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What is the capital of the French region of Limousin? | Limousin | Regions of France
Departments
Corrèze (19), Creuse (23), Haute-Vienne (87)
Born of the combination of the Corrèze, Haute-Vienne and Creuse Departments, the modern French region of Limousin is located in central France. These departments together give rise to two main historical provinces, Limousin and Marche and also contribute to small parts of other former provinces, namely Angoumois, Poitou, Auvergne and Berry. Limoges is the largest city and historical capital of the province of Limousin, and is also the capital of the administrative region of Limousin. Today, the Limousin region is the second less populated French region and is home to just under 750,000 persons, with the majority of those being concentrated in the province of Limousin.
This rural region provides peace and tranquility in its unspoiled, remote landscapes. The beauty of old castles, churches, charming bastides and villages dotting the green wooded hills is complimented by the many rivers, deep gorges and “1,000” lakes. This is a definite attraction for water-sports lovers and creates the perfect environment for kayaking, sailing, canoeing and fishing. The region has only one large town, the capital city Limoges which is well known for its porcelain.
It is often referred to as France profunde (that is, “heartland of France”), and is seen as somewhat of a bridge between the relaxed south and the more industrious serious north of the Mediterranean. Though it is often driven-by and remains a victim of neglect, the popularity of Limousin is now increasing among tourists searching for the perfect off-track holiday in quintessential, old-fashioned France. Cost of living and even property costs are significantly lower than in neighbouring regions, making it a little more popular among foreign nationals looking to buy second homes. For those seeking restoration projects, there remains a vast amount of deserted and/or run-down properties.
Though it lacks particularly fertile soil, the fresh country side of Limousin is perfect to support cattle and other livestock, accounting for greater than 90% of the total agricultural output, thus making this the major industry of Limousin. French food conglomerate BSN and other such companies in the agro-foods industry have put down roots in Limousin as a result of their attraction to the region’s large agricultural sector. The region is well known for its ox with sweet chestnut, and potato with sheep tongues, ideally served with a glass of Branceilles wine of the south of Corrèze.
The area in and around Limousin has recently been targeted for economic development and a number of companies have been given subsidies and incentives for setting up business in the region. New investments include research institutions, a science park and about 12,000 companies coming to the region. Legran, a world-renowned leader in the production of low-voltage electrical supplies and equipment has sited its manufacturing centre and headquarters in the region. In addition, the 550,000 hectare woodlands of Limousin have until now been an untapped resource, and as such the region’s paper and pulp industry is now undergoing a great deal of expansion.
The cheap property costs and the new developmental activities now taking place make Limousin a place of great potential for newcomers in search of a green, tranquil living environment and multiple employment opportunities.
| Limoges |
Who painted 'Rocky Mountains And Tired Indians', found in the Scottish National Gallery of Modern Art, Edinburgh? | Limousin, France: travel guide, places to visit and attractions in Limousin
Limousin: tourism and sightseeing
Visit Limousin, France
The lakes and mountains, valleys and forests, interspersed with crashing rivers and small traditional villages all combine to give the Limousin its own very distinctive personality. The unspoiled charm and tranquility make this 'off the beaten track' region well worth exploring...
Limousin tourism
The Limousin region is situated in the centre of southern France, around the town of Limoges. It is essentially a rural region of unspoiled countryside, with a varied landscape of forested hills, open moorlands and traditional farms being the main features.
Much of the region is at an altitude of more than 350 metres, so it can be rather cold or wet. As a result the Limousin region is not always highly placed on the tourist circuit, but it has a great deal to offer and is perhaps perfect for those wishing to explore somewhere off the beaten track.
Places to visit in Limousin with reviews from France This Way
Below you can see a description of Limousin and its highlights. For details of each place (town, village, attraction...) that we have reviewed see places to visit in Limousin .
Limousin travel guide and highlights
Limousin highlights by department
There are three departments that together make up Limousin: Creuse, Haute-Vienne and Correze. You can see the highlights for each of these departments below.
It is the Correze department of southern Limousin that is the most visited part of the region and where most of the popular highlights are situated, although the Creuse and Haute-Vienne departments also have their own places of interest for the more intrepid explorer!
Correze
The Correze department has a great deal to enjoy, with traditional towns and villages set in beautiful countryside and the upper reaches of the Dordogne river.
This is especially true of the south of the department where the countryside and villages have a lot in common with the neighbouring departments of the Lot and the Dordogne.
The capital of Correze is Tulle , a town with and interesting historic centre. North-east of Tulle we particularly enjoyed a visit to Meymac , a detour to the pretty village of Saint-Angel and the small historical centre of the village that gives its name to the department at Correze
The town of Donzenac is towards the west of the Correze department, north of Brive-la-Gaillarde, and within easy reach of several highlights including the impressive walled town of Uzerche on the Vezere river, which is one of our favourite towns in Limousin, and the two villages of Treignac and Ségur-le-Chateau that are both classified among the 'most beautiful villages of France'.
In the south-east of Correze you can find three more 'most beautiful villages of France' close together: Turenne , Collonges-la-Rouge and Curemonte . All three are very different in character and well worth exploring.
Close to here the pretty town of Beaulieu-sur-Dordogne also has a centre containing medieval houses and a church, and is in a picturesque setting on the banks of the Dordogne river. The small town of Argentat a short distance to the north is especially lovely with its old houses overhanging the river.
The pretty scenery and the proximity of this group of villages and towns to the eastern Dordogne and northern Lot departments, each also very attractive, makes the south-east Correze the most visited part of Limousin.
See the Correze travel guide for more highlights and information
Northern Limousin: Haute-Vienne / Creuse
The Haute-Vienne and Creuse departments of northern Limousin are less visited than their southern neighbour, Correze, but each has its own quiet highlights waiting to be discovered and explored.
Haute-Vienne
The capital of the Haute-Vienne department is the town of Limoges . Well known for its pottery, Limoges also has some historical monuments of interest to visit.
To the north-west of Limoges a particularly poignant visit is to Oradour-sur Glane , a village destroyed by the Germans during the second world war and retained unchanged since that day in tribute.
To the east of Limoges the town of Saint-Leonard-de-Noblat is pleasant to explore, and Eymoutiers in the south-east corner of the department also has an attractive historic centre.
Close to here the popular leisure lake called the Lac de Vassiviere is on the border between Haute-Vienne and Creuse and a popular base for leisure activities in the summer months.
To the west of Limoges you arrive at Aixe-sur-Vienne , the gateway town to the Regional Natural Park of the Perigord-Limousin. Close to here, Rochechouart is the site of a meteorite impact and has an attractive chateau.
The countryside to the north of the Haute-Vienne also has some interesting sights and places to visit such as Bellac and Le Dorat with its romanesque collegiale church. A short distance south-west of Bellac we recommend a visit Mortemart , classified as one of the 'most beautiful villages in France'.
See the Haute-Vienne travel guide for more highlights and information
Creuse
In the Creuse department the most popular attraction is Aubusson , known worldwide for its rugs and tapestries a fact commemorated by museums in the town.
To the west of the department the market town of La Souterraine is another undiscovered highlight, and in the centre of Creuse we enjoyed a walk around Guéret, the capital of the department.
Close to Gueret your children will enjoy getting lost in the 'Labyrinthe Géant de Guéret', a giant maze covering more that two hectares and claimed to be the largest in the world!
Further east you can visit Evaux-les-Bains, the only spa town in the Limousin region.
In the north-east of the department you can visit the unusual landscape created by granite boulders called the Pierres Jaumatres at Toulx-Sainte-Croix and also the 15th century Chateau de Boussac, a richly furnished castle that is among the most imposing in Limousin.
Also in north-east Creuse, another imposing castle is the ruins of the Chateau de Crozant, on a rocky outcrop above the village of the same name and on a site occupied since prehistoric times.
In the south-west of Creuse you enter the northern Regional Natural Park des Millevaches and can also visit the largest lake in the Limousin region, the Lac de Vassiviere, which has beaches and various leisure activities.
Another natural highlight here is the waterfall called the Cascade des Jarraux at Saint-Martin-Chateaux.
(Oradour-sur-Glane photo courtesy Dennis Nilsson, Sweden)
See also:
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Who designed the 'Queen's House' at Greenwich, in the early 17th century? | The Queen’s House, Greenwich | The Seventeenth Century Lady
The Queen’s House, Greenwich
By Andrea Zuvich on
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The Queen’s House in Greenwich is located in the same area as the Old Royal Naval College, the Maritime Museum, Greenwich Park, and is a short walk away from the Greenwich Observatory and Greenwich Market. Once a royal retreat, it is now a free museum open to the enjoyment of all. I took as many photos as I could, and I hope you enjoy them. I was very fortunate that the day began cloudy only to turn into a gloriously sunny, warm day.
Built for Anne of Denmark in 1616 to a design by Inigo Jones, this was the first classical building in England. After Anne died, her son’s wife, Henrietta Maria, lived here for only a few years prior to the outbreak of the English Civil War. You can read up about the history of The Queen’s House here .
This was, to my shame, my first visit to The Queen’s House. I know, I know, I should have gone before, especially as I lived in London for a few years.
Let’s start off with the First Floor (Second Floor in the USA). This floor has the following:
1) History of the House
2) Historic Greenwich
| Inigo Jones |
Which food item is advertised as 'You either love it or hate it'? | The Queen's House at Greenwich reopens after £3m restoration | Art and design | The Guardian
Architecture
The Queen's House at Greenwich reopens after £3m restoration
The first purely classical English house now features gold leaf work by the Turner prize winner Richard Wright
Artist Richard Wright was commissioned to create a gold leaf fresco in the Great Hall as part of the restoration. Photograph: Facundo Arrizabalaga/EPA
Tuesday 4 October 2016 09.23 EDT
Last modified on Tuesday 4 October 2016 17.00 EDT
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For true authenticity, Anne of Denmark’s beautiful white house in Greenwich, which reopens after a £3m restoration, should really have a stream of traffic running through it.
When, 400 years ago the queen commissioned a brilliant young architect called Inigo Jones to build her the first purely classical house in England, a shockingly modern creation instead of the warren of red brick buildings of the Tudor palace down by the riverside, the only minor inconvenience was that the main road, now a colonnaded walkway, ran right through it.
Jones’s solution was to build the house as the grandest bridge in England over the road, which was enclosed in 10ft walls to protect the royal privacy.
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The Queen’s House is part of the Royal Museums Greenwich in London. Photograph: Alastair Grant/AP
The house, now part of the Royal Museums Greenwich complex, reopens with a dazzling art collection including many pictures that originally hung there returning on loan, among them a huge painting by Orazio Gentileschi from the Royal Collection, which Henrietta Maria and Charles I commissioned for the house in the 17th century.
The new hang also includes hundreds of paintings from the Greenwich collection, including works by Canaletto, Hogarth, Romney and Stubbs, and the magnificent Armada portrait of Elizabeth I, once owned by Sir Francis Drake, which the museum acquired this summer through a public appeal.
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The Tulip Stairs, the first cantilevered stairs built in Britain. Photograph: Alastair Grant/AP
Pride of place, however, in the centre of the grandest room, the double-height Great Hall, has gone to a newly created work, the largest to date by the Turner prize winner Richard Wright, which looks as if a cloud of golden moths has settled all over the ceiling and upper walls. It took nine weeks for Wright and a team of assistants to apply the 23-carat gold scrolls and flourishes, inspired by Inigo Jones designs for court masques and the beautiful metalwork of his spiral staircase in the house, directly on to the walls.
“For many years, displays in this house have concentrated on its connection with the maritime museum,” its curator Christine Riding said.
“We wanted to do something that had nothing to do with the sea, but recreated some of the princely splendour originally associated with the house.”
The house, inspired by the Italian villas of Andrea Palladio, who in turn was inspired by the ancient Roman architect Vitruvius, has been described by Jane Sidell of Historic England as “arguably the most important building in the entire canon of British architectural history”.
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The Great Hall in the Queen’s House. Photograph: Alastair Grant/AP
Riding said the style was also politically significant. “Anne was trying to create a sophisticated, educated, European-minded court here, a rival to that of James I. It is a question where she could ever have seen such buildings before, but she certainly saw the drawings and books Jones brought back from Italy.”
If Anne walked back into the house today, she would recognise many of the features she planned with the architect, but she never saw it in life. Work stopped for several years after she became ill in 1618, and she died in 1619. Her house wasn’t completed until 1638, for another immigrant queen, the French Henrietta Maria, wife of Charles I – and with his execution it would be stripped by the Commonwealth of many of its royal fittings, leaving only the beautiful shell of the most modern house in England.
The Queen’s House at Greenwich reopens to the public from 11 October, admission free.
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After the 'Crucifixion' in whose tomb was Jesus buried? | Where Was Jesus Buried? | March 30, 2012 | Religion & Ethics NewsWeekly | PBS
Religion & Ethics NewsWeekly
Where Was Jesus Buried?
March 30, 2012
KIM LAWTON, correspondent: During Holy Week, Christians remember the familiar story of Jesus’s death and resurrection. But exactly where does that story take place? The Bible offers only a few clues.
REV. MARK MOROZOWICH (Catholic University of America): The Gospels weren’t really written to record a history. They were written to provide a testimony of faith.
LAWTON: According to the New Testament, Jesus was crucified at a spot outside Jerusalem called Golgotha, which in Aramaic means “place of the skull.” The Latin word for skull is calvaria, and in English many Christians refer to the site of the crucifixion as Calvary. The Gospel of John says there was a garden at Golgotha, and a tomb which had never been used. Since the tomb was nearby, John says, that’s where Jesus’s body was placed. The Gospel writers say the tomb was owned by a prominent rich man, Joseph of Arimathea. They describe it as cut out of rock, with a large stone that could be rolled in front of the entrance.
Father Mark Morozowich is acting dean of the School of Theology and Religious Studies at the Catholic University of America.
MOROZOWICH: At the time of Jesus, when he was crucified, he was not really a significant feature in Israel. I mean, certainly there was jealousy, certainly he had his followers. But there was no church that was built immediately upon his death or to mark his resurrection.
LAWTON: In the fourth century, as Emperor Constantine was consolidating the Roman Empire under Christianity, his mother, St. Helena, traveled to Jerusalem. According to tradition, she discovered relics of the cross upon which Jesus had been crucified. The spot had been venerated by early Christians, and she concluded it was Golgotha. Constantine ordered the construction of a basilica, which became known as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
MOROZOWICH: Now people throughout history have debated was it really there, or was it here? Traditionally in that fourth century time that was so amazing, they found this rock and this tomb not far from one another as we see even today in the church you know they’re just a short distance from one another.
LAWTON: Over the centuries, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was destroyed, rebuilt and renovated several times. There have been numerous power struggles over who should control it, and even today, sometimes violent squabbles can break out among the several Christian denominations that share jurisdiction. But it is considered one of the holiest sites in Christianity, a massive place of pilgrimage and intense spiritual devotion. At the entrance, visitors can kiss the Stone of Unction which, according to tradition, marks the place where Jesus’ body was washed for burial. The dark chapel commemorating the crucifixion is in one upper corner, and the place marking the tomb on the other side.
MOROZOWICH: What more of a moving place to walk in Jerusalem, the place of the crucifixion, to meditate at Golgotha where Jesus Christ died, the place where he rose from the tomb. So they are very beautiful and very moving moments when a person can have a very deep relationship with God.
LAWTON: During Holy Week in particular, the Holy Sepulchre is the center for special devotions, such as the Holy Fire ritual, where flames from inside the tomb area are passed among the candles of worshippers.
MOROZOWICH: The bishop brings out the light from the tomb and this illuminates and plays on this whole sense of the light of the world coming forth again.
LAWTON: But despite the history and devotion, some question whether that indeed is the true spot. Some Christians, including many Protestants, believe Jesus could have been crucified and buried at a different place in Jerusalem known as the Garden Tomb.
STEVE BRIDGE (Deputy Director, The Garden Tomb): The tomb was discovered in 1867. For hundreds of years before that it had lain buried under rock and rubble and earth and things had grown on top of it.
LAWTON: Steve Bridge is deputy director at the Garden Tomb, which is located just outside the Old City’s Damascus Gate. He says this site was promoted in the late nineteenth century by British General Charles Gordon, who argued that the hillside with the features of a human skull could be actual crucifixion site.
BRIDGE: When we’re looking, now we’re looking side on, and you can see maybe what looks like the two eye-sockets there on the rock face. The Bible tells us Jesus was crucified outside the city walls at a place called Golgotha, which simply means the skull, and so many people believe that Skull Hill is Golgotha, the place of the skull where Jesus died.
LAWTON: This Skull Hill looms over an ancient garden, with cisterns and a wine press, which could indicate that it was owned by a wealthy person. In the garden was a tomb, hewn from the rock.
BRIDGE: The tomb itself is at least two-thousand years old. Many date it as older than that. But it’s certainly not less than 2,000 years old. It’s a Jewish tomb, it’s definitely a rolling stone tomb. That means the entrance would be sealed by rolling a large stone across.
LAWTON: Inside the tomb is a 1300-year-old marking of a cross with the Byzantine words “Jesus Christ, the Beginning and the End.”
BRIDGE: So there’s burial space for at least two bodies, probably more. That, again, matches the bible description. It was a family tomb that Joseph had built for himself and his family.
LAWTON: Bridge says Christians are deeply moved by this visual image of where Jesus may have been placed after he was taken down from the cross.
BRIDGE: On that day, as far as people were concerned, that was the end of the story, that was the end of one that they had hoped would be the Messiah, because a dead Messiah is no good. But three days later, we believe God raised Jesus to life and that was the start of what we now call Christianity of course.
LAWTON: According to Bridge, the Garden Tomb is not trying to set up a competition with the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
BRIDGE: There’s no doubt that historically, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, has the evidence on its side, and we certainly wouldn’t want to do or say anything that would suggest that we think they’re wrong about the site or that we think that we’re right. What we say we have here is something that matches the Bible description.
LAWTON: And Bridge says, for him, it doesn’t ultimately matter where the actual place is.
BRIDGE: That’s very secondary to Jesus himself, who we believe he is, and why he died, and, you know, on that score us and the Holy Sepulchre would be exactly the same, telling the same story but on a different site.
LAWTON: Father Morozowich agrees that, especially at Easter time, Christians should focus more on what Jesus did, rather than on where he may have done it.
MOROZOWICH: Where he walked is very, very important. At the same time though, we know that Jesus is more than this historical figure that walked the earth, and in his resurrection, he transcends all of that. So he is as real and present in Mishawaka and in Washington, DC as he is in Jerusalem.
LAWTON: I’m Kim Lawton reporting.
Related Reading
THE SEPULCHRE OF CHRIST AND THE MEDIEVAL WEST by Colin Morris
THE CHURCH OF THE HOLY SEPULCHRE by Martin Biddle
SAVING THE HOLY SEPULCHRE: HOW RIVAL CHRISTIANS CAME TOGETHER TO RESCUE THEIR HOLIST SHRINCE by Raymond Cohen
Related Links
| Joseph of Arimathea |
In Shakespeare's 'Two Gentlemen Of Verona', which character hasa servant called 'Speed'? | Where was Jesus buried? - OnFaith
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Where was Jesus buried?
c. 2012 Religion & Ethics NewsWeekly JERUSALEM (RNS) During Holy Week, Christians remember the familiar story of Jesus’s death and … Continued
by Kim Lawton| Religion News Service
c. 2012 Religion & Ethics NewsWeekly
JERUSALEM (RNS) During Holy Week, Christians remember the familiar story of Jesus’s death and resurrection. But exactly where does that story take place? The Bible offers only a few clues.
“The Gospels weren’t really written to record a history,” the Rev. Mark Morozowich, acting dean of the School of Theology and Religious Studies at the Catholic University of America, told the PBS program “Religion & Ethics NewsWeekly.” ‘’They were written to provide a testimony of faith.”
According to the New Testament, Jesus was crucified at a spot outside Jerusalem called Golgotha, which in Aramaic means “place of the skull.” The Latin word for skull is “calvaria,” and in English, many Christians refer to the site of the crucifixion as Calvary.
The Gospel of John says there was a garden at Golgotha, and a tomb which had never been used. Since the tomb was nearby, John says, that’s where Jesus’s body was placed. The Gospel writers say the tomb was owned by a prominent rich man, Joseph of Arimathea. They describe it as hewn from rock, with a large stone that could be rolled in front of the entrance.
“When he was crucified, (Jesus) was not really a significant feature in Israel,” said Morozowich. “Certainly there was jealousy, certainly he had his followers, but there was no church that was built immediately upon his death or to mark his resurrection.”
In the 4th Century, as Emperor Constantine was consolidating the Roman Empire under his newfound Christian faith, his mother, St. Helena, traveled to Jerusalem. According to tradition, she discovered relics of the cross upon which Jesus had been crucified. The spot had been venerated by early Christians, and she concluded it was Golgotha. Constantine ordered the construction of a basilica on the spot, which became known as the Church of the Holy Sepulchre.
Over the centuries, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre was destroyed, rebuilt and renovated several times. There have been numerous power struggles over who should control it, and even today, sometimes violent squabbles can break out among the several Christian denominations that share jurisdiction.
Still, it’s considered one of the holiest sites in Christianity, a massive place of pilgrimage and intense spiritual devotion. “What more of a moving place, to walk in Jerusalem, the place of the crucifixion, to meditate at Golgotha where Jesus Christ died, the place where he rose from the tomb,” Morozowich said.
But despite the history and devotion, some Christians — including many Protestants — believe Jesus could have been crucified and buried at a different place in Jerusalem known as the Garden Tomb.
“The (Garden) Tomb was discovered in 1867. For hundreds of years before that, it had lain buried under rock and rubble and earth,” said Steve Bridge, deputy director at the Garden Tomb, which is located just outside the Old City’s Damascus Gate.
He said this site was promoted in the late 19th century by British Gen. Charles Gordon. The site includes a rock formation, with two large indentations, which resemble the eye sockets of a human skull. Gordon, and others, believed this could have been the “place of the skull” mentioned in the Bible.
The ancient garden below the rock formation has ruins of cisterns and a wine press, which Bridge said could indicate that it was owned by a wealthy person, perhaps Joseph of Arimathea. In the garden is a tomb, cut from the rock.
“The tomb itself is at least 2,000 years old. Many date it as older than that. But it’s certainly not less than 2,000 years old,” Bridge said. “It’s a Jewish tomb. It’s definitely a rolling stone tomb. That means the entrance would be sealed by rolling a large stone across.”
According to Bridge, the Garden Tomb is not trying to set up a competition with the Church of the Holy Sepulchre. “There’s no doubt that historically, the Church of the Holy Sepulchre, has the evidence on its side,” Bridge said. “What we say we have here is something that matches the Bible description.”
And for him, Bridge said it ultimately doesn’t matter where the actual place was, because he believes Jesus rose from the dead three days after the crucifixion. “On that score, us and the Holy Sepulchre would be exactly the same, telling the same story, but on a different site,” he said.
Morozowich agreed. He said his faith teaches that during the Easter season, Christians should focus more on what Jesus did, rather than on where he may have done it.
“We know that Jesus is more than this historical figure that walked the earth. And in his resurrection, he transcends all of that so he is as real and present in Mishawaka (Ind.) and in Washington, D.C. as he is in Jerusalem,” said Morozowich.
(A version of this story was first broadcast on the PBS television program “Religion & Ethics NewsWeekly” www.pbs.org/religion)
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Who played the part of the cook 'Mrs Bridges', in the TV series 'Upstairs, Downstairs'? | "Upstairs, Downstairs" Reviews & Ratings - IMDb
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66 out of 68 people found the following review useful:
Goosey goosey gander, wither shall I wander? Upstairs anddownstairs and in my lady's chamber...
from London
3 July 2001
It is a widely held belief that Upstairs Downstairs was television at its finest, and the most popular tv drama in the world. But why precisely is so good? It is almost entirely studio bound and looks like it should be just another worthy but squeaky clean period drama. This is why it is very hard to convince anyone unfamiliar with the series of why it is so special. But John Hawkesworth, the producer, believed television was electronic theatre, not second rate film, and this allows the stories to concentrate on words, emotions and intense acting. The grittiness of the series, the performances and its skill at depicting human emotions were its chief assets. Gordon Jackson's magnificent character performance as Hudson is a display of a modest, warm actor who made a character who stood for all he disliked totally loveable. David Langton's charming, liberal Richard Bellamy was a far less snobbish and severe man than his butler, but his first wife, the statuesque Lady Marjorie certainly made up for him. Simon Williams' portrayal of Lord Lucan lookalike James Bellamy showed real development over the years, the haughty, caddish son who is changed forever by the war and plays his final episode "All The King's Horses" nothing short of brilliantly. Lesley Anne-Down and Jacqueline Tong's introduction, the Christmas story "Goodwill To All Men" in many ways sums the series up, combining a devastating look at the London poor with the escapist charm of a traditional Edwardian Christmas, leading to a bittersweet conclusion offering an idyllic scene of Georgina being giving her presents as the snow falls outside, just after her grandmother's wise observation that her outing to help the needy was more out of a need for adventure than real charity. If the first season was the series finding its feet and the second was it settling down to more of the same, the third season is the oddest of them all. It reflects a period of change both in pre-war Britain and behind the scenes, as Elizabeth and Lady Marjorie were both written out at the actors' requests. This leaves the upstairs structure of the house unsettled, and the series is dark and sombre, as James' doomed marriage and Richard's bereavement make the house seem a far cry from the high society gatherings and royal dinners of the early seasons.
Although the fourth series, which depicts the war years so powerfully is considered the best, I would personally dispute this. Good as it is, what is most interestiung is the fifth series, as Britain's social structure is collapsing, and the full impact of the war is felt. The roarring twenties try to blot out the horrors of the trenches but leave James and many like him haunted, directionless, forgotten and despairing. The fifth series also introduces a new wife for Richard in the form of the delectable Hannah Gordon. Her interpretation of Virginia is a joy to watch; beautiful, witty and poetic. The daring storylines provide all the characters with moments to shine in, from Lady Marjorie's adultery in the excellent "Magic Casements" which deals unconventionally with an age-old theme, to the heartbreaking "I Dies From Love" which details the suicide of a kitchen maid. The sexual attitudes of the day were explored in "A Suitable Marriage", the bleak "A Cry For Help" and the astonishing "Whom God Hath Joined." Some of the wildest plotlines should not have worked but did, such as Hudson's hopeless affair with a parlour maid in "Disillusion" and Mrs Bridges' breakdown in "Why Is Her Door Locked?" There are really only two unsuccessful episodes of the entire sixty eight, but many masterpieces. "The Glorious Dead" and "Another Year" are devastating essays on the tragedies of the war, and "Distant Thunder" is a superbly claustrophobic episode, as war looms both in the household and in Europe. "The Sudden Storm" ends the third season with war declared, Daisy crying with the fear of what is to come while the rest of the world seems to be celebrating. The final episode, "Wither Shall I Wander" ended the series marvellously, with a perfect mixture of the happy and the sad. The pomp of Georgina's wedding allows a diversion from the sale of the house and the loss of James. Hudson delivers a tremendous speech to Edward on the tradition of service now dying out, and one can't help but be swept along with the fever of the episode. The final scene, as Rose is left alone in the house with the ghosts of the past echoing around her, is both a fine depictuion of the sentimentality of leaving a lifestyle behind and a cunning wallow in nostalgia. The like of Upstairs Downstairs will never be seen again. This type of television, like the England it depicted, is gone forvever.
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The Perfect Time Machine
from Germany
6 October 2005
Probably the best TV series ever! For someone Anglophile like me it is the perfect time machine to enter a typical household of the Victorian/Edwardian era. Although it shows an "upper class" household, the focus is on the "downstairs" personnel. The problems and stories of the kitchen maidens, footmen etc are much more colorful and sympathetic than the actions of "her ladyship" and Lord Bellamy upstairs. Nevertheless absolutely all characters are designed thoroughly, sympathetic and authentic. Furthermore this series shows a sort of real "theater" which has left TV long time ago and will never appear again! Long close-ups which show the affection of every actor, long dialogs with full sentences and - long pauses between them to enable the actors and the viewer to reflect everything. In addition the fine set design, the costumes, the "funny stuff" around, for example an early - hand-crafted! - vacuum-cleaner! Another extraordinary fact is the combination of fictional characters with real history: Everything finds its way into the story, the death of Queen Victoria, the Titanic Disaster, WW I, the Spanish Influenza, Wall Street and so on. A period of nearly 30 years is described, and with the last episode you are crying, just because you wish to know how everything will continue... But, that was a lack of this absolutely brilliant series: The main characters hardly age during the decades! Butler Hudson and cook Mrs. Bridges for example are already "old people" in the first episode, playing 1901. In the last episode - 1929 - they have not changed in any way, they even plan to "start a new life", running a small guest-house. After having seen it in German TV, where several episodes are not shown, I bought the complete DVD edition and can only recommend this to everyone!
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24 out of 25 people found the following review useful:
Still pure magic.........
from Blaenafon, Gwent
3 September 2003
Having first watched this series as a mere boy of 10 years in the early 70's, it is indeed a pleasure to see it being repeated on UK cable TV as I write.
To me, it has lost none of it's charm and appeal, particularly the richness of characters, characters which were allowed to develop fully over the period it was screened.
If you haven't seen this, make an effort to do so - it was and is one of the most beautifully written and acted British drama series to grace the screen.
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21 out of 23 people found the following review useful:
The Best Drama Ever on Television
from Brooklyn NY
27 July 1999
It wasn't a huge budget that made this series great, immensely popular, much honored, and the biggest hit in PBS history. It was the fabulous writing and the rich characterizations presented to us every week. All these people we cared about, even negatively in the case of James. And that's why even now there is a U/D web site. Interwoven were the historical events of Edwardian England stretching through World War One into the Twenties. The series reached it's peak halfway through the war with "Women Shall Not Weep" - a magnificent episode available on video. By the Twenties the upper class was cracking more than the lower - a theme of the series. U/D was such a hit America tried its own hand at the wealthy/servants scenario with "Beacon Hill" - highly touted but dismally written flop. Special credits to Jean Marsh as Rose (who never found happiness, but wouldn't have been happy anyplace but the world she was brought up in!); Marsh also was a creator of the series. It was an absolute joy.
P.S. In case the credits don't reflect this, Daisy's last name was 'Peel".
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21 out of 24 people found the following review useful:
an Edwardian soap opera
from United Kingdom
9 July 2005
Set from pre-World War I to the late 1920s, this series ran for five years and was a cornerstone of ITV drama in the UK.
Co-created by Jean Marsh and debuting in good old black and white, before moving into colour, 'Upstairs, Downstairs' remains the best (and the soapiest) drama of above and below stairs.
Too many people in the cast to mention, but kudos should go to David Langton, who played Richard Bellamy throughout, to the two Lady Bellamys, Rachel Gurney and Hannah Gordon, to Simon Williams and Nicola Pagett as James and Elizabeth, and Lesley Anne Down as Georgina.
Below stairs there were three key characters - Gordon Jackson as Hudson the butler, Angela Baddeley as Mrs Bridges the cook (a character so famous she had her own range of biscuits and preserves for many years), and Jean Marsh as Rose, the house-parlourmaid. I also remember Karen Dotrice as Lily, Jacqueline Tong as Daisy, John Alderton and Pauline Collins as Thomas and Sarah (who got their own spin-off series), and Christopher Beeny as Edward.
Full of drama - the Titanic disaster, debt collectors, intrigue and affairs, and of course the obligatory conflict between ranks, this series had it all. It enjoyed several repeat runs on TV and now has a new life on DVD, well-deserved.
Highly recommended if you've never seen it; if you have you don't need convincing.
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15 out of 16 people found the following review useful:
Classy, intelligent, and engrossing Edwardian era drama
2 April 2006
*** This review may contain spoilers ***
This is the best dramatic series ever produced in Britain or aired on PBS. It chronicles life at 165 Eaton Place, depicting the personal lives of the aristocratic Bellamy family above stairs and their servants below. Actual historical events are incorporated into the story, including the death of Queen Victoria, the sinking of the Titanic, World War I, the General Strike, and the Wall Street Crash. It paints a vivid portrait of the discrepancy in social status of those in service as compared with their wealthy, titled employers. Nevertheless, we see the loyalty and affection these servants frequently have to the family they serve.
The master of the household is Richard Bellamy, a Conservative Member of Parliament and clergyman's son who married above his station in life. He is a man of both professional and personal integrity, whose political views sometimes come into conflict with his wife's titled family, the Southwolds. His wife, Lady Marjorie, is the Earl of Southwold's daughter, an elegant and gracious lady, the very epitome of poise, who can handle any situation with admirable aplomb.
Their tall, dark, and handsome son and heir, Captain James Bellamy, is transformed from a haughty, aimless cad to a wounded, anguished officer devastated by war. Really, much of the series is a depiction of James's struggle to "find himself". The spoiled and rebellious daughter, Elizabeth, disdains the debutante life expected of her, opting instead for charitable and feminist causes, frequently setting the household into a stir. Eventually she makes an ill fated match with the poet Lawrence Kirbridge.
The middle class comes into play when James marries his father's stately, radiant, and dignified secretary Hazel, a kind and giving individual who is neglected and rejected by her husband in favour of his step-cousin, Georgina Worsley. Georgina is a stunning but absolutely self absorbed creature, initially engrossed with the social whirl of her own season. Her sole redeeming behaviour is her wartime nursing but alas, she follows it up with a decade of partying, cigarette holder in one hand and cocktail in the other.
After the untimely death of Lady Marjorie on the Titanic, the genuine chemistry at Eaton Place is between Hazel and her father-in-law Richard, who hold the fort together while James is off soldiering. Later Richard marries a Scottish widow, Virginia Hamilton, a rather willful individual I never much took to. She lacks both Lady Marjorie's grace and Hazel's earnest integrity, making an uninteresting lady of the manor when compared with her two predecessors. Once again 165 is home to children after Virginia moves in with her two young offspring, Alice and William.
Frequent upstairs visitors include Lady Prudence, Lady Marjorie's loyal and outspoken friend, the most overbearing creature on earth and provider of comic relief, and Sir Geoffrey Dillon, the Southwold family solicitor. I quite enjoyed the character of this harbinger of financial gloom and discrete maker of "arrangements" to cover up the frequent family scandals.
Downstairs the servants form a family unto themselves at their own kitchen table, with Mr. Hudson presiding in state at its head. Hudson is the stern Scottish butler who takes pride in the Bellamy family upstairs, manages their household efficiently, and puts the other servants in their proper place when necessary. The cook, Mrs. Bridges, is queen of her own domain, the kitchen. She can be maternal, but is generally in fine scolding fettle, always in a huff over some outrage, culinary or otherwise, and shouting at her poor scullery maid.
Rose, the longtime parlourmaid, is one of the real stars of the entire series. We see much of life at "good old 165" through her eyes. She is such a kind, hard working, and loyal soul and deserving of so much better than life in service offers. She longs for a husband and children of her own, and has her own ill fated romance with Australian sheep farmer Gregory Wilmot. There's also the blossoming romance and marriage between the vulnerable housemaid, Daisy, and her footman, Edward. During the series, we witness Edward's progress from cheeky young footman to shell shocked soldier to struggling unemployed husband to new chauffeur to butler-in-training.
Various other servants come and go from 165 Eaton Place, including the feisty, brazen Sarah who both causes trouble in the household and induces it upon herself; the crafty chauffeur Thomas; Lady Marjorie's aloof and snooty personal maid Roberts; the deranged footman Alfred and the smug one Frederick; the naive parlourmaid Lily; the embittered governess Miss Treadwell; the tragic Irish scullery maid Emily and her later replacement, poor dear Ruby.
Upstairs Downstairs depicts society galas, country house weekends, and an elegant dinner party fit literally for a king. It features five series, which can be divided into three groups based upon who is mistress of the household. Series 1-2 with Lady Marjorie involves almost a scandal an episode! Series 3-4 sees Hazel as the new mistress and casts a darker, more serious tone with her marital difficulties and all the drama of the Great War. The final Series 5 features Richard's new wife Virginia, Georgina's flapper years, and focus on James's post war wanderings. The characters do not age during the thirty or so years spanned by the series, from the latter Victorian era to the Roaring Twenties.
It's an absolutely magnificent series that boasts both wonderful screen writing and acting, as well as authentic period costumes and decor. It flawlessly captures a past era, contrasts graphically its titled and servant class distinctions, and involves the viewer emotionally in the fate of its characters, both those above and those below stairs.
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14 out of 15 people found the following review useful:
the finest thing that has ever been on television
from New York, United States
15 June 2006
My wife and I are just starting the fifth and last season. Last fall we started going through all the episodes on DVD in order. We do around 3 per week.
I never saw the series in the 1970s, though I heard of it. Some time in the mid 80s the local PBS station in New York showed most of them in order, a couple per week. I was absolutely enthralled. It's been about 20 years so we decided to have another look.
They absolutely stand up well. Better than well. I will emphatically repeat the judgment I made twenty years ago: this series is the finest thing that has ever been on television.
Yes, I know, you can't compare "apples and oranges" like that. I suppose the single ONE best thing that's ever been on television (in the sense of a one day or briefer event) in my experience was the moon landing in July 1969.
Still, in spite of that, all in all, if I had to pick, Upstairs-Downstairs is the best PROGRAM that has ever been on television. Far and away. If you are new to it, I envy you. I am already mourning the last episode, which I will see again in a few weeks at most. My only consolation is that in twenty years, I can watch it all again.
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9 out of 11 people found the following review useful:
The best TV drama series, ever, period.
Author: bw92116
20 December 2009
No other television drama made in any country has equaled or surpassed this one in quality from the beginning to the end of the series. Interesting and relevant themes, historical background, outstanding writing, plots, characters, sets, direction, acting, photography, editing - every aspect is executed brilliantly and and so well that you don't even notice them. And yet it's more than just the sum of those elements - it's a complete package that is compelling and unforgettable. What else can you say? This is a milestone in television production. If you haven't seen it, you're missing a major event in television history. Get the entire series, and watch all 68 episodes, in order. You will never forget this show.
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9 out of 11 people found the following review useful:
Upstairs Downstairs
from Canada
15 May 2005
I would just like to say that Upstairs Downstairs has got to be one of my most favorite British Soaps of all time. It's such a shame that it had to end. The era is fascinating to me, and I really enjoyed the way the servants interacted with each other and the occupants of the household.
The story lines were believable, as were the characters. And when the Titanic was mentioned as the cause of death to the first Mrs. Bellamy, it brought a sense of reality to the show.
The whole premise of the show was brilliant, because I'm sure that was the ways it really was in those days. What with the class distinctions and all.
Over all I truly enjoyed the entire production.
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8 out of 10 people found the following review useful:
"What are we going to do with Uncle Arthur?"
25 August 2008
*** This review may contain spoilers ***
'Upstairs, Downstairs' was the surprise television drama hit of 1971 despite originally going out late on Sunday nights with very little fanfare. The Edwardian drama was the brainchild of actresses Jean Marsh and Eileen Atkins, inspired by the immense popularity of the B.B.C.'s 'The Forsyte Saga'. Set at 165 Eaton Place, it told of the lives of the Bellamy family and their servants. Marsh played 'Rose Buck', the ever so-prim head parlour maid, with Atkins earmarked for 'Sarah a.k.a. Clemence', the cheeky Cockney girl who brings scandal and shame to the Bellamy household. When she proved unavailable, Pauline Collins ( fresh from the first series of 'The Liver Birds' ) replaced her. With all due respect to Atkins, its impossible now to think of 'Sarah' being played by anyone else. I loved the way she stood up for herself, dreamt constantly of a better life, and gave as good as she got. Gordon Jackson played the strict Scottish butler 'Angus Hudson', with Angela Baddeley as 'Mrs.Bridges', who ruled her kitchen with a rolling pin of iron. Tory M.P. 'Richard Bellamy' ( David Langton ) seemed a decent man. In addition to him, there was his elegant wife 'Lady Marjorie' ( Rachel Gurney ), their caddish son James ( Simon Williams ) and wayward daughter Elisabeth ( Nicola Pagett ).
When not working, the servants used to discuss what was going on upstairs, such as James' money troubles ( 'A Pair Of Exiles' ) or The King coming to dinner ( 'Guest Of Honour' ) or Miss Lizzie marrying an impotent poet ( 'For Love Of Love' ). One of the strongest episodes was 'I Dies From Love' in which Irish scullery maid Emily ( Evin Crowley ) hanged herself after being cast aside by a footman. To add insult to injury, we then found out that her body had been earmarked for medical experimentation despite her Catholic upbringing. There was no equality in those days even in death.
Other servants were cheeky footman 'Edward', played by Christopher Beeny, and Jenny Tomasin as dimwitted scullery maid 'Ruby'. John Alderton came aboard in the second season as chauffeur 'Thomas Watkins', a fairly straight character to begin with, but who then evolved into a devious con-artist - witness his fleecing of the Bellamy's when a blackmailer came on the scene with Lady Marjorie's love letters to Captain Hammond ( David Kernan ). Thomas and Sarah later got their own show. Poor Lady Marjorie went down on the Titanic ( funny how James Cameron never mentioned this ) at the start of Season 2. Her replacement was the tasty Meg Wynn Owen as 'Hazel Forrest', Richard's secretary. Elisabeth's successor was 'Miss Georgina Worsley' ( Lesley-Anne Down ), a vacuous deb who eventually enlisted as a nurse during The Great War. One of the great things about 'Updown' was that, as well as being top-notch drama, you got a history lesson as well. The Great War episodes were fabulous. One of the most moving scenes ever shown on television was when Edward came back from the trenches with shell-shock. Full credit should go to script-editor Alfred Shaughnessy and producer John Hawksworth, who both took all the major creative decisions. The wonderful Strauss-like theme tune was by Alexander Faris.
'Updown' caught on in America, despite five Season 1 episodes being omitted due to being made in black and white. The Americans attempted their own version, the unsuccessful 'Beacon Hill'.
After five seasons, 'Updown' ended in 1975. A lengthy repeat run then followed, and 'Guest Of Honour' was chosen as part of I.T.V.'s 'Best Of British' season in 1982. It is presently to be found on I.T.V.-3.
Sagitta Productions moved to the B.B.C. in 1976, where they did the equally popular 'The Duchess Of Duke Street'. 'The Two Ronnies' did an 'Updown' parody, as did Stanley Baxter ( filmed on the same sets used in the show! ), the 'Carry On' team spoofed it in two editions of 'Carry On Laughing', and it inspired Jimmy Perry & David Croft's last sitcom 'You Rang Milord?'. Perhaps the most inane spin-off was 'Russell Harty Goes Upstairs, Downstairs' in which the late chat-show host was seen dropping in on the residents of Eaton Place for tea and a chat.
Forty years after it first appeared, 'Updown' remains compelling, powerful ( it tackled difficult subjects such as homosexuality, adultery, suicide, mental breakdown, and the aftermath of war ), sometimes humorous, always entertaining viewing. in 2010, the B.B.C. revived 'Updown' with Jean Marsh reprising her role as 'Rose' and a new family at Eaton Place. Despite it boasting superior production values, it failed to grab the imagination the way the original did, and was axed two years later. T.V. bosses would do well to take a long hard look at the original in order to learn how to do a show of this kind. It managed to pull in big audiences without insulting anyone's intelligence.
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| Angela Baddeley |
After Jesus had fallen on his way to Calvary, who helped himcarry his cross? | Upstairs, Downstairs is back with a new cast | Daily Mail Online
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The Ashes To Ashes’ actress stars as the sexy chatelaine of Eaton Place, parlour maid Rose in charge below stairs... plus a storyline set in the 1930s that’s ‘shot through with sensuality’
She has already travelled to the Eighties as Ashes To Ashes’ DI Alex Drake – now actress Keeley Hawes is heading even further back in time for an updated revival of classic period drama Upstairs, Downstairs.
The 34-year-old leads a stellar cast for the lavish new series, set in pre-war London and promising a plot ‘shot through with sensuality’.
Originally, the show was a hit for ITV in the early Seventies, but it is the BBC that is reviving it, with the help of American backers.
Lady of the house: The beautiful and ambitious Lady Agnes Holland, played by Keeley Hawes (right), will be responsible for the running of 165 Eaton Place – just like her predecessor, the imperious Lady Marjorie Bellamy. Lady Marjorie, who was played by Rachel Gurney (left), had an affair with an Army officer in 1906 and lost her life on the Titanic six years later. Ms Gurney, who went on to enjoy success on Broadway, died in Norfolk in 2001, aged 81
Art Malik, Anne Reid and Ed Stoppard are also among the distinguished cast, while Jean Marsh is to revive her role as Rose Buck, originally a lowly parlour maid but now elevated to housekeeper. She is the only character from the original series to return.
There is also a part for Dame Eileen Atkins, who first came up with the idea for the Seventies series with Ms Marsh, and now plays the formidable matriarch of the aristocratic family who move in ‘upstairs’ at 165 Eaton Place.
In the new series, which takes up the story six years after the original left off in 1930, Rose makes an emotional comeback to the London townhouse to serve the new family, under the steely Lady Agnes Holland.
