudor, the elder sister of Henry VIII.[26] Their children would inherit both parents' claims, and thus, be next in line for the English throne. Yet, the English ambassador Nicholas Throckmorton could only state: "the saying is that surely she [Queen Mary] is bewitched",[27] and that the marriage could only be averted "by violence".[28] The union infuriated Elizabeth, who felt she should have been asked permission, as Darnley was an English subject. This marriage, to a leading Catholic, precipitated Mary's half-brother, James Stewart, Earl of Moray, to join with other Protestant Lords in open rebellion. Mary set out for Stirling on 26 August 1565 to confront them, and returned to Edinburgh the following month to raise more troops. Moray and the rebellious lords were routed and fled into exile, the decisive military action becoming known as the Chaseabout Raid. Before long, Darnley became arrogant and demanded power commensurate with his courtesy title of "King". Darnley was jealous of Mary's friendship with her private secretary, David Rizzio, and, in March 1566 Darnley entered into a secret conspiracy with the nobles who had rebelled against Mary in the Chaseabout Raid. On 9 March a group of the lords, accompanied by Darnley, murdered Rizzio in front of the pregnant Mary while the two were in conference at Holyrood Palace. Darnley changed sides again and betrayed the lords, but the murder had made the breakdown of their marriage inevitable. James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell[edit] Birth of James and Kirk o'FieldTheir son James was born on 19 June 1566. It became increasingly clear, that some solution had to be found to "the problem of Darnley".[29] At Craigmillar there was held a meeting (November 1566) among leading Scottish nobles and Queen Mary. Divorce was discussed, but then a bond was sworn to get rid of Darnley by other means:[30] "It was thought expedient and most profitable for the common wealth,..., that such a young fool and proud tyrant should not reign or bear rule over them;...that he should be put off by one way or another; and whosoever should take the deed in hand or do it, they should defend" (Book of Articles).[31] Darnley was fearing for his safety and went to Glasgow to see his father. There he became ill (possibly of smallpox or syphilis).[32] In the new year, Mary prompted her husband to come back to Edinburgh. He was recuperating in a house at the former abbey of Kirk o' Field within the city wall of Edinburgh, where Mary visited him frequently, so that it appeared a reconciliation was in prospect. One night in February 1567, after Mary had left to go to the wedding of one of her maids of honor, Margaret Carwood, to the Avernois, Bastien Pagez,[33] an explosion occurred in the house, and Darnley was found dead in the garden, apparently of strangulation; historian Alison Weir, however, concludes he died of post-explosion suffocation. It turned out that James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell had supplied the gunpowder for the explosion, and he was generally believed to be guilty of Darnley's assassination. Mary arranged for a mock trial before parliament, and Bothwell was duly acquitted on 12 April.[34] Furthermore, some land titles were restored officially to Bothwell as a result of Darnley's death.[35] He also managed to get some of the Lords to sign the Ainslie Tavern Bond, in which they agreed to support his claims to marry the queen. All these proceedings did little to dissipate suspicions against Mary among the populace. Mary depicted with her son, James VI; the two had in fact not seen each other for years.On 24 April 1567, Mary visited her son at Stirling for the last time. On her way back to Edinburgh, Mary was abducted, willingly or not, by Bothwell and his men and taken to Dunbar Castle, where she was allegedly raped by Bothwell. However, already in October 1566, she had been very interested in Bothwell when she made a four-hour journey on horseback to visit him at Hermitage Castle where he lay ill.[36] On 6 May Mary and Bothwell returned to Edinburgh and on 15 May, at the Palace of Holyroodhouse, they were married according to Protestant rites. Bothwell had divorced his first wife, Jean Gordon twelve days previously.[37] Originally Mary believed she had the consent of much of her nobles regarding her marriage, but things soon turned sour between the newly elevated Bothwell and his old peers. As a result of this the Scottish nobility turned against Mary and Bothwell and raised an army against them. Mary and Bothwell confronted the Lords at Carberry Hill on 15 June, but there was no real battle (only a few duels) as Mary agreed to follow the Lords on condition that they let Bothwell go.[38] However, the Lords broke their promise, and took Mary to Edinburgh and imprisoned her in Loch Leven Castle, situated on an island in the middle of Loch Leven. Between 18 July and 24 July 1567, Mary miscarried twins. On 24 July 1567, she was also forced to abdicate the Scottish throne in favour of her one-year-old son James. On 2 May 1568, Mary escaped from Loch Leven and once again managed to raise a small army. After her army's defeat at the Battle of Langside on 13 May, she first fled South into the Dumfries area then by boat across the Solway Firth into England. Escape and imprisonment in EnglandMary landed at Workington in England on 19 May and stayed at Workington Hall. She then went into protective custody, guarded by Elizabeth's officers at Carlisle Castle. During this time, she famously had the French phrase En ma Fin gît mon Commencement ("In my end is my beginning") embroidered on her cloth of estate. Mary was moved to Bolton Castle on 16 July 1568 and remained there under the care of Henry the 9th Lord Scrope, until 26 January 1569, when she was moved to Tutbury Castle. After her long journey into England, Mary expected Elizabeth I to help her regain her throne. Elizabeth was cautious, and ordered an enquiry into the question of whether Mary should be tried for the murder of Darnley first. A conference was held in York and later Westminster between October 1568 and January 1569. The accusers were the Scottish Lords who had deposed Mary, leading them was the regent Moray (her half brother). For overriding political reasons, Elizabeth neither wished to convict Mary of murder nor acquit her of the same; the conference was intended as a political exercise. In the end Moray was allowed to return home to Scotland as its regent and Mary was not. Mary refused to acknowledge the power of any court to try her since she was an anointed Queen, and the man ultimately in charge of the prosecution, James Stewart, Earl of Moray, was ruling Scotland as regent for Mary's son King James. His chief motive was to prevent a restoration of Mary to the Scottish throne. Mary refused to offer a written defence unless Elizabeth would guarantee a verdict of not guilty, which Elizabeth would not do. Mary's Scottish accusers presented the "Casket letters" — eight letters purportedly from Mary to Bothwell, reported by James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton to have been found in Edinburgh in a silver box engraved with an F (supposedly for Francis II), along with a number of other documents, including the Mary/Bothwell marriage certificate. The outcome of the conference was that the Casket Letters were accepted by the conference as genuine after a study of the handwriting, and of the information contained therein. Yet, as Elizabeth had wished, the inquiry reached the conclusion that nothing was proven. In hindsight it seems that none of the major parties involved considered the truth to be a priority. James MacKay comments that one of the strangest "trials" in legal history ended with no finding of guilt with the result that the accusers went home to Scotland and the accused remained detained in "protective custody." Other documents scrutinised at this time included the Earl of Bothwell's divorce from Jean Gordon. Moray had sent a messenger in September to Dunbar to get a copy of the proceedings from the town's registers.[39] In 1570, Elizabeth was persuaded by representatives of Charles IX of France to promise to help Mary regain her throne. As a pre-condition, she demanded the ratification of the Treaty of Edinburgh, something Mary would even now not agree to. Nevertheless, William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley, continued negotiations with Mary on Elizabeth's behalf. In 1569, Cecil had unofficially appointed Sir Francis Walsingham to organize a secret service for the protection of the realm, particularly the Queen's person. Henceforth, Cecil as well as Walsingham would have many opportunities (and reasons) to watch Mary carefully. The Ridolfi Plot, which was a plan to depose Elizabeth with the help of Spanish troops, and to place Mary on the English throne, caused Elizabeth to reconsider. With the queen's encouragement, Parliament introduced a bill in 1571 barring Mary from the throne. Elizabeth unexpectedly refused to give it the royal assent. The furthest she ever went was in 1584, when she introduced a document (the Bond of Association) aimed at preventing any would-be successor from profiting from her murder. It was not legally binding, but was signed by thousands, including Mary herself. Elizabeth considered Mary's designs on the English throne to be a serious threat, and so kept Mary in confinement, much of it in Sheffield Castle and Sheffield Manor, in the custody of George Talbot, 6th Earl of Shrewsbury and his redoubtable wife Bess of Hardwick. Bothwell was imprisoned in Denmark, became insane, and died in 1578, still in prison. Mary was put on trial for treason by a court of about 40 noblemen, including Catholics, after being implicated in the Babington Plot by her own letters, which Sir Francis Walsingham had arranged to come straight to his hands. From these letters it was clear that Mary had sanctioned the attempted assassination of Elizabeth. Mary denied this and was spirited in her defence.[40] One of her more memorable comments from her trial was: "Look to your consciencies and remember that the theater of the whole world is wider than the kingdom of England".[41] She drew attention to the fact that she was denied the opportunity to review the evidence or her papers that had been removed from her, that she had been denied access to legal counsel, and that she had never been an English subject and thus could not be convicted of treason. The extent, if any, to which the plot was created by Sir Francis Walsingham and the English Secret Services remains open to conjecture. In a trial presided over by England's Lord Chancellor, Sir Thomas Bromley[42] and Attorney General Sir John Popham (later Lord Chief Justice), Mary was ultimately convicted of treason, and was sentenced to beheading. Although Mary had been found guilty and sentenced to death, Elizabeth hesitated to actually order her execution. She was fearful of the consequences, especially if, in revenge, Mary's son James of Scotland formed an alliance with the Catholic powers, France and Spain, and invaded England. She was also concerned about how this would affect the Divine Right of Kings. Elizabeth did ask Mary's final custodian, Amias Paulet, if he would contrive some accident to remove Mary.[43] He refused on the grounds that he would not allow such "a stain on his posterity." She did eventually sign the death warrant and entrusted it to William Davison, a privy councillor. Later, the privy council, having been summoned by Lord Burghley without Elizabeth's knowledge, decided to carry out the sentence at once before she could change her mind.[44] The scene of the execution, created by an unknown Dutch artist in 1613At Fotheringhay Castle, Northamptonshire, on 7 February 1587, Mary was told that she was to be executed the next day. She spent the last hours of her life in prayer and also writing letters and her will. She asked that her servants be released and that she be buried in France. The scaffold that was erected in the great hall was three feet tall and draped in black. It was reached by five steps and the only things on it were a disrobing stool, the block, a cushion for her to kneel on, and a bloody butcher's axe that had been previously used on animals. At her execution, on 8 February 1587, the executioners (one of whom was named Bull) knelt before her and asked forgiveness. According to a contemporaneous account by Robert Wynkfield, she replied, "I forgive you with all my heart".[45] The executioners and her two servants helped remove a black outer gown, two petticoats, and her corset to reveal a deep red chemise — the liturgical colour of martyrdom in the Catholic Church, the profession of which constantly endangered her life in the face of the rise of Protestantism. As she disrobed she smiled faintly to the executioner and said, "Never have I had such assistants to disrobe me, and never have I put off my clothes before such a company."[45] She was then blindfolded and knelt down on the cushion in front of the block. She positioned her head on the block and stretched her arms out behind her. Before she died, Fr. John Laux relates in his Church History that her last words were, "My faith is the ancient Catholic faith. It is for this faith that I give up my life. In Thee I trust, O Lord; into Thy hands I commend my spirit." In Lady Antonia Fraser's biography, Mary Queen of Scots, the author writes that it took two strikes to decapitate Mary: The first blow missed her neck and struck the back of her head, at which point the Queen's lips moved. (Her servants reported they thought she had whispered the words "Sweet Jesus.") The second blow severed the neck, except for a small bit of sinew that the executioner severed by using the axe as a saw. Robert Wynkfield recorded a detailed account of the moments leading up to Mary's execution, also describing that it took two strikes to behead the Queen. Afterward, the executioner held her head aloft and declared, "God save the Queen." At that moment, the auburn tresses in his hand came apart and the head fell to the ground, revealing that Mary had had very short, grey hair.[45] The chemise that Mary wore at her execution is displayed at Coughton Court near Alcester in Warwickshire, which was a Catholic household at that time. It has been suggested that it took three strikes to decapitate Mary instead of two. If so, then Mary would have been executed with the same number of axe strikes as Essex. It has been postulated that said number was part of a ritual devised to protract the suffering of the victim.[46] There are several (possibly apocryphal) stories told about the execution. One already mentioned and thought to be true is that, when the executioner picked up the severed head to show it to those present, it was discovered that Mary was wearing a wig. The headsman was left holding the wig, while the late queen's head rolled on the floor.[45] It was thought that she had tried to disguise the greying of her hair by wearing an auburn wig, the natural colour of her hair before her years of imprisonment began. She was 24 when first imprisoned by Protestants in Scotland, and she was 44 years of age at the time of her execution. Another well-known execution story related in Robert Wynkfield's first-hand account concerns a small dog owned by the queen, which is said to have been hiding among her skirts, unseen by the spectators. As her dress and layers of clothing were so immensely regal, it would have been easy for the tiny pet to have hidden there as she slowly made her way to the scaffold. Following the beheading, the dog refused to be parted from its owner and was covered in blood. It was finally taken away by her ladies-in-waiting and washed.[45] When the news of the execution reached Elizabeth she was extremely indignant, and her wrath was chiefly directed against Davison, who, she asserted, had disobeyed her instructions not to part with the warrant. The secretary was arrested and thrown into the Tower. He was later released, after paying a heavy fine, but his career was ruined.[47] James Stewart, Earl of Moray by Hans Eworth, 1561. Mary's half brother and regent after her abdication in 1567, he presented the Casket Letters at the York Conference in 1568.The so-called Casket Letters are widely believed to be crucial to the issue of whether Mary Queen of Scots shares the guilt for her husband Lord Darnley's murder. The letters were said to have been found in a little coffer of silver and gilt said to have been Bothwell's gift to Mary. George Buchanan described the casket as 'a small gilt coffer not fully one foot long, garnished with a Roman letter 'F' under a king's crown.'[48] The original letters were presented at York, by Moray's colleagues George Buchanan, Maitland and James MacGill of Nether Rankeillour. Thomas Howard, 4th Duke of Norfolk, described them as horrible letters and diverse fond ballads, and sent copies to Elizabeth, saying that if they really were hers they might prove her guilt in the murder of Darnley.[49] The authenticity of the Casket Letters has been the source of much controversy among historians. It is impossible now to prove the case of the letters' authenticity either way. The originals of the Casket Letters were probably destroyed in 1584 by King James.[50] The copies available in various collections do not form a complete set. The originals were in French; only one French copy is extant, the others are contemporaneous translations into Scots and English. The letters are, however, only one detail of the whole problem, and even if they are accepted as fake, this fact in itself does not constitute an "acquittal" of Mary, as long as other aspects of the case are not taken into account. Mary argued that her handwriting was not difficult to imitate, and it has frequently been suggested either that the letters are complete forgeries, that incriminating passages were inserted before the inquiry of York in 1568, or that the letters were written to Bothwell by some other person. Well-respected biographers of Mary such as Lady Antonia Fraser, James MacKay, and John Guy have all come to the conclusion that they were forged. Guy has actually examined the Elizabethan transcripts of the letters rather than relying upon later printed copies.[41] He points out that the letters are disjointed. He also draws attention to the fact that the French version of one of the letters is bad in its use of language and grammar. Guy implies that a woman with Mary's education would not write in this way. However, it has also been maintained, that certain phrases of the letters (including verses in the style of Ronsard) and certain stylistical characteristics would be compatible with known writings of Mary.[51] Another point made by commentators is that the Casket Letters did not appear until the Conference of York in 1568. Mary had been forced to abdicate in 1567 and held captive for the best part of a year in Scotland. There was every reason for these letters to be made public to support her imprisonment and forced abdication. The historian Jenny Wormald believes this reluctance on the part of the Scots to produce the letters, and their destruction in 1584, whatever their content, is a proof that they contained real evidence against Mary.[52] At least some of the contemporaries who saw the letters at the York Conference had no doubt that the letters were genuine. Among them was Thomas Howard, Duke of Norfolk,[53] a later suitor and co-conspirator of Mary. When Queen Elizabeth alluded to his marriage plans with Mary, Norfolk remarked that "he meant never to marry with a person, where he could not be sure of his pillow".[54] Tomb of Mary at Westminster AbbeyThough Mary has not been canonised by the Catholic Church, many consider her a martyr, and there are relics of her. Her prayer book was long shown in France. Her apologist published, in an English journal, a sonnet which Mary was said to have composed, written with her own hand in this book. A celebrated German actress, Frau Hendel-Schutz, who excited admiration by her attitudes, and performed Friedrich Schiller's "Maria Stuart" with great applause in several German cities, affirmed that a cross which she wore on her neck was the very same that once belonged to the unfortunate queen. Relics of this description have never yet been subjected to the proof of their authenticity. If there is anything which may be reasonably believed to have once been the property of the queen, it is the veil with which she covered her head on the scaffold, after the executioner had wounded the unfortunate victim in the shoulder by a false blow (whether from awkwardness or confusion is uncertain). This veil came into the possession of Sir John Coxe Hippisley, who claimed to be descended from the House of Stuart on his mother's side. In 1818, he had an engraving made from it by Matteo Diottavi in Rome and gave copies to his friends. However, the eagerness with which the executioners burned her clothing and the executioners' block may mean that it will never be possible to be certain. The veil is embroidered with gold spangles by (as is said) the queen's own hand, in regular rows crossing each other, so as to form small squares, and edged with a gold border, to which another border has been subsequently joined, in which the following words are embroidered in letters of gold: "Velum Serenissimæ Mariæ, Scotiæ et Galliæ Reginæ Martyris, quo induebatur dum ab Heretica ad mortem iniustissimam condemnata fuit. Anno Sal. MDLXXXVI. a nobilissima matrona Anglicana diu conservatum et tandem, donationis ergo Deo et Societati Jesu consecratum."[55] Mary's personal breviary, which she took with her to the scaffold, is preserved in the National Library of Russia of St. Petersburg.On the plate there is an inscription, with a double certificate of its authenticity, which states, that this veil, a family treasure of the expelled house of Stuart, was finally in possession of the last branch of that family, Henry Benedict Stuart, the Cardinal of York, who preserved it for many years in his private chapel, among the most precious relics, and at his death bequeathed it to Sir John Coxe Hippisley, together with a valuable Plutarch, a Codex with painted (illuminated) letters, and a gold coin struck in Scotland during Mary's reign. The plate was specially consecrated by Pope Pius VII in his palace on the Quirinal Hill on 29 April 1818. Hippisley, during a former residence at Rome, had been very intimate with the cardinal of York, and was instrumental in obtaining for him, when he with the other cardinals emigrated to Venice in 1798, a pension of £4,000 a year from King George IV of the United Kingdom, then Prince of Wales. But for the pension, the fugitive cardinal, whose revenues were all seized by the forces of the French Revolution, would have been exposed to the greatest distress. The cardinal desired to requite this service by the bequest of what he considered so valuable. According to a note on the plate, the veil is eighty-nine English inches long and forty-three broad, so that it seems to have been rather a kind of shawl or scarf than a veil. Melville in his Memoirs, which Schiller had read, speaks of a handkerchief belonging to the queen, which she gave away before her death, and Schiller founds upon this anecdote the well-known words of the farewell scene, addressed to Hannah Kennedy. "Accept this handkerchief! with my own hand For thee I've work'd it in my hours of sadness And interwoven with my scalding tears: With this thou'lt bind my eyes." The Scottish privy council retained wide judicial, legislative and administrative powers. Appointed 6 September 1561, following Mary's return to Scotland from France, the council was dominated by the Protestant leaders from the reformation crisis of 1559–1560 and retained those who already held the offices of state. The modern historian, Jenny Wormald, found this remarkable, suggesting that Mary's inaction, rather than appointing a council sympathetic to Catholic and French interest, is an indication of the Scottish queen's focus on the goal of the English throne over the internal problems of Scotland. Even the one significant later addition to the council, in December 1563, Patrick Ruthven, 3rd Lord Ruthven, was another Protestant who Mary personally disliked.[56] The councillors were: Lord James Stewart, (later Earl of Moray) William Maitland of Lethington – Secretary of State James Hepburn, 4th Earl of Bothwell – Lord High Admiral of Scotland George Gordon, 4th Earl of Huntly – Lord Chancellor James Hamilton, Duc de Châtellerault, 2nd Earl of Arran – Heir to the throne Archibald Campbell, 5th Earl of Argyll – Lord Justice General James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton John Stewart, 4th Earl of Atholl Alexander Cunningham, 4th Earl of Glencairn George Hay, 7th Earl of Erroll William Graham, 2nd Earl of Montrose William Keith, 4th Earl Marischal John Erskine, 6th Lord Erskine, (later Earl of Mar) Robert Richardson – Lord High Treasurer James MacGill of Nether Rankeillour – Lord Clerk Register Sir John Bellenden of Auchinoul – Lord Justice Clerk Bibliography A. Fraser, Mary Queen of Scots, 1969 M. Lynch, ed., Mary Stuart: Queen in Three Kingdoms, 1988 J. Wormald, Mary Queen of Scots: A Study in Failure, 1988. James, Frank A.. "Mary Stuart of Scotland." Religion Past and Present. Brill Online, 2013. < http://referenceworks.brillonline.com/entries/religion-past-and-present/mary-stuart-of-scotland-SIM_13587 > Links http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mary,_Queen_of_Scots "Fotheringhay: Mary's execution (8 February 1597) Thus died Queen Mary, aged a little above forty-four years. She was eminent for beauty, for talents, and accomplishments, nor is there reason to doubt her natural goodness of heart, and courageous manliness of disposition. Yet she was, in every sense, one of the most unhappy Princesses that ever lived, from the moment when she came into the world, in an hour of defeat and danger, to that in which a bloody and violent death closed a weary captivity of eighteen years." Tales of a Grandfather, Chapter XXXIII" "On the evening of 7 February, the Earl of Shrewsbury went into Mary's room and read out her death warrant. She took the news with serenity. Next morning she was led to the Great Hall, where a scaffold had been erected overnight. There were some three hundred people waiting inside, in absolute silence. Mary was wearing a long black dress over a red petticoat; beneath her gown, unseen by the guards, trotted one of her pet dogs, a litle Skye terrier. On the scaffold she announced proudly, 'I am settled in the ancient Catholic Roman religion, and mind to spend my blood in defence of it.' Her gown, cap and veil were removed. One of her ladies-in-waiting bound a gold-embroidered cloth over her eyes and round her head. With that she knelt and calmly placed her head on the block.She commended her soul to God, loudly and often.After two strokes of the axe she was dead." Scotland: The Story of a Nation, Magnus Magnusson. Grove Press, New York, 2000, 380. Catherine Carmichael, daughter of Sir John Carmichael of Meadowflat, captain of Crawford Castle, became the mistress of King James V. The king built the castle of Crawfordjohn in Clydesdale in 1528 for her, and as a place for them to meet undisturbed. She bore him a son, John Stewart (6th Earl of Bothwell), and a daughter Mary, who were half-brother and half-sister to Mary, Queen of Scots. To see a picture of Mary's death mask: http://www.britannia.com/history/chouses/lennoxlove.html =An infant queen= The relations of England, Scotland, and France in the mid-sixteenth century were strongly based on religious loyalties and conflicts. Protestant rulers prevailed in England, while the Catholic powers of France and Scotland became allies. Mary Stuart (the future Mary, Queen of Scots) was the third child of King James V (1512–1542) and Mary of Guise, the rulers of Scotland. Both of her brothers had died before she was born at Linlithgow Palace in Linlithgow, Scotland, in December of 1542. Her father died only a week after her birth, and the infant princess became Mary, Queen of Scots. The period following the death of James V was an unhappy one for Scotland. In 1547 an English invasion led to the military occupation of the country. One of the chief results of this action was Scotland's tighter alliance with France. As a result, when Mary was five, the Scottish court arranged for her marriage to the four-yearold dauphin (heir to the throne) of France, the future King Francis II. She was sent to France immediately. In France, Mary grew up with her future husband. The two children became close friends, though she was the more outgoing and energetic of the two. Mary was educated with the dauphin and the other French royal children. She appears to have been a quick and able student whose charming personality had a great impact on all around her. Meanwhile, Mary's home country of Scotland was under heavy French influence. Mary's mother, Mary of Guise, was appointed regent (the title given to someone who rules when the legal king or queen is absent, too young, or too ill to take the throne). Her government placed many Frenchmen in positions of power. Encouraged by Protestants in that country, a feeling of resentment against the French grew in Scotland. =Queen of France= In April 1558, at age fifteen, Mary married Francis. In November of the same year the Queen of England, Mary Tudor, died. Mary Stuart made a claim to the English throne, basing the claim on the fact that she was the great-granddaughter of the English king Henry VII and on the grounds that Elizabeth had been declared illegitimate (the child of an unmarried couple). Mary's claim had no effect, and Elizabeth became queen (taking the title Elizabeth I) without opposition in England. However, Mary and Francis assumed the royal titles of England and Ireland, calling themselves the rightful rulers of those countries. They continued to use these titles when they became the rulers of France in July 1559. After taking the throne, Mary's husband, Francis II, ruled in France for only a little over a year, dying in December 1560. In 1561, Mary returned to Scotland, attempting to reassert her power there. Protestants had gained power in Scotland while Mary was absent, but she intended to renew Catholic influence in her county. =Rule in Scotland= Elizabeth I's policy toward Mary was confusing. She saw that Mary was a threat, but she was unwilling to question the authority of another legitimate ruler (a king or queen who has a clear legal claim to the throne). Her policy shifted between attacking Mary when she was strong and aiding her when she was weak. For some seven years Mary held her position as queen of Scotland, but her permanent success in this position was unlikely, since Mary was clearly in conflict with important elements in Scotland. In July 1565 Mary married for political purposes, rather than love. Mary became the wife of Henry, Lord Darnley, a move which strengthened her claims as heir to the throne of England, since Darnley was related to the English royal line. However, the marriage had somewhat different political results from those Mary hoped for. The Protestant lords of Scotland rebelled, led by the Earl of Moray and with support from Queen Elizabeth. Mary was able to halt this threat by military force, but she could not prevent the harm done by the unpleasant personality of Darnley himself. She turned for comfort to her Italian secretary, David Riccio. Darnley, in turn, formed an alliance with the Protestant lords. On March 9, 1566, Darnley and the nobles dragged Riccio from Mary's room and murdered him. Within a short period, Moray and the other exiled rebel leaders had returned. =Darnley's murder= Though Mary gave birth to a son (the later James VI of Scotland and James I of England) in June 1566, she was never close to Darnley again. Instead, she secretly became close to one of the Protestant lords, the Earl of Bothwell. In February 1567 Darnley was murdered when the house in which he had been staying was destroyed by a violent explosion, and evidence suggested that Mary and Bothwell had plotted Darnley's death. Suspicions against Mary were strengthened when she did little to investigate the murder, allowed herself to be kidnapped by Bothwell, and then married him in May 1567. The events led to a Scottish civil war, during which Mary was captured and forced to abdicate (give up the throne). After close to a year of confinement, she escaped and once again raised a group of supporters. After these supporters were defeated at the Battle of Langside (May 13, 1568), Mary crossed the border into England on May 16, 1568. She was now a refugee from the Scotland she had tried to rule. =Elizabeth and Mary= Mary's move had placed Elizabeth in an awkward position. Elizabeth was not in favor of having the Catholic claimant to the English throne so close. But she also did not want to use English military force against the Scottish Protestants on Mary's behalf, and she did not wish Mary to take refuge in some Catholic court in another country. Elizabeth was also troubled by her own feelings about the divine nature of a monarch (the belief that a legitimate king or queen's power was a "divine right" to rule given by God). If Mary could be robbed of her divine right to rule, that seemed to suggest that Elizabeth could be removed from the throne by force as well. Elizabeth decided, in a sense, to sit in judgment on Mary's case. A English commission met and ruled that the rebel government of Moray in Scotland was to remain in place for the time being, and that Mary was to remain in England. Mary lived in England for the rest of her life and was virtually a prisoner there. Soon after her arrival, she became the center of Catholic plots to unseat Elizabeth. Although she was closely watched by the authorities, she continued to plan with her Catholic allies to escape and take the English throne. In some cases Mary played a direct part in these plans; in others she was simply the cause for which the rebels gathered. However, in 1586 the English government uncovered the details of yet another plot, with evidence that included a letter from Mary that consented to the assassination (murder) of Elizabeth. Orders were given for Mary's trial, and she was found guilty in October 1586. Parliament (the English houses of government) demanded Mary's execution, and she was put to death on February 8, 1587. Although Elizabeth seemed greatly displeased by this event in public, realistically she knew that the action was necessary. With Mary's death, the center of Catholic plotting against Elizabeth was removed. Read more: Queen of Scots Mary Biography - life, children, death, wife, mother, young, son, information, born, husband, house http://www.notablebiographies.com/Ma-Mo/Mary-Queen-of-Scots.html#ixzz1dYuTYCoW	Lord Darnley
Published in 1968, what was the four word title of the autobiography of the gay icon Quentin Crisp ?	henry stuart lord darnley : definition of henry stuart lord darnley and synonyms of henry stuart lord darnley (English) Kirk o' Field , Edinburgh , Scotland Henry Stewart or Stuart, 1st Duke of Albany (7 December 1545 — 10 February 1567), styled Lord Darnley before 1565, was king consort of Scotland and murdered at Kirk o'Field . Many contemporary narratives describing his life and death refer to him as Lord Darnley, his title as heir apparent to the Earldom of Lennox , and it is by this appellation that he is now generally known. [1] He was the second but eldest surviving son of Matthew Stewart , thirteenth or fourth Earl of Lennox (1516–1571), and his wife, Lady Margaret Douglas . Darnley's maternal grandparents were Archibald Douglas , sixth Earl of Angus , and Margaret Tudor , daughter of Henry VII of England, and widow of James IV , king of Scots. It is the common belief that Henry Stewart was born on the 7th of December, but this is disputed. He was a first cousin and the second husband of Mary, Queen of Scots , and the father of her son King James VI , who also succeeded Queen Elizabeth I of England as King James I of England [2] . Contents Early life A young Henry Stuart, future King of Scots Darnley was born in 1545, at Temple Newsam , Leeds , in the West Riding of Yorkshire , England. Through his parents he had claims to both the Scottish and English thrones, as he was descended from both James II of Scotland and Henry VII that he was brought up conscious of his status and his inheritance. Lord Darnley was home-schooled and raised well-educated in all his exercises. He became well-versed in the language of Latin and grew up familiar with the Scots, English and French languages under instruction of his tutors John Elder and Arthur Lallart. He excelled on other levels, including singing, lute playing, and dancing. Darnley also was physically strong and athletic which made him into a good horseman with knowledge of weapons and a passion for hunting and hawking. Darnley's father had been declared guilty of treason for his part in the ‘rough wooing’, and his Scottish estates were forfeited in 1545. [2] His father lived in exile in England for 22 years, returning to Scotland in 1564. [3] His tutors included the Protestant Scottish scholar, John Elder. Elder had been an advocate of Anglo-Scottish union by the marriage of Mary, Queen of Scots , to Prince Edward , and gave his opinions to Henry VIII as the Advice of a Redshank in 1543. [4] Another of his schoolmasters, Arthur Lallart, was interrogated in London after going to Scotland in 1562. [5] Darnley wrote a letter to Mary I of England from Temple Newsam in March 1554 mentioning a drama or map he had made, the Utopia Nova. Darnley wished, "every haire in my heade for to be a wourthy souldiour". [6] In September 1564, the Scottish Parliament restored his father's rights and titles, and listened to a lengthy speech from William Maitland who offered; "it may be affirmid Scotland in na manis age that presentlie levis wes in gritter tranquillitie." [7] Marriage in Scotland On 3 February 1565 Darnley left London and by 12 February he was in Edinburgh. On 17 February he presented himself to Mary at Wemyss Castle, Fife. (citation). Melville reported that ‘Her Majesty took well with him, and said that he was the lustiest and best proportioned long man that she had seen’ (Memoirs of His Own Life, 134). After a brief visit to his father at Dunkeld, Darnley returned with Mary and the court to Holyrood on 24 February. The next day he heard John Knox preach, and he danced a galliard with Mary at night. From then on he was constantly in Mary's company. [2] On 15 May 1565, Darnley was created knight of Tarbolton, Lord Ardmannoch, and Earl of Ross, swearing allegiance to Mary and this was the beginning of the couple’s engagement. The marriage of Henry Stewart to Mary Queen of Scots was dynastically ideal for the kingdom. it avoided the uncertainty of a foreign match and promised a monarchy free of England and France, while strengthening the Scottish claim to the English throne. Then on 22 July Darnley was made Duke of Albany in the abbey of Holyrood house and the banns of marriage were called in the parish of Canongate. A proclamation was made at the Mercat Cross on 28 July that government would be in the joint names of the king and queen of Scots, thus giving Darnley equality with, and precedence over, Mary. This was confirmed in the circulation of a silver ryal in the names of Henry and Mary. On 29 July 1565 the marriage took place by Roman Catholic rites in Mary's private chapel at Holyrood, after which Darnley left Mary to hear the nuptial mass alone. [2] Lord Darnley’s religious beliefs were unstable as he was raised Roman Catholic but during his later years became influenced by Protestantism. [8] This led to Darnley’s refusal of accompanying Mary on their wedding day in Mass, leaving her to hear the nuptial mass alone. [2] Darnley was related to his future wife in at least four ways: they shared a grandmother in English princess Margaret Tudor , daughter of King Henry VII of England and the elder sister of Henry VIII (Mary descending from Margaret's marriage to James IV of Scotland , Darnley from Margaret's marriage to Archibald Douglas, 6th Earl of Angus ), putting both Mary and Darnley high in the line of succession for the English throne; Darnley was a descendant of a daughter of James II of Scotland and thus also in line for the throne of Scotland; both were descendants of Joan Beaufort, Queen of Scotland (Mary through Joan's marriage to James I of Scotland , Darnley through her marriage to Sir James Stewart, the Black Knight of Lorn , and their family surname was due to a much more ancient connection to his and Mary's male-line ancestor, Alexander Stewart, 4th High Steward of Scotland . As a preliminary to the marriage, Darnley was made Lord of Ardmanoch, and Earl of Ross at Stirling Castle on 15 May 1565. An entourage of 15 men were made knights, including Sir Robert Stewart of Strathdon , one of Mary's half brothers. The title of Duke of Albany was to follow. [9] In England a concerned Privy Council debated the perils of the intended marriage on 4 June 1565. One of their resolutions was to relax the displeasure shown to Lady Catherine Grey , another rival to Mary Stuart for the English throne. [10] Mary sent John Hay, Commendator of Balmerino, to speak to Elizabeth, and Elizabeth demanded Darnley's return, and gave John Hay plainly to understand her small satisfaction. [11] The marriage itself took place on Monday 9 July 1565, [12] in the Chapel-Royal of the Palace of Holyroodhouse in Edinburgh . On 28 July 1565 Darnley was given the title of King of Scots at a proclamation published at the Cross of Edinburgh. [13] At the same time, it was announced that all official documents would be signed by both Mary and Henry. [14] These events were tracked in the letters of Thomas Randolph , an English resident in Edinburgh. [15] The Lennox Crisis The Lennox crisis arose from the dynastic ambition of the Lennoxes: Matthew Stewart, fourth Earl of Lennox , third in line to the Scottish throne, his wife Margaret Douglas, niece to Henry VIII and granddaughter of Henry VII, and their son, Henry, Lord Darnley. [16] Sarah Macauley states in her article that the Lennoxes were Roman Catholic, adding: "At a time when Elizabeth was trying to accommodate everyone under the spiritual umbrella of the Church of England, their resistance could prove fatal to her policy, and, if they achieved enough support, even her majesty. The Lennox threat became a brief crisis during the first three years of Elizabeth's reign when the possibility of a Roman Catholic backlash was understandably viewed as a likely response to her policies." [16] The Lennoxes put spies on Mary and their own son, Lord Darnley. When Henri II of France died in July 1559, Lennox's brother, the Sieur d'Aubigny, elevated in the French court as kinsman of the new Queen, Mary, was accused of supporting her title to the throne of England and hinting that even his nephew had a stronger claim than Elizabeth. Aubigny also arranged for Darnley to be dispatched to the French Court in order to congratulate Mary and Francis on their accession and seek restoration for Lennox. Mary did not restore Lennox, but she did give 1000 crowns to Darnley and asked him to her coronation. [17] Lennox's plan was to appeal directly to the Queen of Scots via her ambassador, above the heads of both Elizabeth and the Guise. Nesbit's mission appears to have been a desperate one; not only was Lennox willing to hand over both Darnley and his brother Charles as hostages for his restoration, but he also supplied pedigrees of Darnley, indicating his right to the inheritance of England and Scotland, and the houses of Hamilton and Douglas. [18] Nesbit was a spy assigned to watch Mary and Darnley, another spy was John Elder, who had accompanied Lennox into England in 1544 and who was responsible for Darnley's fine penmanship and precocious writings to Mary Tudor and the Bishop of Caithness. Elder had presented Mary Tudor with samples of Darnley's hand, and a fanciful map of 'New Utopia'. Elder was a useful emissary for the Lennoxes, and may well have been encouraged by them to establish himself in France. He certainly continued to serve his former patrons in their endeavour to ingratiate themselves and their heir with the Scottish Queen. In 1559, Nicholas Throckmorton , the English ambassador in Paris, alarmed at the Scots' associations, warned Elizabeth that Elder was "as dangerous for the matters of England as any he knew." [19] Sarah Macauley notes, "After the Queen of Scots, Lord Darnley was the strongest dynastic claimant to Elizabeth's throne. He was also the natural choice for many of Elizabeth's enemies as male, English born and Catholic. Paget supposed in March 1560 that talk of the Catholics raising Darnley to the throne in the event of the Queen's death was 'well founded'".[ citation needed ] By the summer of the same year Elizabeth's position was considerably strengthened. [20] A notable spy who was interrogated was Francis Yaxley , a Catholic, who had been a clerk of the Signet, employed by William Cecil since 1549 and travelled in France for him. [21] Yaxley had placed Mabel Fortescue and other ladies as servants in the Lennox household at Settrington in November 1560. [22] Yaxley's interrogation at the Tower of London in February 1562 was a brief one; "Yaxley had obtained much intelligence about the Court from the Spanish ambassador, and that the said ambassador had entrusted him and Hugh Allen with messages and tokens for the Lennoxes and Darnley. Yaxley also admitted that his missions had been sought to arrange the marriage of the Queen of Scots with Darnley, that Darnley's religion guaranteed him greater success in his suit than the Earl of Arran, and that Margaret had many friends 'in the nurtht.'" [23] Although the Lennox threat never died out, Elizabeth did not convict the family of treason in 1562. Nor did she encourage the steps made to annul Margaret's claim to her throne by inquiring into her legitimacy. "Perhaps, as has been suggested, the English Queen feared that such investigations could be directed at herself, or her actions were intended merely to ensure the survival of the monarchy by not reducing the number of potential heirs. In any case, the family was released in February 1563, and within a few months Darnley and his mother were conspicuous by their presence at Court, and the favour they received there from the Queen, although she could not yet bring herself to accommodate the Earl at Court." [24] Sarah Macauley found three outcomes of the courts' final decision of the trial: "Their elevation at Court was, as it turned out in 1563, a useful complication in the succession issue. First, it presented a public statement that the preferences of parliament (the claim of Catherine Grey in the succession crisis) could not dictate her own policy. Secondly, favouring the Lennoxes could serve as some kind of appeasement of the English Roman Catholics, who, like the Spanish ambassador, might foresee Elizabeth naming Darnley as her successor ... [S]uch speculation would also distract them from favouring the more alarming claim of the Queen of Scots ... [T]hirdly, and most significantly, the elevation of the Lennoxes presented an obstacle between the Queen of Scots and the English throne. Thus was Darnley's uniquely 'British' inheritance put to use at last." [24] In conclusion, Macauley posited, “The subsequent release of Darnley into Scotland and the restoration of his father at the Scottish Court were part of this policy: the political disaster of the Darnley marriage as yet unforeseen." [25] Estrangement Soon after Mary became married to Darnley she became aware of his vain, arrogant and unreliable qualities that concerned the well-being of the state. Henry was three years younger than Mary (their birthdays were only a day apart) and not particularly mature. He was unpopular with the other nobles and had a mean and violent streak, aggravated by a drinking problem. [1] Already in August 1565, William Cecil heard that Darnley's insolence drove Lennox from the Scottish court. A main problem surrounding the couple’s marriage was Mary’s refusal to grant Darnley the Crown matrimonial. If granted, this would have carried him with succession to the throne should Mary died childless. [26] Within a short time, Mary became pregnant. According to the English diplomats Thomas Randolph and the Earl of Bedford , the murder of David Rizzio (who was rumored to be the father of Mary's unborn child) was Darnley’s own addition to the plot of winning over the crown matrimonial. Darnley also made a band with his allies to advance his claim to the crown-matrimonial in the Parliament of Scotland in return for restoring their lands and titles. [27] With Mary was 6 months pregnant, Darnley, along with other Protestant reformers, may have planned for Rizzio's murder to have deathly impact towards the queen and result in a miscarriage and severely damaging Mary’s health. Thus this slow death of the Queen could give her the opportunity to be persuaded into handing over the crown matrimonial to her husband. [2] It is also interesting to note that when the Spanish Ambassador in Paris heard this news, the headlines were that Darnley “had murdered his wife, admitted the exiled heretics, and seized the kingdom.” However on the 20th of March, Darnley posted a declaration denying all knowledge of or complicity in the Rizzio conspiracy. Mary no longer trusted her husband and Darnley was disgraced by the kingdom. On 27 March the Earl of Morton and Lord Ruthven , who were both present at Rizzio's murder and had fled to England, wrote to William Cecil explaining that Darnley had initiated the murder plot and recruited them, because of his "heich quarrel" and "deadly hatred" of Rizzio. [28] Mary is said to have nursed Darnley under this Plane tree at Darnley in Glasgow. [29] Following the birth of their son, the future James VI , the succession was more secure; in late 1566 and early 1567, Henry and Mary appeared to be close to reconciliation, as she was often seen visiting his chambers. Henry, however, alienated many who would otherwise have been his supporters through his erratic behavior. His insistence that he be awarded the Crown Matrimonial , which would have given him executive ruling powers in Scotland, became a source of marital frustration as well. Death 1567 drawing of Kirk o' Field after the murder of Henry Stuart, Lord Darnley drawn for Cecil ( William Cecil, 1st Baron Burghley ) shortly after the murder. On 10 February 1567, the bodies of Henry and his servant at the time were discovered in the orchard of Kirk o' Field , Edinburgh , where they had been staying. Within the weeks leading up to the murder, Lord Darnley had been healing after a bout of smallpox or speculated syphilis, as he was described having deformed pocks upon his face and body. He was staying with his family in Glasgow, until Mary brought him to their estate Kirk o' Field in Edinburgh, Scotland. She brought him to Kirk O'Field with the intention of incorporating him into the court system again. [30] Darnley stayed in Edinburgh while Mary attended the wedding of one of her friends. Around 2 am on the night of February 10, 1567, while Mary was away two explosions rocked the foundation of Kirk O'Field. These explosions later attributed to two barrels of gun powder that had been placed in the small room under Lord Darnley's sleeping quarters. This, however, was not what killed Lord Darnley; his body, along with the body of his valet William Taylour, was found outside of the estate. Surrounding Henry and his servant was a cloak, a dagger, a chair and a coat. Henry was dressed only in his nightshirt, suggesting he had fled in some haste from his bedchamber. After an examination of Darnley and his valet's body it was later determined that they did not show any signs of injuries that could be associated with the explosion. This showed that it was not the explosion that killed him. It was determined that they were killed by strangulation. This is believed to have taken place before the explosion. Before the execution of Morton, he admitted having knowledge of Darnley's murder. Morton claimed Bothwell and Douglas were "chief actors" in the murder of Lord Darnley. [31] A soldier under the pay of the Earl, William Blackadder of the Clan Blackadder was allegedly the first non-participant to happen upon the scene, and for that reason was initially treated as a suspect. Although initially cleared of any involvement in the murder, he was offered up by the conspirators and convicted at a show trial, after which he was executed by being hanged, drawn and quartered before each of his limbs was nailed to the gates of a different Scottish town. Aftermath Suspicion fell on the Earl of Bothwell and his supporters, notably Archibald Douglas, Parson of Douglas , whose shoes were found at the scene, and Mary herself. Bothwell had long been suspected of having designs on the throne, and his close relationship with the queen gave rise to rumours they were sexually intimate. This was seen as a reason for Bothwell to have Darnley murdered, with help from some of the nobility, and seemingly with royal approval. the queen had been looking at options for removing Darnley, though her ideas were for divorce, and none were suitable. Not Long after darnley's death, Bothwell is believed to kidnapped the queen, taking her to Dunbar Castle and was subsequently raped by the Earl who, knowing that her Catholic faith would command her to marry him, used her as an access route to the throne. She would later miscarry twins by him. Rumours since have said the queen was a willing participant in the kidnapping, and the story of rape a fabrication, so her honour and reputation were not ruined by her marriage to the widely suspected murderer. Suspicions that Mary colluded with conspirators in her husband's death or that she took no action to prevent his death were key factors in the downward spiral that led to Mary's loss of the Scottish crown. The casket letters , alleged to have been written by Mary, seemed to indicate her support for the killing. The letters were purportedly found by James Douglas, 4th Earl of Morton in Edinburgh in a silver box engraved with an F (supposedly for Francis II), along with a number of other documents, including the Mary-Bothwell marriage certificate. [32] Not long after that, both Mary and the Earl were charged with Henry's murder. They were given separate trials in England. The Earl of Bothwell was found not guilty. Mary’s trial took longer, ending with no definitive finding. Mary was kept in captivity until she was implicated in the Babington plot plot against Elizabeth, after which she was convicted of treason and executed. [33] Titles, styles, honours and arms Titles and styles 7 December 1545 – 15 May 1565: Master of Lennox (Scotland); Lord Darnley (English title) 15 May – 20 July 1565: The Earl of Ross and Lord of Ardmanach. [34] 20–28 July 1565: The Duke of Albany 28 July 1565 – 10 February 1567: His Grace The King of Scots Honours February 1565: Order of Saint Michael , awarded by King Charles IX of France . [35] In popular culture Timothy Dalton played the part of Darnley in the movie Mary, Queen of Scots , starring Vanessa Redgrave . Darnley is portrayed as a snivelling, pathetic character who marries Mary as part of a plot by Elizabeth I ( Glenda Jackson ) to weaken Mary's claim to the English throne. Dalton portrays Darnley as a bisexual who even beds the Queen's advisor, David Rizzio ( Ian Holm ), but later falls out with Rizzio and has him murdered by other plotters (referred to in the film as the Lords of the Congregation). Darnley then mourns the death of his former lover. A plot to murder Darnley is later planned and carried out by Lord Bothwell ( Nigel Davenport ), Mary's illegitimate half-brother Lord Moray ( Patrick McGoohan ), and the various Scottish Lords who participated in the murder of Rizzio ( Huntly , Morton , Falconside, and others). The plot is depicted in the film as having Mary's tacit approval. Rizzio's murder at Holyroodhouse is also a crucial plot point in The Italian Secretary , a Sherlock Holmes - pastiche by Caleb Carr . The years of Darnley's marriage to Mary, including the murder of David Rizzio and Darnley's subsequent suspicious death, are covered in Jesse Blackadder's historical novel, The Raven's Heart, HaperCollins (Australia) Pty (2011) Ancestors	i don't know