Played by Ms Hawes, the lady of the house is described as ‘fragrant but ass-kicking’.
Writer Heidi Thomas, who also scripted the successful BBC’s drama Cranford, said: ‘The series will be shot through with sensuality. This is a drama very much about warm-blooded human beings.
‘In a house like Eaton Place, there is a limit to what you can keep behind closed doors. The place is a pressure cooker and the tensions continue to rise and rise until they boil over.
‘Whether the characters are upstairs or downstairs they are living in close proximity to each other and these are the dramas that will engage viewers.’
The original series, which was broadcast between 1971 and 1975, charted the lives and loves of the Bellamy family and their servants in the first 30 years of the last century.
Key characters below stairs included loyal butler Hudson, played by Gordon Jackson, who went on to star as George Cowley in The Professionals, and the autocratic cook Mrs Bridges, played by Angela Baddeley.
Thomas said: ‘When people hear you are bringing Upstairs, Downstairs back, they sort of stop breathing for a moment because they love the programme so much.
‘Everyone involved in the new version is very much aware of that feeling and they have an extraordinary desire to do it justice.
‘The original ended rather abruptly and there was a feeling the story had not run its full course. People quite rightly felt there was years’ more drama to go.’
The BBC is certainly confident of success. At first a series of three hour-long shows was commissioned for a Sunday-night slot – but the corporation has believed to have ordered another six scripts.
And a full-scale replica of Eaton Place has been built at studios in Cardiff by producers eager to avoid criticisms of cheap sets and limited locations that were levelled at the nonetheless much-loved original.
In the new series, set against the drama of the 1936 abdication crisis, the house has been inherited by the wealthy Sir Hallam Holland, a young and well-connected diplomat, following the unexpected death of his Baronet father.
Holland, who is played by 35-year-old Ed Stoppard, the son of playwright Sir Tom, takes up residence with his wife and his imposing mother Lady Maud, a free-thinking intellectual played by Dame Eileen who keeps a pet monkey called Solomon.
Art Malik plays Lady Maud’s brooding private secretary Mr Amanjit, brought over from her previous residence in India and now struggling to find a place in a household where he is considered neither upstairs nor downstairs.
The new butler Pritchard, played by theatre actor Adrian Scarborough, is described as a complex character who is ‘a very different kettle of fish’ from the stern Hudson.
The way they were: A scene from the original series, starring Angela Baddeley as Mrs Bridges and Gordon Jackson as Hudson
The younger servants include a spirited parlour maid called Ivy, played by 20-year-old Ellie Kendrick, best known for taking the title role in the BBC’s mini-series The Diary Of Anne Frank last year, and a footman called Johnny, played by 19-year-old Hollyoaks star Nico Mirallegro.
Meanwhile Rose commands the staff with the aid of the fastidious Mrs Thackery, played by veteran Dinnerladies star Anne Reid.
The new series, which begins filming next month, is being jointly funded by the American TV drama producer Masterpiece, and will be broadcast in the US shortly after it makes its British debut.
The original was not just a hit in the States, but was broadcast in more than 70 countries to an audience of more than a billion.
The BBC is planning to screen the drama as early as autumn in an attempt to steal the thunder from a new ITV drama called Downton Abbey, which also focuses on the lives of masters and servants in a single home.
Piers Wenger, head of drama at BBC Wales where the series is being made, said: ‘We are delighted to have secured the rights to Upstairs, Downstairs with the full blessing and support of the original co-creators.
‘This is not a remake but a completely new version, set in a different era with a whole new cast of characters.’
| i don't know |
Which Briton won theNobel Prize for Literature in 2001? | Nobel Prize for Literature 2001 - Press Release
Press Release
The Nobel Prize in Literature 2001
V. S. Naipaul
The Nobel Prize in Literature 2001
V. S. Naipaul
The Nobel Prize in Literature for 2001 is awarded to the British writer, born in Trinidad, V. S. Naipaul
“for having united perceptive narrative and incorruptible scrutiny in works that compel us to see the presence of suppressed histories”.
V. S. Naipaul is a literary circumnavigator, only ever really at home in himself, in his inimitable voice. Singularly unaffected by literary fashion and models he has wrought existing genres into a style of his own, in which the customary distinctions between fiction and non-fiction are of subordinate importance.
Naipaul’s literary domain has extended far beyond the West Indian island of Trinidad, his first subject, and now encompasses India, Africa, America from south to north, the Islamic countries of Asia and, not least, England. Naipaul is Conrad’s heir as the annalist of the destinies of empires in the moral sense: what they do to human beings. His authority as a narrator is grounded in his memory of what others have forgotten, the history of the vanquished.
The farcical yarns in his first work, The Mystic Masseur, and the short stories in Miguel Street with their blend of Chekhov and calypso established Naipaul as a humorist and a portrayer of street life. He took a giant stride with A House for Mr. Biswas, one of those singular novels that seem to constitute their own complete universes, in this case a miniature India on the periphery of the British Empire, the scene of his father’s circumscribed existence. In allowing peripheral figures their place in the momentousness of great literature, Naipaul reverses normal perspectives and denies readers at the centre their protective detachment. This principle was made to serve in a series of novels in which, despite the increasingly documentary tone, the characters did not therefore become less colourful. Fictional narratives, autobiography and documentaries have merged in Naipaul’s writing without it always being possible to say which element dominates.
In his masterpiece The Enigma of Arrival Naipaul visits the reality of England like an anthropologist studying some hitherto unexplored native tribe deep in the jungle. With apparently short-sighted and random observations he creates an unrelenting image of the placid collapse of the old colonial ruling culture and the demise of European neighbourhoods.
Naipaul has drawn attention to the novel’s lack of universality as a form, that it presupposes an inviolate human world of the kind that has been shattered for conquered peoples. He began to experience the inadequacy of fiction while he was working on The Loss of El Dorado, in which after extensive study of the archives he described the appalling colonial history of Trinidad. He found that he had to cling to the authenticity of the details and the voices and abstain from mere fictionalisation while at the same time continuing to render his material in the form of literature. His travel books allow witnesses to testify at every turn, not least in his powerful description of the eastern regions of the Islamic world, Beyond Belief. The author’s empathy finds expression in the acuity of his ear.
Naipaul is a modern philosophe, carrying on the tradition that started originally with Lettres persanes and Candide. In a vigilant style, which has been deservedly admired, he transforms rage into precision and allows events to speak with their own inherent irony.
The Swedish Academy
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MLA style: "Nobel Prize for Literature 2001 - Press Release". Nobelprize.org. Nobel Media AB 2014. Web. 17 Jan 2017. <http://www.nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/literature/laureates/2001/press.html>
| V. S. Naipaul |
In Einstein's e=mc ,what does the 'c' represent? | USATODAY.com - Trinidad-born British writer wins Nobel in literature
Nobel Prizes Web site.
Naipaul, who was born in Trinidad but is British by choice, has fashioned his novels and journalism from the cultural chaos of the postcolonial world.
The Swedish Academy singled out Naipaul's masterpiece The Enigma of Arrival, (1987) saying that in it the author created an "unrelenting image of the placid collapse of the old colonial ruling culture and the demise of European neighborhoods."
The 69-year-old novelist and short story writer, who left Trinidad at the age of 18, presents impressions of the country of his ancestors, India, and critical assessments of Muslim fundamentalism in non-Arab countries like Indonesia, Iran, Malaysia and Pakistan in two well-known works, according to the citation.
He was also cited for "having united perceptive narrative and incorruptible scrutiny in works that compel us to see the presence of suppressed histories."
Naipaul has the reputation of being a tough-minded, misanthropic man. He does not engage in such literary rituals as publishing parties and scribbling blurbs for the works of peers. In Sir Vidia's Shadow, a highly unflattering book published in 1998, former friend Paul Theroux wrote that "he elevated crankishness as the proof of his artistic temperament."
Author of more than 20 books, including such celebrated novels as A House for Mr. Biswas and A Bend in the River, Naipaul has had an exhausting literary career.
The prize, first awarded to French author Sully Prudhomme in 1901, is worth $943,000 in this centennial year.
Last year's winner was little-known exiled Chinese novelist and playwright Gao Xingjian, a French citizen. His award was denounced by the Chinese government as political. Italy's Dario Fo and Germany's Guenter Grass are other recent winners with strong political views.
Horace Engdahl, permanent secretary of the 215-year-old Swedish Academy that selects the winners, has acknowledged the prizes sometimes have political implications but insists the choice is always based on literary merits.
The 18 lifetime members of the academy make the selection in deep secrecy at one of their weekly Thursday meetings and nominees are not publicly revealed for 50 years, leaving the literary world with only speculation about who might be in the running.
Alfred Nobel, the Swedish industrialist and inventor of dynamite, offered only vague guidance about the prizes in his will, saying only the award should go to those who "shall have conferred the greatest benefit on mankind" and "who shall have produced in the field of literature the most outstanding work in an ideal direction." The awards always are handed out on Dec. 10, the anniversary of Nobel's death in 1896.
The Nobels started Monday with the naming of medicine prize winners, American Leland H. Hartwell and Britons Tim Hunt and Paul Nurse, for work on cell development that could lead to new cancer treatments.
The physics award went Tuesday to German scientist Wolfgang Ketterle and Americans Eric A. Cornell and Carl E. Wieman for creating a new state of matter, an ultra-cold gas known as Bose-Einstein condensate.
On Wednesday, the economics prize went to Americans George A. Akerlof, A. Michael Spence and Joseph E. Stiglitz for developing ways to measure the power of information in a wide range of deals and investments. On the same day, Americans K. Barry Sharpless and William S. Knowles shared the chemistry prize with Ryoji Noyori of Japan for showing how to better control chemical reactions used in producing medicines.
The peace prize is to be announced on Friday in Oslo, Norway.
Copyright 2001 The Associated Press. All rights reserved. This material may not be published, broadcast, rewritten or redistributed.
| i don't know |
Ian Gillian and Dave Coverdale were both lead singers with which rock group? | Deep Purple - Burn
Burn
Weeks Charted: 30
Certified Gold: 3/20/74
Deep Purple's first album since last year's departure of original vocalist Ian Gillan and bassist/composer Roger Glover is a passable but disappointing effort. On
Burn,
new lead singer David Coverdale sounds suitably histrionic, like Free's brilliant Paul Rodgers (rumored to have been Purple's first replacement choice). But the new material is largely drab and ordinary, without the runaway locomotive power of the group's best work.
The title track is a notable exception, attractively energetic, with appropriately speedy breaks. And "Sail Away" is a Free-like mesmerizer. "Mistreated" again sounds like that lamentedly extinct group, but is flaccidly lengthy (7:25).
They fill out the LP with the relentlessly mediocre single "Might Just Take Your Life," the stodgy blues-rocker "What's Goin' On Here," the commonplace Cream-like funk riffs and harmonies of "You Fool No One," and with a tedious Moog/bolero instrumental retread applying the coup de grace. Much of the LP is skillfully wrought and likable, and the new line-up has potential. But the Gillan/Glover spark that created "Highway Star" and other memorable Purple smokers is regrettably absent.
- Ken Barnes,
4/25/74.
Bonus Reviews!
Deep Purple is back after a restructuring, with new lead singer David Coverdale doing a commendable job replacing Ian Gillian. Glenn Hughes also works well on bass and as an added singer. This set varies somewhat from the band's recent efforts, with a little less "pin the people against the wall" music and some interesting blues numbers like "Mistreated." "Burn," the current single, is also a highlight of the album. Many groups lose a lot when two members leave, but Deep Purple are as excellent in their field as ever.
-
Billboard,
1974.
Cream was schizophrenic. Like so many Sixties' British bands, they derived their instrumental style from American bluesmen. But they acheived their contemporary sound by recording the rock songs of bassist Jack Bruce. These were painfully humorless compositions, often devoid of intelligible melody, and sung in an oppressive style that overemphasized not just an occasional word, but every word. Cream was one of the most influential of all rock bands, but Bruce may have influenced as many singers as Clapton has guitar players. Many British rock-band vocalists sing (to one extent or another) in that same insensitive manner -- which is why I have trouble listening to some groups whose instrumental work I admire. Deep Purple has been around a long time, but in their current state they perpetuate Cream's schizophrenia. They display considerable command of their instruments (if little originality). But it's wasted behind the caterwauling of new vocalist David Coverdale, who sings some of the most godawful lyrics yet pressed onto vinyl with idiotic seriousness. On the group's behalf I note that they avoid the flip side of the worst of British rock, the wimpoid ballad. In fact, when they are burning instrumentally and everyone sings together (making the words easier to forget) they come up with a handful of acceptable, even pleasurable moments.
- Jon Landau,
Rolling Stone,
6/6/74.
First off, I must get something off my chest. Please Mr. Warner Brothers...why was there a Doobie Brothers poster in my Deep Purple album? There, now that it's been said we can get down to business. Another Deep Purple, another day. Dave Coverdale, the new lead singer, sounds a great deal like Rod Evans. Do you remember Rod Evans? He sang the lead on Deep Purple records in the old Tetragramaton days. They tell us that a few months ago Dave Coverdale was a shop assistant, singing for free beers. He must have drunk a lot of beer because this record shows he's done a great deal of singing, if not on stage, then in bathtubs. It seems very obvious that he loves to sing, and he does it very, very well.
Glenn Hughes, the other new Purpler, is a welcome addition. His bass guitar work and vocalization adds yet another level of life to this old and well established band. From the very beginning of the title track "Burn" it seems very evident that Deep Purple has been given a whole new enthusiasm by their personnel changes. Many fans worried when they heard about the departing Glover and Gillan. Soon both names will be foggy and a member of the past, just like Rod Evans. The new Purple sound is a much cleaner, less muddled sound. The vocals are rich and throaty, very soulful, but never really dirty sounding. "Might Just Take Your Life," for instance, is a mid-paced soulful number with a great deal of simple and forceful keyboard work, compliments of old friend Jon Lord, mixed with tight vocal harmonies. It's really very encouraging.
The raw gutsiness of the new Purple sound can only be compared to very early Steve Marriott/Small Faces days. "Lay Down Stay Down" features the distinctive drum technique of Ian Paice, coupled with more of these incredible soul chorus style vocal harmonies. This is beautifully tied together by Blackmore's fine, clean guitar work. None of that onstage simplistic thudding that is so typically Deep Purple is evident here. "Sail Away," side one's closer, is filled with still more vocal excitement. If you were a devotee of Ian Gillan's tuneless, discordant screeching you'll be in for a huge disappointment. What Deep Purple has here is a funky, slightly grittier version of the mid-sixties Walker Brothers sound and it's incredible.
The frenzied, fast-fingered guitar sound of "You Fool No One" coupled with the pulsating, driving rhythms of Hughes' bass start side two off with a vengeance. Though Jon Lord is not as evident on this album as on previous ones there's some lovely piano work in "What's Goin' On Here." Obviously the newness of the other members has pushed them into the foreground; presumably by the next album a balance will be achieved.
Side two peaks with a stunning vocal performance by the young Mr. Coverdale. Heralded by some really neat guitar riffs and the simplicity of the bass drum, the Rod Stewart-like sounds of Coverdale's voice soon majestically fill the room.
A whole new side of Deep Purple is emerging here. No more Black Sabbath sounds of driving furious chaos, instead there's a well tempered, but enthusiastic musician. Deep Purple, totally rejuvenated.
- Janis Schacht,
What can you say about a Deep Purple album that hasn't already been said before?
Burn
's music is neither a step forward nor a backward for the deafening bunch of thunder-rockers and the standard sounds of Purple are again led by the assaulting waves of Ritchie Blackmore's guitar work.
Burn
is yet another exercise in exaggerated riffing.
- Ed Naha,
Circus,
6/74.
The hot poop is that after ten albums the Purps have a lead singer with soulish roots who can actually write songs. The cold turd is that the music sounds the same, as ominous and Yurupean as a vampire movie, only not as campy. C+
- Robert Christgau,
1981.
Burn
is Deep Purple's first album with lead singer David Coverdale. While it's not quite up to the standards of
| Deep Purple |
Which oil tanker was wrecked off the Galapagos Islands in January 2001? | Ian Gillan - Caramba!
Died on Sunday 11/09/16
Lovable, affectionate, crazy, irrational, inspirational, hilarious, oh yes, great drummer too.
I went around the world a couple of times with Lenny, who lived for quite a while in a fancy dress 'banana' outfit (please don't ask) while on the road with 'Repo Depo'. During rehearsals he stayed at my house and was adored by my family, and also the regulars in the pub, who had never seen - or imagined - such a contradiction to normality.
Lenny Haze on athleticism "My wife isn't speaking to me. When I got back from the last Gillan tour I gave her athlete's foot." (www.gillan.com - search for more priceless Lenny Haze with the Carambascopic advanced search)
We all miss you man, but we know where you are...see you later.
Total respect.
Souls, having touched, are forever entwined.
Ig
The Parallax Effect On Long Hair
I was surprised to get an invitation to address the Institute for Cultural Diplomacy (ICD) in Berlin on 14th December 2012. It caused great hilarity in the band dressing room; Roger actually burst into spontaneous laughter; not sure if it was the cultural or diplomatic bit that set him off. Probably both.
When the director asked for the title and a copy of the speech I told him it would be entitled 'The Parallax Effect on Long Hair' and that it would be off the cuff, so to speak.
Basically it's about perception or how things are viewed differently, depending on where you're standing.
I was a little nervous to start with as it was unscripted and I'd never spoken publicly before, apart from the usual gibberish delivered on stage each night with DP before being gloriously interrupted by a drumist not known for his patience. But I did enjoy it and may do another, one day.
ig
Rhino Poo Alert
RTL (a large TV station) announced the start of the sale for the Deep Purple tour in autumn 2012 in Germany. The message said that this will be the last tour of DP in Germany and therefore the last chance to see them live. what a shock! Is that true??? Is that an official/confirmed statement?
Yawning response from ig: "I must say that is an impressive heap of rhino poo!"
Coffee Kiev
Some things in life should just be simpler
Deep Purple, Ian Gillan, Gillan, Gillan Glover....
Yes, all of them but the usual proviso of 'in due course' applies, of course. Such is the speed of this 'information age' that we could all know everything immediately but where would the fun be in that?
These don't replace the Wordographies, which also continue apace.
Perfect Strangers
'One Eye To Morocco' - the lyrics
Caramba takes the greatest of pleasure in unveiling the complete lyrics for all editions of 'One Eye To Morocco'.
These don't in any way replace the Wordographies, as these are winging their way to your screen at a speed significantly slower than the speed of light.
Another, even bigger fan writes
Biographies
These biographies may be used by journalists.
This has been updated to include edel's latest biog.
This way for.... biographies .
Deep Purple's official website. Click above.
On sending things in to be signed:
A number of people have over time sent unsolicited stuff into either Ian's or DP's management to be signed and returned. Such things can so easily get mislaid or just simply lost in a very busy organisation, which can be very upsetting for those who have sent their items in. Please don't do this as no-one wants to feel responsible for having lost what can be, for the owner, very precious items. Thanks. Steve/ED.
Can't be bothered to use the drop down menus above or the text menus below? Use the search engine, it doesn't bite very often. Mind you, if I could give it teeth I would.
Click on the image above to access all the releases previously on this page. Go on, do it....
Gyumri Music School & WhoCares
Previous material on the Gyumri Music School and WhoCares makes itself available on a separate page, a page accessed by clicking on the above image.
Chopin's Story
Likewise, in an abovewise fashion, everything on Ian and Chopin's Story is available by clicking the above pic in time-honoured fashion.
an occasional series of random pics
Click on the above for the full glory of the photographic moment of truth or HERE if you're feeling lazy and/or curmudgeonly.
Jon Lord
| i don't know |
Which country singer had a hit with 'Feel Like A Woman'? | List: Female Country Singers
List: Female Country Singers
Updated on November 6, 2014
Female Country Singers: My Top Eight
Faith Hill, in concert in Dallas in 2006. | Source
From Patsy Cline to Reba McEntire to the Dixie Chicks, women have made Country-Western music what it is today. There are so many women who have worked hard in a man's world to rise to the top of the Country-Western charts. I picked my eight favorites and added a few more who just have to be mentioned. I hope you enjoy this list and the accompanying videos as much as I enjoyed putting it together!
My hat goes off to all of you women of Country music. Your hard work has paid off!
1. Patsy Cline
Patsy Cline was one of the first female Country singers. She is, without a doubt, a legend for all time. Patsy was born September 8, 1932 in Winchester, Virginia. Her real name was Virginia Patterson Hensley. Her big break in the Country music world came in 1957, with the song "Walkin' After Midnight." In 1958, Patsy joined the Grand Ole Opry show in Nashville. She died tragically, in an airplane crash in 1963 when she was only 30.
Patsy's greatest hits include:
"Sweet Dreams"
2. Loretta Lynn
Loretta Lynn was born April 14, 1935 in Kentucky. She is best known as the "Coal Miner's Daughter." Just like Patsy Cline, Loretta is a legend among female Country music singers. She had her first hit in 1960, with the song "Honky Tonk Girl." By the 1970s, she was one of the richest women in Country music. She is famous for many songs, including:
"You Ain't Woman Enough (To Take My Man)"
"Before I'm Over You"
"Coal Miner's Daughter"
3. Dolly Parton
Dolly Parton was born January 19, 1946 in Tennessee. As a young child, she sang in church and for a local radio station. She joined the Grand Ole Opry show at the age of 20, and her first success in Nashville was as a songwriter. In 1966 she had her first single, "Dumb Blond," and then that same year recorded "Something Fishy" and "Hello, I'm Dolly." Since then, she has gone on to make a big for name herself, both in the Country music industry and as a comedic actress.
Some of Dolly's hits include:
"Jolene"
"I Will Always Love You"
4. Patty Loveless
Patty Loveless was born in Kentucky as Patty Lee Ramey on January 4, 1957. Her first hit single in the Country music world was the 1985 recording, "Lonely Days and Lonely Nights." Her second hit single came a year later when she released "I Did." Patty went on to release her first album, Patty Loveless, on October 1, 1986. From there, she went on to produce many more albums.
Her big hit singles include:
"Don't Toss Us Away"
"How Can I Help You Say Goodbye"
"You Don't Even Know Who I Am"
5. Suzy Bogguss
Suzy was born December 30, 1956 in Illinois. She started singing in her hometown church and released her first singles in 1987: "I Don't Want To Set The World On Fire," "Love Will Never Slip Away," and "Come As You Are." She went on to make many more successful albums. Bogguss owns her own record label, Loyal Dutchess.
Some of her most popular recorded singles are:
"Somewhere Between"
"Outbound Plane"
6. Reba McEntire
Reba was born March 28, 1955 in Oklahoma. She had her first hit on the singles chart in 1976 with "I Don't Want to Be a One Night Stand." Her first album was called Reba McEntire and her second was Out of a Dream. Reba's Country music career has been very successful. Her album My Kind of Country brought her break-out success. Some of the hits from that album include:
"How Blue"
"Somebody Should Leave"
7. Faith Hill
Faith was born Audrey Faith Perry on September 21, 1967 in Mississippi. She is one of the most successful Country singers, male or female. Her first album, Take Me As I Am, was released in 1993. She released her second album, It Matters To Me, in 1995. From there, Hill went on to make her name in country music. Her first international hit was "The Kiss." Her 1999 album Breathe went platinum and remains one of the biggest-selling Country records of all time. Some of her other hits include:
"There You'll Be"
"Mississippi Girl"
"Like We Never Loved at All"
Faith is married to Country singer Tim McGraw and the couple has recorded several duets, including "I Need You" and "Shotgun Rider."
8. Shania Twain
Twain was born as Eileen Regina Edwards on August 28, 1965 in Windsor, Ontario. Her mother and father divorced and she was adopted by her stepfather, Jerry Twain. Her first album was called Shania Twain. She went on to release her second album, The Women In Me, in 1995. In 1997 she produced Come On Over, and in 2002 she relased Up. In 2004 Twain released an album of greatest hits. Some of those singles include:
"Party of Two"
"Don't"
"I Ain't No Quitter"
In 2004 Twain retired from performing, explaining that her singing voice was weakening, but after receiving treatment for vocal cord lesions she returned to the stage in 2012 with a concert at Caesar's Palace.
More Great Women of Country Western!
Trish Yearwood
Trish Yearwood's debut single "She's in Love with the Boy" launched her to fame on the Country-Western charts. She has since released ten albums, including the number one singles:
"Walkaway Joe"
"I'll Still Love You More"
Terri Clark
Terri Clark released her first album in 1995. Both that self-titled album and the two that followed, Just the Same and How I Feel went platinum in both the U.S. and Canada. Some of her Top Ten Country-Western hits include:
"When Boy Meets Girl"
"Suddenly Single"
Wynonna Judd
Wynonna first rose to fame in the 1980s, singing with her mother Naomi in the Country-Western duo the Judds. Recording together, the Judds had 14 number one hits and recorded seven albums. As a solo artist, Wynonna dropped her last name. In 1992 she sang alone at the American Music Awards, performing "She Is His Only Need." The single jumped to number one on the Billboard country singles charts that year. Some of her other hits include:
"I Saw the Light"
"No One Else on Earth"
LeAnn Rimes
LeAnn Rimes was a child star, rising to fame at the age of 13 for her recording of "Blue." Some of her other hit singles include:
"One Way Ticket (Because I Can)"
"The Cattle Call"
"The Light in Your Eyes"
The Dixie Chicks
The Dixie Chicks are composed of Martie Erwin Maguire and Emily Erwin Robison (who are sisters), and lead singer Natalie Maines. Some early successes were the 1998 hits "There's Your Trouble" and "Wide Open Spaces." In 2003 the band openly denounced the U.S. invasion of Iraq. While many American Country-Western music lovers boycotted their albums after that, they released Taking the Long Way in 2007, which won that year's Grammy for Album of the Year. The single "Not Ready to Make Nice" also won a Grammy that year.
Emmylou Harris
Emmylou Harris has won 13 Grammys over the course of her career. Her early recordings include the album Grievous Angel, recorded with Gram Parsons in 1973. She recorded with Hot Band to make the album Pieces of the Sky, which included a cover of Merle Haggard's "Tonight the Bottle Let Me Down." In 1980 she recorded "That Lovin' You Feelin' Again" with Roy Orbison. That duo's recordings won a Grammy for Best Country Vocal Performance by a Duo or Group.
Female Country-Western Singers: The List Goes On
There are so many amazing women Country-Western singers! Thank you to all of you who have sent me names that were not on my list. Please send me and I will try to include them! Here are some of the great female singers you have mentioned in the comments:
Carrie Underwood
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Sylvia Fricker Tyson
jjrubio 8 years ago
very nice...My grandmothers cousin just happened to be Patsy Cline. She was the best. Thankfully she left us with her memory by her gift of her sweet voice. She had a strong commanding and powerful voice that has yet to be matched to this day, Yes there will never be another quite like Patsy!
Cailin Gallagher 8 years ago from New England
What a great family history for you jjrubio! My mother always sang Patsy's songs. I love the hub!
allshookup 8 years ago from The South, United States
I love country music. Dolly is so great. So is Reba and Loretta. I like Jennifer Nettles from Sugarland. Her voice is so strong. But Patsy is the one who made the way for these I named. My husband loves 'Walking after Midnight'. I can't stand the Dixie Chicks. I love Taylor Swift. She is doing great for being so young! Great hub! Have a great day :)
compu-smart 8 years ago from London UK
I too love Country Singers and songs and females especially Shania Twain!;)
Nice list!:)
market solution 8 years ago from Minneapolis, MN
Ah. You put a song in my heart. Thanks, I needed it. What a great hub.
lauriej 8 years ago
where's Bonnie Raitt on this website?
samsahottie! 8 years ago
taylor swift, hiedi newfield, jennifer nettles, kelly pickler, dolly parton, juliane hough and a lot more!!!!!!!!!
erics mommy 8 years ago
I was try to find out the the name of a song that Reba sang on her show to her grandaugter why she was rocking her Does anyone know if so please email me [email protected] Thank You so much
cj 8 years ago
where is taylor swift or maranda lambert or even dolly parton?
biggchuck04 8 years ago
hey need more ,,,looking for artist named larrie white? do you know her??????
donald 7 years ago
patsy cline is hot
Hillary 7 years ago
Im related to Lynn Anderson, some weird way. i have an autographed picture and letter she wrote to my grandpa.
Shelby 7 years ago
Who Sings I Want To Fall In Love
Listessa 7 years ago from Your Sub-conscious
Author
Wow, lots of more suggestions for female country singers, I'm gonna have to add to the list!
D.O 7 years ago
KEEP THE FIRE BURNING LADIES......!
kamryn 7 years ago
i like talor swift
Barney Northrup 7 years ago
Taylor Swift is the best!!!!!!!!!! The best the best!! Taylor Swift Taylor Swift Taylor Swift Taylor Swift Taylor Swift!!!!!!!!! :)
sherri 7 years ago
do you remember DONNA FARGO SHE WAS REAL GOOD !
TOY 7 years ago
Who sings a song that has these phrases "nothin' but you"..., peggy sue",... "maybelle"
taylor 7 years ago
taylor swift is better than the other country singers :)
alyssa 7 years ago
TAYLOR'S AWESOME1!! im in class right now!! 4th preiidodd
brittany 6 years ago
UMM 4 ALL U PPL OUT THERE CARRIE UNDERWOOD IS THE BEST COUNTRY SINGER THERE WILL EVER B!!!
Dea 6 years ago
Does anyone remember a singer (Dotsi) or (dootsy)? I'm guessing late 80's early 90's
Sarahbeth 6 years ago
Kellie Pickler, Lyla McCann, Lorie Morgan,
Jo Dee Masina, Tammy Wynette, Pam Tillis
alexa 6 years ago
were is beyonce
Teri Brown 6 years ago
Please add Susan Ronson to your Canadian born country singers. She's awesome and has a deep velvety voice like Wynonna Judd. She's at http://www.SusanRonson.com
Heather 6 years ago
beyonce is not a conuntry singer!
nino 6 years ago
Lila Mc Cann is the best...but where is she now...I like her voice
Michael Shane 6 years ago from Gadsden, Alabama
I know it would have been hard to list all female country singers but one of the greatest of all time was... well, I do a hub on her...Patsy was a huge legend but without Willie Nelsons song he wrote "Crazy" I'm not sure if she would have been a household name. Reba & some of the others are definitely cherished artists. Great hub! I look forward to many more...
katiecone 6 years ago
i love taylor swift
dmk 6 years ago
can anyone tell me the name of the song that starts...i cant imagine any greater fear than waking up without you here, tho the sun will still shine on my whole world would soon be gone, but not for long...
vcc 6 years ago
but where is miss tammy wynette she has a good songs also
MDD 6 years ago
Cowboy Al 6 years ago
Taylor Swift? WHO Give me a break look at the real singers
jp 6 years ago
dmk: it's "no place that far" i think its sara evans
jestergurl 6 years ago
i need to know the name of a song and who sings it problem is all i know about the song is its country... by a female singer with shoulder length blonde hair and the video takes place it wat seems to be a living room with a HUGE glass window and i thnk its raining i saw the vid when i was like 6 sooooooo ya that's all i remember about it im 20 now pleese some one help me
[email protected]
does anyone know who sings the song now you see me now you don't
Angie 6 years ago
How about Lorrie Morgan? I love her.
becca 6 years ago
Lorrie Morgan needs to be a part of this list.
becca 6 years ago
Lee Ann Womack sings Now you see me now you don't
Christina 6 years ago
Why does everyone leave out MIRANDA LAMBERT! Shes the best female country singer out RIGHT NOW
emily 6 years ago
taylor is okay but reba is the queen and very inspirational
glenn cunningham 6 years ago
brenda lee the best
Kandice Price 6 years ago
lol i love reba macentier she is my favoritiest country singer in the world and i like gretchen wilson but i like reba more lol by.
steve 6 years ago
i want to ram carrie underwood
Shelly Wright 6 years ago
Is she deceased?
Barbara 6 years ago
Loretta Lynn,,Tanya Tucker,,Tammy Wynette,,Patsy Cline,,Lynn Anderson,,Reba McEntire,,Donna Fargo and Crystal Gayle,,are still my favorite female country singers..
Prince5 6 years ago
late 1940s early 1950s there was a female singer Virginia ?
who sang a song called 'i'm going back to where i come(came) from. Does anyone know her full name and any details?
crazygurl 6 years ago
um duhhhh.... Taylor Swift will always and forever be the best singer lol Always and Forever one of her songs I crack myself up
crazygurl 6 years ago
um Prince5 if you go to Folk & Traditional song lyrics you'll find what Lyrics you need but I think her last name is Virginia O'brien but I don't know for sure
Prince5 6 years ago
Thank you Crazygurl, I do believe that Virginia O'Brien is the gal! Can't get the song though, probably never transferred over from the old original 78rpm recording.
mikayla 6 years ago
I think Taylor swift and kelly pickler and miranda lambert are the best!!!!!!!!!!
taylor swift FAN:) 6 years ago
taylor swift is aswome give her the best award ever!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!!
shrclo 6 years ago
dmk... just saw your blog... i believe it is sarah evans that sings there's no place that far... i love that song.. hope this is correct...
shrclo 6 years ago
taylor has a couple good country songs ...but most of her music is not real country music... real country music is from patsy to tammy to loretta to tanya to lorrie to shania to carrie...love them all
shrclo 6 years ago
jjrubio..i love patsy cline... i met my husband on the note he was going to meet someone who could sing patsy cline... i told him i could and he said "i am pretty picky about my patsy cline" and i told him..yes but i can sing patsy cline...she is my idol.. so i started singing her songs and he was there all night listening to me..since then we got married and a friend of mine and myself wrote a song about it.. it is pretty cool... we love patsy... rock on...
Ty 6 years ago
Taylor Swift has great music... but this is REAL country.
Miranda Lambert 6 years ago
You do not have Miranda Lambert's name in the list above this.Miranda Lambert's name sould be on the list
amber 6 years ago
martina micbride is an amazing singer to me any way
matt 6 years ago
stop with the taylor swift......please!
roy2 6 years ago
Has anyone heard of Star De Azlan, she is signed with curb records and has one of the purest country voices I have heard in a long time, look up her song Shes Pretty. It will not disappoint. She sounds a lot like Patsy.
tsfans 6 years ago
taylor swift ! taylor swift! where are taylor swift , miranda lambert???
sarra 6 years ago
?
katkm6 6 years ago
enough about taylor swift real country girls patsy cline,loretta lynn.tammy wynette,dolly parton,reba mcentire,not soft rock like taylor
marriam 6 years ago
plz give here some beautiful singers names list because i don't know so many but i want some beautiful singers name plz give in this website!
Pam 6 years ago
Love Loretta, Tammy,Dolly, Crystal Gayle, Sarah Evans, and Dottie West. But Patsy Cline really gets to me every time! Her voice and delivery are out of this world!
Jjnn5521 6 years ago
Lets get some real country singer's on here. People only like her singin because she is the newest girl country singer. Whener a new country singer comes out that is who everybody likes. Get some real names on that list. Like June Cater is one.
sizzle 6 years ago
the Sunny Cowgirls from downunder is a great dual group that sounds fantastic
gptwv 6 years ago
Suzy Boguss...seriously, she had about two songs, and you're considering her one of the best of all time? I really don't understand you're grading rubric here. You completely failed to mention Anne Murray, Connie Smith, and probably one of if not the most influential women of country music of all time, Tammy Wynette (and yes, Taylor Swift would be higher on this list than many women up there). This is just atrocious.
WhoCares 6 years ago
There are alot of great female country singers. Over the years, the styles have changed. It's just a matter of preference. Taylor Swift is good, but draws a crowd of the younger people. I agree that real country is old country.
bri 6 years ago
sugarland and lady antebellum!!!
Dave 6 years ago
My favorite is and has always been the beautiful Donna Fargo, not only her voice but her words as well. One of the very few to write her own songs during the 70's and 80's. She had 2 of the biggest crossover songs to date; "Happiest Girl in the Whole USA" and "Funny Face". But it must be pointed out, that in those days it was a major feat for a country girl to do as well as Donna did. I also like Loretta Lynn and some Lynn Anderson.
picabo1 5 years ago
I think some one left out Miranda Lambert! What a NUTTHEAD who in the history of world would leave out Miranda Lambert. I think I put in list of female country singers and I was counting on her to be hear!
MissTay 5 years ago
I love country music!!! Taylor Swift is the best!I like Shania Twain, Faith Hill, Carrie Underwood and LeAnn Rimes... but TAYLOR IS THE BEST!!!!!!!!!!!
leni sands 5 years ago from UK
I really like Trisha Yearwood, Gretchen Wilson's early songs like REDNECK WOMAN, Jeanie C Riley HARPER VALLEY PTA, Loretta Lynn YOU'RE LOOKIN' AT COUNTRY & Y'ALL COME, Pam Tillis DON'T TELL ME WHAT TO DO, Joni Harms TWO STEPPIN TEXAS BLUE, WEST TEXAS WALTZ, Emmylou Harris, Lorrie Morgan, Suzy Boggus (with Chet Atkins)
&
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=qYrVFq9xwq0&feature...
MaR 5 years ago
I think that miss a lot of names of country singer in this list (for example... where is Taylor Swift?!?!? Miranda Lambert?!?! Carrie Underwood?!?!?!)... Okay, we have to write some names of others country singers... and if you know some songs or some artists that play country/rock music... PLEASE WRITE THEM!!!! okay? Thank u everybody! and... LET'S COUNTRY PEOPLE!
uknow 5 years ago
hey could anyone help me what's the name of that song in the video she is singing and she drives a green station wagon
Earthly Angel Mom 5 years ago from Northern Kentucky
I just now signed up on hubpages ...because I felt an urgent need to add KITTY WELLS to this list of female country music singer.
Back in the late 50's, I can still see and recall my loving mother (who looked like Kitty) singing Kitty's songs to the top of her lungs. Surely they are angels now, singing in Heaven's choir!! Please add KITTY WELLS!!
ly 5 years ago
Yes this is the ideal thing no tash talk love all of yhem especially SHANIA TWAIN
crystal 5 years ago
i am looking for a song sung by a female country artist about being like her mom.. it is a few years old please help
Eric Sawyer 5 years ago
Did Linda Ronstadt make it to this list?
kristina v;) 5 years ago
I love all kinds of country!!
itz great to listen to I don't have a favorite their all great
dillman 5 years ago
what about marnda lambrat shes the best
taylor swift 5 years ago
omg taylor is auwsome she is the bomb
faith hill and miranda lambert 5 years ago
faith is auwsome and miranda is auwsome to y'all two are
more than the bomb y'all are the best of all country
singers i love y'all guys
Jerry D. (JD) 5 years ago
While you were naming the women of country music I do believe you forgot one very good singer by the name o0f Miss Tammy Wynette, remember she was always introduced to the crowds Ladies, and Gentlemen Please make welcome the "Queen Of Country Music, Miss Tammy Wynette"!
Bobby 5 years ago
When people put things like Taylor swift is the best singer ever. It makes me laugh. Grow up and try listening to a Trisha yearwood or martina mcbride album then you will understand what best really means
all knowig 5 years ago
alison kraus...26 grammys...any questions?
Faith Summet 5 years ago
LOOK country music has only one greastest female singer in the world!!! SHANIA TWAIN every one of her songs could have been a hit! Especially her new stuff! UP! IS THE BEST COUNTRY CD YET! (other then a few people like johnny cash and a few others that i didn't feel like naming) Shania twain or Ellise (i think that's right) is beautiful, amazing voice talent. AND SHE MARRIED HER PRODUCER! TELL ME THAT'S NOT A POWER MOVE!!!!!!! enjoy LOVE YOU SHANIA!!! ME AND MY GIRLFRIENDS RELATIONSHIP SONG IS FROM THIS MOMENT AND WE CAN LISTEN TO IT ALL DAY. SHE HAS SONGS THAT TOUCH MY HEART LIKE AINT GOIN DOWN THAT I CRY TO EVERY TIME THAT I HEAR!!! SUCH EMOTION IN HER SINGING, SHE IS BY FAR THE BEST FEMALE COUNTRY SINGER, PERHAPS THE BEST COUNTRY SINGER PERIOD!!!!!
Jesse 5 years ago
Hi, i was just wondering if any one could tell me what the name of the song is where the lady starts crying? She is a blonde lady, white top and a male in a black top and hat is doing the guitar piece. This would be a great help to me if some one could let me know.
jennifer 5 years ago
Jesse are u talkin about Sugarland (jennifer nettles) Stay?
DeVerl 5 years ago
What was the girls name that sang the song Ican.t belive
you,r calling me did you run out of things to do are you bothered buy old memores has guilt got the best of you
sutaru12 5 years ago
what bout Chely White?she's one hot babe..love her voice so much & so shania twain & Taylor Swift Bonny Tayler
claire 5 years ago
Im not a big fan of country music but I do remember my mom always playing this song by this female country singer, it talked about the devil and an angel on her shoulder. Help?
Gracie 5 years ago
I love country music. And I love Reba, faith hill, Sara Evans, and Carrie Underwood.
CVISCO 5 years ago
Billie Jo Spears should be on this list
Jordo 5 years ago
Barely getting Into country I know I once had seen a video where theres a girl in a bed with a.guy and shes talking about drinking and breaking up? Maybe shes even recording it and she gets up and gets dressed
anonymous 5 years ago
What's up with this nutjob ^??? I think ur on the wrong website....u need to be looking for a website to check urself into a mental institution!
Kimmy Lovejoy 5 years ago
DeVerl I have been a DJ for a long time and country music is my favorite. I believe the song you are looking for is by Shelby Lynn, "Things are tough all over" Hope this helps!
Carly 5 years ago
There's this song/video I heard a long time ago that made me cry, it's about 2 friends who were neighbors and the little girl would get beat by her dad and the little boy would see that from his window so the dad ends up beating the little girl to death and I really want to listen to it but I don't know the name of the song or who sings it I just know it's a female country singer, does anybody know?
Sheree 5 years ago
The singer is Martina McBride but don't remember the song
Michelle 5 years ago
Tanya Tucker Loretta Lynn Reba McEntire,Dolly Parton Lee Ann womack Tammy wynette and Martina McBride are my favourites. But I also love Trisha yearwood Patty Loveless and Lorrie Morgan. Taylor does not hold a candle to any of those above ladies.
Snake Harris 5 years ago
I love Patsy Cline and Connie Smith, but what happen to Gayle Strickland? A NC country female singer!
Snake Harris
all are great.. but i like alison krauss and katie irving.
lori 4 years ago
Just read all these comments what's up with taylor swift. She SUCKS that's how she became a singer in the first place only studio makes her sound ok live she stinks sorry to burst ur bubble u live in
Jason 4 years ago
Bonnie Raitt is ROCK, not country. She has never considered herself a "country" sincer and has never EVER been marketed as one, and I know because I've followed her career for 35 years.
everette 4 years ago
Maybelle Carter is one of the greatest singer and musician of country music. She is the best on my list.
goose 4 years ago
Billy Joe Spears the Def should be on list .why is she always over looked for these lists? Blanket on the ground ........CLASSIC!
Roxanna Salas 4 years ago
Patsy Cline, Crystal Gale, Tammy Wynette, June Carter, Reba McIntire, The Judds.... Some of the talented women that help define and shape the country music industry for women. Modern talents.. Shania Twain, Carrie Underwood, Allison Krauss, Jennifer Nettles, Miranda Lambert, Faith Hill, Lee Ann Womack, Martina McBride, Sara Evans, and although Taylor is not the greatest singer she is the most open and honest young talent out there. I respect her openess and sincerity in her songs. LeAnn Rimes, she was so promising with her talent, if she can stay away from the scandals and the drama she has potential to be great again.
Jigger 4 years ago
Does anybody know the name of the female country singer who recorded "Darlin'" long before Johnny Reid?
mikeyd 4 years ago
In 5 years Taylor Swift will be an afterthought. She is no more country than Aerosmith is. Country music is nothing but 70's rock now.
Denise 4 years ago
Does anyone remember a video on CMT back in the 80's it was a female singer she was in a large room with big windows the curtains were blowing she was singing alone... I remember this video but have no clue who she was or the song now its really bugging me...I had it on a VCR tape but have no clue where it is now prob broken thru the yrs. I don't think she was a very popular singer Ive not heard the song or her name sense that time prob late 80's possibly early 90's at most Please help if you know email me at [email protected]. PLEASE AND THANKS
Brian 4 years ago
What about Donna Fargo and some other old school country gals. Tanya Tucker also....
pkholla 4 years ago from Bangalore India
How about Tammy Wynette: forgot her? I don't wanna play house
Frederick Sheely 4 years ago
Dawn Sears is THE BEST!!
kyle maguire 4 years ago
tammy wynette is simply the best country singer of all time....she is simply the first ladfy of country music.
tiff304 4 years ago
I remember Dottie West! She was a very good, great country singer and beautiful too!
erza scarlet 4 years ago
Taylor swift is awesome.