On how many occasions did Jimmy Connors win the men’s singles title at Wimbledon ?	History - 1990s - The Championships, Wimbledon 2017 - Official Site by IBM READ MORE 1990: A record for Navratilova On a sunny Saturday afternoon, Martina Navratilova produced a near-flawless performance to win her ninth Wimbledon singles title, a record that will take some topping in today's day and age. Competing against fellow American Zina Garrison, Navratilova served and volleyed her way around Centre Court in emphatic fashion, dropping just five games as she took the title 6-1, 6-4. The 33-year-old Navratilova won six consecutive championships from 1982 to 1987 but was made to wait before surpassing Helen Wills Moody's record of eight titles, losing the previous two years in the final to Steffi Graf. But, with Graf disposed of by Garrison in the semi-finals, Navratilova got there eventually, straddling the net to acknowledge her beaten opponent and then, her courtside courtesies complete, sinking down on her knees for an instant of silent communion with the tennis court she loves best. "There were no glitches this time; everything came up nines," she said. "This tops it all, absolutely, because I've worked so hard." 1990: Boris Becker v Stefan Edberg The most defining aspect of the rivalry between Boris Becker and Stefan Edberg was the three successive Wimbledon finals they contested between 1988 and 1990. Having split the titles in '88 and '89, their 1990 encounter was undoubtedly the most riveting. Edberg, who had been routed by Boris the year before, swept ahead, crunching through the first two sets 6-2, 6-2. But, as was his wont, Becker rallied in typical fashion to win the next two sets 6-3, 6-3, and send the match into a fifth. Becker broke Edberg early in the fifth set, on course for a fourth Wimbledon title, and setting up the possibility of being the first Wimbledon champion to win the last three sets in a five-set match since Henri Cochetin 1927. But, it was not to be. Edberg regained the break and then broke Becker in the ninth game of the set with a topspin lob winner, eventually serving it out for his second Wimbledon title. The Swede went on to win the US Open in 1991 and 1992. 1991: Steffi Graf v Gabriela Sabatini One of SW19's greatest champions arrived at Wimbledon in 1991 having suffered rather a seesaw period, registering one of the worst defeats of her career against Arantxa Sanchez Vicario in the French Open semi-finals, losing her first 6-0 set since 1984. But, as is so often the case, the green grass of the All England Club gave the formerly indomitable German a boost, powering her way to the final. Coming up against friend and rival Gabriela Sabatini, the odds on form were in the Argentine's favour, having beaten Graf in four tournaments in the spring. But Graf was always capable of something special at Wimbledon, and so it proved, the German rallying back from dropping the second set, and holding her nerve to win an epic Centre Court final 6-4 3-6 8-6, the longest final for 15 years. 1991: Middle Sunday One of the wettest first weeks in the tournament's history - just 52 out of about 240 matches were completed by Thursday evening - prompted the decision to stage play on the traditional day off, the Middle Sunday. Gabriela Sabatini and Andrea Strnadova emerged from their dressing room on to Centre Court for their third-round noon showdown. They were greeted by a packed stadium, a seemingly unending roar and enough Mexican waves to fill an ocean. The spectators had raced from the gates for prime, £10-a-head unreserved seats. They had formed part of a queue snaking almost two miles that produced an attendance of 24,894. On No.1 Court, John McEnroe, a three-time champion, did not disappoint his adoring fans with a victory against Frenchman Jean-Philippe Fleurian, while victories for eventual Swedish semi-finalist Stefan Edberg and Arantxa Sanchez Vicario warmed up the effervescent crowd on the main court for the top of the bill: Jimmy Connors. Despite thriving on the atmosphere, Connors was eventually upstaged by fellow American Derrick Rostango, but the atmosphere overtook the results that day. 1992: Andre Agassi v Goran Ivanisevic They said that he couldn't win Wimbledon, and certainly not by playing resolutely pinned to the baseline. But Andre Agassi wasn't having that. Defeating Goran Ivanisevic 6-7(8), 6-4, 6-4, 1-6, 6-4 for the Wimbledon title, the Las Vegan erased the stigma of his previous Grand Slam failures, becoming the first back-of-the-court player to win the title since Bjorn Borg, and the first American to win Wimbledon since John McEnroe in 1984. Illustrating that thundering groundstrokes can be just as important as booming serves, the flamboyant American stood firm throughout a Wimbledon final record onslaught of 37 aces from the 6’4” Croatian, waiting for his chances, and eventually breaking Ivanisevic three times in the match. One of the remarkable statistics was the fact that Ivanisevic came to the net 91 times, not uncommon on grass, but was passed by Agassi an astounding 26 times. "So many things were going through my mind - Wimbledon champion, Grand Slam winner, a lot of months and years of people doubting me," he said. 1992: John McEnroe v Michael Stich John McEnroe collected his fifth Wimbledon men's doubles title as he and Michael Stich beat Americans Jim Grabb and Richie Reneberg 5-7, 7-6(5), 3-6, 7-6(5), 19-17 in a record-breaking final. McEnroe had been dumped out of the singles by the sprightly Andre Agassi in the semi-finals, and so his and Stich's performance, in the longest men's doubles final since the 1968 Roche and Newcombe victory over Rosewall and Stolle, certainly made amends. Held over from Saturday because of fading light, the match was moved to Court 1 on the final Sunday, the All England Club allowing 7,500 fans into the Grounds for free. After 34 games in the final set had gone with serve, McEnroe produced a stunningly disguised lob to bring up match point, followed by Reneberg dumping Super Brat's serve into the net. Stich grabbing McEnroe around the waist and lifting him into the air, the unseeded pair triumphed after five hours and one minute. 1993: The Long Term Plan In March 1993, The All England Lawn Tennis Club unveiled its Long Term Plan, the blueprint to take Wimbledon into the 21st Century by providing the finest facilities for all those involved with the event — spectators, players, media, officials — and consistent with our aspiration for The Championships to be embraced as the world’s premier tennis tournament, and still played on grass. 1993: Steffi Graf v Jana Novotna Steffi Graf's fifth Wimbledon title was almost overshadowed by her opponent, Jana Novotna, conspiring to snatch defeat from the jaws of victory after leading by a double break of serve in the third set. Graf looked down and out as Novotna went for broke on a second serve while leading 4-1 in the third set, having romped through the second set 6-1. But whether it was nerves or simply getting ahead of herself, she missed, and the whole match changed. The German storming back to win 7-6, 1-6, 6-4, Novotna cried her eyes out on the Duchess of Kent's shoulder during the trophy presentation, in what has become one of Wimbledon's most iconic images. "Don't worry Jana, I know you can do it," said the Duchess to Novotna. And she was right, the Czech player triumphing in her third Wimbledon final in 1998. "With the way Jana was playing and the way I was playing, yes, I'd kind of lost it," said Graf, who yelped for joy after pulling off a remarkable turnaround. "I didn't give up but I didn't have a very positive feeling." 1994: Steffi Graf v Lori McNeil In a timely reminder, 1994 proved no champion is safe at Wimbledon. The first Tuesday dawned with an ill wind that blasted through Wimbledon's elite like a bull in a china shop, rattling nerves, stealing the strawberries, flipping the table with a glorious smash. And there was no greater fall than the world No.1 and five-time champion Steffi Graf, a victim of what the legendary Fred Perry described as "wet, greasy and slippery" gusts. Graf and the wind proved no match for the contrasting cool intensity of her first round opponent, the unseeded Lori McNeil of the US. The German, winner of the last three Wimbledon’s and five of the past six, was blown out of the draw faster than any other defending women's champ in 101 years, and after she cracked nobody was safe. Triumphing 7-5, 7-6, it was the best showing by African-Americans at a Grand Slam event since Arthur Ashe won Wimbledon in 1975, and was received with a huge ovation from the rather wet Centre Court crowd. It was, McNeil said, the best moment she had ever known. "It seemed very short, but at the same time—if this makes any sense—it seemed very long and very loud," she said. "It was a great feeling, a great moment for me." 1994: Conchita Martinez v Martina Navratilova Even in Wimbledon’s rich history, Conchita Martinez’s triumph in the 1994 Ladies’ Singles has to be one of The Championships’ most fascinating stories. She beat a whole host of top names, including nine-time Champion Martina Navratilova in the final. By doing so, Martinez became the first – and to date only – Spanish woman to lift the Venus Rosewater Dish, and the only Champion between 1982 and 1996 other than Navratilova or Steffi Graf. Despite her excellent run, few gave Martinez a chance in the final against Navratilova. Even at 37, the legendary left-hander was a huge favourite, hunting what would have been her 10th singles crown. But it was not to be, as Martinez produced a stunning upset. The Spaniard admits she was actually more anxious about the prospect of meeting Princess Diana on Centre Court that day. "When they told me she would be at the final and I would have to curtsy for her, I was more nervous about having to do that and meeting her than playing the match! So maybe that was a good thing." 1995: Tim Henman and the ball girl Always considered to be the epitome of British etiquette, it comes as some surprise that Tim Henman, who shouldered British hopes admirably for so long, became the first player ever to be disqualified from Wimbledon. Playing a doubles match alongside Jeremy Bates, the British pair were leading Jeff Tarango and Henrik Holm by two sets to one. Deep into the fourth set, Henman missed a net cord during the tie-break, and, being an impressionable young thing at that time, lashed out with his racket in frustration, hitting the ball he was holding. But it was his and her misfortune that as he did so, a ball girl was crossing the net, and received the full force of the ball on the side of her head. Referee Alan Mills and Wayne McKewan were summoned to the court, and defaulted the pair for ball abuse. At a late-night press conference at the All England Club, Henman described the incident. "I was not happy at losing the point and was angry. I went to hit the ball hard. I'd looked to see if the linespeople were out of the way." Clearly on the verge of tears, he said: "It's a complete accident, but I'm responsible for my actions." 1995: Arantxa Sanchez Vicario v Steffi Graf Steffi Graf won her sixth Wimbledon title but was forced to work hard in the final by her erstwhile rival Arantxa Sanchez Vicario, eventually triumphing 4-6, 6-1, 7-5. The Spaniard, a clear underdog on grass, dropped only five points on her own serve to take the first set with some exquisite tennis. But Graf battled back, running through the second set before sealing the win with a break in a titanic 20-minute 11th game in the third set, which featured a boggling 13 deuces and 18 game points. Sanchez Vicario attacked Graf's backhand with such consistency that the German spent much of the game camped in the tramlines on the edge of the court. On her sixth game point, Graf at last found a powerful backhand drive to seal the break of serve and effectively the match. The Centre Court crowd applauded for the entire changeover, the euphoria continuing as Graf served out for the title. Graf let out an enormous sigh of relief and a cry of joy. She won seven Wimbledons among her 22 Grand Slams but never was she forced to fight harder for victory. 1995: Jeff Tarango’s tantrum If John McEnroe, for all his explosions and mutterings, was a master at delivering a line and working the crowd, fellow American Jeff Tarango was the complete opposite. His meltdown at Wimbledon in 1995, was the perfect lesson in how to alienate an entire crowd with a pathetic, childish outburst. Trailing Alexander Mronz in his third-round match, Tarango became increasingly annoyed with chair umpire Bruno Rebeuh, screaming ‘That’s it, I’m not playing….you are one of the most corrupt officials in the game’. After his request to have Rebeuh removed from the match was denied, Tarango walked off the court, defaulting the match. He then made matters worse by yelling at the crowd to ‘shut up’ when they jeered him off. Even more bizarrely, a few minutes later, Tarango's wife, Benedicte, slapped Rebeuh twice in the face when they encountered one another in the corridor. Tarango was subsequently banned for two Grand Slam tournaments and fined $63,000. 1996: The streaker The 1996 final between Richard Krajicek and MaliVai Washington was the subject of several headlines, not necessarily because it was the first Sampras-less final in four years, or Washington being the first black man in the final since Arthur Ashe, but because 23-year-old Melissa Johnson became the first female streaker to get on to Centre Court. As the players were preparing to warm up, Johnson ran on to the court with an apron on, disrobed, and ran around the hallowed turf. Six years later, a streaker got on to Centre Court during the men’s final at Wimbledon. During a rain break, with Lleyton Hewitt leading David Nalbandian 6-1, 1-0 in 2002, 37-year-old Mark Roberts jumped on to the court, shed his clothes and gave spectators quite a show. He pirouetted, bowed, somersaulted over the net and flexed his muscles before he was finally caught and escorted away with a red sheet covering his modesty. 1996: Sir Cliff Richard In one of the most famous and clichéd of all Wimbledon rain delays, play was interrupted extensively in 1996, and so Sir Cliff Richard was invited to give an impromptu concert on Centre Court. The ageing popstar delighted the sodden crowd with a rendition of ‘Singing in the Rain,’ backed by the implausible choir of Virginia Wade, Martina Navratilova, Pam Shriver, Gigi Fernandez and Conchita Martinez. "I started with Summer Holiday, almost as a joke," Sir Cliff said. "It was totally a capella, which has its advantages - it's impossible to sing out of key for a start. And the crowd see the vulnerability of someone singing without any help. They were magnificent, from the first moment. The reaction was stunning." 1997: Middle Sunday After two days of the 1997 Championships were washed out by rain, the club took the decision to play on the middle Sunday for only the second time in Wimbledon history. This was made particularly thrilling thanks to one match where sporting theatre reached its absolute peak – a third-round clash between Tim Henman, the No.14 seed, and Dutchman Paul Haarhuis, regarded as a doubles expert. For the first time in nearly 20 years, a Brit had a chance of Wimbledon glory and the local public, along with genuine tennis enthusiasts from all over the world, camped all night to pick up one of 14,000 cut-price £15 Centre Court tickets. As Tim Henman recalled, he would never experience a crowd like that "Super Sunday" one again in the 10 remaining years of his career. "From the word go, it was something I'd never experienced before," he admitted. "The noise was at a different level. Every time I won a point it felt like the roof was going to come off. I’ve never played at Wembley, but I can say that’s as good as it gets in tennis." 1997: Tim Henman v Paul Haarhuis On the 1997 Middle Sunday, Tim Henman and Paul Haarhuis met on Centre Court to contest the sought-after fourth round place against defending champion Richard Krajicek. Neither Henman nor Haarhuis were on top form - there were far too many unforced errors and double faults for the purists, but you would struggle to find any tennis match that could beat it for sheer drama. Henman carved out six first-set points in the opener and squandered them all, three on double faults, and went down 9-7 in the tiebreaker. Haarhuis then got the jitters, a double fault of his own handing the British No.1 the second set and two more giving him the third. There then followed an absolutely exhilarating fourth set. Haarhuis broke early then held strong when Henman twice had golden opportunities to break back, to the groans of the crowd. The underdog was putting up a tremendous fight, but it now became all about who had the bravest of brave hearts. The subsequent fifth and final set went on and on, each game and each point feeling like a lifetime for the predominately British crowd, who cheered every Henman winner with a roar to put soccer fans to shame. Tiger Tim eventually prevailed 6-7(7), 6-3, 6-2, 4-6, 14-12, Haarhuis dropping serve to bring the titanic 93-minute decider to an end. Henman went on to beat Krajicek in a four-set, three tie-break thriller before losing to Michael Stich in the quarter-finals. 1997: Martina Hingis Martina Hingis produced the tennis version of rope-a-dope to exhaust Jana Novotna, and become, at 16, the youngest player to win the Wimbledon singles title since 1887. Floating around the court, the young Swiss dismantled the experienced Novotna 2-6, 6-3, 6-3 with a poise and savvy far beyond her years. Despite a slightly timid start, the teenager rallied to hand out an all-court attack that the increasingly weary Novotna was too tired to handle. "It might be that maybe I'm too young to win this title," said Hingis, who had lost in the French Open final the month before. "But at the French Open I just knew I wasn't in great shape. This time it's like I could do it." It was another blow for Novotna, who had surrendered the title to Steffi Graf four years earlier, but she went on to triumph against Nathalie Tauziat the following year. 1997: The new No. 1 Court Some of Wimbledon's greatest champions, including Rod Laver, John Newcombe, John McEnroe, Boris Becker, Pete Sampras, Louise Brough, Maria Bueno, Margaret Court, Billie Jean King, Chris Evert and Martina Navratilova gathered at the All England Club in 1997, invited for the opening ceremony of the new No.1 Court at Wimbledon. Officially opened by the Duke of Kent, the new No.1 Court seats 11,000, an increase of 4,500 on the original No.1 Court, which has been demolished. The building incorporates a food village, a merchandising shop, 11 hospitality suites and a debenture holders' lounge overlooking courts 14-17. In addition to the new No.1 Court, a broadcast centre, new courts 18 and 19, and a road tunnel linking Somerset Road and Church Road came into operation for the first time. As part of the continuation of the Long Term Plan, the site where the original No.1 Court stood, adjacent to the Centre Court, was turned into what is the Millennium Building today - the new player and press facilities, which were completed in 2000. 1998: Martina Hingis v Jelena Dokic Even Jelena Dokic's volatile father was left speechless after the 16-year-old Australian qualifier knocked out world No.1 Martina Hingis in the first round in 1999 in one of the biggest shocks in Wimbledon history. Bobbing up and down like a boxer on the baseline as she swept past Hingis 6-2, 6-0, Dokic summed it up with the understatement so beloved of teengagers - "I think I played quite well today. There was no pressure on me to win. I didn't feel nervous. I just went for it," Dokic said. "It's tough to beat her, whether you practise with her or not ... I tried to play my own game." Somewhat ironically, Hingis had taken Dokic under her wing as a training partner, practising together before the French Open, and even taking a holiday together. "Martina and her mum made us feel part of the family for a whole week. We never stopped talking and it was such good fun," Dokic said then. "I hope we are friends forever." 1999: Steffi Graf v Venus Williams Old met new in the quarter-finals at Wimbledon, as 19-year-old Venus Williams came up against Steffi Graf, on a high after claiming the French Open. It was a second quarter-final in a row at SW19 for Venus, who hussled and tussled to beat Anna Kournikova in the fourth round. But Graf had not won seven Wimbledon titles by just ambling about. The seven-time champion neutralised the young Venus's powerful hitting in typical athletic style, running down every groundstroke that her opponent pummelled over the net, and sending it back just as hard. Interrupted four times by rain, both players were forced to produce some of their best tennis, Graf in particular mixing it up with drop shots and net play to keep Williams guessing. Converting on her first match point, Graf hopped up and down, punching the air and screaming with delight. "It rarely happens in the quarter-final to play that kind of tennis," said Graf, remarking that it was the best she had ever had to play to get to the semi-finals at Wimbledon. 1999: Pete Sampras v Andre Agassi Sampras v Agassi was the classic duel of the 1990s. Pistol Pete was the quiet, unassuming fellow who kept to himself while going about the business of amassing a record haul of 14 Grand Slam titles, seven of them at Wimbledon. He served, volleyed and one-handed-backhanded his way into the record books, spent 286 weeks as world No.1 and was a model of consistency. Agassi on the other hand was a veritable firecracker, up one day, down the next. World No.1, world No.141 – it all depended on where his focus was at the time. The two all-American heroes played each other 34 times between 1989 and 2002, with Sampras holding a 20-14 record and a 4-1 advantage in Grand Slam finals. Serving for the title at 6-3, 6-4, 6-5, Sampras fired down two service winners to make it 30-0. An Agassi backhand return clipped the baseline, then he sent a perfect cross-court forehand as Sampras came in behind a second service to level matters at 30-all. The prostrate Sampras, who had dived in vain to retrieve Agassi’s masterpiece, then picked himself up, dusted himself off and banged a second service right on the T for an ace. On match point, Sampras repeated the feat: two second-serve aces and the title, his sixth Wimbledon crown of seven – was his.	TWICE
What type of creatures, native to Africa and Asia have several different types, including Olive, Yellow, Chacma and Hamadryas ?	History - 1990s - The Championships, Wimbledon 2017 - Official Site by IBM READ MORE 1990: A record for Navratilova On a sunny Saturday afternoon, Martina Navratilova produced a near-flawless performance to win her ninth Wimbledon singles title, a record that will take some topping in today's day and age. Competing against fellow American Zina Garrison, Navratilova served and volleyed her way around Centre Court in emphatic fashion, dropping just five games as she took the title 6-1, 6-4. The 33-year-old Navratilova won six consecutive championships from 1982 to 1987 but was made to wait before surpassing Helen Wills Moody's record of eight titles, losing the previous two years in the final to Steffi Graf. But, with Graf disposed of by Garrison in the semi-finals, Navratilova got there eventually, straddling the net to acknowledge her beaten opponent and then, her courtside courtesies complete, sinking down on her knees for an instant of silent communion with the tennis court she loves best. "There were no glitches this time; everything came up nines," she said. "This tops it all, absolutely, because I've worked so hard." 1990: Boris Becker v Stefan Edberg The most defining aspect of the rivalry between Boris Becker and Stefan Edberg was the three successive Wimbledon finals they contested between 1988 and 1990. Having split the titles in '88 and '89, their 1990 encounter was undoubtedly the most riveting. Edberg, who had been routed by Boris the year before, swept ahead, crunching through the first two sets 6-2, 6-2. But, as was his wont, Becker rallied in typical fashion to win the next two sets 6-3, 6-3, and send the match into a fifth. Becker broke Edberg early in the fifth set, on course for a fourth Wimbledon title, and setting up the possibility of being the first Wimbledon champion to win the last three sets in a five-set match since Henri Cochetin 1927. But, it was not to be. Edberg regained the break and then broke Becker in the ninth game of the set with a topspin lob winner, eventually serving it out for his second Wimbledon title. The Swede went on to win the US Open in 1991 and 1992. 1991: Steffi Graf v Gabriela Sabatini One of SW19's greatest champions arrived at Wimbledon in 1991 having suffered rather a seesaw period, registering one of the worst defeats of her career against Arantxa Sanchez Vicario in the French Open semi-finals, losing her first 6-0 set since 1984. But, as is so often the case, the green grass of the All England Club gave the formerly indomitable German a boost, powering her way to the final. Coming up against friend and rival Gabriela Sabatini, the odds on form were in the Argentine's favour, having beaten Graf in four tournaments in the spring. But Graf was always capable of something special at Wimbledon, and so it proved, the German rallying back from dropping the second set, and holding her nerve to win an epic Centre Court final 6-4 3-6 8-6, the longest final for 15 years. 1991: Middle Sunday One of the wettest first weeks in the tournament's history - just 52 out of about 240 matches were completed by Thursday evening - prompted the decision to stage play on the traditional day off, the Middle Sunday. Gabriela Sabatini and Andrea Strnadova emerged from their dressing room on to Centre Court for their third-round noon showdown. They were greeted by a packed stadium, a seemingly unending roar and enough Mexican waves to fill an ocean. The spectators had raced from the gates for prime, £10-a-head unreserved seats. They had formed part of a queue snaking almost two miles that produced an attendance of 24,894. On No.1 Court, John McEnroe, a three-time champion, did not disappoint his adoring fans with a victory against Frenchman Jean-Philippe Fleurian, while victories for eventual Swedish semi-finalist Stefan Edberg and Arantxa Sanchez Vicario warmed up the effervescent crowd on the main court for the top of the bill: Jimmy Connors. Despite thriving on the atmosphere, Connors was eventually upstaged by fellow American Derrick Rostango, but the atmosphere overtook the results that day. 1992: Andre Agassi v Goran Ivanisevic They said that he couldn't win Wimbledon, and certainly not by playing resolutely pinned to the baseline. But Andre Agassi wasn't having that. Defeating Goran Ivanisevic 6-7(8), 6-4, 6-4, 1-6, 6-4 for the Wimbledon title, the Las Vegan erased the stigma of his previous Grand Slam failures, becoming the first back-of-the-court player to win the title since Bjorn Borg, and the first American to win Wimbledon since John McEnroe in 1984. Illustrating that thundering groundstrokes can be just as important as booming serves, the flamboyant American stood firm throughout a Wimbledon final record onslaught of 37 aces from the 6’4” Croatian, waiting for his chances, and eventually breaking Ivanisevic three times in the match. One of the remarkable statistics was the fact that Ivanisevic came to the net 91 times, not uncommon on grass, but was passed by Agassi an astounding 26 times. "So many things were going through my mind - Wimbledon champion, Grand Slam winner, a lot of months and years of people doubting me," he said. 1992: John McEnroe v Michael Stich John McEnroe collected his fifth Wimbledon men's doubles title as he and Michael Stich beat Americans Jim Grabb and Richie Reneberg 5-7, 7-6(5), 3-6, 7-6(5), 19-17 in a record-breaking final. McEnroe had been dumped out of the singles by the sprightly Andre Agassi in the semi-finals, and so his and Stich's performance, in the longest men's doubles final since the 1968 Roche and Newcombe victory over Rosewall and Stolle, certainly made amends. Held over from Saturday because of fading light, the match was moved to Court 1 on the final Sunday, the All England Club allowing 7,500 fans into the Grounds for free. After 34 games in the final set had gone with serve, McEnroe produced a stunningly disguised lob to bring up match point, followed by Reneberg dumping Super Brat's serve into the net. Stich grabbing McEnroe around the waist and lifting him into the air, the unseeded pair triumphed after five hours and one minute. 1993: The Long Term Plan In March 1993, The All England Lawn Tennis Club unveiled its Long Term Plan, the blueprint to take Wimbledon into the 21st Century by providing the finest facilities for all those involved with the event — spectators, players, media, officials — and consistent with our aspiration for The Championships to be embraced as the world’s premier tennis tournament, and still played on grass. 1993: Steffi Graf v Jana Novotna Steffi Graf's fifth Wimbledon title was almost overshadowed by her opponent, Jana Novotna, conspiring to snatch defeat from the jaws of victory after leading by a double break of serve in the third set. Graf looked down and out as Novotna went for broke on a second serve while leading 4-1 in the third set, having romped through the second set 6-1. But whether it was nerves or simply getting ahead of herself, she missed, and the whole match changed. The German storming back to win 7-6, 1-6, 6-4, Novotna cried her eyes out on the Duchess of Kent's shoulder during the trophy presentation, in what has become one of Wimbledon's most iconic images. "Don't worry Jana, I know you can do it," said the Duchess to Novotna. And she was right, the Czech player triumphing in her third Wimbledon final in 1998. "With the way Jana was playing and the way I was playing, yes, I'd kind of lost it," said Graf, who yelped for joy after pulling off a remarkable turnaround. "I didn't give up but I didn't have a very positive feeling." 1994: Steffi Graf v Lori McNeil In a timely reminder, 1994 proved no champion is safe at Wimbledon. The first Tuesday dawned with an ill wind that blasted through Wimbledon's elite like a bull in a china shop, rattling nerves, stealing the strawberries, flipping the table with a glorious smash. And there was no greater fall than the world No.1 and five-time champion Steffi Graf, a victim of what the legendary Fred Perry described as "wet, greasy and slippery" gusts. Graf and the wind proved no match for the contrasting cool intensity of her first round opponent, the unseeded Lori McNeil of the US. The German, winner of the last three Wimbledon’s and five of the past six, was blown out of the draw faster than any other defending women's champ in 101 years, and after she cracked nobody was safe. Triumphing 7-5, 7-6, it was the best showing by African-Americans at a Grand Slam event since Arthur Ashe won Wimbledon in 1975, and was received with a huge ovation from the rather wet Centre Court crowd. It was, McNeil said, the best moment she had ever known. "It seemed very short, but at the same time—if this makes any sense—it seemed very long and very loud," she said. "It was a great feeling, a great moment for me." 1994: Conchita Martinez v Martina Navratilova Even in Wimbledon’s rich history, Conchita Martinez’s triumph in the 1994 Ladies’ Singles has to be one of The Championships’ most fascinating stories. She beat a whole host of top names, including nine-time Champion Martina Navratilova in the final. By doing so, Martinez became the first – and to date only – Spanish woman to lift the Venus Rosewater Dish, and the only Champion between 1982 and 1996 other than Navratilova or Steffi Graf. Despite her excellent run, few gave Martinez a chance in the final against Navratilova. Even at 37, the legendary left-hander was a huge favourite, hunting what would have been her 10th singles crown. But it was not to be, as Martinez produced a stunning upset. The Spaniard admits she was actually more anxious about the prospect of meeting Princess Diana on Centre Court that day. "When they told me she would be at the final and I would have to curtsy for her, I was more nervous about having to do that and meeting her than playing the match! So maybe that was a good thing." 1995: Tim Henman and the ball girl Always considered to be the epitome of British etiquette, it comes as some surprise that Tim Henman, who shouldered British hopes admirably for so long, became the first player ever to be disqualified from Wimbledon. Playing a doubles match alongside Jeremy Bates, the British pair were leading Jeff Tarango and Henrik Holm by two sets to one. Deep into the fourth set, Henman missed a net cord during the tie-break, and, being an impressionable young thing at that time, lashed out with his racket in frustration, hitting the ball he was holding. But it was his and her misfortune that as he did so, a ball girl was crossing the net, and received the full force of the ball on the side of her head. Referee Alan Mills and Wayne McKewan were summoned to the court, and defaulted the pair for ball abuse. At a late-night press conference at the All England Club, Henman described the incident. "I was not happy at losing the point and was angry. I went to hit the ball hard. I'd looked to see if the linespeople were out of the way." Clearly on the verge of tears, he said: "It's a complete accident, but I'm responsible for my actions." 1995: Arantxa Sanchez Vicario v Steffi Graf Steffi Graf won her sixth Wimbledon title but was forced to work hard in the final by her erstwhile rival Arantxa Sanchez Vicario, eventually triumphing 4-6, 6-1, 7-5. The Spaniard, a clear underdog on grass, dropped only five points on her own serve to take the first set with some exquisite tennis. But Graf battled back, running through the second set before sealing the win with a break in a titanic 20-minute 11th game in the third set, which featured a boggling 13 deuces and 18 game points. Sanchez Vicario attacked Graf's backhand with such consistency that the German spent much of the game camped in the tramlines on the edge of the court. On her sixth game point, Graf at last found a powerful backhand drive to seal the break of serve and effectively the match. The Centre Court crowd applauded for the entire changeover, the euphoria continuing as Graf served out for the title. Graf let out an enormous sigh of relief and a cry of joy. She won seven Wimbledons among her 22 Grand Slams but never was she forced to fight harder for victory. 1995: Jeff Tarango’s tantrum If John McEnroe, for all his explosions and mutterings, was a master at delivering a line and working the crowd, fellow American Jeff Tarango was the complete opposite. His meltdown at Wimbledon in 1995, was the perfect lesson in how to alienate an entire crowd with a pathetic, childish outburst. Trailing Alexander Mronz in his third-round match, Tarango became increasingly annoyed with chair umpire Bruno Rebeuh, screaming ‘That’s it, I’m not playing….you are one of the most corrupt officials in the game’. After his request to have Rebeuh removed from the match was denied, Tarango walked off the court, defaulting the match. He then made matters worse by yelling at the crowd to ‘shut up’ when they jeered him off. Even more bizarrely, a few minutes later, Tarango's wife, Benedicte, slapped Rebeuh twice in the face when they encountered one another in the corridor. Tarango was subsequently banned for two Grand Slam tournaments and fined $63,000. 1996: The streaker The 1996 final between Richard Krajicek and MaliVai Washington was the subject of several headlines, not necessarily because it was the first Sampras-less final in four years, or Washington being the first black man in the final since Arthur Ashe, but because 23-year-old Melissa Johnson became the first female streaker to get on to Centre Court. As the players were preparing to warm up, Johnson ran on to the court with an apron on, disrobed, and ran around the hallowed turf. Six years later, a streaker got on to Centre Court during the men’s final at Wimbledon. During a rain break, with Lleyton Hewitt leading David Nalbandian 6-1, 1-0 in 2002, 37-year-old Mark Roberts jumped on to the court, shed his clothes and gave spectators quite a show. He pirouetted, bowed, somersaulted over the net and flexed his muscles before he was finally caught and escorted away with a red sheet covering his modesty. 1996: Sir Cliff Richard In one of the most famous and clichéd of all Wimbledon rain delays, play was interrupted extensively in 1996, and so Sir Cliff Richard was invited to give an impromptu concert on Centre Court. The ageing popstar delighted the sodden crowd with a rendition of ‘Singing in the Rain,’ backed by the implausible choir of Virginia Wade, Martina Navratilova, Pam Shriver, Gigi Fernandez and Conchita Martinez. "I started with Summer Holiday, almost as a joke," Sir Cliff said. "It was totally a capella, which has its advantages - it's impossible to sing out of key for a start. And the crowd see the vulnerability of someone singing without any help. They were magnificent, from the first moment. The reaction was stunning." 1997: Middle Sunday After two days of the 1997 Championships were washed out by rain, the club took the decision to play on the middle Sunday for only the second time in Wimbledon history. This was made particularly thrilling thanks to one match where sporting theatre reached its absolute peak – a third-round clash between Tim Henman, the No.14 seed, and Dutchman Paul Haarhuis, regarded as a doubles expert. For the first time in nearly 20 years, a Brit had a chance of Wimbledon glory and the local public, along with genuine tennis enthusiasts from all over the world, camped all night to pick up one of 14,000 cut-price £15 Centre Court tickets. As Tim Henman recalled, he would never experience a crowd like that "Super Sunday" one again in the 10 remaining years of his career. "From the word go, it was something I'd never experienced before," he admitted. "The noise was at a different level. Every time I won a point it felt like the roof was going to come off. I’ve never played at Wembley, but I can say that’s as good as it gets in tennis." 1997: Tim Henman v Paul Haarhuis On the 1997 Middle Sunday, Tim Henman and Paul Haarhuis met on Centre Court to contest the sought-after fourth round place against defending champion Richard Krajicek. Neither Henman nor Haarhuis were on top form - there were far too many unforced errors and double faults for the purists, but you would struggle to find any tennis match that could beat it for sheer drama. Henman carved out six first-set points in the opener and squandered them all, three on double faults, and went down 9-7 in the tiebreaker. Haarhuis then got the jitters, a double fault of his own handing the British No.1 the second set and two more giving him the third. There then followed an absolutely exhilarating fourth set. Haarhuis broke early then held strong when Henman twice had golden opportunities to break back, to the groans of the crowd. The underdog was putting up a tremendous fight, but it now became all about who had the bravest of brave hearts. The subsequent fifth and final set went on and on, each game and each point feeling like a lifetime for the predominately British crowd, who cheered every Henman winner with a roar to put soccer fans to shame. Tiger Tim eventually prevailed 6-7(7), 6-3, 6-2, 4-6, 14-12, Haarhuis dropping serve to bring the titanic 93-minute decider to an end. Henman went on to beat Krajicek in a four-set, three tie-break thriller before losing to Michael Stich in the quarter-finals. 1997: Martina Hingis Martina Hingis produced the tennis version of rope-a-dope to exhaust Jana Novotna, and become, at 16, the youngest player to win the Wimbledon singles title since 1887. Floating around the court, the young Swiss dismantled the experienced Novotna 2-6, 6-3, 6-3 with a poise and savvy far beyond her years. Despite a slightly timid start, the teenager rallied to hand out an all-court attack that the increasingly weary Novotna was too tired to handle. "It might be that maybe I'm too young to win this title," said Hingis, who had lost in the French Open final the month before. "But at the French Open I just knew I wasn't in great shape. This time it's like I could do it." It was another blow for Novotna, who had surrendered the title to Steffi Graf four years earlier, but she went on to triumph against Nathalie Tauziat the following year. 1997: The new No. 1 Court Some of Wimbledon's greatest champions, including Rod Laver, John Newcombe, John McEnroe, Boris Becker, Pete Sampras, Louise Brough, Maria Bueno, Margaret Court, Billie Jean King, Chris Evert and Martina Navratilova gathered at the All England Club in 1997, invited for the opening ceremony of the new No.1 Court at Wimbledon. Officially opened by the Duke of Kent, the new No.1 Court seats 11,000, an increase of 4,500 on the original No.1 Court, which has been demolished. The building incorporates a food village, a merchandising shop, 11 hospitality suites and a debenture holders' lounge overlooking courts 14-17. In addition to the new No.1 Court, a broadcast centre, new courts 18 and 19, and a road tunnel linking Somerset Road and Church Road came into operation for the first time. As part of the continuation of the Long Term Plan, the site where the original No.1 Court stood, adjacent to the Centre Court, was turned into what is the Millennium Building today - the new player and press facilities, which were completed in 2000. 1998: Martina Hingis v Jelena Dokic Even Jelena Dokic's volatile father was left speechless after the 16-year-old Australian qualifier knocked out world No.1 Martina Hingis in the first round in 1999 in one of the biggest shocks in Wimbledon history. Bobbing up and down like a boxer on the baseline as she swept past Hingis 6-2, 6-0, Dokic summed it up with the understatement so beloved of teengagers - "I think I played quite well today. There was no pressure on me to win. I didn't feel nervous. I just went for it," Dokic said. "It's tough to beat her, whether you practise with her or not ... I tried to play my own game." Somewhat ironically, Hingis had taken Dokic under her wing as a training partner, practising together before the French Open, and even taking a holiday together. "Martina and her mum made us feel part of the family for a whole week. We never stopped talking and it was such good fun," Dokic said then. "I hope we are friends forever." 1999: Steffi Graf v Venus Williams Old met new in the quarter-finals at Wimbledon, as 19-year-old Venus Williams came up against Steffi Graf, on a high after claiming the French Open. It was a second quarter-final in a row at SW19 for Venus, who hussled and tussled to beat Anna Kournikova in the fourth round. But Graf had not won seven Wimbledon titles by just ambling about. The seven-time champion neutralised the young Venus's powerful hitting in typical athletic style, running down every groundstroke that her opponent pummelled over the net, and sending it back just as hard. Interrupted four times by rain, both players were forced to produce some of their best tennis, Graf in particular mixing it up with drop shots and net play to keep Williams guessing. Converting on her first match point, Graf hopped up and down, punching the air and screaming with delight. "It rarely happens in the quarter-final to play that kind of tennis," said Graf, remarking that it was the best she had ever had to play to get to the semi-finals at Wimbledon. 1999: Pete Sampras v Andre Agassi Sampras v Agassi was the classic duel of the 1990s. Pistol Pete was the quiet, unassuming fellow who kept to himself while going about the business of amassing a record haul of 14 Grand Slam titles, seven of them at Wimbledon. He served, volleyed and one-handed-backhanded his way into the record books, spent 286 weeks as world No.1 and was a model of consistency. Agassi on the other hand was a veritable firecracker, up one day, down the next. World No.1, world No.141 – it all depended on where his focus was at the time. The two all-American heroes played each other 34 times between 1989 and 2002, with Sampras holding a 20-14 record and a 4-1 advantage in Grand Slam finals. Serving for the title at 6-3, 6-4, 6-5, Sampras fired down two service winners to make it 30-0. An Agassi backhand return clipped the baseline, then he sent a perfect cross-court forehand as Sampras came in behind a second service to level matters at 30-all. The prostrate Sampras, who had dived in vain to retrieve Agassi’s masterpiece, then picked himself up, dusted himself off and banged a second service right on the T for an ace. On match point, Sampras repeated the feat: two second-serve aces and the title, his sixth Wimbledon crown of seven – was his.	i don't know
What was the famous four word nickname that was given to Edward I of England also known as Edward Longshanks ?	6/12/2006 • Military History A case can be made that Edward I was the greatest English king of the Middle Ages. A strong ruler, he was a man blessed with a strong sense of duty. Although he was no democrat, he believed the king should promote the general welfare and place himself above class or faction–a revolutionary concept in the 13th century. Although he has been called ‘the English Justinian’ because of his legal codes, Edward was first and foremost a military man, one of the great generals of the medieval world. Edward was born in June 1239, the son of King Henry III. Weak and indecisive, Henry was not a bad man–just a bad king. He was devoted to his family and took great pleasure in art and architecture. One of his pet projects was the rebuilding of Westminster Abbey in the Gothic style that was just coming into vogue. Unfortunately, Henry’s private virtues became public vices. Because of his devotion to his wife, he gave the queen’s undeserving foreign relatives places at court. Worse still, Henry’s building projects were a drain on the exchequer, and his excessive piety made him a dupe of the papacy. That mix of piety, politics and penury–he was always short of funds–bore bitter fruit. Simon de Montfort, leader of the baronial opposition, led an open revolt that defeated the king at the Battle of Lewes in 1264. Lewes gave Prince Edward his first real taste of combat. As a headstrong young blade of 25, he took exception to the London troops of Montfort’s army, sincerely believing they had insulted his mother. When the battle opened on May 14, Edward led a cavalry charge that scattered the London burghers like dead leaves in a windstorm. Intoxicated by the chase, he began a single-minded pursuit of his fleeing quarry that took him miles from the battlefield. Once his thirst for vengeance was appeased, Edward returned to Lewes–only to find that Montfort had defeated his father’s main army. Assailed from both flanks by Montfort’s knights, the dumbfounded prince was forced to surrender. But a great lesson had been learned–from then on, with few exceptions, his intellect would govern his passions. Eventually Edward escaped, joined forces with Roger Mortimer, Earl of Gloucester, and together they defeated Simon de Montfort at Evesham on August 4, 1265. By then, Edward was king in all but name, since his father was growing old and was as self-absorbed as ever. Fired with chivalric zeal and a surfeit of youthful energy, Prince Edward ‘took the cross’–that is, declared himself a crusader pledged to free the Holy Land from the grip of the Muslim ‘infidels.’ In 1271, Edward reached the Middle East with a small army of 1,000 men and amazed everyone by chalking up a series of victories over the Muslim forces of the Mamluk Sultan Baybars Bundukdari of Egypt. The prince captured Nazareth, scoring a moral victory by liberating the hometown of Jesus Christ, but his forces were too small to consolidate his gains. Once, when Edward was resting in his tent, a Muslim assassin broke in and attacked him with a poisoned knife. The prince quickly killed his assailant but was wounded in the arm. Soon the limb swelled, and the foul-smelling flesh grew black. Gangrene had set in. Handicapped by the lack of medical knowledge at the time, the doctors were baffled and lost hope. But one brave physician cut away the blackened tissue and hoped for the best. By some miracle, Edward survived. The next year, 1272, a truce was arranged between Baybars and the Crusaders, enabling Edward to go home at last. While en route to England, he received word that his father was dead and he was now king in his own right. On August 2, 1274, the new king landed at Dover after an absence of four years. Crowds gave a tumultuous welcome to their new monarch, who, at 6 feet 2 inches, towered over contemporaries. He was handsome, but his piercing blue eyes were slightly offset by a drooping left eyelid. Like most of his Plantagenet dynasty, Edward had a volcanic temper that sometimes erupted into murderous rages. Generally, though, he was too intelligent to let his anger get the better of him. A few years after his accession to the throne, Edward was forced to deal with Wales, the mountainous land to the west of England. Politically, Wales was a confusing mosaic of divided loyalties. In the south and central portions of the country, Anglo-Norman barons, called Marcher lords, managed to subdue and pacify the Welsh tribesmen, but in the north the situation was different. There, a line of Gwynedd princes high in the mountains of Snowdonia refused to submit to the English yoke. One Welsh ruler, Llewellyn-ap-Graffyd, declared himself prince of Wales and set about expanding his domain at the expense of the Marcher lords. Initially Edward had little interest in Wales, and he might have accepted Llewellyn’s independence if the latter had rendered lip service to his feudal obligations to the English crown. But Llewellyn’s arrogance seemed to grow with his power, and he refused to render homage to Edward. Thoroughly aroused, the king was determined to bring his rebellious vassal to heel. In July 1277, in the town of Worcester, Edward gathered one of the biggest armies ever seen in Britain. The feudal levy summoned 1,000 armored knights, while a number of English shires–Cheshire, Derbyshire, Shropshire and others–supplied about 15,000 foot soldiers, including many Welshmen and Gascon crossbowmen. The northern Welsh under Llewellyn were not prepared to meet Edward on his own terms, so they melted back into the misty valleys and snow-dappled peaks of their mountainous homeland. Natural guerrillas, they lived off the land when fighting and generally preferred ambushes to pitched battles. The men of southern Wales generally had spears, but the northern tribes possessed a formidable new weapon–the longbow. One chronicler described it as ‘made of wild elm, unpolished, rude and uncouth,’ but in the hands of a trained archer it was a formidable weapon, hitting targets with such force that a longbow shaft could pierce chain mail and pin a man to his horse. Edward advanced along the north Welsh coast, marching slowly up the valleys of the Severn and the Dee. Leaving a chain of rising fortresses in his wake, Edward continued on until he reached the mouth of the Conway River. There, the king unveiled his trump card–sea power. Just off the coast, on the island of Anglesey, was some of the most fertile soil in Wales, the breadbasket of Llewellyn’s tribes. Thanks to ships provided by Edward’s Cinque Ports, Anglesey was quickly taken. Ringed in by hostile troops and threatened by starvation, Llewellyn sued for peace. After a few years’ respite, however, Llewellyn’s brother David raised the standard of revolt. The 1282 rebellion was a replay of the 1277 campaign, but this time Llewellyn was killed in a chance encounter, and his head was sent to adorn London Bridge. David was captured and executed, and the rebellion he had hatched collapsed. Edward decided that only more castles could help sink English roots and stabilize the shifting political soil of Wales. Luckily for the king, his reign coincided with the great age of medieval military architecture, and he found a builder of genius in Master James of St. George. Master James’ fertile imagination produced a series of elaborate designs, each adapted to the particular needs of an individual site. Even today, Conway, Harlech, Rhuddlan, Beaumaris and Caernarvon castles give an overwhelming impression of strength and majesty. Wales was pacified, at least for the moment, so Edward turned his attention to Scotland. The Scottish throne was empty, and there were no less than 13 claimants for it. To solve the impasse, the claimants asked Edward to be arbiter and choose a candidate among their number. The English king should have known better; the Scottish succession was a morass of claims and counterclaims. After fevered consultations with barons, lawyers and churchmen, Edward chose John Bailol as king of the Scots. Bailol was a weakling, but the fractious Scottish nobles stiffened his backbone enough to defy Edward. Once again, Edward could brook no disobedience from a man he considered his feudal underling. The English monarch invaded Scotland with a large army, and in March 1296, he proceeded to besiege the important Scottish town of Berwick. Feeling overconfident, the citizens of Berwick shouted insults at Edward, in particular making fun of his ‘long shanks.’ Mounted on his great warhorse Bayard, Edward personally led the assault on Berwick. Hooves flailing, Bayard leapt across a ditch, bounded over a low palisade and brought his royal master into the very heart of the city. Soon English troops poured into the narrow streets and fighting gave way to a general massacre of the inhabitants. In short order Bailol was deposed, and Edward ruled the northern kingdom through a series of military garrisons. But Edward’s brutal conquest had unleashed a sort of early nationalistic spirit among the Scots. A Scottish knight, William Wallace, gathered an army and managed to defeat an English force at Stirling Bridge on September 11, 1297. With his prestige on the line, Edward–though he was now growing old–took to the field once again and invaded Scotland. On July 22, 1298, the English and Scottish armies met at Falkirk. The backbone of Wallace’s forces was his infantry, drawn up in four phalanx-style formations called schiltrons. Bristling with spears, the schiltrons seemed invulnerable to the kind of cavalry charge favored by medieval knights. And sure enough, before Edward could fully deploy his unwieldy army, his knights rushed forward in a headlong charge. Try as they might, the English knights could make no impression on the prickly Scottish formations, and round one went to the stubborn Celts. But Edward had a surprise waiting in the wings–swarms of Welsh archers, who came forward in large numbers to discharge their deadly shafts. The schiltrons were quickly reduced to heaps of dead and wounded men, and the remaining Scottish infantry became easy prey for Edward’s cavalry. Only Wallace and a handful of fugitives escaped the terrible slaughter, and the back of Scottish resistance seemed broken forever. At Falkirk, Edward Long Shanks acquired a new nickname: Scottorum malleus (Hammer of the Scots). The battle validated his reputation as a general and showcased his tactical skills. His adoption of the Welsh longbow foreshadowed the English triumphs at Crécy, Poitiers and Agincourt. Eventually, Wallace was captured and hanged, drawn and quartered, but his grisly fate left the Scots uncowed. Time and again, Edward had to return to Scotland in an attempt to crush the embers of revolt. Yet every time he returned home, the flame of Scots nationalism would blaze anew. A new Scottish champion, Robert the Bruce, declared himself king of Scotland and girded himself for another English invasion. It was not long in coming. Edward, white-haired and ailing, must have felt he was an English Sisyphus, condemned to roll the rock of conquest forward again and again. At 69–something akin to 90 by the standards of the Middle Ages–the king had little reason to find happiness in his waning years. His son and heir, Prince Edward of Caernarvon, was a homosexual and a worthless spendthrift, more interested in fine clothes than the arts of war. King Edward moved forward toward Scotland, but his battle-scarred and aging body could not obey the commands of his iron will. He died on July 6, 1307, a short distance from the Scottish border at Burgh-on-Sands. Later, Edward II would return to Scotland in force–only to suffer a humiliating defeat at the hands of Robert the Bruce at Bannockburn, on June 23, 1314, by which Scotland won its independence from England. Although he was not the equal of a Caesar or Napoleon, Edward I was still a great commander who grasped the essentials of war. Even his enemies recognized his military greatness. Comparing Edward I to his son Edward II, Robert the Bruce once declared, ‘I am more afraid of the bones of the father dead, than of the living son; and, by all the saints, it was more difficult to get a half a foot of the land from the old king than a whole kingdom from the son!’ This article was written by Eric Niderost and originally published in the December 1995 issue of Military History magazine. For more great articles be sure to subscribe to Military History magazine today!	Hammer of the Scots