Lovestory, our song, mean etc.................................................................
oh .... i so love her songs
Flaca 4 years ago
I am trying to remember a blonde country artist that did not make it big time but all i can remember is one of her videos on a beach with a partial stone home and she is singing about having the guy hold her rock her........... goodness its killing me trying to remember it. any help will do.
Norma Freda 4 years ago
spelled anne murray's name wrong. you have murrary. jsyk
kitty 4 years ago
taylor swift is terrible ! she thinks she is our great gift. voices that make you proud to be a country music fan are women that wants to be sing song from the heart, like martina,dolly, carrie, reba, miranda,sarah evans,jennifer nettles, faith, shania,please !!taylor only knows to write and sing songs to make fun of people that hurt her feelings. grow up!!!
dyani 4 years ago
I totally don't think she is trouble. I'm like her #1 galaxy fan kinda like #1 fan or worlds#1 fan but I beat all that. I'm a foster child at the age of 15 and a half my birthday is april 19th 1997 and it would be my dream come true if taylor swifts family could adopt me I haven't seen my mom since I was 4 and I haven't seen my dad since I was about 11 or 12 because he sexually abused me so I became a foster child and right now I'm hating my life I would d0 ANYTHING to be taylor swifts little sister. AND I MEAN ANYTHING I DON"T CARE WHAT IT IS! Taylor if you're reading this please do something. I love you like my sister i would always come to you for advice i would come to you if you were sad and keep you company if you wanted it. i love you.
bella 3 years ago
you rock loretta lynn,patsy cline,talor sift
baby girl 3 years ago
Reba mcentire is the best female country artist of all time and she is still going
lake9537 3 years ago
female country singer on Don Imus show last year; he played song and said it was the greatest; she has a sultry voice and the song is sad but her voice is great in an alto kind of way.
Johnnie 3 years ago
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=I1wg05bukTE
nina 3 years ago
I have not seen any great comments about one of my favorites, But Love all the older country Gals, How come she was not mentioned her too ??? Gretchen Wilson ... Love all the older country Gals & Angels of country music .... Always & Forever God-Bless them all ..... And Love The Honkey Tonk Angels .....
wyldrabbit 2 years ago
| Shania Twain |
In which country was the 1934 Football World Cup held? | Shania Twain | New Music And Songs |
Shania Twain
About Shania Twain
Emerging in the mid-'90s, Shania Twain became the most popular country music artist since Garth Brooks. Skillfully fusing mainstream, AOR rock production with country-pop, Twain and her producer/husband, Robert John "Mutt" Lange, created a commercial juggernaut with her second album, The Woman in Me. The record became a multi-platinum phenomenon, peaking at number five on the pop charts and eventually selling over nine million copies in America alone. Twain might have sold a lot of records, but like other mega-selling acts before her, she earned few good reviews -- most critics accused her of diluting country with bland, anthemic hard rock techniques and shamelessly selling her records with sexy videos. Fans ignored such complaints, mainly because her audience was comprised of many listeners who had grown accustomed to such marketing strategies by constant exposure to MTV. And Twain, in many ways, was the first country artist to fully exploit MTV's style. She created a sexy, video-oriented image -- she didn't even tour during the year when The Woman in Me was on the top of the country charts -- that appealed not only to the country audience, but also to pop fans. In turn, she became a country music phenomenon.
Twain was born in Windsor, Ontario, and raised in the small, rural town of Timmins, Ontario. As a child, she learned to play guitar at an early age and would spend much of her time singing, writing, and playing. Early on in her musical development, her parents pushed her on-stage, making her perform frequently around their little town; often, she would be pulled out of bed around one in the morning to sing at local bars, since as a child she could only appear in the clubs after they had stopped serving alcohol. In addition to bars, she sang on local radio and television stations and community events. When she was 21 years old, both of her parents died in a car crash, forcing her to take responsibility for her four siblings. In order to pay the bills and keep food on the table, she took a job singing at a resort in Deerhurst. With the money she earned at the resort, she bought a house and had the family settle down.
At the resort, she sang show tunes, from George Gershwin to Andrew Lloyd Webber, as well as a little country. Twain stayed there for three years, at the end of which all of her siblings had begun lives of their own. When she was finally independent again, she assembled a demo tape of her songs, and her manager set up a showcase concert in Canada. Twain caught the attention of a few insiders with the concert, and within a few months Mercury Nashville had signed her to their roster. Her eponymous debut album was released in 1993, and although it wasn't a major hit, it performed respectably in the United States, launching two minor hit singles, "What Made You Say That" and "Dance with the One That Brought You"; in Europe, the album was more successful and Country Music Television Europe named her Rising Video Star of the Year.
Shortly after the release of Shania Twain, the singer met and fell in love with Robert John "Mutt" Lange, a hard rock producer known for his work with AC/DC, Def Leppard, Foreigner, and the Cars. Lange had been wanting to move into country music for a while, and after hearing Twain's debut album, he decided to get in contact with her with the intention of working on an album. By the end of the year, the pair had married and begun working on her second record. The two either wrote or co-wrote the material that eventually formed The Woman in Me.
The Woman in Me was released in the spring of 1995. Its first single, "Whose Bed Have Your Boots Been Under?," went to number 11 early in the year, quickly followed by "Any Man of Mine," which became her first number one single in the spring. The album's title track went to number 14 in the fall, while the fourth single, "(If You're Not in It for Love) I'm Outta Here!," rocketed to number one toward the end of the year; early in 1996 "No One Needs to Know" became her third number one hit. By the beginning of 1996, The Woman in Me had sold over six million copies and broken the record for the most weeks spent at number one on the country charts. During the course of 1996, it would rack another three million in sales. Come on Over followed in 1997. She spent the next two years touring the globe in support of the album; by the end of 1999, Come on Over had sold 36 million copies.
Twain took a sabbatical and returned to her Swiss home for some down time with her husband. The next summer, she and Lange welcomed their first child. A son, whom they named Eja, arrived August 21, 2001. During this time, Twain brainstormed for a fourth album. While balancing a domestic life and a career, the end result was Up!, which appeared in November 2002.
Up! was released to considerable fanfare - not only was it accompanied by a huge publicity blitz but it appeared in three different mixes, designed to appeal to country, pop and international audiences - and it initially was a big success, selling over 870,000 copies in the US upon its first week and debuting at number one in the Billboard charts, but despite such hits as “I'm Gonna Getcha Good!” and “Forever and For Always,” it failed to have the same kind of staying power as The Woman In Me or Come On Over. Those two albums sold over 10 million copies a piece in the US, whereas Up! sold 5.5 million -- an impressive number that only pales when compared to her track record. As Up! worked its way down the charts, Shania released a Greatest Hits album in the holiday season of 2004; the compilation was a great success, going triple platinum in the US, where it peaked at number two on the Billboard charts. In the wake of Greatest Hits, Twain spent the next few years quietly, working on several non-music related projects and appearing only on soundtracks. As of 2007, she was still working on her follow-up to Up!. ~ Stephen Thomas Erlewine, Rovi
| i don't know |
Which TV series grew from sketches on the Jasper Carrot shows, and featured Robert Powell? | Robert Powell: TV Shows Starring Robert Powell (6 Items)
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Canned Carrott Jasper Carrott, Hugh Dennis, Robert Powell Canned Carrott is a comedy stand-up and sketch-show by Jasper Carrott. Two of the regular sketches were "Wiggy" and "The Detectives". The first sketch, "Wiggy", followed
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Doomwatch Robert Powell, Amanda Ooms, John Paul Doomwatch was a British science fiction television programme produced by the BBC, which ran on BBC1 between 1970 and 1972. The series was set in the then present-day, and dealt with a scientific
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Fantomcat Robert Powell, Jimmy Hibbert, Rob Rackstraw Fantomcat is an animated series produced by Cosgrove Hall Films. It was first broadcast in 1995 and was animated after Avenger Penguins in 1994 by Alfonso Productions, a Spanish animation studio. It
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Great Crimes and Trials Robert Powell Great Crimes and Trials is an early 1990s BBC documentary television series. The program consists of archival material combined with never before seen interviews to reconstruct a renowned crime,
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Hannay Robert Powell Hannay was a 1988 spin-off from the 1978 film version of John Buchan's novel The Thirty-Nine Steps which had starred Robert Powell as Richard Hannay.
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Holby City Hugh Quarshie, Tina Hobley, Rosie Marcel Holby City is a British medical drama television series that airs weekly on BBC One. The series was created by Tony McHale and Mal Young as a spin-off from the established BBC medical drama Casualty,
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Jesus of Nazareth James Earl Jones, Laurence Olivier, Christopher Plummer Jesus of Nazareth is a 1977 British-Italian television miniseries directed by Franco Zeffirelli and co-written by Zeffirelli, Anthony Burgess, and Suso Cecchi d'Amico which dramatises the birth, life,
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Jude the Obscure Robert Powell, John Franklyn-Robbins, Daphne Heard Jude the Obscure is a 1971 TV mini-series written by Harry Green and directed by Hugh David.
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Looking for Clancy Catherine Schell, Robert Powell, T. P. McKenna
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Shaka Zulu Christopher Lee, Trevor Howard, Edward Fox Shaka Zulu is a television series directed by William C. Faure and written by Joshua Sinclair for the South African Broadcasting Corporation, based on Sinclair's novel of the same name. It is based on
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The Detectives Jasper Carrott, Hugh Dennis, Robert Powell The Detectives is a British comedy television series, starring Jasper Carrott, Robert Powell, and George Sewell. It aired on BBC One, and was a spoof of police dramas. It was written by Mike Whitehill
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The Legends of Treasure Island Hugh Laurie, Dawn French, Richard E. Grant The Legends Of Treasure Island is an animated cartoon from the UK that ran from 1993-1995. It had two series of 13 episodes each and each episode runs for 22–25 minutes. The series was loosely based
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| Detective |
"Which Brazilian World Cup star was known as ""the little bird""?" | Jasper Carrott (Creator) - TV Tropes
Jasper Carrott
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Veteran British stand-up comedian (real name Robert Davis) who has been performing since the 1970s. He is also a folk singer and incorporates this into his act, both conventional comic songs and also Visual Pun or Literal-Minded gags such as (strums guitar) "#Unforgettable..." (trails off with confused, searching look)
He grew up in Acocks Green, Birmingham, alongside a lifelong friend Bev Bevan, who found fame himself with the pop group The Move and its successor the Electric Light Orchestra . Indeed, at one point Bob Davis might have been a guitarist with the Move, but was edged out of consideration by the more accomplished Roy Wood. This freed him up to go solo as a singer-performer on the folk circuit, luckily for the rest of us. As with Mike Harding and Billy Connolly , he discovered the patter in between songs was appreciated more than the songs themselves, and as a result the spoken bits became longer, and the songs got further apart and more offbeat.
His television series have included An Audience with Jasper Carrott (1978), Carrott's Lib (1982-83), Carrott Confidential (1987-89), Canned Carrott (1990-92), The Jasper Carrott Trial (1997), Jasper Carrott - Back to the Front (1999), and 24 Carrott Gold: The Best of Jasper Carrott (2004). Audience, Back to the Front, and 24 Carrott Gold simply had Carrott performing standup for half an hour, while Lib, Confidential, and Canned featured a mixture of standup, sketches (sometimes featuring other up-and-coming comics like Mark Arden and Stephen Frost, Chris Barrie, or Steve Punt and Hugh Dennis ), and music, and Trial featured clips of Carrott's previous series and specials with a framing device of his trial for various "crimes".
His comedy is focused on observational humour and he is particularly adept at weaving a story and carrying the audience along with him. A native of Birmingham and sporting a Brummie accent, some of his earlier routines were about the trials of supporting the not very successful football team, Birmingham City FC. He was also the first and best-remembered host of Commercial Breakdown, The BBC 's programme about amusing and unusual adverts from overseas (ironically, The BBC itself doesn't carry advertising, and the ad agencies only agreed to allow their commercials to be shown if the product and slogan were included). He has starred alongside Robert "Jesus Christ" Powell in The Detectives and Meera Syal and Nina Wadia of Goodness Gracious Me in the multicultural sitcom All About Me.
Although a successful comic, he made his fortune through his production company Celador (supposedly named for what many non-English speakers consider to be the most incongruously beautiful sound in English, 'cellar door') which has seen such prominent successes as Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? . He retired from stand-up in 2004 after a series of performances in Birmingham going through his best material of the past, but since then has popped up as the host of the Game Show Golden Balls. His daughter, Lucy, also broke into acting with the part of Dawn in The Office .
Subjective tropes are here .
Tropes:
Actor Allusion : When he mentions working with Robert Powell on The Detectives, he references his title role on Jesus of Nazareth :
"He used to be Jesus Christ , now I've got him down to my level".
Actually Pretty Funny : In an episode of his 1983 sketch/stand-up series Carrott's Lib, Carrott included a joke about the flimsy construction of the Citroen 2CV , snarking that if it hit a rabbit, the car would be a write-off, while the rabbit would probably think something was stuck in its ear. An audience member shouted, "Carrots!" Jasper nearly fell off his stool with laughter, and although he finally replied, "Why don't you sod off?", he clearly found the unscripted response funny.
The Alleged Car :
Jasper has had several routines over the years about the chronic unreliability of certain models of car, including Ford Cortinas (in Carrott's Lib, he bemoaned Ford's decision to replace the Cortina with the Sierra, as just saying the words "Ford Cortina" was enough to get a laugh out of most audiences) and Citroen 2CVs (according to Jasper, only the French could make a car that looked like an upturned pram... "and sell it to us!").
24 Carrott Gold has a routine about an alleged plane on which Jasper flew(?) to Spain:
"And I flew out on this knackered airline, which I can't name, obviously... I walked across the tarmac and the pilot was kicking the tyres! [mimes kicking a tyre on a car] He said, 'Yeah, should get us there.' 'Eh?? Eh?!' They were trying to jump start it from a Vauxhall Viva! [mimes trying to jump start a car engine] I got on the plane, they took the stairs away, and the plane fell over! [leans over on his stool at a 45 degree angle] And they had an air hostess with a sense of humour - that's unique these days, innit? I asked her how long it would take to get there, she said, 'I dunno, we've never made it yet!' So we're going down the runway, [bounces up and down his seat while groaning, then says, while still bouncing] I thought we were never gonna bloody take off! I looked out the window, we're on the M1!note The main London-Leeds motorway. Stopped off at the services for a bottle of Vimto and a Wagon Wheel..."
Aluminium Christmas Trees : Combined with Newer Than They Think . He had a routine in the early 1990s about Italian food and coffee being Foreign Queasine that now seems bizarre given how both have become so mainstream in the UK.
Apathetic Citizens : Implied with the people of Northern Ireland about The Troubles when he did a show there, such as a security guard at a hotel the IRA recently bombed telling Carrott "I couldn't do your job, not with all that stress!", or when Carrott asks the event organiser whether it's okay to mention "Semtex" in a joke or it would be bad taste, to which the man is appalled and says "You can't say Semtex!...it's a brand name!"
Has pursued a vendetta with The Sun newspaper for years due to them printing absurdly inaccurate stories about him such as "Jasper Carrott Allergic To Food".
"It just goes to show - when God perfected the Sun journalist, he then started on the amoeba!"
Loves to riff on the intelligence (or lack of it) on the average Sun reader.
"How do you know when some one has been reading The Sun ? His tongue is black!" (A reference to the famous 'Page 3 girl', at the time printed in black and white with easily transferable print.)
When the Sun tried to get revenge by asking readers to send in Jasper Carrott jokes, he read a selection out during gigs, ridiculing them.
More recently butted heads with David Hasselhoff . "Hey! I'm David Hasselhoff! Nice to work with you! Here's my signed photo!"
Ass Shove : It's implied he did this to a fellow runner in the London Marathon who tried to spend the entire 26 miles playing "When the Saints Go Marching In" on a trombone .
"After about six miles, he hit 'the wall' a lot harder than he expected!"
Later after noting about how the Marathon was formerly sponsored by Nestlé and they gave each runner a chocolate bar, but is now incongruously sponsored by Flora and they give them a tub of margarine...
"Anyway, we gave all ours to the trombone bloke, to help him get it out."
He also claims to have had this done to him; when the huge guy he was winding up on the motorway realised he wasn't a police officer, Carrott woke up on the bonnet of the guy's car, held in place by the radio aerial.
Audience Participation : Carrott has always included routines in which he asks the audience if they have ever done something or other as a lead-in to a routine about that something or other. In the early years of his career, when audience interaction was not as common among British stand-up comics, he made a Running Gag out of being frustrated by the underwhelming audience responses to his questions, either by using sarcastic mimicry of their responses or by shouting, "ME ENGLISH!".note The latter was also one of his stock responses if an audience didn't seem to get a rather straightforward joke near the beginning of his set.
Bait-and-Switch Comparison : Used as the punchline for a routine mocking astrology, after he comes up with pairs of completely dissimilar celebrities who share the same birthday and would therefore have the same horoscope. He ends on:
"Me, and Albert Einstein . One is the greatest genius the world has ever seen, while the other is a Kraut with a stupid haircut ."
B-Side : By his own admission, "Funky Moped" only charted as a hit single because the B-side had a risqué The Magic Roundabout sketch.
Bald of Awesome : Carrot, who got the nickname because of thick unruly ginger hair, bowed to the inevitable and went bald.
Brick Joke : All the time, a big part of his humour—usually mentioning something inconsequential earlier in his routine that comes back as a suddenly relevant punchline at the end. For example, in the episode of Back to the Front where he talks of going to Thailand and Bali with his wife, he describes the Balinese inability to say "no" to any request, even if it's a request they cannot actually carry out. As an example, he pretends to ask for tartar sauce in a restaurant, and gets "Yes" as an answer to whether they can bring him some, and will it take long. Later, he describes seeing a rat in his hotel room, and calling the front desk to send someone up. When they arrive, he asks if they are there about the rat, and is told, "We have your tartar sauce!"
Burger Fool : The first series of Canned Carrott features a sketch skewering the fast food industry as a crew leader (Steve Punt) instructs a trainee employee (Hugh Dennis) in the ins and outs of the job. Among the lessons he dispenses: always wear a "paper Thunderbirds hat" and smile (Gary's attempt at the latter makes him look deranged ), always ask if the customer wants fries (not chips) with their order, thin milkshakes can be thickened with Polyfilla (spackle to Americans), always ensure that orders shouted to the kitchen are incomprehensibly slurred (otherwise, the kitchen staff will be confused), and ensure that the floor is being mopped constantly - the busier the restaurant, the more seats should be cordoned off for mopping.
Catching Some Z's : He refers to snoring people as "there they are, zedding away".
Cheese-Eating Surrender Monkeys : Not the French, but a similar joke; in his routine about he and his mate Derek trying to travel across Europe on a moped in the early Sixties, he mentions that Derek (lacking a crash helmet) was wearing a German Army helmet his dad had brought back from the war, and when they got lost in a town in Belgium "the mayor surrendered to us!"
Coincidental Broadcast : In a first series sketch from Carrott's Lib, a government minister (Stephen Frost) has gathered his staff to tell them that a series of leaks to the press and radio has been traced to their department. Meanwhile, a radio news broadcaster (Mark Arden) is repeating the content of his speech, almost word for word.
Minister: All right, quiet please, quiet please! Someone turn this radio down, would they? (someone does so) Now listen, ladies and gentlemen. About - these - leaks. We really must do something about the press and radio getting hold of these telegrams and other classified information!
Newsreader: Good evening. Here is the news. A short while ago, the government decided to take action over the recent leakages of telegrams and other classified information to the press and radio.
Minister: (momentarily put off) ... We've already had an investigation, and I'm sorry to have to tell you that it is this department which is believed to be responsible!
Newsreader: After an internal investigation, a ministry department is believed to be responsible.
Minister: (momentarily put off again) ... The evidence we have-
Newsreader: The evidence they have...
Minister: ... which is quite specific...
Newsreader: ... which is quite specific...
Minister: ... proves...
Minister: (eyes narrow suspiciously) ... Paintbrush.
Newsreader: Paintbrush.
Minister: (makes high-pitched babbling noise with his tongue)
Newsreader: (does likewise)
The Comically Serious : In The Jasper Carrott Trial, the QC (played by Robert Cordery) is one. When Jasper tries to explain comedy to him with the example of the classic joke about a dog with no nose:
QC: You would cut off a dog's nose, its most sensitive organ, just to get a laugh?
Carrott: ...I'd bite its bollocks off if I thought it'd get a laugh!
Dead TV Remote Gag : Talks about how people will push harder and harder on the button as though there's more chance of the signal coming out, will walk right up to the TV and hold the remote against the infrared sensor while hammering on the button...when they could just use the controls on the set.
This shows up later as a Brick Joke —about how the remote inevitably dies when you're Caught with Your Pants Down watching porn.
Digging Yourself Deeper : His impression of the Archbishop of Canterbury, stemming from him having a I Coulda Been a Contender! attitude towards the Pope and trying to put a similar fear of God into the Anglican congregation, but also trying to be more liberal, and seesawing between the two:
Carrott (as Archbishop): You will not be allowed to divorce! You will not be allowed to divorce! Are you listening? Well...not more than two or three times, anyway! And there will no more adultery! Definitely no more adultery! Well...not in public! And anyone who does commit adultery in public will have a plague of boils visited upon them! Well...not boils, no...er...dandruff! Yes! Anyone who commits adultery in public will have very bad dandruff! So bad that even Head & Shoulders won't get rid of it!
Dodgy Toupee : Has a routine about them, and wore one himself as the character "Wiggy" who stars in spoof public information films in Canned Carrott.
Don't Explain the Joke : Sometimes does this, usually as though explaining it to someone in the front row of the audience who's slow on the uptake.
"What about Nigel Lawson ? He called his daughter Nigella . If Salman Rushdie had the same idea..." (Audience laughs, Carrott leans forward as though talking to someone in front row) "'Salmonella', see? Never mind."
Double Standard : The subject of one his jokes. If a woman looks over her neighbour's fence and sees a man sun-bathing naked he'll be arrested for indecent exposure, but if a man looks over his neighbour's fence and sees a woman sun-bathing naked he'll be arrested for being a Peeping Tom .
Also he has a routine about how teenagers and grandparents are exactly the same ("neither of them have got a job, they're both on drugs...") but you treat them differently.
Another one about male strippers following the success of The Full Monty :
"Men go to see strippers because they're (air quotes) "perverts". Women go to see strippers because "it's a laugh"."
Driver of a Black Cab : While talking about unexpected people he found running the London Marathon:
"Loads of London cabbies. I didn't know they could walk, never mind run. You could tell 'em easily, they were the ones turning around and going "Ere, 'ow you doing, mate?" It took 'em all ages, 'cause they went via Bristol."
Europeans Are Kinky : He and his mate Derek believed this in the early Sixties and attempted to get to Sweden on a moped. Failing that, they ended up in Hamburg.
Everything Is Even Worse With Sharks : In his 'holiday in Bali' routine, he got secret scuba diving lessons and attended a session where they feed sharks under water, leading to this trope.
Excuse Question : Mocked.
"Call in at £60 a minute and answer this question to win a fridge magnet! What is the capital of Britain - is it A, London, or B, 1948?" "Errrrm...I'm gonna phone in twice, make sure I get it!"
Also Biting-the-Hand Humor , given the foundation of his recent fame and fortune - Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? - is based on exactly this imperative to ring seriously expensive premium rate phone lines just to stand half a chance of being in the show...
Face Palm : Does the "forehead slap" version in response to stupidity.
"Flowers for Algernon" Syndrome : In his 2004 "24 Carrott Gold" show, he mentions how Birmingham City FC have destroyed much of his act by recently improving their performance to the point that they're no longer synonymous with failure.
Foreign Queasine : His routine about eating at a Chinese restaurant in Hong Kong, where the language barrier meant he had to order by pointing at live animals the street-front restaurant had on display. On choosing chicken, the waiter took a chicken out of the cage and disappeared into the kitchen with it. The same thing happened to the fish in the tank, which became his friend's main course. At this point a dog passed in the street.
Whatever you do, don't point at the labrador!
Kavorka Man :
After discussing polls in women's magazines rating the perfect man (which had the top two characteristics as 'good sense of humour' and 'pert bottom'); "So where does Pavarotti fit into this? He pulls women like you can't believe, but he's not exactly a laugh a minute, is he? As for 'pert bottom' it starts at his neck..."
Compared Kevin Costner and Ken Dodd to the same end.
"Who would your wife prefer; Robin Hood or Robbin' the tax man."
Language Fluency Denial : Played a practical joke on British holidaymakers in Spain by pretending to be an incompetent Spanish waiter who understood no English, bodged orders, spilled drinks and generally exasperated people. Hidden cameras would catch the action as the holidaymakers got progressively more annoyed. However, one clued-up Butt Monkey saw through the set-up the very first time Carrott replied with a suspicious ¿Que?
Last-Second Word Swap : In his Bali routine, talking about his scuba diving lessons and how each trainee is assigned a buddy:
Carrott: So I got paired with this Swedish blonde... (audience oohs) ...bloke, called Erik.
Literal-Minded : A common source of his jokes.
"They put up this bloke's picture on Crimewatch UK with a phone number and said 'Have you seen this man?' Well my auntie rang them up and said 'No'."
Logic Bomb : Reacts like this to his grandmother's comment "Is the oldest man in the world still alive?"
(At a seance) "Is there anybody there? Knock Once for Yes, Twice for No !"
Luvvies : He claims Robert Powell, who he worked with on The Detectives, is one.
"He's an ac-TOR, you know... (posh accent) 'Oh, oh, what is my motivation for stuffing this ferret down my trousers?' (normal voice) 'It's funny. Get it down!'"
No Indoor Voice : His impression of Ian Paisley .
(When talking about people who name their children after themselves) "Take Ian Paisley. Sorry, `TAAAKE! IYAAAAN! PAAAAAAIRSLEYY!` His full name is Ian Kyle Paisley. He's got two sons, one's called Ian, the other's called... Kyle. Now what does that tell you about him that we didn't already know?
Obnoxious In-Laws : Defied Trope , then Double Subverted . He says he's not going to do the old cliché jokes about his mother-in-law, and he gets on with her very well. "In fact, I've just bought her a house...in Iran!" ( Evil Laugh )
Ode to Intoxication : On An Audience with Jasper Carrott among others, he performed a parody version of "The Twelve Days of Christmas" in which the gifts the "true love" sends to the singer are various alcoholic beverages. By the seventh verse, he is slurring the words and singing at varying speeds, and by the tenth verse, he is sliding off into drunken renditions of "Hey Jude" and "Show Me the Way to Go Home" before finally sobering up with "Twelve Alka-Seltzers".
Once an Episode : The episodes of his various sketch/standup series tend to follow similar outlines.
Carrott's Lib aired live, and in the first few episodes of the first series, he would cue the audience to laugh uproariously when the cameras switched on, before declaring, "That's the funniest joke I know!" and then noticing the television audience.
Carrott Confidential had a running gag in its introductions based around a BBC runner fetching Carrott from his dressing room. For example, in one introduction satirising the buying mania that had hit the property market at the time, the runner knocks on his door and announces, "Mr. Carrott? £36,500!", to which Carrott replies, "Whaaat? I told you, not a penny under £40,000! And the brooms are extra!" He then walks past a long stream of estate agent signs advertising rooms in Television Centre as "For Sale" or "Sold".
One-Hit Wonder : He had a surprise hit in 1975 with "Funky Moped", which he often references. He says that people were actually buying the single for the B side, which was a rather rude skit about The Magic Roundabout . This led to an awful lot of very confused music execs, who couldn't understand why "Funky Moped" was selling.
And the rain came down
Spit Take : The Carrott's Lib sketch mentioned under Political Correctness Gone Mad features an epic spit take from Jasper when "Beano Wilson" uses a racist slur in the unedited version of his joke.
Supergroup : In The One...Jasper Carrott, he plays with "The Old Farts", including Rick Wakeman of Yes and Bev Bevan of ELO as well as Carrott himself.
A Call Back to when, if things had gone differently, he might have become a member of a pop group with respectable success and a few singles but ultimately only a footnote to the 1960's.
Suspect Is Hatless : Talks about phony psychics who exploit this trope. (To a huge audience) "Is there anybody here called...John?"
Take That : Regularly takes a swipe at other comedians when he needs to portray someone as useless, underachieving or just plain expendable. Late comic Bernard Manning, in particular, made more than one 'appearance' in Carrott's acts over the years...
This Is Gonna Suck : When he ran the London Marathon (having signed up to it while drunk):
"At the front are all the professional runners, and then all the club runners, and then all the people who can run. And I'm at the back . With all these people dressed as ostriches. I'm wearing a body bag, to save time at the other end."
Visual Pun : Most of his later musical gags are examples of this.
"#While my guitar gently weeps..." (a hosepipe burst of water spurts out of the guitar and hits him in the face)
(Jumps off the stage, runs through the audience) "Bear with me, bear with me" (reaches edge of auditorium, strums chord) "#FROM A DISTANCE!"
The West Midlands : A lot of his routines involve his home city of Birmingham.
With Lyrics : He does a Crosses the Line Twice song about car sex to the tune of Dvorak's Humoresque.
"Was it you that did the pushin',
Left the stain upon the cushion,
Footprints on my dashboard upside down..."
Would Hurt a Child : Some of his routines involve him joking about hitting children for being obnoxious smart-arses .
A routine from Beat the Carrott (1981) about his experience appearing on Saturday Morning Kids Show Tiswas involves being pestered by a particularly obnoxious child and grabbing him by the collar, only to notice he is live on camera, whereupon he gives a plastic smile, announces a cartoon, and then gives the boy what for and tells his parents that he'd had a collision with a TV camera.
In 24 Carrott Gold (1990), while expressing frustration with how much more tech savvy his children and their friends are than he is, he jokes about giving his son a poke in the eye after he produces a detailed printout explaining why his pocket money should be increased, and giving most of the neighbourhood kids a poke in both eyes after they humiliate him at Space Invaders (except for one kid who lets him win and only gets a poke in one eye).
:: Indexes ::
| i don't know |
Which American General led the 'Confederate' armies in their early run of successes during the Civil War? | Summary List of Famous Confederate Civil War Generals during the American Civil War
There were many important confederate generals and commanders during the American Civil War . Some, like Robert E. Lee, Stonewall Jackson, and Nathan Bedford Forrest are household names. Others are less well known but are still important, as the southern generals were the commanders that led the troops and helped decide the ultimate outcome of most civil war battles . Here is a list of important confederate generals and commanders, along with links to more information and articles about each one.
List of Confederate Generals
Robert E. Lee
General Robert E. Lee was the commander of the Army of Northern Virginia and is known as the most accomplished Confederate general. Learn more about Robert E. Lee
Stonewall Jackson
General Thomas Jonathan "Stonewall" Jackson fought boldly and with great success from Bull Run to his death from a mistaken shot from a Confederate sharpshooter at the battle of Chancellorsville. Learn more about Stonewall Jackson
J.E.B. Stuart
General J.E.B. Stuart was an accomplished cavalry commander known for his skill at reconnaissance. Read more about Jeb Stuart
Nathan Bedford Forrest
Lieutenant General Nathan Bedford Forrest was one of the most feared Confederate leaders. He was an innovative cavalry commander who started the war as a private. Read more about Nathan Bedford Forrest
James Longstreet
General James Longstreet was Robert E. Lee’s most capable and consistent generals. He led the First Corps of the Army Of Northern Virginia. Read more about James Longstreet
Braxton Bragg
General Braxton Bragg led the Army Of Mississippi and Tennessee from the battle of Shiloh to Chattanooga. Read more about Braxton Bragg
George Pickett
General George Pickett was a Confederate general whose unsuccessful attack on the last day of the Battle of Gettysburg is now known as Pickett’s Charge. Read more about George Pickett
Bloody Bill Anderson
William T. "Bloody Bill" Anderson was a brutal killer, leading pro-confederate units on attacks against Union forces throughout the war. Read more about Bloody Bill Anderson
Albert Sidney Johnston
Albert Sidney Johnston fought and battled in five U.S. wars, the last being the Battle of Shiloh, where he was shot and later bled to death. Read more about Albert Sidney Johnston
John Mosby
John S. Mosby was a Confederate Cavalry Commander known for his speed and elusiveness. Read more about John Mosby
P.G.T. Beauregard
Pierre Gustave Toutant (PGT) Beauregard was a Confederate General who gained fame for being the man to fire the first shot of the civil war when he bombarded Fort Sumter. Read more about P.G.T. Beauregard
A.P. Hill
A.P. Hill was a confederate General best known for commanding the "Light Division." He was commander Thomas "Stonewall" Jackson’s most trusted general. Read more about A.P. Hill
Richard Ewell
Richard Stoddert Ewell led numerous battles during the Civil War, but his failure to capture Cemetery Hill on day one at Gettysburg led to his men and himself to be captured and imprisoned at Richmond. Read more about Richard Ewell
Joseph Johnston
General Joseph Johnston was the highest ranking officer to leave the U.S. army to join the Confederacy. He fought in many of the Civil War’s major battles and died of pheumonia. Read more about Joseph Johnston
Jubal Early
Jubal Anderson Early was known for his aggressive and sometimes reckless style. Read more about Jubal Early
Kirby Smith
Edmund Kirby Smith commanded armies in Tennessee and the Trans-Mississippi Theaters. Read more about Kirby Smith
John Bell Hood
John Bell Hood (1831-1879) was reputed for his aggressive and bold commands, a reputation which continued in battles despite his physical disabilities. Read more about John Bell Hood
Barnard Bee
Barnard Elliot Bee Jr. fought only until the First Bull Run and is known for giving the nickname "Stonewall" to Brigadier general Thomas J. Jackson. Read more about Barnard Bee
Lewis Armistead
Lewis Addison was a successful Confederate General who fought and died at the Battle of Gettysburg. Read more about Lewis Armistead
Porter Alexander
Edward Porter Alexander was a Brigadier General known for being the first man to use signal flags to send messages using signal flags. Read more about Porter Alexander
John Pemberton
For a list of northern civil war generals, please see our union generals page. For a list of all important generals from the civil war, please see our civil war generals page.
Articles Featuring Confederate Generals From History Net Magazines
Featured Article
America’s Civil War: The South’s Feuding Generals
Imagine a situation in the modern American army where officers refuse to fight under other officers, where generals openly defy and even strike their superiors, where officers are cashiered or relieved of command at a whim, where dueling challenges are routinely issued and accepted with no fear of official censure or retaliation.
Such a detrimental state of affairs would never be tolerated by either the civilian leadership or the military high command. Yet, this was precisely the situation that existed in Civil War armies on both sides, although the Confederate Army suffered more from its consequences.
The Confederate officer corps was a collection of highly individualistic, temperamental and ambitious men. Honor and personal pride seemed to be at the root of most of their personal differences with each other, even to the point where these considerations were placed above the best interests of the Confederacy. These differences affected military decisions, strategic planning and campaign operations throughout the war and contributed greatly to the eventual demise of the Confederacy.
The Confederates began bickering among themselves at the first important battle of the war. At the Battle of Manassas, the oversized egos of Generals Joseph Johnston and P.G.T. Beauregard were found to be too large for the same battlefield. In a dispute that was to be repeated again and again during the war, they argued over who should command their combined forces. Unfortunately for Beauregard, his opponent was better armed for the debate, having brought along a telegram from Southern President Jefferson Davis strictly establishing the relationship between them. Specifically, Johnston’s commission made him a full general, while Beauregard was only a brigadier general. Therefore, Johnston officially commanded their forces that day.
However, the wily Creole got in the last word; while Johnston napped in his tent after his long train ride from the Shenandoah, Beauregard drew up the battle orders, to which he attached his name. Later he awoke Johnston to have the commanding general cosign under Beauregard’s name. Wanting to avoid argument, or perhaps too sleepy to notice, Johnston signed, and history gave Beauregard the credit for the first great battlefield victory of the war.
Other disputes on the Confederate side were neither as harmless nor as fortunate in their outcome. Some, indeed, became legendary, such as those involving the fearsome cavalry leader Nathan Bedford Forrest. Forrest was a bear cat for a fight. He once gutted one of his lieutenants with a pocketknife after the disgruntled officer had first shot the general. Such a man was not to be trifled with lightly.
On two different occasions, Forrest insulted superior officers in the bluntest terms, and probably only his lethal reputation as a duelist prevented them from taking action. On the first occasion, Forrest resented being placed under Brig. Gen. Joseph Wheeler’s command in 1862 and, when Wheeler committed their troopers to an ill-conceived attack on Fort Donelson in early 1863, Forrest flew into a rage. He told Wheeler, ‘This is not a personal matter, but you will tell General Bragg in your report that I will be in my coffin before I will fight under you again. (If it had been a personal matter, Forrest probably would have just shot Wheeler and been done with it.) Forrest then ended his tirade with the ultimate military gesture of protest: If you want my sword, you can have it.
Later in the war, Forrest told General Braxton Bragg just what he thought of that vacillating, indecisive officer after Bragg had twice tampered with Forrest’s cavalry command. The confrontation occurred at Bragg’s headquarters on Missionary Ridge during the ridiculous Confederate siege of Chattanooga. Forrest said: I have stood your meanness as long as I intend to. You have played the part of a damned scoundrel, and are a coward, and if you were any part of a man I would slap your jaws and force you to resent it…. If you ever again try to interfere with me or cross my path, it will be at the peril of your life.
Major General A.P. Hill, one of Virginia’s favorite sons, was also known for his fiery temper. One historian calls him probably the most contentious of the Army of Northern Virginia’s officers. Hill quarreled with every officer he served under. After the Seven Days’ Battles, he engaged in a war of newspaper releases with Maj. Gen. James Longstreet over who deserved the most credit for the successfully completed campaign. After several volleys in the Richmond Whig and Richmond Examiner, Hill cut off all communications with Longstreet’s headquarters and demanded to be relieved from serving under Longstreet.
For his part, Longstreet heartily endorsed the request, adding a sardonic note that it was necessary to exchange the troops or to exchange the commander. When commanding General Robert E. Lee delayed taking action, the feud only grew worse. After Hill’s refusal to forward even routine reports to headquarters, Longstreet placed him under arrest and confined him to quarters. Hill took the next step, issuing a challenge to his commanding officer to duel. The two men began making arrangements to settle their differences on the field of honor.
The possibility of losing one or both of his finest commanders finally moved Lee to take action. He restored Hill to his command, then transferred his division to Stonewall Jackson’s corps in the Shenandoah Valley. The friendship between Hill and Longstreet was shattered beyond repair, and their relations henceforward were no better than coldly courteous. Lee had merely rearranged his problems, not solved them. Within a week, Hill and Jackson were squabbling, this time over Jackson’s uncommunicative command style and their differing interpretations of military protocol. That feud soon surpassed the Longstreet-Hill feud.
On the march into Maryland in the late summer of 1862, Jackson finally grew so exasperated with Hill’s failure to follow his prescribed marching orders that he rode to the head of Hill’s division and began personally issuing orders to Hill’s brigadiers.. At this moment, Hill galloped up and addressed Jackson in high dudgeon: General Jackson, you have assumed command of my division, here is my sword; I have no use for it. Jackson calmly replied, Keep your sword, General Hill, but consider yourself under arrest for neglect of duty.
For the rest of the advance, Hill was ordered to march in the rear of his division. Jackson’s charges against Hill were not for insubordination, as one might expect, but for allowing his command to straggle, a fine distinction, perhaps, that was lost on Hill.
Although Hill was restored to command before the campaign was over, and later fought magnificently, he did not forget or forgive. He preferred charges of his own against Jackson. The charges and countercharges persuaded Lee to step in again, this time to call a peace conference of the principals in order to defuse what was tepidly building toward an explosion that would have been extremely damaging to the Confederacy. The peace conference settled nothing, and the charges were still pending when Jackson was killed at Chancellorsville the next spring.
Jackson himself was a legendary feudist, even more obstreperous than Hill, if such a thing could be. At one time or another, he placed Turner Ashby, Richard B. Garnett and Hill all under arrest and ordered their courts- martial`and this was a man who died before the war was half over. On another occasion, he placed five of A.P. Hill’s colonels under arrest for letting the men use a fence for firewood. Jackson was chronically unable to get along with subordinates, in contrast to Hill, who was chronically unable to get along with superiors.
In the summer of 1861, Jackson began court-martial proceedings against a number of his officers. He blamed Garnett, commander of Jackson’s old Stonewall Brigade, for the defeat at Kernstown, and that was just the beginning. Other officers were brought up on charges ranging from insubordination to cowardice under fire. Jackson pressed so many charges that, at one point, all of his subordinate officers were on courtmartial duty.
Garnett’s court-martial for unauthorized retreat began in August 1862, but was never settled because the war intervened. Jackson was killed at Chancellorsville, and there are those who say that Garnett went to his death at Gettysburg a few months later in Pickett’s Charge glad for the opportunity to vindicate his besmirched honor.
As for Ashby, he was also reprimanded by Jackson after the Battle of Kernstown for the undisciplined state of his cavalry. The proud Ashby briefly considered challenging Jackson to a duel, but shooting the sanctimonious Stonewall did not seem sufficient to assuage his wounded pride. Instead, he announced his intention to leave the army. When word of this got out, his troopers announced they would follow Ashby out of the army rather than serve under anyone else. Faced with a mutiny of major proportions, Jackson backed down for the first and last time in his life. He restored Ashby to full command.
Jackson even quarreled with the sainted Lee on one occasion. In December 1862, he reacted angrily to Lee’s request that he transfer some of his artillery to other commands not so well equipped. Lee did not force the issue. It had been conjectured that the subsequent lack of communication between Lee and Jackson during the Seven Days’ Battles was at least partly because the two proud leaders felt a sense of rivalry and bent over backward to avoid stepping on each other’s toes.
As serious as the situation was in the Army of Northern Virginia, it was nothing compared to the situation in the Western armies. The surrender of Fort Donelson offers a case study in how to lose a campaign through jealousy and infighting. The Confederates began the campaign for the Tennessee River at a disadvantage because they were attempting to fight with a divided command. Brigadier General John Floyd, a former secretary of war, was the senior officer at Fort Donelson in February 1862, when Union forces under U.S. Grant initially besieged the fort. However, when Brig. Gen. Gideon Pillow arrived from Columbus, Ky., he immediately assumed command with no other authority than his own presumptuousness. Simon B. Buckner’s arrival on the night of February 11, 1862, put a third brigadier on the scene. From that point on, there was a definite lack of cooperation among the Confederate high command responsible for holding Fort Donelson.
Pillow and Buckner were already enemies from before the war, when Buckner had blocked Pillow’s ambition to become a US. senator from Tennessee. Old insults were not easily forgotten, even in the face of a common enemy, and their mutual hostility was hardly kept under wraps. The fact that Pillow was a take- charge kind of person, in a situation calling for tact and diplomacy, did not help. The 55-year-old Floyd might have served as a counterweight to the other two, but he was totally under Pillow’s influence despite his own impressive credentials.
While the three generals struggled to mount an effective defense of the vital fort, Grant tightened the noose. By February 15, a mood of defeatism had infected the Confederate side. That night there occurred one of the most amazing examples of a cumulative collapse of will in the annals of American warfare. The three generals held a council of war to decide on a course of action. Should they fight, retreat or surrender? Floyd and Pillow decided to surrender.
Having decided the fort could not be held, Pillow and Floyd then refused to surrender it personally to Grant. They feared they might be confined in a Yankee prison for the duration of the war, or worse, hanged as traitors. They turned the onerous task over to Buckner in the following famous exchange:
Floyd: I turn the command over, sir.
Pillow: I pass it.
Buckner: I assume it.
Several ironies resulted from this military fiasco. Although President Davis initially relieved Floyd and Pillow from command, the Southern press at first hailed them as heroes for refusing to surrender and castigated Buckner for turning over the keys to the fort and the Tennessee River. Pillow later was restored to command. Meanwhile, Buckner, arguably the best officer of the three, was marched off to a Northern prisoner- of war camp.
The Army of Tennessee had more than its share of general feuds, which usually seemed to start at the top with the general commanding. During his tenure at the head of the Army of Tennessee, Braxton Bragg made history by single-handedly setting military science and personnel management back to the Stone Age. It was Bragg, one should remember, who once got into an argument with himself while commanding a frontier post and serving at the same time as post quartermaster. Such a background did not bode well for a man who was expected to control a collection of temperamental, quarrelsome lieutenants against a superior enemy in a vast, sprawling theater far from Richmond’s authority.
Bragg quarreled, at some point, with everybody who served under him. It was not just that his cold, imperious manner offended everyone; he also displayed appalling incompetence, which only he failed to discern. Long before Forrest became fed up with Bragg and told him so to his face, other general officers had reached the same conclusion, although they expressed their opinions with more circumspection.
Bad feelings first surfaced during the Murfreesboro campaign, when Bragg’s two corps commanders, Leonidas Polk and William Hardee, refused to visit headquarters except as required by necessity, and even then they kept their visits as short as military matters permitted. It is doubtful that the men in the ranks failed to sense the cool relations between their senior officers.
After the Battle of Stones River, a strategic reverse for the Confederacy, Bragg took the highly unusual step of canvassing his officers to ask for their frank assessment of his leadership. All his division commanders advised him to resign immediately. Polk even wrote a personal letter to Jefferson Davis asking that Bragg be relieved. It was no coincidence that shortly thereafter Bragg placed Polk under arrest for his conduct in the recent battle and forwarded formal charges against him to Richmond. Davis, who considered both Bragg and Polk personal friends, refused to take action, and the charges were dropped. Worse still, Polk stayed with the army.
Bad news travels fast, and when Longstreet in Virginia heard of the problems in the Western army, he dashed off a letter to Secretary of War James Seddon making a thinly veiled offer to take Bragg’s place, because I doubt if General Bragg has the confidence of his troops. He also added, disingenuously, I am influenced by no personal motive. Longstreet, who always coveted independent command, probably dreamed of escaping Lee’s immense shadow and expected to whip the Western army into the same sort of fighting trim as the Army of Northern Virginia.
It is doubtful that Longstreet ever felt comfortable in the designated role of Lee’s Old Warhorse,’ a nickname Lee himself bestowed upon his lieutenant. Longstreet always saw himself in a grander role than his superiors allowed. On this occasion, Davis was not willing to put Longstreet in command, but he compromised by dispatching Longstreet and two of his divisions to Georgia after the Battle of Gettysburg to join Bragg’s army.
After Bragg snatched stalemate from the jaws of victory at Chickamauga, Longstreet took up the pen again, this time writing the secretary of war to request that Lee be sent west to replace Bragg. He seemed to have good cause this time` Bragg was busy cashiering senior officers like they were corporals and alienating those he did not dismiss. At the end of September 1863, he removed Generals Polk and Thomas Hindman, sending them to Atlanta to await further action from Richmond. Again, Davis intervened by ordering charges dropped.
The controversy swirling around Bragg was far from over. In fact, it was just climaxing in the famous Round- robin Letter, also known as the Revolt of the Generals. The dump-Bragg clique, now headed by Longstreet, was still hard at work. A letter was circulated among the senior officers of the army urging Davis to replace Bragg. When it finally reached the president’s desk, it bore the signatures of John C. Brown, William Preston, Leonidas Polk and D.H. Hill, among others.
The round-robin drawn up by Bragg’s senior officers was a devastating vote of no-confidence and secured the desired response from Richmond. Davis dropped all other matters and came to the army’s headquarters in person to investigate the problem. In a subsequent meeting called by Davis, the president polled the army’s senior officers for their opinions, while Bragg himself looked on uncomfortably. Longstreet, Hill, Benjamin Cheatham, Patrick Cleburne and Alexander Stewart all spoke up and said that Bragg was unfit for command and should be relieved. Only Lafayette McLaws defended Bragg, but his voice was drowned out in the chorus of naysayers.
Unfortunately for the Army of Tennessee, the majority opinion was not shared by the president of the Confederacy. With practically everybody wanting to get rid of Bragg except Davis, the decision to retain him in command was carried by a majority of one.
Longstreet continued to be a lightning rod for controversy in the West, and he apparently learned nothing from his experience in the Generals’ Revolt. His campaign against Knoxville was badly bungled in the winter of 1863 ; and he blamed his subordinates, specifically Brig. Gen. J.B. Robertson, commanding Hood’s Texas Brigade, and Maj. Gen. Lafayette McLaws, one of his division commanders.
McLaws’ list of faux pas began when he sided with Bragg earlier against the Longstreet faction in the Generals’ Revolt. On that earlier occasion, Longstreet had criticized Bragg for blaming his military setbacks on his subordinates; ironically, he now found himself doing the same thing. On December 11, 1863, he sent a curt note to McLaws containing odd, third person references to himself and an even odder ultimatum that one of them had to go and, since the commanding general could not leave, McLaws had to be the one.
The charges against McLaws included neglect of duty, failure to instruct and organize his troops, and poor command decisions. Longstreet charged that McLaws had the poor judgment to exhibit a want of confidence in the efforts and plans which the commanding general had thought proper to adopt. The irony of this vague charge from the same man who at Gettysburg had opposed the efforts and plans of his commanding general, seemed not to have registered on Longstreet.
McLaws sought exoneration by insisting on a full court-martial, which was his right and, like most wartime courts-martial, this one dragged on for months, sapping the energy and distracting the attentions of all the officers involved. The court, in May 1864, delivered a guilty verdict on only one of the three principal charges and handed down a relatively light sentence of 60 days’ suspension. Davis immediately set the verdict aside and restored McLaws to full command. The president’s action put Longstreet in a bad light, besides reuniting two unhappy officers.
McLaws’ case dragged on the longer of the two, but Robertson’s case was just as ugly. On January 21, 1864, Longstreet filed court-martial charges against him for alleged delinquency and pessimistic remarks during the [Knoxville] campaign. A military court was never convened to hear the charges; instead, a more subtle punishment was meted out by transferring Robertson to the Trans-Mississippi Department, where he finished out the war commanding reserve forces.
Bragg may have taken some secret delight in Longstreet’s command problems, but that did not improve his own situation. Eventually, after as much damage as possible had been done to the Army of Tennessee, he was replaced by Joe Johnston, whose last assignment prior to taking over the Army of Tennessee had been the poorly organized defense of Vicksburg. Unfortunately, Johnston was no better served by his lieutenants than Bragg had been. His officers during the fight for Atlanta in the summer of 1864 raised dissension to a kind of art form, which eventually contributed to his downfall.
Before that happened, however, the second great internal brawl of the Army of Tennessee occurred. A week after Johnston had assumed command, while the army was encamped at Dalton, Gal, Maj. Gen. Patrick Cleburne tossed a bombshell into the officer corps by proposing that the Confederacy arm its slaves and use them to fill up the depleted ranks of the armies. Other officers had already advised him not to bring up the controversial subject, if not out of consideration for army unity and morale, then out of consideration for his own promising career.
A furious uproar soon spread far beyond the confines of Johnston’s headquarters. General W.H.T. Walker complained to President Davis in a long letter also signed by Generals Alexander Stewart, Carter Stevenson, Patton Anderson and William Bate. Davis tried to put the lid on the entire matter, ordering Johnston to hush up any further discussion of it in the army. This Johnston did, but Bragg and others in Richmond hereafter associated Cleburne’s name with a traitorous scheme of abolition, and Cleburne never won corps command, despite a sterling combat record.
The Confederate situation, while not unique in military history, was nonetheless extremely disruptive. Reading through the records, one gets the feeling sometimes that more swords were surrendered to fellow officers during the war than to the enemy.
The quaint practice of surrendering swords at least provided a peaceful method of resolving personal differences. In other instances, Southern officers preferred to use their sidearms on each other rather than surrendering them. This is what happened on September 6, 1863, at Little Rock, Ark., between Generals John S. Marmaduke and Lucius M. Walker. Both commanded cavalry divisions in Arkansas, and Marmaduke impugned the personal courage of Walker, who had already been declared unfit as an officer by no less an authority than Braxton Bragg. A duel resulted in which Walker was mortally wounded. Following his death the next day, Marmaduke was arrested but quickly released because the army could not afford to lose two cavalry commanders while the enemy was active in the vicinity. Furthermore, Marmaduke was a well-liked officer, and popular opinion in the army was clearly on his side.
In April 1865, three days before Lee surrendered, Colonel George W. Baylor shot Brig. Gen. John A. Wharton, the latter being unarmed at the time. Baylor said Wharton called him a liar and slapped his face, sufficient provocation for any red-blooded Southern gentleman, but Wharton’s friends said Baylor was angry about being passed over for promotion and blamed Wharton for holding him back. Baylor was never charged with any crime, and even if he had been, it is doubtful whether other Southern gentlemen, particularly if they were Texans, would have convicted him.
There is no telling how many dueling challenges were issued and never acted upon. After Malvern Hill, General Robert Toombs challenged D.H. Hill to a duel for accusing him of taking the field too late and leaving it too soon. While Hill’s unofficial criticism had said nothing about Toombs’ brigade, Toombs interpreted the insult to be aimed at both himself and his brigade, and therefore demanded the satisfaction usual among gentlemen.
The two men sparred back and forth in a series of letters, with Hill reminding Toombs that they were prohibited from issuing or accepting challenges to duel by the plainest principles of duty and the laws which we have mutually sworn to serve. In the end, Toombs had to be satisfied with publicly calling Hill a poltroon, a taunt which no one else took seriously because of Hill’s well-known courage on the battlefield.
Constant squabbling among senior officers, accompanied by bitter recriminations and indiscriminate dismissals and transfers, ate away at the army’s heart and soul. Jefferson Davis himself never understood this fact and incredibly drew the opposite conclusion from his personal experience. After the Revolt of the Generals, he stated with more wishful thinking than common sense, I have learned that cordial cooperation between officers is not vital to success.
Noted historian Bell Wiley was closer to the truth when he observed: Perhaps the most costly of the Confederacy’s shortcomings was the disharmony among its people….One who delves deeply into the literature of the period may easily conclude that Southerners hated each other more than they did the Yankees.
Texas-based author Dr. Richard Selcer wishes to dedicate his article on Southern generals to the memory of his friend and colleague Colonel Harold B. Simpson, author of Brawling Brass, North and South. See also Colonel Red Reeder’s The Southern Generals.
For more great articles be sure to subscribe to America’s Civil War magazine today!
Articles 2
How in the world did they shoot Stonewall Jackson? It’s one of the best-known stories of the Civil War: Confederate General Thomas J. “Stonewall” Jackson is accidentally shot by his own men during the Battle of Chancellorsville and then dies a few days later. His death, perhaps, alters the course of the war itself.
Emory Upton and the Shaping of the U.S. Army How one soldier’s combat experiences and study of the world's great military powers led to a tactical revolution
Ron Maxwell Interview – ‘Gods and Generals’ Extended Director’s Cut A HistoryNet exclusive interview with director Ron Maxwell about the extended director's cut of his film Gods and Generals, now available on DVD and Blu-Ray.
Tennessee town memorializes Nathan B. Forrest’s horse In the annals of American history, no war has produced as many famous horses as the Civil War: Traveller, Little Sorrel and Rienzi are among the best known, but there are others. Confederate Lt. Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest, for example, rode several great mounts, including his loyal horse Roderick. At the March 1863 Battle of …
The Angola Train Wreck Nearly 50 people died and many more injured in the 1867 train wreck known as the Angola Horror. John D. Rockefeller narrowly missed being one of them.
Gas Balloons: View From Above the Civil War Battlefield Led by pioneering balloonist Thaddeus Lowe, daredevil aeronauts on both sides of the war took to the skies in flimsy balloons to eyeball their opponents' every move. Soldiers on the ground often did not take kindly to the unwanted attention.
Battle of Resaca: Botched Union Attack William Tecumseh Sherman waited expectantly to hear that his accomplished young protégé, James B. McPherson, had successfully gotten astride the railroad at Resaca and cut off the Confederate line of retreat. Hours went by with no word from McPherson. What was 'Mac' doing in Snake Creek Gap?
Book Review: Bloody Bill Anderson: The Short, Savage Life of a Civil War Guerrilla (by Albert Castel and Thomas Goodrich): CWT Bloody Bill Anderson: The Short, Savage Life of a Civil War Guerrilla, by Albert Castel and Thomas Goodrich, Stackpole Books, Mechanicsburg, Pennsylvania, 800-732-3669, 192 pages, $24.95. Americans like to think of their Civil War as a gentlemen’s disagreement, remarkably free from the barbarity and senseless killing that characterized revolutions in other parts of the world. …
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"Which former international footballer was known as ""the wizard of the dribble""?" | Greatest Charges of the Civil War
« Back | More on Gaines' Mill » | More on Gettysburg »
Greatest Charges of the Civil War
The manner in which Civil War soldiers fought seems foolish today. Advancing in large, tight formations toward well-fortified positions appears suicidal. Civil War soldiers were not stupid. They had no wish to die—they were using the modern tactics of the times. Advancing in tight ranks and delivering overwhelming, concentrated small arms fire against your enemy was an essential part of fighting the Civil War.
Garry Adelman discusses the Civil War's Greatest Charges
Of the thousands of attacks that involved thousands of soldiers each, Pickett’s Charge at Gettysburg, July 3, 1863, stands out as the most well-known. But this famous attack of roughly 12,000 soldiers was far from the largest, bloodiest, longest, or most sustained. Consider these other lesser-known, but arguably more notable, Civil War charges, assaults and attacks.
The Largest Assault of the Civil War: General Lee’s attack at Gaines’ Mill, June 27, 1862
Learn More About Gaines' Mill
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Not long after taking command of the Army of Northern Virginia, Confederate Gen. Robert E. Lee hatched a plan to drive Union Gen. George B. McClellan’s Army of the Potomac away from Richmond, Virginia. Lee moved most of his army north of the Chickahominy River and attacked an isolated part of McClellan’s army under Union Gen. Fitz John Porter. On June 27, 1862, the fighting that erupted at Gaines’ Mill was the bloodiest of the week-long battles known as the Seven Days.
After several unsuccessful attempts to break the Union line at Gaines’ Mill, at 7:00pm Lee ordered the bulk of his entire force to assault the strong, Union position. Precious little daylight remained when the Confederates attacked along a two-mile front. The aggressive Confederate Gen. John Bell Hood, spearheaded the attack and others joined the fray. With more than 30,000 soldiers (by some calculations, the number should really be closer to 50,000) in a general simultaneous movement, Confederates at Gaines’ Mill carried the Union position before nightfall and could rightly claim to have participated in the largest assault of the Civil War.
Gen. John Bell Hood and his Texas Brigade spearhead the largest assault of the Civil War in this painting by Dale Gallon. (Courtesy Gallon Historical Art, www.gallon.com)
The Largest Flank Attack of the Civil War: Stonewall Jackson’s assault at Chancellorsville, May 2, 1863
Learn More About Chancellorsville
Photo Gallery
On the morning of May 2, 1863, Confederate General Stonewall Jackson led his corps on a 12-mile march to gain the Union right flank west of Chancellorsville, Virginia. All day long his men tromped and by late afternoon they arrived squarely upon the exposed flank of the Union 11th Corps, commanded by Gen. Oliver O. Howard. Jackson approached from the west but almost all of Howard’s force faced generally southward.
The massive Confederate force unfolded astride the Orange Turnpike like a giant accordion. The movement was so enormous that it took hours to complete. At last, however, about 20,000 Confederates had arrayed themselves in lines of battle, several ranks deep and two miles wide. When Jackson’s men emerged from the woods some startled Yankees stood and fought but the outmatched Union soldiers had no real hope of actually blocking the Confederate juggernaut. Jackson had crushed the Union right flank and was prepared to push his enemy into the Rappahannock River. As darkness made forward movement almost impossible, it also brought on the wounding of Stonewall Jackson, which would lead to his death the following week—one of thousands of casualties in the greatest flank attack of the Civil War.
In 2010, the Civil War Trust preserved this portion of the Chancellorsville battlefield, over which Jackson's troops made their overwhelming flank attack. (Rob Shenk)
The Most Fortuitous Charge of the Civil War: General Longstreet’s attack at Chickamauga, September 20, 1863
Learn More About Chickamauga
Biography: James Longstreet
In early September 1863, Union Gen. William S. Rosecrans captured Chattanooga, Tennessee without a fight. As Rosecrans moved into Georgia, his opponent, Confederate Gen. Braxton Bragg attacked a portion of Rosecrans’ army along the banks of Chickamauga Creek. The second largest battle of the Civil War had begun. For two days, the armies fought. They struggled mightily on September 19th. But on the 20th Rosecrans mistakenly thought there was a gap in his line which he aimed to fill. In doing so, he created a large and dangerous gap on his right flank, near the Brotherton farm.
During the battle, Bragg had received reinforcements under Gen. James Longstreet, who had just completed a tortuous journey on foot and by rail from northern Virginia. Longstreet was given command of the left wing of Bragg’s army and ordered to attack the Union right. He moved more than 20,000 Confederate soldiers on a narrow front and, entirely by chance, directly into the gap in the Union line. The power of his assault shattered the Union right flank and drove far into the Union rear. A full one-third of the Union army, including its commander was driven from the field in the most fortuitous attack of the Civil War.
Longstreet's troops take advantage of the gap in the Union line on September 20, 1863. (Map by Steve Stanley)
The Most Compact Large-Scale Attack of the Civil War: General Hancock’s assault at Spotsylvania, May 12, 1864
Learn More About Spotsylvania Court House
Biography: Winfield S. Hancock
Union Gen. U.S. Grant began his spring campaigns of 1864 by moving various armies at once on five fronts. His largest effort was with his eastern armies, with which he traveled. Grant failed to achieve success at the Wilderness and then moved onto Spotsylvania Courthouse where Grant and his opponent Confederate Gen. Robert. E. Lee engaged in a two-week struggle which proved to be one of the bloodiest of the Civil War. After the partial success of Union Gen. Emory Upton’s 12-regiment compact attack at Spotsylvania on May 10, 1864, Grant ordered Gen. Winfield S. Hancock to lead a much larger assault two days later, with more than 40 regiments, upon the strong Confederate position known as the Mule Shoe, but forever thereafter as the Bloody Angle.
At first light, Hancock’s "battering ram" of some 20,000 men smashed into the Confederate line, broke through, captured thousands of Southerners and then stalled. Powerful Confederate counterattacks ensued and even with more than 15,000 reinforcements, the Union soldiers failed to achieve victory. For 20 hours, American’s fought each other in the closest proximity, a result of the most compact large scale attack of the Civil War.
Union troops surge over the "Bloody Angle" at Spotsylvania. (Library of Congress)
The Largest Cavalry Charge of the Civil War: Torbert’s grand charge at Third Winchester, September 19, 1864
Learn More About Third Winchester
Article
Tasked with rendering the Shenandoah Valley useless to Confederates, Union Gen. Philip Sheridan, commander of the new Army of the Shenandoah, sought to deal with the main Confederate force in the Valley under Confederate Gen. Jubal Early. On September 19, 1864, Early and Sheridan clashed at the Battle of Third Winchester. Just before noon the bloodiest battle fought in the Shenandoah commenced. Early parried Sheridan’s thrusts until late afternoon.
Unfortunately for Early, Sheridan had three powerful cavalry divisions which numbered almost as many troopers as Early had infantry. Union cavalry chief Gen. Alfred Torbert unleashed two of his three divisions in an attack up the Valley Pike. While Union infantry pressed hard on Early’s front, Torbert’s troopers attacked in front and threatened the Confederate rear. The Southerners offered stubborn resistance at every fort, fence line and barricade they could find, but by nightfall, the city of Winchester was in Union hands. The Union cavalry charges were several but the final attack involved as many as 8,000 troopers in the largest cavalry charge of the Civil War.
Federal horsemen charge the Confederate works at Third Winchester in the war's largest cavalry charge. (Library of Congress)
The Civil War’s Deadliest Attack for General Officers: General Hood’s charge at Franklin, November 30, 1864
Learn More About Franklin
Battle Maps: Battle of Franklin
Confederate Gen. John B. Hood aimed to destroy a Union force under Gen. John M. Schofield before it could reach another Union army in Nashville, Tennessee. Schofield reached Franklin and sought to buy time for his supply trains by forming a defensive line on the southern edge of town. Hood reached Franklin anxious to destroy the Union force before it could escape and launched an assault in what is officially called the Second Battle of Franklin, November 30, 1864.
Hood’s mighty charge consisted of 18 brigades—some 20,000 men—over two miles of open ground. Although sometimes called the "Pickett's Charge of the West" it was actually much larger and covered twice the distance. And unlike Pickett’s Charge, the Confederates did not retreat; they stubbornly held advanced positions until nightfall. According to participants, this was a struggle unlike any other and resulted in horrific losses on both sides. Confederates, sustained particularly high casualties--more than 6,000 of which 12 were suffered by generals. Six of these generals (Cleburne, Carter, Adams, Granbury, Gist, and Stahl) were killed or mortally wounded in the Civil War’s deadliest attack for general officers.
Map showing the deadly assault at Franklin. Six stars mark the sites where one of Hood's generals was killed or mortally wounded. (Map by Steve Stanley)
The Most Consequential Attack of the Civil War: Horatio Wright’s Breakthrough at Petersburg, April 2, 1865
Learn More About Breakthrough
Two Days in April - The Breakthrough at Petersburg by Robert Thompson
Confederate General Robert E. Lee had been essentially trapped in his lines around Richmond and Petersburg for nine months by the time spring came in 1865. On March 25th, Lee launched a desperate assault with some 20,000 men against Union-held Fort Stedman. The attack failed and his men filed back into their lines. But Union Gen. U.S. Grant countered with probes along his lines and his troops succeeded in capturing Confederate picket lines. In the Battle of Jones Farm, Sixth Corps troops, under Gen. Horatio Wright, took a key picket line which brought them within one-half mile of the thinly held Confederate position.
On the early morning of April 2, 1865, Wright formed his more than 14,000 men into a wedge formation and charged the Confederate position, manned by only 2,800 soldiers. The attack plunged through abatis, over the breastworks and, after nearly ten months, the Union finally broke through the main Confederate line. So serious was the breakthrough that General Lee wired Richmond that he intended to evacuate Petersburg and Richmond that night. The Union occupied the abandoned cities the next day. While other assaults may have been more decisive, none other could claim the fall of the Confederate capital and with it the distinction of being the most consequential attack of the Civil War.
The Federal Sixth Corps charged across this field in the wee hours of April 2, 1865, breaking through the Confederate line and effectively ending the Siege of Petersburg. (Douglas Ullman, Jr.)
Related Facts
- None of the above attacks were failures. In no case did the attackers fall back en masse and in most cases they succeeded in driving the enemy. Apparently, launching enough soldiers in a coordinated effort worked.
- Large assaults didn’t always work, however. The number of sad, pointless or disastrous charges in the Civil War is too many to list: Cold Harbor, Atlanta, Fredericksburg, Kennesaw Mountain, the Crater, Malvern Hill, Fort Steadman, Bentonville and so many more.
- Although often painted as a defensive fighter, Confederate Gen. James Longstreet commanded some of the largest assaults of the Civil War at Second Manassas, Gettysburg, Chickamauga, and the Wilderness.
- At Gettysburg, Confederate assaults on July 1 (more than 20,000 charging in the afternoon) and July 2 (16,000 attacking en echelon) were each larger than Pickett’s Charge on July 3 (12,000).
- Perhaps the most impetuous large-scale assault of the war was the unplanned attack of Union Gen. George H. Thomas’ troops up the slopes of Missionary Ridge, November 25, 1863.
- At Parker’s Crossroads, Confederate Gen. Nathan Bedford Forrest is known for ordering his troops to “Charge ‘em both ways.”
- Since 1992 The Civil War Trust has preserved 3,834 acres at Gaines’ Mill, Chancellorsville, Winchester, Franklin, Petersburg and Gettysburg.
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"Who was the actress who played the female equivalent of the ""bionic man""?" | The Bionic Woman | Retroland
Home » Television » The Bionic Woman
The Bionic Woman
America caught its first glimpse of female superhero Jaime Summers when she appeared on a special two-part episode of the popular prime-time series, The Six Million Dollar Man , circa 1975. The long-lost love interest of Steve Austin, Jamie and her bionic boyfriend hoped to rekindle that high school romance. Then, she became crippled in a tragic parachuting accident and a distraught Steve pleaded with his boss, Oscar Goldman, to use some high-tech healing power on his lady friend.
She was rebuilt with the same bionic gadgetry (and seemed to be recovering nicely) when her body began rejecting her new circuitry, spiraling her into a coma. This might have been the end for poor Jaime, but nothing pulls a television character out of a coma quicker than a surge in ratings. With the prospect of a hit spin-off series on their hands (courtesy of the overwhelming viewer response to the character), Jaime Summers would make a full recovery and actress Lindsay Wagner, who was only originally under contract for the one previous appearance, would be miraculously saved from a trip to the unemployment line and given her very own series in the 1976 fall line-up, The Bionic Woman.
With her newly acquired super-abilities, Jaime was recruited into the Office of Scientific Information (OSI) much to Steve’s displeasure, who felt the job was too dangerous for her. But with her new bionic legs, a right arm to match and some powerful auditory abilities, thanks to a handy bionic ear, she proved up for the challenge. Given a new life, the former tennis star proceeded to pose as an instructor at a California Air Force Base while moonlighting as a formidable secret agent.
Although her male covert counterpart always seemed to be able to carry out whatever mission he was faced with in the same snazzy leisure suit, apparently female agents were required to dress as provocatively as possible (or at least as provocative as television of the 70s would allow.) At least that was the case with Jaime, who in the course of her duties would dress as a stewardess, belly dancer, pro-wrestler, country singer, and of course, beauty pageant contestant (OK, to be fair, she did get to dress as a nun once).
Jaime had a number of acquaintances, ready to lend a helping hand. Besides Oscar, there was Dr. Rudy Wells, bionic makeover artist extraordinaire and Peggy Callahan, Mr. Goldman’s able assistant. She could also lean on her parents, Helen and Jim Elgin, and, most importantly, her amazing cyber-canine, Max. Eventually, Jamie would team up with her former flame, Steve, and together they would battle a few memorable adversaries, most notably Bigfoot and, for good measure, a herd of fem-bots.
The only battle the pair ever lost was against the formidable programming executives at ABC – which simultaneously canceled The Six Million Dollar Man and The Bionic Woman at the end of the 1978 season. But if you think that was the end of the bionic duo, think again. The couple would be reunited on numerous occasions throughout the 80’s and 90s in made-for-TV films such as The Return of the Six Million Dollar Man and the Bionic Woman in 1987, Bionic Showdown: The Six Million Dollar Man and the Bionic Woman in 1989 and finally, in Bionic Ever After in 1994, where, not only did Jamie get some nifty new abilities such as night vision – but also a bionic husband, as her and Steve finally tied the knot.
Finally, after 13 years of assumed retirement, The Bionic Woman (this time played by actress Michelle Ryan) came out of hibernation (cybernation?) for an all new-series that debuted in 2007. Eight episodes aired before The Bionic Woman finally met an unstoppable adversary … in the form of a writer’s strike. Although her fate remained uncertain when the strike ended, the series was ultimately terminated. But after being rebuilt numerous times, you never know when The Bionic Woman may emerge again. In the world of television programming, stranger things have most certainly happened.
If you grew up watching The Bionic Woman, we’d love for you to share your memories in our comments section, as we tip our hats to this formidable female that kept us glued to the television in the 70s.
2 Responses to “The Bionic Woman”
| Lindsay Wagner |
"Which colourful TV personality's autobiography is entitled ""A Real Bobby Dazzler""?" | The Six Million Dollar Man TV Show: News, Videos, Full Episodes and More | TVGuide.com
The Six Million Dollar Man 1973 | TV Show Watchlist
Injured astronaut Steve Austin gains amazing powers to battle crime after receiving experimental limbs in this cult series, which inspired a wave of superhero shows in the 1970s. The ABC adventure originated as a trio of TV-movies in 1973, before joining t
(more…)
Injured astronaut Steve Austin gains amazing powers to battle crime after receiving experimental limbs in this cult series, which inspired a wave of superhero shows in the 1970s. The ABC adventure originated as a trio of TV-movies in 1973, before joining the weekly schedule in January 1974. `The Six Million Dollar Man' spawned the equally successful `Bionic Woman' with Lindsay Wagner as Steve's female counterpart and sometime love interest. The cyborg couple appeared in three reunion flicks.
Premiered: March 7, 1973
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Overview
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What power does the title character in the film 'Carrie' possess? | Carrie (2013) - IMDb
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A reimagining of the classic horror tale about Carrie White, a shy girl outcast by her peers and sheltered by her deeply religious mother, who unleashes telekinetic terror on her small town after being pushed too far at her senior prom.
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5 wins & 7 nominations. See more awards »
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The outcast teenager Carrie White is bullied by her classmates at high school. Her mother, Margaret White, is a pious and paranoid woman that sees sin everywhere and the need of self-inflicting punishment. When Carrie has her first period, she does not understand what is happening to her and her classmates humiliate her in the changing room. The spiteful Chris Hargensen videotapes Carrie with her cell phone and posts it on the Internet. Their teacher Ms. Desjardin punishes the students, but when Chris challenges her, she is suspended and consequently is banned from the prom. Meanwhile, Carrie discovers that she has telekinesis and learns how to control her ability. Sue Snell, one of the girls that tormented Carrie, feels bad and asks her boyfriend Tommy Ross to invite Carrie to go with him to the prom to make up for what she did to Carrie. But Chris and her boyfriend Billy Nolan plot an evil prank with her friends to seek vengeance for Carrie. Written by Claudio Carvalho, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
The power never dies. See more »
Genres:
Rated R for bloody violence, disturbing images, language and some sexual content. | See all certifications »
Parents Guide:
18 October 2013 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
Carrie, la vengeance See more »
Filming Locations:
$16,101,552 (USA) (18 October 2013)
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Trivia
Kimberly Peirce did not want to think of the film as a remake, she saw it as an opportunity to do something different. She wanted to really develop Chris Hargenson as a villain. See more »
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In the opening scene, where we see Carrie being born, the umbilical cord disappears between shots. See more »
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This Was actually pretty damn good
3 November 2013 | by Jacobhemphill96
(United States) – See all my reviews
As a fan of the book and the original 1976 film my expectations for this were mixed. But just yesterday I saw this with two friends and loved every minute of it. It is very faithful to the original source material with a few modern takes on the story. There was also a bit more blood . Chloe grace moretz is not my first choice to play carrie but from what I saw she did very well. You feel for her and feel the pain she's going Through and understand why she does what she does in the end. Julianne Moore did especially well as the crazy religious bitch mother. The original was a little silly and over the top but Moore plays it so well it feels like I'm watching it for the first time. The prom scene is straight up awesome and has some very intense death scenes . Overall the film is very good And I highly recommend it.
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| Psychokinesis |
In which capital city would you travel on Klongs, and visit Wats? | StephenKing.com - Carrie
Carrie
Formats: Hardcover / Paperback / Audio / Kindle
First Edition Release Date:April, 1974
Synopsis:
The story of misfit high-school girl, Carrie White, who gradually discovers that she has telekinetic powers. Repressed by a domineering, ultra-religious mother and tormented by her peers at school, her efforts to fit in lead to a dramatic confrontation during the senior prom.
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In what year was the League Of Nations, formed? | Milestones: 1914–1920 - Office of the Historian
Milestones: 1914–1920
The League of Nations, 1920
The League of Nations was an international organization, headquartered in Geneva, Switzerland, created after the First World War to provide a forum for resolving international disputes. Though first proposed by President Woodrow Wilson as part of his Fourteen Points plan for an equitable peace in Europe, the United States never became a member.
Cartoon critizing U.S. lack of participation in the League of Nations
Speaking before the U.S. Congress on January 8, 1918, President Woodrow Wilson enumerated the last of his Fourteen Points , which called for a “general association of nations…formed under specific covenants for the purpose of affording mutual guarantees of political independence and territorial integrity to great and small states alike.” Many of Wilson’s previous points would require regulation or enforcement. In calling for the formation of a "general association of nations," Wilson voiced the wartime opinions of many diplomats and intellectuals on both sides of the Atlantic who believed there was a need for a new type of standing international organization dedicated to fostering international cooperation, providing security for its members, and ensuring a lasting peace. With Europe’s population exhausted by four years of total war, and with many in the United States optimistic that a new organization would be able to solve the international disputes that had led to war in 1914, Wilson’s articulation of a League of Nations was wildly popular. However, it proved exceptionally difficult to create, and Wilson left office never having convinced the United States to join it.
David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom
The idea of the League was grounded in the broad, international revulsion against the unprecedented destruction of the First World War and the contemporary understanding of its origins. This was reflected in all of Wilson’s Fourteen Points, which were themselves based on theories of collective security and international organization debated amongst academics, jurists, socialists and utopians before and during the war. After adopting many of these ideas, Wilson took up the cause with evangelical fervor, whipping up mass enthusiasm for the organization as he traveled to the Paris Peace Conference in January 1919, the first President to travel abroad in an official capacity.
Wilson used his tremendous influence to attach the Covenant of the League, its charter, to the Treaty of Versailles . An effective League, he believed, would mitigate any inequities in the peace terms. He and the other members of the “Big Three,” Georges Clemenceau of France and David Lloyd George of the United Kingdom, drafted the Covenant as Part I of the Treaty of Versailles. The League’s main organs were an Assembly of all members, a Council made up of five permanent members and four rotating members, and an International Court of Justice. Most important for Wilson, the League would guarantee the territorial integrity and political independence of member states, authorize the League to take “any action…to safeguard the peace,” establish procedures for arbitration, and create the mechanisms for economic and military sanctions.
Georges Clemenceau of France
The struggle to ratify the Treaty of Versailles and the Covenant in the U.S. Congress helped define the most important political division over the role of the United States in the world for a generation. A triumphant Wilson returned to the United States in February 1919 to submit the Treaty and Covenant to Congress for its consent and ratification. Unfortunately for the President, while popular support for the League was still strong, opposition within Congress and the press had begun building even before he had left for Paris. Spearheading the challenge was the Senate majority leader and chairman of the Foreign Relations Committee, Henry Cabot Lodge .
Motivated by Republican concerns that the League would commit the United States to an expensive organization that would reduce the United States’ ability to defend its own interests, Lodge led the opposition to joining the League. Where Wilson and the League’s supporters saw merit in an international body that would work for peace and collective security for its members, Lodge and his supporters feared the consequences of involvement in Europe’s tangled politics, now even more complex because of the 1919 peace settlement. They adhered to a vision of the United States returning to its traditional aversion to commitments outside the Western Hemisphere. Wilson and Lodge’s personal dislike of each other poisoned any hopes for a compromise, and in March 1920, the Treaty and Covenant were defeated by a 49-35 Senate vote. Nine months later, Warren Harding was elected President on a platform opposing the League.
Henry Cabot Lodge
The United States never joined the League. Most historians hold that the League operated much less effectively without U.S. participation than it would have otherwise. However, even while rejecting membership, the Republican Presidents of the period, and their foreign policy architects, agreed with many of its goals. To the extent that Congress allowed, the Harding, Coolidge, and Hoover administrations associated the United States with League efforts on several issues. Constant suspicion in Congress, however, that steady U.S. cooperation with the League would lead to de facto membership prevented a close relationship between Washington and Geneva. Additionally, growing disillusionment with the Treaty of Versailles diminished support for the League in the United States and the international community. Wilson’s insistence that the Covenant be linked to the Treaty was a blunder; over time, the Treaty was discredited as unenforceable, short-sighted, or too extreme in its provisions, and the League’s failure either to enforce or revise it only reinforced U.S. congressional opposition to working with the League under any circumstances. However, the coming of World War II once again demonstrated the need for an effective international organization to mediate disputes, and the United States public and the Roosevelt administration supported and became founding members of the new United Nations .
| one thousand nine hundred and nineteen |
What are, 'Oarweed', 'Furbelows' and 'Dabberlocks', types of? | League of Nations - History Learning Site
League of Nations
Citation: C N Trueman "League of Nations"
historylearningsite.co.uk. The History Learning Site, 17 Mar 2015. 16 Aug 2016.
League of Nations
Background
The League of Nations came into being after the end of World War One . The League of Nation’s task was simple – to ensure that war never broke out again. After the turmoil caused by the Versailles Treaty , many looked to the League to bring stability to the world.
America entered World War One in 1917. The country as a whole and the president – Woodrow Wilson in particular – was horrified by the slaughter that had taken place in what was meant to be a civilised part of the world. The only way to avoid a repetition of such a disaster, was to create an international body whose sole purpose was to maintain world peace and which would sort out international disputes as and when they occurred. This would be the task of the League of Nations.
After the devastation of the war, support for such a good idea was great (except in America where isolationism was taking root).
The organisation of the League of Nations
The League of Nations was to be based in Geneva, Switzerland. This choice was natural as Switzerland was a neutral country and had not fought in World War One. No one could dispute this choice especially as an international organisation such as the Red Cross was already based in Switzerland.
If a dispute did occur, the League, under its Covenant, could do three things – these were known as its sanctions:
It could call on the states in dispute to sit down and discuss the problem in an orderly and peaceful manner. This would be done in the League’s Assembly – which was essentially the League’s parliament which would listen to disputes and come to a decision on how to proceed. If one nation was seen to be the offender, the League could introduce verbalsanctions – warning an aggressor nation that she would need to leave another nation’s territory or face the consequences.
If the states in dispute failed to listen to the Assembly’s decision, the League could introduce economic sanctions. This would be arranged by the League’s Council. The purpose of this sanction was to financially hit the aggressor nation so that she would have to do as the League required. The logic behind it was to push an aggressor nation towards bankruptcy, so that the people in that state would take out their anger on their government forcing them to accept the League’s decision. The League could order League members not to do any trade with an aggressor nation in an effort to bring that aggressor nation to heel.
if this failed, the League could introduce physical sanctions. This meant that military force would be used to put into place the League’s decision. However, the League did not have a military force at its disposal and no member of the League had to provide one under the terms of joining – unlike the current United Nations . Therefore, it could not carry out any threats and any country defying its authority would have been very aware of this weakness. The only two countries in the League that could have provided any military might were Britain and France and both had been severely depleted strength-wise in World War One and could not provide the League with the backing it needed. Also both Britain and France were not in a position to use their finances to pay for an expanded army as both were financially hit very hard by World War One .
The League also had other weaknesses :
The country, whose president, Woodrow Wilson, had dreamt up the idea of the League – America – refused to join it. As America was the world’s most powerful nation, this was a serious blow to the prestige of the League. However, America’s refusal to join the League, fitted in with her desire to have an isolationist policy throughout the world.
Germany was not allowed to join the League in 1919. As Germany had started the war, according to the Treaty of Versailles , one of her punishments was that she was not considered to be a member of the international community and, therefore, she was not invited to join. This was a great blow to Germany but it also meant that the League could not use whatever strength Germany had to support its campaign against aggressor nations.
Russia was also not allowed to join as in 1917 , she had a communist government that generated fear in western Europe, and in 1918, the Russian royal family – the Romanovs – was murdered. Such a country could not be allowed to take its place in the League.
Therefore, three of the world’s most powerful nations (potentially for Russia and Germany) played no part in supporting the League. The two most powerful members were Britain and France – both had suffered financially and militarily during the war – and neither was enthusiastic to get involved in disputes that did not affect western Europe.
Therefore, the League had a fine ideal – to end war for good. However, if an aggressor nation was determined enough to ignore the League’s verbal warnings, all the League could do was enforce economic sanctions and hope that these worked as it had no chance or enforcing its decisions using military might.
The successes of the League of Nations
In view of the League’s desire to end war, the only criteria that can be used to classify a success, was whether war was avoided and a peaceful settlement formulated after a crisis between two nations.
The League experienced success in:
The Aaland Islands (1921)
These islands are near enough equal distant between Finland and Sweden. They had traditionally belonged to Finland but most of the islanders wanted to be governed by Sweden. Neither Sweden nor Finland could come to a decision as to who owned the islands and in 1921 they asked the League to adjudicate. The League’s decision was that they should remain with Finland but that no weapons should ever be kept there. Both countries accepted the decision and it remains in force to this day.
Upper Silesia (1921)
The Treaty of Versailles had given the people of Upper Silesia the right to have a referendum on whether they wanted to be part of Germany or part of Poland. In this referendum, 700,000 voted for Germany and 500,000 for Poland. This close result resulted in rioting between those who expected Silesia to be made part of Germany and those who wanted to be part of Poland. The League was asked to settle this dispute. After a six-week inquiry, the League decided to split Upper Silesia between Germany and Poland. The League’s decision was accepted y both countries and by the people in Upper Silesia.
Memel (1923)
Memel was/is a port in Lithuania. Most people who lived in Memel were Lithuanians and, therefore, the government of Lithuania believed that the port should be governed by it. However, the Treaty of Versailles had put Memel and the land surrounding the port under the control of the League. For three years, a French general acted as a governor of the port but in 1923 the Lithuanians invaded the port. The League intervened and gave the area surrounding Memel to Lithuania but they made the port an “international zone”. Lithuania agreed to this decision. Though this can be seen as a League success – as the issue was settled – a counter argument is that what happened was the result of the use of force and that the League responded in a positive manner to those (the Lithuanians) who had used force.
Turkey (1923)
The League failed to stop a bloody war in Turkey (see League failures) but it did respond to the humanitarian crisis caused by this war.
1,400,000 refugees had been created by this war with 80% of them being women and children. Typhoid and cholera were rampant. The League sent doctors from the Health Organisation to check the spread of disease and it spent £10 million on building farms, homes etc for the refugees. Money was also invested in seeds, wells and digging tools and by 1926, work was found for 600,000 people.
A member of the League called this work “the greatest work of mercy which mankind has undertaken.”
Greece and Bulgaria (1925)
Both these nations have a common border. In 1925, sentries patrolling this border fired on one another and a Greek soldier was killed. The Greek army invaded Bulgaria as a result. The Bulgarians asked the League for help and the League ordered both armies to stop fighting and that the Greeks should pull out of Bulgaria. The League then sent experts to the area and decided that Greece was to blame and fined her £45,000. Both nations accepted the decision.
The failures of the League of Nations
Article 11 of the League’s Covenant stated:
“Any war of threat of war is a matter of concern to the whole League and the League shall take action that may safe guard peace.”
Therefore, any conflict between nations which ended in war and the victor of one over the other must be considered a League failure.
Italy (1919)
In 1919, Italian nationalists, angered that the “Big Three” had, in their opinion, broken promises to Italy at the Treaty of Versailles, captured the small port of Fiume. This port had been given to Yugoslavia by the Treaty of Versailles. For 15 months, Fiume was governed by an Italian nationalist called d’Annunzio. The newly created League did nothing. The situation was solved by the Italian government who could not accept that d’Annunzio was seemingly more popular than they were – so they bombarded the port of Fiume and enforced a surrender. In all this the League played no part despite the fact that it had just been set up with the specific task of maintaining peace.
Teschen (1919)
Teschen was a small town between Poland and Czechoslovakia. Its main importance was that it had valuable coal mines there which both the Poles and the Czechs wanted. As both were newly created nations, both wanted to make their respective economies as strong as possible and the acquisition of rich coal mines would certainly help in this respect.
In January 1919, Polish and Czech troops fought in the streets of Teschen. Many died. The League was called on to help and decided that the bulk of the town should go to Poland while Czechoslovakia should have one of Teschen’s suburbs. This suburb contained the most valuable coal mines and the Poles refused to accept this decision. Though no more wholesale violence took place, the two countries continued to argue over the issue for the next twenty years.
Vilna (1920)
Many years before 1920, Vilna had been taken over by Russia. Historically, Vilna had been the capital of Lithuania when the state had existed in the Middle Ages. After World War One, Lithuania had been re-established and Vilna seemed the natural choice for its capital.
However, by 1920, 30% of the population was from Poland with Lithuanians only making up 2% of the city’s population. In 1920, the Poles seized Vilna. Lithuania asked for League help but the Poles could not be persuaded to leave the city. Vilna stayed in Polish hands until the outbreak of World War Two. The use of force by the Poles had won.
War between Russia and Poland (1920 to 1921)
In 1920, Poland invaded land held by the Russians. The Poles quickly overwhelmed the Russian army and made a swift advance into Russia. By 1921, the Russians had no choice but to sign the Treaty of Riga which handed over to Poland nearly 80,000 square kilometres of Russian land. This one treaty all but doubled the size of Poland.
What did the League do about this violation of another country by Poland?
The answer is simple – nothing. Russia by 1919 was communist and this “plague from the East” was greatly feared by the West. In fact, Britain, France and America sent troops to attack Russia after the League had been set up. Winston Churchill, the British War Minister, stated openly that the plan was to strangle Communist Russia at birth. Once again, to outsiders, it seemed as if League members were selecting which countries were acceptable and ones which were not. The Allied invasion of Russia was a failure and it only served to make Communist Russia even more antagonistic to the West.
The invasion of the Ruhr (1923)
The Treaty of Versailles had ordered Weimar Germany to pay reparations for war damages. These could either be paid in money or in kind (goods to the value of a set amount) In 1922, the Germans failed to pay an installment. They claimed that they simply could not rather than did not want to. The Allies refused to accept this and the anti-German feeling at this time was still strong. Both the French and the Belgium’s believed that some form of strong action was needed to ‘teach Germany a lesson’.
In 1923, contrary to League rules, the French and the Belgium’s invaded the Ruhr – Germany’s most important industrial zone. Within Europe, France was seen as a senior League member – like Britain – and the anti-German feeling that was felt throughout Europe allowed both France and Belgium to break their own rules as were introduced by the League. Here were two League members clearly breaking League rules and nothing was done about it.
For the League to enforce its will, it needed the support of its major backers in Europe, Britain and France. Yet France was one of the invaders and Britain was a major supporter of her. To other nations, it seemed that if you wanted to break League rules, you could. Few countries criticised what France and Belgium did. But the example they set for others in future years was obvious. The League clearly failed on this occasion, primarily because it was seen to be involved in breaking its own rules.