On how many occasions did John McEnroe win the men's singles title at Wimbledon ?	Edward I of England \| Wiki & Bio \| Everipedia You can edit something on the page right now! Register today, it's fast and free. Edward I of England Find a Grave grave ID 1955 National Thesaurus for Author Names ID 070464650 National Portrait Gallery (London) person ID mp67807 Q292321 Q956563 Edward I (17/18 June 1239 – 7 July 1307), also known as Edward Longshanks and the Hammer of the Scots ( Latin : Malleus Scotorum), was King of England from 1272 to 1307. The first son of Henry III , Edward was involved early in the political intrigues of his father's reign, which included an outright rebellion by the English barons. In 1259, he briefly sided with a baronial reform movement, supporting the Provisions of Oxford . After reconciliation with his father, however, he remained loyal throughout the subsequent armed conflict, known as the Second Barons' War . After the Battle of Lewes , Edward was hostage to the rebellious barons, but escaped after a few months and joined the fight against Simon de Montfort . Montfort was defeated at the Battle of Evesham in 1265, and within two years the rebellion was extinguished. With England pacified, Edward joined the Ninth Crusade to the Holy Land . The crusade accomplished little, and Edward was on his way home in 1272 when he was informed that his father had died. Making a slow return, he reached England in 1274 and was crowned at Westminster on 19 August. He spent much of his reign reforming royal administration and common law . Through an extensive legal inquiry, Edward investigated the tenure of various feudal liberties, while the law was reformed through a series of statutes regulating criminal and property law. Increasingly, however, Edward's attention was drawn towards military affairs. After suppressing a minor rebellion in Wales in 1276–77, Edward responded to a second rebellion in 1282–83 with a full-scale war of conquest . After a successful campaign, Edward subjected Wales to English rule, built a series of castles and towns in the countryside and settled them with English people. Next, his efforts were directed towards Scotland. Initially invited to arbitrate a succession dispute, Edward claimed feudal suzerainty over the kingdom. In the war that followed, the Scots persevered, even though the English seemed victorious at several points. At the same time there were problems at home. In the mid-1290s, extensive military campaigns required high levels of taxation, and Edward met with both lay and ecclesiastical opposition. These crises were initially averted, but issues remained unsettled. When the King died in 1307, he left to his son, Edward II , an ongoing war with Scotland and many financial and political problems. Edward I was a tall man for his era, hence the nickname "Longshanks". He was temperamental, and this, along with his height, made him an intimidating man, and he often instilled fear in his contemporaries. Nevertheless, he held the respect of his subjects for the way he embodied the medieval ideal of kingship, as a soldier, an administrator and a man of faith. Modern historians are divided on their assessment of Edward I: while some have praised him for his contribution to the law and administration, others have criticised him for his uncompromising attitude towards his nobility. Currently, Edward I is credited with many accomplishments during his reign, including restoring royal authority after the reign of Henry III, establishing Parliament as a permanent institution and thereby also a functional system for raising taxes, and reforming the law through statutes. At the same time, he is also often criticised for other actions, such as his brutal conduct towards the Scots, and issuing the Edict of Expulsion in 1290, by which the Jews were expelled from England. The Edict remained in effect for the rest of the Middle Ages, and it was over 350 years until it was formally overturned under Oliver Cromwell in 1656. Early years, 1239–63 Childhood and marriage Edward was born at the Palace of Westminster on the night of 17–18 June 1239, to King Henry III and Eleanor of Provence . Edward is an Anglo-Saxon name , as was not commonly given among the aristocracy of England after the Norman Conquest , but Henry was devoted to the veneration of Edward the Confessor , and decided to name his firstborn son after the saint. [3] Among his childhood friends was his cousin Henry of Almain , son of King Henry's brother Richard of Cornwall . Henry of Almain would remain a close companion of the prince, both through the civil war that followed, and later during the crusade. Edward was in the care of Hugh Giffard – father of the future Chancellor Godfrey Giffard – until Bartholomew Pecche took over at Giffard's death in 1246. There were concerns about Edward's health as a child, and he fell ill in 1246, 1247, and 1251. Nonetheless, he became an imposing man; at 6 feet 2 inches (1.88 m) he towered over most of his contemporaries, and hence perhaps his epithet "Longshanks", meaning "long legs" or "long shins". The historian Michael Prestwich states that his "long arms gave him an advantage as a swordsman, long thighs one as a horseman. In youth, his curly hair was blond; in maturity it darkened, and in old age it turned white. [His features were marred by a drooping left eyelid.] His speech, despite a lisp, was said to be persuasive." In 1254, English fears of a Castilian invasion of the English province of Gascony induced Edward's father to arrange a politically expedient marriage between his fourteen-year-old son and thirteen-year-old Eleanor , the half-sister of King Alfonso X of Castile . Eleanor and Edward were married on 1 November 1254 in the Abbey of Santa María la Real de Las Huelgas in Castile. As part of the marriage agreement, the young prince received grants of land worth 15,000 marks a year. Although the endowments King Henry made were sizeable, they offered Edward little independence. He had already received Gascony as early as 1249, but Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester , had been appointed as royal lieutenant the year before and, consequently, drew its income, so in practice Edward derived neither authority nor revenue from this province. The grant he received in 1254 included most of Ireland, and much land in Wales and England, including the earldom of Chester , but the King retained much control over the land in question, particularly in Ireland, so Edward's power was limited there as well, and the King derived most of the income from those lands. From 1254 to 1257, Edward was under the influence of his mother's relatives, known as the Savoyards, the most notable of whom was Peter of Savoy , the queen's uncle. After 1257, Edward increasingly fell in with the Poitevin or Lusignan faction – the half-brothers of his father Henry III – led by such men as William de Valence . This association was significant, because the two groups of privileged foreigners were resented by the established English aristocracy, and they would be at the centre of the ensuing years' baronial reform movement. There were tales of unruly and violent conduct by Edward and his Lusignan kinsmen, which raised questions about the royal heir's personal qualities. The next years would be formative on Edward's character. Early ambitions Edward had shown independence in political matters as early as 1255, when he sided with the Soler family in Gascony, in the ongoing conflict between the Soler and Colomb families. This ran contrary to his father's policy of mediation between the local factions. In May 1258, a group of magnates drew up a document for reform of the King’s government – the so-called Provisions of Oxford – largely directed against the Lusignans. Edward stood by his political allies and strongly opposed the Provisions. The reform movement succeeded in limiting the Lusignan influence, however, and gradually Edward's attitude started to change. In March 1259, he entered into a formal alliance with one of the main reformers, Richard de Clare, Earl of Gloucester . Then, on 15 October 1259, he announced that he supported the barons' goals, and their leader, Simon de Montfort . [4] The motive behind Edward's change of heart could have been purely pragmatic; Montfort was in a good position to support his cause in Gascony. When the King left for France in November, Edward's behaviour turned into pure insubordination. He made several appointments to advance the cause of the reformers, causing his father to believe that his son was considering a coup d'état. When the King returned from France, he initially refused to see his son, but through the mediation of the Earl of Cornwall and the Archbishop of Canterbury , the two were eventually reconciled. Edward was sent abroad, and in November 1260 he again united with the Lusignans, who had been exiled to France. Back in England, early in 1262, Edward fell out with some of his former Lusignan allies over financial matters. The next year, King Henry sent him on a campaign in Wales against Llywelyn ap Gruffudd , with only limited results. Around the same time, Simon de Montfort, who had been out of the country since 1261, returned to England and reignited the baronial reform movement. It was at this pivotal moment, as the King seemed ready to resign to the barons' demands, that Edward began to take control of the situation. Whereas he had so far been unpredictable and equivocating, from this point on he remained firmly devoted to protecting his father's royal rights. He reunited with some of the men he had alienated the year before – among them his childhood friend, Henry of Almain, and John de Warenne, Earl of Surrey – and retook Windsor Castle from the rebels. Through the arbitration of King Louis IX of France , an agreement was made between the two parties. This so-called Mise of Amiens was largely favourable to the royalist side, and laid the seeds for further conflict. Civil war and crusades, 1264–73 Second Barons' War The years 1264–1267 saw the conflict known as the Second Barons' War , in which baronial forces led by Simon de Montfort fought against those who remained loyal to the King. The first scene of battle was the city of Gloucester , which Edward managed to retake from the enemy. When Robert de Ferrers, Earl of Derby , came to the assistance of the rebels, Edward negotiated a truce with the earl, the terms of which he later broke. Edward then captured Northampton from Montfort's son Simon , before embarking on a retaliatory campaign against Derby's lands. The baronial and royalist forces finally met at the Battle of Lewes , on 14 May 1264. Edward, commanding the right wing, performed well, and soon defeated the London contingent of Montfort's forces. Unwisely, however, he followed the scattered enemy in pursuit, and on his return found the rest of the royal army defeated. By the agreement known as the Mise of Lewes , Edward and his cousin Henry of Almain were given up as hostages to Montfort. Edward remained in captivity until March, and even after his release he was kept under strict surveillance. Then, on 28 May, he managed to escape his custodians and joined up with the Earl of Gloucester , who had recently defected to the King's side. Montfort's support was now dwindling, and Edward retook Worcester and Gloucester with relatively little effort. Meanwhile, Montfort had made an alliance with Llywelyn and started moving east to join forces with his son Simon. Edward managed to make a surprise attack at Kenilworth Castle , where the younger Montfort was quartered, before moving on to cut off the earl of Leicester. The two forces then met at the second great encounter of the Barons' War, the Battle of Evesham , on 4 August 1265. Montfort stood little chance against the superior royal forces, and after his defeat he was killed and mutilated on the field. Through such episodes as the deception of Derby at Gloucester, Edward acquired a reputation as untrustworthy. During the summer campaign, though, he began to learn from his mistakes, and acted in a way that gained the respect and admiration of his contemporaries. The war did not end with Montfort's death, and Edward participated in the continued campaigning. At Christmas, he came to terms with the younger Simon de Montfort and his associates at the Isle of Axholme in Lincolnshire, and in March he led a successful assault on the Cinque Ports . A contingent of rebels held out in the virtually impregnable Kenilworth Castle and did not surrender until the drafting of the conciliatory Dictum of Kenilworth . In April it seemed as if Gloucester would take up the cause of the reform movement, and civil war would resume, but after a renegotiation of the terms of the Dictum of Kenilworth, the parties came to an agreement. Edward, however, was little involved in the settlement negotiations following the wars; at this point his main focus was on planning his forthcoming crusade . Crusade and accession Edward took the crusader's cross in an elaborate ceremony on 24 June 1268, with his brother Edmund and cousin Henry of Almain. Among others who committed themselves to the Ninth Crusade were Edward's former adversaries – like the Earl of Gloucester, though de Clare did not ultimately participate. With the country pacified, the greatest impediment to the project was providing sufficient finances. King Louis IX of France, who was the leader of the crusade, provided a loan of about £17,500. This, however, was not enough; the rest had to be raised through a tax on the laity , which had not been levied since 1237. In May 1270, Parliament granted a tax of a twentieth, in exchange for which the King agreed to reconfirm Magna Carta , and to impose restrictions on Jewish money lending. On 20 August Edward sailed from Dover for France. Historians have not determined the size of the force with any certainty, but Edward probably brought with him around 225 knights and altogether less than 1000 men. Originally, the Crusaders intended to relieve the beleaguered Christian stronghold of Acre , but Louis had been diverted to Tunis . The French King and his brother Charles of Anjou , who had made himself King of Sicily , decided to attack the emirate to establish a stronghold in North Africa. The plans failed when the French forces were struck by an epidemic which, on 25 August, took the life of King Louis himself. By the time Edward arrived at Tunis, Charles had already signed a treaty with the emir, and there was little else to do but return to Sicily. The crusade was postponed until next spring, but a devastating storm off the coast of Sicily dissuaded Charles of Anjou and Louis's successor Philip III from any further campaigning. Edward decided to continue alone, and on 9 May 1271 he finally landed at Acre. By then, the situation in the Holy Land was a precarious one. Jerusalem had fallen in 1244, and Acre was now the centre of the Christian state . The Muslim states were on the offensive under the Mamluk leadership of Baibars , and were now threatening Acre itself. Though Edward's men were an important addition to the garrison, they stood little chance against Baibars' superior forces, and an initial raid at nearby St Georges-de-Lebeyne in June was largely futile. An embassy to the Ilkhan Abaqa (1234–1282) of the Mongols helped bring about an attack on Aleppo in the north, which helped to distract Baibars' forces. In November, Edward led a raid on Qaqun , which could have served as a bridgehead to Jerusalem, but both the Mongol invasion and the attack on Qaqun failed. Things now seemed increasingly desperate, and in May 1272 Hugh III of Cyprus , who was the nominal king of Jerusalem , signed a ten-year truce with Baibars. Edward was initially defiant, but an attack by a Muslim assassin in June forced him to abandon any further campaigning. Although he managed to kill the assassin, he was struck in the arm by a dagger feared to be poisoned, and became severely weakened over the following months. It was not until 24 September that Edward left Acre. Arriving in Sicily, he was met with the news that his father had died on 16 November, 1272. Edward was deeply saddened by this news, but rather than hurrying home at once, he made a leisurely journey northwards. This was partly due to his health still being poor, but also due to a lack of urgency. The political situation in England was stable after the mid-century upheavals, and Edward was proclaimed king at his father's death, rather than at his own coronation, as had until then been customary. In Edward's absence, the country was governed by a royal council, led by Robert Burnell . The new king embarked on an overland journey through Italy and France, where among other things he visited Pope Gregory X in Rome, King Philip III in Paris, and suppressed a rebellion in Gascony . Only on 2 August 1274 did he return to England, and was crowned on 19 August. Early reign, 1274–96 Welsh wars Conquest Llywelyn ap Gruffudd enjoyed an advantageous situation in the aftermath of the Barons' War. Through the 1267 Treaty of Montgomery , he officially obtained land he had conquered in the Four Cantrefs of Perfeddwlad and was recognised in his title of Prince of Wales . Armed conflicts nevertheless continued, in particular with certain dissatisfied Marcher Lords , such as Gilbert de Clare, Earl of Gloucester , Roger Mortimer and Humphrey de Bohun, Earl of Hereford . Problems were exacerbated when Llywelyn's younger brother Dafydd and Gruffydd ap Gwenwynwyn of Powys , after failing in an assassination attempt against Llywelyn, defected to the English in 1274. Citing ongoing hostilities and the English king's harbouring of his enemies, Llywelyn refused to do homage to Edward. For Edward, a further provocation came from Llywelyn's planned marriage to Eleanor , daughter of Simon de Montfort. In November 1276, war was declared. Initial operations were launched under the captaincy of Mortimer, Lancaster (Edward's brother Edmund) and William de Beauchamp, Earl of Warwick . Support for Llywelyn was weak among his own countrymen. In July 1277 Edward invaded with a force of 15,500, of whom 9,000 were Welshmen. The campaign never came to a major battle, and Llywelyn soon realised he had no choice but to surrender. By the Treaty of Aberconwy in November 1277, he was left only with the land of Gwynedd , though he was allowed to retain the title of Prince of Wales. When war broke out again in 1282, it was an entirely different undertaking. For the Welsh, this war was over national identity, enjoying wide support, provoked particularly by attempts to impose English law on Welsh subjects. For Edward, it became a war of conquest rather than simply a punitive expedition , like the former campaign. The war started with a rebellion by Dafydd, who was discontented with the reward he had received from Edward in 1277. Llywelyn and other Welsh chieftains soon joined in, and initially the Welsh experienced military success. In June, Gloucester was defeated at the Battle of Llandeilo Fawr . On 6 November, while John Peckham , archbishop of Canterbury , was conducting peace negotiations, Edward's commander of Anglesey , Luke de Tany , decided to carry out a surprise attack. A pontoon bridge had been built to the mainland, but shortly after Tany and his men crossed over, they were ambushed by the Welsh and suffered heavy losses at the Battle of Moel-y-don . The Welsh advances ended on 11 December, however, when Llywelyn was lured into a trap and killed at the Battle of Orewin Bridge . The conquest of Gwynedd was complete with the capture in June 1283 of Dafydd, who was taken to Shrewsbury and executed as a traitor the following autumn. Further rebellions occurred in 1287–88 and, more seriously, in 1294, under the leadership of Madog ap Llywelyn , a distant relative of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd. This last conflict demanded the King's own attention, but in both cases the rebellions were put down. Colonisation By the 1284 Statute of Rhuddlan , the Principality of Wales was incorporated into England and was given an administrative system like the English, with counties policed by sheriffs. English law was introduced in criminal cases, though the Welsh were allowed to maintain their own customary laws in some cases of property disputes. After 1277, and increasingly after 1283, Edward embarked on a full-scale project of English settlement of Wales, creating new towns like Flint , Aberystwyth and Rhuddlan . Their new residents were English migrants, with the local Welsh banned from living inside them, and many were protected by extensive walls. An extensive project of castle-building was also initiated, under the direction of Master James of Saint George , a prestigious architect whom Edward had met in Savoy on his return from the crusade. These included the castles of Beaumaris , Caernarfon , Conwy and Harlech , intended to act both as fortresses and royal palaces for the King. His programme of castle building in Wales heralded the introduction of the widespread use of arrowslits in castle walls across Europe, drawing on Eastern influences. Also a product of the Crusades was the introduction of the concentric castle , and four of the eight castles Edward founded in Wales followed this design. The castles made a clear, imperial statement about Edward's intentions to rule North Wales permanently, and drew on imagery associated with the Byzantine Roman Empire and King Arthur in an attempt to build legitimacy for his new regime. In 1284, King Edward had his son Edward (later Edward II ) born at Caernarfon Castle, probably to make a deliberate statement about the new political order in Wales. David Powel , a 16th-century clergyman, suggested that the baby was offered to the Welsh as a prince "that was borne in Wales and could speake never a word of English", but there is no evidence to support this account. In 1301 at Lincoln, the young Edward became the first English prince to be invested with the title of Prince of Wales, when King Edward granted him the Earldom of Chester and lands across North Wales. [6] The King seems to have hoped that this would help in the pacification of the region, and that it would give his son more financial independence. [6] Diplomacy and war on the Continent Edward never again went on crusade after his return to England in 1274, but he maintained an intention to do so, and took the cross again in 1287. This intention guided much of his foreign policy, until at least 1291. To stage a European-wide crusade, it was essential to prevent conflict between the greater princes on the continent. A major obstacle to this was represented by the conflict between the French House of Anjou ruling southern Italy, and the kingdom of Aragon in Spain. In 1282, the citizens of Palermo rose up against Charles of Anjou and turned for help to Peter of Aragon , in what has become known as the Sicilian Vespers . In the war that followed, Charles of Anjou's son, Charles of Salerno , was taken prisoner by the Aragonese. The French began planning an attack on Aragon, raising the prospect of a large-scale European war. To Edward, it was imperative that such a war be avoided, and in Paris in 1286 he brokered a truce between France and Aragon that helped secure Charles' release. As far as the crusades were concerned, however, Edward's efforts proved ineffective. A devastating blow to his plans came in 1291, when the Mamluks captured Acre , the last Christian stronghold in the Holy Land. After the fall of Acre, Edward's international role changed from that of a diplomat to an antagonist. He had long been deeply involved in the affairs of his own Duchy of Gascony . In 1278 he assigned an investigating commission to his trusted associates Otto de Grandson and the chancellor Robert Burnell, which caused the replacement of the seneschal Luke de Tany . In 1286, Edward visited the region himself and stayed for almost three years. The perennial problem, however, was the status of Gascony within the kingdom of France, and Edward's role as the French king's vassal. On his diplomatic mission in 1286, Edward had paid homage to the new king, Philip IV , but in 1294 Philip declared Gascony forfeit when Edward refused to appear before him in Paris to discuss the recent conflict between English, Gascon, and French sailors (that had resulted in several French ships being captured, along with the sacking of the French port of La Rochelle ). Eleanor of Castile had died on 28 November 1290. Uncommon for such marriages of the period, the couple loved each other. Moreover, like his father, Edward was very devoted to his wife and was faithful to her throughout their married lives — a rarity among monarchs of the time. He was deeply affected by her death. He displayed his grief by erecting twelve so-called Eleanor crosses , one at each place where her funeral cortège stopped for the night. As part of the peace accord between England and France in 1294, it was agreed that Edward should marry Philip IV 's half-sister Margaret , but the marriage was delayed by the outbreak of war. Edward made alliances with the German king, the Counts of Flanders and Guelders, and the Burgundians, who would attack France from the north. The alliances proved volatile, however, and Edward was facing trouble at home at the time, both in Wales and Scotland. It was not until August 1297 that he was finally able to sail for Flanders, at which time his allies there had already suffered defeat. The support from Germany never materialised, and Edward was forced to seek peace. His marriage to Margaret in 1299 ended the war, but the whole affair had proven both costly and fruitless for the English. The Great Cause The relationship between the nations of England and Scotland by the 1280s was one of relatively harmonious coexistence. The issue of homage did not reach the same level of controversy as it did in Wales; in 1278 King Alexander III of Scotland paid homage to Edward I, but apparently only for the lands he held of Edward in England. Problems arose only with the Scottish succession crisis of the early 1290s. In the years from 1281 to 1284, Alexander's two sons and one daughter died in quick succession. Then, in 1286, King Alexander died himself, leaving as heir to the throne of Scotland the three-year-old Margaret, the Maid of Norway , who was born in 1283 to Alexander's daughter Margaret and King Eric II of Norway . By the Treaty of Birgham , it was agreed that Margaret should marry King Edward's then one-year-old son Edward of Carnarvon , though Scotland would remain free of English overlordship . Margaret, by now seven years of age, sailed from Norway for Scotland in the autumn of 1290, but fell ill on the way and died in Orkney . This left the country without an obvious heir, and led to the succession dispute known to history as the Great Cause . Even though as many as fourteen claimants put forward their claims to the title, the real contest was between John Balliol and Robert de Brus . The Scottish magnates made a request to Edward to conduct the proceedings and administer the outcome, but not to arbitrate in the dispute. The actual decision would be made by 104 auditors - 40 appointed by Balliol, 40 by Bruce and the remaining 24 selected by Edward I from senior members of the Scottish political community. At Birgham, with the prospect of a personal union between the two realms, the question of suzerainty had not been of great importance to Edward. Now he insisted that, if he were to settle the contest, he had to be fully recognised as Scotland's feudal overlord. The Scots were reluctant to make such a concession, and replied that since the country had no king, no one had the authority to make this decision. This problem was circumvented when the competitors agreed that the realm would be handed over to Edward until a rightful heir had been found. After a lengthy hearing, a decision was made in favour of John Balliol on 17 November 1292. Even after Balliol's accession, Edward still continued to assert his authority over Scotland. Against the objections of the Scots, he agreed to hear appeals on cases ruled on by the court of guardians that had governed Scotland during the interregnum. A further provocation came in a case brought by Macduff, son of Malcolm, Earl of Fife , in which Edward demanded that Balliol appear in person before the English Parliament to answer the charges. This the Scottish King did, but the final straw was Edward's demand that the Scottish magnates provide military service in the war against France. This was unacceptable; the Scots instead formed an alliance with France and launched an unsuccessful attack on Carlisle . Edward responded by invading Scotland in 1296 and taking the town of Berwick in a particularly bloody attack. At the Battle of Dunbar , Scottish resistance was effectively crushed. Edward confiscated the Stone of Destiny – the Scottish coronation stone – and brought it to Westminster placing it in what became known as King Edward's Chair ; he deposed Balliol and placed him in the Tower of London , and installed Englishmen to govern the country. The campaign had been very successful, but the English triumph would only be temporary. Government and law Character as king Edward had a reputation for a fierce temper, and he could be intimidating; one story tells of how the Dean of St Paul's , wishing to confront Edward over the high level of taxation in 1295, fell down and died once he was in the King's presence. When Edward of Caernarfon demanded an earldom for his favourite Gaveston, the King erupted in anger and supposedly tore out handfuls of his son's hair. Some of his contemporaries considered Edward frightening, particularly in his early days. The Song of Lewes in 1264 described him as a leopard, an animal regarded as particularly powerful and unpredictable. Despite these frightening character traits, however, Edward's contemporaries considered him an able, even an ideal, king. Though not loved by his subjects, he was feared and respected. He met contemporary expectations of kingship in his role as an able, determined soldier and in his embodiment of shared chivalric ideals. In religious observance he also fulfilled the expectations of his age: he attended chapel regularly and gave alms generously. Edward took a keen interest in the stories of King Arthur, which were highly popular in Europe during his reign. In 1278 he visited Glastonbury Abbey to open what was then believed to be the tomb of Arthur and Guinevere , recovering "Arthur's crown" from Llywelyn after the conquest of North Wales, while, as noted above, his new castles drew upon the Arthurian myths in their design and location. He held "Round Table" events in 1284 and 1302, involving tournaments and feasting, and chroniclers compared him and the events at his court to Arthur. In some cases Edward appears to have used his interest in the Arthurian myths to serve his own political interests, including legitimising his rule in Wales and discrediting the Welsh belief that Arthur might return as their political saviour. Administration and the law Soon after assuming the throne, Edward set about restoring order and re-establishing royal authority after the disastrous reign of his father. To accomplish this, he immediately ordered an extensive change of administrative personnel. The most important of these was the appointment of Robert Burnell as chancellor , a man who would remain in the post until 1292 as one of the King's closest associates. Edward then replaced most local officials, such as the escheators and sheriffs . This last measure was done in preparation for an extensive inquest covering all of England, that would hear complaints about abuse of power by royal officers. The inquest produced the set of so-called Hundred Rolls , from the administrative subdivision of the hundred . The second purpose of the inquest was to establish what land and rights the crown had lost during the reign of Henry III. The Hundred Rolls formed the basis for the later legal inquiries called the Quo warranto proceedings. The purpose of these inquiries was to establish by what warrant ( Latin : Quo warranto) various liberties were held. If the defendant could not produce a royal licence to prove the grant of the liberty, then it was the crown's opinion – based on the writings of the influential thirteenth-century legal scholar Bracton – that the liberty should revert to the king. By enacting the Statute of Gloucester in 1278 the King challenged baronial rights through a revival of the system of general eyres (royal justices to go on tour throughout the land) and through a significant increase in the number of pleas of quo warranto to be heard by such eyres. This caused great consternation among the aristocracy, who insisted that long use in itself constituted licence . A compromise was eventually reached in 1290, whereby a liberty was considered legitimate as long as it could be shown to have been exercised since the coronation of King Richard I , in 1189. Royal gains from the Quo warranto proceedings were insignificant; few liberties were returned to the King. Edward had nevertheless won a significant victory, in clearly establishing the principle that all liberties essentially emanated from the crown. The 1290 statute of Quo warranto was only one part of a wider legislative effort, which was one of the most important contributions of Edward I's reign. This era of legislative action had started already at the time of the baronial reform movement; the Statute of Marlborough (1267) contained elements both of the Provisions of Oxford and the Dictum of Kenilworth . The compilation of the Hundred Rolls was followed shortly after by the issue of Westminster I (1275), which asserted the royal prerogative and outlined restrictions on liberties. In the Mortmain (1279), the issue was grants of land to the church. The first clause of Westminster II (1285), known as De donis conditionalibus , dealt with family settlement of land, and entails . Merchants (1285) established firm rules for the recovery of debts, while Winchester (1285) dealt with peacekeeping on a local level. Quia emptores (1290) – issued along with Quo warranto – set out to remedy land ownership disputes resulting from alienation of land by subinfeudation . The age of the great statutes largely ended with the death of Robert Burnell in 1292. Finances, Parliament and the expulsion of Jews Edward I's frequent military campaigns put a great financial strain on the nation. There were several ways through which the king could raise money for war, including customs duties , money lending and lay subsidies . In 1275, Edward I negotiated an agreement with the domestic merchant community that secured a permanent duty on wool. In 1303, a similar agreement was reached with foreign merchants, in return for certain rights and privileges. The revenues from the customs duty were handled by the Riccardi , a group of bankers from Lucca in Italy. This was in return for their service as money lenders to the crown, which helped finance the Welsh Wars. When the war with France broke out, the French king confiscated the Riccardi's assets, and the bank went bankrupt. After this, the Frescobaldi of Florence took over the role as money lenders to the English crown. Another source of crown income was represented by England's Jews . The Jews were the king's personal property, and he was free to tax them at will. By 1280, the Jews had been exploited to a level at which they were no longer of much financial use to the crown, but they could still be used in political bargaining. Their usury business – a practice forbidden to Christians – had made many people indebted to them and caused general popular resentment. In 1275, Edward had issued the Statute of the Jewry , which outlawed usury and encouraged the Jews to take up other professions; in 1279, in the context of a crack-down on coin-clippers , he arrested all the heads of Jewish households in England and had around 300 of them executed. In 1280, he ordered all Jews to attend special sermons, preached by Dominican friars, with the hope of persuading them to convert, but these exhortations were not followed. The final attack on the Jews in England came in the Edict of Expulsion in 1290, whereby Edward formally expelled all Jews from England. This not only generated revenues through royal appropriation of Jewish loans and property, but it also gave Edward the political capital to negotiate a substantial lay subsidy in the 1290 Parliament. The expulsion, which was reversed in 1656, followed a precedent set by other European territorial princes: Philip II of France had expelled all Jews from his own lands in 1182; John I, Duke of Brittany , drove them out of his duchy in 1239; and in the late 1240s Louis IX of France had expelled the Jews from the royal demesne before his first passage to the East. Edward held Parliament on a reasonably regular basis throughout his reign. In 1295, however, a significant change occurred. For this Parliament, in addition to the secular and ecclesiastical lords, two knights from each county and two representatives from each borough were summoned. The representation of commons in Parliament was nothing new; what was new was the authority under which these representatives were summoned. Whereas previously the commons had been expected simply to assent to decisions already made by the magnates, it was now proclaimed that they should meet with the full authority (plena potestas) of their communities, to give assent to decisions made in Parliament. The King now had full backing for collecting lay subsidies from the entire population. Lay subsidies were taxes collected at a certain fraction of the moveable property of all laymen. Whereas Henry III had only collected four of these in his reign, Edward I collected nine. This format eventually became the standard for later Parliaments, and historians have named the assembly the "Model Parliament". Later reign, 1297–1307 Constitutional crisis The incessant warfare of the 1290s put a great financial demand on Edward's subjects. Whereas the King had only levied three lay subsidies until 1294, four such taxes were granted in the years 1294–97, raising over £200,000. Along with this came the burden of prises (appropriation of food), seizure of wool and hides, and the unpopular additional duty on wool, dubbed the maltolt. The fiscal demands on the King's subjects caused resentment, and this resentment eventually led to serious political opposition. The initial resistance was not caused by the lay taxes, however, but by clerical subsidies. In 1294, Edward made a demand of a grant of one half of all clerical revenues. There was some resistance, but the King responded by threatening with outlawry , and the grant was eventually made. At the time, the archbishopric of Canterbury was vacant, since Robert Winchelsey was in Italy to receive consecration. Winchelsey returned in January 1295 and had to consent to another grant in November of that year. In 1296, however, his position changed when he received the papal bull Clericis laicos . This bull prohibited the clergy from paying taxes to lay authorities without explicit consent from the Pope. When the clergy, with reference to the bull, refused to pay, Edward responded with outlawry. Winchelsey was presented with a dilemma between loyalty to the King and upholding the papal bull, and he responded by leaving it to every individual clergyman to pay as he saw fit. By the end of the year, a solution was offered by the new papal bull Etsi de statu , which allowed clerical taxation in cases of pressing urgency. Edward Chronicle of Walter of Guisborough Opposition from the laity took longer to surface. This resistance focused on two things: the King's right to demand military service, and his right to levy taxes. At the Salisbury parliament of February 1297, Roger Bigod, Earl of Norfolk , in his capacity as Marshal of England , objected to a royal summons of military service. Bigod argued that the military obligation only extended to service alongside the King; if the King intended to sail to Flanders, he could not send his subjects to Gascony. In July, Bigod and Humphrey de Bohun, Earl of Hereford and Constable of England , drew up a series of complaints known as the Remonstrances , in which objections to the extortionate level of taxation were voiced. Undeterred, Edward requested another lay subsidy. This one was particularly provocative, because the King had sought consent only from a small group of magnates, rather than from representatives from the communities in parliament. While Edward was in Winchelsea , preparing for the campaign in Flanders, Bigod and Bohun turned up at the Exchequer to prevent the collection of the tax. As the King left the country with a greatly reduced force, the kingdom seemed to be on the verge of civil war. What resolved the situation was the English defeat by the Scots at the Battle of Stirling Bridge . The renewed threat to the homeland gave king and magnates common cause. Edward signed the Confirmatio cartarum – a confirmation of Magna Carta and its accompanying Charter of the Forest – and the nobility agreed to serve with the King on a campaign in Scotland. Edward's problems with the opposition did not end with the Falkirk campaign. Over the following years he would be held up to the promises he had made, in particular that of upholding the Charter of the Forest. [2] In the parliament of 1301, the King was forced to order an assessment of the royal forests , but in 1305 he obtained a papal bull that freed him from this concession. Ultimately, it was a failure in personnel that spelt the end of the opposition against Edward I. Bohun died late in 1298, after returning from the Falkirk campaign. As for Bigod, in 1302 he arrived at an agreement with the King that was beneficial for both: Bigod, who had no children, made Edward his heir, in return for a generous annual grant. Edward finally got his revenge on Winchelsey in 1305, when Clement V was elected pope. Clement was a Gascon sympathetic to the King, and on Edward's instigation had Winchelsey suspended from office. Return to Scotland The situation in Scotland had seemed resolved when Edward left the country in 1296, but resistance soon emerged under the leadership of William Wallace . On 11 September 1297, a large English force under the leadership of John de Warenne, Earl of Surrey , and Hugh de Cressingham was routed by a much smaller Scottish army led by Wallace and Andrew Moray at Stirling Bridge . The defeat sent shockwaves into England, and preparations for a retaliatory campaign started immediately. Soon after Edward returned from Flanders, he headed north. On 22 July 1298, in the only major battle he had fought since Evesham in 1265, Edward defeated Wallace's forces at the Battle of Falkirk . Edward, however, was not able to take advantage of the momentum, and the next year the Scots managed to recapture Stirling Castle . Even though Edward campaigned in Scotland both in 1300, when he successfully besieged Caerlaverock Castle and in 1301, the Scots refused to engage in open battle again, preferring instead to raid the English countryside in smaller groups. The defeated Scots, secretly urged on by the French, appealed to the pope to assert a claim of overlordship to Scotland in place of the English. His papal bull addressed to King Edward in these terms was firmly rejected on Edward's behalf by the Barons' Letter of 1301. The English managed to subdue the country by other means, however. In 1303, a peace agreement was reached between England and France, effectively breaking up the Franco-Scottish alliance. Robert the Bruce , the grandson of the claimant to the crown in 1291, had sided with the English in the winter of 1301–02. By 1304, most of the other nobles of the country had also pledged their allegiance to Edward, and this year the English also managed to re-take Stirling Castle. A great propaganda victory was achieved in 1305 when Wallace was betrayed by Sir John de Menteith and turned over to the English, who had him taken to London where he was publicly executed. With Scotland largely under English control, Edward installed Englishmen and collaborating Scots to govern the country. The situation changed again on 10 February 1306, when Robert the Bruce murdered his rival John Comyn and a few weeks later, on 25 March, had himself crowned King of Scotland by Isobel, sister of the Earl of Buchan. Bruce now embarked on a campaign to restore Scottish independence, and this campaign took the English by surprise. Edward was suffering ill health by this time, and instead of leading an expedition himself, he gave different military commands to Aymer de Valence and Henry Percy , while the main royal army was led by the Prince of Wales. The English initially met with success; on 19 June, Aymer de Valence routed Bruce at the Battle of Methven . Bruce was forced into hiding, while the English forces recaptured their lost territory and castles. Edward responded with severe brutality against Bruce's allies and supporters. Bruce's sister, Mary , was hung in a cage outside of Roxburgh for four years. Isabella MacDuff, Countess of Buchan , who had crowned Bruce, was hung in a cage outside of Berwick Castle for four years. Bruce's younger brother Neil was executed by being hanged, drawn, and quartered; he had been captured after he and his garrison held off Edward's forces who had been seeking Bruce's wife (Elizabeth), daughter Marjorie , sisters Mary and Christina, and Isabella. [7] [8] It was clear that Edward now regarded the struggle not as a war between two nations, but as the suppression of a rebellion of disloyal subjects. This brutality, though, rather than helping to subdue the Scots, had the opposite effect, and rallied growing support for Bruce. Death and legacy Death, 1307 In February 1307, Bruce reappeared and started gathering men, and in May he defeated Aymer de Valence at the Battle of Loudoun Hill . [4] Edward, who had rallied somewhat, now moved north himself. On the way, however, he developed dysentery , and his condition deteriorated. On 6 July he encamped at Burgh by Sands , just south of the Scottish border. When his servants came the next morning to lift him up so that he could eat, he died in their arms. [4] Various stories emerged about Edward’s deathbed wishes; according to one tradition, he requested that his heart be carried to the Holy Land, along with an army to fight the infidels. A more dubious story tells of how he wished for his bones to be carried along on future expeditions against the Scots. Another account of his deathbed scene is more credible; according to one chronicle, Edward gathered around him the Earls of Lincoln and Warwick , Aymer de Valence, and Robert Clifford , and charged them with looking after his son Edward. In particular they should make sure that Piers Gaveston was not allowed to return to the country. [4] This wish, however, the son ignored, and had his favourite recalled from exile almost immediately. [4] The new king, Edward II , remained in the north until August, but then abandoned the campaign and headed south. [4] He was crowned king on 25 February 1308. [4] Edward I's body was brought south, lying in state at Waltham Abbey, before being buried in Westminster Abbey on 27 October. There are few records of the funeral, which cost £473. Edward's tomb was an unusually plain sarcophagus of Purbeck marble , without the customary royal effigy , possibly the result of the shortage of royal funds after the King's death. [4] The sarcophagus may normally have been covered over with rich cloth, and originally might have been surrounded by carved busts and a devotional religious image, all since lost. [4] The Society of Antiquaries opened the tomb in 1774, finding that the body had been well preserved over the preceding 467 years, and took the opportunity to determine the King's original height. [4] Traces of the Latin inscription Edwardus Primus Scottorum Malleus hic est, 1308. Pactum Serva ("Here is Edward I, Hammer of the Scots, 1308. Keep the Vow"), which can still be seen painted on the side of the tomb, referring to his vow to avenge the rebellion of Robert Bruce. This resulted in Edward being given the epithet the "Hammer of the Scots" by historians, but is not contemporary in origin, having been added by the Abbot John Feckenham in the 16th century. Historiography The first histories of Edward in the 16th and 17th centuries drew primarily on the works of the chroniclers , and made little use of the official records of the period. They limited themselves to general comments on Edward's significance as a monarch, and echoed the chroniclers' praise for his accomplishments. During the 17th century, the lawyer Edward Coke wrote extensively about Edward's legislation, terming the King the "English Justinian", after the renowned Byzantine law-maker, Justinian I . Later in the century, historians used the available record evidence to address the role of parliament and kingship under Edward, drawing comparisons between his reign and the political strife of their own century. 18th-century historians established a picture of Edward as an able, if ruthless, monarch, conditioned by the circumstances of his own time. The influential Victorian historian William Stubbs instead suggested that Edward had actively shaped national history, forming English laws and institutions, and helping England to develop parliamentary and constitutional government . His strengths and weaknesses as a ruler were considered to be emblematic of the English people as a whole. Stubbs' student, Thomas Tout , initially adopted the same perspective, but after extensive research into Edward's royal household, and backed by the research of his contemporaries into the early parliaments of the period, he changed his mind. Tout came to view Edward as a self-interested, conservative leader, using the parliamentary system as "the shrewd device of an autocrat, anxious to use the mass of the people as a check upon his hereditary foes among the greater baronage." Historians in the 20th and 21st century have conducted extensive research on Edward and his reign. Most have concluded this was a highly significant period in English medieval history, some going further and describing Edward as one of the great medieval kings, although most also agree that his final years were less successful than his early decades in power. [9] Three major academic narratives of Edward have been produced during this period. Frederick Powicke 's volumes, published in 1947 and 1953, forming the standard works on Edward for several decades, and were largely positive in praising the achievements of his reign, and in particular his focus on justice and the law. In 1988, Michael Prestwich produced an authoritative biography of the King, focusing on his political career, still portraying him in sympathetic terms, but highlighting some of the consequences of his failed policies. Marc Morris 's biography followed in 2008, drawing out more of the detail of Edward's personality, and generally taking a harsher view of the King's weaknesses and less pleasant characteristics. [11] Considerable academic debate has taken place around the character of Edward's kingship, his political skills, and in particular his management of his earls, and the degree to which this was collaborative or repressive in nature. There is also a great difference between English and Scottish historiography on King Edward. G. W. S. Barrow , in his biography on Robert the Bruce, accused Edward of ruthlessly exploiting the leaderless state of Scotland to obtain a feudal superiority over the kingdom. This view of Edward is reflected in the popular perception of the King, as can be seen in the 1995 movie Braveheart 's portrayal of the King as a hard-hearted tyrant. [12] Family and children Edward married twice: First marriage By his first wife Eleanor of Castile, Edward had at least fourteen children, perhaps as many as sixteen. Of these, five daughters survived into adulthood, but only one son outlived his father, namely King Edward II (1307–1327). He was reportedly concerned with his son's failure to live up to the expectations of an heir to the crown, and at one point decided to exile the prince's favourite Piers Gaveston . His children by Eleanor of Castile were as follows: Sons from first marriage John (13 July 1266 – 3 August 1271), predeceased his father and died at Wallingford while in the custody of his granduncle Richard, Earl of Cornwall , buried at Westminster Abbey. Henry (6 May 1268 – 14 October 1274), predeceased his father, buried in Westminster Abbey. Alphonso, Earl of Chester (24 November 1273 – 19 August 1284), predeceased his father, buried in Westminster Abbey. Son (1280/81 – 1280/81), predeceased his father; little evidence exists for this child. King Edward II (25 April 1284 – 21 September 1327), eldest surviving son and heir, succeeded his father as king of England. In 1308 he married Isabella of France , with whom he had four children. Daughters from first marriage Elizabeth of Rhuddlan (c. 7 August 1282 – 5 May 1316), married (1) in 1297 John I, Count of Holland , (2) in 1302 Humphrey de Bohun, Earl of Hereford . The first marriage was childless; by Bohun Elizabeth had ten children. Second marriage By Margaret of France Edward had two sons, both of whom lived into adulthood, and a daughter who died as a child. The Hailes Abbey chronicle indicates that John Botetourt may have been Edward's illegitimate son; however, the claim is unsubstantiated. [13] His progeny by Margaret of France was as follows: Sons from second marriage Edmund of Woodstock, 1st Earl of Kent (1 August 1301 – 19 March 1330), married Margaret Wake with issue. [15] Daughter from second marriage Eleanor (6 May 1306 – 1310) [16] Ancestry	i don't know
In the human body, what seven letter word describes the loss of the sense of taste ?	Neuroscience for Kids - Taste Like, well, salt! Like a cup of bad coffee All other tastes come from a combination of these four basic tastes. Actually, a fifth basic taste called "Umami" has recently been discovered. Umami is a taste that occurs when foods with glutamate (like MSG) are eaten. Different parts of the tongue can detect all types of tastes. Morever, the simple tongue "taste map" that is found in many textbooks has been criticized for several reasons ( also here ). The actual organ of taste is called the "taste bud." Each taste bud (and there approximately 10,000 taste buds in humans) is made up of many (between 50-150) receptor cells. Receptor cells live for only 1 to 2 weeks and then are replaced by new receptor cells. Each receptor in a taste bud responds best to one of the basic tastes. A receptor can respond to the other tastes, but it responds strongest to a particular taste. The Taste Bud Image from Biodidac There are two cranial nerves that innervate the tongue and are used for taste: the facial nerve (cranial nerve VII) and the glossopharyngeal nerve (cranial nerve IX). The facial nerve innervates the anterior (front) two-thirds of the tongue and the glossopharyngeal nerve innervates that posterior (back) one-third part of the tongue. Another cranial nerve (the vagus nerve, X) carries taste information from the back part of the mouth. The cranial nerves carry taste information into the brain to a part of the brain stem called the nucleus of the solitary tract. From the nucleus of the solitary tract, taste information goes to the thalamus and then to the cerebral cortex. Like information for smell, taste information also goes to the limbic system (hypothalamus and amygdala). Another cranial nerve (the trigeminal nerve, V) also innervates the tongue, but is not used for taste. Rather, the trigeminal nerve carries information related to touch, pressure, temperature and pain. Cranial Nerves used for taste Did you know? The complete inability to taste is called ageusia, the reduced ability to taste is called hypogeusia, and the enhanced ability to taste is called hypergeusia. Ageusia is a rare disorder. It may be rare because there are three different nerves that carry taste information to the brain. Older people have a reduced sense of taste because their taste buds are not replaced as fast those in younger people. Taste disorders can also be caused by drugs used to treat epilepsy, Parkinson's disease, diabetes and high blood pressure. Damage to the areas of the brain such as the brain stem, thalamus and cerebral cortex may also cause taste problems. A giraffe's tongue can be 29 inches (74 cm) in length. (Turin, M.S. Aardvarks to Zebras, New York: Citadel Press, 1995.) The tongue of a nectar bat (Anoura fistulata) can extend to 150% of its body length. (Muchhala, N., Nature, 444:701-702, 2006.) The tongue of a chameleon can extend to 200% of its body length. (Herrel1, A., Meyers, J.J., Aerts, P. and Nishikawa, K.C., The Journal of Experimental Biology, 204:3621-3627, 2001.)	Ageusia
Sixty three year old Sebastian Pinera is the current president of which South American country ?	Human Physiology/Senses - Wikibooks, open books for an open world Human Physiology/Senses 9 References What are Senses?[ edit ] We experience reality through our senses. Senses are the physiological methods of perception, so a sense is a faculty by which outside stimuli are perceived. The senses and their operation, classification, and theory are overlapping topics studied by a variety of fields. Many neurologists disagree about how many senses there actually are due to a broad interpretation of the definition of a sense. Our senses are split into two different groups. Our exteroceptors detect stimulation from the outsides of our body. For example smell, taste, and equilibrium. The interoceptors receive stimulation from the inside of our bodies. For instance, blood pressure dropping, changes in the glucose and pH levels. Children are generally taught that there are five senses (sight, hearing, touch, smell, taste). However, it is generally agreed that there are at least seven different senses in humans, and a minimum of two more observed in other organisms. Sense can also differ from one person to the next. Take taste for an example: what may taste great to one person will taste awful to someone else. This has to do with how the brain interprets the stimuli that are received. Chemoreception[ edit ] The senses of gustation (taste) and olfaction (smell) fall under the category of chemoreception. Specialized cells act as receptors for certain chemical compounds. As these compounds react with the receptors, an impulse is sent to the brain and is registered as a certain taste or smell. Gustation and olfaction are chemical senses because the receptors they contain are sensitive to the molecules in the food we eat, along with the air we breathe. Gustatory System[ edit ] In humans, the sense of taste is transduced by taste buds and is conveyed via three of the twelve cranial nerves. Cranial nerve VII, the facial nerve, carries taste sensations from the anterior two thirds of the tongue (excluding the circumvallate papillae, see lingual papilla) and soft palate. Cranial nerve IX the glossopharyngeal nerve carries taste sensations from the posterior one third of the tongue (including the circumvallate papillae). Also a branch of the vagus nerve carries some taste sensations from the back of the oral cavity (i.e. pharynx and epiglottis). Information from these cranial nerves is processed by the gustatory system. Though there are small differences in sensation, which can be measured with highly specific instruments, all taste buds can respond to all types of taste. Sensitivity to all tastes is distributed across the whole tongue and indeed to other regions of the mouth where there are taste buds (epiglottis, soft palate). Papilla[ edit ] Papilla are specialized epithelial cells. There are four types of papillae: filiform (thread-shape), fungiform (mushroom-shape), foliate (leaf-shape), and circumvallate (ringed-circle). All papillae except the filiform have taste buds on their surface. Some act directly by ion channels, others act indirectly. Fungiform papillae - as the name suggests, are slightly mushroom shaped if looked at in section. These are present mostly at the apex (tip) of the tongue. Filiform papillae - these are thin, longer papillae that don't contain taste buds but are the most numerous. These papillae are mechanical and not involved in gustation. Foliate papillae - these are ridges and grooves towards the posterior part of the tongue. Circumvallate papillae - there are only about 3-14 of these papillae on most people and they are present at the back of the oral part of the tongue. They are arranged in a circular-shaped row just in front of the sulcus terminalis of the tongue. Structure of Taste Buds[ edit ] The mouth cavity. The cheeks have been slit transversely and the tongue pulled forward. Semidiagrammatic view of a portion of the mucous membrane of the tongue. Two fungiform papillæ are shown. On some of the filiform papillæ the epithelial prolongations stand erect, in one they are spread out, and in three they are folded in. Each taste bud is flask-like in shape, its broad base resting on the corium, and its neck opening by an orifice, the gustatory pore, between the cells of the epithelium. The bud is formed by two kinds of cells: supporting cells and gustatory cells. The supporting cells are mostly arranged like the staves of a cask, and form an outer envelope for the bud. Some, however, are found in the interior of the bud between the gustatory cells. The gustatory cells occupy the central portion of the bud; they are spindle-shaped, and each possesses a large spherical nucleus near the middle of the cell. The peripheral end of the cell terminates at the gustatory pore in a fine hair-like filament, the gustatory hair. The central process passes toward the deep extremity of the bud, and there ends in single or bifurcated varicosities. The nerve fibrils after losing their medullary sheaths enter the taste bud, and end in fine extremities between the gustatory cells; other nerve fibrils ramify between the supporting cells and terminate in fine extremities; these, however, are believed to be nerves of ordinary sensation and not gustatory. Types of Taste[ edit ] Salt Arguably the simplest receptor found in the mouth is the salt (NaCl) receptor. An ion channel in the taste cell wall allows Na+ ions to enter the cell. This on its own depolarizes the cell, and opens voltage-regulated Ca2+ gates, flooding the cell with ions and leading to neurotransmitter release. This sodium channel is known as EnAC and is composed of three subunits. EnAC can be blocked by the drug amiloride in many mammals, especially rats. The sensitivity of the salt taste to amiloride in humans, however, is much less pronounced, leading to conjecture that there may be additional receptor proteins besides EnAC that may not have been discovered yet. Sour Sour taste signals the presence of acidic compounds (H+ ions in solution). There are three different receptor proteins at work in sour taste. The first is a simple ion channel which allows hydrogen ions to flow directly into the cell. The protein for this is EnAC, the same protein involved in the distinction of salt taste (this implies a relationship between salt and sour receptors and could explain why salty taste is reduced when a sour taste is present). There are also H+ gated channels present. The first is a K+ channel, which ordinarily allows K+ ions to escape from the cell. H+ ions block these, trapping the potassium ions inside the cell (this receptor is classified as MDEG1 of the EnAC/Deg Family). A third protein opens to Na+ ions when a hydrogen ion attaches to it, allowing the sodium ions to flow down the concentration gradient into the cell. The influx of ions leads to the opening of a voltage regulated Ca2+ gate. These receptors work together and lead to depolarization of the cell and neurotransmitter release. Bitter There are many classes of bitter compounds which can be chemically very different. It is interesting that the human body has evolved a very sophisticated sense for bitter substances: we can distinguish between the many radically different compounds which produce a generally “bitter” response. This may be because the sense of bitter taste is so important to survival, as ingesting a bitter compound may lead to injury or death. Bitter compounds act through structures in the taste cell walls called G-protein coupled receptors (GPCR’s). Recently, a new group of GPCR’s was discovered, known as the T2R’s, which is thought to only respond to bitter stimuli. When the bitter compound activates the GPCR, it in turn releases gustducin, the G-protein it was coupled to. Gustducin is made of three subunits. When it is activated by the GPCR, its subunits break apart and activate phosphodiesterase, a nearby enzyme. It then converts a precursor within the cell into a secondary messenger, which closes potassium ion channels. This secondary messenger can stimulate the endoplasmic reticulum to release Ca2+, which contributes to depolarization. This leads to a build-up of potassium ions in the cell, depolarization, and neurotransmitter release. It is also possible for some bitter tastants to interact directly with the G-protein, because of a structural similarity to the relevant GPCR. Sweet Like bitter tastes, sweet taste transduction involves GPCR’s. The specific mechanism depends on the specific molecule. “Natural” sweeteners such as saccharides activate the GPCR, which releases gustducin. The gustducin then activates the molecule adenylate cyclase, which is already inside the cell. This molecule increases concentration of the molecule cAMP, or adenosine 3', 5'-cyclic monophosphate. This protein will either directly or indirectly close potassium ion channels, leading to depolarization and neurotransmitter release. Synthetic sweeteners such as saccharin activate different GPCR’s, initiating a similar process of protein transitions, starting with the protein phospholipase A, which ultimately leads to the blocking of potassium ion channels. Umami Umami is a Japanese word meaning "savory" or "meaty". It is thought that umami receptors act much the same way as bitter and sweet receptors (they involve GPCR’s), but not much is known about their specific function. We do know that umami detects glutamates that are common in meats, cheese and other protein-heavy foods. Umami receptors react to foods treated with monosodium glutamate (MSG). This explains why eating foods that have MSG in them often give a sense of fullness. It is thought that the amino acid L-glutamate bonds to a type of GPCR known as a metabotropic glutamate receptor (mGluR4). This causes the G-protein complex to activate a secondary receptor, which ultimately leads to neurotransmitter release. The intermediate steps are not known. Disorders of the Tongue[ edit ] Loss of taste You may lose your sense of taste if the facial nerve is damaged. Then there is also Sjogren's Syndrome where the saliva production is reduced. In most cases the loss of taste is typically a symptom of anosmia - a loss of the sense of smell. Sore tongue It is usually caused by some form of trauma, such as biting your tongue, or eating piping-hot or highly acidic food or drink. If your top and bottom teeth don’t fit neatly together, tongue trauma is more likely. Some people may experience a sore tongue from grinding their teeth (bruxism). Disorders such as diabetes, anemia, some types of vitamin deficiency and certain skin diseases can include a sore tongue among the range of symptoms. Glossodynia Olfactory System[ edit ] Olfaction is the sense of smell. In humans the sence of Smell is received in nasopharynx. Airborne molecules go into solution on moist epithelial surface of nasal passage. An olfactory receptors neuron sends an impulse via Cranial nerve I the olfactory nerve. Although 80-90% of what we think is "taste" actually is due to smell. This is why when we have a head cold or stuffed up nose we have a harder time tasting our foods. Receptors[ edit ] Humans have 347 functional odor receptor genes; the other genes have nonsense mutations. This number was determined by analyzing the genome in the Human Genome Project; the number may vary among ethnic groups, and does vary among individuals. For example, not all people can smell androstenone, a component of male sweat. Each olfactory receptor neuron in the nose expresses only one functional odor receptor. Odor receptor nerve cells may function like a key-lock system: if the odor molecules can fit into the lock the nerve cell will respond. According to shape theory, each receptor detects a feature of the odor molecule. Weak-shape theory, known as odotope theory, suggests that different receptors detect only small pieces of molecules, and these minimal inputs are combined to create a larger olfactory perception (similar to the way visual perception is built up of smaller, information-poor sensations, combined and refined to create a detailed overall perception). An alternative theory, the vibration theory proposed by Luca Turin (1996, 2002), posits that odor receptors detect the frequencies of vibrations of odor molecules in the infrared range by electron tunneling. However, the behavioral predictions of this theory have been found lacking (Keller and Vosshall, 2004). An olfactory receptor neuron, also called an olfactory sensory neuron, is the primary transduction cell in the olfactory system. Humans have about 40 million olfactory receptor neurons. In vertebrates, olfactory receptor neurons reside on the olfactory epithelium in the nasal cavity. These cells are bipolar neurons with a dendrite facing the interior space of the nasal cavity and an axon that travels along the olfactory nerve to the olfactory bulb. Many tiny hair-like cilia protrude from the olfactory receptor cell's dendrite and into the mucus covering the surface of the olfactory epithelium. These cilia contain olfactory receptors, a type of G protein-coupled receptor. Each olfactory receptor cell contains only one type of olfactory receptor, but many separate olfactory receptor cells contain the same type of olfactory receptor. The axons of olfactory receptor cells of the same type converge to form glomeruli in the olfactory bulb. Olfactory receptors can bind to a variety of odor molecules. The activated olfactory receptor in turn activates the intracellular G-protein GOLF, and adenylate cyclase and production of Cyclic AMP opens ion channels in the cell membrane, resulting in an influx of sodium and calcium ions into the cell. This influx of positive ions causes the neuron to depolarize, generating an action potential. Individual olfactory receptor neurons are replaced approximately every 40 days by neural stem cells residing in the olfactory epithelium. The regeneration of olfactory receptor cells, as one of the only few instances of adult neurogenesis in the central nervous system, has raised considerable interest in dissecting the pathways for neural development and differentiation in adult organisms. In the brain[ edit ] The axons from all the thousands of cells expressing the same odor receptor converge in the olfactory bulb. Mitral cells in the olfactory bulb send the information about the individual features to other parts of the olfactory system in the brain, which puts together the features into a representation of the odor. Since most odor molecules have many individual features, the combination of features gives the olfactory system a broad range of odors that it can detect. Odor information is easily stored in long term memory and has strong connections to emotional memory. This is possibly due to the olfactory system's close anatomical ties to the limbic system and hippocampus, areas of the brain that have long been known to be involved in emotion and place memory, respectively. The Olfactory Nerve leading to the brain. Pheromonal olfaction[ edit ] Some pheromones are detected by the olfactory system, although in many vertebrates pheromones are also detected by the vomeronasal organ, located in the vomer, between the nose and the mouth. Snakes use it to smell prey, sticking their tongue out and touching it to the organ. Some mammals make a face called flehmen to direct air to this organ. In humans, it is unknown whether or not pheromones exist. Olfaction and Gustation[ edit ] Olfaction, taste and trigeminal receptors together contribute to flavor. It should be emphasized that there are no more than 5 distinctive tastes: salty, sour, sweet, bitter, and umami. The 10,000 different scents which humans usually recognize as 'tastes' are often lost or severely diminished with the loss of olfaction. This is the reason why food has little flavor when your nose is blocked, as from a cold. The key nutrition players in our taste is the olfactory function, 80-90% of what we consider taste is dependent on our senses of smell. With aging our olfactory function declines. In the elderly careful monitoring of appetite is necessary due to the alterations in the olfactory function. Nutritionist suggest giving a dual approach of supplementation of the trace minerals zinc and iron to enhance the smell and taste senses. Disorders of Olfaction[ edit ] Anosmia Anosmia is the lack of olfaction, or a loss of the sense of smell. It can be either temporary or permanent. A related term, hyposmia refers to a decrease in the ability to smell. Some people may be anosmic for one particular odor. This is called "specific anosmia" and may be genetically based. Anosmia can have a number of detrimental effects. Patients with anosmia may find food less appetizing. Loss of smell can also be dangerous because it hinders the detection of gas leaks, fire, body odor, and spoiled food. The common view of anosmia as trivial can make it more difficult for a patient to receive the same types of medical aid as someone who has lost other senses, such as hearing or sight. A temporary loss of smell can be caused by a stuffy nose or infection. In contrast, a permanent loss of smell may be caused by death of olfactory receptor neurons in the nose, or by brain injury in which there is damage to the olfactory nerve or damage to brain areas that process smell. The lack of the sense of smell at birth, usually due to genetic factors, is referred as congenital anosmia. Anosmia may be an early sign of degenerative brain diseases such as Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. Another specific cause of permanent loss could be from damage to olfactory receptor neurons due to use of nasal sprays. To avoid loss of smell from nasal sprays, use them for only a short amount of time. Nasal sprays that are used to treat allergy related congestion are the only nasal sprays that are safe to use for extended periods of time. Phantosmia Phantosmia is the phenomenon of smelling odors that aren't really present. (AKA Phantom odors) The most common odors are unpleasant smells such as rotting flesh, vomit, feces, smoke etc. Phantosmia often results from damage to the nervous tissue in the olfactory system. The damage can be caused by viral infection, trauma, surgery, and possibly exposure to toxins or drugs. It can also be induced by epilepsy affecting the olfactory cortex. It is also thought the condition can have psychiatric origins. Dysosmia When things smell differently than they should. The Sense of Vision[ edit ] Vision needs to have the work of both the eyes and the brain to process any information. The majority of the stimuli is done in the eyes and then the information is sent to the brain by the way of nerve impulses. At least one-third of the information of what the eye sees is processed in the cerebral cortex of the brain. Anatomy of the Eye[ edit ] The human eye is a elongated ball about 1-inch (2.5 cm) in diameter and is protected by a bony socket in the skull. The eye has three layers or coats that make up the exterior wall of the eyeball, which are the sclera, choroid, and retina. Sclera The outer layer of the eye is the sclera, which is a tough white fibrous layer that maintains, protects and supports the shape of the eye. The front of the sclera is transparent and is called the cornea. The cornea refracts light rays and acts like the outer window of the eye. Choroid The middle thin layer of the eye is the choroid, also known as the choroidea or choroid coat, it is the vascular layer of the eye lying between the retina and the sclera. The choroid provides oxygen and nourishment to the outer layers of the retina. It also contains a nonreflective pigment that acts as a light shield and prevents light from scattering. Light enters the front of the eye through a hole in the choroid coat called the pupil. The iris contracts and dilates to compensate for the changes in light intensity. If the light is bright the iris then contracts making the pupil smaller, and if the light is dim, the iris dilates making the pupil bigger. Just posterior to the iris is the lens, which is composed mainly of proteins called crystallins. The lens is attached by the zonules to the ciliary body that contains the ciliary muscles that control the shape of the lens for accommodation. Along with the ciliary body and iris, the choroid forms the uveal tract. The uvea is the middle of the three concentric layers that make up an eye. The name is possibly a reference to its almost black color, wrinkled appearance and grape-like size and shape when stripped intact from a cadaveric eye. Retina Illustration of the "blind spot." Situate your head about one foot from the monitor. Close your right eye and look at the dot on the right with your left eye. Move your head slowly closer. When you get to the correct spot, the dot on the left will disappear. The third or the innermost layer of the eye is call the retina. In adult humans the entire retina is 72% of a sphere about 22 mm in diameter. The retina lays over the back two thirds of the choroid coat, which is located in the posterior compartment. The compartment is filled with vitreous humor which is a clear, gelatinous material. Within the retina there are cells called rod cells and cone cells also known as photoreceptors. The rod cells are very sensitive to light and do not see color, that is why when we are in a darkened room we see only shades of gray. The cone cells are sensitive to different wavelengths of light, and that is how we are able to tell different colors. It is a lack of cones sensitive to red, blue, or green light that causes individuals to have deficiencies in color vision or various kinds of color blindness. At the center of the retina is the optic disc, sometimes known as "the blind spot" because it lacks photoreceptors. It is where the optic nerve leaves the eye and takes the nerve impulses to the brain. The cornea and the lens of the eye focuses the light onto a small area of the retina called the fovea centralis where the cone cells are densely packed. The fovea is a pit that has the highest visual acuity and is responsible for our sharp central vision - there are no rods in the fovea. center\|framed Retina's simplified axial organization. The retina is a stack of several neuronal layers. Light is concentrated from the eye and passes across these layers (from left to right) to hit the photoreceptors (right layer). This elicits chemical transformation mediating a propagation of signal to the bipolar and horizontal cells (middle yellow layer). The signal is then propagated to the amacrine and ganglion cells. These neurons ultimately may produce action potentials on their axons. This spatiotemporal pattern of spikes determines the raw input from the eyes to the brain. Photoreceptors A photoreceptor, or photoreceptor cell, is a specialized type of neuron found in the eye's retina that is capable of phototransduction. More specifically, the photoreceptor sends signals to other neurons by a change in its membrane potential when it absorbs photons. Eventually, this information will be used by the visual system to form a complete representation of the visual world. There are 2 types of photoreceptors: rods are responsible for scotopic, or night vision, whereas cones are responsible for photopic, or daytime vision as well as color perception. Extraocular muscles Each eye has six muscles that control its movements: the lateral rectus, the medial rectus, the inferior rectus, the superior rectus, the inferior oblique, and the superior oblique. When the muscles exert different tensions, a torque is exerted on the globe that causes it to turn. This is an almost pure rotation, with only about one millimeter of translation, thus, the eye can be considered as undergoing rotations about a single point in the center of the eye. Five of the extraocular muscles have their origin in the back of the orbit in a fibrous ring called the annulus of Zinn. Four of these then course forward through the orbit and insert onto the globe on its anterior half (i.e., in front of the eye's equator). These muscles are named after their straight paths, and are called the four rectus muscles, or four recti. They insert on the globe at 12, 3, 6, and 9 o'clock, and are called the superior, lateral, inferior and medial rectus muscles. (Note that lateral and medial are relative to the subject, with lateral toward the side and medial toward the midline, thus the medial rectus is the muscle closest to the nose). Eye Movement[ edit ] The visual system in the brain is too slow to process that information if the images are slipping across the retina at more than a few degrees per second, thus, for humans to be able to see while moving, the brain must compensate for the motion of the head by turning the eyes. To get a clear view of the world, the brain must turn the eyes so that the image of the object of regard falls on the fovea. Eye movements are thus very important for visual perception, and any failure to make them correctly can lead to serious visual disabilities. Having two eyes is an added complication, because the brain must point both of them accurately enough that the object of regard falls on corresponding points of the two retinas; otherwise, double vision would occur. The movements of different body parts are controlled by striated muscles acting around joints. The movements of the eye are no exception, but they have special advantages not shared by skeletal muscles and joints, and so are considerably different. Try This Experiment Hold your hand up, about one foot (30 cm) in front of your nose. Keep your head still, and shake your hand from side to side, slowly at first, and then faster and faster. At first you will be able to see your fingers quite clearly. But as the frequency of shaking passes about one hertz, the fingers will become a blur. Now, keep your hand still, and shake your head (up and down or left and right). No matter how fast you shake your head, the image of your fingers remains clear. This demonstrates that the brain can move the eyes opposite to head motion much better than it can follow, or pursue, a hand movement. When your pursuit system fails to keep up with the moving hand, images slip on the retina and you see a blurred hand. How we see an object[ edit ] The light rays enter the eye through the cornea (transparent front portion of eye to focus the light rays). Then, light rays move through the pupil, which is surrounded by Iris to keep out extra light Then, light rays move through the crystalline lens (Clear lens to further focus the light rays ) Then, light rays move through the vitreous humor (clear jelly like substance) Then, light rays fall on the retina, which processes and converts incident light to neuron signals using special pigments in rod and cone cells. These neuron signals are transmitted through the optic nerve, Then, the neuron signals move through the visual pathway - Optic nerve > Optic Chiasm > Optic Tract > Optic Radiations > Cortex Then, the neuron signals reach the occipital (visual) cortex and its radiations for the brain's processing. The visual cortex interprets the signals as images and along with other parts of the brain, interpret the images to extract form, meaning, memory and context of the images. Depth Perception[ edit ] Depth perception is the visual ability to perceive the world in three dimensions. It is a trait common to many higher animals. Depth perception allows the beholder to accurately gauge the distance to an object. Depth perception is often confused with binocular vision, also known as Stereopsis. Depth perception does rely on binocular vision, but it also uses many other monocular cues. Diseases, disorders, and age-related changes[ edit ] There are many diseases, disorders, and age-related changes that may affect the eyes and surrounding structures. As the eye ages certain changes occur that can be attributed solely to the aging process. Most of these anatomic and physiologic processes follow a gradual decline. With aging, the quality of vision worsens due to reasons independent of aging eye diseases. While there are many changes of significance in the non-diseased eye, the most functionally important changes seem to be a reduction in pupil size and the loss of accommodation or focusing capability (presbyopia). The area of the pupil governs the amount of light that can reach the retina. The extent to which the pupil dilates also decreases with age. Because of the smaller pupil size, older eyes receive much less light at the retina. In comparison to younger people, it is as though older persons wear medium-density sunglasses in bright light and extremely dark glasses in dim light. Therefore, for any detailed visually guided tasks on which performance varies with illumination, older persons require extra lighting. The answers for these critical thinking questions is right here Explain why you are normally unaware of your blind spot. Stare at a bright light for 10 seconds and then stare at a white sheet of paper. What do you observe and why? What is it that makes things "disappear" when you are staring at them at night, and how do you make them reappear? Name what rods are sensitive to and also what cones are sensitive to. Explain how Deadly Nightshade works. The Senses Of Hearing[ edit ] The ear is the sense organ that collects and detects sound waves and plays a major role in the sense of balance and body position. The sensory receptors for both hearing and equilibrium are mechanoreceptors found in the inner ear; these receptors are hair cells that have stereocilia (long microvilli) that are extremely sensitive to mechanical stimulations. Anatomy of the Ear[ edit ] The ear has three divisions: the outer ear, the middle ear, and the inner ear. Anatomy of the human ear. Outer Ear (Auricle, Ear Canal, Surface of Ear Drum) The outer ear is the most external portion of the ear. The outer ear includes the pinna (also called auricle), the ear canal, and the very most superficial layer of the ear drum (also called the tympanic membrane). Although the word "ear" may properly refer to the pinna (the flesh covered cartilage appendage on either side of the head), this portion of the ear is not vital for hearing. The complicated design of the human outer ear does help capture sound, but the most important functional aspect of the human outer ear is the ear canal itself. This outer ear canal skin is applied to cartilage; the thinner skin of the deep canal lies on the bone of the skull. If the ear canal is not open, hearing will be dampened. Ear wax (medical name - cerumen) is produced by glands in the skin of the outer portion of the ear canal. Only the thicker cerumen-producing ear canal skin has hairs. The outer ear ends at the most superficial layer of the tympanic membrane. The tympanic membrane is commonly called the ear drum. Middle Ear (Air Filled Cavity behind the Ear Drum, includes most of the Ear Drum, and Ear Bones) The middle ear includes most of the ear drum (tympanic membrane) and the 3 ear bones ossicles: malleus (or hammer), incus (or anvil), and stapes (or stirrup). The opening of the Eustachian tube is also within the middle ear. The malleus has a long process (the handle) that is attached to the mobile portion of the ear drum. The incus is the bridge between the malleus and stapes. The stapes is the smallest named bone in the human body. The stapes transfers the vibrations of the incus to the oval window, a portion of the inner ear to which it is connected. It is the final bone in the chain to transfer vibrations from the eardrum to the inner ear. The arrangement of these 3 bones is a sort of Rube Goldberg device: movement of the tympanic membrane causes movement of the first bone, which causes movement of the second, which causes movement of the third. When this third bone pushes down, it causes movement of fluid within the cochlea (a portion of the inner ear). This particular fluid only moves when the stapes footplate is depressed into the inner ear. Unlike the open ear canal, however, the air of the middle ear is not in direct contact with the atmosphere outside the body. The Eustachian tube connects from the chamber of the middle ear to the back of the pharynx. The middle ear in humans is very much like a specialized paranasal sinus, called the tympanic cavity, it, like the paranasal sinuses, is a hollow mucosa lined cavity in the skull that is ventilated through the nose. The mastoid portion of the temporal bone, which can be felt as a bump in the skull behind the pinna, also contains air, which ventilates through the middle ear. Inner Ear (Cochlea, Vestibule, and Semi-Circular Canals) The inner ear includes both the organ of hearing (the cochlea) and a sense organ (the labyrinth or vestibular apparatus) that is attuned to the effects of both gravity and motion. The balance portion of the inner ear consists of three semi-circular canals and the vestibule. The inner ear is encased in the hardest bone of the body. Within this ivory hard bone, there are fluid-filled hollows. Within the cochlea are three fluid filled spaces: the tympanic canal, the vestibular canal, and the middle canal. The eighth cranial nerve comes from the brain stem to enter the inner ear. When sound strikes the ear drum, the movement is transferred to the footplate of the stapes, which attaches to the oval window and presses into one of the fluid-filled ducts of the cochlea. The hair cells in the organ of Corti are stimulated by particular frequencies of sound, based on their location within the cochlea. High pitch sounds are at a higher frequency and, due to the shorter wavelength they "hit" the membrane "faster" (ie. close to the oval window). In contrast, low frequency sounds have large wavelengths, and will travel further through the scala vestibuli before "hitting" the tectorial membrane near the apex of the cochlea. The fluid inside the cochlea is moved, flowing against the receptor (hair) cells of the organ of Corti, which fire in a graded response based on the volume of the sound. The hair cells then stimulate the nerve cells in the Spiral Ganglion, which sends information through the auditory portion of the eighth cranial nerve to the brain. Humans are able to hear sounds between about 20 Hz and 20,000 Hz. Mammals that can hear lower frequency sounds, such as whales and elephants, have a longer cochlea. Humans tend to lose high-frequency hearing first, which has led some teenagers to using high-frequency ring tones (above 17,000 Hz) that may go undetected by their middle-aged teachers. Cross section of the cochlea Hair Cell Hair cells are columnar cells, each with a bundle of 100-200 specialized cilia at the top, for which they are named. These cilia are the mechanosensors for hearing. Lightly resting atop the longest cilia is the tectorial membrane, which moves back and forth with each cycle of sound, tilting the cilia and allowing electric current into the hair cell. Hair cells, like the photoreceptors of the eye, show a graded response, instead of the spikes typical of other neurons. Immediately over the hair cells of the organ of Corti is an overhanging “tectorial membrane.” When the Bones of the Middle Ear vibrate the oval window, these vibrations are transmitted to the fluid within the cochlea and eventually cause the round window on the cochlea to bulge outward. These vibrations deflect the membrane on which the Organ of Corti is located, causing the three rows of outer hair cells to “rub” against the overhanging tectorial membrane. By their muscle-like activity they ampify the weakest vibrations for the inner hair cells. The louder sounds are not amplified. The disturbed inner hair cells will then activate the cochlear nerve fibers. The current model is that cilia are attached to one another by “tip links”, structures which link the tips of one cilium to another. Stretching and compressing the tip links may open an ion channel and produce the receptor potential in the hair cell. These graded potentials are not bound by the “all or none” properties of an action potential. There are far fewer hair cells than afferent (leading to the brain) nerve fibers in the cochlea. The nerve that innervates the cochlea is the cochlear nerve, and forms cranial nerve number VIII with the vestibular nerve from the balance organ. Neuronal dendrites innervate cochlear hair cells. The neurotransmitter itself is thought to be glutamate. At the presynaptic juncture, there is a distinct “presynaptic dense body” or ribbon. This dense body is surrounded by synaptic vesicles and is thought to aid in the fast release of neurotransmitter. Efferent projections from the brain to the cochlea also play a role in the perception of sound. Efferent synapses occur on outer hair cells and on afferent dendrites under inner hair cells. Process of Hearing[ edit ] Detection of sound motion is associated with the right posterior superior temporal gyrus. The superior temporal gyrus contains several important structures of the brain, including: (1)marking the location of the primary auditory cortex, the cortical region responsible for the sensation of sound. Sections 41 and 42 are called the primary auditory area of the cerebrum, and processes the basic characteristics of sound such as pitch and rhythm. The auditory association area is located within the temporal lobe of the brain, in an area called the Wernicke's area, or area 22. This area, near the lateral cerebral sulcus, is an important region for the processing of acoustic energy so that it can be distinguished as speech, music, or noise. It also interprets words that are heard into an associated thought pattern of understanding. The gnostic area of the cerebrum, (areas 5, 7, 39 and 40) helps to integrate all incoming sense patterns so that a common thought can be formed (correlated) using all arriving sensory information. Hearing Under Water[ edit ] Hearing threshold and the ability to localize sound sources are reduced underwater. in which the speed of sound is faster than in air. Underwater, hearing is by bone conduction and localization of sound appears to depend on differences in amplitude detected by bone conduction. Localization of Sound by Humans[ edit ] Humans are normally able to hear a variety of sound frequencies, from about 20Hz to 20kHz. Our ability to estimate just where the sound is coming from, sound localization, is dependent on both hearing ability of each of the two ears, and the exact quality of the sound. Since each ear lies on an opposite side of the head, a sound will reach the closest ear first, and its amplitide will be loudest in that ear. Much of the brain's ability to localize sound depends on interaural (between ears) intensity differences and interaural temporal or phase differences. Two mechanisms are known to be used. Bushy neurons can resolve time differences as small as the time it takes sound to pass one ear and reach the other (10 milliseconds). For high frequencies, frequencies with a wavelength shorter than the listener's head, more sound reaches the nearer ear. Human echolocation is a technique involving echolocation used by some blind humans to navigate within their environment. Process of Equilibrium[ edit ] Equilibrioception or sense of balance is one of the physiological senses. It allows humans and animals to walk without falling. Some animals are better in this than humans, for example allowing a cat (as a quadruped using its inner ear and tail) to walk on a thin fence. All forms of equilibrioception can be described as the detection of acceleration. It is determined by the level of fluid properly called endolymph in the labyrinth - a complex set of tubing in the inner ear. When the sense of balance is interrupted it causes dizziness, disorientation and nausea. You can temporarily disturb your sense of balance by closing your eyes and turning rapidly in circles five or six times. This starts the fluid swirling in circles inside your ear canal. When you stop turning it takes a few seconds for the fluid to lose momentum, and until then the sense from your inner ear conflicts with the information coming from your vision, causing dizziness and disorientation. Most astronauts find that their sense of balance is impaired when in orbit, because there is not enough gravity to keep the ear's fluid in balance. This causes a form of motion sickness called space sickness. Disorders with the Ear[ edit ] Case Study A 45-year-old woman wakes up not feeling well. She believes that she may be coming down with the flu due to nausea that she is feeling, so she continues with her day. As the day progresses so does the feeling of nausea. While watching a movie with members of her family, the sick feeling seems to intensify and so they leave the movie. In the lobby of the movie theater she becomes very unbalanced and collapses. The fear is that she is experiencing a stroke. After being taken to the hospital via ambulance, the ER doctors also feel that it may be a stroke and do CAT scans to verify. Nothing shows up on the scans but the feeling of nausea and vertigo are intense. The woman is later diagnosed with an inner ear infection. The next 6-9 months of her life are filled with antibiotics, balance therapy and continued nausea and vertigo. Nothing seems to help so the doctors go into her inner ear surgically through her skull. They cut the vestibular nerve that is linked to the balance center on the left side. The right inner ear will eventually compensate for this loss of balance however it will take months of balance therapy. After a year from the onset on the inner ear infection, the woman has had three inner ear surgeries, loss of hearing in the left ear and problems with her balance. Doctors have told her they have done everything that they can and that she will now have to live with these conditions on a daily basis. Deafness The word deaf can have at least two different meanings. The first term is used to indicate the presence of enough hearing loss such that an individual is not sensitive to sound. Someone with a partial loss of hearing is more likely to be referred to as hearing impaired or the qualified partially deaf by professionals. The second term is used to indicate someone who considers themselves 'culturally deaf', and they often use a capital D to distinguish this. Deaf people often are signers and consider that their Deafness is not something that needs to be medically fixed. Cochlear Implants A cochlear implant is a device which has been used to restore hearing function to some deaf and hearing impaired people. It consists of an internal device; which extends electrodes into the cochlea and indirectly stimulates the auditory nerve, and an external device; which works much like a hearing aid, except it transmits information to the internal device rather than to the ear. The cochlear implant basically bypasses the middle ear and the cochlea hair cells, and allows some people with damage to these structures to hear 'electronically'. Otitis Media An inflammation of the middle ear segment. It is usually associated with a buildup of fluid and frequently causes an earache. The fluid may or may not be infected. The typical progress of otitis media is: the tissues surrounding the Eustachian tube swell due to an infection and/or severe congestion. The Eustachian tube remains blocked most of the time. The air present in the middle ear is slowly absorbed into the surrounding tissues. A strong negative pressure creates a vacuum in the middle ear. The vacuum reaches a point where fluid from the surrounding tissues accumulates in the middle ear. Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae are the most common bacterial causes of otitis media. As well as being caused by Streptococcus pneumoniae and Haemophilus influenzae it can also be caused by the common cold. Vertigo (dizziness) Vertigo, sometimes called a headrush, is a major symptom of a balance disorder. It is the sensation of spinning while the body is stationary with respect to the earth or surroundings. With the eyes shut, there will be a sensation that the body is in movement, called subjective vertigo; if the eyes are open, the surroundings will appear to move past the field of vision, called objective vertigo. The effects may be slight. It may cause nausea or, if severe, may give rise to difficulty with standing and walking. Vertigo is usually associated with a problem in the inner ear balance mechanisms (vestibular system), in the brain, or with the nerve connections between these two organs. The most common cause is benign paroxysmal positional vertigo, or BPPV. Vertigo can be a symptom of an underlying harmless cause, such as in BPPV or it can suggest more serious problems. These include drug toxicities, strokes or tumors (though these are much less common than BPPV). Motion sickness Motion sickness is a condition in which the endolymph (the fluid found in the semicircular canals of the inner ears) becomes 'stirred up', causing confusion between the difference between apparent perceived movement (none or very little), and actual movement. Depending on the cause, it is also referred to as seasickness, carsickness, airsickness, or spacesickness. Nausea is the most common symptom of motion sickness. If the motion causing nausea is not resolved, the sufferer will frequently vomit within twenty minutes. Unlike ordinary sickness, vomiting in motion sickness tends not to relieve the nausea. If you don't want to consult a doctor, one common form of relief is to eat mints. Dysacusis Dysacusis is a hearing impairment characterized by difficulty in processing details of sound, but not primarily a loss of the ability to perceive sound. May also refer to pain or discomfort due to sound. The answers for these critical thinking questions can be found here . Explain how the pitch of sound is coded. How is the loudness of sound coded? What do the three semicircular canals in the inner ear enable us to do? How do they accomplish this? What does the eustachian tube do? What does the eustachian tube have to do with a middle ear infection? What is the advantage of having a oval window? Touch[ edit ] Touch is the first sense developed in the womb and the last sense used before death. With 50 touch receptors for every square centimeter and about 5 million sensory cells overall, the skin is very sensitive and is the largest and one of the most complex organs in our bodies. These touch receptors are grouped by type and include Mechanoreceptors (sensitive to pressure, vibration and slip), Thermoreceptors (sensitive to changes in temperature), and Nocioreceptors (responsible for pain). Pacinian Corpuscles[ edit ] Pacinian corpuscles detect gross pressure changes and vibrations. They are the largest of the receptors. Any deformation in the corpuscle causes action potentials to be generated, by opening pressure-sensitive sodium ion channels in the axon membrane. This allows sodium ions to influx in, creating a receptor potential. Pacinian corpuscles cause action potentials when the skin is rapidly indented but not when the pressure is steady, due to the layers of connective tissue that cover the nerve ending (Kandel et al., 2000). It is thought that they respond to high velocity changes in joint position. Meissner's Corpuscle[ edit ] Meissner's corpuscles are distributed throughout the skin, but concentrated in areas especially sensitive to light touch, such as the fingertips, palms, soles, lips, tongue, face, nipples and the external skin of the male and female genitals. They are primarily located just beneath the epidermis within the dermal papillae. Any physical deformation in the Meissner’s corpuscle will cause an action potential in the nerve. Since they are rapidly adapting or phasic, the action potentials generated quickly decrease and eventually cease. If the stimulus is removed, the corpuscle regains its shape and while doing so (ie: while physically reforming) causes another volley of action potentials to be generated. (This is the reason one stops "feeling" one's clothes.) This process is called sensory adaption. Because of their superficial location in the dermis, these corpuscles are particularly sensitive to touch and vibrations, but for the same reasons, they are limited in their detection because they can only signal that something is touching the skin. Meissner's corpuscles do not detect pain; this is signaled exclusively by free nerve endings. Layers of the skin, showing the Merkel's Cell. Merkel’s Discs[ edit ] Merkel’s Discs are Mechanoreceptors, making them sensitive to pressure and vibration. In humans, Merkel cells occur in the superficial skin layers, and are found clustered beneath the ridges of the fingertips that make up fingerprints. They’re somewhat rigid in structure, and the fact that they are not encapsulated, causes them to have a sustained response (in the form of action potentials or spikes) to mechanical deflection of the tissue. Merkel nerve endings are extremely sensitive to tissue displacement, and may respond to displacements of less than 1 um. Several studies indicate that they mediate high-resolution tactile discrimination, and are responsible for the ability of our fingertips to feel fine detailed surface patterns (e.g. for reading Braille). Ruffini corpuscles[ edit ] Ruffini corpuscles are Thermoreceptors, aiding in the detection of temperature changes. Named after Angelo Ruffini, the Ruffini ending is a class of slowly adapting mechanoreceptor thought to exist only in the glabrous dermis and subcutaneous tissue of humans. This spindle-shaped receptor is sensitive to skin stretch, and contributes to the kinesthetic sense of and control of finger position and movement. Disorders of Touch[ edit ] Sensory Processing Disorder In most people sensory integration occurs naturally without a thought process. But in some people the sensory integration does not develop properly and becomes distorted. In these people, the brain and central nervous system misinterprets everyday sensory information such as touch, sound and movement. Research is still being done on this disorder but they are finding direct links to SPD with other disorders like ADD/ADHD, premature birth, Autism, Down’s Syndrome and Fragile X. Tactile defensiveness Considered a category of SPD, tactile defensiveness is an overreaction to the sense of touch. Identified by Dr. Jean Ayers in the 1960’s. A person with tactile defensiveness will react with a “flight or fight” reaction to touch stimuli that a normal person would interpret as harmless. Most cases are noticed in children or babies due to the fact that they do not want to be touched or cuddled as a normal child would. A child with this disorder will probably have these sign or symptoms: Does not like to go barefoot or have feet touched Does not enjoy baths, haircuts, nail clipping Requires tags to be removed from all clothing Does not want their face touched Hard time eating because of textures, temperatures of the food Does not want to touch anything that is messy or has a sticky texture Congenital insensitivity to pain with anhidrosis or CIPA Exceedingly rare disease. There are only about 35 known cases in the United States. CIPA is a severe autosomal recessive condition in which the peripheral nerves demonstrate a loss of unmyelinated and small myelinated fibers. The actual physiopathological mechanism is still unknown and being studied- this is an extremely hard disease to study due to the rarity of cases. Most people with the disease will not live long due to injuries received that go untreated because they are unknown and severe Case Study[ edit ] Insensitivity to pain Wouldn't it wonderful if you could no longer feel pain. Is that not something we all would like to have? Or do we have pain for a good reason? Although it is rare there is a disease known as congenital insensitivity to pain. This genetic abnormality cause some people to lack certain components of the sensory system to receive pain. The exact reason for the problem is unknown and varies between people. Sadly people who have the disease often die in childhood. Injuries are very common with people who have congenital insensitivity to pain. They often will lose digits, may suffer from burns and their knees often have sores from kneeling to long. Clearly pain has a purpose, it is our warning signal when things are awry. The newborn's senses[ edit ] Newborns can feel all different sensations, but respond most enthusiastically to soft stroking, cuddling and caressing. Gentle rocking back and forth will oftentimes calm a crying infant, as will massages and warm baths. Newborns may comfort themselves by sucking their thumbs, or a pacifier. The need to suckle is instinctive and allows newborns to feed. Vision Newborn infants have unremarkable vision, being able to focus on objects only about 18 inches (45 cm) directly in front of their face. While this may not be much, it is all that is needed for the infant to look at the mother’s face when breastfeeding. When a newborn is not sleeping, or feeding, or crying, he or she may spend a lot of time staring at random objects. Usually anything that is shiny, has sharp contrasting colors, or has complex patterns will catch an infant's eye. However, the newborn has a preference for looking at other human faces above all else. Hearing While still inside the mother, the infant can hear many internal noises, such as the mother's heartbeat, as well as many external noises including human voices, music and most other sounds. Therefore, although a newborn's ears may have some fluid present, he or she can hear sound from birth. Newborns usually respond to a female's voice over a male's. This may explain why people will unknowingly raise the pitch of their voice when talking to newborns. The sound of other human voices, especially the mother's, can have a calming or soothing effect on the newborn. Conversely, loud or sudden noises will startle and scare a newborn. Taste Newborns can respond to different tastes, including sweet, sour, bitter, and salty substances, with preference toward sweets. Smell A newborn has a developed sense of smell at birth, and within the first week of life can already distinguish the differences between the mother's own breast milk and the breast milk of another female. Reflex Review Questions[ edit ] Answers for these questions can be found here 1. Located under the hardest bone in the body, these control not only hearing but also a sense of gravity and motion: A) The incus and the stapes B) The pinna and the ear drum C) the vestibular nerve and the semi circular canals D) The eustachian tube and the stapes 2. The retina does the following; A) allows vision in light and dark, using cones and rods B) Gives depth perception using binocular vision C) Contains the ciliary muscles that control the shape of the lens D) Protects and supports the shape of the eye 3. This is the reason that we stop feeling the clothes that we are wearing A) Merkel’s Discs are somewhat rigid in structure, and the fact that they are not encapsulated, causes them to have a sustained response B) Meissner’s corpuscle are rapidly adapting or phasic, the action potentials generated quickly decrease and eventually cease C) Ruffini corpuscles is a class of slowly adapting mechanoreceptor D) Pacinian corpuscles allow sodium ions to influx in, creating a receptor potential 4. When eating a piece of candy, I will use the following to sense that it is sweet A) Fungiform papillae E) All of the above 5. If I have a cold, food may not taste as good to me because A) The nerve fibrils are not functioning properly B) My food will taste the same; taste and smell have nothing in common C) Papilla become blocked by mucus and are unable to function D) Olfaction, taste and trigeminal receptors together contribute to the flavor of my food 6. Walking from a well lit room into a dark room would cause the following to occur A) The sclera in the eye to open and eventually allow me to see in the dark B) The extraocular muscles in the eye to open and eventually allow me to see in the dark C) The cones in the eye to open and eventually allow me to see in the dark D) the rods in the eye to open and eventually allow me to see in the dark 7. Hair cells in the ear A) Are the actual sensory receptors that will fire off action potentials when they are disturbed B) Show a graded response, instead of the spikes typical of other neurons C) “Rub” against the overhanging tectorial membrane D) All of the above 8. Eyesight decreases with age because A) Older eyes receive much less light at the retina B) There are numerous eye diseases that can affect an older eye C) The extent to which the pupil dilates decreases with age D) all of the above 9. Teens walking off of a roller coaster in Magic Mountain seem to have vertigo because A) The fluid in the auricle has not stopped moving causing conflicts with the information coming from your vision B) the fluid in the cochlea has not stopped moving causing conflicts with the information coming from your vision C) The fluid in the tympanic membrane has not stopped moving causing conflicts with the information coming from your vision D) The fluid in the stirrup has not stopped moving causing conflicts with the information coming from your vision 10. These receptors react to foods treated with monosodium glutamate A) Salt Glossary[ edit ] Anosmia: Lack of olfaction, or a loss of the sense of smell Auditory Canal: Tube from the auditory meatus or opening of the ear to the tympanic membrane Auditory Tube: Either of the paired tubes connecting the middle ears to the nasopharynx; equalizes air pressure on the two sides of the eardrum Chemoreception: Physiological response of a sense organ to a chemical stimulus Choroid: Vascular layer of the eye lying between the retina and the sclera Circumvallate papillae: Papillae that are present on the back of the oral part of the tongue Cochlea: Is concerned with hearing, resembling a shell of a snail Dysosmia: When things smell differently than they should Equilibrium: Sense of balance Extraocular muscles: Six muscles that control eye movements: lateral rectus, medial rectus, inferior rectus, superior rectus, inferior oblique and superior oblique Filiform papillae: Thin, longer papillae that don't contain taste buds but are the most numerous Foliate papillae: Ridges and grooves towards the posterior part of the tongue Fungiform papillae: These are present mostly at the apex (tip) of the tongue- slightly mushroom shaped Gustation: The sense of taste Hair Cell: Mechanosensors for hearing, columnar cells each with a bundle of 100-200 specialized cilia at the top Haptic: From the Greek Haphe, means pertaining to the sense of touch Hyposmia: Decreased ability to smell Inner Ear: Innermost part of the ear, contains the cochlea, westibule and semi-circular canals Mechanoreceptor: Sensory receptor that responds to mechanical pressure or distortion Meissner's Corpuscle: Encapsulated unmyelinated nerve endings, usually found in areas sensitive to light touch Middle Ear: Air Filled Cavity behind the Ear Drum, includes most of the ear Drum and ear Bones Nasopharynx: Nasal part of the pharynx that lies behind the nose and above the level of the soft palate Nociception: The perception of pain Olfaction: The sense of smell Otitis Media: An inflammation of the middle ear Outer Ear: External portion of the ear, includes the auricle, ear canal and surface of the ear drum Oval Window: Fenestra that has the base of the stapes attached to it Pacinian Corpuscles; Detect gross pressure changes and vibrations Papilla: Specialized epithelial cells that are small projections on the top of the tongue Perception: The brain’s interpretation of a sensation Phantosmia: Phenomenon of smelling odors that aren't really present (AKA Phantom odors) Photoreceptors: Specialized type of neuron found in the eye's retina that is capable of phototransduction Pinna: Auricle of the ear Retina: Thin layer of neural cells that lines the back of the eyeball of vertebrates and some cephalopods Round Window: Fenestra leading into the cochlea Sclera: White outer coating of the eye- gives the eye its shape and helps to protect the delicate inner parts Semicircular Canals: Certain canals of the inner ear Sensation: Occurs when nerve impulses arrive in the brain Sensory adaptation: A decrease in response to stimuli Stapes: One of the small bones in the tympanum of the ear; the stirrups bone Tactition: The sense of pressure perception, generally in the skin Tympanic Membrane: The membrane in the ear that vibrates to produce sound Umami: Japanese word meaning savory or meaty- type of taste signal References[ edit ] Hänig, D.P., 1901. Zur Psychophysik des Geschmackssinnes. Philosophische Studien, 17: 576-623. Collings, V.B., 1974. Human Taste Response as a Function of Locus of Stimulation on the Tongue and Soft Palate. Perception & Psychophysics, 16: 169-174. Buck, Linda and Richard Axel. (1991). A Novel Multigene Family May Encode Odorant Receptors: A Molecular Basis for Odor Recognition. Cell 65:175-183.	i don't know