Italy and Albania (1923)
The border between Italy and Albania was far from clear and the Treaty of Versailles had never really addressed this issue. It was a constant source of irritation between both nations.
In 1923, a mixed nationality survey team was sent out to settle the issue. Whilst travelling to the disputed area, the Italian section of the survey team, became separated from the main party. The five Italians were shot by gunmen who had been in hiding.
Italy accused Greece of planning the whole incident and demanded payment of a large fine. Greece refused to pay up. In response, the Italians sent its navy to the Greek island of Corfu and bombarded the coastline. Greece appealed to the League for help but Italy, lead by Benito Mussolini , persuaded the League via the Conference of Ambassadors, to fine Greece 50 million lire.
To follow up this success, Mussolini invited the Yugoslavian government to discuss ownership of Fiume. The Treaty of Versailles had given Fiume to Yugoslavia but with the evidence of a bombarded Corfu, the Yugoslavs handed over the port to Italy with little argument
The social successes of the League of Nations
At a social level the League did have success and most of this is easily forgotten with its failure at a political level. Many of the groups that work for the United Nations now, grew out of what was established by the League. Teams were sent to the Third World to dig fresh water wells, the Health Organisation started a campaign to wipe out leprosy. This idea – of wiping out from the world a disease – was taken up by the United Nations with its smallpox campaign.
Work was done in the Third World to improve the status of women there and child slave labour was also targeted. Drug addiction and drug smuggling were also attacked.
These problems are still with us in the C21st – so it would be wrong to criticise the League for failing to eradicate them. If we cannot do this now, the League had a far more difficult task then with more limited resources.
The greatest success the League had involving these social issues, was simply informing the world at large that these problems did exist and that they should be tackled. No organisation had done this before the League. These social problems may have continued but the fact that they were now being actively investigated by the League and were then taken onboard by the United Nations must be viewed as a success.
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In which city might you make regular journeys on a 'Vaporetti'? | Getting Around Venice by Vaporetto | Rick Steves | Smithsonian
Getting Around Venice by Vaporetto
Forget the gondola, the quickest and most convenient way to see Venice is via the public-transit vaporetti
While gondolas are romantic, to get around Venice quickly and cheaply, you’ll need to take motorized bus-boats called vaporetti. (Courtesy of Rick Steves' Europe Through the Back Door)
smithsonian.com
August 31, 2009
The Venice public-transit system is a fleet of motorized bus-boats called vaporetti. They work like city buses except that they never get a flat, the stops are docks, and if you get off between stops, you might drown.
For most travelers, only two vaporetti lines matter: Line #1 and line #2. These lines go up and down the Grand Canal, between the “mouth of the fish” at one end and San Marco at the other. Line #1 is the slow boat, taking 45 minutes and making every stop along the way. Line #2 is the fast boat that zips down the Grand Canal in 25 minutes, stopping only at Tronchetto (parking lot), Piazzale Roma (bus station), Ferrovia (train station), San Marcuola, Rialto Bridge, San Tomà (Frari Church), Accademia Bridge, and San Marco (west end of St. Mark’s Square).
Catching a vaporetto is very much like a catching a city bus. Helpful charts at the docks show a map of the lines and stops. At one end of the Grand Canal are Tronchetto, Piazzale Roma (Ple. Roma), and Ferrovia. At the other end is San Marco. The sign on the dock lists the line number that stops there and which direction the boat is headed, for example: “#2—Direction San Marco.” Nearby is the sign for line #2 going in the other direction, for example: “#2—Direction Tronchetto.”
It’s simple, but there are a few quirks. Some #2 boats go only as far as Rialto (solo Rialto)—check with the conductor before boarding. Some stops have just one dock for boats going in both directions, so make sure the boat you get on is pointing in the direction you want to go. Larger stops might have two separate docks side by side (one for each direction), while some smaller stops have docks across the canal from each other (one for each direction). Electronic reader boards on busy docks display which boats are coming next, and when.
Lines #1 and #2 run every 10 minutes in summer. Off-season, there’s less service, so plan ahead if you’re trying to get from St. Mark’s Square to catch an early train. If there’s any doubt, ask a ticket-seller or conductor, or pick up the most current ACTV timetable (free at ticket booths, in English and Italian, tel. 041-2424, www.hellovenezia.com or www.actv.itm ).
Tickets: Standard single tickets are €6.50 each. (A few shorter runs are only €2, such as the route from San Marco to La Salute or from San Zaccaria-Jolanda to San Giorgio Maggiore.) Tickets are good for 60 minutes in one direction; you can hop on and off at stops during that time. Technically, you’re not allowed a round-trip (though in practice, a round-trip is allowed if you can complete it within a 60-minute span). Too much luggage can cost you a second ticket.
Transportation Passes: You can buy a pass for unlimited use of vaporetti and ACTV buses: €16/12 hours, €18/24 hours, €23/36 hours, €28/48 hours, €33/72 hours, €50/7-day pass). Because single tickets cost a hefty €6.50 a pop, these passes can pay for themselves in a hurry. Think through your Venice itinerary before you step up to the ticket booth to pay for your first vaporetto trip. It makes sense to get a pass if you’ll be taking four rides or more (e.g., to your hotel, on a Grand Canal joyride, into the lagoon and back, to the train station). And it’s fun to be able to hop on and off spontaneously, and avoid long ticket lines. On the other hand, many tourists just walk and rarely use a boat. If you’re planning on taking 10 vaporetto trips or more, you’ll save money by getting a CartaVenezia ID card (€40 for foreigners not residing or working in Venice, valid for 3 years). With the card, you pay €1.10 per trip, or €10 for a carnet of 10 tickets (buy discounted tickets at any ticket booth, tickets still need to be stamped like regular tickets). You’ll also be able to ride the locals-only vaporetto #3. Buy cards at the HelloVenezia office at the Tronchetto stop (especially handy for those arriving by car; avoid busy Mondays and mornings). Bring along your passport and a passport-size photo (you can get photos for €3 in a booth at the train station), fill out the form, and pay €40.
Buying and Validating Tickets and Passes: You can buy vaporetto tickets or passes at ticket booths at main stops (such as Ferrovia, Rialto, Accademia, and San Marco-Vallaresso); from a conductor on board (do it immediately, before you sit down, or you risk a €44 fine); or at a tourist information office (for no extra fee). Plan your travel so you’ll have tickets or a pass handy when you need them—not all stops have ticket booths.
Passes must be validated before the first use. Tickets generally come already stamped, but if for whatever reason, your ticket lacks a stamp, stick it into the time-stamping yellow machine before boarding. The pass system (called iMob) is electronic—just touch your card to the electronic reader on the dock to validate it.
Vaporetto Tips: For fun, take a Grand Canal cruise. Avoid the tourist rush hour, when boats can be packed: Morning rush hour (8:00–10:00) is headed in the direction of St. Mark’s Square, as tourists and local commuters arrive. Afternoon rush hour (about 17:00) is when they’re headed in the other direction for the train station.
For more details, please see Rick Steves’ Venice.
Rick Steves ( www.ricksteves.com ) writes European travel guidebooks and hosts travel shows on public television and public radio. E-mail him at [email protected] , or write to him c/o P.O. Box 2009, Edmonds, WA 98020.
© 2010 Rick Steves
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In what year did the League Of Nations become the United Nations? | Venice Transportation
Venice Travel and Tourism Essentials
Venice Transportation
Venice transportation is primarily a water borne experience. Venice is actually a series of small islands in a lagoon so transportation can be unique. Here are transportation resources for getting to and from Venice and getting around in Venice, from the vaporetto to the water taxi to gondolas.
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'Acorn' and 'Goose' are the two basic types of what, often found on large sea mammals? | Barnacles of British Columbia
Acorn Barnacle ( Belanus glandulus ), photo by Aaron Baldwin
Reprinted from Ira Cornwall's The Barnacles of British Columbia, published by
View our Barnacle Atlas Pages
Introduction
At first sight, barnacles look like slight projections of the rocks on which they grow, but closer inspection will show that each contains a well developed animal which is wonderfully adapted to its mode of life. There is not just one kind of barnacle, as a casual observer might think, but there are four or five hundred kinds, or species, in the world. Some of them have taken strange places in which to live: one species is found only on the tongue of a certain turtle; another bores holes in soft rock; one species has developed a float; several species are found only in very deep water. Others are found only between high- and low-tide marks, where they grow in such profusion that they appear to be the dominant group of living things in this zone. Still others live mostly embedded in the skin of whales or attached to the tip of the whale's flipper. Others again (e.g. Saculina) are whollly parasitic, living upon crabs of several species. These last are degenerate forms, however, and are not included in this booklet.
The question arises: What is a barnacle? Simply answered, a barnacle or cirriped is a crustacean, a relative of the crab, lobster and sand-flea, that has attached itself permanently to some object larger than itself. A shell has developed in which it lives, and its legs have become modified into most efficient sweeps for the capture of the small sea-creatures and organic material on which it feeds.
If a barnacle is examined, it will be seen that the opening at the summit of the shell is closed by four movable plates hinged like folding doors. When these are opened, the sweep may be protruded; when they are closed, the barnacle is protected from enemies and from drying when exposed to the air. When one walks over rocks at low tide, a slight grating or bubbling noise may be heard. This is caused by the barnacles closing their doors more tightly, an action which may be induced even by the passing of a shadow.
Except in the case of groups such as "acorn barnacles", "goose barnacles", and "whale barnacles", these creatures do not have common or vernacular names. It is necessary therefore to use scientific names for the various species.
Types of Barnacles
There are two divisions of the barnacles or "Cirripedia", namely the acorn or "sessile", and the goose or "pedunculate". In both of these, the internal anatomy is much the same, but their outside appearance is very different. The sessile barnacles have calcareous shells fixed directly to some support, while the pedunculate barnacles have the body-chamber, or "capitulum" on the end of a flexible stem, the "peduncle". The peduncle, in turn, may be fixed to a floating object, or, in one case, to a float produced by the cement gland.
Certain sessile barnacles are to be found on whales, and these are known by the general term 'whale barnacle'. However, two species of the pedunculate barnacle Conchoderma are commonly found attached to certain whale barnacles, and these are often called whale barnacles for convenience.
The number of plates forming the shell of the different genera of sessile barnacles varies from eight in Catophragmus (Bermuda, Hawaiian Islands, and New South Wales) to one in Pyrgoma (West Indies), in which all of the plates are fused together to form a solid ring.
On the British Columbia coast, there are only two genera of sessile barnacles--Balanus and Chthamalus. They each have six triangular plates forming the conical shell, but the arrangement of the plates differ.
In some sessile barnacles, the plates forming the wall are solid. In others, they are double, being formed by the inner and outer 'lamina', the space between them being filled by the 'parietal' tubes. These tubes run from the 'basal' part of the plates to the 'apex', and in several species they have 'cross septa' dividing the tubes into a series of cells.
The 'base' or 'basis' is the part of the shell that is attached to its support, really the floor of the shell. Only one British Columbia species (Balanus cariosus) has a membranous base, consisting of a simple membrane made up of concentric rings that are added to the periphery at each period of growth. All the other species of this coast have calcareous bases. Some are very thin, and will adhere to their support firmly. In collecting, it will often be found that the shell will break around the lower edge, thus leaving the base attached to the support. The bases of some barnacles, such as Balanus nubilus, are very thick and are permeated by pores similar to the parietal tubes in the walls.
The thickened part of the shell around the interior of the 'orifice is called the 'sheath'. It is composed of fine shelly layers which become deeper as the shell grows. Attached to the sheath a little above its lower margin is the 'opercular membrane', which acts as a cover for the orifice. An opening in the centre permits the 'crri' to be protruded during times of feeding. On each side of the opening are two pairs of calcareous cover-plates named the 'scuta' and 'terga'.
Within the shell the body is enclosed in a 'mantle', a membranous organ which secretes the limy material of which the shell is made. The animal lies on its back with the cirri pointing up directly under the opening of the operculum, through which they are thrust when in search of food. The cirri are composed of six pairs of legs; each leg has two branches made up of many segments, and each segment has a double row of spines on the inner face forming a very efficient net. Food is carried directly to the mouth, which is situated on a prominence near the middle of the body.
The barnacle has no heart or circulating system as found in higher animals. Body fluids flow through passages among the muscles and other organs in a 'lucunar' circulation.
Barnacles have a well-developed nervous system, that of the pedunculate species being arranged in a ladder-like manner very similar to that of the primitive crustaceans, from which barnacles undoubtedly were drived (Cornwall,1953). In the sessile barnacles the nervous system is much more centralized, the ladder-like arrangement being concentrated into one large 'ganglion', from which the nerves to the appendages radiate.
Simple eyes are present beneath the skin of the 'prosoma', the bag-like portion of the body which corresponds to the head. The eyes are sensitive to light; the shadow of a hand passing over barnacles in a tide pool will cause them to close their cover-lates.
The body chamber or capitulum of pedunculate barnacles is protected by a series of calcareous plates. In Lepas there are five such plates--paired scuta and terga and a single 'carina', corresponding to the cover-plates in sessile forms. Additonal lateral plates or rows of scales may be present in members of other genera and scales may also be present on the peduncle.
In some species the peduncle is provided with three layers of muscles--longitudinal, transverse, and oblique--that give it the power of motion. Several cement glands at the base of the peduncle fasten the animal to its support.
At intervals throughout life a barnacle casts off its old skin and replaced it with a larger one to allow for growth. In the larval stages this mouting takes place several times, sometimes in rapid succession; in the adult stage it is less frequent, the intervals of time depending upon the rate of growth. In the process the entire chitinous covering of the body, together wiht the covering of the branched cirri and other appendages, is casdt off in one piece, as is the case with the other members of this class.
For some unknown reason moulting seems to take place simultaneously over a large area; many moults are often to be seen at one time floating in the sea.
Barnacle Structure--Variation in the Shell
The shell of the barnacle is beautifully deigned for the protection of the enclosed body, and yet exhibits almost unlimited range of variation--which makes determination of species very difficult. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that identification should not rely on external characteristics. Even after long experience with barnacles from all parts of the world, an expert may have difficulty in naming several species common to this coast without dissecting them.
There is one species common on the coast of British Columbia that would certainly be divided into several species if judged from extenal appearance alone. This is Balanus cariosus, the barnacle that is found in great numbers between high- and low-tide marks. Occasionally an individual will be found growing alone and uncrowded; under such conditions the shell will assume its normal shape, a steep-walled cone with a jagged irregular opening at the top. The walls are covered with many downward-pointing spines, giving what Darwin called a 'thatched appearance'. The walls are thick, and are permeated by many pores. When crowded, this barnacle assume quite a different form, as the plates forming the wall are then much elongated and show no trace of the thatched appearance. When the barnacle grows on a restricted surface, such as a pebble, it takes the form in which the walls are thick and rough and may or may not have the thatched appearance. When this species grows on a rock where it is exposed to erosion caused by wave-action and water-borne materials, it looks different again. The walls coalesce, and are worn down nearly as fast as they grow. The cover-plates, however, are not eroded, as they are not firmly fixed as the walls are. As a consequence, they often tend to project above the level of the walls.
The largest barnacle found on this coast, Balanus nubilus, gains rooms, when crowded, by deepening its base, which often becomes a cornucopia-shaped cup that may reach a lenght of six inches. The shell does not vary in shape, but its external sculpturing can rarely be seen as it is usually much eroded.
Erosion, or wearing away of the shell, is worthy of note in the study of barnacles, since some species are very subject to it, while others seem to have developed an immunity to it. For example, a full-grown specimen of Balanus nubilus or B. cariosus is rarely seen without some evidence of erosion, while B. rostratus almost always has a perfect shell.
Since Darwin in his monograph on the Cirripedia goes into the subject of variaton at considerable length, there is no need to consider the subject further here, except to conclude with the following paragraph from this work:
"Not only does every external character vary greatly in most species, but the non-internal parts very often vary to a surprising degree; and to add to the difficulty, groups of specimens not rarely vary in the same manner".
Life History
Barnacles are hermaphrodites; that is, both male and female reproductive organs are present in each individual. However, members of some genera, such as Ibla (found in the Phillippines and Australia) and Scalpellum (found world-wide) have what is called a "complemental male", which bears about the same size proportion to the barnacle as a mouse does to a man. Complemental males vary in structure; some have no mouths or stomachs, and must be very short-lived.
In all species, the eggs are retained in two sacs, called the "ovigerous lamellae", in which they are held together in layers by a delicate transparent membrane. When the young first emerge from the egg, they are in the "napulius" or free-swimming stage....At certain seasons of the year these young may be seen drifting like clouds through the sea.
Larvae increase in size by a series of "moults" until they reach the "metanauplius" stage, during which they change in form and their single eye becomes two. By the end of the next moult, a bivalve shell has developed, additional appendages appear, and globules of fat form in the body to provide buoyancy. After a period of some days, this "cypris" larvae" settels on a solid object to which it becomes attached by the "antennules", assisted by secretions from the cement glands. The bivalve shell is now lost, the body becomes greatly changed in form, and the valves of the adult shell appear. For the rest of its life, the barnacle remains fixed in this position literally "standon on its head and kicking food into its mouth with its feet".
Identification of Species
It is easy to tell at sight to which of the two great groups a barnacle belongs. If it has a more or less flexible stem, it is a pedunculate barnacle. If the shell is attached to a support in such a way that it cannot move, it is a sessile or acorn barnacle. Whale barnacles are acorn barnacles specially modified for attachment to whales.
The pedunculate species found on the coast of British Columbia are divided among four genera. They are readily identified by use of the key and reference to the figures and accompanying text.
It is a little more difficult to identify an acorn or sessile barnacle as the outside appearance alone is not a reliable guide. However, the internal sculpture of the cover plates appears to be fairly constant and can be used in the identification of most species.
However, it is not safe to rely alone on the sculpture of the cover-plates for identification as there are species with plates that look nearly the same. Therefore, several other characters must be taken into consideration. The number of spines on the middle segment of the sixth leg; the shape of the mouth parts; and the structure of the base of the shell.
An examination of mouth parts must be done if a correct determination of the species is required, and this is rather difficult to do if the specimen is a small one like Chthamalus. Since in some of these a full grown specimen is only 4 or 5 millimetres in diameter, the mouth parts can be seen only under a magnifying glass.
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Which pop group's first album was 'Piper At The Gates Of Dawn'? | Barnacles of British Columbia
Acorn Barnacle ( Belanus glandulus ), photo by Aaron Baldwin
Reprinted from Ira Cornwall's The Barnacles of British Columbia, published by
View our Barnacle Atlas Pages
Introduction
At first sight, barnacles look like slight projections of the rocks on which they grow, but closer inspection will show that each contains a well developed animal which is wonderfully adapted to its mode of life. There is not just one kind of barnacle, as a casual observer might think, but there are four or five hundred kinds, or species, in the world. Some of them have taken strange places in which to live: one species is found only on the tongue of a certain turtle; another bores holes in soft rock; one species has developed a float; several species are found only in very deep water. Others are found only between high- and low-tide marks, where they grow in such profusion that they appear to be the dominant group of living things in this zone. Still others live mostly embedded in the skin of whales or attached to the tip of the whale's flipper. Others again (e.g. Saculina) are whollly parasitic, living upon crabs of several species. These last are degenerate forms, however, and are not included in this booklet.
The question arises: What is a barnacle? Simply answered, a barnacle or cirriped is a crustacean, a relative of the crab, lobster and sand-flea, that has attached itself permanently to some object larger than itself. A shell has developed in which it lives, and its legs have become modified into most efficient sweeps for the capture of the small sea-creatures and organic material on which it feeds.
If a barnacle is examined, it will be seen that the opening at the summit of the shell is closed by four movable plates hinged like folding doors. When these are opened, the sweep may be protruded; when they are closed, the barnacle is protected from enemies and from drying when exposed to the air. When one walks over rocks at low tide, a slight grating or bubbling noise may be heard. This is caused by the barnacles closing their doors more tightly, an action which may be induced even by the passing of a shadow.
Except in the case of groups such as "acorn barnacles", "goose barnacles", and "whale barnacles", these creatures do not have common or vernacular names. It is necessary therefore to use scientific names for the various species.
Types of Barnacles
There are two divisions of the barnacles or "Cirripedia", namely the acorn or "sessile", and the goose or "pedunculate". In both of these, the internal anatomy is much the same, but their outside appearance is very different. The sessile barnacles have calcareous shells fixed directly to some support, while the pedunculate barnacles have the body-chamber, or "capitulum" on the end of a flexible stem, the "peduncle". The peduncle, in turn, may be fixed to a floating object, or, in one case, to a float produced by the cement gland.
Certain sessile barnacles are to be found on whales, and these are known by the general term 'whale barnacle'. However, two species of the pedunculate barnacle Conchoderma are commonly found attached to certain whale barnacles, and these are often called whale barnacles for convenience.
The number of plates forming the shell of the different genera of sessile barnacles varies from eight in Catophragmus (Bermuda, Hawaiian Islands, and New South Wales) to one in Pyrgoma (West Indies), in which all of the plates are fused together to form a solid ring.
On the British Columbia coast, there are only two genera of sessile barnacles--Balanus and Chthamalus. They each have six triangular plates forming the conical shell, but the arrangement of the plates differ.
In some sessile barnacles, the plates forming the wall are solid. In others, they are double, being formed by the inner and outer 'lamina', the space between them being filled by the 'parietal' tubes. These tubes run from the 'basal' part of the plates to the 'apex', and in several species they have 'cross septa' dividing the tubes into a series of cells.
The 'base' or 'basis' is the part of the shell that is attached to its support, really the floor of the shell. Only one British Columbia species (Balanus cariosus) has a membranous base, consisting of a simple membrane made up of concentric rings that are added to the periphery at each period of growth. All the other species of this coast have calcareous bases. Some are very thin, and will adhere to their support firmly. In collecting, it will often be found that the shell will break around the lower edge, thus leaving the base attached to the support. The bases of some barnacles, such as Balanus nubilus, are very thick and are permeated by pores similar to the parietal tubes in the walls.
The thickened part of the shell around the interior of the 'orifice is called the 'sheath'. It is composed of fine shelly layers which become deeper as the shell grows. Attached to the sheath a little above its lower margin is the 'opercular membrane', which acts as a cover for the orifice. An opening in the centre permits the 'crri' to be protruded during times of feeding. On each side of the opening are two pairs of calcareous cover-plates named the 'scuta' and 'terga'.
Within the shell the body is enclosed in a 'mantle', a membranous organ which secretes the limy material of which the shell is made. The animal lies on its back with the cirri pointing up directly under the opening of the operculum, through which they are thrust when in search of food. The cirri are composed of six pairs of legs; each leg has two branches made up of many segments, and each segment has a double row of spines on the inner face forming a very efficient net. Food is carried directly to the mouth, which is situated on a prominence near the middle of the body.
The barnacle has no heart or circulating system as found in higher animals. Body fluids flow through passages among the muscles and other organs in a 'lucunar' circulation.
Barnacles have a well-developed nervous system, that of the pedunculate species being arranged in a ladder-like manner very similar to that of the primitive crustaceans, from which barnacles undoubtedly were drived (Cornwall,1953). In the sessile barnacles the nervous system is much more centralized, the ladder-like arrangement being concentrated into one large 'ganglion', from which the nerves to the appendages radiate.
Simple eyes are present beneath the skin of the 'prosoma', the bag-like portion of the body which corresponds to the head. The eyes are sensitive to light; the shadow of a hand passing over barnacles in a tide pool will cause them to close their cover-lates.
The body chamber or capitulum of pedunculate barnacles is protected by a series of calcareous plates. In Lepas there are five such plates--paired scuta and terga and a single 'carina', corresponding to the cover-plates in sessile forms. Additonal lateral plates or rows of scales may be present in members of other genera and scales may also be present on the peduncle.
In some species the peduncle is provided with three layers of muscles--longitudinal, transverse, and oblique--that give it the power of motion. Several cement glands at the base of the peduncle fasten the animal to its support.
At intervals throughout life a barnacle casts off its old skin and replaced it with a larger one to allow for growth. In the larval stages this mouting takes place several times, sometimes in rapid succession; in the adult stage it is less frequent, the intervals of time depending upon the rate of growth. In the process the entire chitinous covering of the body, together wiht the covering of the branched cirri and other appendages, is casdt off in one piece, as is the case with the other members of this class.
For some unknown reason moulting seems to take place simultaneously over a large area; many moults are often to be seen at one time floating in the sea.
Barnacle Structure--Variation in the Shell
The shell of the barnacle is beautifully deigned for the protection of the enclosed body, and yet exhibits almost unlimited range of variation--which makes determination of species very difficult. It cannot be too strongly emphasized that identification should not rely on external characteristics. Even after long experience with barnacles from all parts of the world, an expert may have difficulty in naming several species common to this coast without dissecting them.
There is one species common on the coast of British Columbia that would certainly be divided into several species if judged from extenal appearance alone. This is Balanus cariosus, the barnacle that is found in great numbers between high- and low-tide marks. Occasionally an individual will be found growing alone and uncrowded; under such conditions the shell will assume its normal shape, a steep-walled cone with a jagged irregular opening at the top. The walls are covered with many downward-pointing spines, giving what Darwin called a 'thatched appearance'. The walls are thick, and are permeated by many pores. When crowded, this barnacle assume quite a different form, as the plates forming the wall are then much elongated and show no trace of the thatched appearance. When the barnacle grows on a restricted surface, such as a pebble, it takes the form in which the walls are thick and rough and may or may not have the thatched appearance. When this species grows on a rock where it is exposed to erosion caused by wave-action and water-borne materials, it looks different again. The walls coalesce, and are worn down nearly as fast as they grow. The cover-plates, however, are not eroded, as they are not firmly fixed as the walls are. As a consequence, they often tend to project above the level of the walls.
The largest barnacle found on this coast, Balanus nubilus, gains rooms, when crowded, by deepening its base, which often becomes a cornucopia-shaped cup that may reach a lenght of six inches. The shell does not vary in shape, but its external sculpturing can rarely be seen as it is usually much eroded.
Erosion, or wearing away of the shell, is worthy of note in the study of barnacles, since some species are very subject to it, while others seem to have developed an immunity to it. For example, a full-grown specimen of Balanus nubilus or B. cariosus is rarely seen without some evidence of erosion, while B. rostratus almost always has a perfect shell.
Since Darwin in his monograph on the Cirripedia goes into the subject of variaton at considerable length, there is no need to consider the subject further here, except to conclude with the following paragraph from this work:
"Not only does every external character vary greatly in most species, but the non-internal parts very often vary to a surprising degree; and to add to the difficulty, groups of specimens not rarely vary in the same manner".
Life History
Barnacles are hermaphrodites; that is, both male and female reproductive organs are present in each individual. However, members of some genera, such as Ibla (found in the Phillippines and Australia) and Scalpellum (found world-wide) have what is called a "complemental male", which bears about the same size proportion to the barnacle as a mouse does to a man. Complemental males vary in structure; some have no mouths or stomachs, and must be very short-lived.
In all species, the eggs are retained in two sacs, called the "ovigerous lamellae", in which they are held together in layers by a delicate transparent membrane. When the young first emerge from the egg, they are in the "napulius" or free-swimming stage....At certain seasons of the year these young may be seen drifting like clouds through the sea.
Larvae increase in size by a series of "moults" until they reach the "metanauplius" stage, during which they change in form and their single eye becomes two. By the end of the next moult, a bivalve shell has developed, additional appendages appear, and globules of fat form in the body to provide buoyancy. After a period of some days, this "cypris" larvae" settels on a solid object to which it becomes attached by the "antennules", assisted by secretions from the cement glands. The bivalve shell is now lost, the body becomes greatly changed in form, and the valves of the adult shell appear. For the rest of its life, the barnacle remains fixed in this position literally "standon on its head and kicking food into its mouth with its feet".
Identification of Species
It is easy to tell at sight to which of the two great groups a barnacle belongs. If it has a more or less flexible stem, it is a pedunculate barnacle. If the shell is attached to a support in such a way that it cannot move, it is a sessile or acorn barnacle. Whale barnacles are acorn barnacles specially modified for attachment to whales.
The pedunculate species found on the coast of British Columbia are divided among four genera. They are readily identified by use of the key and reference to the figures and accompanying text.
It is a little more difficult to identify an acorn or sessile barnacle as the outside appearance alone is not a reliable guide. However, the internal sculpture of the cover plates appears to be fairly constant and can be used in the identification of most species.
However, it is not safe to rely alone on the sculpture of the cover-plates for identification as there are species with plates that look nearly the same. Therefore, several other characters must be taken into consideration. The number of spines on the middle segment of the sixth leg; the shape of the mouth parts; and the structure of the base of the shell.
An examination of mouth parts must be done if a correct determination of the species is required, and this is rather difficult to do if the specimen is a small one like Chthamalus. Since in some of these a full grown specimen is only 4 or 5 millimetres in diameter, the mouth parts can be seen only under a magnifying glass.
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In the Irish ballad, what did the 'Mountains of Mourne' do? | Discover Northern Ireland | The Mourne Mountains, County Down
Explore more of the region on our interactive map
Mourne Mountains
The Mournes stand true to the words of songwriter Percy French as the place ‘where the Mountains of Mourne sweep down to the sea’. They are not only one of Ireland’s most scenic areas and an Area of Outstanding Natural Beauty (AONB), they are quite simply an adventurer’s paradise.
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"Which opera house is found in New York's ""Lincoln Centre""?" | The Mountains Of Mourne Sweep Down To The Sea | Culture Northern Ireland
The Mountains Of Mourne Sweep Down To The Sea
The Mountains Of Mourne Sweep Down To The Sea
Lee Henry salutes the multi-talented Percy French, best known for his tribute to Co Down
aboutpercyfrench1.jpg
William Percy French was born into Protestant, landowning stock in the western Irish county of Roscommon in 1854. An inquisitive, amiable young soul, known to family and friends as Willie, he spent his formative years in the remote surroundings of the French family estate, Cloonyquin, with four brothers and four sisters.
It was clear from an early age that French was talented in many respects. As a young boy he was appointed editor of The Tulsk Morning Howl, an in-house family magazine which acted as an early vehicle for his love of poetry, story-telling and art. Around 1864, French moved to England where he continued his education at Kirk Langley School in Derby, later attending Windermere College.
While it was apparent to most that his future lay in the creative arts, a glowing report from one of French's school masters influenced his father to push for a career in science, and in 1872 he began a Civil Engineering degree at Trinity College, Dublin. Although he showed little interest in his studies – it would take an incredible nine years before he was granted his CE Degree – in Dublin he soon developed a love of music and the theatre, and before long had taught himself to play the banjo.
Whilst in Trinity in 1877, he wrote his first song, a satirical account of the Turko-Russian war called 'Abdallah - Bulbul Ameer'. It became a worldwide hit, 'whistled in Chicago poolrooms, in the water dives of Marseilles and in every pub from Fairbanks to Hobart'. However as he had failed to copyright the song, French never received a penny for his efforts.
After he had served his apprenticeship with the Midlands Railway, French took up a post as 'Inspector of Loans of Tenants' with the Cavan Board of Works. It was in Cavan that French took the opportunity to develop what he considered to be his true vocation: watercolour painting. Throughout his relatively short life, he was most at peace painting the skies of the Irish countryside, and would later exhibit his work in London and Dublin.
He also wrote some of his best-known songs during this time, such as 'Phil the Fluter' and 'Andy McElroe', and became adept at entertaining audiences with his own collection of witty stories and songs. French had already met his prospective wife, Ettie Moore, when the Board of Works, alienated by his bohemian ways and lack of enthusiasm, decided to let him go. Aware that his watercolours could not provide a sufficient income for himself and Ettie, he chose instead to pursue writing, and soon found himself as editor of a new comic weekly, The Jarvey.
With the help of his new wife, French threw himself into The Jarvey heart and soul, contributing articles, satires, poems and drawings aplenty. But this would turn out to be the darkest period in his life. Shortly after The Jarvey folded due to lack of funding and a series of bad reviews, Ettie French died during childbirth, closely followed by the pair's infant daughter. For someone so young-at-heart it was a terrible loss, and on returning to Ireland from mourning in the Welsh hills, it was recorded that French's brown hair had turned bone white.
Before Ettie's untimely death, French had taken tentative steps into the world of theatre. Collaborating with his friend William Houston Collison on the musical The Knight of the Road, it seemed that finally French had found his true vocation. The theatre offered the medium in which French could blossom as a writer, musician and entertainer, as well as providing a viable source of income.
A satirical review show, Dublin Up To Date, followed, co-written with Richard Orpen, and French's popularity soared. His next venture, a musical based on the English conquest of Ireland entitled Strongbow, did not go down well in Dublin City. It did, however, provide French with the chance to meet and fall in love with Helen Sheldon, one of the show's chorus girls. They married January 24, 1894 and had two daughters, Ettie and Mollie.
For the remainder of his life French toured relentlessly, delighting audiences the length and breadth of Britain and Ireland either as a solo artist or accompanied by Collison. In 1906 he moved to London with his family, dining with and entertaining the Royal Family on a number of occasions. But he never truly settled in London and was notably uninterested in the attention lavished upon him by the aristocracy.
Although he came from a privileged background, French was most comfortable socialising with and entertaining the lower classes. Erudite as he was, he took particular pride in employing a simple use of language in both his poetry and his lyrics, and was unashamedly populist in his humour. A tour of North America and the West Indies went down a storm in 1910, and worldwide fame beckoned. But the outbreak of the First World War heralded a change in style and tone of public entertainments, and the French-Collison double act was forced to take a back seat.
Undeterred, French kept his greulling schedule and seemed almost incapable of rest. He toured the coastal resort towns of Ireland every year and held exhibitions of his watercolours and sketches in London and Dublin, to much acclaim. He continued to add to his ever-expanding repertoire of songs.
An accident in 1916 that involved him being dragged along by a moving train took a serious toll on French's health. Contrary to the wishes of his family and friends, he maintained his old regime and in the winter of 1920 set out on a tour of Scotland. It would be his final act. Having contracted pneumonia, Percy French died in Formby, Lancashire on January 24, 1920.
Many Northern Irish communities can lay claim to Percy French for one reason or another. As Brendan O'Dowda attests in his book The World of Percy French, during the course of French's many tours, 'No city, town, village or parish was left unvisited'. And yet there is one place in particular that will forever remain an integral part of the Percy French story: the Mountains of Mourne.
Of the many songs that French penned, 'The Mountains o' Mourne' is the most well-known. At turns funny and insightful, it paints an ironic picture of London in which French could not feel entirely at ease; a world at odds with the agrarian simplicity of French's beloved Ireland.
The Mountains o' Mourne
Oh, Mary this London's a wonderful sight,
Wid the people here workin' by day and by night.
They don't sow potatoes, nor barley, nor wheat,
But there's gangs of them digging for gold in the street.
At least when I asked them that's what I was told,
So I just took a hand at this digging for gold.
But for all that I found there I might as well be,
Where the Mountains o' Mourne sweep down to the sea.
I believe that, when writin', a wish you expressed
As to how the fine ladies in London were dressed.
Well, if you'll believe me, when asked to a ball,
They don't wear a top to their dresses at all!
O, I've seen them meself, and you could not, in throth,
Say if they were bound for a ball or a bath -
Don't be startin' them fashions now, Mary Machree,
Where the Mountains o' Mourne sweep down to the sea.
I seen England's King from the top of a 'bus -
I never knew him, though he means to know us:
And though by the Saxon we once were oppressed,
Still, I cheered - God forgive me - I cheered wid the rest.
And now that he's visited Erin's green shore,
We'll be much better friends than we've been heretofore,
When we've got all we want, we're as quiet as can be,
Where the Mountains o' Mourne sweep down to the sea.
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How many teeth are there in the first set of human 'milk' teeth? | Facts about Baby Teeth
Facts About Baby Teeth
(Click Question for Detailed Answer Below.)
A. $1.10 [ Return to top ]
Q2. What should I do to a Baby tooth before I place it in the Tooth Fairy Bank?
A. To preserve the baby tooth, first gently clean it with soap and water or with rubbing alcohol. Then completely dry it before placing it into the bank. [ Return to top ]
Q3. How many baby teeth and adult teeth are there and when do they come in?
A . Children have one set of 20 baby (primary) teeth used in early development. (See illustration below.) These are generally replaced by a second set of 32 larger permanent teeth. By the age of 6-10 months most infants cut their first tooth. By 10 months to 3 years, infants, toddlers and preschoolers continue to get their lower, then upper primary teeth starting in the center of the mouth and working backwards. By 3 years of age, most of a child's 20 primary teeth are in. By the age of 5-6 years children begin to shed their primary teeth and permanent teeth begin to erupt. By 12-13 years, most baby teeth have been
shed and almost all permanent teeth are in. [ Return to top ]
Q4. What are teeth made of?
A. Teeth are made of a bonelike substance called dentin. The portion of the tooth that is visible in the mouth is called the crown, which is covered by enamel, the hardest substance in the human body. Teeth fall into 3 categories: incisors, which are made for cutting food, aiding speech and appearance. Behind the incisors are the cuspids, which are for ripping and tearing food, guiding the lower jaw in its movements and protecting the other teeth from wear. In the back you'll find molars, which have a flatter surface for grinding food. [ Return to top ]
Q5. How should I care for my Baby's First Teeth?
A. Once teeth have emerged, start practicing good dental hygiene and be sure to consult with a dentist. Clean plaque from baby's gums after feedings by wrapping a 2 inch square gauze pad around your finger and gently massage baby's gums. Toothbrushing should begin with baby's first teeth. Use a specially designed child's toothbrush to clean baby teeth but do not use toothpaste until the child is at least 2 years of age. Check with your dentist to determine the first dental visit. [ Return to top ]
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What was US President Hoover's original profession? | How Many Baby Teeth Do Children Normally Have? | LIVESTRONG.COM
How Many Baby Teeth Do Children Normally Have?
by ERIK ANDREWS
Last Updated: Aug 31, 2015
Erik Andrews
Erik Andrews began scientific and medical writing in 2004. His work as a second author on a research article appeared in the journal "Genetics" in 2005. His areas of expertise are the natural sciences, medical education and physical fitness. He earned a Master of Science in chemistry and a Bachelor of Arts in biochemistry, both from the University of Pennsylvania.
A smiling young boy with missing teeth. Photo Credit EvgeniiAnd/iStock/Getty Images
It is normal for kids to grow and lose their first set of teeth as they develop. There are normally 20 of these baby teeth, that grow out by the time a child is 2 or 3 and typically start falling out when he is 6. While many processes can influence the rate of baby tooth development, they do begin to appear at fairly regular ages, according to Medline Plus.
Baby Pearly Whites
The baby teeth also are known as milk teeth or primary teeth. They begin to develop before your baby is born, though they probably won't be visible until at least 6 months after birth. They grow in the same location that your child will have permanent teeth later in life, and help guide these permanent teeth to their proper positions. They carry out all the roles of permanent teeth for your child while the permanent teeth are developing.
Making their Arrival
The first baby teeth appear between the ages of 6 months and 1 year. The full set of 20 teeth is typically present by 2 1/2 to 3 years of age. Your child will have 10 teeth on both the upper and lower jaw. The baby teeth will begin to fall out when your child is about 6, signaling that the permanent teeth behind them are ready to appear. This process can last well into the child's adolescent years, and the full set of 32 permanent teeth might not finish growing until she is in her mid-20s.
What's What
There are three types of baby teeth: incisors or front teeth, canines and molars. According to Medline Plus, the incisors appear first, followed by the canines and then the molars, which start to appear in the second year of life. Your child will lose his baby teeth in this general order as well, from incisors to molars. This process is less regular, however, and teeth might fall out seemingly without order.
Considerations
Since the baby teeth are essentially placeholders for the permanent teeth, your child's dentist might find that their placement indicates that the permanent teeth are not going to develop normally. If this is the case, she might suggest space maintainers to help create enough space in your child's mouth for all the permanent teeth. Since there are more permanent teeth, including wisdom teeth, than baby teeth, the baby teeth might not fully indicate exactly how well the permanent teeth will develop.
Taking Care
Although baby teeth are temporary, it is of critical importance that your child maintain and care for her teeth. Proper health of baby teeth will help improve the health of the underlying permanent teeth, and also will teach your child how to care for the permanent teeth when they arrive. Regular visits to the dentist are important for proper care of baby teeth.
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In which country is the 'Hedgehog' considered sacred? | WARRIORS OF EARTH: The Hedgehog Came to Me, to Share the Sacred Dream!
The Hedgehog Came to Me, to Share the Sacred Dream!
Image: Photograph by Henry Ausloos, Animals, Earth Scenes
Hedgehog came into my life
in the midst of strife
making my life more pleasant
to undo the knot in the rope
so that I can flow
and grow
into the flower that I am to be
fully and totally free
I gave you back your breath
you give me joy instead
Sung by Southern Season, Song of Heaven
Oct 26, 2010 Southern Season Song of Heaven
wrote:
Beloved Relatives,
I had a dream. I was with the people where I made the drum. Suddenly Stefan said to me. I have a body of an hedgehog. Do you want it? I said yes. I want to have it. I will honor it. So he put it in a bag. When I did hold the bag he came alive. So I took him out of the bag and took him home.
At home I wanted to take care until he was strong enough to be set free again. But my oldest daughter put him in the water with me while I was taking a bath. I did not notice at first so again he died. I took the little body an did cpr (coronary pulmonary resuscitation) on it ... Again he became alive ... I saw the water coming out of his little mouth and he was shining and so much stronger then before...
Rainbow Warriors of Prophecy
Blessed Song I give to you, to know the Sacred Blue. The home that we long to know true, the loving Blue (heart knowing relatives). Where distance is just a call, when you need all that's water fall (tears) and spring will light up inside your heart to find the blue, red illumination's call (finding your spirit) ... aho ah, may your spirit fly from heaven upon rolling hills!
Image by Anastasiya Malakhova, Valley of the Hedgehogs
Hedgehog's Wisdom Includes:
This little creature packs a powerful symbolic punch with animal symbolism.
Wisdom of the female elders, bonded to Mother Earth
Fertility, protector of the garden
Resurrection, Victory
Second sight "rebirth of vision of the dark space"
Gentle Inner Self
Understanding weather patterns, knows rain, the element of heavenly tears
Spiritual Power, Anointing
Perception, Receiving and Allowing
Intelligence, Resourcefulness
Solar animal symbolism deals with creatures that correspond with the sun - also known as fire sign animals. Roles within the rays of the sun. Fire animals can light up your life and provide ignition to whatever you need set into action. Specifically, invoke solar animal symbolism when you need to:
* Blaze a trail
* Be a beacon in leadership
* Need a spark of inspiration
* Need the flames of passion stoked.
* Outshine the competition in your trade
Hedgehog Meanings and Thoughts on Animal Symbolism Related to the Hedgehog. Image by Kerry Hartjen, Rudolph the Red Nosed Hedgehog
Tap into the animal symbolism of the hedgehog today! It's true, big things really do come in small packages and the animal symbolism of the hedgehog proves it. Those with the hedgehog as their animal totem know how to take care of themselves and do so with grace and style. We make this association by observing the hedgehog when it is threatened. It packs itself tightly in a neat little ball, exposing some lethal looking quills. Any predator who takes a bite of this prickly morsel will spit it right back out.
Same goes with those who honor the hedgehog as their totem - these people always land on their feet and go through challenges with the same calm, cool practicality as the hedgehog does. The hedgehog is also symbolic of fertility and being connected to the earth. It's belly is close to the Mother (earth, that is) and this close proximity is symbolic of its connection to earth and all that is fertile. The hedgehog's tendency to curl up in the fetal position is also a message of centering, and connecting with the source.
Further, central Asia and parts of Iran associated agricultural abundance, fertility and the gift of fire to the hedgehog. In these cultures it is considered a solar* power animal, and is strongly connected to the energy and vitality of the sun. This may be further understood when we think of the hedgehog's splayed spikes look much like the spanning rays of the sun.
Being a nocturnal creature, the symbolism of the hedgehog deals with intuition, psychic ability, prophetic dreams and visions. This is because the night deals with concepts that are cloaked in shadow - a realm that is not altogether clear. That the hedgehog's active time is at night is symbolic of "second sight."
Another testimony to its spiritual power is the hedgehog's natural resistance to snake venom. This is carries extreme importance with many Native American Indian tribes and is seen as a symbol of victory over evil. This attribute is also a portent of resurrection, life after death, or defeating death completely.
Hedgehog teaches defense mechanisms against negativity along with showing how to enjoy life and to walk the earth with a sense of lightness and a sense of wonder. Hedgehog shows when to act with tenacity and strength to get things accomplished. He can aid in balancing emotions with actions while lending wisdom when to work and play. Are you taking opportunities that could make you happy? Are you letting people bring you down? Hedgehog can show you to be confident and move with strength.
The Hedgehog teaches how to be on the defense and how to protect yourself. It shows how to protect the soft inside – your inner self. Hedgehog shows how to be gentle, yet protective at the same time.