Introduced in 1977, what is the name of the scheme in the UK that enables disabled people, their family and carers to lease a new car, scooter or powered wheelchair using their Government funded allowance ?	Motability - iSnare Free Encyclopedia Motability This article's tone or style may not reflect the encyclopedic tone used on Wikipedia. See Wikipedia's guide to writing better articles for suggestions. (June 2008) ( Learn how and when to remove this template message ) Motability is a scheme in the United Kingdom that enables disabled people, their families and their carers to lease a new car, scooter or powered wheelchair, using their Government funded mobility allowance. Currently the Motability scheme has more than 650,000 customers. The scheme was founded in 1977 by Lord Sterling of Plaistow and the late Lord Goodman and launched at Earl's Court , London , on 25 July 1978. It was initially targeted at motorists aged 16–19 years, with some 220 applications being processed at the beginning of the scheme. [1] It is a partnership between the charitable sector, Government , leading banks, and the motor and insurance industries. Since 1978 over three million [2] cars, scooters and powered wheelchairs have been provided to help disabled people with their mobility needs. HM The Queen has been the Chief Patron of Motability since its foundation. Contents 8 External links History and beginnings By the mid 1970s over 40% of households in the country owned a car [3] but disabled people claimed that they were missing out. Only those who could drive themselves received any government help with transport, usually in the form of a blue trike which was unable to take passengers. The Mobility Allowance - now called the mobility component of Disability Living Allowance - introduced by the Government in 1976 broke the mould in giving help regardless of ability to drive. It also signalled the Government's commitment to giving disabled people choice in the form of a cash allowance, rather than imposing certain types of vehicles on them. The Mobility Allowance was a positive advance but it soon became clear that it was not large enough to buy and run even the smallest car. The then Secretary of State for Health and Social Services invited the late Lord Goodman and (now Lord) Jeffrey Sterling to consider how disabled people could use this allowance to affordably obtain a vehicle. Thus Motability was born in 1977 and, often for the first time, disabled people could afford a good quality car from any participating manufacturer, fully insured, serviced, and with breakdown assistance. Motability was set up as a charity so it could also raise funds and make grants, in order to provide customers with a complete mobility package even if their allowance would not cover the type of car and adaptations that they needed. Motability opened up new horizons for many disabled people. Things that were once difficult to do, such as getting to work, going shopping, doing volunteer work, visiting friends, getting to the doctor, going swimming, giving a family member a lift, or enjoying a driving holiday, became easier. For some, enhanced opportunities for further education and profitable full-time employment became a reality for the first time. On 25 July 1978 ten young people attended the first Motability Scheme vehicle handover at Earls Court in London and received the keys to their new vehicles from then Chairman Lord Goodman. Julie Newport, disabled by polio, was one of the ten to receive her keys and commented: "I think it's marvellous," saying the Scheme gave disabled people the freedom and independence they really wanted. Also present were Rt Hon Lord Morris, Rt Hon Lord Jenkin, Allan Beard and Jeffrey Sterling, the present Chairman of Motability. In 2003, Motability celebrated its 25th anniversary with a garden at the Chelsea Flower Show . The garden included a Motability car, an adapted Renault Clio , to symbolise disabled people gaining access to the remotest parts of the countryside. In October 2006, the Scheme hit the two million vehicles mark and Jeffrey Sterling commented: "Family life revolves around the disabled person so if you make someone mobile you don't help two million, it's more like six to eight million." The late Lord Goodman described the establishment of Motability in 1977 as "the most successful achievement of my career and the most fortunate thought that ever came into my head". How the scheme works Disability Living Allowance (DLA) is not means tested. It is a benefit designed to help towards the additional living costs incurred by people with disabilities and is broken into two components, Mobility and Care. The Care component is valued at three different rates; lower, middle and higher, and the Mobility component at two different rates; lower and higher. The Scheme is open to anyone who receives the Higher Rate Mobility Component of Disability Living Allowance, the Enhanced Mobility Component of Personal Independence Payment or the War Pensioners' Mobility Supplement. In 2016 the amount payable for HRDLA or the Enhanced Mobility rate of PIP was £57.45 per week and WPMS was £64.15 per week. Those wishing to lease through Motability must have at least twelve months' award length remaining when they apply. The Care Component of DLA cannot be used to fund a vehicle through the scheme. Customers choose a new car every three years or a wheelchair accessible vehicle every five years. More than 30 manufacturers currently offer cars through the scheme with premium manufacturers such as BMW, Audi and Mercedes becoming popular alternatives to more mainstream suppliers such as Ford and Vauxhall. Insurance for two people, vehicle excise duty, servicing with a free replacement vehicle, tyres and breakdown cover are all included in a single monthly payment. This payment is made automatically by the Department for Work and Pensions to Motability Operations under the authority of a form CP50 signed by the hirer. At the end of the contract period, the customer can choose to take another brand new vehicle. The customer may also wish to purchase their current vehicle directly from Motability at the end of their contract either for their own use or a friend's. While many vehicles do not require the customer to pay anything above their higher rate Mobility component, the customer may choose to opt for a higher specified model on payment of an Advance Payment which is non-returnable. Motability pricing is independently assessed as being more than 40% cheaper than retail lease agreements which is possible because of the unique VAT concessions that the Motability Scheme enjoys. In addition Means tested grants are available from Motability the charity for those who, due to the nature of their disability, have no option but to choose a vehicle which attracts an advance payment, or who may need special adaptations not already funded through the scheme. Many adaptations, such as push/pull brake/accelerator levers, are now also funded directly through the scheme so that the customer does not have to pay extra. Market Penetration Almost 648,000 customers currently choose Motability for their mobility needs equating to more than 200,000 vehicles purchased per year by Motability Operations. Overall customer satisfaction is independently measured at 98%. In Autumn 2015 Motability Operations was judged by the Institute for Customer Service to offer the 'highest customer service in the UK'. [4] Around two-thirds of Motability’s customers drive their own vehicle, but non-drivers can get a car as a passenger. Similarly, parents and caregivers can also apply on behalf of a disabled child from the age of three. Once their application has been accepted, the customer uses all, or part, of their allowance to pay for their vehicle for the period of the contract hire agreement. Over 450 models of car are currently available to lease with no advance payment – larger or more expensive models may entail this additional cost. The largest fleet operator in Europe and the largest supplier of used cars in the trade, Motability Operations is owned by four major clearing banks – Barclays, Lloyds TSB, HSBC and the Royal Bank of Scotland. Motability Operations’ annual turnover is around £4.2bn. Any surpluses are continually reinvested in the business. Motability Operations sells over 200,000 used cars a year and the company's car purchases account for approximately ten percent of total new car sales in the UK. Since the Scheme started, over four million cars have been supplied. Structure of the scheme The organisational structure of the scheme can be broken into two parts: Motability, which is a registered charity, and Motability Operations (formerly Motability Finance Ltd), a plc owned by five clearing banks which operates the car and powered wheelchair leasing scheme on behalf of Motability. Splitting the organisation is intended to provide for checks and balances and ensure accountability for the administration of public funds. Salaries paid to Motability Operations Group PLC management have attracted negative publicity [5] with CEO Mike Betts taking home total remuneration of £948,243 in 2016, as reported in Motability Operations Group PLC's accounts. [6] Motability is a registered charity and has overall responsibility for the Motability Scheme, including: Directing and overseeing the Scheme; Raising funds to provide financial assistance through grants to customers who would otherwise be unable to participate in the Scheme; Administering the Government's Specialised Vehicles Fund which provides financial assistance for customers who need complex adaptations or to travel in their wheelchairs; and Providing technical support to customers and the adaptation and conversion industry. Motability Operations has the exclusive contract for administering the scheme. Any profits are reinvested in the Scheme for the benefit of customers. In the financial year ending 31 September 2016, Motability Operations reported post tax profits of £130m net of a donation to Motability (the charity) of £45m. Motability Operations also set and monitors the standards of service provided by the dealer network, adaptations suppliers, breakdown company and the insurance company. Motability Operations also negotiates pricing with the vehicle manufacturers on a quarterly basis. Insurance is provided exclusively by Royal and Sun Alliance who have a dedicated Motability division. Royal and Sun Alliance require any persons wishing to be one of the two named drivers to have none or possibly some minor endorsements on their Driving Licence in the last 5 years. The excess for any claims has recently increased but remains competitive at £100. A third driver is permitted for a small charge and, subject to certain constraints on vehicle choice, additional drivers can include anyone from age 17 upwards provided they live with the disabled customer. Drink Driving convictions require 5 years from conviction date to be eligible for insurance on a Motability car. Breakdown cover is provided exclusively by the RAC . Adaptations are supplied and fitted by independent specialists who are accredited to Motability. Customers apply via accredited main car dealerships. The Wheelchair and Scooter Scheme was operated by Route2mobility until June 2010, when it was taken over by Motability Operations. [7] Motability Operations and Welfare Reform In 2013, the Government started to introduce a new disability benefit, the Personal Independence Payment (PIP) which will gradually replace the Disability Living Allowance for disabled people aged between 16 and 64. Customers have started to be reassessed and as a result in some cases no longer receive an allowance which entitles them to access the Motability Scheme. Motability Operations have worked with Motability to devise a package of transitional support which pays up to £2000 to those customers who have lost their allowance as a result of the introduction of PIP. Motability Operations have donated £175m to Motability (the charity) to ensure that the cost of this package is supported. Despite the introduction of PIP and the expectation that the number of customers on the Scheme would reduce as a result of the change in fact Motability customer numbers have stayed broadly static - only 25,000 customers left the scheme due to loss of their allowance in FY16 whilst 68,000 new customers joined. See also	Motability
A Long Walk To Freedom, published in 1995 was the autobiography of which famous Political figure ?	Social Security (Disability Living Allowance, Attendance Allowance and Carer’s Allowance) (Amendment) Regulations 2013 — Motion of Regret: 24 Jun 2013: House of Lords debates - TheyWorkForYou TheyWorkForYou Social Security (Disability Living Allowance, Attendance Allowance and Carer’s Allowance) (Amendment) Regulations 2013 — Motion of Regret – in the House of Lords at 7:43 pm on 24th June 2013 . Next debate » Moved by Lord Alton of Liverpool That this House regrets that the Social Security (Disability Living Allowance, Attendance Allowance and Carer’s Allowance) (Amendment) Regulations 2013, laid before the House on 4 March , will result in the loss of Motability provision for many disabled people; and that this House considers that transitional arrangements should be put in place urgently. (SI 2013/389) Link to this speech In context Individually Hansard source (Citation: HL Deb, 24 June 2013, c580) 8:05 pm, 24th June 2013 My Lords, the House will be aware that this Motion of Regret refers to the Social Security ( Disability Living Allowance , Attendance Allowance and Carer’s Allowance) ( Amendment ) Regulations 2013. My three particular concerns, referred to in earlier debates, relate to: first, the way in which the changes in regulations will impact on the support which disabled people need to ensure mobility; secondly, the role of Atos Healthcare in assessing those who will be reassessed for PIP as a consequence of the changes; and, thirdly, the 20/50 metre criteria used for enhanced personal independence payment. On the latter question, I begin at least with a welcome for the Government’s decision to consult, over the summer, on the 20/50 metre criteria for enhanced PIP. I hope that the Minister will be able to assure the House that this will be a genuine consultation and not simply a paper exercise, going through the motions, to avoid judicial review. In a Written Answer on 13 February , the Minister said: “Once PIP legislation is in place, any consequence of a failure to meet the entitlement conditions for the enhanced mobility component would not result in a judicial review as long as the legislation was applied fairly to the claimant. We have robust dispute resolution procedures in place to ensure that this is the case”.—[ Hansard, 13/2/13; col. WA 157 .] Presumably, the new consultation is a recognition that the earlier announcement was not based on fairness. If this really is to be a genuine consultation this time, and the new regulations applied fairly to each claimant, the Government will need to assure us that they will publish the responses to their consultation and explain the reason for their eventual decision. Will the Minister outline the procedure that will be followed? Until the consultation has been undertaken, how will current claims be assessed? Which rules will apply? What will happen to those claimants if the consultation determines that the rules have to be changed? There are two other two issues which I want to explore: the impact on disabled people’s mobility and the role of Atos Healthcare. On February 25 last, with the support of my noble friend Lady Grey-Thompson, who has been unable to join us this evening because of pressing family commitments but who wishes to be associated with these remarks, I moved an amendment in Committee to the Welfare Benefits Up-rating Bill. My amendment was a plea to the Government to think about providing a transitional arrangement—perhaps at least a two or three-year period of grace—for those who already have vehicles and who risk losing them. Prior to that amendment, on 17 January and 13 February , and in a series of Written Questions, I pressed the Government about the impact of their proposals on disabled people. Subsequently, on 30 April , the Minister for Disabled People and Member of Parliament for Wirral West, Esther McVey , met my noble friend Lady Grey-Thompson and me, along with Jane Young, who has done a great deal of work in ensuring that this issue does not slip from sight. The Minister told us that the DWP would be announcing its own transitional arrangements this month. Can the Minister tell us what has happened to them? Since our meeting, Ms Young has been told that the department’s transitional arrangements would be reworked into joint transitional arrangements with Motability. Can the Minister can tell us whether that is so? How will that assist those who use their higher-rate mobility component on an alternative means of independent mobility other than the Motability scheme? I hope the Minister will be able to tell us. During those discussions we made the point, which I reiterate tonight, that this is not a trivial issue. According to the noble Lord, Lord Sterling, who does such admirable work chairing Motability, there are 620,000 Motability vehicles on the road, which he says is probably the largest fleet of such vehicles in the world. That figure simply refers to Motability vehicles, not to the significantly larger number of people who rely on other forms of transport to ensure a degree of independent living. The Government have been unable to tell us, throughout these debates, how many people will have their vehicles sequestrated or repatriated and how many people who currently receive help with transport will lose access to that help. My noble and learned friend Lord Hardie has also been attempting to extract information about the numbers of people. Members of your Lordships’ House will have seen his recent Written Questions about this. I suspect that obtaining that information has been rather like drawing teeth. I for one do not believe that Parliament has any business enacting government policies without knowing what the full effect will be of their proposals. For Parliament to be asked to walk blindfolded into decisions will undoubtedly result in some Motability users having their specially adapted vehicles repossessed. That is simply unconscionable and deeply irresponsible. Although I am appreciative of the time that Esther McVey spent with my noble friend and me, I freely admit that I am still no wiser about the number of people who will lose their vehicles or be affected by these changes. The detail of the Government’s proposals is still inadequate; we simply do not know. The inadequate consultations match that. The transitional arrangements which are to be put in place by both Government and Motability are simply in the ether. We do not know what they are. It is for that reason that I tabled this Motion of Regret this evening and to ensure that the noble Lord, Lord Freud, who has spent a lot time on these questions, has the opportunity to come to your Lordships’ House to explain in more detail and answer some of these questions. On 17 January I asked: “Can the Minister confirm the Government's own prediction, made earlier this month, that 27% fewer working-age people will be eligible for the Motability scheme once PIP is fully rolled out? Disability organisations say that the new proposal means that 42% fewer disabled people of working age will be eligible—an average of 200 people in every constituency ”.—[ Hansard, 17/1/13; col. 818 .] I received no reply on that day but on 13 February “Yes, my Lords, there is some churn”.— [ Hansard, 13/2/13; col. 742 .] He also said: “My Lords, we know how many people will get the higher mobility component, a figure that will clearly be fewer under PIP than under DLA . I have provided those figures but, just for the record, the figure of roughly 1 million people on the DLA component in a steady state will reduce to roughly 600,000”.—[ Hansard, 13/2/13; col. 741 .] How does that translate into repossessed vehicles and into the loss of Motability support? Let us be clear. One third of disabled people live in poverty. Some claimants will lose as much as £150 per month if they fail to meet the newly tightened criteria, an annual loss of around £1,800. Their situation will be unbelievably bleak. On the other side of the coin, Oxford Economics estimates that the mobility provided for disabled people contributes to our nation’s economy by the equivalent of £1.3 billion every year, as I pointed out in an earlier debate after being referred to the document by the noble Baroness, Lady Hollis. The Disability Benefits Consortium, which represents more than 50 disability rights groups, reminds us that it is not just about the positive contribution made by disabled people. Motability vehicles are, “their means of independence and participation, the lifeline that enables them to get to work, to GP appointments, to the shops or to take their kids to school”. We simply do not know what is going to happen to people, some of whom have had very expensive adaptations to their vehicles, and who will be left without an adequate method of getting around. We especially do not know what the effect will be on people living in places where public transport is not easily available or accessible. As my noble friend Lady Grey-Thompson told the House in February: “The short timescale between notifying someone of their car being removed and it being taken away could make life extremely difficult. Without some further protection, it could lead to chaos for many disabled people”. She continued: 22 January 2013 with the Minister, the noble Lord, Lord Freud, and the Minister in another place , Esther McVey, it was my understanding that the timescale for someone having to return their car if they were no longer eligible for PIP could be relatively short, perhaps just a matter of a few weeks”.—[ Hansard, 25/2/13; col. 937 .] Can we now have further clarity on the timescale? I should be grateful if the Minister would remind the House how much public money is provided to Motability each year and tell us what discussions the Government have had with Motability about transitional arrangements and a package of support. I was surprised to see that when Norman Baker MP, Parliamentary Under-Secretary for the Department for Transport, was recently questioned by the House of Commons Transport Select Committee , he admitted that his department had, “not particularly been involved … in any Motability discussions”, with DWP and that his department should have done more to consider the impact on tens of thousands of disabled people who are set to lose their right to use the Motability car scheme. So much for joined-up government. Norman Baker also said that the department would, “try to make sure that there are alternatives available through public transport and … that they are as accessible as possible”. He obviously had little experience of how inaccessible this country is for sick and disabled people, something which the Mayor of London accepts, stating that, “the reality is that even with complete Mayoral commitment a fully accessible service will take many years to achieve”. That is why, when referring to the mobility component changes from DLA to PIP, Boris Johnson’s formal response to the DLA reform consultation states: “ The Mayor does not support this change”. To understand why he and many of us do not support these changes, Mr Baker and the Minister should read my noble friend Lady Grey-Thompson’s account of how she has literally had to crawl on and off trains, or how Kaliya Franklin was left in a tradesman’s office and forgotten about at a main London train station while waiting for help. For people faced with losing their adapted cars and being forced to rely on public transport, the prospects will indeed be bleak and are made even worse by the lack of clarity about how the policy will be implemented. There has been speculation that users may be allowed to keep their cars for one extra month in order to give them time to find a replacement, and perhaps provided with some financial support to help them make adaptations to their replacement vehicle. Clearly, even if people come out of the process with between £500 and £1,000, that is not the same as still having their vehicle. What figure does the Minister put on the assistance that will be given? Can he tell us how many vehicles will be offered for sale—something he referred to at the briefing that was held in an upstairs committee room? It seems extraordinary to me that disabled people could have their own vehicles offered to them for sale. At what average price does he anticipate that they will be sold? How does he expect disabled people to find the funds for these purchases or for new vehicles and modifications? I turn to my third point. I would like to hear the Minister’s reaction to a story published last week by Disability News Service and written by John Pring —I have given the Minister prior notice of my raising this. It reflects serious concerns over the Atos Healthcare tender document and how it was awarded the contract to assess disabled people for personal independence payment in London and the south of England. Disability News Service suggests that Atos has broken a series of firm pledges that enabled it to win a £184 million disability assessment contract. The story comes as the DWP is rolling out the assessments for PIP across the UK and it surely raises worrying questions about the transparency and management of contracts won by tender and involving millions of pounds of public money. The tender document stated that Atos had “contractually agreed” with 22 subcontractors for them to provide a network of 750 assessment sites across that area. This has fallen to just eight subcontractors since the contract was signed—22 down to eight. Atos stated: “Each partner has contractually agreed to providing accommodation to the required specification”— DWP’s specification. It also said: “We conducted an evaluation process, including site visits, to select the PIP consultation locations of the highest quality. This has allowed us to identify sufficient, suitable accommodation, ready for go live and available for the length of the contract”. Atos estimated that its “hyper-local” service would mean that no claimant had to travel more than 60 minutes by public transport to attend an assessment. Atos has now refused to say how many of the 750 assessment sites are left, while a DWP spokeswoman said last week: “We do not have that information. We really don’t know. We are not sure”. This is another example of not knowing how policies are going to work out. Perhaps the Minister can tell us tonight. Why does it matter? It matters because the changes will mean that many disabled people with significant mobility and care needs will face longer journeys—possibly up to 90 minutes by public transport—to reach their assessments, rather than the maximum of 60 minutes promised by Atos when it bid successfully for the contract. Can the Minister confirm that the award of the two PIP contracts are, together, worth nearly £391 million to Atos over the next four years and say what discussions he is having with it about the failure to honour the tendering commitments? Has he also raised with Atos the earlier complaints made last October by disabled people’s organisations that it had used misleading information about its links with those organisations to help to win two of the contracts? The article quotes my noble friend Lady Grey-Thompson as remarking: “There were many assurances given during the debates on PIP … People believed that a significant number of assessment centres would be available, and the geographical location would make travelling much easier. If the number of assessment centres is radically different to the number that were in the tender document then that should be openly explained”. I entirely agree with her. I would like to know whether the Minister has been in touch with the NHS foundation trusts cited in the article to which I have referred. Cambridge University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust is quoted as saying: “We never got that involved at all. They put our name in the tender document, although they shouldn’t have done. I think they emailed us, but we said, ‘No, we are not interested’.” North Essex Partnership NHS Foundation Trust, also mentioned in the tender document, said: “The trust never had an agreement or contract with Atos. We had exploratory discussions as part of a consortium ... which did not go any further”. Norfolk Community Health and Care NHS Trust said that it became aware that it had been mentioned in the tender only some time after the document was submitted to the Government. A trust spokeswoman said: “We cannot be responsible for what they have put in, but it wasn’t with our agreement”. There are similar comments from Norfolk and Norwich University Hospitals NHS Foundation Trust, Mid Essex Hospital Services NHS Trust, and University Hospitals Bristol NHS Foundation Trust , which said that, “no formal agreements of any sort were reached before discussions were terminated by mutual agreement”. An Atos spokeswoman was quoted in the article as saying that DWP was, “fully aware throughout of the fact that contracts were not in place between Atos and its selected suppliers”. Perhaps the Minister can confirm whether that is true and on what basis the DWP’s spokeswoman was able to tell Disability News Service: “We have no reason to doubt that Atos and their partners are able to deliver [the contract] successfully”. At the very minimum, this must reinforce the doubts that so many of us have about Atos and the new arrangements which the Government are putting in hand. Perhaps the central question is why the Government are content to spend taxpayers’ money paying a company that fails to honour its contract to the detriment of disabled people. Do they accept that, by failing to hold Atos to account, they will encourage it to behave in ways that it believes its paymaster will approve rather than providing an objective service to disabled people? This latest saga also underlines how many health authorities Atos proposed to use. As these are organs of the publicly funded National Health Service , why could the Government not have appointed them to carry out this work, cutting out the Atos middleman and giving much better value for money to the taxpayer? Perhaps some of the money that they saved could be used to prevent the sequestration of disabled people’s specially adapted Motability vehicles in these hard times which we are constantly told drive the Government’s policies. I hope that some of these well founded concerns—about the lack of clarity about the scale of the impact on disabled people; about the criteria that will be used for assessments; about the arrangements being put in place by Atos to carry out assessments; and about the absence of transitional arrangements—will be properly addressed and that, when these policies are implemented, no one, especially Ministers, will be able to say they had no idea that these would be the regressive consequences of the ill starred measures which the Government have promoted. I beg to move. 8:15 pm, 24th June 2013 My Lords, I am extremely grateful to the noble Lord, Lord Alton, for giving us this opportunity to raise again the issue of PIP and the higher rate mobility component. This, of course, is the gateway to the Motability scheme which enables so many disabled people—including myself—to get about. I declare that interest. I shall say a word about PIP in general, but turning to these regulations, I am pleased that Motability has stated that it aims to avoid recovering vehicles from hospital in-patients affected by this change. If the car has been adapted to suit the claimant’s condition, then it could be very expensive for a Motability car to be recovered and for the claimant to apply again when he or she comes out of hospital, and another Motability car has to be adapted in due course. Presumably the payment of the higher rate mobility component of DLA will continue to be paid if a person is in hospital for more than four weeks. Perhaps the Minister could tell me if that is the case. Turning to other matters, I am very glad that the DWP is reopening the consultation which it failed to do on the final version of the PIP criteria. Even though the amending regulations should make the position clear, none of us who has taken part in these discussions has any confidence that the assessors will properly take the criteria in the amending regulations into account—even though they are mandatory. I hope that the new consultation will not be an empty exercise and that the DWP will take on board what disabled people say and change the original criteria if the consultation makes it clear that this should happen. One matter which I am very disturbed about is the figure of 600,000 claimants that the Government say will disappear from their books once PIP is introduced. Where did the DWP get this figure from? Is it saying that these people are not disabled enough, or that they are now receiving DLA fraudulently? How closely is it in touch with the Department of Health , which might be able to enlighten it about improvements in treatments for many disabled people, meaning that they are likely to live longer with their disabilities? The mantra we hear constantly is that PIP is to be targeted at those who need it most. However, although that sounds good and right, it is actually pretty meaningless because DLA and PIP are not to be means-tested. So one is left with a subjective judgment by a DWP decision-maker—heavily influenced by the assessor. Without targets, how will the decision-maker judge one person against another? Outside the Chamber, the noble Lord, Lord Alton, said they would need the judgment of Solomon. Instead, they have the judgment of Atos. I know which I prefer. Tonight we heard more from the noble Lord about the Atos contracts, so I shall not repeat those facts, which are very disturbing. In general, I supported the move to PIP, because of the inadequacy of the DLA form, but there are too many question marks over the whole process for me to have any confidence in it any more. Labour I want to make three brief points, but first declare an interest. Two members of my extended family have Motability cars and they are their lifeline. I shall make a point about statistics, one about appeals and finally a point about isolation. I shall try to be quick because we are pressed for time. On statistics, as I recall when we were doing the Welfare Reform Bill, we were told that something like 600,000 of those getting the higher rate DLA mobility component would drop and about 200,000 of those on a lower rate would go up, leaving a net loss of 400,000 people on DLA mob. As understand it from our debates at the time, something like 27% of those people converted their DLA higher rate mob into a car. Therefore it means we are talking about the loss of potentially 180,000 Motability cars from disabled people who are dependent upon them. These are cars which in many cases have been extremely expensively adapted to them and therefore are of relatively little use for people following after, because they have been customised. This leaves the disabled person without any ability to afford alternative transport, because they too cannot afford those adaptations done by Motability. So on my first point about statistics, I think we are dealing with about 180,000 cars. If the Minister can correct me on this, I should be pleased to know, but it is a huge number. Secondly, there are appeals. At the moment, between 40% and 50% of all appeals on DLA are successful. One reason is that there is often a considerable time between the DLA assessment and the appeal, by which point someone may have got worse or, possibly, better and, as a result, the evidence is contested. The problem is the length of time taken to hear the appeal. If it takes six months to hear an appeal against Atos, you lose your car after one month, you win your appeal, but then you have to wait for a new car with all the expensive adaptations while 180,000 cars are effectively on the scrapheap, that seems a foolish and unwise use of money. How can we overcome that? We have to link the transitional arrangement under which you can hold on to your car to the end of the appeals procedure. That could be three months; it could be six months. I am sure that the Minister will say, “That would encourage everyone to appeal”. Possibly, but we could at least have a decision-maker review in the first place, which would winnow out some and get that information looped back to the person appealing. If the Minister so chose, that would lead to an acceleration of the appeals process, which in all decency would be a good thing in any case. It would allow for better quality judgments, because the appeal would be heard much closer to the original decision and would therefore be based on the same evidence, which is not what is happening at the moment. That would be good for both the department and the disabled person. Can the Minister give us an assurance that we can link the length of time it takes to have an appeal to the transitional time during which you can hold on to your vehicle? Otherwise, it is really absurd. I know that the Minister can find a way around this if he chooses. The third point is about isolation. What comes out clearly time and again is that if you take away the Motability car, you turn a disabled person from being independent to being dependent on other people. More than that, you lock the person on whom he depends—I say “he”, and it is therefore likely to be his wife—into a shared isolation with him. She has to be permanently his runaround carer as well as his home carer, because he has no capacity to have any independent life apart from her support. That locks them into a shadowy dance into isolation, which is disastrous for them both. Those are my three points: the number of cars that we are talking about, which I judge to be about 180,000; the problem of the length of time to hear appeals, which mean that more cars will be lost which then have to be restored—unless the Minister can calibrate and bring together the two; and, thirdly, the need to ensure that we do not send disabled people and their carers into isolation. That is particularly marked in rural areas. There, disabled people have few options. They cannot afford taxis, they do not have buses, they cannot walk those distances, and they cannot run scooters because the distances are too far. Without their Motability car, they are locked into their home as well as their isolation, as are their partners. For those three reasons, I very much hope that the Minister can give us more satisfactory reasons this evening than we have had so far. My Lords, I declare an interest as honorary president of Capability Scotland and share noble Lords’ concern about the changes to the regulatory regime. In that regard, I refer noble Lords to my observations of 13 February at cols. 737-78, which I shall not repeat. The present regulations, among other things, affect claimants who have entered into a Motability agreement and are thereafter hospitalised. The noble Baroness, Lady Thomas of Winchester, derived some comfort from the assurance that Motability will not recover those vehicles if a patient is hospitalised, but if one reads paragraph 7.10 of the Explanatory Notes, one sees that that is not what the Government have said. They say that the Motability scheme has stated that it would aim to avoid recovering vehicles from hospital in-patients affected by that change. That is not the absolute assurance that hospital patients will not lose their vehicles. Without such an assurance, the reality is that if a person is in hospital for a particularly long period, the payments made by the department to Motability on behalf of the patients will not be made and the vehicle—the car, motorised scooter or motorised wheelchair—may well be recovered. Indeed, the Explanatory Notes recognise that if it has to be recovered, Motability will give some allowance, depending on the condition of the vehicle when it is recovered. These are concerns, because the present system means that payments direct to Motability continue to be made after the hospitalisation of a claimant. That is recognised as an exception to the rule that social security benefits are affected after hospitalisation. In my view there is a good reason for that, because these payments are payments of a capital nature to enable people to have the necessary facilities to give them the independence that they need. They are different from revenue paid direct to the person for their maintenance. Regulations 10 and 11 remove this exemption for no good reason. It is no answer to say that it is intended to bring Motability users into line with other recipients of DLA or PIP . As I have sought to explain, they are in a different position to the other claimants. Moreover, the consequences of this change are draconian. There is a real risk of the repossession of necessary equipment, resulting in the inability of such claimants to lead independent lives after they leave hospital until they are able to renegotiate other Motability contracts. The noble Baroness, Lady Hollis, explained the complexities of that. There will be a delay in obtaining necessary equipment, during which period these people will not be able to live the independent lives that they have enjoyed previously. Can the Minister advise the House what timescale is involved between the order and delivery of a purpose-built powered wheelchair, scooter or modified vehicle? I also ask the Minister what is the urgency in promoting this change, particularly in view of the announcement by the DWP on 17 June , already mentioned, of a further consultation on the mobility component of PIP? Would it not make sense to have an integrated approach and to leave these changes to form part of the consultation process? Has there been any consultation with interested parties or the public at large about this significant change? If the Government are not willing to await the outcome of the consultation, can the Minister tell the House how many people will be affected by this proposed change? The loss of a wheelchair or car may have greater implications in different parts of the country. I have been anxious to assess the whole issue of Motability payments and their geographical distribution because I suspect that the impact of the loss of a vehicle might have greater impact in rural areas than in cities where there are probably better—although not ideal—transport facilities for wheelchair users. On 4 June , I tabled four Questions for Written Answer about the Motability scheme and received a reply dated 13 June . I refer noble Lords to Hansard cols. WA 255-56. I commend the Minister and his officials for the speed of the reply but it did not answer all my questions. My Questions HL594 and HL595 sought data for three years—2010, 2011 and 2012—but the answer provided data only for the last year, preventing me from undertaking any effective analysis. Moreover, in relation to Questions HL596 and HL597 seeking information about participants in the Motability scheme, the Minister replied: “The Department does not hold information on the numbers of Motability customers in each local authority district or area of Great Britain ”. [ Hansard, 13/6/13; col. WA 256 .] That reply echoes his statement on 13 February at cols. 741-42. I have some difficulty with these statements. As I understand the system, if a claimant elects to use the Motability scheme, payments on his or her behalf are made by the department directly to Motability. If my understanding is correct, the department must know how much it is paying to Motability and on whose behalf payments are being made. This information will identify the local authority, district or area of each claimant on whose behalf payments are made. I have written to the Minister seeking a full answer to my Questions and I look forward to receiving that in due course. If it is truly the case that payments are made by the department to Motability without it knowing the identity of the beneficiaries, it is a matter of concern that the department cannot account for these payments. Such a failure may be of interest to the Comptroller and Auditor-General , the Public Accounts Commission and perhaps even the Treasury. Until the department provides the House with the information about such payments, I invite the Minister to amend these regulations by deleting this particular change. Plaid Cymru My Lords, I am grateful for the opportunity to speak in this debate and to congratulate the noble Lord, Lord Alton, on bringing it forward. I should declare an interest as president of Mencap in Wales and a number of other disability organisations. The matter that we are discussing is of immense concern to countless thousands of disabled people who are dependent on the vehicles they get for their mobility. This is true generally; it is a particular problem in rural areas, to which I will come in a moment. Perhaps I might pick up the points as they have been made in turn. First, on consultation, may we please have an assurance from the Minister that all relevant disability organisations will have a full opportunity not just to submit evidence but to engage in meaningful two-way discussion on this matter, and that the process will not be truncated and time-limited? Secondly, on the more than 600,000 Motability vehicles, the Government must know how many people stand to lose their adapted vehicles, so why will they not come clean with the statistics? As the noble and learned Lord, Lord Hardie , mentioned a moment ago, they must know those statistics. I congratulate him on the Questions that he has tabled and the statistics that he has obtained, which bring this matter into sharp focus. Thirdly, I draw the attention of this House to the disproportionate geographical impact. I obviously have concern with Wales. With 5% of the population, it has 7.4% of the total casework and 8.4% of the higher rate caseload. This is for an amalgam of historic industrial reasons, which we will not go into now. Those people stand to lose, and many are in areas with the lowest incomes per head in these islands—places such as Blaenau Gwent and Merthyr Tydfil , where I used to live, and where almost 13% of the population have a dependency on the mobility component. In my next-door area of Anglesey, which has one of the lowest GVAs per head of anywhere in the United Kingdom, at just 55% of the UK average, there is a caseload of 7.2%. That is in a rural area where they do not have alternative means of transport and taking away vehicles will deprive disabled people of the ability to get around. The changes we are talking about will compound the disability and poverty suffered by these people. It will be made infinitely worse if they cannot have their mobility. They will be very badly impacted by these changes. Labour My Lords, I declare a tangential interest as a recipient of DLA since its inception, although being no longer of working age I am unaffected by the introduction of PIP . I will not repeat many of the excellent points that other noble Lords have made. In a recent document, Motability set out the ways in which it is trying to ameliorate the changes and lessen the punitive impact of reclaiming customers’ vehicles. It states that the price to individual customers wishing to buy their current car will be in the order of £8,000 to £12,000. In the current climate, when disabled people have been repeatedly hit by cuts, how will many be able to afford that kind of outlay? Will the loan sharks be out in force to make yet another killing from people desperate not to lose their employment? The Minister for Disabled People’s answer to those people facing the loss of their employment because of the introduction of PIP has been the Access to Work scheme. What work has been done to see if this could in fact be a more expensive alternative? For example, the chief executive of my local disability organisation needed to use Access to Work while he could not drive a car. The daily cost of the journey both ways was £80—£400 per week. On top of that, he has the cost of taxis for shopping, getting to the doctor, et cetera. Compare that to £55.25 high-rate mobility element of DLA, which provides him with a transport for all these activities. Finally, the Care Bill is currently making its passage through this House. One of its main planks emphasises prevention as an essential element in minimising the cost of social care. It has been the disability living allowance which has been one of the most effective provisions in helping the less severely disabled people maintain their independence and reduce their costs for social care, as the noble Baroness, Lady Hollis, has so ably said. Are we faced yet again with another glaring example of the Government's silo mentality, making austerity cuts which ultimately result only in much higher costs to the public purse? 