How to build defenses and protective barriers that discourage negative people.
It also is the symbol of the Wisdom of the Female Elder, with close ties to Mother Earth. People with a Hedgehog totem often understand weather patterns – they know when it will rain. Hedgehog: Often, the hedgehog helps others bring down their guard to be more accepting of others and life.
The Greeks and the Romans attributed intelligence to the symbolism of the hedgehog as they witnessed the creature knocking off grapes from vines and rolling on to them - essentially "toothpicking" or spearheading the grapes on their backs and carrying them away to dine on at a later date.
Thank you http://www.animalspirits.com/index18.html and http://www.whats-your-sign.com/animal-symbolism-hedgehog.html
Hedgehog (Erinaceus Europaeus)
mammals they have adapted to a nocturnal, insectivorous way of life. The name 'hedgehog' came into use around the year 1450, derived from the Middle English 'heyghoge', from 'heyg', 'hegge' = hedge, because it frequents hedgerows, and 'hoge', 'hogge' = hog, from its piglike snout. Other names include 'urchin', 'hedgepig' and 'furze-pig' .
There are some 15 species of hedgehog in Europe, Asia, and Africa. Hedgehogs have also been introduced into nontraditional ranges such as New Zealand. The hedgehog was named because of its peculiar foraging methods. These animals root through hedges and other undergrowth in search of the small creatures that compose the bulk of their diet—insects, worms, centipedes, snails, mice, frogs, and snakes. As a hedgehog picks its way through the hedges it emits piglike grunts—thus, the hedgehog. Some people consider hedgehogs useful pets because they prey on many common garden pests. While on the hunt, they rely upon their senses of hearing and smell because their eyesight is weak.
Hedgehogs have a coat of stiff, sharp spines. If attacked they will curl into a prickly and unappetizing ball that deters most predators. They usually sleep in this position during the day and awaken to search for food at night. Hedgehogs hibernate in cold climates. In deserts, they sleep through heat and drought in a similar process called aestivation. They remain active all year in more temperate locations.
These solitary animals typically couple only for mating. The young born each year, in litters ranging from one to eleven, remain with their mothers for only four to seven weeks before heading out on their own. Among the predators females must guard against during this period are other male hedgehogs, which will sometimes prey upon the young of their species. Hedgehog mothers have also been known to eat their young if the nest is disturbed, though they sometimes simply move them to a new nest.
Physical Description
Hedgehogs are easily recognized by their spines, which are hollow hairs made stiff with keratin. Their spines are not poisonous or barbed and, unlike the quills of a porcupine, cannot easily be removed from the hedgehog. However, spines normally come out when a hedgehog sheds baby spines and replaces them with adult spines. This is called "quilling." When under extreme stress or during sickness, a hedgehog can also lose spines.
A defense that all species of hedgehogs possess is the ability to roll into a tight ball, causing all of the spines to point outwards. However, its effectiveness depends on the number of spines, and since some of the desert hedgehogs evolved to carry less weight, they are much more likely to try to run away and sometimes even attack the intruder, trying to ram into the intruder with its spines, and rolling as a last resort. This results in a different number of predators for different species: while forest hedgehogs have relatively few, primarily birds (especially owls) and ferrets, smaller species like the Long-eared Hedgehog are preyed on by foxes, wolves and mongooses.
Hedgehogs are primarily nocturnal, although, depending on the species, they may be more or less active during the day. The hedgehog sleeps for a large portion of the daytime either under cover of bush, grass, rock or in a hole in the ground. Again, different species can have slightly different habits, but in general hedgehogs dig dens for shelter. All wild hedgehogs can hibernate, although not all do; hibernation depends on temperature, species, and abundance of food.
The hedgehog's back is made up of two large muscles, which control the positioning of its quills. There are about 5,000 to 6,500 quills on the average hedgehog, and these are durable on the outside, while being filled with air pockets on the inside. The hedgehog uses its quills to protect itself from predators, using muscles which draw their quilled skin to cover their full body, and pulling in the parts of their bodies not covered, such as their head, feet, and belly. This form of defense is the hedgehog's most successful, but is usually their last resort.
Hedgehogs have many alternate defense mechanisms. In most situations a hedgehog will flee rather than confront a threat, rolled up in a ball or not. All hedgehogs possess the stamina to run, many can make 4.5 miles per hour or better, and are particularly adept at climbing steep walls, trees, and fences and even swimming. Hedgehogs are fairly vocal and communicate through a combination of grunts, snuffles and/or squeals, depending on species.
Hedgehogs occasionally perform a ritual called anointing. When the animal encounters a new scent, it will lick and bite the source, then form a scented froth in its mouth and paste it on its spines with its tongue. It is unknown what the specific purpose of this ritual is, but some experts believe anointing camouflages the hedgehog with the new scent of the area and provides a possible poison or source of infection to predators poked by their spines. Anointing is sometimes also called anting because of a similar behavior in birds.
Similar to opossums, mice, and moles, hedgehogs have some natural immunity against snake venom due to the protein erinacin in the animal's muscular system. In captivity, hedgehogs tend to get along with dogs, cats and other pets. On the rare occasions when they do feel threatened by these animals, the hedgehog will roll into a ball until the threatening animal disappears. Still, care should be taken to protect hedgehogs from particularly large, aggressive, or mischievous pets.
Thank you http://animals.nationalgeographic.com/animals/mammals/hedgehog/ and to to read more visit: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hedgehog
Why There Are Bans on Hedgehog Pets
1. Hedgehogs are tough pets to keep: they're insectivores, so feeding them properly can present difficulties to families accustomed to feeding pets kibble or canned food. They're also nocturnal, and require a lot of space to roam (they have trouble adapting to enclosed areas)—and thus relatively difficult to care for. They don't have much resistance to climate variation either. For these reasons, they have a high mortality rate, as far as mammalian pets go.
2. The species is threatened in some countries. They're protected in Spain and France, and the hedgehog is endangered in England.
3. The hedgehog isn't endemic to North America—which means buying one for your home is encouraging an overseas pet trade.
That said, there are far worse pets to keep—and that little hedgehog really is pretty darn cute.
4. The hedgehog has taken such a hit in population size that continuing trends would lead to its extinction by 2025. The spiny mammal has to brave traffic, pollution, pesticides, and garden chemicals in its struggle for survival.
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Freddie Mercury, Brian May, Roger Taylor and who, made up the rock band 'Queen'? | Treatment of Animals in Hinduism
Treatment of Animals in Hinduism
by Jayaram V
Do animals have souls? Yes say the Hindu scriptures. Every living being, from the animals down to the insects and tiny organisms, possesses souls. Like humans, they are also beings (bhutas) subject to the laws of Nature and the cycle of births and deaths. We may consider them ignorant, but they have their own language and intelligence. They also perform an important duty in creation and occupy an important place in the manifestation and evolution of life. Their duty is to nourish the humans through milk and through self-sacrifice.
This article examines the importance of animals in Hinduism and how they are treated in general by various sections people. Animals occupy an important place in Hinduism. They are frequently mentioned in the Hindu myths and legends and enjoy a place of their own in Hindu pantheon as vehicles of many gods and goddesses, as divinities and also as incarnations or aspects of Vishnu or Siva. They embellish and beautify Hindu decorative art and temple architecture, adorning the outer walls and towers of temples as objects of beauty or being installed inside as objects of veneration. Animals appear in Buddhism and Jainism both as divinities and as a part of their decorative art and architecture. Before Mahayana Buddhism became popular the Buddha was depicted symbolically as an elephant. Mahavira, the founder of Jainism, is often shown under the hood of a multi headed serpent, a practice, according to some, was later followed by Vaishnavism.
Treatment of animals in Hinduism
Hinduism is a compassionate religion and treats all living beings from animals down to insects and tiny creatures with great respect as aspects of God, having souls of their own, going through the same process of births and deaths as human beings. Depending upon how they are born, they classify all living beings into three kinds: those who are born from seeds and sprouts, those who are born from eggs and those who are born from womb. The scriptures urge us to treat the animals fairly and, not harm them and not subject them to cruelty and pain. Non-violence towards all, including plants and animals is the highest virtue. Non-violence means not even having the intention to disturb others. Sacrificing animals to appease the deities was a prehistoric tradition which continued in the tradition for long, but as time went by became increasingly uncomfortable with such practices to the extent that it is no more appreciated in Hinduism by all sections of people. The historical attitude of Hindus towards animals can be guessed from the fact that until the arrival of the British into India, the Indian forests were teeming with all kinds of wildlife. It was the British who made hunting a great sport and virtually wiped out the wildlife population from the country.
The status of gods, humans, and animals in creation
According to various schools of Hinduism, spiritually there is no distinction between human beings and other life forms. All life forms, including plants and animals, are manifestations of God as limited beings (jivas) and possess souls. All beings are children of Prajapati only. There are no exceptions. God is the lord of the animals (pasupati). All humans are also animals until they learn to use their intelligence and overcome their ignorance and delusion. Like humans, animals are also subject to the cycle of births and deaths, karma, triple gunas, aspects of Nature, mortality and the possibility of salvation. All are subject to mortality and food for Death who rules the mortal world. Even microorganisms are jivas, having souls of their own. 1 The difference is in terms of their physical bodies and the number of tattvas (principles), gunas (qualities), elements (mahabhutas) and senses associated with them. The jivas are subject to the limitations of consciousness and capacity, induced by the activity of Prakriti or nature. When they overcome their limitations and regain their true consciousness, they become liberated. Saivism goes one step further and considers all living beings as pasus (animals) in contrast to pati or Siva who is the lord of all (pasupathi). The pasus are Siva differentiated as individual beings subject to the bonds (pasas) of egoism, delusion and karma. When they overcome these bonds and realize their true consciousness they become liberated.
According to Hinduism. animals are not inferior creatures, but manifestations of God on the lower scale of evolution compared to man, each containing a spark of the divine, capable of becoming human and achieving salvation like the rest of us. Human life is precious because it comes after many lives of existence in the lower life forms. In the whole creation only human beings, not even devas (gods), have the opportunity to achieve salvation or ascend to the planes of divinity. Human life is therefore very valuable and unique. But if human beings choose to ignore the great opportunity earned by them through their previous karma and indulge in irresponsible actions, they may very likely regress into animal existence and have to start all over again. We have therefore a special responsibility to practice dharma and work for our liberation.
Animal Welfare
Hinduism upholds all acts of kindness. Since Hinduism recognizes all animals as beings with souls, it has been a tradition in Hinduism since the earliest times to protect them and nourish them. Nourishing the animals along with gods and ancestors has been a traditional practice and part of the five daily sacrifices of Hindu tradition. Just as humans depend upon gods for their protection, the animals depend upon humans for their welfare. Just as we nourish gods through sacrifices, animals nourish humans through milk and their flesh. Killing animals except for rituals or for food was a taboo. Even in case of the latter, the law books prescribed many restrictions. Hindus consider compassion for animals (bhuta daya) one of the highest virtues and mark of divine quality. It has been a tradition in Hinduism since long not to slaughter cattle that are past their prime. Even if they serve no purpose, they are allowed to die naturally. Hindus (who practice their religion, not the namesake Hindus) care for sick cattle and take are of their welfare. iItentionally they do not harm animals, because they know the consequences of such bad karma.
Animal Science
In ancient India people used various types of animals for domestic, military, commercial, recreational or medicinal purposes. Hindu scriptures mention the use of cows, sheep, oxen, buffaloes, rhinoceros, camels, asses, elephants, birds, boars, pigs, dogs, snakes, fish, tigers, lions and many mythical creatures. Animals were used in trade and commerce, hunting, animal fights, gambling, defense, transportation, sacrificial ceremonies, medicines and as gifts and food. Snakes or snake poison were used to kill enemies or even kings. Animal science (pashu vidya) dealt with various aspects of animal life and how to tame them, train them and use them for domestic or military use. There were separate treatises on taming and training elephants. Animals were classified into groups based on their origin (oviparous or mammalian), anatomy, number of legs, number of sense organs, diet, behavior, dominant quality (guna), habitat and so on.
People believed that animals had the ability to communicate in their cryptic languages and that gods had the natural ability to communicate with them while human beings needed to develop psychic ability to do so. In the Hindu mythology we find animals trying to acquire spiritual knowledge from enlightened masters by loitering around them and listening to their discourses. Animals such as cows, lizards, crows, cats, vultures and owls were used to read signs and portend future or determine auspicious and inauspicious moments. There was a whole branch of science dealing with the medicinal value of certain animal parts and products.
The Animal Within and Without
In ancient India ascetics and religious teachers lived in forests surrounded by wild life, practicing tapas (austerities) or teaching students in the gurukulas (religious schools). The adverse and difficult conditions in the forests offered them an opportunity to practice the virtues of detachment, humility, equanimity and compassion. Living in harmony with nature, carrying no weapons and embracing the insecurity and fear they tried to tame and transcend their animal nature and achieve liberation.
Animals in History
Excavations at the Indus valley sites show that animals played an important role in the religious and economic lives of the Indus people. The Indus people domesticated cows, buffaloes, sheep and bulls and probably worshipped animals along with mother goddess and a prototype of Lord Siva who is depicted in the seals as a yogi seated in a meditative pose surrounded by animals. Unfortunately the Indus seals have not been deciphered so far. So we do not know much about what the Indus people did or how they lived.
Vedic people valued cattle as wealth and preferred to receive them as gifts. The scriptures repeatedly emphasize the virtue of donating cows to Brahimins on every opportunity. But they were not much into worshipping animal divinities. They used animals for milk, ghee (clarified butter), leather, medicine, barter, gifts, cooking and sacrifices. The early vedic people sacrificed cows, sheep, oxen, buffaloes and horses 2 . They protected their farmlands from birds, pests and insects and hunted animals both for recreation and protection of their villages and cattle. They tanned the hides of animals and used the leather to make bags, reigns, slings and bowstrings. Animals were also used for meat. Cooking was considered an art. Both Bhima and Nala excelled in the art of cooking. As time went by, sacrificial ceremonies became increasingly symbolic with the exception of horse sacrifice. Cows became sacred animals which cannot be killed both for religious and economic reasons. Killing cows became a social taboo and a capital offence.
Hunting
Animal fights were a regular feature in the post vedic India. People participated in animal fights for betting and recreation. Hunting was a regular sport in which the kings and his family participated. Hunting provided them with a good opportunity to perfect their skills in archery, chariot racing and marital arts, get acquainted with the conditions of the region and clear the forests of wild animals which menaced the people living there. Accompanied by an entourage of soldiers, officials, ministers and entertainers, they went out on hunting expeditions either to kill or capture wild animals such as lions, tigers, bears, elephants, wild boar, deer and wild bulls. On occasions they visited the ascetics who lived near by and engaged them in spiritual conversation.
Use of Animals in Warfare
Elephants and horses constituted a significant part of a king's military might, which were replenished regularly through hunting and conquests. The Greek historians accounted 4000 horses, 300 chariots and 200 elephants in the army of Porus who ruled a small principality in the Punjab region. The Nandas and Mauryans who ruled vast empires maintained huge armies consisting of hundreds of thousands of bulls, bullocks, horses and elephants. Chandragupta Maurya sent a gift of several hundred elephants to Selukas who was appointed by Alexander as the viceroy of the territories he conquered east of Hindukush. Animals were used in military either for warfare or in transportation.
Hindu law books declare that it was king's responsibility to protect his people from wild animals and pestilence. According to Kautilya's Arthashastra, a king should protect his territory from eight kinds of adversities namely, fire, flood, pestilence, famine, rats, snakes, tigers and demons. He should create separate departments to manage the forest and cattle wealth of his kingdom. Megasthanese, who was an ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya, mentioned in his Indika that the Mauryan King went on hunting expeditions on the back of an elephant surrounded by women bodyguards. The king was fond of animals and enjoyed animal fights involving bulls, rams, elephants and other animals. Bullock carts were used in the transportation of food and other materials to the soldiers during war time. People used various types of animals for riding including horses, camels, asses, elephants and tigers. Shepherds and cowherds lived in open in tents. In post Mauryan period there were professional guilds of hunters, snake charmers, bird catchers and pig dealers. The growing popularity of Jainism, Buddhism, Saivism and Vaishnavism created a new awareness among people about animals and the need for compassion towards them.
Animal Sacrifices
But their influence was not sufficient enough to stop animal sacrifices. Ancient Indians regularly indulged in animal sacrifices and rarely in human sacrifices. In some remote areas of India animal sacrifices continue even today. The raise of Tantricism in the post Mauryan period and the integration of folk religions into Hinduism contributed to the rise animal sacrifices. Kings sacrificed animals to appease divinities seeking their blessings and support. Inscriptions belonging to the Gutpa period suggest that people had an obligation to supply sacrificial animals on demand to their king. Sometimes the kings exempted some villages from this obligation. Sri Adishanakaracharya disapproved extreme methods of tantric worship which included animal and human sacrifices. During his travels in the subcontinent, he encouraged the worship of shaktis through the traditional methods of rituals and puja rather than sacrifices and offerings of blood and flesh.
Animal as Divinities
Hindus revere many divinities in animal form. Lord Vishnu incarnated upon earth first as a fish, then as a tortoise and next as a boar. In another incarnation he appeared as half lion and half man. He is worshipped in all these forms. Lord Siva appeared once in the form of a sharabha a mythical monster with multiple horns, legs and spikes instead of hair on the body. Hanuman is a monkey god who assisted Lord Rama ably in the battle of Ramayana. He is worshipped through out India and, though of a lesser god, ranks among the foremost in the Hindu pantheon. Ganesha the elephant headed god and son of Lord Siva and Parvathi is equally popular, if not more.
Adishesha is a thousand hooded primeval serpent associated with Lord Vishnu, who arises from the primeval waters (ksiramudra) in the beginning of creation resting on his endless coils, his thousand hoods providing him the canopy. The serpent symbolically represents the time and the thousand hoods divisions of time.
Besides Hanuman, animals played an important role in the epic battle of Ramayana. Jatayuvu, a mythical bird, loses his life fighting against Ravana when he is carrying away Sita after kidnapping her. During his wanderings in search of Sita, accompanied by his brother Lakshman, Rama comes across Sugriva, the monkey king of Kishkindha whom he helps against his brother Bali. Jatayuvu's brother provides a clue to the search party of monkeys headed by Hanuman that Sita was held in captive by the demon king Ravana. Then accompanied by an army of monkeys, bears and other animals Rama leaves for Lanka to rescue his wailing wife. The monkeys and other animals build an incredible bridge across the ocean to the island country of Ravana. They destroy the vast army of Ravana and help Rama in rescuing his wife. The story of Ramayana is a reminder of the Hindu belief that in the universal scheme of things God does not distinguish between humans and animals and that all living beings have an equal status but play different roles.
Animals as Vehicles of Gods
In the Hindu pantheon each god and goddess is associated with an animal as a vehicle. Symbolically the vehicles represent the animal energies or qualities or skills which need to be strengthened or sublimated in our lower nature with the help of the divinities who can transform them. The knowledge of vehicles is therefore very useful in knowing which divinity can help us in transforming our inner energies. The list of gods and goddesses and their vehicles are mentioned below:
Divinity
Crocodile
Animals as Symbols
Animals serve as symbols in Hinduism. We have already discussed the symbolic significance of animals as vehicles of gods and goddesses. The elephant is used as a religious symbol by the Hindus, the Buddhists and the Jains. The symbol of ashta diggajas or eight elephants standing in eight different directions represent the ashtadikpalas or rulers of the eight directions of space. The elephants are also associated with goddess Lakshmi as symbols of abundance. The fish and conch shell are associated with Lord Vishnu. The conch is an attribute of Lord Vishnu while two fish juxtaposed to each other is considered as a symbol of fertility and good luck. Makara, a mythical figure, with the head of a crocodile, body of a reptile and tail of foliage, is a symbol of the zodiacal sign of Capricorn. It is also depicted as the vehicle of the river goddess Ganga. In northern India the lion, bull and elephant are included among the ashtamangalas or the eight auspicious objects.
Animals as Source of Food
Meat eating was not forbidden in ancient India. The Vedic people ate cooked meats of certain animals. Meat was also cooked and consumed at the end of certain sacrificial ceremonies such as the horse sacrifice. Vedic people ate fish, buffaloes, oxen and various other animals. Cows were often sacrificed but they were subsequently banned from slaughter. Jainism exercised a great influence in changing the food habits of the people of the subcontinent. The Jain monks lived austere lives and encouraged people to avoid animal food. Many ancient rulers of India were Jains including Chandragupta Maurya which must have contributed greatly to the increasing preference among urban people for vegetarian food. Although Buddhism emphasized the virtues of compassion and non injury to animals, meat eating was not disallowed by Buddhism altogether. The monastic rules of Buddhism provided a code of conduct for the monks to follow in choosing vegetarian and non-vegetarian foods of various types without craving. Asoka introduced his law of piety (dhamma), which was a mixture of Vedism, Jainism and Buddhism, in which he emphasized the need for compassion and respect for animal life. He also banned animal fights and made provision for animal care.
The post Mauryan period saw a revival of Hinduism. The Sungas, the Nagas, the Guptas and the Vakatakas, who ruled large parts of India patronized Hinduism and revived many ancient traditions. They participated in vedic sacrifices, worshipped Hindu gods and goddesses and built temples in their honor. The Dharmashastras prescribed elaborate rulers regarding food and drinks. The Apastamba Sutras forbid meats of certain animals such as the one hoofed animals, camels, certain birds, fish, deer, village pigs and cattle, but allowed the meat of cows and oxen, tortoise, porcupine, hedgehog, the rhinoceros and the hare were allowed 3 . The Guatama sutras forbid meat of animals that had five toes, or double rows of teeth or excessive quantity of hair, but exempted the meat of hedgehog, hare, porcupine, the iguana, the rhinoceros and the tortoise. Certain animal parts such as the testicles of bulls and the meat of rhinoceros were used as aphrodisiacs.
Serpent Deities
The worship of snakes has been a very ancient tradition in India. The vedic people did not worship snakes. But many native people across the length and breadth of the subcontinent worshipped them. Some of the tribes became popular as Nagas because of their association with serpent deities. In the urban settlements snake worshippers worked as snake charmers and medicine men. They entertained people with magic and cured snake bites using a combination of prayers and medicine.
Between First century BC and second century AD, a group of Nagas claiming themselves to be Barasivas rose to prominence in central India. They established an empire that stretched from Jabalpur in the south to Mathura in the north. They contributed to the downfall of the Kushana empire and freed parts of northern India from foreign rule. They revived many vedic traditions including the horse sacrifice and played an important role in the reemergence of Saivism in the Gangetic valley and central India in the face of growing popularity of Buddhism. Their contribution to Hinduism is perhaps never fully appreciated as they left no monuments of their own. The Puranas mention names of several Naga rulers who ruled central and northern India. The Nagas initiated a process of revival of Hinduism that was later taken up by the Satavahanas in the south and the Gutpas and the Vakatakas in the north. As pointed out by Dr.Jaiswal 4 , had there been no Nagas perhaps there would have been no Gutpas.
According to Hindu mythology, the the serpent deities are semi-divine beings who descended from sage Kashyapa and Kadru. They live in the subterranean world of Nagaloka ruled by Ananta with Bhogavathi as its capital. They act as guardians of subterranean treasures such as gems, precious stones and minerals. Known for their quick temper, wisdom, skill and magical powers, they are depicted in Hindu iconography with a lower snake body covered by bejeweled garments and a human head adorned by three to seven cobra hoods. The snake deities are charming personalities, who can bewitch human beings with their grace and beauty. Garuda, the celestial bird and vehicle of Vishnu, is their cousin with whom they have an eternal enmity.
In certain parts of southern India, the serpent deities are associated with fertility and tree worship. Women, desiring offspring, worship snake stones having the images of a snake goddess carrying two offspring in her arms. The stones are installed under either a pipal or a neem tree after keeping them submerged under water for six months and worshipped with flowers and vermilion.
Prominent serpent deities include Ananta, Kaliya and Vasuki. Ananta is the king of the serpent world. Kaliya was a five headed serpent who was subdued by Lord Krishna after a prolonged fight. Vasuki was a giant serpent who helped both gods and demons in the churning of the oceans for the nectar of immortality.
The serpent deities constitute an important aspect of Hinduism even today. Devout men and women in the rural areas of both northern and southern India worship them with milk, incense and flowers, seeking their help and grace. In some parts of the country killing a snake is a bad karma and a bad omen. People avoid killing cobras because of the belief that they can recognize their attackers and take revenge. If a snake, or a cobra, is killed by an accident, it is customary to perform certain rites before cremating or burying it to avoid retribution from the serpent deities.
Horses
The horse was not indigenous to India. It was either imported from outside by the Indus valley people or came along with the Rigvedic people. In the early vedic period horses and chariots were used mainly for transportation but in the later vedic period they became an integral part of the army. Horses were also used in sacrificial ceremonies such as horse sacrifice.
According to the vedic mythology, horses originated from Ucchaishravas a mythical horse that was white in color and had wings. It emerged out of waters during the churning of the oceans by gods and demon and was taken by Indra, the leader of the gods, who cut its wings in order to restrict its movements and donated it to the mankind for their welfare and convenience.
The horse played an important role in the formation of large empires by facilitating efficient and effective functioning of the administrative machinery in consolidating the monarchies and ensuring better control in collecting taxes, mobilizing large armies and maintaining hold over border areas that were often the centers of rebellion.
Ancient Indian rulers made adequate arrangements for the maintenance and procurement of horses. The Mauryan rulers had separate department for this purpose. Horses were used both for transportation and warfare but rarely in agriculture. They were drawn by reins as saddles were unknown in ancient India. During war time they were given fermented drinks before taking them to the battle field.
Cows
Cows occupy an important place in Hinduism. Hindus consider killing cows and eating their meat a serious taboo. Every part of a cow's body is said to be occupied by a divinity and everything it produces is considered sacred including the cow dung and urine which are used in certain rites and rituals. Cows are worshipped on certain occasions. Hindus do not appreciate the idea of sending old cows to slaughter house. Certain charitable Hindu trusts maintain cow pens to keep old cows and look after them till they die naturally. Though India is a secular country where the government does not interfere in the religious affairs of the people, no political party would like to hurt the sentiments of Hindus by making any adverse statements on the cows or passing laws permitting their slaughter. It is no exaggeration to say that if cows have a mind of their own, perhaps they all would like to migrate to India and make it their permanent home!
The cows were considered sacred from the early Rigvedic period. The Vedas expressly prohibit the killing of cows either for religious or secular purposes. Vedic people regarded cows as wealth and demanded them as donation from the rulers and merchants in return for their priestly services. Cows were used in barter and as dowry. Cow products such as cow dung, cow milk and ghee were used in ceremonies and medicines. During the Gupta rule, cow slaughter became a capital offence and remained so for a long time under successive generations of Hindu rulers.
According to Hindu mythology, the cows were created along with Brahma, the creator. Kamadhenu and Surabhi were considered sacred cows that emerged from the churning of the oceans. They had the ability to grant any wish to their owners. Cows played an important role in the life of Lord Krishna who spent most of his childhood in the midst of cowherds tending the cows. His flute had a soothing effect on the cows causing them to produce more milk. Goloka or the land of cows is another name for Vaikuntha the world of Vishnu.
Dog
The dog is associated with Indra, Yama and Siva. Indra had a bitch by name Sarama whose progeny became the watchdogs of Yamaloka the nether world of Lord Yama. In the epic Mahabharata there is a story in which Lord Yama accompanies the Pandavas all the way to the paradise in the guise of a dog to test the wisdom of Dharmaraj, his god son and the eldest brother of the Pandavas. The dog is also associated with Lord Siva who is known as svapathi or the lord of the dogs. Bhairava a fierce form of Siva, has a dog as an attendant. Khanoba, an aspect of Siva, who is worshipped in Maharashtra, had a dog as his vehcile. Lord Dattatreya who is a personification of the Brahma, Vishnu and Siva is always accompanied by four dogs who symbolize the four Vedas.
Suggestions for Further Reading
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Which word, when used in race relations translates to mean separate development? | Introduction to Sociology/Race and Ethnicity - Wikibooks, open books for an open world
Introduction to Sociology/Race and Ethnicity
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In Bulgaria and Guam, I am considered simply as “other.” However, in Australia, I am labeled more specifically as “non-aboriginal other.” In Canada, it is somewhat more complex; I am labeled as “non-aboriginal Southeast Asian who is not a member of an Indian Band or First Nation or a Treaty Indian or Registered Indian as defined by the Indian Act of Canada.” In Mexico, my non-aboriginal background is once again emphasized simply as “non-indigenous.” In Brazil, I am categorized not by my origins, but by my skin tone as “yellow.” Across the Atlantic, I am categorized as “any other Asian background” in England and as “Indian or Asian” in South Africa. In the United States today, recent attempts to be more specific have resulted in giving me the opportunity to indicate that I am a “non-Hispanic Chinese Vietnamese” person. However, in the United States in the past, I would have been forced to exclusively identify as “Chinese” from 1890 to 1970 and “Vietnamese” from 1980 to 1990.
These preceding statements are responses to actual census questions on race and ethnicity from different countries around the globe as well as across time in the United States. Why is there so much variation in my racial and ethnic identity if, in fact, race and ethnicity are assumed to be “natural” and “absolute”? The mutability of my racial and ethnic identity over time and space illustrates that race and ethnicity are very much socially-constructed concepts, and that the racial and ethnic options afforded to me are dependent on the circumstances of a particular society at a particular point in time. What about the options for my son who is mixed-race? Will his identity as half-Asian take precedence over his half-white identity in the U.S. given the legacy of the “one-drop rule,” in which the minority status will always take precedence? Take for example, President Barack Obama, who is similar to my son in that he is mixed-race. However, more often than not, President Obama is identified in public discourse simply as black. Likewise, Tiger Woods, who self-identifies as “Cablinasian” in attempt to be recognized as Caucasian, Black, Indian, and Asian by others, is still nonetheless simply labeled as black in mainstream media despite his multi-racial background.
The complexity of my identity, in addition to my son’s, Obama’s, and Woods’ identities, exemplifies the need to move beyond mutually-exclusive and inflexible interpretations of race and ethnicity, especially considering that interracial marriages are observably on the rise in the United States. This chapter on race and ethnicity first illustrates the social construction of these two highly-contested concepts, and then discusses the many pitfalls, such as prejudice and discrimination, associated with them.
Barack Obama at a campaign stop in New Hampshire in 2007. Despite having a mother from Kansas and a father from Kenya, Barack Obama is almost universally considered "black."
Contents
15 External links
Race and Ethnicity[ edit ]
A race is a human population that is believed to be distinct in some way from other humans based on real or imagined physical differences. [1] Racial classifications are rooted in the idea of biological classification of humans according to morphological features such as skin color or facial characteristics. An individual is usually externally classified (meaning someone else makes the classification) into a racial group rather than the individual choosing where they belong as part of their identity. Conceptions of race, as well as specific racial groupings, are often controversial due to their impact on social identity and how those identities influence someone's position in social hierarchies (see identity politics ).
Ethnicity, while related to race, refers not to physical characteristics but social traits that are shared by a human population. Some of the social traits often used for ethnic classification include:
nationality
shared culture
shared traditions
Unlike race, ethnicity is not usually externally assigned by other individuals. The term ethnicity focuses more upon a group's connection to a perceived shared past and culture. An example of an ethnic group in the U.S. is Hispanic or Latino .
The Changing Definitions of Race[ edit ]
The division of humanity into distinct races can be traced as far back as the Ancient Egyptian sacred text the Book of Gates , which identified four races according to the Egyptians. This early treatment merged racial and ethnic differences, combining skin-color with tribal and national identities. Ancient Greek and Roman authors also attempted to explain and categorize visible biological differences between peoples known to them. Medieval models of race mixed Classical ideas with the notion that humanity as a whole was descended from Shem, Ham and Japheth, the three sons of Noah , producing distinct Semitic , (Asian), Hamitic (African), and Japhetic (European) peoples. The first scientific attempts to categorize race date from the 17th century; these early attempts developed along with European imperialism and colonisation around the world. [1]
In the 19th century a number of natural scientists wrote on race: Georges Cuvier , James Cowles Pritchard , Louis Agassiz , Charles Pickering , and Johann Friedrich Blumenbach . These scientists made three claims about race:
races are objective, naturally occurring divisions of humanity
there is a strong relationship between biological races and other human phenomena (such as social behavior and culture, and by extension the relative material success of cultures)
race is therefore a valid scientific category that can be used to explain and predict individual and group behavior
Races were distinguished by skin color , facial type, cranial profile and size, and texture and color of hair. Races were almost universally considered to reflect group differences in moral character and intelligence.
These early understandings of race were usually both essentialist and taxonomic ; essentialism refers to unchanging and inherent characteristics of individuals and taxonomic refers to classificatory (also usually hierarchical) in nature. The advent of Darwinian models of evolution and Mendelian genetics , however, called into question the scientific validity of both characteristics and required a radical reconsideration of race. [1]
The table below illustrates both how early definitions included essentialist and taxonomic elements and how definitions have changed over time.
Biological definitions of race (adapted from Long & Kittles 2003). [2]
Concept
Templeton (1998) [6]
"A subspecies (race) is a distinct evolutionary lineage within a species. This definition requires that a subspecies be genetically differentiated due to barriers to genetic exchange that have persisted for long periods of time; that is, the subspecies must have historical continuity in addition to current genetic differentiation."
Because racial differences continue to be important issues in social and political life, racial classifications continue. The United States government has attempted its own definitions of race and ethnicity (see for example U.S. Census ) for such classifications and comparisons.
Social Construct or Biological Lineage?[ edit ]
Social Construction[ edit ]
Debates continue in and among academic disciplines as to how race should be understood. Some sociologists and biologists believe race is a social construct , meaning it does not have a basis in the natural world but is simply an artificial distinction created by humans. [1] As a result of this understanding, some researchers have turned from conceptualizing and analyzing human variation by race to doing so in terms of populations , dismissing racial classifications altogether. In the face of the increasing rejection of race as a valid classification scheme, many social scientists have replaced the word race with the word ethnicity to refer to self-identifying groups based on shared religion, nationality, or culture.
The understanding of race as a social construct is well-illustrated by examining race issues in two countries, the U.S. and Brazil.
Constructing Race in the U.S.[ edit ]
Since the early days of the United States, racial classifications have varied and various groups, like Native Americans, African-Americans and European-Americans, were classified as belonging to different races. The table below details some of the different racial and ethnic classifications that have been used by the US Census. [7] The fact that these classifications have changed over time illustrates that race is socially constructed.
1890
Guamanian
Other
The criteria for membership in different races have been very different. For Africans, the government considered anyone with African appearance to be purely African. Native Americans, on the other hand, were classified based on a certain percentage of Indian blood. Finally, European-Americans had to have purely white ancestry. The differing criteria for assigning membership to particular races had relatively little to do with biology; it had far more to do with maintaining a group's defined roles and position.
Some researchers and historians have proposed that the intent of the differing criteria for racial designations was to concentrate power, wealth, privilege, and land in the hands of European-Americans. [9] [10] As a result, the offspring of an African slave and European master or mistress would be considered an African. Significant in terms of the economics of slavery, the mixed-race child of a slave mother also would be a slave, adding to the wealth of the slaveowner.
Contrast the African criteria with that of Native Americans; a person of Native American and African parentage automatically was classified as African. But the offspring of only a few generations of Native Americans and Europeans were not considered Indian at all - at least not in a legal sense. Native Americans had treaty rights to land, but individuals with only one Indian great-grandparent were no longer classified as Native American, disenfranchising them from their claims to Native American lands. Of course, the same individuals who could be denied legal claim to Native American lands because they were too White, were still Native American enough to be considered half-breeds and were stigmatized as a result.
In an economy benefitting from slave labor, it was useful to have as many African slaves as possible. Conversely, in a nation bent on westward expansion (commonly referred to as illegal immigration and / or ethnic conquest today), it was advantageous to diminish the numbers of those who could claim title to Indian lands by classifying them out of existence. Both schemes benefitted the third group, the racially pure whites. The point being, of course, that the classifications of race in the early U.S. were socially constructed in a fashion that benefitted one race over the others.
The earliest blacks in the U.S. were brought from Africa as slaves primarily to help in agricultural in the southern U.S. Although European immigrants to the Americas initially attempted to enslave Native people, their efforts were often subverted due to Native understandings of the land. As a result, slave labor from other parts of the world was deemed more efficient for the production of American land so European immigrants began importing African people while exporting Natives to other parts of the Americas (see Loewen's work for more of this historical record ). While migration since then has substantially altered the distribution of African Americans in the U.S., African Americans remain concentrated in the southern U.S., as depicted in the map below.
Native Americans in the U.S. are concentrated on reservations following 200 years of relocation policies instituted by the U.S. government (see the documentary film Broken Rainbow for review and detailed examination of the latest relocation phase in the 1970's), as depicted in the map below:
Constructing Race in Brazil[ edit ]
The Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics classifies the Brazilian population in five categories: white, black, pardo or ( brown ), yellow , and Indigenous , based on skin color as given by the individual being interviewed in the census.
White (49.4% of the population): [11] usually a Brazilian of full or predominant European ancestry or other ancestry (such as German Brazilian ) who considers himself or herself to be White.
Pardo or Brown (42.3%): [11] usually a Multiracial Brazilian of mixed-race features who considers himself or herself to be "Pardo". In practice, most of the "Pardo" people are of mixed European and African (mulatos), but this category also includes people of mixed European and Amerindian (caboclos) and Amerindian and African (cafusos) genetic ancestry [12] .
Black (7.4%): [11] usually a dark-skinned Brazilian of full or predominant Black African ancestry who considers himself or herself to be Black.
Yellow: (0.5%) usually a Brazilian of East Asian descent, mostly Japanese .
Indigenous (0.3%): [13] usually a Brazilian of full or predominant Amerindian ancestry who considers himself or herself to be Amerindian.
Of particular interest to the discussion of race in this chapter is the fact that there is a racial classification that falls between "white" and "black": "pardo" or "brown." That Brazilians have more racial classifications than do people in the United States illustrates the socially constructed nature of race. Additionally, racial classification in Brazil, because it is based on self-classification and there are no objective criteria for what it means to belong to one race or another, is inconsistent about 21% of the time. [14] Because of the mixing of the races, race is not inherited but determined purely by physical characteristics (i.e., a white father and black mother could have a "white", "black," or "pardo" child). Additionally, because race is self-determined and there is discrimination based on race (white are favored), [14] Brazilians have a tendency to "self-lighten," [15] or report their race as being lighter than an independent observer may suggest. That people can "self-lighten" illustrates that race is not a fixed construct but rather that it is socially constructed.
Biology and Genetics[ edit ]
The social constructionist approach has not completely occluded other perspectives. Some sociologists (and other researchers) still believe that race is a valid and useful measure when understood as fuzzy sets , clusters , or extended families .
Based on these beliefs as well as the development of genetic modeling software programs, some scientists argue that genetic data can be used to infer population structure and assign individuals to groups that often correspond with their self-identified geographical ancestry (e.g., African, Asian, etc.). Recent research within this tradition argues that self-described race is a very good indicator of an individual's genetic profile, at least in the United States. For example, using 326 genetic markers, Tang et al. (2005) [16] utilized a software program called Structure [17] to identify 4 genetic clusters among 3,636 individuals sampled from 15 locations in the United States, and were able to correctly assign individuals to groups that corresponded with their self-described race (white, African American, East Asian, and Hispanic) for all but 5 individuals (an error rate of 0.14%). Based on their modeling, these researchers argued that ancient ancestry/geography, which correlates highly with self-described race and not current place of residence, is the major determinant of genetic structure in the US population. While the implications of their argument have been deemed significant by some researchers and could be helpful in studies of racial disparities in health (see extended discussion below), it is important to note that their argument actually demonstrates the social construction of genetic racial categories rather than the empirical existenceof such categories. Specifically, their study utilized a software program that requires researchers to first decide how many clusters or groups they want the program to produce before it can analyze the data. After the researchers have decided how many races they think or believe exist, the program then sorts all of the data into the pre-established number of genetic clusters. Thus, if the researchers decide upon 5 categories the program will sort all data into 5 categories, but if the researchers decide on 26 categories the program will sort all data into 26 categories; the program does this without any concern for whether or not these "clusters" or the "number of clusters" are in any way empirically real. Rather than demonstrating the genetic foundations of race, then, such studies merely demonstrate that a computer program may be used to confirm the existing beliefs of researchers about how many racial clusters there may or could be. Other researchers, using the same data, found a different number of clusters from the same genetic data. [18] [17] While some researchers ignore the role of the researcher in the creation of genetic clusters, other researchers point to these studies as the latest examples of an ongoing historical pattern of scientific racism [19] In short, a very strong argument can be made that what clustering studies do is verify the socially constructed nature of even biological and genetic explanations of race, racism, and racial similarity and difference rather than illustrate that race is "real."
Even within the aforementioned studies, genetic research reveals that genetic variation within racial groups is generally greater than genetic variation between them. [1] However, the existence of genetic differences among races is well accepted by some and heavily debated by others across scientific fields. Those who believe in genetic differences will point to the genetic clusters created in the aforementioned types of studies, which correspond tightly to the census definition of race and to self-identified ancestry, to support their claims. On the other hand, non-believers in genetic racial difference (and/or significance) will point to the socially constructed nature of these genetic studies to support their claims. In any case, researchers across disciplines regularly finds certain genetic conditions are more common among certain races. For example, approximately 1 in 29 individuals of Northern European descent are carriers of a mutation that causes cystic fibrosis, whereas only about 1 in 65 African Americans is a carrier ( source ). There is a subset of conditions for which individuals of Ashkenazi Jewish descent are at increased risk (see here ). Based on this knowledge individuals can be offered genetic testing based on their race, which can determine whether they are at increased risk to have a child with one of these conditions. While these associations are important areas of analysis, these associations - between race and genetics - often break down for some groups, such as Hispanics , that exhibit a pattern of geographical stratification of ancestry.
There is an active debate among biomedical researchers about the meaning and importance of race in their research. Proponents of using race in biomedical research argue that ignoring race will be detrimental to the health of minority groups. They argue that disease risk factors differ substantially between racial groups, that relying only on genotypical classes - differences in genes - ignores non-genetic racial factors that impact health (e.g., poverty rates and robust neighborhood and environmental effects) and that minorities would be poorly represented in clinical trials if race were ignored. However, some fear that the use of racial labels in biomedical research runs the risk of unintentionally exacerbating health disparities (as happened throughout the history of Western medical science [20] ), so they suggest alternatives to the use of racial taxonomies.
The primary impetus for considering race in biomedical research is the possibility of improving the prevention and treatment of diseases by predicting hard-to-ascertain factors on the basis of more easily ascertained characteristics. Indeed, the first medication marketed for a specific racial group, BiDil was recently approved by the U.S. FDA. A large study of African American males showed a 43% reduction in deaths and a 39% decrease in hospitalizations compared to a placebo. Interestingly, this drug would never have been approved if the researchers had not taken note of racial groups and realized that although the medication was not effective in previous clinical trials, it appeared to be effective for the small proportion of African-Americans males who were part of the study ( source ). Despite the controversy, it is clear that race is associated with differential disease susceptibility (Examples of some of these differences are illustrated in the table below). The question thus lies in developing clinical and public health interventions capable of using racial patterns to alleviate disease while remaining vigilant against the scientific and medical racism of the past.
Diseases that differ in frequency by race or ethnicity (adapted from Halder & Shriver, 2003). [21]
Disease
Combining Approaches[ edit ]
Perhaps the best way to understand race is to recognize that the socially constructed boundaries and biological/genetic elements overlap. There are clearly biological differences between races, though they are small and, as noted above, there is greater variation within races than between races. But the actual criteria used for racial classifications are artificial and socially constructed, as was shown in the cases of the U.S. and Brazil.
By recognizing the overlap between the two, we are presented with a better understanding of race. However, distinctions between racial groups are declining due to intermarriage and have been for years. For instance, self-described African Americans tend to have a mix of West African and European ancestry. Shriver et al. (2003) [39] found that on average African Americans have ~80% African ancestry. Likewise, many white Americans have mixed European and African ancestry; ~30% of whites have less than 90% European ancestry. If intermarrying of races and ethnicities continues, the biological and genetic distinctions will grow increasingly minute and undetectable. If a completely heterogeneous population ultimately develops, any racial classifications in that population would be nothing more than social constructs.
Controversies surrounding the definition of race will likely continue for some time. But there are important considerations that go beyond the definition of race. Race and race-related issues continue to impact society. Racial discrimination in employment and housing still occurs [40] . Because race remains a significant factor in social life, sociologists feel compelled to study its effects at multiple levels.