8:45 pm, 24th June 2013 My Lords, I thank my noble friend Lord Alton of Liverpool for tabling this regret Motion. He has spoken so clearly and fully on the worrying situation that the Regulations 2013 may result in the loss of mobility for many disabled people. The mobility scheme has been a great assistance to many disabled people who would not have otherwise been able to afford a car or an electric wheelchair. This scheme is headed by Her Majesty the Queen . It has given mobility and independence to many people. Can the Minister tell me whether it is really a possibility that many people will lose their cars and the ability to run them? I would add a few words about the vital need for a car if one lives in a rural area, as I do—even more so if one is disabled. A car enables a disabled person independence to take part in everyday life, getting to a job if they can work, taking children to school, shopping, going to the doctor, and just getting around. Making people mobile is so important. There is very limited public transport, if any, in some rural areas. I cannot understand that the Government are going backwards in penalising disabled people. Before the mobility scheme existed there were small three-wheeler cars which were maintained by the Government. They were not ideal as a disabled person could not take a passenger, but they were better than nothing. I cannot think the Government could be so cruel to take mobility away from people whose lives are changed when they have it and are isolated if they do not. Opposition Whip (Lords) My Lords, I should begin by acknowledging all the work done by the noble Lord, Lord Alton, in bringing to the attention of the House, not just today but repeatedly, the concerns of people who are in receipt of mobility payments and who are worried about the effect of these changes and the way they are being implemented. This debate this evening has made very clear just how important Motability cars and other mobility schemes are to so many disabled people. I was very moved by the account just given by the noble Baroness, Lady Masham, who explained so well the consequences for so many people; of how important it has been to have access to these cars and the fears that would accompany their departure. The scheme, as Motability itself puts it, gives disabled people, “the freedom to get to work or college, meet up with friends, enjoy a day trip out with their families, attend a medical appointment, or go shopping; to enjoy the independence that so many of us take for granted.”. Yes, quite so. One of the things that we have struggled to get to tonight is the game of numbers—a point made by the noble Lord, Lord Alton, the noble Baroness, Lady Thomas, my noble friend Lady Hollis and others. It has proved very difficult to get a clear picture of just how many people will be affected by these changes since the Government have so far been unable to give us precise figures for those who might lose their cars or adapted vehicles. My noble friend Lady Hollis offered up 180,000. In the absence of anything from the Government, I suggest we all adopt that figure tonight. If the Minister will not accept that, please could he give us his own figure? In past debates, the Minister has contended that because the decision to lease a vehicle is an individual one and the contract between the individual and Motability is a private one, it is not a matter for the Government. In response to that, first, the noble and learned Lord, Lord Hardie , made the very interesting point that if direct payments are made, the Government must know that information. Even if they do not, irrespective of the fact that a number of people will choose no longer to lease a vehicle, a number will automatically lose theirs simply by virtue of the fact that they will no longer be entitled to the enhanced rate when they transfer to PIP . The Government surely must have at least an estimate of what those numbers will be. Could they please share those numbers with us? Could the Minister tell us his best estimate tonight? Secondly, if the Government intend to press ahead in the way they have announced, those affected will clearly need to make plans about how to manage the effects of the changes. What are the Government doing to publicise the changes and inform people who will be affected? The noble Lord, Lord Alton, and my noble friend Lady Hollis asked what transitional arrangements would be put in place for people losing their cars. The Government have told the House previously that they were in discussions with Motability but could not then give further detail. The noble Lord, Lord Freud, has said previously that he had sympathy with the concerns of the noble Lord, Lord Alton, and he was keen to find a way of supporting people during the transitional period. In the debate on 13 February , the noble Lord, Lord Freud, said in response to my noble friend Lord McKenzie of Luton : “We are actively exploring what extra support we can give to disabled people to ensure that they can still get to work. We are looking at whether we can use access to work as that particular vehicle. We want to ensure that mobility support remains in place during any transition between the Motability scheme and access to work”.—[ Hansard, 13/2/13; col. 740 .] What is the position on Access to Work, an issue also raised by my noble friend Lady Wilkins? Will it be possible to use Access to Work for this? What will happen with transitions? Will the sums of money available be enough to deal with the kinds of things described by my noble friend? Where have the Minister’s conversations got to? Also, where have his discussions with Motability reached? Will he provide more information as to what transitional measures might be put in place? In particular, what opportunities will be given to claimants to either buy or continue to lease adapted vehicles, and at what price? Will he clarify the position of in-patients in hospitals? That point was raised by the noble and learned Lord, Lord Hardie, the noble Baroness, Lady Thomas, and others. This would also be a good time for the Minister to give the House some more information about the new consultation on PIP criteria and how that will link in with the inception of this new scheme—a point made by many noble Lords, understandably. It might help if the House understood more of the Government’s thinking on questions such as the 20/50 rule and the issues on which other campaigners have been pushing the Government to consult. How will this affect people in receipt of the higher rate of DLA who use Motability cars? What advice would he give them at this stage, looking ahead and trying to plan? There is then the question of geography, raised by the noble Lord, Lord Wigley, and that of people in rural areas, raised by my noble friend Lady Hollis and the noble Baroness, Lady Masham. Have the Government done any assessment of the variable impact around the country? Can we even have a sense of impact by region, or the difference between urban and rural impact? I am sure that the Government would not have made a change on this scale without having considered that. Will the Minister share that with us? Finally, at the risk of running slightly wide of the Motion, has the Minister given any thought to the context in which these changes are taking place? We know that support for disabled people wanting to move into work has been in trouble. The Work Programme is struggling generally and is clearly failing to help disabled people into work. The latest report from the Employment Related Services Association suggests that the numbers of people on ESA getting a job start as a result of referral to the Work Programme are terribly low: just 6% of referrals in the ESA flow payment group had a job start, 5% of those in the ESA volunteers group, and just 2% of referrals in the ESA ex- IB group. Given that, will the Minister take this opportunity to give the House some reassurance that the Government are concentrating in a cohesive and integrated way on the kind of support needed to help disabled people into work and to support them when they are there? The Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Work and Pensions My Lords, I have some difficulty in framing this answer because the debate was very wide but the regulations we are discussing are actually extremely narrow. What we are actually discussing is bringing the treatment of patients in hospital into line between those who receive Motability and those who stop receiving it after a certain period. There was an exemption for the Motability element and we are just bringing the two into line. I acknowledge that there has been a very wide debate on the whole area but we are talking about something that is actually much narrower. I hope noble Lords will understand as I try to juggle the two. I will try to deal with some of the wider issues but I will deal with the actual issue first. I will set a little bit of context by saying that even in these hard economic times this Government continue to spend around £50 billion a year on disabled people and services to enable those who face the greatest barrier to participate fully in society. That figure compares well internationally. We spend almost double the OECD average as a percentage of GDP —2.4% against the OECD average of 1.3%. Only two out of the 34 OECD countries spend more. Through the reforms of DLA and the introduction of PIP , we will make sure that the billions we spend provide more targeted support to those who need it most. Three million people will continue to get DLA or PIP and half a million will actually get more under the new system. While I am on figures, to answer the question from the noble Lord, Lord Alton, about the money flow to Motability, £1.6 billion went through to it in terms of transfer of benefit. My noble friend Lady Thomas asked what happens to the transfer. Clearly we recognise that some people will lose out but we have sought to ensure that those who lose out are those whose disabilities have the least impact on their participation in society. On our sampling of this, many people—more than half a million—will be winners under PIP. The UK has a proud history in furthering the rights of disabled people and we want to ensure that all people are treated fairly. The provisions under debate, which also apply to claimants of PIP, are a case in hand. They ensure that everyone receiving the mobility component of DLA or PIP in the future will be subject to the same payment rules, whether or not they have a Motability vehicle. The history of this was that when the mobility component of DLA stopped being paid to hospital in-patients in 1996, transitional provisions were built in, including a measure which allowed for payments to continue in order to cover the costs of the lease on a Motability vehicle. These arrangements represented a reasonable adjustment at the time for those in-patients who were committed to a mobility contract when the rules changed. However, noble Lords must understand that any lease held by someone in 1996 will have now long expired and these arrangements are past their sell-by date for the users affected at the time. In response to the question from the noble and learned Lord, Lord Hardie , about consultation, we clearly signalled our intention to implement this change in our consultation on the detailed design of our reforms to DLA. In that consultation we made clear that this change was not intended to penalise Motability users but to introduce fairness between how we treat those who chose to take out a lease with Motability—some 600,000 people—and the vast, or substantial, majority who do not, which is 1.1 million people. We received some support for our proposals. Unsurprisingly, some concerns were expressed as well. There were requests from some of the respondents to the consultation that the mobility component of both DLA and PIP should be paid continuously for all recipients while in hospital. I am sure that noble Lords would agree that to continue paying a benefit intended to meet the additional costs of disability indefinitely when they are already being met by the NHS would be a waste of financial resource, regardless of the financial climate. Adult in-patients will continue to receive their DLA for 28 days, which compares with an OECD estimate of the average hospital stay of between seven and eight days, and benefit payments will continue for 84 days for children. The consultation told us that we needed to strike a better balance between attaining equal treatment for all DLA recipients in hospital in the future while recognising the particular concerns of those who currently have a Motability vehicle. In particular, concerns were expressed about existing Motability users who could not have planned for these new arrangements at the time they took out their lease. We have therefore introduced transitional protection for those people who had a Motability vehicle and were in hospital when the new rules came in. This will allow customers who were in hospital on 8 April to run out their current lease. However, in contrast to the previous provisions, we have set a backstop so that the protection will end after three years. I think noble Lords will agree that this is an extremely generous transitional protection period. Therefore, the provisions apply only to people newly entering hospital and remaining there in excess of 28 days if an adult or 84 days if a child. I appreciate that where a Motability vehicle is recovered, this may have an impact on the user’s family—a concern that was also raised by some people in the consultation. However, I stress that a Motability vehicle is meant to be for the use of the disabled person, not to meet any mobility or transport requirements for family members or visitors to hospital. To quote from the Motability scheme’s own terms and conditions: “The car is used by, or for the benefit of, the disabled person”. Motability provides additional clarity in the terms and conditions: “This does not mean that the disabled person needs to be in the car for every journey. In practice, this means other named drivers in the household can use the car for shopping and other routine activities, as long as the disabled customer will benefit”. I leave noble Lords to decide whether the use of a vehicle by others when someone is in hospital is of a sufficiently direct and immediate benefit to the disabled person. In our view it is not, there being insufficient material benefit to the disabled person, particularly in meeting their own limitations in mobilising, as exemplified by the examples Motability uses. I also understand that some users are concerned about when Motability would recover their vehicle and whether they would lose money as a result. I assure noble Lords that we have worked closely with Motability on this issue. It has confirmed that where payment of the mobility component stops, it will allow a further protection period of up to 28 days in which to recover the vehicle. Motability has also said that when a vehicle is returned any advance payment outstanding will be returned on a pro rata basis. Once these protections end, Motability will discuss with scheme users the return of the vehicle and, on a case by case basis, whether it may be more appropriate to defer the return of the vehicle. Clearly, if someone is expected to be discharged shortly or the vehicle is heavily adapted, that will be fully considered in any discussions. However, let me be clear: that will be an independent decision by Motability. I will give noble Lords some figures around the scale of the issue—the numbers that the noble and learned Lord, Lord Hardie, requested. We estimate that there were around 1,500 in-patients with Motability vehicles when the new rules came in on 8 April . As I mentioned earlier, these people will be allowed to run their lease down, but will be subject to a backstop of three years’ protection. In the future, we estimate that there may be around 800 new in-patients a year who have a Motability vehicle, remain in hospital beyond 28 days or 84 days and will be subject to the new rules. These people will benefit from up to an additional 56 days a year of vehicle use and in all cases the return of the vehicle will be subject to one-on-one discussions with Motability, which may include retaining the vehicle for an additional period. I will now try to pick up some of the broader points that were raised on the general position and the introduction of PIP. As I have mentioned, clearly some Motability customers will not receive the enhanced rate of the Motability component of PIP once DLA reassessment begins later this year, and will lose their vehicle. We cannot reliably estimate at this stage how many people will be impacted as decisions on whether somebody takes a Motability lease are claimant-led rather than led by an assessment of their need. We are, however, working closely with Motability on that, and we will aim to get a bit of a better— 9:00 pm, 24th June 2013 The Minister knows what the figures were in the past; why can he not project them forward? I am relying on memory now, of debates we had 18 months ago, but am I not right in thinking that he told us at the time that something like 29% of those in receipt of higher rate mobility turned it into a Motability vehicle. If that figure is correct, which I believe it to be, then he can surely extrapolate that to the numbers of gross losers coming down from high rate DLA mobility, which I understand, again relying on memory, was 600,000. Therefore, 29% of 600,000 brings me to my 180,000 figure. What is wrong with that figure? The Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Work and Pensions The reason that it is wrong is that we do not know that the Motability figure lines up at that same percentage into the mobility. That is the reason. As a rule of thumb, it is one way of going, but we actually do not know whether or not the kind of people who will maintain their higher rate mobility will be the ones with Motability. That is the issue. One of the questions that the noble Baroness was particularly concerned about in this area was the heavily adapted cars, and I think she described it as the foolishness of moving a heavily adapted car back. I emphasise that only 2% of Motability cars are heavily adapted, so this is a much smaller problem; most are just standard cars. Labour I was a patron—or something or other—of Motability, and that is certainly not my experience. They may be standard cars but they have been adapted to make them comfortable. Even people who drove ordinary cars beforehand transferred to a Motability car in order to get the adaptations and so on which made it comfortable as well as possible for them to drive. Obviously I am in no position to argue with his 2% figure, but I suspect from my own experience that another 20%, 30% or 40% will be using a Motability car which, to some extent or other, has been personalised or tailored for their use. The Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Work and Pensions My Lords, I do not think we have time to debate what heavily adapted comprises. However, the figure for cars heavily adapted for a disabled person is 2%. Clearly, we all personalise cars to some extent. I can let the noble Baroness have some more information on that to the extent that I have it, but that is the figure that I have. I confirm that the noble Lord, Lord Sterling, is looking carefully at how Motability can help to mitigate the impact for those who may be affected by the move to PIP . The Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Work and Pensions My Lords, we are working with Motability currently on what the arrangements might be. I have no information at this stage on where we are with those discussions between the department and Motability, but clearly we are in discussions. I am not informed as to when I can update the House on that matter. On the judicial review, as noble Lords have seen, there is a consultation on the 20 metre/50 metre issue. I can assure my noble friend Lady Thomas that this is a genuine consultation which we are entering with an open mind and we will be looking to hear the views of individuals and organisations. Once that consultation is closed, we will publish our response, including how we intend to act. The noble Lord, Lord Alton, referred to changes to Atos’s supply chain since the tendering stage of the PIP . I assure noble Lords that the department’s decision to award the contract was not based on the mention of any particular organisation in the bids to deliver the PIP. It is usual for there to be changes between contract award and delivery. Indeed, we expect Atos’s use of supply chain sites to rise and fall in line with referral numbers. The department made a change to the reassessment timetable after Atos submitted its tender, which means that there will be significantly fewer assessments in 2013-14 than it had originally planned. However, it is important to note that Atos has kept the department informed about changes and we are confident that Atos and its partners are able to deliver successfully. The noble Lord asked about the £391 million that the Government are said to have given Atos over three years. I do not have that information to hand but I will write to him on that matter. The Parliamentary Under-Secretary of State for Work and Pensions I remind noble Lords that Atos tendered for four of the contract areas and received two, so it is not surprising that the 22 sites it was looking at have been reduced, given that it has a smaller number of contract areas. My information is that the 22 figure has gone down to 14. I will add to my letter any information I have on travel times estimates. In summary, this issue is about balance and fairness—fairness to those who have a Motability vehicle and to the substantial majority of mobility component recipients who do not. However, this is fairness tempered with appropriate mechanisms to ensure that the impact on existing and future users of the scheme is minimised. Specific transitional arrangements are in place for those directly impacted when the measure was introduced and there will remain appropriate and generous provisions in the future. I commend the hospital in-patient arrangements to the House and trust that they have reassured the noble Lord, Lord Alton, and that as a consequence he will not press the Motion. Crossbench My Lords, as always, I am grateful to the Minister for the way in which he answered the questions that were put to him, although I think he would be the first to agree that a number of questions raised during the debate remain unanswered. However, he will also understand that, although the measures may be narrow, parliamentarians have to take their chances. If they can find a hook on which to hang their coat, they are obliged to do so. That is surely part of our role as scrutineers. Your Lordships will be glad to know that I do not intend to drag this out although there is no time limit. Even though this is a dinner hour debate, we could have gone on for much longer. I think those taking part in the following debate will recognise that we have been pretty disciplined in the way that we have gone about this. The issues that we have covered range from the disproportionalilty in the way that these changes will affect rural areas and poorer areas and concerns about the statistics that have still not been shared with us. We do not know the number of people who will be impacted by these changes and the cost of the vehicles, which was a point made by the noble Baroness, Lady Wilkins. Will it cost between £8,000 and £12,000 for someone to purchase one of these vehicles—a vehicle that had been made available to them previously by an Act of Parliament ? It was an Act of Parliament that laid down the criteria under which people qualified. Surely we are guilty of behaving without due concern for the effect of the changes that we have put in place. I repeat what I said in our deliberations earlier this year. It is our duty to understand the impact of the decisions we make. The Minister has just said that we cannot reliably estimate the impact; we do not know. That is not a good position for us to be in. Decisions will affect the mobility and independence of people with disabilities. The noble Baroness, Lady Hollis, put it very well when she said that you turn a person from being independent to being dependent when you take such decisions. Just as we found a way of encouraging the Minister to come to the House this evening, I know that I and other Members of your Lordships’ House will look for other ways of holding the Government to account to ensure that we mitigate the worst effects of these changes. On the basis of the reply that has now been given, I beg leave to withdraw the Motion. Motion withdrawn.	i don't know
Which is the oldest of the 31 colleges of the University Of Cambridge ?	Welcome to Peterhouse \| Peterhouse Cambridge About Welcome to Peterhouse Peterhouse is the oldest of the constituent colleges in the University of Cambridge. It was founded in 1284 by Hugo de Balsham, Bishop of Ely, on its current site close to the centre of the City. As a charitable institution, dedicated to the pursuit of excellence in education, religion, learning and research, Peterhouse has made its own distinctive contribution to society for over 700 years. It is one of the smaller Colleges, housing an intellectual community of some 45 Fellows , 260 undergraduates and 110 graduate students. Peterhouse is renowned for its stimulating and friendly atmosphere, the diversity of its students and the range of their academic, extra-curricular and social activities, as well as for the quality of its facilities. We hope that this website will help you to find the information about Peterhouse which interests you. If not, please don't hesitate to contact us . Bridget Kendall, MBE	Peterhouse, Cambridge
Which is the oldest of the 38 colleges of the University Of Oxford ?	Walks round Cambridge Old Buildings in Cambridge Cambridge is associated with the university of Cambridge, so the assumption is that all old buildings in the city belong to the university. In fact, Cambridge has several buildings older than the university. The University of Cambridge was founded in 1209 and the oldest college, Peterhouse, was founded in 1284. Most of the buildings on this page are older than this. I have included a couple of 14th century buildings. Most of the famous university buildings are much later. Kings College Chapel was started in 1446 and not completed until 1531. Queens College has the oldest gatehouse , dated 1448. Click here for buildings since 14C. Cambridge has no good local building stone. The earliest buildings were often made of a collection of material joined together with mortar, and sometimes reusing material from earlier buildings. Perhaps because of this, none of these buildings are exactly as they were built. All have been repaired or even rebuilt at times. The buildings on this page are arranged in chronological order, so this is not a walk. The buildings are fairly widely dispersed throughout Cambridge with busy roads in between. I suggest that you visit these buildings when you are close to them, or make an effort to visit any building that particularly interests you, rather than tackling the whole lot at one go. There is a scale at the bottom of the map. A kilometre is just over half a mile. Click on the red on the map, or on the links, for descriptions and pictures. Before 12th century Click on the photos for a bigger version. Roman Cambridge In Roman times, Cambridge was called Duroliponte. Archaeological digs have shown there was a Roman fortified town on top of Castle Hill. The walls ran along Mount Pleasant, and even today you can see that one side of the road is considerably higher than the other. No Roman building survives above ground. St Peters Church, a tiny church on Castle Hill, is built of a mixture of material, and some of this is thin red tiles. These may be Roman tiles. See below for more about St Peters Church. St Benets Church The Saxons had a large settlement by the River Cam, which they used for trade, as it is navigable right down to the Wash and the North Sea. Various churches in Cambridge have the names of Saxon saints, such as St Botolph and St Edward, King and Martyr. St Clements dates from the time when Cambridge was under Danelaw. However, St Benets is the only one Saxon church still standing. Just its tower is Saxon, the rest is more recent. St Benets church should really be written St. Bene't's church, but I have simplified punctuation for this website. Bene't is a contraction of Benedict, who is the patron saint of students. He founded monasteries. The tower of St Benets is the oldest building in Cambridge. St Benets Church was founded in 1020, and the tower was built around 1050 or before. The church is listed Grade I . The listing description says that it is built of rubble with freestone dressings, and that it is the oldest church in Cambridgeshire. The church is usually open to visit. St Benets church from Benet St The Saxon tower showing long-and-short corner dressings of Barnack stone Close-up of Saxon windows in tower What the tower is made up - 'rubble'! This is the arch inside the Saxon tower. One of the animal carvings on the arch Castle Mound When William the Conqueror invaded England in 1066, he subdued the country by causing castles to be built. These were motte-and-bailey - a form of castle situated on a raised earthwork (the motte) and an area (the bailey) surrounded by a protective fence. Cambridge Castle was built in the same location as the Roman town - an obvious location as it was on a hill overlooking the Saxon settlement by the River Cam. The first castle was built of wood. Edward I rebuilt it in stone, but it fell into decay, and now there is only the original motte left. You might be able to find a stone or two from the stone castle in the grounds of Shire Hall. Below is a much weathered gargoyle spout. Castle Mound is the highest point of Cambridge, with a good view. Castle Mound is open to visit. It is in the grounds of Shire Hall, at the top of Castle Street. Walk through the carpark to find the footpath to the top of the mound. Castle Mound View from top of Castle Mound Notice giving original plan of castle Different views of gargoyle spout near Castle Mound Round Church The Round Church is really the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. It is one of the four medieval round churches still in use in England. It is listed Grade I . The church was built around 1130, the shape being inspired by the rotunda in the church of the Holy Sepulchre, Jerusalem. It was built by the Fraternity of the Holy Sepulchre, who were probably a group of Austin canons. Initially it was a wayfarers' chapel. By the middle of the 13th century it had become a parish church under the patronage of Barnwell Priory . A drawing of the Round Church can be seen on Richard Lyne's map of Cambridge, 1574 (below). He calls the church St. Pulcheur, which is presumbly a mis-hearing of 'Sepulchre'. During the 15th century the chapel was altered, including a polygonal bell-storey with Gothic windows. This can be seen on a print of the church in 1809 (R. Harraden & Son, Cambridge, and R. Cribb & Son, London, publishers). By the 19th century the church was in a poor state of repair. It was restored by Anthony Salvin, who replaced the bell-storey by a roof similar to the original roof. This was made necessary because the weight of the bell-story was too much for the walls to support. The 15th-century Gothic windows were replaced by windows in Norman style. So the top part of the church is not as old as it appears. However, the splendid Norman doorway is original. Richard Lyne's map of Cambridge, 1574 Print of Round Church 1809 By 1994 the congregation had become too large for the church, so they moved to the church of St Andrew the Great (near Lion Yard shopping mall), which is now known confusingly at 'the Round Church at St Andrew the Great'. The Round Church is usually open to visit, although you will be invited to give a donation to the upkeep of the building. The Round Church This part of Jesus College is listed Grade I . The chapel is usually open to visit - check with the porter's lodge first. School of Pythagoras The School of Pythagoras is the oldest non-religious building in Cambridge. It is listed Grade I . It was built around 1200. The first Mayor of Cambridge, Hervey fitz Eustace Dunning, lived here in the mid-thirteenth century. From 1266 until 1959 the School of Pythagoras was owned by Merton College, Oxford. It is marked on the Richard Lyne's map (1574) as Domus Pythagorae or House of Pythagoras, as one of the Hospita Juristarum or hostels for law students. It is often said that no-one knows where the name came from, but if it was a hostel in 1574, it would seem likely that it housed students of Mathematics at some time. In the subsequent centuries it was also used as a barn, a school, and a headquarters for the society that became Cambridgeï¿½s Newnham College. After the Second World War it was rented by the zoologist and MI5 agent Lord Rothschild. It was purchased by St Johnï¿½s in 1959, who use it as a drama studio. There are plans (2011) to transform it into an archive centre, removing unsympathetic modern additions to the building. The School of Pythagoras is not open to visit, except by appointment. (The building is open by appointment on Wed-Thurs from 9.30-4.00. Please contact the archivist on [email protected] to book an appointment.) Since it is within the grounds of St Johns College, it is quite difficult even to see the outside. St Johns College charge tourists to visit the college, and will forbid any tourists entering during exam time. Even if you pay to enter, the School of Pythagoras is not on the marked tourist trail. It is on the far side of the river from the entrance. You are not allowed to cross the river by the Bridge of Sighs. So, after paying for entry, walk through the first three courts and then cross the river by the Old Bridge. Re-enter the college on the other side of the college, walk through New Court, then under the Cripps Building to enter Merton Court. The School of Pythagoras forms one side of this. Front of School of Pythagoras Back of School of Pythagoras Door of School of Pythagoras at side of building Windows Cellarer's Checker This building is called Cellarer's Checker. It is listed Grade II* . This was the office where the cellarer checked his stores and accounts. It is part of Barnwell Priory, an important medieval abbey which moved here around 1119, but this building is later, around mid 13th century. There is very little of this priory left - see first river walk for what there is. Click here for more on Barnwell Priory. This building is not open to visit. South side of Cellarer's Chequer East side of Cellarer's Chequer North side of Cellarer's Chequer West side of Cellarer's Chequer Windows St Peters Church This church dates back to Norman times, but in 1781 it was largely pulled down, apart from the spire and tower, and rebuilt incorporating original features and using the same building materials, including some thin red tiles in the wall, which may be Roman tiles ( see above ). It is listed Grade B (equivalent to Grade II*). In the graveyard, there is an early gravestone. The church is usually shut, but if you manage to see inside, there is a 12th century font with a decoration of mermen around it. The mermen's tails are split, and they hold the halves in their hands. This building is not usually open to visit. There is more information about this church here . St Peters Church 12th-century font Peterhouse Hall Peterhouse is the oldest Cambridge University College, founded in 1284. Its oldest building is its hall, which was built in 1290. It is listed Grade I . It has been restored since (see listing) which means that it does not look that old. The hall is within the college, and cannot be seen from the road. However, Peterhouse is usually open to visit (except in exam season) - check with the porters lodge if you are not sure. If open, it is free. To see the hall, walk through the First Court, under the Chapel cloisters, to get to Old Court. The hall is on your left. It is possible to see the other side (which does look older), but you need to walk through a couple more courts, tending to the left. Old Court, Corpus Christi Corpus Christi College was established in 1352, and that was when Old Court was built. It is listed Grade I . There is a claim that Old Court is the oldest continually inhabited courtyard in the country (a claim disputed by Merton College, Oxford who say the same of their Mob Quad). In 1919 a roughcast rendering was put on the walls. You can see the back of Old Court from Free School Lane . Corpus Christi College is usually open except during exams. Check with the porters lodge if you are not sure. Walk round New Court to the far left corner, then walk through the doorway into Old Court. Old Court, Corpus Christi Old Court from Free School Lane Chesterton Tower Tucked away in Chesterton, north of the river, there is an old building called Chesterton Tower. It is listed Grade I . It was built in the middle of the 1300's. It is part of the first river walk . This building is not open. It is on private property, but you can see it from the road. Walk north along Church Street towards High St Chesterton. Ignore the locked gate called Chesterton Towers, this is a modern development. Further along there is a road leading to some garages. This is private land, but you can see Chesterton Tower if you look along this road. Finally, I have tried to verify the dates and facts above as much as I could, but I may have made mistakes. If you spot any or want to correct me, please email [email protected]	i don't know
"Which British bandleader who lived from 1899 to 1969 would you associate with the song ""Somebody Stole My Gal"" recorded in 1931 ?"	YouTube History of Music: Birth of Swing Jazz 1: Big Bands Source: Wikiwand Born in 1903 in Pennsylvania, extraordinary pianist Earl "Fatha" Hines , first recorded per 'Falling' and 'Congaine' on October 23, 1923, with Lois Deppe's Serenaders at the Gennett studio in Richmond, IN. Hines had left home at age seventeen to play piano in Philadelphia at a nightclub called the Liederhaus with a band named the Symphonian Serenaders led by Lois Deppe. He was paid board, two meals a day and $15 per week. In 1925 he moved to Chicago to play at the Elite No. 2 Club and tour to Los Angeles with Carroll Dickerson's band. Upon his return he laid a couple unissued tracks with Kathryn Perry ('Mandy' and 'Sadie Green') in July of 1926 before recording with Johnny Dodds ' Black Bottom Stompers in April of '27. That was fortuitous because Johnny was the brother of Baby Dodds , both of whom were partners of Louis Armstrong and Bud Scott, all of whom had first recorded together with Lil Armstrong and King Oliver in 1923. Also in Dodds 's Black Bottom Stompers were Roy Palmer on trombone and Barney Bigard on trombone. Hines and Armstrong had met at the musician's union, with whom he began playing at the Sunset Cafe. Following Dodds 's Stompers came a session with Armstrong 's Stompers on May 9 of '27. Hines found himself with Jimmie Noone and his Apex Club Orchestra in 1928, with whom he recorded 14 tracks that year, along with additional sides by Louis Armstrong adding up to 38 with the latter that year. Hines capped 1928 in December with a string of debut piano solo recordings in Long Island City for QRS and Okeh. Among fifteen from multiple sessions Red McKenzie is vocalist on four of them (Okeh). It was also 1928 that Hines began leading his own orchestra, at the Grand Terrace Cafe owned by Al Capone. His first issues as a bandleader are thought to have been from a session on February 13, 1929, yielding two takes of 'Sweet Ella May' and three of 'Everybody Loves My Baby'. With his orchestra to employ as many as 28 members, Hines began broadcasting nationally on radio from the Grand Terrace. Touring in the summers, the Grand Terrace closed in 1940, after which Hines took his band traveling year round. In 1943 the draft for World War II made it difficult for Hines to keep a band together, so he formed an all female orchestra. It was during that time in the early forties that Hines began seeding bebop, the first period of modern jazz often associated with sax man Charlie Parker and trumpeter Dizzy Gillespie , both of whom passed through Hines' orchestra. Between 1948 and 1951 Hines played with Louis Armstrong 's All-Stars, after which he began touring again in 1954 with the Harlem Globetrotters (an exhibition basketball team). Things slowed down for Hines in the sixties, when he opened a tobacco shop, though he did tour much internationally. But the list of prominent musicians with whom Hines played and recorded in the seventies is nigh endless. Among Hines' notable performances were solos for Duke Ellington 's funeral, the White House (twice) and the Pope. It is thought Hines last recorded in 1981 in São Paulo, Brazil: 'One O'clock Jump' among 13 titles on 'Fatha's Birthday' with Marva Josie and the 150 Band. He died in 1983 in Oakland, California. Earl Hines 1923 Bass: Joe Benjamin Born in 1901 in Denver, cornetist/trumpeter, Roy Fox , was raised in Hollywood in a Salvation Army family together with his sister. He first performed in public at age thirteen, playing cornet in a newsboy band with the 'Los Angeles Examiner'. He next worked as a studio musician playing bugle for Cecille B DeMille. At age sixteen he joined the Abe Lyman Orchestra . In 1920 he formed his first band. A couple sources seem to want Fox recording with the Art Hickman Orchestra at the Biltmore Hotel in NYC for Columbia in 1924. Though Hickman transcribed from the Biltmore for Columbia in prior years (1919-21), the first documented recordings of Fox with Hickman that I can find aren't until probable radio transcriptions in June of 1924 for Victor in Los Angeles, 'Patsy' among those titles. Be as may, Hickman was on a national tour which would take Fox to Miami, then NYC, where he would lead his own band at the Avalon and Beaux Arts nightclubs before returning to California in 1927 to work with Gus Arnheim at the Ambassador Hotel in Hollywod. It was in Los Angeles that Fox formed his Montmartre (Cafe) Orchestra to record three titles for Brunswick in two sessions in the summer of 1929: 'Painting the Clouds with Sunshine', 'Tip-Toe Through the Tulips' and 'I've Waited a Lifetime for You'. He thereafter called his orchestra simply His Band, which he took on the first of multiple trips to London, first to perform at the Café de Paris in latter 1930, his ballroom style to become popular via BBC radio broadcasts. Fox recorded 'A Peach of a Pair' in January of 1931 back in Los Angeles before another trip to London where he assumed a half-year residency at the Monseigneur Restaurant. Most of Fox' recordings as a leader would take place in London, first for Decca (1931-35), then HMV (1936-38), then VJM (1938). He traveled to Australia in 1938, there to lead the Jay Whidden Orchestra. Returning to the U.S., he made his way back to London after World War II, there to domicile. In 1952 he opened a booking agency, somewhat retiring from performing music. Fox died in London in 1982. Roy Fox 1924 Source: Songbook Born in 1903 in Clinton, Massachusetts, pianist Carroll Gibbons is thought to have first recorded in 1924 in London with the Savoy (Hotel) Orpheans for Columbia in August: 'Oh! Eva' and 'Any Way the Wind Blows'. Gibbons had traveled to London in his latter teens to study at the Royal Academy of Music, beginning a career in which he traveled between the States and the UK until he moved to London in 1924 where he would shared leadership of the Savoy Orpheans with Howie Jacobs and led his own band, thought to have first recorded with such for the HMV label during a performance in November of '28 at Small Queen's Hall in London: 'I Can't Give You Anything But Love'. His New Mayfair Orchestra of '29 was the issues of 'I'm Crazy Over You', 'What a Wonderful Wedding That Will Be' and 'Deep Hollow'. In 1931 Gibbons assumed sole leadership of the Savoy Orpheans, changed its name to the Boy Friends and began releasing records as such into the fifties, backing names like vocalist, Anne Lenner. Gibbons died in London in 1954 only age fifty-one. Carroll Gibbons 1924 Source: Rock e Martello Born in 1895 in Long Branch, New Jersey, drummer Sonny Greer Albeit Greer wasn't a supernova as a star, a quarter century of daily steady consistency with Duke Ellington made him a major contributor to swing jazz with an extensive scroll of sessions. He began his career playing with both banjoist, Elmer Snowden, and the Howard Theatre Orchestra. In 1919 he met Duke Ellington , the two becoming close friends. He would be a member of Ellington's operation from 1924 to 1951. It was with Ellington 's Washingtonians that Greer made his first recording in Ellington 's employ in November of 1924 for the Blu-Disc label: 'Choo Choo' and 'Rainy Nights'. That same month they switched roles, Ellington to back Greer's first session (of not a lot) as a leader, that with his Deacons on 'Oh! How I Love My Darling' also for Blu-Disc. Greer's discography is a very long one, both as a duplicate of much of Ellington 's own catalogue and with others. It was a dispute that permanently ending their relationship, said to concern Greer's heavy drinking and increasing undependability. Ellington had hired drummer, Butch Ballard, to take Greer's place when Greer was indisposed, which Greer found to be a disagreeable threat. Tom Lord's discography shows Greer's last session with Ellington as January 21, 1951 at the Metropolitan Opera House in NYC, though they would find themselves recording together on occasion in the future. Greer freelanced after Ellington , appeared in films and briefly led his own band. Greer died in 1982. As Greer is on nigh every recording made by Ellington from 1924 to 1951, we list only the first four as of the Washingtonians and the Deacons, with a couple tracks he recorded with Ellington as Sonny Greer and his Memphis Men. Sonny Greer 1924 Source: Coast Pink Born Francis Nunzio Carlone in 1903 in Providence, Rhode Island, pianist and composer Frankie Carle began working professionally in his latter teens. He early changed his name to Carle because Carlone sounded too Italian. in 1921 he joined Edwin J. McEnelley's band, with whom he made his debut recording in November 1925 for the Victor label in NYC: 'Spanish Shawl'. In 1936 Carle began working with Mal Hallett's orchestra, his first recordings with Hallett on May 9, 1936: 'Mary Lou' and 'Swing Fever'. He joined Horace Heidt in 1939, which brought him to national attention via radio. His first session with Heidt 's Musical Knights was on September 20, 1939: 'Good Morning' and 'Are You Having Any Fun?'. From a kid earning a dollar a week to play gigs, Carle was now pocketing a thousand dollars a week plus 5% of gross. He left Heidt to form his own orchestra in 1944, recording for Circle from '44 to '47. In 1955 Carle dissembled his band to pursue a solo career. He had also recorded with the Casa Loma Orchestra ('39) and Bobby Hackett ('40). Carle died in Mesa, Arizona, in 2001, his career spanning seventy years. Frankie Carle 1925 Source: Big Band Library Born in 1900 in Girona, Spain, violinist, Xavier Cugat , was relocated to Cuba by his family at age five. Trained in classical violin, Cugat was twelve when he began playing with the Orchestra of the Teatro Nacional in Havana. In 1915 he immigrated to New York with his family, where he performed recitals with opera singer, Enrico Caruso. He toured both Europe and the States. 'The New York Times' has him on a radio broadcast with WDY in New Jersey from the Victor Talking Machine Company in Camden as early as 1917. IMDb has him in the role of a violinist, uncredited, in the film, 'The Four Horsemen of the Apocalypse', as early as 1921. He had performed twice at Carnegie Hall in NYC before there joining Vincent Lopez' dance orchestra at the Casa Lopez in 1924. Both Tom Lord's discography and Brian Rust's 'The American Dance Band Discography 1917-1942' have violinist, Xavier Cugat, recording with Vincent Lopez for Okeh from February 13, 1925 to May 2, 1930 for Perfect in more than thirty sessions, all in NYC. Which is difficult to figure since, for all those recordings, multiple biographies of violinist, Xavier Cugat, don't mention Lopez at all. Be as may, one source has him leaving the East Coast for Los Angeles a year after having joined Lopez' band, where he formed his Gigolos, a tango band which played intermissions, thought in 1928, at the Coconut Grove between performances by Bing Crosby and the Gus Arnheim Orchestra . Cugat's Gigolos were also featured in the short film by Vitaphone, 'Cugat and His Gigolos'. Cugat was featured in another with Carmen Castillo titled, 'By a Camp Fire'. IMDb wants his first soundtrack titles in 1930 for 'In Gay Madrid', uncredited, for 'Santiago' and 'Dark Night'. Cugat also performed on KFWB Radio and drew cartoons for the 'Los Angeles Times' while in California. In 1931 Cugat returned to NYC with his Gigolos where they found a spot at the new Waldorf Astoria Hotel. It was Cugat's trademark to conduct while holding a Chihuahua underarm. Cugat recorded from the thirties for several decades to come. He is found on transcription discs from radio broadcasts for Western Electric in 1932. Among his early titles were 'Silencio', 'Ombo - My Shawl', 'Gypsy Air Tango' and 'Rancho Grande' in 1933 for Victor. Cugat hired Dinah Shore in 1939, whence she made her debut recordings. Beyond the tango, Cugat also recorded the mambo, the cha-cha-cha, the rumba, the twist and music especially for the conga. Cugat's fifth and last wife had been actress, singer and Spanish guitarist, Charo, from 1966 to 1978. He died of heart failure in 1990 in Barcelona. Xavier Cugat 1926 Source: Vintage Jazz & Dance Band Born in 1898 in London, Lew Stone began recording in London with Bert Ralton and his Havana Band in January of 1926, the first of three sessions yielding 'Lillian', 'Memory's Melody', 'I Would Like to Know Why' and 'Goodbye'. 'Maritana' followed from the next session estimated in February. Stone began arranging in 1927 for the Savoy Orpheans, Ray Starita and violinist, Bert Ambrose, the last with whom he laid his first track, 'Without You, Sweetheart', on February 14, 1928. He played piano, W.E. Blincoe the arranger. Stone recorded with Ambrose frequently into 1931. Meanwhile he recorded 'Breakaway' with his own band on September 27, 1929, after which he did time with Roy Fox from '31 to '32. He arranged and played cello on his first track with Fox on January 28, 1931: 'A Peach of a Pair'. Stone assumed leadership of the Roy Fox Orchestra at the Monseigneur Restaurant in Piccadilly while Fox was convalescing from illness in Switzerland in the spring of '32. When Fox returned seven months later his band was the most popular in London. When Fox 's contract expired in 1932, Stone became leader of the band as radio broadcasts from the Monseigneur made his fame. His first recordings with the Monseigneur Band were October 31, 1932, yielding 'Nightfall', 'Rain, Rain, Go Away, 'In the Still of the Night' and 'Why Waste Your Tears?'. Stone worked largely in ballrooms and restaurants while broadcasting. In 1940 he configured his Stonecrackers, followed by a largely different formation of that in '41, recording tracks with both. Smith was also musical director of a number of musicals. He died in 1969 in London. Lew Stone 1928 Bud Freeman Born Lawrence Freeman in 1906 in Chicago, bandleader, Bud Freeman , also played tenor sax and clarinet. Freeman was an original member of the Austin High School Gang. In 1927 he moved to NYC and became a session player. Freeman is thought to have first recorded with McKenzie and Eddie Condon 's Chicagoans on December 8, 1927 for Okeh: 'Sugar' and 'China Boy'. Freeman would record heavily in Condon 's bands into the sixties. Another huge figure entered Freeman's space when in April 1928 he first recorded next to Benny Goodman in the Californians, a band led by Ben Pollack : two takes of 'Singapore Sorrows' and 'Sweet Sue, Just You' unissued. Freeman would record numerously with Goodman into the forties, including with Goodman 's orchestra. Freeman led his first session as a leader later that year in Chicago on December 3, 1928, bearing 'Crazeology' and 'Can't Help Lovin' That Man' for Okeh. His would be a strong career as a bandleader into the eighties. As a session player Freeman backed all number of prominent names, to list but several: Joe Haymes, Ray Noble , George Wetting, Stan Rubin, Jimmy McPartland , Art Hodes and Pee Wee Russell . With so much to highlight in Freeman's career it somehow sifts out to a session with Hoagy Carmichael on May 21, 1930 in NYC: 'Rockin' Chair' and 'Barnacle Bill the Sailor'. Contributing to that session something illustrates the heady climate in which Freeman bumped shoulders: Bix Beiderbecke (cornet), Bubber Miley (trumpet), Tommy Dorsey (trombone), Benny Goodman (clarinet), Arnold Brilhart (alto sax), Joe Venuti (violin), Irving Brodsky (piano), Eddie Lang (guitar), Harry Goodman (tuba), Gene Krupa (drums) and Carson Robison with Carmichael on vocals. Freeman led groups from quartets to bands of more than ten members. Among his various orchestras was his Summa Cum Laude active from 1939 as an octet to 1958 as a trio with Bob Hammer (piano) and Mousie Alexander (drums). During World War II Freeman led an Army band, stationed in the Aleutian Islands. Returning to NYC after the war, Freeman freelanced with various orchestras. Notable work in his later career with the World's Greatest Jazz Band. He published his first memoir in 1974, followed by a second in 1976. Freeman moved to England in 1974, then returned to Chicago in 1980, where he died in 1991. He was inducted into the Big Band and Jazz Hall of Fame in 1992. Bud Freeman 1927 Film Trumpet: Louis Armstrong Born in 1901 in Alameda, California, Horace Heidt put together his first band, the Californians, in 1923 while in college. His first recordings are thought to have been a couple tracks for Victor in April of 1927: 'Mine' and 'Hello cutie'. Heidt would also direct the Brigadiers and the Musical Knights, the latter first issuing for Columbia in 1939 per 'Good Morning' and 'Are You Havin' Any Fun?'. Heidt's catalogue isn't particularly prolific, one reason for which was his emphasis on radio, hosting 'Pot o' Gold', 'Tums Treasure Chest', 'The American Way' and 'The Horace Heidt Youth Opportunity Program' throughout the forties, the last becoming a television show in 1950. In the fifties Heidt largely traded music for business and other personal interests, building a resort apartment complex of 180 units, with a golf course, on ten acres of land in the San Fernando Valley (CA). Heidt is said to have been the first to put a band on a vaudeville stage, give away money via radio, host a television talent show and perform with a big band on television. He passed away in 1986. Horace Heidt 1927 Source: Horace Heidt Born in 1906 in Cambridge, Massachusetts, Johnny Hodges , clarinet and sax, is largely associated with Duke Ellington , both as a composer and musician. Hodges first played professionally as a kid, performing piano for eight dollars an evening. He was playing soprano sax by the time he was teenager and was making a local name for himself around Boston when he moved to New York City in 1924. After an unissued track with Chick Webb in 1926 he joined Ellington 's orchestra in 1928. He is thought to have first recorded with Ellington with the latter's Washingtonians on June 25 that year: 'What a Life', 'Yellow Dog Blues' and 'Tishomingo Blues'. Hodges attended above a thousand sessions during his career, most of them with Ellington up to 'New Orleans Suite' in 1970 ( Ellington 's eighth, Hodges' final). Hodges first recorded as a band leader in NYC on May 20, 1937, 'Peckin' with vocal by Buddy Clark among them. Ellington contributed piano, backing Hodges' bands numerously throughout the decades to come. Hodges is thought to have released his first album as a band leader, 'Passion Flower', in 1946. His last performance was at the Imperial Room in Toronto, Ontario, in 1970. He died of heart attack at the dentist several days later, while working on his eighth studio album, 'New Orleans Suite', per above. All tracks for 1928 below are with Duke Ellington . Johnny Hodges 1928 Source: Michihisa Ishikawa Born in 1904 in Clarinda, Iowa, trombonist/arranger Glenn Miller left high school for college in Boulder, Colorado. As a student he played in the band of Boyd Senter in Denver, then dropped out of school to tour with bands that eventually took him to Los Angeles where he found spots with Ben Pollack and Victor Young . Miller first recorded with Pollack and his Californians on September 14, 1926, those unissued by Victor. Miller is also listed on the 1979 issue of 'The Legendary Earl Baker Cylinders 1926', a collection of radio transcriptions performed in 1926. Miller's initial recordings were also Benny Goodman 's, as would be his first issues, recorded on December 9: 'When I first met Mary' and 'Deed I Do'. While with Pollack Miller issued a couple titles with Red Nichols ' Stompers in latter '27: 'Sugar' and 'Make My Cot Where the Cot-Cot-Cotton Grows'. 1928 saw the release of 'A Jazz Holiday' and 'Wolverine Blues' by Bennie Goodman's Boys With Jim And Glenn ( Jimmy McPartland ). Miller began setting tracks with the Sam Lanin Orchestra in January of '28: 'Everywhere You Go'. In March of '28 he was with Goodman and McPartland to record 'I'm More Than Satisfied' and two takes of 'Oh Baby' with Nat Shilkret's All Star Orchestra. Miller issued strongly in those early days with such as Red Nichols , the Dorsey Brothers Orchestra , Benny Goodman , the Boswell Sisters , Lee Wiley , Mildred Bailey and Clark Randall before releasing his first issues as a bandleader with vocalist, Smith Ballew , in 1935: 'A Blues Serenade', 'Moonlight on the Ganges', 'In a Little Spanish Town' and 'Solo Hop'. By 1939 Miller's band was such a success he performed at Carnegie Hall that year. Miller then began broadcasting on CBS for Chesterfield cigarettes on December 27, 1939, with the Andrew Sisters , a series that would run nearly three years with 'Slumber Song' as its theme. Among the vocalists with whom Miller worked were Gordon Tex Beneke , the Modernaires , Marion Hutton , Kay Starr and Dinah Shore . In 1941 Miller's dance band appeared in the film, 'Sun Valley Serenade', followed by 'Orchestra Wives' the next year. His last recordings for Chesterfield were on June 18, 1941. Victor issued 'Swing Low, Sweet Chariot' from that session. Miller gave his last concert in the United States on November 27, 1942 in Passaic, New Jersey. Miller then joined the Army for patriotic causes, sacrificing an income in the vicinity of $70,000 per month to lead an Army band. He was soon promoted to captain, then major, then even more swiftly downed over the English Channel in a plane with a faulty carburetor. Miller's last recordings had been in England in November of 1944, radio transcriptions with his Army Air Force Band with which he'd given some 800 performances. The next month his plane went down while returning from a trip to Paris. Among Miller's final recordings were 'Everybody Loves My Baby', 'Jeep Jockey Jump', 'All The Things You Are', 'Swing Low, Sweet Chariot', 'Body and Soul', 'Beat Me Daddy', 'Get Happy', 'Moonlight Serenade' and 'Auf Wiedersehen'. All tracks below are chronological by year only. All for year 1944 are with the Army Air Force Band. More Glenn Miller under Marion Hutton in Swing Jazz Song . Glenn Miller 1927 Source: Jazz Lives Born in 1906 in Xeniz, Ohio, trombonist Vic Dickenson's career spanned early to modern jazz. He first played professionally in 1921 with the Elite Syncopators. He performed with a number of local and territory bands until making his debut recordings on trombone in 1927 with Willie Jones and his Orchestra for Gennett at its studios in Richmond, Indiana: 'Ragmuffin Stomp', 'Michigan Stomp' and 'Bugs'. He wouldn't appear on records again until 1931 with Luis Russell. His next issues were in 1934 with Blanche Calloway from a session in August in Chicago, leading to another in NYC, which town Dickenson made his neighborhood as a studio musician, he coming to a national stature. In 1936 Dickenson began three years with Claude Thornhill . He started working with Benny Carter in 1939 and Count Basie in 1940. After another brief time with Carter Dickenson gave up big bands for smaller ensembles. Together with leading his own bands Dickenson worked largely as a freelancer, performing with pianist, Eddie Haywood, Henry Red Allen , the Saints and the Sinners. Trumpeter, Bobby Hackett , would be a frequent session partner during his career, he first recording with Hackett with Peggy Lee and the Jubilee Allstars in 1945: 'You Was Right, Baby'. Dickenson's first issues as a leader were recorded in late 1947 in Los Angeles with his Sextet consisting of Jack Trainor (trumpet), Jewell Grant (alto sax), JD King (tenor sax), Skip Johnson (piano/arrangement), Billy Hadnott (bass), Chico Hamilton (drums as Forrest Hamilton). Dickenson issued as ramrod of various ensembles throughout his career, though not so extensively as were his backing engagements. In 1957 Dickenson participated in the CBS broadcast of 'The Sound of Jazz'. He and Eddie Condon toured Asia in 1964. Dickenson began working with Bobby Hackett in 1968. During the seventies he performed with The World's Greatest Jazz Band. Dickenson died of cancer in 1984 in New York City. Vic Dickenson 1928 Born in 1909 in Chicago, drummer Gene Krupa , expanded the drums ensemble beyond the usual bass, cymbals and snare. famous for his work with Benny Goodman , he recorded as early as 1927 with Eddie Condon and Red McKenzie . His first session with their Chicagoans was held in Chicago on December 8, yielding 'Sugar' and 'China Boy'. Another on the 16th wrought 'Nobody's Sweetheart' and 'Liza'. Several more unissued tracks with Condon followed in '28 until Thelma Terry and her Play Boys recorded 'Lady of Havana', among others, on March 29. From spring to summer that year Krupa found himself recording with Condon in various groups from the Chicago Rhythm Kings, the Jungle Kings, Frank Teschemacher's Chicagoans and a band run by Miff Mole to the Eddie Condon Quartet before recording with Wingy Manone 's Club Royal Orchestra in September: 'Downright Disgusted' and ''Fare Thee Well'. Tracks were also recorded in September with the Wabash Dance Orchestra, partnering with Red Nichols and, again, Wingy Manone . Krupa finished 1928 with Red McKenzie in December, recording 'Crazeology' and 'Can't Help Lovin' That Man' with the Bud Freeman Orchestra . 1929 found Krupa backing Red Nichols' Five Pennies before more tracks with Condon and McKenzie , now with the Mound City Blue Blowers. He also performed with Emmett Miller , Red Nichols ' Midnight Airedales and Fats Waller in '29, to begin 1930 with Irving Mills and further configurations run by Nichols such as the Louisiana Rhythm Kings. A load of recordings with Nichols , among others, followed into 1931. In latter 1934 Krupa joined the Benny Goodman operation, having first worked with Goodman on recordings with Nichols' Five Pennies in April of '29. Krupa remained with Goodman into 1938. Krupa had begun recording with his own orchestras in 1935, a session with his Chicagoans on November 19 that year yielding 'The Last Round-Up', 'Jazz Me Blues', 'Three Little Words' and 'Blues of Israel'. Goodman was also a member of his Swing Band in '36. Krupa and Goodman would record numerously together in various configurations throughout their careers. Krupa's last recordings were with the Benny Goodman Quartet at Carnegie Hall in NYC on June 29, 1973. Also in that ensemble were Lionel Hampton on vibes, Teddy Wilson on piano and Slam Stewart on bass. Krupa had first worked with Hampton with Benny Goodman in 1936 and would record with Hampton often, both with Goodman and in Hampton 's orchestras. Teddy Wilson would drift in and out of his path on various occasions, including Krupa's bands. Krupa's film debut was in 1939 in Hollywood in the film, 'Some Like It Hot'. He was such a skilled drummer that it was inevitable the drum solo be introduced to jazz by him, drum battles to ensue (such as the example below for 1952). Krupa recorded extensively both with other musicians and his own ensembles, often quartets. Highlights of his career include several occasions with Norman Granz' Jazz at the Philharmonic , the first on February 12, 1945 in Los Angeles. (The initial Jazz at the Philharmonic was held on July 2, 1944 in Los Angeles.) He performed in the 'Timex All Star Jazz Show' for NBC in '57, '58 and '59. He would work with Condon again in 1961 per 'Chicago and All That Jazz' for NBC. His last performance as a leader listed in Tom Lord's discography was a quartet with Eddie Shu on tenor sax, John Bunch at piano and Nobil Totah on bass on April, 1973 at the New School in New York. Krupa died of leukemia and heart failure in Yonkers, New York, in October 1973. Much more Gene Krupa under Eddie Condon in Early Jazz 3 . Gene Krupa 1927 Source: Quotation Of Born James Kern Kyser in 1905 in Rocky Mount, North Carolina, Kay Kyser grooved his first records, for Victor, in November 1928 as a bandleader: 'Broken Dreams Of Yesterday' and 'Tell Her'. He had already led a band at the University of North Carolina, taking over the Carolina Club Orchestra in 1927 upon Hal Kemp , its prior leader, leaving for NYC to lead his first professional orchestra. Choosing the middle initial of his name to call himself Kay, Kyser was best known for his 'Kollege of Musical Knowledge' radio broadcasts beginning in 1938 for Mutual Radio, then NBC from 1939 to 1949. Albeit Kyser was a comedian he was also recognized as a top notch musician. He first appeared in film in 'That's Right You're Wrong' in 1939. Among the vocalists with whom Kyser recorded after World War II were the actress Jane Russell, Frank Sinatra and Dinah Shore . About 1955 Kyser became a Christian Scientist. Kyser died in Chapel Hill, North Carolina in June 1985. Kay Kyser 1928 Source: Pretty & Vacant Born in 1903 in Brighton, England, British bandleader Ray Noble studied at the Royal Academy of Music. His debut recordings were as an arranger with Jack Payne and his BBC Dance Orchestra on October 22, 1928: 'Out of the Dawn' and 'Sweet Sue, Just You'. Noble arranged more titles for Payne, also directing 'Am I Blue?" for Anona Winn in September, when the next month he began playing cello with the New Mayfair Dance Orchestra, a studio band for HMV Records. A session with Noble in that capacity was recorded at Small Queen's Hall on October 7, yielding 'Teardrops' with a couple of medleys. Noble was made leader of that orchestra, meanwhile continuing to work with Payne. He moved to New York City in 1934, whence he recruited Glenn Miller to both play trombone and help find members for his new orchestra. His first issue in the United States was 'Down By the River' with Al Bowlly at vocals in early 1935. Noble began appearing in films in 1935 ('Top Hat'). He died in London of cancer in 1978. Vocalist Al Bowlly appears on nearly all non-instrumental tracks below unless otherwise noted. Ray Noble 1930 Born in 1904 in Red Bank, New Jersey, pianist and swing band leader Count Basie began his musical career in Red Bank with drummer, Sonny Greer , playing at dances and resorts. About 1920 he made his way to Harlem where Greer , who had preceded him to NYC and was drumming for Duke Ellington , introduced him to his scene. Basie then began touring the States with vaudeville acts. Returning to Harlem in 1925, his first employment of note was at a place called Leroy's where cutting contests were held for upper class clientele. Finally, in 1928 Basie joined Walter Page's Blue Devils in Tulsa. Beginning to make progress now (and beginning to be called the "Count"), he joined Bennie Moten's band the next year in Kansas City. It was with Moten that Basie started to shine as a talent to be dealt with, also making his debut issued recordings with Moten in Chicago on October 23, 1921, 'The Jones Law' and 'Small Black' among several. Basie briefly led that orchestra upon Moten 's eventual absence in the early thirties, renaming it the Cherry Blossoms. In 1936 he reshaped that orchestra, called it the Barons of Rhythm, and began a residency in Chicago at the Grand Terrace Ballroom. Basie's first recordings as a leader were with that orchestra (credited as Jones-Smith Incorporated) on November 9, 1936. They were also tenor saxophonist, Lester Young's , first four featured releases: 'Shoe Shine Boy', 'Evening', 'Boogie Woogie' and 'Oh, Lady Be Good'. The next year Basie began recording for Decca (such as 'Pennies From Heaven' and 'Honeysuckle Rose'), upon moving his band to NYC for a residency at the Roseland Ballroom. He also played at the Apollo Theater and the Savoy before hiring vocalist Helen Humes in 1938, who remained with him for the next four years. Following World War II Basie experimented with bebop while maintaining his disciplined rhythm. Basie first took his orchestra to Europe in 1958. He didn't begin wearing his trademark yachting cap until 1964. Basie died in Hollywood, Florida, in 1984. Count Basie 1929 Jean Goldkette's Orange Blossoms were formed in 1927. But Goldkette had trouble getting his musicians paid. So in 1929 the Blossoms became the Casa Loma Orchestra with sax player Glen Gray as leader, two takes of 'Love Is a Dreamer' among the titles from their first session in NYC on October 29. Gray incorporated the band, members paid by shares rather than hired, which may be what took the band through the Depression. The corporation was dissolved in 1942 but Gray kept the orchestra working with employed musicians until 1947. Gray returned with another version of the band in the fifties, which finally disbanded for good in 1963 upon Gray's death that year in August. Glen Gray means Casa Loma Orchestra in all the samples below. Glen Gray 1929 Don't Let the Sun Catch You Crying Born in 1906 in Cleveland, Ohio, bandleader and tenor saxophonist Freddy Martin led his first band in high school. He also played alto and clarinet. He first recorded to issue on August 15, 1929, for Brunswick with Oliver Cobb and his Rhythm Kings: 'The Duck's Yas Yas Yas' and 'Hot Stuff'. 1930 found him with Jack Albin's Hotel Pennsylvania Music. (There are a number of tracks by Hotel Pennsylvania Music offered at YouTube, though we've not determined on just which Martin appears.) Martin next recorded in 1932 with Eddie Johnson's Crackerjacks for Victor: 'The Duck's Yas Yas Yas' and 'Good Old Bosom Bread'. Martin debuted with his own band in 1933. A session on January 16, 1933, in New York for Oriole resulted in 'When the Morning Rolls Around'. Martin and his band largely played dance music in hotels, recording little through the decades in comparison to other musicians. Radio was another of Martin's important venues, NBC's 'Maybelline Penthouse Serenade' among the numerous shows on which he appeared (1937). Among the vocalists Martin employed were Merv Griffin, Buddy Clark and Helen Ward prior to her time with Benny Goodman . Martin and his orchestra began appearing in Hollywood films in the forties. He performed with his band into the eighties, booking hotels in high demand most the way. Martin died in Newport Beach, California, in 1983. Freddy Martin 1929 Source: Songbook Born in 1908 in Dallas, trumpeter and vocalist Hot Lips Page (Oran Thaddeus Page), began his musical career as a teenager performing at circuses and minstrel shows. He would soon back blues singers such as Ma Rainey , Bessie Smith and Ida Cox . Page first recorded in Dallas, TX, on October 24, 1929, seven tracks with Eddie and Sugar Lou's Hotel Tyler Orchestra, including two takes of 'Eddie and Sugar Lou Stomp'. The next month he blew trumpet on a couple tracks by Walter Page's Blue Devils : 'Blue Devil Blues' and 'Squabblin'. The next year Page found himself with Bennie Moten through 1932. He would perform for Chu Berry (with whom he began recording vocals in addition to trumpet), Barney Rapp and Teddy Wilson during the thirties before forming his own band in NYC at Small's Paradise in Harlem in 1937. His first issues as a leader (also at trumpet and vocals) were from a session held March 10, 1938: 'Good Old Bosom Bread', 'He's Pulling His Whiskers', 'Down on the Levee' and 'A Old Man Ben'. Page recorded prolifically both with his own bands and major names in jazz such as Billie Holiday , Chu Berry again in 1941, Artie Shaw (1941-42), Eddie Condon in '44 and '49, Mezz Mezzrow (1944-45) and bluesman, Lonnie Johnson , from '47 into '49. Page died in New York in 1954, only 46 years of age. More Hot Lips Page in Early Jazz 1 . Hot Lips Page 1929 Source: Wikipedia Born William Henry Webb in 1905 in Baltimore, drummer Chick Webb left Maryland for New York City in 1922 (age 17), to form his own band, the Harlem Stompers, in 1926. Webb's first recording in 1927, 'Low Levee - High Water', wasn't issued. Webb led his first orchestra to fruition in 1929 for the soundtrack to 'After Seben' released on May 18, those titles: 'Sweet Sue, Just You', 'Tiger Rag' and 'I Ain't Got Nobody'. Webb first appeared on vinyl for Brunswick backing the Jungle Band on June 15 1929: 'Dog Bottom'. Another session with that band was held on the 27th, yielding 'Jungle Mama'. His next titles as an orchestra leader weren't until March 30, 1931: 'Heebie Jeebies', 'Blues in My Heart' and 'Soft and Sweet'. It was 1931 that Webb had secured a gig at the Savoy Ballroom which would be his bastion for years to come. He recorded with his Savoy Orchestra on December 30, 1933: 'On the Sunny Side of the Street' and 'At the Darktown Strutter's Ball'. In 1935 he would discover Ella Fitzgerald , for which he is largely credited and known. It was a June 12 session that he and Fitzgerald released 'I'll Chase the Blues Away', 'Down Home Rag', 'Are You Here to Stay?' and 'Love and Kisses'. The Savoy was famous for its "Battle of the Bands" in which the "King of Swing" was voted. Webb won over Benny Goodman , lost to Duke Ellington in 1937, then won over Count Basie in '38 (though not without dispute by musicians). Webb's last recordings were with Fitzgerald for a radio broadcast from the Southland Cafe in Boston, MA, on May 4, 1939. Unfortunately Webb's great talent was cut short at the young age of 34 when spinal tuberculosis claimed his life on June 16 that year. His last words were reportedly, "I'm sorry, I've got to go." More Chick Webb under Ella Fitzgerald at Swing Jazz Song .) Chick Webb 1929 Source: In One Ear Born Roland Bernard Berigan in 1908 in Hilbert, Wisconsin, trumpeter Bunny Berigan played in local orchestras as a teenager until joining Hal Kemp 's band in 1930, with whom he made his first recordings the same year on March 14: 'Give Yourself a Little Pat' and 'Washin' the Blues from My Soul'. Tom Lord's discography notes though, that Berigan may have laid his first track per 'Beside an Open Fireplace' with the Dorsey Brothers Orchestra in January, as suggested by Bozy White in 'The Miracle Man of Swing' (2013). Berigan toured Europe with Kemp, after which he became a session player in NYC. His recording debut as a singer is thought to have been 'At Your Command' in 1931. Berigan first performed with Benny Goodman in '31. He joined Paul Whiteman 's orchestra in 1932 (recording 'Night and Day' in '33), later Abe Lyman 's in '34. His first session as a bandleader was with his Blue Boys on December 13, 1935, releasing 'You Took Advantage of Me', 'Chicken and Waffles', 'I'm Coming, Virginia' and 'Blues'. As a studio musician Berigan recorded hundreds of tracks, among his most significant with Tommy Dorsey . In 1936 Berigan began performing on the 'Saturday Night Swing Club' radio show for CBS. Among the many Berigan backed during his career were Fred Rich, Mildred Bailey , the Boswell Sisters , Lee Wiley and guitarist, Dick McDonough . Berigan was something unique in that he consistently delivered high quality music while at once an alcoholic with a death wish, and it was alcohol that killed him of liver cirrhosis at the young age of only 33 (1942) in NYC. Bunny Berigan 1930 Source: Jazz Profiles Born in 1907 in Rochester, New York, extraordinary performer Cab Calloway was the younger brother, by nearly six years, of Blanche Calloway . Early associated with the Savoy and the Cotton Club, Calloway made his first recording in 1930 with his own orchestra, those in NYC on July 24, 1930 for Brunswick: 'Got a Darn Good Reason Now' (two takes), 'I'll Be a Friend with Pleasure' and 'St. Louis Blues'. Upon graduating from high school, the zoot-suited indisputable master of hi-de-ho and jive had joined his sister in the traveling revue, 'Plantation Days'. He then attended Crane College while playing drums in various Chicago nightclubs, eventually becoming vocalist for the Alabamians. He next led a band called the Missourians in 1930, which would become Cab Calloway and His Orchestra, mentioned above, to fill Duke Ellington 's vacant spot at the Cotton Club. This was so Ellington could tour. Ellington would then fill Calloway's vacancy while the latter toured. Calloway's fame was by then made, as NBC regularly broadcasted live from the Cotton Club. His famous 'Minnie the Moocher' was recorded with 'Doin' the Rhumba' for Brunswick in NYC on March 3, 1931. Calloway's arranger in those early days was Walter Thomas. Calloway began appearing in films in the early thirties, Hollywood's another venue instrumental to Calloway's soaring career. In 1944 he published 'The New Cab Calloway's Hepsters Dictionary: Language of Jive'. He also wrote a column called 'Coastin' with Cab' for 'Song Hits Magazine'. In 1976 he published his memoir, 'Of Minnie the Moocher and Me'. Calloway died in 1994 in Delaware. Cab Calloway 1930 Source: Songbook Born in 1909 in New Jersey, drummer Cozy Cole began his professional career in 1928 by joining the Wilbur Sweatman band. In 1930 he joined Jelly Roll Morton's Red Hot Peppers , with whom he recorded for the first time that year on May 5 in NYC: 'Each Day', 'If Someone Would Only Love Me', 'That Will Never Do' and 'I'm Looking for a Little Bluebird'. His next session with Morton on June 2 yielded Cole's drum solo on 'Load of Coal' among others. Cole's first recordings as a band leader were on February 22, 1944, in NYC with his All Stars: 'Blue Moon', 'Father Co-operates', 'Just One More Chance' and 'Thru' for the Right'. He later recorded with Benny Goodman and Ella Fitzgerald before joining Louis Armstrong's All-Stars in 1949. In 1954 he opened a drumming school with Gene Krupa , remaining in business until Krupa 's death in 1973. In 1957 Cole toured Europe with Earl Hines and Jack Teagarden . He was awarded an honorary degree from Capital University in Columbus in 1983, where he often lectured as well. Cole died of cancer in 1981 in Columbus, Ohio. Cozy Cole 1930 Source: R2OK Folks in America were oblivious to the existence of bandleader and vocalist, Nat Gonella , but in England his would come to be a huge name. Born in 1908 in London, Gonella's first professional engagement was playing trumpet with a pit orchestra, the Busby Boys Band, in 1924. He quit that band in 1928 to work for the Louisville Band, then joined Billy Cotton's orchestra in '29, with which he issued his first recordings the following year from a session on August 14 for the Regal label: 'The Rhythm Man', 'Sittin' on a Rainbow' and 'I've Gotta Have You'. The next year he released his first titles as a leader under the pseudonym, Eddie Hines, from a session on September 14: 'I Can't Believe that You're in Love with Me' and 'I Hreard'. In 1933 Gonella published 'Modern Style Trumpet Playing'. 'Georgia on My Mind' (Hoagy Carmichael) was issued with 'Sweet Sue, Just You' (Victor Young) in the summer of '34. Due the popularity of his band's performances of Carmichael's tune Gonella named his band the Georgians. His first issues as such were from a session on November 2, 1934: 'Don't Let Your Love Go Wrong', 'Moonglow' and a couple fox trot medleys. The first configuration of that ensemble had recorded 'Caroline' and 'I Can't Dance' the prior month: Albert Torrance and George Evans (alto sax), Don Barrigo (tenor sax), Harold Hood (piano), Arthur Baker (guitar), Will Hemmings (bass) and Bob Dryden (drums). Of Gonella's long catalogue of releases, the vast majority were by his own bands, though during his earlier career he had also worked with such as Roy Fox , Ray Starita, The Blue Mountaineers, Lew Stone and Ray Noble . Gonella interrupted his career in 1941 to join the Army, becoming a member of Stars in Battledress, a British Armed Forces entertainment organization during World War II. After the war Gonella put the Georgians back together. Tom Lord's discography lists Gonella's final recordings per the Concorde Club in Southampton on February 8, 1998, dying later in August. Nat Gonella 1930 Born in 1910 in New York City, clarinetist Artie Shaw , also a writer, liked to mix classical into his jazz. One of the more unique of the big band leaders, Shaw's first known recordings are thought to have been in Chicago with Irving Aaronson on August 28, 1930: 'Why Have You Forgotten Waikiki?' and 'Moonlight on the Colorado'. Tracks with both Paul Specht and Fred Rich followed in 1931. He was with Roger Wolfe Kahn in '32, then Adrian Rollin in '33 and '34. He backed a few other big names, including the Boswells and Frank Trumbauer , as a session musician until recording his first title as a bandleader on May 24, 1936, at the Imperial Theatre in NYC: 'Interlude in B Flat'. But it was his rendition of Cole Porter's 'Begin the Bequine' in 1938 that launched his career. It was also 1938 when Shaw hired Ella Fitzgerald and began touring the South. He began appearing in films in 1939. Like other big band leaders, Shaw formed a band within a band in 1940, calling it the Gramercy Five and recording eight tracks with it that year. The Gramercy Five disbanded in 1941 but its recordings are available on a CD called 'The Complete Gramercy Five Sessions' released in 1990. During World War II Shaw served as a bandleader in the Pacific. After the conflict, instead of returning to his prior highly successful status, he walked away from a million dollar career in jazz to join the New York Philharmonic under Leonard Bernstein . (Shaw was an early proponent of Third Stream, to wit, classical-jazz fusion, the term coined by Gunther Schuller in 1957.) In 1952 Shaw published his autobiography, 'The Trouble With Cinderella: An Outline of Identity', and later published novels and short stories. Shaw stopped playing clarinet in 1954, citing compulsive perfectionism as the reason. (If such the statement was more than banter, and Shaw was experiencing compulsive disorder, he had a very good reason to stop playing.) In 1981 he formed another small band, but assigned its leadership to clarinetist Dick Johnson. Shaw topped out with eight wives during his life, said to be abusively domineering. Beyond music, Shaw was an expert marksman and fly fisherman. One measure of Shaw's enormous popularity during his swing years is the fact that he did nothing for money, and yet died in 2004, in Thousand Oaks, California, with an estate worth $1,420,000. (He was making $60,000 per week as a bandleader before the war.) His rendition of 'Moonglow' below is eight years after it was first recorded in 1933 by jazz violinist Joe Venuti . Artie Shaw 1931 Source: Jazz Wax Born Wilbur Schwictenberg in 1912 in Newton, New Jersey, trombonist, Will Bradley , first appeared on records in 1931. His debut was from a session with Bob Haring on May 5: 'Building a Home for You'. Tom Lord's discography, however, qualifies that with "possibly". On October 2 that year Bradley laid tracks with Red Nichols : 'Get Cannibal' and 'Junk Man Blues'. November 2 found him backing Connie Boswell on 'Time on My Hands' and 'Concentratin'', he to finish the year with Nichols and begin 1932 with Bing Crosby on 'Shine'. Bradley is thought to have changed his name from Schwictenberg when he began to lead his own orchestra in 1939 with drummer/vocalist Ray McKinley in the band. His initial titles as a leader were recorded September 19: 'Forever More', 'Love Nest', 'Memphis Blues' and 'Old Doc Yak'. Sessions followed in October and consistently beyond. Bradley's band would become well-known for boogie woogie. He spent some time in the military during World War II as a member of Glenn Miller's Air Force band. World War II also made it difficult to keep an orchestra together. While playing in Detroit Bradley lost six musicians all at once to the draft. Along with leading his own outfit Bradley backed every jazz musician on the planet, among them Ray Noble , the Boswell Sisters , Jack Shilkret, Benny Goodman , Ella Fitzgerald , Mildred Bailey , Jerry Jerome, Sarah Vaughan , Billy Butterfield, Tommy Dorsey , Artie Shaw , Ralph Flanagan and Neal Hefti. Bradley later become a member of the Tonight Show Band (Carson era). Via boogie woogie Bradley well represents a bridge between swing jazz and later rock n roll. He died in 1989 in La Mesa, CA. Will Bradley 1931 Source: Last FM Bandleader, vocalist and actor Phil Harris began his career as a drummer in a circus band, his parents both circus performers. In the latter twenties he and Carol Lofner formed an orchestra in San Francisco in which he performed as both a drummer and singer. First recording with Lofner in 1931, upon the dissolution of their partnership in 1932 Harris put together his own orchestra with which he released his first records as a bandleader in 1933. He won an Academy Award that same year for the film, 'So This Is Harris!' (The Academy Awards or, Oscars, were conceived in 1929.) In 1941 Harris married actress and singer Alice Faye, having previously been married to Marcia Ralstone. In 1946 he became musical director for the radio program, 'The Jell-O Show Starring Jack Benny', with which he remained some years. It was also 1946 when he and Alice Faye began 'The Phil Harris-Alice Faye Show', which aired until 1954. In the latter sixties Harris began working as a voice actor on a number of Disney animated films, which he would continued into the latter eighties. His last film role was in 1991 for 'Rock-a-Doodle'. Harris died in California in 1995 of heart attack. Phil Harris 1931 Source: Famous Fix Born in 1910 in Baltimore, pianist, Clyde Hart , began his professional career in 1930 with Gene Coy, also playing with Jap Allen. The next year he joined Blanche Calloway 's orchestra, making his first recordings with her Joy Boys . in Camden NJ, on March 27, 1931: 'Just a Crazy Song', 'Sugar Blues', 'I'm Getting Myself Ready for You' and 'Loveless Love'. Upon leaving Calloway in 1935 Hart was in NYC where he began doing session work. Among the numerous luminaries with whom Hart recorded were Henry Red Allen , Stuff Smith , Hot Lips Page , Billie Holiday , Roy Eldridge , Coleman Hawkins , Larry Adler, John Kirby and Dizzy Gillespie with whom he first performed in September 1939 in Lionel Hampton 's band. He also had occasion to work with Charlie Parker , first with the Tiny Grimes Quintet in '44, then with his own All Stars in January of '45, again the next month with the Dizzy Gillespie Sextet. Among the highlights of Hart's career was Mildred Bailey , for whom he worked per the CBS broadcast, 'Mildred Bailey and Company', on July 26, 1944. Several CBS broadcasts with Bailey followed into 1945. Hart wasn't strong in running bands, though led a couple in 1944 and '45, his Hot Seven and his All Stars. Sadly, Hart was stricken with tuberculosis and died on March 19, 1945, only 35 years old. His last recordings had been the previous month with the Dizzy Gillespie Sextet: 'Groovin' High', 'All the Things You Are' and 'Dizzy Atmosphere'. Clyde Hart 1931 Drummer Ray McKinley was born in Fort Worth, Texas in 1910. He is believed to have met Glenn Miller in Dallas in 1929 when Miller was with Smith Ballew . ( Miller first recorded in 1926, largely with Ben Pollack .) They found themselves together on McKinley's first issued recordings in 1931 for Red Nichols in 1931: 'Just a Crazy Song', 'You Rascal You and 'Moan You Moaners'. A second session in June, same year, with Nichols yielded How Long Blues' and two takes of 'Fan It'. In the summer of '32 they recorded 'Let's Try Again' and 'The Lady I Love' with Ballew before joining the Dorsey Brothers in 1934 together. Doing session work while with the Dorseys, McKinley soon began backing such as Ethel Waters , the Boswell Sisters and Louis Armstrong . When the Dorsey Brothers Orchestra made its last recording in September of 1935 McKinley continued onward with the Jimmy Dorsey Orchestra . He had first recorded with Jimmy in '31 with Nichols . Tom Lord's discography has McKinley as a bandleader in Los Angeles on March 31, 1936, two takes of 'Shack in the Back' among those titles. In 1939 McKinley exchanged Jimmy for Will Bradley , sharing leadership of Bradley 's band. 1940 saw McKinley recording 'Down the Road a Piece' with the Ray McKinley Trio consisted of Freddie Slack on piano and Doc Goldberg at bass. He began recording with his Quartet the next year, then with his full orchestra in '42, Imogene Lynn at vocals. After Bradley McKinley joined the Glenn Miller Army Air Force Band, first recording with that operation for CBS at Yale University in Connecticut on June 5, 1943. That was a legacy orchestra, Miller having sacrificed a weekly income ranging from $15,00 to $20,00 to join the Army per World War II, whence he would lose his life over the English Channel due to a faulty plane carburetor. McKinley's career saw him participate in well above 400 sessions, not a few with Glenn Miller ghost orchestras. His last recordings are thought to be per June 5, 1977, with just Lou Stein at piano in NYC for Chiaroscuro, 'Stompin' 'Em Down' the title of that album. McKinley is drummer in some of the entries for Glenn Miller . Ray McKinley 1931 Guitar: Allen Reuss Piano: Milt Hinton Born Kenneth Norville in 1908 in Beardstown, Illinois, vibraphonist Red Norvo 's is said to have sold his pet pony to buy his first marimba. Heading to Chicago in 1925, Norvo began his professional career in a band called the Collegians. His first recordings under his own name were circa October of 1929, those unissued by Brunswick: 'In a Mist' and 'Song of the Bayou'. He first saw vinyl in 1932 from a session on April 5 with Frank Trumbauer , a couple of medleys for Columbia. March of 1933 found him recording with Victor Young . The next month he laid his first issued titles for the Brunswick label: 'Knockin' on Wood' and 'Hole In the Wall'. Jimmy Dorsey was clarinet on those. Some of the bigger name bands with whom he became employed were Paul Whiteman's , Benny Goodman's , Charlie Barnet's and Woody Herman's . In 1938 Norvo scored two No. 1 positions on the charts with 'Please Be Kind' and 'Says My Heart'. Norvo formed a trio in 1949 of vibraphone, bass and guitar, which through the years would employ such as Red Kelly, Mundell Lowe , Tal Farlow , Jimmy Raney , Charles Mingus and Red Mitchell . In 1959 he toured Australia with Frank Sinatra . Norvo continued performing and touring until a stroke retired him in the eighties. He passed away in 1999 in a nursing home in Santa Monica, California. Norvo's most important musical association was also his wife for twelve years, Mildred Bailey , whom he had married in 1931 and with whom he made numerous recordings. More Red Norvo will be found under Mildred Bailey in Swing Jazz Song . Red Norvo 1932 Jazz Skyliner Born in 1913 in Spokane, bandleader and vocalist Bob Crosby , younger brother of Bing Crosby , began his singing career as one of the Delta Rhythm Boys in 1931. He also began working with the Anson Weeks Orchestra in 1931. No recordings by Crosby with Weeks are found earlier than 1933 for Brunswick: 'It's Not a Secret Anymore' (6604), 'Marching Along Together' (6609), 'I'll Be Faithful' (6661) and 'You've Got Everything' (6661). Crosby was hired to the Dorsey Brothers Orchestra from '34 to '35, his first with that outfit on August 14, 1934: 'Heat Wave' and 'By Heck'. Crosby put together his first orchestra in 1935 with previous members of the Ben Pollack Orchestra. His initial tracks with that outfit were recorded for Decca on June 1, 1935 in NYC: 'Flowers for Madame', 'The Dixieland Band', 'In a Little Gypsy Tea Room' and 'Beale Street Blues'. Crosby would then form his Dixieland octet, the Bob-Cats, as a band within a band. Among the vocalists with whom Crosby performed was Doris Day . When World War II broke out Crosby served as a bandleader in the Marines in the Pacific. Afterward, radio became a major venue for Crosby, airing 'The Bob Crosby Show' from 1943 to 1950, then 'Club Fifteen' from 1947 to 1953. Married once (1938), Crosby died of cancer in 1993 in La Jolla, California. Bob Crosby 1933 Source: Songbook Born Herbert Richard Imber in 1900 in Newark, New Jersey, violinist and sweet/swing bandleader Richard Himber had been sent to military school when he was fifteen, from which he ran away to New York City to play violin in Sophie Tucker's Five Kings of Syncopation. He next worked vaudeville and in Tin Pan Alley before becoming a booking manager for Rudy Vallée. Himber first recorded in 1933 for Vocalion as Dick Himber, 'It Isn't Fair' among his first tracks. He is thought to have begun recording as Richard with his Ritz-Carlton Orchestra in NYC on Jul7 27, 1935: 'Me and the Moon'. Himber didn't do a lot of recording during his career in comparison to other musicians, a good parcel of which were radio transcriptions due his main claim to fame as a hotel operation in NYC, performing at various throughout the years. Himber was also a magician, often performing sleight of hand during performances with his band. He died in NYC in 1966. Vocals on all tracks tracks below are by Stuart Allen or Joey Nash unless otherwise indicated. Richard Himber 1933 Live performance with Keely Smith Born in 1908 in Terre Haute, Indiana, bandleader, composer and pianist Claude Thornhill was 16 when he and Artie Shaw began their careers together in Cleveland with Austin Wiley. Six years later, in 1931, they went to New York City together. It was September 22, 1933 when Thornhill recorded his first tracks with the Meyer Davis Orchestra : 'Lonely Heart' and 'Heat Wave'. He joined Benny Goodman 's Music Hall Orchestra for recordings in latter '34, 'Bugle Call Rag' among titles from his first session on August 16, 'I'm Getting Sentimental Over You' among others from a second session on September 11. Six days later he was recording with Louis Prima 's New Orleans Gang, 'Stardust' among titles issued from that first session with Prima . He wouldn't record with Shaw until June 23, 1936 with Dick McDonough 's orchestra: 'Summer Holiday', 'I'm Grateful to You', 'Dear Old South hand' and 'Way Down Yonder in New Orleans'. As a major name in jazz Thornhill bumped shoulders with a number of luminaries. Among them was Glenn Miller with whom he first recorded with the Ray Noble Orchestra on February 9, 1935: 'Down By the River'. Guitarist, George Van Eps , was in on that, as he would be in Thornhill's next session with Al Bowlly 's operation on March 15, to release 'Basin Street Blues'. On April 25 Thornhill backed Glenn Miller 's first name recordings with His Orchestra: 'A Blues Serenade', 'Moonlight on the Ganges', 'In a Little Spanish Town' and 'Solo Hop'. His first session with Chick Bullock arrived on May 15 that year: 'Life Is a Song' and 'Way Back Home'. Thornhill first recorded with his famous orchestra for a 'Saturday Night Swing Club' radio broadcast on June 12, 1937: 'Flight of the Bumble Bee' and 'Classics in Jazz'. Two days later on the 14th, having hired Maxine Sullivan , she made her first recordings with Thornhill's orchestra: 'Whisper in the Dark', 'Harbor Lights', 'Stop, You're Breaking My Heart' and 'Gone with the Wind'. Thornhill was earning about $40,000 per month at the Paramount Theater in NYC when he gave it up to join the Navy during World War II, becoming a bandleader in the Pacific. His last recordings before military service were on June 24, 1942. On January 30, 1943 he recorded 'Nightmare' and 'Begin the Beguine' with CBS radio in Honolulu with Artie Shaw and his U.S. Navy Rangers on 'America Salutes the President'. Thornhill recorded nothing in '44 and '45, but was released from the Navy in 1946 for his first title as a civilian again from a June 9 session in NYC (as will have been nigh all Thornhill's recordings with few exceptions) yielding 'Twilight Song'. Thornhill began experimenting with bebop after the War and was later Tony Bennett 's musical director for a brief period in the fifties. He died of heart attack in 1965. More Claude Thornhill under Gil Evans . Claude Thornhill 1933 Born in 1907 in Chicago, clarinetist Joe Marsala had played with such as Wingy Manone and Ben Pollack in the twenties. He left Chicago for New York City in 1936 to play at the Hickory House for the next decade. Marsala's major recording period was the decade from '35 to '45, though he laid tracks on occasion until his last on July 3, 1970, with Louis Armstrong at the Shrine Auditorium in Pasadena, California. He first appeared on record shelves in 1935 resulting from a March session with Charles LaVere and his Chicagoans yielding 'Bugaboo Blues', 'All Too Well' and 'Ubangi Man'. Another session with LaVere was held in April before recording with Adrian Rollini 's Tap Room Gang in June, first performing with Putney Dandridge in that group. He also connected with Wingy Manone in Rollini ''s band. Manone would be a major figure in Marsala's career to 1944, his initial titles with Manone's band on July 5, 1935: 'Let's Swing It, 'A Little Door', 'Love and Kisses' and 'Rhythm Is Our Business'. Other major collaborators were vocalist, Tempo King, and guitarist, Eddie Condon . Marsala's debut recordings as a bandleader were with his Chicagoans on April 21, 1937, in NYC, to issue: 'Wolverine Blues', 'Chimes Blues', 'Jazz Me Blues' and 'Clarinet Marmalade'. His first titles with his Delta Four were recorded April 4, 1940: 'Wandering Man Blues', 'Sally Mama Blues', 'Three O'Clock Jump' and 'Reunion in Harlem'. Marsala recorded as a leader on above twenty occasions, but imore numerously backed other musicians. His earlier recording in 1935 with Adrian Rollini is available on a Rollini album issued as 'Bouncin' In Rhythm' in 1995. In 1948 Marsala largely retired from performing upon becoming a music publisher. He died of cancer in 1978 in Santa Barbara, California. Joe Marsala 1935 Source: Pro Jazz Club Born in 1915 in North Hollywood, Allan Reuss began studying guitar under George Van Eps in 1933. He replaced Van Eps on his first recordings in Benny Goodman 's band in NYC on April 19, 1935. Those titles for Victor were 'Japanese Sandman', 'You're a Heavenly Thing', 'Restless' and 'Always'. Reuss' first solos were recorded with Goodman in 1935 ('If I Could Be With You' and 'Rosetta'). With some 400 sessions listed by Tom Lord's discography this would be a long column if we didn't highlight but a few: Jack Teagarden is an apt place to start. Teagarden was in the band when Reuss first recorded with Goodman . and they would join one another often with the same. In the latter thirties they both recorded frequently with the Paul Whiteman Orchestra , Reuss later to back Teagarden 's orchestra heavily. Teddy Wilson was another giant name in Reuss' early career, Reuss first performing with Wilson in Goodman 's band in '36. Their first session together was with the Goodman Trio on April 24, 1936 in Chicago, recording 'China Boy', 'More Than You Know' and 'All My Life'. ( Gene Krupa and Helen Ward were also in on that.) Later that year Reuss backed Wilson 's own orchestra in Los Angeles on August 24, 'You Came to My Rescue' the lead track among four. ( Lionel Hampton was in on that as well.) Reuss would see a lot of Wilson 's operation and record with him frequently into the forties. Gene Krupa was another towering associate of Reuss'. They had first recorded together in Goodman 's Rhythm Makers on June 6, 1935, a long list of Thesaurus transcriptions leading off with 'Makin' Whoopee'. Reuss and Krupa would work side by side in Goodman 's band for the next couple of decades. Lionel Hampton was another giant figure in Reuss' early career, first performing with Hampton in Goodman 's band in '36. Their first session together was in Hollywood in August, yielding 'St. Louis Blues', 'Love Me Or Leave Me' and 'Bugle Call Rag'. (Wilson was also in on that.) They recorded with Goodman often, upon which Reuss would back Hampton 's band as well. His first session with Hampton was in NYC on February 8, 1937, recording two takes of 'My Last Affar' with three others. (Gene Krupa was in on that.) Come Billie Holiday in October 1936 to record, with both Wilson and Krupa , 'Easy to Love', 'With Thee I Swig and 'The Way You Look Tonight'. Reuss would also lay tracks with Holiday 's orchestra on January 12, of '37, two takes of 'I've Got My Love to Keep Me Warm' among three others. Harry James' had invaded his life only days earlier, James first recording with Reuss in Goodman 's orchestra on January 6, a radio broadcast from NYC to London consisting of 'Body and Soul', 'Dinah' and 'Stompin' at the Savoy'. James and Reuss saw a lot of sessions together with Goodman , also recording with Wilson 's orchestra before Reuss' first session with James ' orchestra on May 25, 1944, 'Jiggers' the lead title. Of the 'One Night Stand' radio series that was #246. From that point onward Reuss backed James ' heavily into the sixties. Reuss had his first session with Paul Whiteman per the latter's Swingin Strings on November 15, 1938: 'Japanese Sandman', "Ragging the Scale', "Lady Be Good' and 'Liza'. Reuss would stick with Whiteman into '39, the year Glenn Miller moved into his space per the Meadowbrook radio broadcast in Cedar Grove, NJ, for WOR Radio: 'Sold American', 'Please Come Out of Your Dream' and 'Poinciana'. Jimmy Dorsey featured in 1942, Red Nichols in 1958 and '59. Though largely a rhythm guitarist, Reuss was often employed as more than only a beat accompanist, but as the rhythmic drive to which bands attuned themselves. Reuss died in 1988 in North Hollywood, having lived in Los Angeles since 1945. Allan Reuss 1935 Source: Jazz Wax Born in 1914, trumpeter Erskine Hawkins attended high school in Birminham, Alabama. While in high school he formed the band, the Bama State Collegians, with which he made his first recordings in 1936 for Vocalion: 'I Can't Escape From You' and 'Until the Real Thing Comes Along' among others. In the latter thirties Hawkins alternated with Chick Webb's band at the Savoy Ballroom in Manhattan. In the early fifties Hawkins moved away from the big band sound toward smaller ensembles, swing having begun its evolution toward rhythm and blues. From 1967 to 1993 Hawkins' was the resident band at the Concord Resort Hotel in Kiamesha Lake, New York. Of the 72 sessions Tom Lord's discography lists, his last is given per May 27, 1971 for the album, 'Live at Club Soul Sound'. He isn't thought to have issued any further recordings although he didn't pass away in his home until November of 1993, yet performing at the Concord. Erskine Hawkins 1936 Source: The Music's Over Born in 1909 in Woodville, Mississippi, Lester Young began his career in 1933 in Kansas City, playing clarinet, tenor sax and trumpet with various bands. Young first recorded in 1936 in the orchestra of pianist Count Basie , in Chicago on November 9, 1936: 'Shoe Shine Boy', 'Evenin'', 'Boogie Woogie' and 'Lady Be Good'. Basie would be a huge figure throughout Young's career, their last of an extensive number of recordings thought to be on December 5, 1957, during a rehearsal in NYC for the CBS 'Sound of Jazz' television series. Those titles: 'Dickie's Dream' and 'I Left My Baby'. During his early intermittent Basie days Young also played in Fletcher Henderson's and Andy Kirk 's orchestras. After his first few sessions with Basie he next recorded with Teddy Wilson 's orchestra on January 25, 1937, Billie Holiday included. Those tracks for Brunswick were 'He ain't Got Rhythm', 'The Year's Kisses', 'Why Was I Born?' and 'I Must Have That Man'. Young and Holiday also recorded together extensively, including in each other's orchestras. It was Holiday who nicknamed him "The Pres". Their last recordings together are thought to have been on December 8, 1957 for the CBS television series, 'The Sound of Jazz', only a few days after his last with Basie above. Young would encounter Wilson often, generally with Holiday 's orchestras. In 1939 his clarinet was stolen, so he played not that instrument again until 1957. Most of Young's long catalogue of above eighty sessions was with his own bands. He first recorded as a leader for Radio WNYC on February 15, 1941: 'Tickle Toe' and 'Taxi War Dance'. His last recordings in that capacity were in Paris with drummer, Kenny Clarke , in February and March of 1959 shortly before his death. Those issued from sessions on March 11 (by the Philology label) were 'There Will Never Be Another You' and 'I Cover the Waterfront'. Young attended a good number of sessions in one manner or another, including a band he ran with his brother, drummer, Lee Young, before his first of a few sessions with pianist, Nat King Cole . That was a trio with Red Callender on bass netting 'Indiana', 'I Can't Get Started', 'Tea for Two' and 'Body and Soul'. Cole and Young would record again in '46. Young was drafted into the Army, then dishonorably discharged after serving a year in detention for alcohol and marijuana possession. In 1946 Young joined Norman Granz's Jazz at the Philharmonic (JATP) with which he kept for the next twelve years. In 1955 Young experienced a nervous breakdown, said to be precipitated by alcohol abuse. In 1956 Young laid tracks with Teddy Wilson for the album, 'Prez and Teddy', also recording the album, 'Jazz Giants '56'. That same year he toured Europe with both Miles Davis and the Modern Jazz Quartet . He also performed engagements at the Patio Lounge in Washington D.C.. Young gave his last performances in Paris in March of 1959 per above. He died that year within hours of returning to NYC, having drank himself to death. His long-time friend, Holiday , died four months later, she also a heavy drinker. Young is said to have coined the colloquialisms, "cool" for fashionable and "bread" for money. Most of the earlier examples below are with Basie. Lester Young 1936 Source: Wikiwand Born Gordon Lee Beneke in 1914 in Fort Worth, Texas, Tex Beneke was a singer who began playing saxophone professionally in 1935 with bandleader, Ben Young. In spring of 1938 Beneke was hired by Glenn Miller (who began calling him "Tex"). Recommended to Miller by Gene Krupa , Beneke shared tenor sax with Stanley Aronson on his first recordings with Miller 's band on May 23, 1938, two takes each of 'Don't Wake Up My Heart', 'Why'd Ya Make Me Fall in Love?', 'Sold American' and 'Dippermouth Blues'. Proving to be a talent of first order, Miller held on to Beneke thereafter, they next to record for NBC radio from the Paradise Restaurant in NYC on four occasions in June. The earliest example found featuring Beneke at saxophone is alongside sax man, Al Klink, in 'In the Mood' in 1939 (both featured below in a 1941 version as well). Beneke was also a highly popular vocalist with Miller before assuming leadership of Miller 's orchestra upon Miller 's death (1944). Beneke, however, first joined the Navy and led a military band in Oklahoma before taking over the Glenn Miller orchestra in 1945. Beneke's first issues as leader of that band were from a session on February 21, 1946: 'One More Tomorrow', 'Swing Low, Sweet Chariot', 'I'm Headin' for California' and 'It Couldn't Be True'. He finally left the Miller ghost band in 1949 to form his own in 1950, but would always be a swing musician maintaining Miller style. Beneke died of respiratory failure in Costa Mesa, California, in 2000. Most of the tracks below are with the Glenn Miller operation. Tex Beneke 1938 Source: Obits in Orbit Born in 1916 in Pittsburgh, PA, arranger, trumpeter and composer, Billy May , began his career with swing and would come to compose for film and television. At first playing tuba in high school, his initial notable employment was in 1938, arranging for the Charlie Barnet Orchestra . His first titles to be issued as an arranger with Barnet were RCA Thesaurus radio transcriptions on May 16 in New York City. Among titles arranged for Barnet in 1939 was Ray Noble 's 'Cherokee'. He doesn't appear to have played trumpet with Barnet until August that year at the Palomar Ballroom radio transcriptions in Hollywood. ('The Duke's Idea' below is from a later session for the Bluebird label). May would record frequently with Barnet into the sixties. Composing numerously with Barnet , a few of his titles were 'The Wrong Idea', 'Lumby' and 'Wings Over Manhattan'. While yet with Barnet May arranged and played trumpet for Glenn Miller on numerous titles in various venues from 1940 to '42. He was featured on trumpet in 'Anvil Chorus' in 1941, as well as on muted trumpet on 'Song of the Volga Boatmen' (both below per 1941). May would arrange for Glenn Miller ghost bands in '51 and '54. (1942 was the year that Miller wrapped up his band to join the Army per World War II, to be killed in 1944.) After Glenn Miller May arranged for what would seem the heavenly host of jazz, among them, Tex Beneke , Ray Anthony, Harry James , Georgie Auld, Les Brown , George Shearing and Glen Gray . He was a staff arranger for NBC radio, then Capitol Records. His initial issues as a band director were for Capitol in December of 1945: 'Body and Soul', 'Honeysuckle Rose', 'Sweet Lorraine' and 'Sunset and Vine Blues' among others that month. May composed 'Sparky's Magic Piano' in 1948 with pianist, Ray Turner. In 1952 he issued his LP, 'A Band Is Born', containing the track, 'Charmaine'. 'A Big Band Bash' followed the same year. In 1956 May and his orchestra appeared in the film, 'Nightmare'. Among May's compositions for television were 'Somewhere in the Night' in 1960 for the 'Naked City' series. He would work with Nelson Riddle for that show. Among the films for which he composed were 'Sergeants 3' ('62) and 'Johnny Cool' ('63). Among the vocalists with whom May worked were Ella Mae Morse , Frank Sinatra , Keely Smith , Bing Crosby , Jeri Southern, Anita O'Day , Mel Tormé , Nancy Wilson , Bobby Darin , Ella Fitzgerald and Peggy Lee . Having released nearly thirty albums as a leader or co-leader into the latter seventies, May died in January of 2004 in San Juan Capistrano, California. Per 1959 below, 'Just One of Those Things' is a sample of May arranging Cole Porter compositions. Billy May 1939 Born in 1915 in Pittsburgh, vocalist Billy Eckstine first recorded with Earl Hines on February 13, 1940, in New York City: 'My Heart Beats for You'. Eckstine stayed with Hines ' orchestra, releasing such as 'Jelly, Jelly' and 'Stormy Monday Blues', until 1942. Tom Lord's discography lists his last session with Hines on March 19, resulting in 'She'll Always Remember', 'Skylark', 'Second Balcony Jump' and 'Stormy Monday Blues'. Eckstine recorded a jam with Charlie Parker in Chicago in February of '43 before scratching his first issues as a leader, recorded April 13, 1944, back in NYC. His DeLuxe All Star Band put down 'I Got a Date with Rhythm', 'I Stay in the Mood for You' and 'Good Jelly Blues' for the Deluxe label. Like Frank Sinatra , his major rival, Eckstine would bring jazz crooning into the popular vein and is a bridge from late swing to modern jazz. He recorded his last album with Benny Carter in 1986: 'Billy Eckstine Sings with Benny Carter'. Eckstine died in March of 1993. More of Eckstine under Art Blakey in Jazz 9 . Billy Eckstine 1940 Source: Time Goes By Born in 1916 in Muscogee, Oklahoma, bandleader and pianist Jay McShann left Oklahoma for the Kansas City music scene in 1936, forming his own orchestra that same year. He was with his band in Wichita, Kansas, when he was recorded live at the Trocadero Ballroom on August 9, 1940: 'Jumpin' at the Woodside' and 'Walkin' and Swingin'. Those aren't thought to have been issued until several decades later. More broadcasts followed in November and December from KFBI Radio to be issued by Onyx, 'I've Found a New Baby' and 'Body and Soul' from November. McShann won a contract with Decca in 1941, his first recordings for that label in Dallas, Texas, on April 30, 1941: 'Swingmatism', 'Hootie Blues' 'Dexter Blues', 'Vine Street Boogie', 'Confessin' the Blues' and 'Hold 'Em Hootie'. McShann was also a giant magnet as a backup musician, recording with all number of artists from Eddie Cleanhead Vinson and Ralph Sutton to Axel Zwingenberger in the nineties. McShann was drafted in 1944. After the war he hired singer Jimmy Witherspoon in 1945. Several years later his would be the band that backed Kansas City rocker Priscilla Bowman in 1955. He is found on 'Eastwood After Hours' released in 1997, an album by various artists in honor of actor, Clint Eastwood, recorded at Carnegie Hall in 1996. McShann is thought to have made his last recordings in Toronto, Ontario, in February 2001 for an album that would be issued as 'Hootie Blues' in 2006 a couple months before his death in June that year, his career spanning more than six decades. More Jay McShann in Blues 4 . Jay McShann 1941 Born in Husum, Sweden, in 1919, pianist, Reinhold Svensson , is a more obscure figure in jazz as a Scandinavian musician. But he was an important figure in the development of swing jazz culture in Stockholm, a rather more remote region in Svensson's time than now. Scandinavian and Eastern European musicians trail rather behind the rest of Europe in Jazz. Great Britain, for example, was producing jazz musicians in the second decade of the century and going strong in the twenties. France was host to big names such as swing musicians, Django Reinhardt and Stephane Grappelli , in the thirties. But distance and world events didn't hear Scandinavian or Eastern European musicians making a lot of a noise in the world of jazz until the sixties, some to found in Sixties International Jazz . Svensson became blind of unknown causes some time after his birth. He graduated in organ in 1941 from the Royal College of Music in Stockholm. It was December that year that he first recorded for vinyl with the Sonora (Swing) label in Sweden, a couple piano solos: 'Ain't Misbehavin'' and 'Body And Soul'. Another discography shows those released for the Tono label in Denmark as well, as recordings by Sonora often were. 'Rosetta'/'Tea for Two' was issued in 1942 by Sonora, recorded September 8th. On November 11 he set tracks with No Sisters(ville), also by Sonora: 'Jersey Bounce' and 'Blues in the Night'. Those were with the ensemble of violinist, Hasse Kahn, of immediate importance to Svensson's career, laying tracks with Kahn on November 25 of 1943: 'At a Dixie Roadside Dinner' and 'A Nightingale Sang in Berkeley Square'. Svensson would back Kahn on numerous occasions into the latter forties. On February 5, 1944, he recorded the organ solos, 'Jazz Me Blues'/'That's a Plenty'. In 1945 he recorded 'Roses of Picardy' and 'Tango Illusion' with violinist, Ake Jelving, also Sonora. Svensson put down some tunes for Odeon with his Trio on April 2, 1947. With himself at piano, Kalle Lohr on guitar and Roland Bengtsson on bass he put down 'Begin the Beguine', Yesterdays', 'Sinbad the Sailor' and 'Estrella'. He switched to Cupol for his next Trio recording, also exchanging Lohr for Georg Oddner on drums: 'What Is This Thing Called Love?' and 'I Can't Get Started'. Svensson would record numerously as a leader of smaller ensembles into the latter fifties. The most important figure to his career was Putte Wickman whose sextet he joined in 1949, his initial tracks with Wickman : 'Liza' and 'Blue Skies' on January 26. Svensson would stick with Wickman the remainder of his career, his last recordings to be with a Wickman sextet in 1960 ('Low Some' among four). Svensson also first recorded with alto saxophonist, Arne Domnérus and trumpeter, Gosta Torner, in 1949, to issue 'Sweet Sue, Just You' and 'Exactly Like You'. That was followed by his organ solos, '12th Street Rag' and 'Tiger Rag' on March 8th. On May 24, of '49 Svensson's Kvartett recorded 'I'm Getting Sentimental Over You'/'Memories Of Paris' and 'I Surrender, Dear'/'There's a Small Hotel', again Sonora. Among the highlights of Svensson's career was his trip to France with Wickman , Domnérus and Torner in 1949 to record at the Paris Jazz Festival in May, 'Indiana' among them. Another big figure entered Svensson's space in 1950, his first recordings with harmonica player, Toots Thielemans , on November 23 in the latter's Trio with Sven Stiberg at banjo: Jazz Me Blues' with 'Black Eyes'. More sessions with Thielemans followed to January of '51, then later in '59. By 1950 Svensson was among Sweden's main talents on keys, having accomplished Sonora's purpose, to spread swing jazz in Sweden. He and Wickman were an especially powerful combination. They were among the names who played at the Nalen nightclub with Wickman 's house band, the Nalen being Stockholm's jazz hotbed where musicians from Europe and the United States inevitably performed on tour. Thus Svensson's reputation began to grow internationally, though less so with fans than musicians. By that time Stockholm was producing musicians who could well hold their own with those from the Continent, the U.K. and the U.S.. Svensson had also recorded as Ralph Bell in the early fifties. In the latter fifties he expanded into film and theatre. During that period he also issued numerous duets with boogie woogie pianist, Charlie Norman , as Ralph and Bert Berg (Metronome) as well as the Olson Brothers (Metronome and Musica). Svensson died in November of 1968. Per below, the list reflects Svensson's early career and varietal repertoire apart from Wickman , with the track in 1958 lending a taste of what Wickman had been doing at the Nalen. Reinhold Svensson 1944 Source: Le Coeur Qui Jazze Born in 1927 in Worcester, Massachusetts, Don Fagerquist was sixteen when he hired on to the band of Mal Hallett in 1943. He joined Gene Krupa 's band in 1944, with whom he is thought to have first recorded in August that year as first of four trumpeters in Krupa 's band. That was for a radio broadcast at the Hotel Astor in New York City. A few more radio broadcasts followed before Fagerquist's first studio date with Krupa in November, yielding for Columbia: 'What is There To Say' unissued, 'I Walked In (With My Eyes Wide Open)' and 'I'll Remember Suzanne'. Fagerquist continued recording with Krupa into latter 1950. He was first trumpet in Artie Shaw 's outfit about the same time, his debut titles with Shaw being the Thesaurus transcriptions of December 1, 1949, in New York City, 'So Easy' among those titles. Fagerquist was also a member of Shaw 's Gramercy Five before further Thesaurus transcriptions recorded in January of 1950, 'Fred's Delight' among them. Upon leaving Krupa in NYC Fagerquist joined Woody Herman 's operation in California, his first recordings with Herman on May 15, 1951, at the Hollywood Palladium. Among those titles were two peformances of 'Perdido'. Fagerquist met trumpeter, Shorty Rogers , while with Herman , he later to record numerously for Rogers . Following Herman came Les Brown . Fagerquist first recorded with Brown in Hollywood in latter 1952, followed him back to New York City to lay tracks for the Coral label, then remained with Brown 's band back in Hollywood into 1956. Fagerquist met tenor saxophonist, Dave Pell, in Brown 's band. He would record with Pell numerously, beginning with the 1953 release of 'The Dave Pell Octet Plays Irving Berlin'. In January of 1956 Fagerquist would record 'West Coast vs East Coast - A Battle of Jazz' with Leonard Feather's West Coast Jazz Stars. Piano by Pete Rugolo was added, a figure with whom Fagerquist would issue often. Fagerquist led his own octet for titles recorded in two sessions in latter 1957. Among his most important musical associates in the sixties was Nelson Riddle . Poor health forced Fagerquist to retire by 1970. Tom Lord's discography has his last sessions with Charlie Barnet in Hollywood in December of 1969. He died in California in January 1974. Don Fagerquist 1944 Ella Fitzgerald & the Nelson Riddle Orchestra Born in 1923, Remo Palmier (Palmieri) had originally intended to become an artist, supporting his studies by playing guitar. It was 1942 when he decided to make music his career, forming a trio with guitarist Nat Jaffe and bassist Leo Guarnieri. None of his first four recordings with that trio in 1944 are found for this history: 'Blues In Nat's Flat', 'These Foolish Things', 'A Hundred Years From Today' and 'If I Had You'. While with the Nat Jaffe Trio Palmier worked briefly with sax player Coleman Hawkins in 1943, then with vibraphonist Red Norvo in 1944. Though Palmier recorded as late as 1985 he is most remembered as a swing musician, due largely to a career as an uncredited accompanist. Indeed, he worked for CBS for 27 years with the Arthur Godfrey Show. In 1952 Palmier changed his name from Palmieri to avoid confusion with the Puerto Rican bandleader, Eddie Palmieri. Upon the cancellation of the Arthur Godfrey Show in 1972 Palmier began playing nightclubs in New York. He continued performing well into the nineties, also teaching guitar. Palmier died in 2002. Remo Palmier 1944	Billy Cotton