Prejudice, Bias, and Discrimination[ edit ]
Prejudice is, as the name implies, the pre-judging of something. Prejudice involves coming to a judgment on a subject before learning where the preponderance of evidence actually lies. Alternatively, prejudice can refer to the formation of a judgment without direct or actual experience. Prejudice generally refers to negative views of an individual or group of individuals, often based on social stereotypes . At its most extreme, prejudicial attitudes advocate denying groups benefits and rights without warrant and based solely on the unfounded views of the individual. It should be kept in mind that prejudice is a belief and may not translate into discrimination, which is the actual mistreatment of a group or individual based upon some criteria or characteristic. Although prejudice can lead to discrimination, the two are separate concepts.
Technically, prejudice should be differentiated from viewpoints accumulated through direct life experience. Such viewpoints or beliefs are not pre-judgments but post-judgments. If the assertion is made that no amount of experience ever entitles a person to a viewpoint then this precipitates a logical absurdity since anyone who opposes strongly-held views must, by their own definition, also be prejudiced, invalidating their own proposition on the grounds of... prejudice. Post-judgments or beliefs and viewpoints derived from experience that maintain unfair or stereotypical perspectives on a group of people is more accurately referred to as bias. Prejudice can be taught, socialized, or conveyed through other means, like mass media. Bias can develop through pronounced negative interactions with the stereotyped groups.
Both bias and prejudice are generally viewed as negative. However, some sociologists have argued that prejudices and biases can be seen as necessary human adaptations facilitating survival. In fact, there is evidence to suggest that humans have an innate or basic preference for people who are like them, specifically when it comes to race. [41] Humans express more empathy when members of their own racial group experience pain compared to when individuals of other racial groups experience pain. This suggests prejudice and biases may have a biological component, but this line of research has been heavily critiqued by racial scholars that point out that there is no way to establish a baseline, biological system of beliefs or prejudices, and thus such studies may merely reveal early childhood socialization, which has been shown to contain racial training prior to pre-school age [42] . Since humans do not always have sufficient time to form personal views on every other group of people, particularly people in opposition to one's own group(s), however, prejudices and biases (regardless of their source) may facilitate interactions (although negatively). Prejudice may also be detrimental to the individual personally by pre-judging a potential ally (e.g. refusing to patronize the only doctor in a town because he or she is black). Despite some arguments about the existence of innate preferences towards individuals who look like we do, there is substantial evidence that suggests most prejudicial attitudes and biases are learned and can be unlearned.
Racism can refer to any or all of the following beliefs and behaviors:
race is the primary determinant of human capacities (prejudice or bias)
a certain race is inherently superior or inferior to others (prejudice or bias)
individuals should be treated differently according to their racial classification (prejudice or bias)
the actual treating of individuals differently based on their racial classification (discrimination)
An African-American drinks out of a water cooler designated for use by colored patrons in 1939 at a streetcar terminal in Oklahoma City.
Racism is recognised by many as an affront to basic human dignity and a violation of human rights . Racism is opposed by almost all mainstream voices in the United States. A number of international treaties have sought to end racism. The United Nations uses a definition of racist discrimination laid out in the International Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Racial Discrimination and adopted in 1965:
...any distinction, exclusion, restriction or preference based on race, colour, descent, or national or ethnic origin which has the purpose or effect of nullifying or impairing the recognition, enjoyment or exercise, on an equal footing, of human rights and fundamental freedoms in the political, economic, social, cultural or any other field of public life. source
Expressions of Racism[ edit ]
Racism may be expressed individually and consciously, through explicit thoughts, feelings, or acts, or socially and unconsciously, through institutions that promote inequalities among races.
Individual-Level Racism[ edit ]
Individual-level racism is prejudice, bias, or discrimination displayed in an interaction between two or more people. Examples of individual-level racism could include:
a person believing people of other races/ethnicities are intellectually inferior and that the inferiority is a characteristic of the race
a person holding the belief that all young African males are dangerous
an employer firing someone because of his/her race
Children develop an awareness of race and racial stereotypes quite young and these racial stereotypes affect behavior. [43] For instance, children who identify with a racial minority that is stereotyped as not doing well in school tend to not do well in school once they learn about the stereotype associated with their race. [43] Another illustration of individual-level racism in society is the resistance of Americans to classify mixed-race individuals as white if they have even "one-drop" of black ancestry. [44] While most Americans may believe the " one-drop rule " is no longer relevant in society today, recent research suggests that it persists in racial classifications, even if they are informal.
Structural Racism[ edit ]
Structural racism refers to inequalities built into an organization or system. An example of structural racism can be seen in recent research on workplace discrimination. [45] There is widespread discrimination against job applicants whose names were merely perceived as "sounding black." These applicants were 50% less likely than candidates perceived as having "white-sounding names" to receive callbacks for interviews, no matter their level of previous experience. The researchers view these results as strong evidence of unconscious biases rooted in the country's long history of discrimination. This is an example of structural racism as it shows a widespread established belief system that treats people differently based upon their race. Additional examples of structural racism include apartheid in South Africa, the system of Jim Crow laws in the U.S., and the inequitable lending practices of banks (i.e., redlining ). The figure below illustrates structural racism by illustrating how blacks and Hispanics, even when they have the same income as whites, are less likely to be approved for home mortgages (as a result of practices like redlining).
Another example of structural racism is the discrimination faced by Asian Americans in attaining leadership positions in corporations. While Asian Americans are over-represented in professional occupations in the US, they are under-represented among corporate elite. Approximately 5% of the US population is Asian American, but just .3% of of corporate officers are Asian American. [46] The under-representation of Asian Americans is particularly surprising considering they are perceived to be highly capable, particularly in technical occupations. But they are also perceived to be less capable leaders due to a perception that they lack charisma. The result is structural racism: corporate advancement is structured such that Asian Americans are over-looked for leadership positions.
Cultural Racism[ edit ]
Cultural racial discrimination, a variation of structural racism, occurs when the assumption of inferiority of one or more races is built into the culture of a society. In this perspective, racism is an expression of culture and is also passed on through the transmission of culture (i.e., socialization). An interesting twist on this type of prejudice can be seen in how high achieving secondary school students are treated. African American and Native American students with high GPAs are rejected by their peers while Asian American and white students with high GPAs experience greater social acceptance. [47] This suggests that different racial and ethnic groups are rewarded for academic achievement while others are punished, potentially leading to members of those groups to pursue academic success while others are discouraged from doing so.
Historical Racism[ edit ]
Historical economic or social disparity is a form of inequality caused by past racism, affecting the present generation through deficits in the formal education and other kinds of preparation in the parents' generation, and, through primarily unconscious racist attitudes and actions on members of the general population. This perspective argues that African-Americans, in particular, in the U.S. have had their opportunities in life adversely affected due to the mistreatment of their ancestors (see slavery , Sundown Towns , Jim Crow , and The War on Drugs ). Disparities in wealth, net worth and education lend credence to this idea. [48] [49] The figure below illustrates how historical racism has resulted in lower odds of inter-generational transmission of wealth, which, in turn, reduces net worth for racial and ethnic minorities in the U.S.
Historical racism also relies upon the ongoing "whitening" of social history by educational, political, and economic elites. [50] [51] American history textbooks offer an illustrative example of this process. In such textbooks, students are generally provided with heroic tales (often fictionalized) of white American founders free from deficit and their racial transgressions are typically either ignored or justified. Notable examples include the omission of Christopher Columbus as the founder of the slave trade, the racial basis of early American governmental decisions to support or oppose Independence and Freedom movements in other countries (e.g., anti-slavery administrations (like that of John Adams) supported Independence attempts by other colonies while pro-slavery administrations (like that of Thomas Jefferson) opposed these attempts and provided support to colonial powers in these contests), and the re-segregation of the federal government (which paved the way for many Jim Crow laws and Sundown Towns) by Woodrow Wilson. Further, textbooks generally leave anti-racist speakers and activists (like Marie Stewart in the 1830's or Ida Wells Barnett in the 1890's) and facts that demonstrate that American history has not been a steady movement toward racial progress (like the existence of African American major league baseball players in the 1800's well before Jackie Robinson or the existence of African-American political and economic institutions dating back to the late 1800's) out of the American origin story, which leaves the impression that past racism occurred without opposition and always got better (instead of merely different) over time (e.g., that's just the way it was back then explanations that allow white society to avoid taking responsibility for our racial heritage). In so doing, elites construct an American storyline that absolves contemporary white citizens from the ongoing historical construction and maintenance of racial disparities embedded within American history, culture, and structure.
One response to racial disparity in the U.S. has been Affirmative Action . Affirmative Action is the practice of favoring or benefiting members of a particular race in areas such as college admissions and workplace advancement, in an attempt to create atmospheres of racial diversity and racial equality. Though lauded by many as a boon to society, giving the less privileged a chance at success and working to overcome historical social disparity, the practice is condemned as racially discriminatory by others.
Racial Profiling[ edit ]
Another type of racism is racial profiling . Racial profiling involves the singling out of individuals based upon their race for differential treatment, usually harsher treatment. Two examples of racial profiling in the United States are often discussed. The disparate treatment of minorities by law enforcement officials is a common example of racial profiling. Another example is the disparate treatment of young, male Arabs in airports who are more likely to be subjected to extensive screening. Many critics of racial profiling claim that it is an unconstitutional practice because it amounts to questioning individuals on the basis of what crimes they might commit or could possibly commit, instead of what crimes they have actually committed. A clear example of racial profiling can be seen in media depictions of Muslims and Latinos. One study found that major news programs in the US (including: ABC , CBS , NBC , PBS , CNN , Fox News , MSNBC , and Univision ) described 81% of domestic terrorists - individuals committing acts of terror in the US - as Muslims. Yet, actual crime data suggest only 6% of domestic terrorists were Muslims (the majority are white supremacists or white fundamentalist Christians). Similarly, of immigrants accused of committing crimes on news shows, 97% were identified as Latinos even though only 47% of immigrants who commit crimes are Latinos. [52] The result is likely prejudice against Muslims and Latinos in the US.
Color-Blind Racism[ edit ]
In the US, the avoidance of racial language by European-Americans has been used to suggest that racism is no longer an issue. However, the continued prevalence of institutional racism has led some scholars like Bonilla-Silva to argue a "new racism" exists, that has arisen during the post-Civil Rights era. Bonilla-Silva suggests that a "color-blind racism" ideology supports racism while avoiding any reference to race. Specifically, he outlines four frameworks of color-blind racism:
Abstract Liberalism - using liberal language divorced from context and history to deny racism exists (e.g., all Americans are free now so they can be whatever they want)
Naturalization - (similar to the heavily critiqued study noted above) arguing that racial disparities, segregation patterns, and other racial phenomena are natural occurrences divorced from historical and structural socialization processes between races (e.g., whites just like to be around whites)
Cultural Racism - (outlined in detail above) drawing on cultural based beliefs and arguments to explain racial inequalities in contemporary society (e.g., blacks have too many babies or Mexicans are just like that)
Minimization - arguing that discrimination is no longer prevalent in society (e.g., its not a big deal now like it was back then) [53]
A powerful tool in our current age of Color Blind Racism involves the depiction of racial minorities via media outlets. As Patricia Hill Collins notes, much of our contemporary media offerings (e.g., music videos, songs, films, television shows, magazine and newspaper materials, and online materials) rely upon and reproduce historical patterns of racial inequality, and derogatory depictions of racial minorities in relation to their white counterparts. Take, for example, magazine covers and videos that position African American athletes and singers in "jungle" themed decorations, costumes, and settings that mirror colonial depictions of African and Native American slaves long used to justify scientific, religious, and economic exploitation of racial minorities. While these depictions may appear simply creative removed from their historical context, they continue a long line of images (see, for example, the experiences of Sarah Baartman ) that depict racial minorities as ultimately "wild," "savage," and "more nature-oriented" than whites (for similar examples in relation to Hispanic people see Latinos Beyond the Reel and for similar examples in relation to Asian people see The Slanted Screen ). Expanding on this theme, sociologists have begun to explore "cinethetic racism," which is defined as the portrayal of racial minorities in ways that appeal to white expectations of "good" racial minorities while reproducing the subordination of racial minorities to white needs, desire, and leadership. [54] The quintessential example of cinethetic racism occurs in what has been termed Magical Negro Films - like The Matrix , Bruce Almighty , and The Legend of Bagger Vance among many others - where a racial minority character (often echoing historical racism conceptions of racial minorities as magically inclined or deeply tied to nature) exists for the sole purpose of helping a white male accomplish and recognize his inner greatness. While such films are arguably a world removed from more explicitly white supremacist classic films (see, for example, still highly celebrated classic films promoting explicit racism like The Birth of a Nation or Gone with the Wind ), they echo these films by casting racial minorities as the "servants," "assistants," and "natural guides" for white victory and celebration. In so doing, they repackage explicit white supremacy in a kinder, gentler, more colorblind form for the next generation. [55] [56]
Genocide[ edit ]
While not exclusively the result of racial or ethnic tension, genocide , the attempt to completely destroy a group of people based on a characteristic they share by another group of people who do not share that characteristic, is often the result of racism. [57] One technique that is often used by individuals engaged in genocide and even in war is racial epithets that dehumanize the enemy, making it easier to kill them. [57]
Minorities[ edit ]
Racism is usually directed against a minority population, but may also be directed against a majority population. The definition of a minority group can vary, depending on specific context, but generally refers to either a sub-group that does not form either a majority or a plurality of the total population, or a group that, while not necessarily a numerical minority, is disadvantaged or otherwise has less power (whether political or economic) than a dominant group. A majority is that segment of the population that outnumbers all others combined or one that is dominant.
The issue of establishing minority groups, and determining the extent of privileges they might derive from their status, is controversial. There are some who argue that minorities are owed special recognition and rights, while others feel that minorities are unjustified in demanding special rights, as this amounts to preferential discrimination and could hamper the ability of the minority to integrate itself into mainstream society (i.e. they may have difficulty finding work if they do not speak the predominant language for their geographic area).
The assimilation of minority groups into majority groups can be seen as a form of racism. In this process, the minority group sheds its distinctive traits and is absorbed into the dominant group. This presumes a loss of all characteristics which make the newcomers different. Assimilation can be voluntary or forced. Voluntary assimilation is usually the case with immigrants, who often adopt the dominant culture established earlier. Reasons that have been postulated for voluntary assimilation include:
it is seen as an avenue to upward social mobility
it is a way to escape prejudice and discrimination
Socially pressured to adapt, the immigrant is generally the one who takes the steps to integrate into the new environment. Learning the language of the country or region, making new friends, new contacts, finding a job or going to school. The adaptation is made more difficult when the immigrant does not speak the language of his or her new home.
Assimilation can have negative implications for national minorities or aboriginal cultures, in that after assimilation the distinctive features of the original culture will be minimized and may disappear altogether. This is especially true in situations where the institutions of the dominant culture initiate programs to assimilate or integrate minority cultures. Many indigenous peoples , such as First Nations of Canada, Native Americans of the US, Taiwanese aborigines , and Australian Aborigines have mostly lost their traditional culture (most evidently language) and replaced it with the dominant new culture.
An example of a minority population discriminating against a majority population is seen in the racial apartheid that existed until just recently in South Africa. South Africans of European descent (the minority) discriminated against the majority African population (the majority). Additional examples of minorities discriminating against majorities include two instances of colonial rule:
the treatment of the Vietnamese people by the French
the treatment of Indians by the British
Racial discrimination is and has been official government policy in many countries. In the 1970s, Uganda expelled tens of thousands of ethnic Indians . Until 2003, Malaysia enforced discriminatory policies limiting access to university education for ethnic Chinese and Indian students who are citizens by birth of Malaysia. Today, many other policies explicitly favoring bumiputras (Malays) remain in force. Russia launched anti-Semitic pogroms against Jews in 1905 and after. During the 1930s and 1940s, attempts were made to prevent Jews from immigrating to the Middle East. Following the creation of Israel , land-ownership in many Israeli towns was limited to Jews , and many Muslim countries expelled Jewish residents, and continue to refuse entry to Jews.
Racial Stratification[ edit ]
While race itself is a social construction, race continues to play a prominent role in societies around the world. Race is often the basis for different types of stratification. Following are some of the ways society is stratified by race.
Race and Pollution[ edit ]
Pollution and polluting facilities are not evenly distributed in the U.S. Communities made up predominantly of racial minorities are significantly more likely to be polluted and to house factories and business that pollute extensively. [58] While it might seem that this is inadvertent and not intentionally racist, the evidence suggest otherwise: these communities are systematically targeted as locations for situating polluting businesses. [58]
Interracial Marriage[ edit ]
Not until 1967 were laws outlawing interracial marriage abolished in the United States. Prior to that time, an individual from one race who married an individual from another could be jailed and fined. These laws were referred to as miscegenation laws (miscegenation means "mixing races"). This was the experience of Mildred and Richard Loving, who married in 1958 in Washington D.C., a district in the US that no longer had a law against interracial marriage. [59] Mildred was black; Richard was white. When they moved to Virginia shortly after their wedding, law enforcement decided to prosecute them, breaking into their home in the middle of the night and carrying them off to jail. [59] Both Mildred and Richard were from Virginia, where their extended family still lived. The judge who heard their case, Leon M. Bazile, told the Lovings during their trial for miscegenation that, 'if God had meant for whites and blacks to mix, he would have not placed them on different continents.' [59] He also seemed to take pride in telling the Lovings, "as long as you live you will be known as a felon." [59] The Lovings eventually contacted the American Civil Liberties Union , who took their case to the Supreme Court in 1967, resulting in Loving v. Virginia , which abolished miscegenation laws in the U.S. Even so, as the diagram to the right indicates, attitudes toward interracial marriage did not immediately improve. Still as late as 2002, close to 10% of people in the U.S. favored a law prohibiting interracial marriage.
A Research Example[ edit ]
Devah Pager and Lincoln Quillian [60] compared employers' responses on questions involving race-related hiring practices to their actual hiring practices by sending matched pairs of young men to apply for jobs, either both of European descent or both of African descent, but one of the men had a criminal record. Pager and Quillian found that employers claimed they would be much more willing to hire an ex-offender than they were. Additionally, while the survey results showed no difference in hiring preferences between African-Americans and European-Americans, employers were more than three times as likely to call job applicants with a European lineage back in comparison to Americans with an African lineage. In short, Pager and Quillian found that employers, in their survey responses, were more open to the idea of hiring both African-Americans and ex-offenders than they were to the actual practice.
Conclusion[ edit ]
After the establishment of European colonialism, the ever-increasing contact between different societies around the globe eventually led to the burgeoning of academic scholarship on race and ethnicity. There were many attempts by scholars to try and understand the origins of societal differences. Were these perceived differences biological or social in origin? In the 1700s, a Swedish scientist by the name of Carolus Linnaeus was the first to publish on the human divisions of race. From there, scholars continued to use various physical differences, such as cranial size and body type, to classify individuals into discrete races and furthermore make assumptions regarding intelligence and other capacities based on those physical differences. Those perceived differences were a fertile breeding ground in manufacturing and maintaining racism across the globe and even attempted to justify the ill treatment of certain groups of people such as those enslaved. Despite more recent studies providing evidence for the social construction of race and ethnicity across time and space, racism in all its various forms is still prevalent today in the inequalities found in numerous aspects of society that continue to exist along racial lines.
Notes[ edit ]
The word race was introduced to English from the French in the late 16th century.
It is worth noting that many historical scientists, philosophers, and statesmen appear racist by late-20th century standards. Contextualizing these people, their views and opinions in the cultural milieu of their day should allow the astute reader to avoid the pitfall of judging historic figures from present moral standards (i.e., whiggish historicism).
Additional Reading[ edit ]
Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 2009. Racism without Racists: Color Blind Racism and the Persistence of Racial Inequality in America. Rowman and Littlefield.
Collins, Patricia Hill. 2000. Black Feminist Thought: Knowledge, Consciousness, and the Politics of Empowerment. Second Edition. New York: Routledge.
Omi, Michael and Howard Winant. 1994. Racial Formation in the United States: From the 1960’s to the 1990’s. New York: Routledge.
Masi de Casanova, Erynn. 2004. “No Ugly Women”: Concepts of Race and Beauty among Adolescent Women in Ecuador. Gender & Society 18(3): 287-303.
Hanser,Amy. 2005. The Gendered Rice Bowl: The Sexual Politics of Service Work in Urban China. Gender & Society 19(5): 581-600.
Harvey Wingfield, Adia. 2009. Racializing the Glass Escalator: Reconsidering Men’s Experiences with Women’s Work. Gender & Society 23(1): 5-26.
Marshall, Gul Aldikacti. 2005. Ideology, progress, and dialogue: A comparison of feminist and Islamist women’s approaches to the issues of head covering and work in Turkey. Gender & Society 19(1): 104-120.
Richards, Patricia. 2005. The politics of gender, human rights, and being Indigenous in Chile. Gender & Society 19(2): 199-220.
Feagin, Joe R. 1991. “The Continuing Significance of Race: Anti-Black Discrimination in Public Places.” American Sociological Review 56: 101-116.
Quadagno, Jill, 1994. The Color of Welfare: How Racism Undermined the War on Poverty. New York: Oxford University Press.
Blee, Kathleen. 2002. Inside Organized Racism: Women in the Hate Movement. Los Angeles: University of California Press.
Einwohner, Rachel. 2006. "Identity work and collective action in a repressive context: Jewish Resistance on the "Aryan side" of the Warsaw ghetto." Social Problems 53:38-56.
Bennett, Pamela R. and Amy Lutz. 2009. “How African American Is the Net Black Advantage? Differences in College Attendance Among Immigrant Blacks, Native Blacks, and Whites.” Sociology of Education 82(1): 70-99.
Carter, Prudence L. 2003. “‘Black’ cultural capital, status positioning, and schooling conflicts for low-income African American youth.” Social Problems 50(1): 136-155.
Foster, Gigi. 2008. “Names will never hurt me: Racially distinct names and identity in the undergraduate classroom.” Social Science Research 37(3): 934-952.
Goldsmith, PA. 2004. “Schools’ racial mix, students’ optimism, and the black-white and Latino-white achievement gaps.” Sociology of Education 77(2): 121-147.
Herman, Melissa R. 2009. “The Black-White-Other Achievement Gap: Testing Theories of Academic Performance Among Multiracial and Monoracial Adolescents.” Sociology of Education 82(1): 20-46.
Kao, Grace and Jennifer S. Thompson. 2003. “Racial and Ethnic Stratification in Educational Achievement and Attainment.” Annual Review of Sociology 29:417-42.
Is there a way to verify someone's race?
Why are there differences in income and wealth by race?
References[ edit ]
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↑ Long, J.C. and Kittles, R.A. 2003. Human genetic diversity and the nonexistence of biological races. Human Biology. 75:449-71.
↑ Hooton, E.A. 1926. Methods of racial analysis. Science 63:75-81.
↑ Mayr, E. 1969. Principles of Systematic Zoology. New York, NY: McGraw-Hill.
↑ Dobzhansky, Theodosius. 1970. Genetics of the Evolutionary Process. Unknown.
↑ Templeton, A.R. 1998. Human races: A genetic and evolutionary perspective. American Anthropologist, 100:632-650.
↑ The US Census Bureau recently released an interactive chart illustrating changes in racial classifications over time. The chart is available here: http://www.census.gov/population/race/data/MREAD_1790_2010.html
↑ Lee, S. (1993) “Racial classifications in the US census 1890-1990.” Ethnic and Racial Studies Volume 16 (1).
↑ Fields, Barbara Jean. 1990. Slavery, Race, and Ideology in the United States of America. New Left Review 181:95-118.
↑ Sider, Gerald. 1993. Lumbee Indian Histories: Race, Ethnicity, and Indian Identity in the Southern United States.
↑ [ http://www.brazzil.com/p119jan03.htm Brazil - Brasil - BRAZZIL - News from Brazil - The life and death of Orlando Villas Boas - Brazilian Indians, Ecology, Amazon- January 2003
↑ a b Telles, Edward E. 2002. “Racial ambiguity among the Brazilian population..” Ethnic & Racial Studies 25:415-441.
↑ Mangels, Laura, and Laura Neves. 2007. “Racial Classification in Brazil: Discrepancies between Observed and Self-Identified Race..” Conference Papers -- American Sociological Association.
↑ Tang, H.; Quertermous, T.; Rodriguez, B.; Kardia, S.L.; Zhu, X.; Brown, A.; Pankow, J.S.; Province, M.A.; Hunt, S.C.; Boerwinkle, E.; Schork, N.J.; Risch, N.J. 2005. Genetic structure, self-identified race/ethnicity, and confounding in case-control association studies. American Journal of Human Genetics. 76:268-75.
↑ a b Jonathan K. Pritchard, Matthew Stephens and Peter Donnelly. 2000. Inference of Population Structure Using Multilocus Genotype Data. Genetics 155: 945–959.
↑ Noah A. Rosenberg, Jonathan K. Pritchard, James L. Weber, Howard M. Cann, Kenneth K. Kidd, Lev A. Zhivotovsky, Marcus W. Feldman. 2002. Genetic Structure of Human Populations. SCIENCE VOL 298
↑ Collins, Patricia Hill. 2005. Black Sexual Politics: African Americans, Gender, and the New Racism. Routledge.
↑ Collins, Patricia Hill. 2005. Black Sexual Politics: African Americans, Gender, and the New Racism. Routledge.
↑ Halder, Indrani, and Mark D Shriver. 2003. “Measuring and using admixture to study the genetics of complex diseases.” Human Genomics 1:52-62.
↑ McKeigue, P M, B Shah, and M G Marmot. 1991. “Relation of central obesity and insulin resistance with high diabetes prevalence and cardiovascular risk in South Asians.” Lancet 337:382-386.
↑ Hodge, A M, and P Z Zimmet. 1994. “The epidemiology of obesity.” Baillière's Clinical Endocrinology and Metabolism 8:577-599.
↑ Songer, T J, and P Z Zimmet. 1995. “Epidemiology of type II diabetes: an international perspective.” PharmacoEconomics 8 Suppl 1:1-11.
↑ Martinez, N C. 1993. “Diabetes and minority populations. Focus on Mexican Americans.” The Nursing Clinics of North America 28:87-95.
↑ Douglas, J G, M Thibonnier, and J T Wright. 1996. “Essential hypertension: racial/ethnic differences in pathophysiology.” Journal of the Association for Academic Minority Physicians: The Official Publication of the Association for Academic Minority Physicians 7:16-21.
↑ Gaines, K, and G Burke. 1995. “Ethnic differences in stroke: black-white differences in the United States population. SECORDS Investigators. Southeastern Consortium on Racial Differences in Stroke.” Neuroepidemiology 14:209-239.
↑ McKeigue, P M, G J Miller, and M G Marmot. 1989. “Coronary heart disease in south Asians overseas: a review.” Journal of Clinical Epidemiology 42:597-609.
↑ Zoratti, R. 1998. “A review on ethnic differences in plasma triglycerides and high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol: is the lipid pattern the key factor for the low coronary heart disease rate in people of African origin?.” European Journal of Epidemiology 14:9-21.
↑ Ferguson, R, and E Morrissey. 1993. “Risk factors for end-stage renal disease among minorities.” Transplantation Proceedings 25:2415-2420.
↑ Hargrave, R, M Stoeklin, M Haan, and B Reed. 2000. “Clinical aspects of dementia in African-American, Hispanic, and white patients.” Journal of the National Medical Association 92:15-21.
↑ Molokhia, M, and P McKeigue. 2000. “Risk for rheumatic disease in relation to ethnicity and admixture.” Arthritis Research 2:115-125.
↑ Böni, Roland, Christian Schuster, Britta Nehrhoff, and Günther Burg. 2002. “Epidemiology of skin cancer.” Neuro Endocrinology Letters 23 Suppl 2:48-51.
↑ Schwartz, A G, and G M Swanson. 1997. “Lung carcinoma in African Americans and whites. A population-based study in metropolitan Detroit, Michigan.” Cancer 79:45-52.
↑ Shimizu, H, A H Wu, L C Koo, Y T Gao, and L N Kolonel. 1985. “Lung cancer in women living in the Pacific Basin area.” National Cancer Institute Monograph 69:197-201.
↑ Hoffman, R M et al. 2001. “Racial and ethnic differences in advanced-stage prostate cancer: the Prostate Cancer Outcomes Study.” Journal of the National Cancer Institute 93:388-395.
↑ Rosati, G. 2001. “The prevalence of multiple sclerosis in the world: an update.” Neurological Sciences: Official Journal of the Italian Neurological Society and of the Italian Society of Clinical Neurophysiology 22:117-139.
↑ Bohannon, A D. 1999. “Osteoporosis and African American women.” Journal of Women's Health & Gender-Based Medicine 8:609-615.
↑ Shriver, M.D. et al. 2003. Skin pigmentation, biogeographical ancestry, and admixture mapping. Human Genetics. 112:387-399.
↑ Reskin, Barbara. 2012. The Race Discrimination System. Annual Review of Sociology 38: 17-35
↑ Xu, Xiaojing, Xiangyu Zuo, Xiaoying Wang, and Shihui Han. 2009. “Do You Feel My Pain? Racial Group Membership Modulates Empathic Neural Responses.” J. Neurosci. 29:8525-8529.
↑ Van Ausdale, Debra and Joe R. Fegan. 1996. Using racial and ethnic concepts: The case of very young children. American Sociological Review 61: 779-793.
↑ a b McKown, Clark, and Michael J. Strambler. 2009. “Developmental Antecedents and Social and Academic Consequences of Stereotype-Consciousness in Middle Childhood.” Child Development 80:1643-1659.
↑ Ho, A. K., Sidanius, J., Levin, D. T. & Banaji, M. R. (2011). Evidence for Hypodescent and Racial Hierarchy in the Categorization and Perception of Biracial Individuals. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 100, 492-506.
↑ Bertrand, Marianne and Mullainathan, Sendhil. “Are Emily and Greg More Employable Than Lakisha and Jamal? A Field Experiment on Labor Market Discrimination.” American Economic Review, September 2004, Vol. 94, No. 4, pp. 991-1,013.
↑ Sy, Thomas et al. 2010. “Leadership Perceptions as a Function of Race–occupation Fit: The Case of Asian Americans.” Journal of Applied Psychology 95(5):902–19.
↑ Fuller-Rowell, Thomas E., and Stacey N. Doan. 2010. “The Social Costs of Academic Success Across Ethnic Groups.” Child Development 81:1696-1713.
↑ Wilson, William Julius. 1978. The Declining Significance of Race.
↑ Wilson, William Julius. 1990. The Truly Disadvantaged.
↑ Loewen, James W. 1995. Lies my teacher told me: Everything your American History textbook got wrong. New Press.
↑ Collins, Patricia Hill. 2005. Black Sexual Politics: African Americans, Gender, and the New Racism. Routlege.
↑ Dixon, T. L., & Williams, C. L. (2014). The Changing Misrepresentation of Race and Crime on Network and Cable News. Journal of Communication, n/a–n/a. doi:10.1111/jcom.12133
↑ Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. 2009. Racism without Racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in America. Rowman and Littlefield.
↑ Hughey, Matthew W. 2009. Cinethetic Racism: White Redemption and Black Stereotypes in "Magical Negro" Films. Social Problems 56(3): 543 - 577.
↑ Collins, Patricia Hill. 2005. Black Sexual Politics: African Americans, Gender, and the New Racism. Routledge.
↑ Hughey, Matthew W. 2014. The White Savior Film: Content, Critics, and Consumption. Temple University Press.
↑ a b Hagan, John, and Wenona Rymond-Richmond. 2008. “The Collective Dynamics of Racial Dehumanization and Genocidal Victimization in Darfur.” American Sociological Review 73:875-902.
↑ a b Pellow, David Naguib, and Robert J. Brulle. 2007. “poisoning the planet: the struggle for environmental justice..” Contexts: Understanding People in Their Social Worlds 6:37-41.
↑ a b c d Martin, Douglas. 2008. “Mildred Loving, Who Battled Ban on Mixed-Race Marriage, Dies at 68.” The New York Times, May 6 http://www.nytimes.com/2008/05/06/us/06loving.html (Accessed July 20, 2008).
↑ Pager, Devah and Quillian, Lincoln. 2005. Walking the Talk? What Employers Say Versus What They Do. American Sociological Review. 70(3):355-380.
Recommended Readings for Students[ edit ]
Dugger, Celia W. 2009. “Apartheid Legacy’s in South African Schools.” The New York Times, September 20 http://www.nytimes.com/2009/09/20/world/africa/20safrica.html?partner=rss&emc=rss (Accessed September 20, 2009).
This article discusses the continuing legacy of racial discrimination in South Africa. The school system under apartheid favored whites, but even since the end of apartheid, the school system continues to favor whites and the few blacks who make it into the formerly white-only schools. As a result, blacks in South Africa who attend the formerly all-black schools remain poorly educated and unable to find good work.
| Apartheid |
Which poet invited Maud into the garden? | Separate | Define Separate at Dictionary.com
separate
[verb sep-uh-reyt; adjective, noun sep-er-it] /verb ˈsɛp əˌreɪt; adjective, noun ˈsɛp ər ɪt/
Spell
verb (used with object), separated, separating.
1.
to keep apart or divide, as by an intervening barrier or space:
to separate two fields by a fence.
2.
to put, bring, or force apart; part:
to separate two fighting boys.
3.
to set apart; disconnect; dissociate:
to separate church and state.
4.
to remove or sever from association, service, etc., especially legally or formally:
He was separated from the army right after V-E Day.
5.
to sort, part, divide, or disperse (an assemblage, mass, compound, etc.), as into individual units, components, or elements.
6.
to take by parting or dividing; extract (usually followed by from or out):
to separate metal from ore.
7.
Mathematics. to write (the variables of a differential equation) in a form in which the differentials of the independent and dependent variables are, respectively, functions of these variables alone:
We can separate the variables to solve the equation.
verb (used without object), separated, separating.
8.
to part company; withdraw from personal association (often followed by from):
to separate from a church.
9.
(of a married pair) to stop living together but without getting a divorce.
10.
to draw or come apart; become divided, disconnected, or detached.
11.
to become parted from a mass or compound:
Cream separates from milk.
to take or go in different directions:
We have to separate at the crossroad.
adjective
being or standing apart; distant or dispersed:
two separate houses; The desert has widely separate oases.
16.
not shared; individual or private:
separate checks; separate rooms.
19.
(sometimes initial capital letter) noting or pertaining to a church or other organization no longer associated with the original or parent organization.
noun
20.
Usually, separates. women's outer garments that may be worn in combination with a variety of others to make different ensembles, as matching and contrasting blouses, skirts, and sweaters.
21.
offprint (def 1).
22.
a bibliographical unit, as an article, chapter, or other portion of a larger work, printed from the same type but issued separately, sometimes with additional pages.
Origin of separate
Latin
1400-1450
1400-50; late Middle English (noun and adj.) < Latin sēparātus (past participle of sēparāre), equivalent to sē- se- + par(āre) to furnish, produce, obtain, prepare + -ātus -ate 1
Related forms
preseparate, verb (used with object), preseparated, preseparating.
reseparate, verb, reseparated, reseparating.
See more synonyms on Thesaurus.com
1, 2. sever, sunder, split. Separate, divide imply a putting apart or keeping apart of things from each other. To separate is to remove from each other things previously associated: to separate a mother from her children. To divide is to split or break up carefully according to measurement, rule, or plan: to divide a cake into equal parts. 3. disjoin, disengage. 13. unattached, severed, discrete. 15. secluded, isolated. 16. independent.
Antonyms
Examples from the Web for separate
Expand
The Secret Language of Elephants Bob Simon December 30, 2009
He would try on four separate occasions to volunteer for the Allied cause and be shot down every time.
Their houses of worship were arranged to separate the sexes.
Folkways William Graham Sumner
Revisiting the Earth James Langdon Hill
British Dictionary definitions for separate
Expand
(transitive) to act as a barrier between: a range of mountains separates the two countries
2.
to put or force or be put or forced apart
3.
to part or be parted from a mass or group
4.
(transitive) to discriminate between: to separate the men from the boys
5.
to divide or be divided into component parts; sort or be sorted
6.
to sever or be severed
7.
(intransitive) (of a married couple) to cease living together by mutual agreement or after obtaining a decree of judicial separation
adjective (ˈsɛprɪt; ˈsɛpərɪt)
existing or considered independently: a separate problem
9.
set apart from the main body or mass
11.
solitary or withdrawn
13.
(sometimes capital) designating or relating to a Church or similar institution that has ceased to have associations with an original parent organization
Derived Forms
C15: from Latin sēparāre, from sē- apart + parāre to obtain
Collins English Dictionary - Complete & Unabridged 2012 Digital Edition
© William Collins Sons & Co. Ltd. 1979, 1986 © HarperCollins
Publishers 1998, 2000, 2003, 2005, 2006, 2007, 2009, 2012
Word Origin and History for separate
Expand
v.
late 14c., from Latin separatus, past participle of separare "to pull apart," from se- "apart" (see secret ) + parare "make ready, prepare" (see pare ). Sever (q.v.) is a doublet, via French. Related: Separated; separating.
adj.
"detached, kept apart," c.1600, from separate (v.) or from Latin separatus. Separate but equal in reference to U.S. segregation policies on railroads is attested from 1888. Separate development, official name of apartheid in South Africa, is from 1955. Related: Separately (1550s); separateness.
Frequently the colored coach is little better than a cattle car. Generally one half the smoking car is reserved for the colored car. Often only a cloth curtain or partition run half way up separates this so-called colored car from the smoke, obscene language, and foul air of the smokers' half of the car. All classes and conditions of colored humanity, from the most cultured and refined to the most degraded and filthy, without regard to sex, good breeding or ability to pay for better accommodation, are crowded into this separate, but equal (?) half car. [Rev. Norman B. Wood, "The White Side of a Black Subject," 1897]
Online Etymology Dictionary, © 2010 Douglas Harper
| i don't know |
What is the name of the Kenyan game reserve set on the Serengeti Plain? | The Serengeti: Plain Facts about National Park & Animals
The Serengeti: Plain Facts about National Park & Animals
By Kim Ann Zimmermann, Live Science Contributor |
September 19, 2012 12:27pm ET
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The Serengeti is a vast ecosystem in east-central Africa. It spans 12,000 square miles (30,000 square kilometers) giving rise to its name, which is derived from the Maasai language and means “endless plains.”
This region of Africa is located in north Tanzania and extends to southwestern Kenya. The Serengeti encompasses Serengeti National Park and a number of protected game reserves and conservation areas maintained by the governments of Tanzania and Kenya. The region hosts the largest mammal migration in the world and is a popular destination for African safaris.
Wildebeests and zebras cross the Serengeti Plain in an annual migration.
Altitudes in the Serengeti range from 3,020 feet to 6,070 feet (920 meters to 1,850 meters) The usually warm and dry climate is interrupted by two rainy seasons — March to May, and a shorter season in October and November.
An acacia tree on the Serengeti Plain.
Credit: M Rutherford shutterstock
The Serengeti landscape is quite varied with flat-topped acacias (a genre of shrubs and trees), rolling plains and open grasslands that are bordered by hills and rocky formations. Extreme weather conditions plague the area, with harsh winds combining with heat to create a harsh environment.
The expansiveness of the Serengeti is interrupted by Ol Doinyo Lengai, the only active volcano in the area and the only volcano that still ejects carbonatite lavas that turn white when exposed to air. When it rains, the ash turns into a calcium-rich material that is as hard as cement.
The southeastern area lies in the shadow of the Ngorongoro highlands and is composed of shortgrass treeless plains as this area does get rain. Some 43 miles (70 km) west, acacia woodlands rise suddenly and extend west to Lake Victoria and north to the Loita Plains.
The landscape is dotted with a number of granite and gneiss outcroppings known as kopjes, which are large rocky formations that are the result of volcanic activity. The Simba Kopje (Lion Kopje) is a popular tourist stop.
Animals of the Serengeti
Blue wildebeests, gazelles, zebras and buffalos inhabit the region, along with lions and spotted hyenas familiar to fans of the Disney film “The Lion King.”
In the 1890s, droughts and a rinderpest epidemic (also known as cattle plague or steppe murrain) took a serious toll on the animal population of the Serengeti, in particular the wildebeest. By the mid-1970s the wildebeest and the buffalo populations had recovered.
Each year the great wildebeest migration begins in December in the Ngorongoro area of the southern Serengeti of Tanzania, which offers rich grasslands for feeding. This is a huge attraction for tourists, and while many think it is an intense and short-lived phenomenon, it is actually a fairly slow trek. It occurs during this time because there plenty of rain-ripened grass available for the 750,000 zebra that precede 1.2 million wildebeest and then the hundreds of thousands of other plains game bringing up the rear of the migration path.
A red-headed rock agama displays colorful male territorial markings in Serengeti National Park.
Credit: Mogens Trolle shutterstock
Wildebeests bear their young in February and March, which sparks predators. Then in May as the plains of the south and east dry out the mass moves on to the north and west crossing the Grumeti River, where there is more grass and more a more reliable water supply.
Some 250,000 wildebeest die during the journey from Tanzania to Maasai Mara Reserve in lower Kenya, a total of 500 miles (800 km). Death is usually from thirst, hunger, exhaustion, or predation.
But large mammals are not the only ones that make their home in the Serengeti. Gaudy agama lizards and rock hyraxes make themselves comfortable in the numerous granite kopjes, which are formations of huge boulders of sparkling, coarse rock. A full 100 varieties of dung beetle have been recorded, as have 500-plus bird species, ranging from the outsized ostrich to the black eagles that soar effortlessly above the Lobo Hills.
History
The Maasai people had been grazing their livestock in the open plains for around 200 years when the first European explorers visited the area. German geographer and explorer Dr. Oscar Baumann entered the area in 1892. The first Brit to enter the Serengeti, Stewart Edward White, recorded his explorations in the northern Serengeti in 1913.
A group of Maasai women shows a traditional Jump dance in a village near Maasai Mara Reserve.
Credit: Oleg Znamenskiy / Shutterstock.com
Because the hunting of lions made them so scarce, the British decided to make a partial game reserve of 800 acres (3.2 square km) in the area in 1921 and a full one in 1929. These actions became the basis for Serengeti National Park, which was established in 1951.
The Serengeti gained more fame after the initial work of Bernhard Grzimek and his son Michael in the 1950s. Together they produced the book and film “Serengeti Shall Not Die,” an early nature conservation documentary.
As part of the creation of the park and in order to preserve its wildlife, the Maasai were relocated to the Ngorongoro highlands, a move that still elicits much controversy.
— Kim Ann Zimmermann, LiveScience Contributor
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"Which member of the group 'Queen' was nicknamed, ""The Truro Trouperdore""?" | Serengeti National Park - Benson Safaris Tanzania
Serengeti National Park
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Serengeti National Park
The world famous Serengeti is one of Africa’s premier game parks and also a UNESCO World Heritage Site.
The Serengeti National Park is to Tanzania what the Maasai Mara Game reserve is to Kenya, but is actually over 7 times as large. The Serengeti, which derives its name from the Maasai for “endless plain”, is the jewel of Tanzania’s protected areas. Combined with the Maasai Mara and the Ngorongoro Conservation area it protects the most varied and greatest collection of wildlife on earth. With the Big Five, the Small Five and extensive amounts of wildlife, this region offers arguably the best wildlife viewing in the world. That said, with its vast size and varied terrain, game viewing is only one aspect of the Serengeti - the scenery is simply breathtaking.
The Serengeti is also home to one of the world’s most spectacular wildlife events. Often referred to as the ‘Greatest Show on Earth’ - the annual great wildebeest migration, when some six million hooves pound the open plains, as more than 200,000 zebra and 300,000 Thomson's gazelle join over 2 million wildebeest as they trek for fresh grazing in the inescapable cycle of life.
The spectacle of predator versus prey dominates Tanzania’s greatest park. Golden-manned lion prides feast on the abundance of plain grazers. Solitary leopards haunt the acacia trees lining the Seronera River, while a high density of cheetahs prowls the South Eastern plains. Almost uniquely, all three African jackal species occur here, alongside the spotted hyena and a host of more elusive small predators, ranging from the insectivorous aardwolf to the beautiful serval cat.
There is no bad time to visit the Serengeti as every season has its own special highlight. Changing seasons and light patterns form the most beautiful backdrop to view Africa’s majestic wildlife.
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What is the name of Kenya's second largest game reserve, who's dramatic setting is the foothills of Mount Kilimanjaro? | Places of Interest in Kenya - IITA
Country snapshot, interesting facts
"The greatest wildlife show on earth"
Straddling the Equator on the east coast of Africa, Kenya is one of the most scenically diverse and beautiful countries on the continent, and home to the nomadic Masai and Samburu, the Kikuyu farmers and coastal Swahili tribal peoples. Kenya has two major cities, the high-altitude, colonial-built capital, Nairobi, and the ancient Swahili trading port of Mombasa. But what really draws the tourists is the great outdoors. This is a place for sunbathing, hiking, climbing, diving or riding. Above all, it is a place for safaris.