What is the name of the former cabinet minister who, in March 2013 was jailed, along With his ex wife Vicky Price after she agreed to take his speeding points to avoid him losing his licence ?	Robert Farnon Society - Musical Kaleidoscope – Volume 1 Musical Kaleidoscope – Volume 1 Written by Super User. Posted in Releases up to December 2007 User Rating: 1 / 5 1 Kaleidoscope (Artur Clemens Schreckenberger) NEW CENTURY ORCHESTRA Conducted by ERICH BÖRSCHEL 2 Double Cross (theme from BBC TV series) (Ernest Maxin, arr. Frank Cordell) FRANK CORDELL AND HIS ORCHESTRA 3 Ballet Of Madeira (Gregori, Freitas) JOHNNY DOUGLAS AND HIS ORCHESTRA 4 Dance Of The Spanish Onion (David Rose) MANTOVANI AND HIS ORCHESTRA 5 Cockney Girl (George Melachrino) GEORGE MELACHRINO AND HIS ORCHESTRA 6 Fiesta (Paul Stewart, real name Jack Coles) THE EMBASSY ORCHESTRA Directed by JACK COLES 7 In Happy Mood (Percival Mackey) WEST END CELEBRITY ORCHESTRA 8 Policeman’s Holiday (Montague Ewing) NEW LIGHT SYMPHONY ORCHESTRA 10 Plaisir D’Amour (Jean Paul Egide Martini -real name Johann Schwartzendorf- arr. Fred Hartley) FRED HARTLEY AND HIS MUSIC 11 Roses At Dawning (Le Boy Kahn, Gus Kahn, Neil Moret) REGINALD KING’S ORCHESTRA LONDON PROMENADE ORCHESTRA Conducted by WALTER COLLINS 13 Keep Moving (Frederick George Charrosin) LOUIS VOSS AND HIS ORCHESTRA 14 Sailors’ Holiday (Edgar Martell) WEST END CELEBRITY ORCHESTRA 15 Blue Devils (Charles Williams, arr. Adolf Lotter) LONDON PALLADIUM ORCHESTRA Conducted by RICHARD CREAN Seven Famous BBC Orchestras 16 Oranges And Lemons (Traditional arr. Jack Byfield) LONDON STUDIO PLAYERS Conducted by MICHAEL KREIN 17 Music for "Rivers Of The North Of England" – Serene & Flowing (Lambert Williamson) BBC NORTHERN ORCHESTRA Conducted by CHARLES GROVES 18 Dance Of A Whimsical Elf (Haydn Wood) BBC THEATRE ORCHESTRA Conducted by HAROLD LOWE 19 Manx Dirk Dance (Reeaghyn-dy-vannin) (from "Two Celtic Dances For Orchestra") (Arnold Foster) BBC SCOTTISH ORCHESTRA Conducted by GUY WARRACK Open Windows – Suite (Geoffrey Henman, orchestrated by Oliphant Chuckerbutty) 20 Country Air 22 Song Of The Sinhalese 23 Dancing Sunlight BBC REVUE ORCHESTRA Conducted by CHARLES GROVES 24 Music Of The People – England (Traditional arr. Gilbert Vinter) BBC MIDLAND LIGHT ORCHESTRA Conducted by GILBERT VINTER 25 Here’s To The Good Old Whisky (Traditional, arr. Clive Richardson) BBC VARIETY ORCHESTRA Conducted by CHARLES SHADWELL 26 Oranges And Lemons (Traditional arr. Spike Hughes) BBC THEATRE ORCHESTRA Conducted by HAROLD LOWE 27 Legion Patrol (Jack Simpson) BILLY COTTON AND HIS BAND Guild GLCD 5139 Putting together collections for Guild Music’s "Golden Age of Light Music" series is usually most pleasurable, but at times it can also be frustrating. The reason is that there are certain pieces of music which, for various reasons, just don’t seem to fit in with the theme of a particular compilation being prepared. Yet they may be high on the list of titles which have an important place in the body of work by a particular composer, and often they have been specially requested by music lovers who have been seeking them for decades: one collector recently thanked Guild for a piece of music last heard over fifty years ago! So this selection is notable for not having a specific theme – except that it is a deliberate attempt to offer a wide variety of styles and ensembles to stimulate the senses and hopefully spring a few surprises along the way. A good number of the tracks are requests, and maybe this CD could be called "Son of Buried Treasures" because it does bear some resemblance to a previous mélange on GLCD 5118 which was so favourably received. As work on this collection progressed it soon became obvious that a further volume would be needed, if we were to be able to include all the special requests we have received. A second helping is available on Guild GLCD 5140 and, like this one, it commences with a piece called Kaleidoscope. This time the composer is Artur Clemens Schreckenberger (d. 1989) who was also active as an arranger and publisher in Germany. Our researches have revealed little about his career, but thankfully the same cannot be said of Frank Cordell (1918-1980). He was a fine British composer, arranger and conductor whose work first became noticed through the tuneful backings he often supplied to some contract singers on HMV singles in the 1950s. Occasionally he was allowed his own 78s, and he was also responsible for several fine LPs which quickly became collectors’ items. The cinema beckoned with some prestigious projects including "The Captain’s Table" (1959), "Flight From Ashiya" (1964), "Khartoum" (1966), "Mosquito Squadron" (1969), "Ring Of Bright Water" (1969), "Hell Boats" (1970), "Cromwell" (1970) for he was nominated for an Oscar, "Trial By Combat" (1976) and "God Told Me To" (1976). From time to time he contributed to publishers’ production music libraries, and also composed (and conducted) under the name Francis Meillear (or Meilleur). Frank’s track on this CD is the theme for a BBC Television series of the 1950s, composed by Ernest Maxin (b. 1923) who was also the producer of "Double Cross" – a comedy thriller starring Jimmy Jewel, Ben Warriss and Jill Day. During his long career in television he was variously performer, writer and producer (notably "Morecambe and Wise"), and he also conducted a few orchestral recordings under his own name. Johnny Douglas (1920-2003) was a talented pianist, composer and arranger who recorded over 500 titles for Decca, and received many commissions for radio and television work. In 1958 he was asked to score and conduct "Living Strings Play Music of the Sea" for RCA, which was recorded at the Kingsway Hall, London, with an orchestra of 61 musicians. This began his long association with RCA, New York, and during the next twenty-five years he made 80 albums for RCA alone and received a Gold disc for the RCA album entitled "Feelings". Johnny has to his credit over 100 albums and 36 feature films, the most well-known of the latter being "The Railway Children" for which he received a British Academy Film & TV Arts Nomination. Mantovani (1905-1980) was, for a time, the most successful British recording orchestra leader, whose LPs sold in their millions world-wide. But before Ronald Binge (1910-1979) created the ‘cascading strings’ effect that would make Italian-born Annunzio Mantovani so popular, he was already making light music recordings of a high standard, and Dance Of The Spanish Onion by the legendary David Rose (1910-1990) is a perfect example. Rather than follow the original score, Mantovani cleverly adapted it to provide a special appeal which still sounds fresh today. George Miltiades Melachrino (1909-1965) sold millions of LPs around the world, especially in north America, yet his early career found him playing and singing in British dance bands of the 1930s. He was also an accomplished composer, and his contribution to this collection is certainly a rarity. Cockney Girl was actually three short pieces written for the short-lived EMI Mood Music Library in the late 1940s, which the publishers hoped would be used as the theme for a radio series. At that time a number of composers were writing works with the same object in mind, offering an opening, middle theme and final closing music to suit various moods. Cockney Girl is presented here without the gaps, illustrating the kind of carefree, bright light music that was so plentiful in the years following the Second World War. Jack Coles (1914-1991) was a student at Kneller Hall School of Music where he won a Gold Cup for being the best all-round pupil of his year. He played trumpet in dance bands and orchestras until 1946 when he formed his own Music Masters dance band for broadcasting. Later he ventured more into the realms of Light Music with his Orchestre Moderne, appearing on popular shows such as Music While You Work, Melody Hour and Morning Music. Eventually in 1960 he became conductor of the BBC Midland Light Orchestra, and he was also busy in the fields of composing and arranging for films, theatre, television and radio. For some reason he was not often asked to make commercial recordings, and the Embassy 78 in this collection appears to be the only example of a light orchestral single on this budget label which was exclusive to Woolworths in the UK and concentrated mainly on ‘cover’ versions of Top 20 hits. Jack (his real names were John Robert Coles) also wrote mood music, and in addition to works under his own name he also composed as ‘Paul Stewart’ and ‘Paul Vincent’. His biggest success as a writer was Tyrolean Tango, which was re-named The Echo Tango when recorded in the USA by Duke Ellington. Montague Ewing (1890-1957) also composed under the name ‘Sherman Myers’, and he had a most successful career mainly as a composer and arranger of light music and popular songs. Probably most successful of all was his Policeman’s Holiday which enjoyed additional appeal when lyrics were added. The famous Pavanne by Morton Gould (1913-1996) is given a refreshingly different treatment by the British bandleader Jay Wilbur (1898-1970). He had a long career which encompassed numerous recordings in the 1930s for labels such as Dominion, Imperial and Rex, and a spell making mood music recordings for London publishers Boosey & Hawkes. Like several other musicians, when he found that his style fell out of favour in Britain after the war, he emigrated to continue his career in South Africa where he died in Cape Town. Fred Hartley (1905-1980) was a prolific composer and arranger who became known to millions in Britain through his regular broadcasts. He joined the BBC as an accompanist, having made his first broadcast as a solo pianist as early as 1925. He founded his Novelty Quintet in 1931, and by 1946 he had become the BBC’s Head of Light Music. Special attention should be drawn to Blue Devils by the famous light music composer Charles Williams (1893-1978). This march was his first big success as a composer, and it was originally published as The Kensington March. Respected researchers believe that it was written for the opening of the Kensington Kinema early in 1926, where Charles Williams conducted the orchestra. It is suggested that the piece was renamed when Williams left the Kensington cinema at the end of 1928; the official publication date for Blue Devils is shown as 1929 on the sheet music. Its enduring popularity prompted the London Palladium Orchestra to record it for HMV in 1933. In the 1940s and 1950s the BBC in Britain was almost certainly the largest single employer of musicians in the world – this is also true today although the numbers are considerably smaller. Back then, in addition to the seven orchestras featured on this CD, there were also The BBC Symphony Orchestra (extant); The BBC Scottish Variety Orchestra (which became the BBC Scottish Radio Orchestra); The BBC Northern Ireland Light Orchestra (which was subsumed into the Ulster Orchestra); The BBC Northern Variety Orchestra (which became The BBC Northern Dance Orchestra); The BBC West Of England Light Orchestra (later The West Of England Players); The BBC Welsh Orchestra (now the BBC National Orchestra of Wales); and The BBC Dance Orchestra. To complement these orchestras there was also the prestigious BBC Military Band (featured on Guild GLCD 5117) As well as the above ‘house’ orchestras, the BBC schedules of those days regularly featured literally dozens of other musical ensembles, ranging from orchestras and brass bands to small groups and theatre organs. To avoid (or cause!) confusion, it should be noted that the BBC Theatre Orchestra later became the BBC Opera Orchestra which, in 1952, formed the basis of the BBC Concert Orchestra, which still exists, as does The BBC Scottish Symphony Orchestra. The Midland Light Orchestra became the Midland Radio Orchestra; the Variety and Revue Orchestras were combined, in 1964, into The BBC Radio Orchestra; and the BBC Northern Orchestra is now known as The BBC Philharmonic Orchestra. Other than the Concert Orchestra, all of the remaining BBC light orchestras were disbanded in the 1970s and 80s with the Radio Orchestra surviving until the early 1990s. The traditional English air Oranges and Lemons used to open broadcasting on the BBC Light Programme, and two different arrangements were employed. Both became very familiar to millions of listeners, and since neither of the original versions has been previously available on a commercial recording we have decided to include them both in this mini-tribute to the golden age of BBC orchestras. They should not be confused with the re-recordings made by Vilem Tausky (1910-2004) and the BBC Concert Orchestra and used from 1962. The other well-known theme in this section is Music for "Rivers Of The North Of England" – originally incidental music for a radio feature, but subsequently chosen to introduce a monthly series of programmes about the countryside which ran for many years on the BBC Home Service. Keeping with our BBC theme, for many years in Britain Sunday lunch was accompanied by popular music on the BBC Light Programme, and one of the longest running radio series was "The Billy Cotton Band Show", first broadcast in 1949. Bill’s signature tune was Somebody Stole My Gal, but if there was still time to fill at the end of the show the band played Legion Patrol by Jack Simpson, a well-known percussionist who fronted his own group on records in the 1940s. Usually only the first few bars of this number were heard, and many people failed to realise that Billy Cotton (1899-1969) had actually made a record of it. But he certainly did, and in response to several requests it appears as the closing music in this Kaleidoscope - happily on this occasion it is not faded out! David Ades	i don't know
In which English county is the source of the River Trent ?	The River Trent: Facts and Information for Kids \| Primary Facts The River Trent: Facts and Information for Kids Posted on Length: 298 km (185 miles) Source: Biddulph Moor, Staffordshire (North Sea, England) Mouth: Humber Estuary (England) Other Facts About The River Trent In the past, the course of the River Trent was used to mark the boundary between the North and the South of England. The River Trent has many tributaries, including: River Derwent, River Idle, River Leen, River Sow and the River Tame. The River Trent flows through the Midlands and many towns and cities have been situated close to it. They include: Stoke-on-Trent, Lichfield, Burton upon Trent, Derby, Nottingham , Newark-on-Trent and Scunthorpe. The Trent is the third longest river in the United Kingdom. Unusually for rivers in Britain, the River Trent flows in a northerly direction. Some people believe that the name of the River Trent is linked to the Celtic word for ‘strong flood’. Over 80 bridges cross the River Trent. Perhaps the most spectacular of these is The Swarkestone Bridge, Britain’s longest bridge made of stone. This bridge is located about 5 miles south of Derby. The River Trent passes through several different English counties: Derbyshire, Lincolnshire, Leicestershire, Nottinghamshire, Staffordshire and Yorkshire. The River Trent was an incredibly important trade route (particularly during the 1700s, 1800s and 1900s) and it is one of the main reasons why the Midlands became a key industrial area during the Industrial Revolution. In Nottingham, the River Trent flows under the beautiful Trent Bridge. This is also the name given to Nottingham’s cricket ground. More than 30 different types of fish live in the Trent. Today the water of the Trent is clean and largely free from pollution. This certainly wasn’t the case during the 19th and early 20th centuries when the Trent was polluted by the emissions from the many factories which used its water in their manufacturing processes. This website was extremely helpful especially for my homework! I couldn’t find anything else that was good for kids(me)!! I hope my teacher is happy with it!! I’m doing a project on ‘Rivers’ and even though sometimes it’s boring I just LOVE coming to this website! THANK YOU!! hopefully this website is good enough to make my teacher impressed. thank you I am doing a project about rivers and this is going to impress my teacher and this is a amazing website.	Staffordshire
"Which British poet who died in 1850 created works such as ""An Evening Walk"" in 1793, ""Upon Westminster Bridge"" in 1802 and ""The Waggoner"" in 1818 ?"	Rivers Avon (Bristol) From the Kennet & Avon Canal at Hanham Lock the River Avon runs for 13.75 miles to the Bristol Channel and then into open sea. The wonderful city of Bristol is steeped in maritime and engineering history, much of which is attributable to Isambard Kingdom Brunel . Brunel's incredible suspension bridge at Clifton is a spectacle never forgotten. Bristol Docks have undergone modernisation and the famous 18th Century statue of Neptune, originally erected in the Temple area, is now part of a pedestrianised city centre. Avon (Stratford) Upper Avon or Warwickshire Avon River in southern England; length 154 km / 96 miles. Sometimes known as the Upper Avon or Warwickshire Avon, it rises in the Northamptonshire uplands near Naseby and flows southwest through Warwick, Stratford-upon-Avon, and Evesham, before joining the River Severn near Tewkesbury, Gloucestershire. One of Britain's most secluded cruising rivers, the Avon meanders past ancient towns and through picturesque countryside. It flows through Stratford, Evesham and Pershore to Tewkesbury, where it meets the mighty River Severn . Its surroundings have changed little since the days of its most famous son, William Shakespeare. The Avon is a popular river with motor cruisers and narrowboats, but the wide valley and peaceful villages give it an untroubled air that makes it one of Britain's most relaxing waterways. Though there is no continuous towpath, there are many walking opportunities. It is often known as Shakespeare's Avon or simply the 'Stratford Avon', because Avon is such a common river name - deriving from Afon, the Welsh for 'river'. Calder River in West Yorkshire, England; length 72 km / 45 miles It rises in the Pennine moors northwest of Todmorden, and joins the River Aire at Castleford. Several large reservoirs supplying water to West Yorkshire towns lie within its catchment area. The Aire and Calder Navigation forms a link in the system of rivers and canals that provides a waterway from the River Mersey to the River Humber. The Calder valley, via Hebden Bridge, Sowerby Bridge, Mirfield, to Wakefield, is one of the main road and rail routes through the Pennines. Calder River in Cumbria, England. It flows into the Irish Sea 16 km / 10 miles southeast of Whitehaven. Calder River in central Lancashire, England; length 24 km / 15 miles It joins the River Ribble near Whalley. Cam River in southeast England. It rises in Ashwell, Hertfordshire, and flows 65 km / 40 miles northwest and northeast through Cambridgeshire, and then into the River Ouse, 6 km / 4 miles south of Ely. The Cam is joined at Hauxton by the River Granta, which rises in Essex, and is known thereafter as either the Cam or the Granta. It is navigable as far as the city of Cambridge. Dee (Cheshire) The River Dee passes through magnificent borderland scenery as it tumbles from Llyn Tegid (Bala Lake) through Llangollen to Chester and the sea. Along its way, it passes over Horseshoe Falls and under the Pontcysyllte Aqueduct, two landmarks around the charming town of Llangollen. The Dee can be navigated by all craft from Farndon, in rural Cheshire, through Chester and out to the sea. The upper reaches are prized by canoeists, though access rights are hotly debated. Dee (Scotland) The fifth longest river in Scotland, the Dee flows through some of the most stunning scenery in Scotland on its journey from the Cairngorm Mountains to the North Sea at Aberdeen. Fast-flowing and rocky at times, the River Dee has an abundance of character that is magnificent. It is not uncommon to see canoeists paddling down along the river. The �Royal Dee' is overlooked, at parts, by the magnificent Balmoral Estate, which offers angling and also some impressive marked walks. Balmoral Castle has been enjoyed by generations of royals since Queen Victoria. Dove River in Derbyshire, England, a tributary of the Trent; length 65 km / 40 miles. The Dove rises on Axe Edge, 6 km / 4 miles from Buxton, and forms the southwestern border between Derbyshire and Staffordshire as it flows south to join the Trent near Burton. The valley of Dovedale, below Hartington, where the river runs through a rocky, wooded gorge some 3 km / 2 miles long, is popular with walkers. Fal For more than 2,000 years the River Fal was the life-blood of the Cornish community between Truro and Falmouth. Today, the tourist town of Falmouth is known as the sailing and yachting capital of the county. Luxury vessels line the Fal Estuary � the third largest natural harbour in the world � and pretty yachts congregate during the Falmouth sailing regatta. Back in the 17th Century, Falmouth was famed for its Post Office Packet sailing boats which carried mail and cargo to and from places as far afield as the East Indies. Boats have travelled up the Fal to the port of Truro since the bygone days of 1170, and vessels approaching 85m in length still regularly sail upstream into the city. The traditional industries of ship repair, cargo handling and yacht building continue to bring money into Falmouth, and old-fashined oyster boats can still be seen trailing the river and charming onlookers. However, the town and the area surrounding the river are now largely dependent on tourism. Cornwall is an ever popular holiday destination � especially during the summer months � and the Fal's maritime traditions, picturesque harbours and interesting towns win the hearts of visitors year after year. Great Ouse River which rises near Brackley in Northamptonshire, central England, and flows eastwards through Buckinghamshire, Bedfordshire, Cambridgeshire, and Norfolk, before entering the Wash north of King's Lynn; length 250 km / 160 miles. A large sluice across the Great Ouse, near King's Lynn, was built as part of extensive flood-control works in 1959. The chief tributaries of the Great Ouse are the Ivel, Cam , Lark, Little Ouse, Wissey, and Nar, all of which come from the south or east. The Bedfordshire Ouse was diverted in the 17th century from its devious course through Ely via two new channels called the New and Old Bedford rivers, 32 km / 20 miles long, running in a direct line from Earith near St Ives to Denver Sluice near Downham Market. Hamble For 7.5 miles from Botley to Southampton Water, the River Hamble offers facilities for sea-going vessels in scenic surroundings that are very popular especially in the high season. It's known throughout the yachting world as the Heart of British Yachting. The river's position makes it suited both for weekend trips and as a base for international yachtsmen. There are numerous festivals and regattas throughout the year. The entrance to the River is illuminated with sector lights at Hamble Point and Warsash. Manifold River which flows through the Manifold Valley, a limestone gorge situated at the southern end of the Peak District in Staffordshire, England. For a distance of about 1.5 km / 1 miles the river disappears underground in swallow holes for part of the year. Mersey River in northwest England; length 112 km / 70 miles. Formed by the confluence of the Goyt and Tame rivers at Stockport, it flows west through the south of Manchester, is joined by the Irwell at Flixton and by the Weaver at Runcorn, and enters the Irish Sea at Liverpool Bay. It drains large areas of the Lancashire and Cheshire plains. The Mersey is linked to the Manchester Ship Canal. Although plans were announced in 1990 to build a 1,800-m / 5,907-ft barrage across the Mersey estuary to generate electricity from tides, these were abandoned in 1992 for financial reasons. The river lies entirely below 45 m / 150 ft. It is artificially modified (as part of the Manchester Ship Canal) as far as Warrington, where it becomes tidal. The Mersey is polluted by industrial waste, sewage, and chemicals. The Mersey became an artery of communications from the 18th century. Boats for passengers and goods used the river, with its major tributary the Irwell, between Liverpool and Manchester from 1720; the Bridgewater Canal acquired this traffic in the late 18th century. The Mersey had passenger services until the development of the railway in the middle of the 19th century. In the estuary (which has an area of over 78 sq km / 30 sq miles), steam ferries provided transport for commuters from the residential areas of Cheshire to Liverpool from 1815. In 1934 the first road tunnel under the Mersey was opened. Until the 1920s the river formed the boundary between Lancashire and Cheshire. Nidd River in North Yorkshire, England, located within the Yorkshire Dales National Park. The river flows southeast from the base of Whernside (27 km / 17 miles northwest of Ripon) into the River Ouse near York. Water is supplied to Bradford from a dam above the village of Pateley Bridge. Upper Nidderdale is a designated area of outstanding natural beauty. Nith River of southern Scotland, rising in East Ayrshire unitary authority, about 13 km / 8 miles south of Cumnock, and flowing southeast for about 112 km / 70 miles through the valley of Nithsdale in Dumfries and Galloway unitary authority, before entering the Solway Firth 13 km / 8 miles south of Dumfries. Severn Welsh Hafren Longest River in Britain , which rises on the slopes of Plynlimon, in Ceredigion, west Wales, and flows east and then south, finally forming a long estuary leading into the Bristol Channel; length 336 km / 208 miles. The Severn is navigable for 290 km / 180 miles, up to Welshpool (Trallwng) on the Welsh border. The principal towns on its course are Shrewsbury, Worcester, and Gloucester. England and South Wales are linked by two road bridges and a railway tunnel crossing the Severn. A remarkable feature of the river is a tidal wave known as the `Severn Bore� that flows for some miles upstream and can reach a height of 2 m / 6 ft. The Severn rail tunnel was built in 1873-85. The first of the road bridges to be built opened in 1966, and carries the M4 motorway linking London and South Wales. A second road bridge was opened in 1996 and carries the M48 motorway. From its source, the Severn passes east through Powys and enters Shropshire near the Brythen Hills. Southeast of Shrewsbury, the river passes through Ironbridge Gorge, `cradle of the Industrial Revolution� and now a tourist attraction. Thereafter, it runs through Worcestershire and Gloucestershire, widening considerably after it passes Newnham. The Severn is navigable by larger ships (of around 8,000 tonnes) as far as Sharpness, and by smaller vessels (up to 700 tonnes) to Gloucester, while barges of 350 tonnes capacity can negotiate its upper reaches as far as Stourport. The Severn is connected with the rivers Trent and Mersey via the Staffordshire and Worcestershire Canal , and with the canal network around Birmingham via the Worcester and Birmingham Canal , which joins the Severn at Worcester. Between Gloucester and Sharpness, the treacherous nature of the riverbed necessitated the construction, in 1827, of the 26 km / 16 mile long, lock-free Sharpness and Gloucester Ship Canal. Tributaries of the Severn include the Teme, Stour, Wye , Vyrnwy, Tern, and Avon; in total, the river basin covers an area of 11,420 sq km / 4,409 sq miles. Crossings Between 1873 and 1885, a rail tunnel was dug underneath the Severn near Chepstow, running for a distance of 7.2 km / 4.4 miles, from New Passage to Portskewett; this crossing greatly facilitated travel between Bristol and the Welsh capital Cardiff. A road suspension bridge was opened nearby, from Aust to Beachley, in 1966; this crossing carries the main M4 motorway linking London and South Wales and is subject to payment of a toll by users. Because of the increase in traffic volume, construction of a new road bridge was started in 1992 and completed five years later. Hydroelectric power In 1933, a committee recommended the construction of a hydroelectric power station on a river barrage at English Stones reef, which would utilize the tidal flow of the Severn. This plan, which was interrupted by World War II, was revived in 1945, when engineers confirmed the practicability of the scheme and projected an output of some 2,190,000,000 kWh. However, no tidal power plant has yet been built. Spey Second longest river in Scotland. It flows through Highland and Moray, rising 14 km / 8 miles southeast of Fort Augustus, for 172 km / 107 miles to the Moray Firth between Lossiemouth and Buckie. It has salmon fisheries at its mouth. The upper river augments the Lochaber hydroelectric scheme. Whisky is distilled in the Spey valley. Taf River in Carmarthenshire, southwest Wales, rising on the eastern side of the Preseli Hills and flowing through Carmarthenshire to Carmarthen Bay; length 50 km / 31 miles Commercial fisheries operate in Carmarthen Bay. The village of Laugharne lies at the mouth of the river. Tay Longest river in Scotland ; length 193 km / 120 miles, it flows northeast through Loch Tay, then east and southeast past Perth to the Firth of Tay, crossed at Dundee by the Tay Bridge, before joining the North Sea. The Tay has salmon fisheries; its main tributaries are the Tummel, Isla, and Earn, Braan, and Almond. The drainage basin of the Tay and its tributaries forms one the most fully integrated hydroelectric developments in the north of Scotland. The first Tay Bridge, opened in 1878, on the then longest span over water in the world, was blown into the river in 1879, along with a train which was passing over it. The bridge was rebuilt in 1883-88, and a road bridge, from Newport-on-Tay to Dundee, was completed in 1966. Tees River flowing from the Pennines in Cumbria, northwest England, to the North Sea via Tees Bay, Middlesborough unitary authority, in northeast England; length 130 km / 80 miles. Its port, Teesport, handles in excess of 42 million tonnes per annum, with port trade mainly chemical-related. Although much of the river nearing the sea is polluted with industrial waste, sewage, and chemicals, the Tees Barrage (opened in 1985, cost of construction �50 million) enables a 16 km / 10 mile stretch of the river to provide clean, non-tidal water. This is used for white - water sports, including canoeing. The Tees rises in the north Pennines at Tees Head, on the easterly reaches of Cross Fell, Cumbria, and flows southeast and then northeast through Stockton-on-Tees and Middlesbrough, entering the Tees Mouth estuary to join the North Sea. It is navigable to Middlesbrough. Its main tributaries are the Lune, Balder, and Greta. The river valley, known as Teesdale, includes Mickle Fell (790 m / 2,326 ft), the highest point in County Durham, and the waterfall of High Force. The Tees has a unique transporter bridge (a bridge consisting of a movable platform suspended from cables), opened in 1911, which has 49 m / 160 ft clearance above the water. Its central section transports cars and people across the Tees towards Hartepool. It is the sole working example in England. Teme The river Teme is the second largest tributary of the River Severn . It rises in the Kerry hills in Mid Wales from a small spring in Bryn Coch quarry on Cilfaesty Hills at 460 metres above sea level. The Teme is a rural river flowing through unspoilt countryside which is regarded as some of the most attractive in Britain. The main town on the Teme is the historic border town of Ludlow in Shropshire. The Teme Valley, running down from Ludlow, comprises of the orchards, woods and countryside of Herefordshire and Worcestershire, to the foothills of the Malverns, the valley of the River Teme is an area of great beauty, interesting architecture, quiet places and rural pursuits. The rural nature of the river is reflected by high quality water with excellent brown trout and grayling fishing, with a challenge for the purist angler willing to accept the rugged conditions. Thames River in south England, flowing through London; length 338 km / 210 miles. The longest river in England , it rises in the Cotswold Hills above Cirencester and is tidal as far as Teddington. Below London there is protection from flooding by means of the Thames Barrier (1982). The headstreams unite at Lechlade. Tributaries from the north are the Windrush, Evenlode, Cherwell, Thame, Colne, Lea, and Roding; and from the south, the Kennet, Loddon, Wey, Mole, Darent, and Medway. Around Oxford the river is sometimes poetically called the Isis. The construction of a 11 km / 7 mile flood alleviation channel between Maidenhead and Eton was approved in 1994. At Gravesend, the head of the estuary, it has a width of 1 km / 0.6 miles, gradually increasing to 16 km / 10 miles at the Nore. Lying some 5 km / 3 miles southwest of the Nore is the mouth of the Medway estuary, at the head of which lie Chatham with important naval dockyards, Gillingham, and Rochester. Gravesend on the south bank of the river, some 40 km / 25 miles from the Nore, developed at a point where vessels used to await the turn of the tide. Tidal waters reach Teddington, 100 km / 62 miles from its mouth, where the first lock from the sea (except for the tidal lock at Richmond) is located. There are in all 47 locks, St John's Lock, Lechlade, being nearest the source. The normal rise and fall of the tide is from 4.5 m / 15 ft to 7 m / 23 ft at London Bridge and from 4 m / 13 ft to 6 m / 20 ft at Tilbury. Until Tower Bridge was built, London Bridge was the lowest in the course; the reach between these two bridges is known as the `Pool of London�. Tilbury, Fort and Docks, important as the main London container terminal, lies opposite Gravesend on the northern bank. At Woolwich, some 30 km / 19 miles above Tilbury, is the arsenal; Greenwich, a little farther upriver, has the Royal Naval College. Between Tilbury and London Bridge (some 40 km / 25 miles upstream) stretches the London dock System. The Thames has been frozen over at various times, the earliest recorded occasion being AD 1150. The embankments of the Thames in London were the work of Sir Joseph Bazalgette (1819-91), chief engineer of the Metropolitan Board of Works. The Albert Embankment on the south side was completed in 1869, the Victoria Embankment from Westminster to Blackfriars in 1870, and the Chelsea Embankment from the Royal Hospital to Battersea Bridge in 1874. In January 1949 work was started on a new embankment, designed by J Rawlinson, chief engineer of the former London County Council, on the south side from County Hall to Waterloo Bridge. These embankments were raised after 1974. There are walkways (formerly towpaths) from Teddington to Cricklade. The Port of London Authority is responsible for the control and conservation of the river below Teddington. Above Teddington the Environment Agency is the responsible authority; there is some barge traffic on this stretch of the river. The Thames is of great importance to the water supply of London, partly because the many springs in the chalk usually maintain a steady flow in summer. Salmon returned to the Thames in 1974. The river is spanned by 20 road and nine rail bridges between Hampton Court and the Tower of London. These include Tower Bridge (which has a drawbridge mechanism to enable large vessels to pass) and a suspension bridge at Hammersmith. The QEII Bridge opened in 1991 joins the counties of Essex and Kent. The chief tunnels under the Thames are the Thames Tunnel, completed by Brunel in 1841, now used by the East London Line of the London Underground; the Blackwall Tunnel (1897) from East India Dock Road to East Greenwich, the Rotherhithe Tunnel (1918) from Shadwell to Rotherhithe, and the Dartford tunnel completed in 1963. There are regular boats from Kingston to Folly Bridge, Oxford, during the summer. There is some beautiful scenery along this part of the river, for example at Cliveden, Cookham, Sonning, and Pangbourne. There are fine bridges at Richmond, Hampton Court, Chertsey, Maidenhead, and Shillingford. Henley , Wallingford, Dorchester, Abingdon, Eton and Windsor are attractive. The Royal Regatta at Henly on Thames is one of the highlights of the British social calander. Along the 80 km / 50 miles from its source beneath a tree in `Trewsbury Mead� to Oxford, the Thames glides through meadows, its course interrupted only by the small towns of Lechlade and Cricklade and the pretty stone-built hamlets of Kelmscott and Ashton Keynes. In these upper reaches there are two medieval bridges New Bridge and Radcot Bridge. Motor launches can reach Lechlade; beyond that point it is possible to canoe up to Cricklade, but the final 16 km / 10 miles to the source of the Thames is best done on foot. One particularly attractive section is the steep-sided valley through the chalk hills between Goring and Reading, known as the Goring Gap. Trent Third longest river of England; length 275 km / 170 miles. Rising in the south Pennines (at Norton in the Moors) by the Staffordshire-Cheshire border, it flows south and then northeast through Derbyshire, along the county boundary of Leicestershire, and through Nottinghamshire and Lincolnshire, joining the Ouse east of Goole to form the Humber estuary, and entering the North Sea below Spurn Head. Its drainage basin covers more than 10,000 sq km / 4,000 sq miles. Main tributaries are the Churnet, Dove , and Derwent. It is navigable by barge for nearly 160 km / 100 miles. The principal towns and cities along its course are Burton upon Trent, Stoke-on-Trent, Nottingham, and Newark. It is connected with other rivers and with the Birmingham and Lancashire districts by the Trent and Mersey Canal and the Grand Union Canal . The Trent valley includes extensive gravel workings and many electric power stations. Tweed River rising in the Tweedsmuir Hills, 10 km / 6 miles north of Moffat, southwest Scottish Borders, Scotland, and entering the North Sea at Berwick-upon-Tweed, Northumberland; length 156 km / 97 miles. It flows in a northeasterly direction, and from Coldstream until near Berwick-upon-Tweed it forms the border between England and Scotland. It is the fourth longest river in Scotland and is one of the best salmon rivers. Tyne River of northeast England formed by the union of the North Tyne (rising in the Cheviot Hills) and South Tyne (rising near Cross Fell in Cumbria) near Hexham, Northumberland, and reaching the North Sea at Tynemouth ; length 72 km / 45 miles. Kielder Water (1980) in the North Tyne Valley is Europe's largest artificial lake, 12 km / 7.5 miles long and 0.8 km / 0.5 miles wide, and supplies the industries of Tyneside, Wearside, and Teesside. As well as functioning as a reservoir, it is a major resource for recreational use. The principal tributary of the Tyne is the River Derwent , and the chief towns and cities along its course are Newcastle upon Tyne, Gateshead, Jarrow, and South Shields. Much of the Tyne basin lies within the Northumberland National Park. Along the lower reaches the Tyneside conurbation developed in the 19th century around shipyards, iron works, and chemical industries. Tywi or Towy River in Carmarthenshire, southwest Wales; length 108 km / 68 miles It rises in the Cambrian Mountains of central Wales and flows southwest through Carmarthen before entering Carmarthen Bay. Ure River in North Yorkshire, northern England; length about 80 km / 50 miles. It rises 10 km / 6 miles northwest of Hawes, near the borders of Cumbria, and joins the River Swale near Boroughbridge to form the Ouse . Flowing through the spectacular Wensleydale countryside, the river drops dramatically at Aysgarth. Aysgarth Force is located alongside the A684 where a beautiful old single arched bridge spans the river close by. Wear River in northeast England; length 107 km / 67 miles. From its source near Wearhead in the Pennines in County Durham, it flows eastwards along a narrow valley, Weardale, to Bishop Auckland and then northeast past Durham and Chester-le-Street, to meet the North Sea at Sunderland. Weardale is moorland in its upper reaches at Stanhope and Wolsingham. At Sunderland the Wear cuts a gorge 30 m / 98 ft deep through the local magnesian limestone plateau to reach the North Sea. The city of Durham is built along the Wear, and its castle and cathedral (a World Heritage site) stand 30 m / 100 ft above the river on an incised meander. Wye (Welsh Gwy) River in Wales and England; length 208 km / 130 miles. It rises on Plynlimon in northeast Ceredigion, flows southeast and east through Powys and Hereford and Worcester, and follows the Gwent-Gloucestershire border before joining the river Severn 4 km / 2.5 miles south of Chepstow. It has salmon fisheries and is noted for its scenery particularly at Symonds Yat. Wye River of central England; length 15 km / 9 miles. It rises in the Chiltern Hills in Buckinghamshire and flows in a southeasterly direction to Bourne End where it meets the Thames . Wye River in Derbyshire, central England; length 32 km / 20 miles. It rises near Buxton and flows in a southeasterly direction to meet the Derwent at Rowsley.	i don't know
The 1954 film Demetrius And The Gladiators was the sequel to which film of 1953 ?	Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954) - IMDb IMDb There was an error trying to load your rating for this title. Some parts of this page won't work property. Please reload or try later. X Beta I'm Watching This! Keep track of everything you watch; tell your friends. Error Demetrius and the Gladiators ( 1954 ) Approved \| From $2.99 (SD) on Amazon Video ON DISC In 1st century Rome, Christian slave Demetrius is sent to fight in the gladiatorial arena and Emperor Caligula seeks Jesus' robe for its supposedly magical powers. Director: Philip Dunne , Lloyd C. Douglas (based on a character created by: in "The Robe") Stars: a list of 32 titles created 27 Mar 2011 a list of 30 titles created 20 Jul 2012 a list of 39 titles created 16 Feb 2013 a list of 41 titles created 23 Feb 2014 a list of 35 titles created 24 Jan 2015 Title: Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954) 6.6/10 Want to share IMDb's rating on your own site? Use the HTML below. You must be a registered user to use the IMDb rating plugin. In the Roman province of Judea during the 1st century, Roman tribune Marcellus Gallio is ordered to crucify Jesus of Nazareth but is tormented by his guilty conscience afterwards. Director: Henry Koster Barabbas, the criminal that Pontius Pilate induced the populace to vote to set free, so that Christ could be crucified, is haunted by the image of Jesus for the rest of his life. Director: Richard Fleischer When strongman Samson rejects the love of the beautiful Philistine woman Delilah, she seeks vengeance that brings horrible consequences they both regret. Director: Cecil B. DeMille A fierce Roman commander becomes infatuated with a beautiful Christian hostage and begins questioning the tyrannical leadership of the despot Emperor Nero. Directors: Mervyn LeRoy, Anthony Mann Stars: Robert Taylor, Deborah Kerr, Leo Genn After King David sees the beautiful Bathsheba bathing from the palace roof, he enters into an adulterous affair which has tragic consequences for his family and Israel. Director: Henry King In eighteenth-dynasty Egypt, Sinuhe, a poor orphan, becomes a brilliant physician and with his friend Horemheb is appointed to the service of the new Pharoah. Sinuhe's personal triumphs and... See full summary » Director: Michael Curtiz The life of Jesus Christ. Director: Nicholas Ray The death of Marcus Aurelius leads to a succession crisis, in which the deceased emperor's son, Commodus, demonstrates that he is unwilling to let anything undermine his claim to the Roman Empire. Director: Anthony Mann Directors: George Stevens, David Lean, and 1 more credit » Stars: Max von Sydow, Dorothy McGuire, Charlton Heston The life and military conquests of Alexander III of Macedon (20/21 July 356 - 10/11 June 323 BC), commonly known as Alexander the Great. Director: Robert Rossen The Iliad's story of the Trojan war, told from the Trojan viewpoint. Director: Robert Wise The fabled Spanish hero Rodrigo Diaz (a.k.a. El Cid) overcomes a family vendetta and court intrigue to defend Christian Spain against the Moors. Director: Anthony Mann Edit Storyline The story picks up at the point where " The Robe (1953)" ends, following the martyrdom of Diana and Marcellus. Christ's robe is conveyed to Peter for safe-keeping, but the emperor Caligula wants it back to benefit from its powers. Marcellus' former slave Demetrius seeks to prevent this, and catches the eye of Messalina, wife to Caligula's uncle Claudius. Messalina tempts Demetrius, he winds up fighting in the arena, and wavers in his faith. Written by Ron Kerrigan <[email protected]> It begins where "The Robe" left off! Genres: 4-Track Stereo (Western Electric Recording) Color: Film debut of Michael Conrad . See more » Goofs Near the end of the movie when Peter goes to the house of Messalina to see Demetrius, Messalina throws wine on Peter. The wine stains Peter's under garment on his shoulder and drips on his draped outer toga on his chest. When the camera cuts to another angle, Peter now has a smaller wine spot only on his shoulder with no dripping stains on the chest of the outer toga. When the camera switches back, Peter again has both stains (shoulder and chest) prominently along the front of his outfit. See more » Quotes (Mexico) – See all my reviews The film opens with Emperor Caligula (Jay Robinson) calling for his guards to find him the robe to bring him eternal life Caligula stakes his life on the loyalty of the Praetorian Guards So if they can keep him alive at all, why not forever? Peter (Michael Rennie) gave Demetrius of Corinth (Victor Mature) their master's robe to keep for him As we all remember, Demetrius took the robe from the foot of the cross before Jesus died By order of Caligula, 20 pieces of gold were authorized to pay for information concerning the robe that Jesus wore to the cross Defending Lucia (Debra Paget) from malicious attack of a Praetorian Decurion, Demetrius is caught and sentenced to train as gladiator in the Claudian school Being fully a Christian entails having a commitment: Demetrius, obviously, is condemned to death because he can't take a man's life Puzzled by his religion, and fascinated by his magnificent physique, and wanting to find out if Demetrius will kill or not his opponent, Messalina asks to be put in the arena against the king of swordsmen the Nuban Glycon (William Marshall). The dramatic moment of the film comes when Lucia (Debra Paget)Demetrius' sweetheartsneaks in and is attacked by Dardanius (Richard Egan) and other gladiators... His faith shaken, Demetrius makes several kills, renounces his god, and succumbs to Messalina's charms... Susan Hayward looked gorgeous as the wicked Messalina The part, however, was not developed... It might have been an ideal role for this beloved actress... This was Hayward's second movie with the radiant Debra Paget, who was still considered a promising starlet, but, again, they were never together in a scene... Future Academy Award winners Ernest Borgnine and Anne Bancroft had small parts... Michael Rennie and Jay Robinson were excellent in their respective roles... Julie Newmeyer was one of the dancing girls, long before she became Julie Newmar and played Howard's rival in "The Marriage-Go-Round." "Demetrius and the Gladiators" is a lively, efficient sequel to "The Robe," with emphasis less on religiosity than on the brutality of the arena 34 of 38 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you? Yes	The Robe
Which three word named plant is believed to be useful in treating depression, nervous disorders and bedwetting ?	Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954) - Film on Freeview @ viewfilm.net Our listings are provided by our friends over at nextfilm.co.uk . Demetrius and the Gladiators (1954) 5 Votes: 6 11:40-13:40 Fri 20th Jan 2017 101m More4 Add to Calendar , Outlook , Google Synopsis Religious epic about a Roman slave of extraordinary strength who is charged with protecting the robe Christ wore to the Cross. After his capture by the mad Caligula, his faith is tested by trials of strength and the seductive powers of a beautiful woman, but it is an innocent girl who eventually drives him to renounce God and seek to avenge her cruel fate. A sequel to the 1953 costume drama The Robe. Our Users Recommend	i don't know

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