Resorts and excursions
Kenya, regarded by many as the "jewel of East Africa", has some of the continent's finest beaches, most magnificent wildlife and scenery, and an incredibly sophisticated tourism infrastructure. It is a startlingly beautiful land, from the coral reefs and white sand beaches of the coast to the summit of Mount Kenya, crowned with clouds and bejewelled by strange giant alpine plants. Between these two extremes are the rolling savanna that is home to game parks such as Tsavo, Amboseli, the Masai Mara, and Samburu; the lush, agricultural highlands with their sleek green coat of coffee and tea plantations; and the most spectacular stretch of the Great Rift Valley, the giant scar across the face of Africa.
One-tenth of all land in Kenya is designated as national parks and reserves. Over 50 parks and reserves cover all habitats from desert to mountain forest, and there are even six marine parks in the Indian Ocean. Tourist facilities are extremely good. There are many organized safaris, but visitors with the time and money may choose to hire their own vehicle and camping equipment.
Kenya also has a fascinatingly diverse population with around 40 different tribes, all with their own (often related) languages and cultures. The major tribes include the Kikuyu, from the central highlands, the Luyia in the northwest and the Luo, around Lake Victoria. Of them all, however, the most famous are the tall, proud, beautiful red-clad Masai, who still lead a traditional semi-nomadic lifestyle of cattle-herding along the southern border.
Kenya does have its down-side as a tourist destination. Rampant corruption means that many of the roads are in poor condition and driving can be a chore. Urban crime is high and continuing inter-tribal skirmishes and banditry are a threat in some areas of the north. More prosaically, the tourist trade has taught people here to think of foreigners as open wallets. Prices for everything from park fees to hotel rooms are set way above the local level. There is enormous pressure to buy anything and everything, often at ridiculously inflated prices, and even taking a photograph in the local market is likely to incur a cost.
The Coast
Mombassa. The second largest city in Kenya, 500 km (300 miles) from Nairobi, Mombasa town actually sits on an island. Until the ascendancy of the Western powers in the Indian Ocean, Mombasa was second only to Zanzibar as a center for trade with Arabia, India, and the Far East – slaves and ivory were exchanged for spices and small goods, and later for gold dollars. Mombasa is still an important port, prospering from its position at the head of the only railway into the Kenyan interior, but visitors are likely to find the rakish grey forms of foreign warships to be more typical of modern Mombasa than the flotillas of Arab dhows that still collect in the Old Harbour. Mombasa is the headquarters for Kenya's coastal tourist trade, but has none of the fine beaches in the north and south.
There are, however, several places of interest: the Old Town retains a strongly Arab flavor, with narrow, crowded streets and street vendors selling all manner of local and imported craftwork; Fort Jesus, built by the Portuguese in 1593 and taken by the Omani Arabs in 1698 after a 33-month seige, is now a museum and worth visiting (open 0830–1830 every day of the year, including son-et-lumière shows); the Old Harbour is an interesting place for early morning and late afternoon strolls, and is often filled with sailing dhows from the Yemen and Persian Gulf. For those who want to go shopping with atmosphere, Biashara Street is probably the best place to go to buy kikoi and khanga cloths; the main city market is the Makupa Market, off Mwembe Tayari and there is a floating market at Tudor Creek, to the north of the city. There are plenty of dhow trips here, and around the harbour if you fancy a spell on the water. The tourist office is on Moi Avenue near the Giant Tusks (Mon–Fri 0800–1700; Sat 0800–1200; tel: (11) 225428). Staff are very helpful. Alternatively, there is an excellent website on the city; (mombasaonline.com).
Resorts. Most of the beach resorts which are actually listed as Mombasa are some way out of town, along a 120 km (70 mile) stretch of coast. To the north of the city, resorts such as Bamburi Beach, Kenya Beach, Nyali Beach, and Casuarina Beach are amongst the older developments with easy access to the city center and activities, restaurants and clubs. The Kenya Marineland and Snake Park, Bamburi Quarry Nature Trail, which also has a butterfly farm, the Mamba Crocodile Village in Freretown, and the Ngomongo Villages cultural park, showing off the lifestyle of 11 different Kenyan tribes, are entertaining for children and adults alike. Serious souvenir shoppers should head for Bombolulu Workshops and Cultural Village, where 260 disabled men and women produce quality leatherwork, jewellery, and other crafts. There is some good diving on the somewhat damaged coral reef of the Mombasa Marine National Park, off the Nyali headland.
The best beaches, such as Likoni and Tiwi (popular with backpackers), stretch out for some distance along the South Coast, reached only by ferry from the city center. The best and most famous of them all is the 10 km long, dazzlingly white Diani Beach, some 40 km (24 miles) south of the city, lined by a string of large resort hotels. A short way inland, the 192 sq km Shimba Hills National Reserve is the most accessible place in which to see big game for those staying on the coast, although the wooded vegetation doesn't always make it easy. It does, however, have a lot of leopard and Kenya's only population of sable antelope. In the far south, little Shimoni is an increasingly popular center for diving and deep sea fishing, with three small marine parks, Wasini Marine National Park, Kisite Marine National Park and Mpunguti National Reserve, within easy boat-trip distance. The coral reefs around here are spectacular and there are dhow trips to go dolphin-watching.
Malindi. Malindi, 125 km (80 miles) north of Mombasa, was once the center of a powerful kingdom. Today it is a small, somewhat tatty resort town, but the Malindi and Watamu Marine National Parks are nearby. Here the coral reef is close enough to the white sand beach to walk out at low tide and you can snorkel, dive, or watch the technicolor fish through a glass-bottomed boat. There are also several operators running deep sea fishing charters. A small white cross on the bay marks the arrival in 1499 of Vasco da Gama, the first European ever to visit the Kenyan coast. Close to Watamu, the Gedi National Park protects the well-preserved ruins of a Swahili city, founded in the 13th century and destroyed by Somali raiders in the 17th century. The Arabuko-Sokoke Forest, south of Watamu, and the little village of Mambrui, north of Malindi, are also worth a visit.
Lamu Island. Lamu Island, 200 km (125 miles) north of Malindi, is an exceptionally beautiful place with fine, white sandy beaches, sailing dhows, and a fascinating town. No motorized vehicles are allowed on the island and the streets are so narrow that donkeys and hand-carts are the only vehicles that can negotiate them. The area is strongly Muslim and the only places on the island to buy alcohol are in a couple of the larger tourist hotels.
Lamu Town was founded in the 9th century and is one of a handful of Swahili towns whose many mosques and fine old Arab houses with impressive carved wooden doors have survived intact. There are a couple of excellent museums; the Lamu Museum and the Swahili House Museum. The Fortress is also open to the public. Other attractions in the city include the Hindu Temple in Mwagogo Road, off Treasury Square, and the bazaars. The best beaches are about 2 km (1.2 miles) south of the town at Shela, or on the nearby islands.
Excursions. Fishing trips may be taken by dhow, and day trips to the 14th- and 15th-century ruins on the nearby islands of Pate and Manda can be arranged with local boat owners. On the Prophet's Birthday, there is a week-long festival, with dancing, singing, and other celebrations. Many Muslims come to Lamu from all along the coast to enjoy this celebration. The best time to visit the island is outside the main tourist season (April–November).
The Southeast
Southeastern Kenya is low, dry, flat savanna country, much of it taken up by the vast Tsavo National Park, a collection of privately owned game ranches in the Taita Hills and the smaller Amboseli National Park, on the Tanzanian border.
Tsavo National Park. The largest park in Kenya, Tsavo covers a mammoth 21 000 sq km (8000 sq miles). It is actually managed as two separate parks, Tsavo East, most of which is closed to the public, and Tsavo West. Between the two, the Taita Hills are the setting for most of the local game lodges, all of which stand on private concessions run as part of the same ecosystem as the park itself. Despite a drastic fall in the elephant population, caused by massive poaching in the 1970s and 1980s, numbers are again on the increase and it is possible to see large herds. Much of the land is open savanna and bush woodland inhabited by buffaloes, a few rhinos, lions, antelopes, gazelles, giraffes, and zebras. Crocodiles and hippos can be seen at Mzima Springs in the northwest of the park. Nearby, the Shetani Lava Flow is a 50 sq km lava bed formed by an eruption in the Chyulu Hills. As well as being rich in wildlife, Tsavo has a wealth of birds, with over 440 species recorded.
Amboseli National Park. A small park by Kenyan standards, covering 329 sq km, Amboseli lies on the Tanzanian border 220 km (140 miles) from Nairobi. The fine view it affords of snow-capped Mount Kilimanjaro, Africa's highest mountain (5895 m/19 340 ft), draws many visitors, but the park itself has seen better days. The once-lush savanna is now largely a dust-bowl and most animals have retreated into areas of scrub forest and marshland.
Central Highlands
Nairobi. The "Green City in the Sun" is an attractive city with wide tree-lined streets and spacious parkland suburbs. Its pleasant nature together with judicious investment in facilities such as the Kenyatta Conference Centre have made Nairobi an important center for international business and conference activities. However, inspite of the capital's appearance, urban crime is on the increase and visitors are advised to take precautions such as avoiding certain areas, or walking anywhere at night (travellers are advised against walking alone through Uhuru Park at any time). There is a full range of shopping opportunities, from purpose-built American-style malls to African markets, and a variety of restaurants and nightclubs. There are open-air swimming pools at the Serena, Boulevard, and Jacaranda hotels –non-residents may pay to swim.
Other places of interest in or near Nairobi include: the Bomas of Kenya, a short distance outside the city center, where displays of traditional dancing are put on for visitors; the Kenya National Museum with its particularly good ethnographic and archaeological exhibits (this is where many of the earliest human remains, discovered by the Leakeys at Olduvai, Koobi Fora, and other well-known prehistoric sites are displayed); and the Snake Park, opposite the museum, houses snakes indigenous to East Africa and a few from other parts of the world. Adjacent to Snake Park is a collection of traditional mud and thatch huts and granaries containing tools characteristic of different tribes. In the suburb of Karen, the Karen Blixen Museum occupies the farmhouse made famous by the author's book, Out of Africa.
Excursions. Although it is just 8 km (5 miles) from Nairobi city center, Nairobi National Park still seems a savage and lonely place during the week (carloads of city-dwellers invade at the weekend). It was Kenya's first national park and today still looks much as it did in the early photographs - wild, undulating pasture dotted with every kind of East African plain-dwelling animal except elephants. At the gates to the park is the Animal Orphanage where young, sick, and wounded animals are cared for. Also near here, the Langata Giraffe Centre offers the enchanting opportunity of hand-feeding the resident Rothschild giraffes.
North of Nairobi, the road climbs steadily through the suburb of Thika, and rich agricultural lands, offering excellent views of the Great Rift Valley. The eastern wall of the Rift is made up by the Aberdare Mountains, while further east still looms the vast bulk of Mount Kenya. Between the two are several attractive small towns such as Nyeri, where Lord Baden-Powell, Nyahururu, home of the Thomson's Falls, Muranga'a, whose cathedral tells the story of the Mau Mau rebellions in a series of colorful murals, Naro Moru and Nanyuki, the last two both acting as starting points for those wishing to climb the mountain.
Aberdare National Park. The park is set amidst a densely wooded mountain range rising to over 4000 m (13 000 ft), adjacent to Mount Kenya. It is possible to see elephants, rhinos, dik-dik, leopards, lions, and monkeys as well as rare forest antelopes such as the bongo. However, the thick vegetation and misty alpine climate hides most wildlife from the inexpert observer, the exceptions being giant forest pigs, baboons and buffaloes, which often sleep or feed beside the many dirt tracks. Most visitors prefer to watch for animals from the comfort of the park's two lodges, "Treetops" and the "Ark", both built on platforms overlooking clearings which are floodlit at night. On the higher slopes, giant alpine plants sprout from an almost perpetual fog. There are many waterfalls, the greatest being Guru Falls, which drop over 300 m (1000 ft). The western face of the mountain range is the sheer Mau Escarpment, which falls dramatically to the floor of the Great Rift Valley.
Mount Kenya National Park. Conical Mount Kenya, an extinct volcano, is the second highest mountain in Africa, at 4986 m (16 358 ft) above sea level. The national park covers 600 sq km (230 sq miles) of forest and bare rock straddling the equator, all above 1800 m (6000 ft). The mountain may be climbed without special equipment, but it is advisable to take time so as to avoid altitude sickness. The ascent is very beautiful, the vegetation ranging from farmland to thick forest, bamboo forest, open moorland, giant alpine vegetation, sheer rock and finally, at the summit, year-round snow fields. The lower slopes are one of the last haunts of the black leopard and the black and white colobus monkey. Climbers should be accompanied by a guide. Porters are also available and there are huts to stay in along the way. Plenty of warm clothes are required as well as one's own food supplies. A Rockclimber's Guide to Mount Kenya and Mount Kilimanjaro can be bought from the Mountain Club of Kenya, PO Box 45741, Nairobi (tel: (2) 501 747).
The Great Rift Valley
About 20 million years ago, a vast seismic scar was torn across the face of Africa, stretching for nearly 6000 km (3600 miles), from the Red Sea to the Drakensberg in South Africa. Known today as the Great Rift Valley, it is at its most dramatic and visible in central Kenya where escarpment walls 2000 m high plunge to the flat-bottomed valley floor, decorated by a small string of volcanoes and brackish soda lakes.
Driving down into the valley from Nairobi, the first landmark on the valley floor is the almost perfect cone of Mount Longonot, a dormant volcano (2885 m/9466 ft), that has recently been gazetted as a national park. The walk up is hard, but worth it both for the wildlife and the final spectacular views of the crater and along the Rift.
Known for the abundance and variety of its birdlife and spectacular views, freshwater Lake Naivasha, is an hour's drive from the capital, and the center of a booming horticulture industry. The south shore is lined by hotels and guesthouses, popular as a weekend retreat from Nairobi, with the option of boat trips to little Crescent Island. Also on the south shore is Elsamere, home of Joy and George Adamson and the real setting of "Born Free", their effort to return the lioness, Elsa, to the wild. It is now a small museum, guesthouse, and conservation center. Nearby, Crater Lake is another small volcanic crater and Hell's Gate National Park, both of which allow you to walk amongst the wildlife. Happy Valley, center of the "White Mischief" scandal is a short distance north of Naivasha, in the foothills of the Aberdares. Much of the socializing in the 1920s took place in the mansions surrounding Lake Naivasha, notably the Djinn Palace (still there, but closed to the public).
Lake Elementeita is the first of the brackish soda lakes in the string. There is a small game reserve on its shores and excellent birdwatching. Also nearby is a small but fascinating prehistoric site, Kariandusi. Kenya's third largest city. Nakuru is situated a little further north still, about 230 km (140 miles) west of Nairobi. A vibrant town, with a huge central market, it is a good place to get souvenirs (keep an eye on wallets and bags). Lake Nakuru National Park was once said to be home to half the world's total population of pink flamingoes, and even today, visitors in winter will encounter these ungainly birds in vast numbers, along with around 450 other species of bird. Although tiny, this gem of a park has huge concentrations of game (everything except elephant). Above all, it is one of Kenya's rhino sanctuaries, and it is possible to see up to 15 of the beasts in one game drive. Also near Nakuru are Hyrax Hill, another important prehistoric settlement and the Menengai Crater, an extinct volcano with a vast caldera. You can drive right up to the rim.
Lake Bogoria National Park, about 70 km (42 miles) north of Nakuru, surrounds a long thin soda lake, dramatically set at the foot of the 600 m-high Laikipia Escarpment. It too has good game-viewing and giant flocks of flamingoes, and in one corner of the park lies an area of belching geysers and hot springs which have dyed the surrounding rocks in a kaleidoscope of colors.
Of the most northerly of the string of lakes (approximately 118 km (65 miles) north of Nakuru), Lake Baringo is a large, beautiful freshwater lake, with excellent birdlife. There is a permanent tented camp on the island at the lake's center where boats may be hired to cruise through the reeds at the northern end, a habitat rich in water fowl, egrets, giant herons, and fish eagles. With village tours on offer and a huge variety of local tribes, this is one of the best places in Kenya to explore the rich human culture of the country.
Western Kenya
With the exception of the magnificent Masai Mara, tourists rarely visite Western Kenya and there are many fewer hotels and lodges of international standard. On the plus side, the area is stunningly beautiful, culturally diverse, and offers a real chance to explore the country away from the crowds.
Masai Mara National Reserve.
Situated 390 km (240 miles) from Nairobi in the southwest corner of the country, this reserve, owned by the local Masai Council, but operated as a national park by Kenya Wildlife Services, is a slice of Africa as seen by Hollywood (much of the film Out of Africa was shot here) – a vast rolling plain beneath the Oloololo escarpment that forms part of the vast Serengeti plains in neighboring Tanzania. Each year, this is the spectacular setting for the great migration, the constant clockwise motion of an estimated two million wildebeests, and zebra who arrive in the Mara from late June onwards, heading south again in September. Continually harried by predators, thick columns of exhausted animals eventually converge at one spot on the Mara River and wait nervously to cross. A panic anywhere within the herd is transmitted flank-to-flank until it reaches those by the river, who fall 6 m (20 ft) into water already bloodied and bobbing with bloated carcasses. The inelegant beasts must swim past crocodiles, hippos, and flapping vultures to join the sparse but growing herd on the other side. The stench of corruption is unimaginable and while it is undoubtedly fascinating, also requires a strong stomach to watch the immense distress.
During the migration season (July–August), the reserve's resident lions lounge prominently in the sun, fat and seemingly placid, and apparently indifferent to tourists. Other animals seen, at any time of the year, include elephants, cheetahs, baboons, gazelles, giraffes, jackals, hyenas, water buffaloes, ostriches, and several types of antelope. There are numerous lodges and tented camps both within the park and on its immediate borders. Mara Serena Lodge, Mara Sopa Lodge, and Keekorok Lodge are the best known of the hotel-style properties. Governor's Camp is the largest of the camps. For true luxury, try Bateleur's Camp or Cottars 1920s Safari Camp. Most of the small lodges and camps have their own airstrips. A highlight for any visitor is the hot air balloon trips which operate from Governor's Camp, Sarova Camp and Fig Tree Camp. Masai tribes people live on the reserve's fringes. They are very keen to sell traditional bead necklaces and decorated gourds to tourists, or to pose for tourist cameras in return for a fee.
Lake Victoria.
West of the Mara, on the Ugandan border, Lake Victoria is the largest lake in Africa, a vast inland sea that is also the source of the fabled Nile River. Kisumu, Kenya's fourth city, made its reputation as the inland end of the Lunatic Line railway and a trading center with Tanzania and Uganda. These days, the lake steamer and trade have gone and the city struggles to survive on the few tourists who head over to the lake. Three islands, a little further south, near Homa Bay—Rusinga Island, Mfangano Island, and Takawiri Island have luxury lodges which provide excellent fishing and birdwatching. In the far south, tiny Ruma National Park (painfully reached by an appalling road) protects several rare species such as the roan antelope and Rothschild giraffe.
Inland Kisii is the center of production for most of Kenya's trademark pink and white soapstone, while the area around Kericho and the Nandi Hills is tea country, with vast estates flowing across rolling hills. The Kakamega Forest Reserve is Kenya's last surviving patch of primeval rainforest, a wonderful cool green cave of soaring trees and tangled vines, with hundreds of species of birds, around 60 of which are found nowhere else in the country.
The Northwest
The northwest of the country is largely agricultural, its steep hills patchworked by terraces and villages. The two main towns of Eldoret and Kitale act as jumping off points for many stunning scenic tours. The most important attraction in the region is Mount Elgon National Park, the Kenyan half of a giant forested volcano (4321 m/14 178 ft), famous for its mountain flora and fauna, its wonderful birdlife, and for the elephants who scratch salt from the walls of Kitum Cave. To the north, the Cherengani Hills offer excellent mountain hiking and the tiny Saiwa Swamp National Park. To the east, bordering the Rift Valley, are the Tugen Hills and the dramatic escarpments of the Kerio Valley.
Northern Kenya
Due north of the Central Highlands is a belt of savanna which provides a home to several game-rich, if less visited national parks, including Samburu, Meru, and Kora, plus a whole host of small game reserves, few of which have any tourist facilities. The far north of Kenya is largely desert, difficult to travel, remote, and wild. Unfortunately, much of the area is also troubled by intertribal violence and banditry and tourists should take local advice before travelling in the region. It is possible to fly up to Lake Turkana, the largest of the Kenyan soda lakes, on the Sudan border.
Meru and Kora National Parks. Located 400 km (250 miles) from Nairobi, Meru National Park remains one of the more unspoilt parks, an oasis within the parched land all round, with 13 rivers lined with Doum palms and mountain-fed streams watering richly tangled woodlands on the slopes of the Nyambene Mountain Range. To the east, the park is adjoined by Kora National Reserve, a largely dry area bisected by the great Tana River. Both areas have plenty of game but were badly affected by poaching in the 1970s and 1980s. These days, security has been strengthened and there are three lodges and several campsites in Meru, all operating happily. However, security is still a concern in less well-trodden areas.
Samburu Game Park. An area of semi-desert halfway between Nairobi and Lake Turkana (see below) that provides a rare chance to see the oryx, gerenuk, reticulated giraffe, and Grevy's zebra. Ostriches and elephants are easily spotted in this open habitat. There are two lodges, Samburu Lodge and River Lodge, both of which hang out bait to attract leopards for the guests to study whilst sitting at the bar. The park takes its name from the Samburu people, distantly related to the Masai.
Lake Turkana. There are several parks and reserves in the far north of Kenya, gathered around Lake Turkana (formerly Lake Rudolph). This extraordinary lake has recently been designated a UNESCO World Heritage site. Running for several hundred miles through windswept and largely uninhabited deserts, the lake contains many unique species of fish and marine plants and has recently gained a reputation as a fishing resort. Several lodges have sprung up on the eastern shore to cater for this trade and consequently general tourism is expected to increase. Despite the harsh climate, many of Kenya's better-known animals manage to survive here, as do the tiny people of the El Molo tribe, who fish the eastern waters. There are two large volcanic islands in the lake. The flooded crater of the southernmost island has a resident population of unnaturally large crocodiles. The lake is subject to violent storms, which disturb algae to produce remarkable color changes in the water. Those who wish to visit Turkana are advised to fly. The road takes two days, crosses immensely harsh landscape and there is danger of violence.
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The matriach of the Kennedy family died in January 1995 at the age of 104, what was her name? | Kenya Safari Holidays - Kenya Beach Holidays:Bush and beach Kenya Luxury safari for 18 days safari to tree hotel Treetops, Masai Mara, Amboseli, Taita hills and beaching at Kenyas coast
4 Days Tsavo/Amboseli National Park
18 days Kenya safari from Nairobi city tour to the famous Masai Mara ,lake Nakuru for the million flamingoes ,aberdares and tree top lodges featured with night animal watching ,sounds of African nights of birds and animals, Visit to Samburu National reserve famous for the survivor series film and a lion adopting an oryx calf ,close visit to Mount Kenya safari club with the opportunity to see this majestic mountain second highest mountain in Africa when its has the best photographic view, down to Amboseli where a backdrop view of Moun Kilimanjaro the highest mountain in Africa brings the Africa close to you ,close visit to Tsavo park where a night game drive will be conducted and combining all this is Kenyas Coast in the beach where we submerge ourselves, relax and enjoy the soft sands and warm waters of the turquoise Indian Ocean.This is one of the best of Kenya safaris you can bank on with high peaks ,big game, sandy beaches with first class accommodation and services as a priority leaving with treasurable lasting memories of Africa at close.
Duration : 18 days
Day of Departure : Any Day
Transport : 9 Seater Tour Van with radio communication
Standard : Luxury
Activities include: Bird Watching, Cultural Exploration, Wildlife Viewing,beaching,photography,city tour,Night game drive,Visit to children home,Girrafe feeding,snorkerling,water sports
Parks:Aberdares,Amboseli,Tsavo east and west ,Lake Nakuru,Lake Naivasha,Samburu ,Mt kenya & Masai Mara
Rates from : U$2340 p.p.
Day 1 Nairobi Land Only tour starts in Nairobi this morning. . After relaxing for the morning we head out for a short afternoon tour of Nairobi. On our driving tour of the city and its surroundings we will see Uhuru Park, Kenya's Parliament House,the Kenyatta Conference Centre, City Square and some of Nairobi's nicest suburbs. We visit the Kenya National Museum and Karen Blixen Museum. First of 2 nights in Nairobi. Nairobi Safari Club or similar. Dinner is included.
DAY2:Full day spent in visiting the Dalphine Elephant orphange for baby
Elephants here we see baby elephants care and feedind(11.00 am -12 pm)later visit the Africa butterfly center and see much about butterflies rearing and beauty.Lunch.Afternoon Visit Bomas of Kenya to see Kenya traditions and dances together with acrobatic shows..Nairobi safari club
Day 3; Nairobi - Masai Mara This morning we drive down into the Great Rift Valley.Crossing the valley we make our way to Kenya's premier wildlife park - the MasaiMara. This is the northern section of the Serengeti Plain, First of 3 nights in theMasai Mara. Mara Simba Lodge or similar. Breakfast, Lunch and Dinner.
Day 4: Masai Mara The vast, open grasslands of the Serengeti-Mara are home to over 3million large mammals. On our morning and afternoon game drives in the Masai Mara we have a very good chance of seeing all the major Plains animals including lion, leopard, buffalo, elephant, rhino, hyena, cheetah, jackal, warthog and many species of antelope. Second of 3 nights in the Masai Mara. Mara Simba Lodge or similar.Breakfast, Lunch Dinner.
Day 5 :Masai Mara We continue to explore this area on our morning and afternoon gamedrives. This open grassland is home to almost every species of East African wildlifeincluding lions, elephants, rhinos, buffaloes, wildebeests, gazelles, and zebras.Today we also encounter and learn about the Masai, . At sunset we will visit a section of the Mara River where we hope to see many hippos. Third of 3 nights in the Masai Mara. Mara Simba Lodge or similar. Breakfast, Lunch Dinner
Day 6 :Masai Mara - Lake Naivasha - Lake Nakuru This morning we leave the open grasslands of the Masai Mara and descend into the Great Rift Valley again. . Driving north along the Great Rift Valley we come to Lake Naivasha. It is a bird-watchers'paradise. This afternoon we take a boat trip on Lake Naivasha out to CrescentIsland, where we take a short walking safari. After our boat trip we continue alongthe Rift Valley to Lake Nakuru.First of 2 nights at the Lake Nakuru Lodge orsimilar. Breakfast & Dinner.
Day 7: Lake Nakuru. This morning and this afternoon we take game drives in Lake Nakuru National Park. This lake is famous for its flocks of over one million Greater and Lesser Flamingoes. As well as seeing many large game animals such as zebras,elephants and gazelles, this is one of our best chances of seeing rhinos. Lake Nakuru National Park was the first place in Kenya selected as a rhino reserve. Here is one of the few places where we can see Rothschild's giraffes. Second of 2 nights at the Lake Nakuru Lodge or similar. Breakfast, Lunch and Dinner.
Day 8 :Rift Valley - The Aberdares This morning we ascend the Nyandarua Escarpment from the Great Rift Valley and visit Thomson Falls. This morning we cross the Equator twice as we travel briefly from the southern hemisphere briefly into the northern hemisphere and back into the southern hemisphere again. The lush hills of Aberdare National Park are covered by Kenya's densest forest and formthe eastern flank of the Great Rift Valley. We leave our main luggage at the base hotel and continue with just our overnight bags to one of the famous "treehotels", deep in the Aberdares Forest. On our journey to our lodge we hope to seetypical forest-dwelling animals such as the black and white Colobus Monkeys. A special feature of the lodge where we stay is the floodlit watering hole where we can watch from the lodge itself throughout the night as a great variety of animals comes down to drink. Overnight at the Ark, Treetops or similar. Breakfast and Dinner.
Day 9 Aberdares - Samburu Driving north we pass Mount Kenya, Africa's second highest mountain at 17,000 feet (5,199 metres). This is also the traditional homeland of the
Kikuyu people, the largest of Kenya's 70 recognised tribes. We cross the Equator again into the northern hemisphere on our way to Samburu Game Reserve in a semi-desert area of Kenya. Samburu is located on the Ewaso Nyiro River. This afternoon we take a game drive in the park. First of 2 nights in Samburu. Samburu Game Lodge or similar. Breakfast, Lunch and Dinner.
Day 10 Samburu Game Lodge. Early morning and afternoon game drives in Samburu Game Reserve, which covers 40 square miles (104 square kilometres).Ololokwe Table Mountain forms a dramatic backdrop to our game viewing today.Samburu is also home to the third of Kenya's giraffe species - the Reticulated Giraffe. This is also our best chance to see the blue-legged Somali Ostrich , the long-necked Gerenuk gazelle and the straight-horned Beisa Oryx antelope. Second of 2 nights in Samburu. Samburu Game Lodge or similar. Breakfast, Lunch and Dinner.
Day 11 Samburu - Mount Kenya Chimpanzee Sanctuary We drive back south from Samburu to the Equator and the slopes of Mount Kenya. Although situated on the Equator,Mount Kenya is permanently covered in glaciers and snow. Here we stay at the Sweetwaters Game Reserve. This very special 23,000 acre wildlife sanctuary was originally established to protect and breed highly-endangered Black Rhinos. In 1994 the Jane Goodall Institute established the Sweetwaters Chimpanzee Sanctuary within the game reserve and moved a large group of chimps here from the unstable situation in their native West Africa. This afternoon we have a game drive in the reserve and tour the Chimpanzee Sanctuary. Overnight at Sweetwaters Camp. Breakfast & Dinner.
Day 12 Mount Kenya - Nairobi This morning we drive back to Nairobi. Overnight in Nairobi. Nairobi Safari Club or similar. Breakfast & Dinner.
Day 13 Nairobi - Amboseli This morning we drive from Nairobi south to Amboseli National Park, right on the border with Tanzania. This park affords everyone's classic image of East Africa - herds of great animals moving across the dusty plains with the snow-capped peak of Kilimanjaro rising straight up in the background. MountKilimanjaro is Africa's highest mountain at 19,340 feet (5,895 metres). Although itis situated inside Tanzania, the best views of the mountain are from Amboseli on the Kenyan side of the border. This afternoon we enjoy a game drive in majestic Amboseli. First of 2 nights in Amboseli. Amboseli Serena Lodge or similar. Breakfast and Dinner.
Day 14 Amboseli National Park This morning we enjoy a game drive in Amboseli National Park. Second of 2 nights in Amboseli. Amboseli Serena Lodge or similar.Breakfast, Lunch and Dinner.
Day 15 Amboseli - Taita Hills From the flat plains and swamps of Amboseli we travel east to Tsavo West National Park. Outside the park gates are the Shetani Lava Flows,"frozen" rivers of molten black rock twisted in bizarre shapes. At just over 7,800square miles (20,000 sq Km), Tsavo is Kenya's largest national park. The park is home to a huge variety of animals and birds, especially around the watering holes in this otherwise dry area. During the Fall these watering holes are a stopover for hundreds of thousands of birds on their annual migration south. The Mzima Springs are the source of the freshwater pools much favoured by Hippos and crocodiles. There is even a glass wall for viewing the pools from under the water line. Wildlife which can be spotted in this area includes lions, cheetahs, leopards, hyenas, jackals,giraffes, zebras, buffalos, baboons and several species of antelope. From Tsavo we
drive south to the Taita Hills Game Sanctuary, a private game reserve of 42,000acres (17,000 hectares) of rolling savannah accented by dramatic rocky outcrops and small plateaus. This is a favourite area for lions. The watering holes attract large herds of elephants. Overnight in the Taita Hills area. Hilton Salt Lick Lodge or similar. Breakfast & Dinner.
Day 16 Taita Hills - Mombasa . This morning we drive further east from the interior of Africa to the Indian Ocean Coast. Travelling through an area of fertile fields and traditional grazing areas we pass through a spectacular panorama on our way to Mombasa. After settling into our beachfront hotel, the rest of the day is free for you to relax and enjoy the soft sands and warm waters of the turquoise Indian Ocean.We check inn at our hotel(Travellers Tiwi beach 4 star hotel at the Indian Ocean Beach Club set in 30 acres of landscapped tropical gardens among mature Baobab trees with air-conditioned guest rooms enjoy en-suite bathroom and Swahili/Arab decoration and furniture..
After breakfast we visit we visit this historical island town on foot with close visits to fort Jesus which was Built in 1593 by the Portuguese, it dominates the entrance to the Old Harbour and it positioned so that, even under siege, it was still possible to bring supplies in from the sea. time permiting we visit the Akamba village to see how carvings are made later to Mamba Village to see this crocodile farm as we feed them . On Afternoon leisure at beach with A 160m free-form swimming pool. in-house games, beach volleyball, water polo and snorkelling are available. Other facilities include floodlit tennis, squash, gym, sauna and massage. Scuba diving, deep-sea fishing and windsurfing can be arranged (payable locally). Evening entertainment includes traditional African shows and a nightclub .Breakfast Lunch and dinner.
Day 18: Indian Ocean Coast. The Land Only tour finishes in Mombassa this morning. For those taking our international flights this morning is free for you to relax at our hotel before we take our afternoon flight from Mombassa to Nairobi. Board your evening flight back home.
Safari Price Includes:
· Meet and Greet Services with assistance
· · Complimentary authentic safari hats
· All airport/Airstrip transfers with assistance
· Complimentary baggage handling of two pieces per person
· Nairobi orientation / sightseeing tour
· Direct check-in with assistance in your city hotels and safari lodges
· Bed & Full Breakfast accommodation in Nairobi
· Transport in a comfortable custom-built safari vehicles with a window seat guarantee .
· All park entry fees
· One way domestic / regional flights (Mombasa -Nairobi)
· Full board accommodation whilst on Safari
· Two full game-viewing drives per day whilst on safari
· Complimentary bottled mineral water on game drives
· Services of an English-Speaking and professional safari driver/guide
· All Government taxes and levies where applicable.
Your Safari Price Excludes:
· Tourist entry VISA where required (required for Kenya
· International airport(s) departures taxes
· Optional excursions not mentioned in the inclusions and/or quoted separately
· Expenditures of personal nature such as telephone calls, faxes, internet access, laundry etc.
· All alcoholic drinks, wines and spirits.
· Tips and gratuities to driver guides/lodge/hotel staff
· All other extras not mentioned in the 'what's included'.
Should you require further information, kindly DO NOT hesitate to contact us .
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According to Irish mythology, which great warrior was responsible for the building of the 'Giant's Causeway' to link the shores of Scotland and Ireland? | Fer (Fer Fi) To Fynnodderee (Celtic mythology and folklore)
In Depth Tutorials and Information
Fer (Fer Fi) To Fynnodderee (Celtic mythology and folklore)
Fer (Fer Fi)
Irish hero. Possibly originally a god, this magical harper of munster played so beautifully that no one who heard him could resist responding; if he played a sad song, all wept; a happy song, and all would laugh with joy; a lullaby, and everyone would fall sound asleep.
He unwittingly caused the enmity between the foster brothers lugaidh mac Conn and eogan when they overheard him practicing outdoors and fell to disputing at whose court he should play. That argument led to a bitter feud that ended with Eogan’s death. Fer ^ in the meantime, became the father of two important fairy queens of Munster, aine and her twin sister grain, suggesting that he was a fairy king or diminished god himself.
He was described, in the region around the magically important lough gur in Co. Limerick, as a red-haired dwarf and brother of Aine. He played suantraighe, "sleep music," on his three-stringed harp, which put not only people but the world to sleep, so that the springs that fed Lough Gur froze up and looked like stones beneath the glassy surface. He could also play gentraighe, "laughter music," melodies so light that those who heard them burst into delighted laughter.
Fertility
Cosmological concept. To people who live close to the land, the question of fertility is the most compelling one they face. Should the land grow sterile, should the herds grow barren, should the rivers not run flush with fish, death from starvation can soon follow. The Irish linked the fertility of the land to the king’s righteousness; they believed that if the king behaved generously and honorably, the goddess of the land’s sovereignty, the king’s spouse, would be happy and bear abundantly. Fertility was thus neither in the domain of the feminine nor of the masculine but existed in the balance struck between them. Among the continental Celts, images of abundance—the cornucopia and the egg—are found with both gods and goddesses.
Fetch (feach)
Scottish and Irish folkloric figure. Each of us was thought to have a kind of detachable aura, like a shell, around us. It looked exactly like us and could wander like a ghost in places distant from our bodies. Encountering one’s fetch had various meanings: If you met yourself in the morning, it meant good luck was coming; but if you ran into your exact image in the evening or near a graveyard, death was on the way. Those with second sight could see the fetches of other people as well as their own. The fetch was apparently distinct from the co-walker, which could be a fairy or ghost rather than an aura.
Fethnat
Irish goddess. This obscure member of the magical race, the tuatha de danann, was a gifted musician.
Fflur
Welsh heroine or goddess. This obscure figure appears in the Welsh triads as the beloved of the hero caswallawn, who fought with Julius Caesar for her hand. Her name suggests that she may be related to the flower-maiden blodeuwedd; the contention of two rulers points to a connection to the goddess of sovereignty; but Fflur’s legend and its meaning are virtually lost.
Fiacclach mac
Conchinn (Fiacail, Fiachu mac Conga) Irish hero. The vigorous foster father of the Irish hero fionn mac cumhaill, Fiacclach provided Fionn a magical sword that never missed its mark.
Fiachna
Irish hero. Common in Irish mythology, possibly meaning "raven," this name borne mostly by minor heroes. The exceptions are:
• Fiachna of MUNSTER, an incestuous king who fathered a son on his daughter mugain.
• Fiachna mac Baetain, whose wife cantigern bought a victory for him by sleeping with the sea god, manannan mac lir, who so desired her that he arranged for Fiachna to win the battle in return for his wife’s favors. This Fiachna may be a historical king, though his genealogical background— he was thought to have been conceived parthenogenetically by his mother—suggests a divinity or totem ancestor. • Fiachna mac Daire, to whom a worm spoke when he snagged it while fishing in Cuailnge, in the northern province of ulster. The miraculous talking worm made an odd prediction: that war would be waged over a bull from the region. Unlikely as the prediction seemed, the worm had reason to know its truth, because it was the reincarnated soul of a swineherd who would later take the shape of the great Brown Bull, donn cuailnge. This bull would become the object of the cattle raid launched by queen medb in connacht, who had been advised by another worm (the swineherd’s most bitter enemy, who would become the White Bull of Connacht, finnbennach) to marry ailill mac Mata, thus setting the stage for the epic battle between the two bulls.
Fiachra
Irish hero. Several minor mythological characters have this name, most notably one of the doomed children of lir.
Fial
Irish goddess. Goddess of the River Feale, which empties into the great Shannon and which bears her name, Fial was a typical Celtic river goddess, associated not only with the water but with the entire watershed, thus being a divinity of fertility and abundance. The name is also given to the daughter of the goddess macha, who died giving birth to Fial and her twin brother Fall.
Fianna (Fenians, Fiana)
Irish heroes. Although the name is used generically to refer to any group of armed warriors wandering the Irish countryside (and thus used of revolutionaries in several eras), the usual mythological reference is to the group that served under the leadership of the great hero fionn mac cumhaill. The stories of the fenian cycle are among the best known of Ireland’s ancient tales.
There may be an historical aspect to the stories, for there were indeed such roving bands who made their skills and weapons available to various kings. They were not exactly mercenaries, although they certainly required payment for their services, sometimes taken in booty from those they defeated, for they were fiercely loyal to their chosen king and did not readily change sides. Texts indicate that such bands found a place in Irish society in the early Middle Ages and may well have existed before then. Not tied to a single tuath or kingdom, these fianna seem to have fought to keep invaders like the Vikings out of Ireland. The rough-hewn social organization seems to have disappeared by the time of the Normans’ arrival in the 12th century.
Standing on the outskirts of society, the fianna were a meritocracy, with membership based upon skill and strength rather than noble blood or wealth. Thus the fianna can be seen as a means of social advancement for those who possessed the requisite abilities. Such raw talent was shaped into warriors through an exhausting boot-camp or initiation. The applicant was, for instance, placed in a deep hole and given a shield; the members of the fianna then threw spears from which a less-than-able applicant could suffer dire wounds—or worse. The applicant would be chased through the woods and, if caught, wounded as well as rejected for membership. On top of all this, the new member was expected to be a poet, able to thrill the fianna with compositions and recitations.
Women were not excluded from the fianna, although more typically the warriors are said to have been men. There are stories of warrior women like Creidne and erc, both members of Fionn’s Fianna, as well as other women who fought solo rather than with a band of warriors. That there is some likely historical referent for such figures can be found in Roman writers who deplored the fact that Celtic women fought alongside their men.
Thus it is possible to see the Fenian Cycle as glamorizing the exploits of an exemplary band of warriors, living in the wildwood, ready to fight for the sake of glory, to avenge an insult or to protect Ireland’s high king. These tales are among the most continually popular of Irish myths and include not only tales of glory but also romances like the story of etain, reborn to rejoin her fated lover midir, as well as poetic philosophies like the story of oisin the bard, stolen away from earth by a fairy queen, who later returns to a world from which paganism had been driven.
Fidchell
Irish game. This ancient game was rather like today’s cribbage, in which pegs (probably of wood, as the name means "wood wisdom") were moved about a board. Fidchell also apparently resembled chess in being a game of strategy whose intention was the taking of the opponent’s pieces. No examples of the game-board have been found, but the game appears frequently in mythology, most memorably in the wager by the fairy king midir against the king of tara, eochaid Airem, with the queen etain as the prize.
Fideal
Scottish folkloric figure. This Highland siren figure lured handsome young men into lakes and ponds, then drowned them; she is a species of VOUGH.
Fiecal
Irish heroine. One of the wise women who reared the hero fionn mac cumhaill, she plays a minor role in the cycle of stories devoted to him.
Figgy Dowdy (Madge Figgy)
Cornish folkloric figure. In Cornwall old tradition uses this name for the spirit of a holy well at Carn Marth, where dolls were baptized in an unusual ritual. As most such places were originally ruled by goddesses, some find in Figgy Dowdy’s peculiar name a misapprehension of the Cornish words for "the reaper goddess" or "the good goddess of the scythe." She may be related to the legendary witch madgy figgy.
Fili (file; pl., filid, filidh)
Celtic social role. In early Ireland poets, or filid, were highly trained members of a hierarchical profession with seven levels, of which the ollam was the highest. Families of filid, like the O Daillaighs of Co. Clare, organized schools and trained their kin and other apprentices in demanding, rigorous memorization. Hundreds of pieces had to be memorized before a new composition was attempted; in addition, there were techniques of divination to learn as well as other magical rituals. It can be hard to distinguish the fili from the BREHON, or lawyer, and the bard, or singer, as there is some overlap among their fields; similarly, in very early times the druid and fili were interchangeable, for poetry was believed to be a magical art. No more clear a connection between them can be found than the position of satire, whose stinging words were demanded of the poet whenever a king needed to be chastened. The magic of the fili’s words would disfigure the wrongheaded king, thus causing him to lose his right to rule (see blemished king). As Celtic Ireland waned, the power of the poets became more mundane; they attached themselves to powerful chieftains whose praises they sung. Even after the great poetic schools had ceased to function, the status of the poet remained high, as it does in Celtic lands today.
Find
Irish divinity. This word, which means "white," appears in the names of many mythological figures and folkloric heroes. There is some evidence of an early divinity by this name, possibly a god who prefigures the hero fionn mac cumhaill or a goddess related to boand, the white cow goddess whose name is carried by the River Boyne. The geographer Ptolemy, in the second century c.e., spoke of a divinity called Bouvinda, whose name is cognate with the magical cow bo find, who is in turn possibly an aspect of Boand. It is unclear whether this word is a name or a title, and whether it refers to a specific figure or to the radiant nature of divinity itself.
Findchoem (Finnchaem, Fionnchaomh)
Irish heroine or goddess. Like other Irish mythological women, Findchoem chose an unusual way to conceive: When she found a worm in a glass of water from a holy well, she drank the water down, worm and all, in the hopes that she would conceive a hero. She did, bearing the hero conall Cernach; but her foster son cuchu-lainn was even more powerful. Such unnatural conception is found in other lands as well, for example in mythological stories of ancestral mothers of Chinese dynasties, and may reflect a period when lineage was traced through the mother. Evidence of such matriliny is found in much early Irish mythological material, with several kings bearing their mother’s names; ailill mac Mata of connacht, named for his mother, the obscure Mata; and the king of ulster, concobar mac nessa, named for his mother nessa—who was also Findchoem’s mother. Findchoem herself may be a double of her own mother, who conceived in exactly the same fashion. Such duplication is common in Irish and other Celtic mythology.
Findias (Finias, Findrias)
Irish mythological site. A mysterious city of the magical tuatha de danann, it was ruled by a master of wisdom named uscias. The unerring sword of king nuada came from Findias.
Fine (derbfine)
Irish social role. The "kin group," or fine, was a major form of social organization in ancient Ireland. Those who were descendants of the same great-grandfather, called derbfine or "true kin," shared land that could not be sold by any member without the consent of the others; less closely related people constituted the fine. The individual was responsible to the group for his good behavior, since the entire kin group was held responsible for any ERIC or honor price due for the injury or killing of a member of another kin group. Conversely, if a member of the fine was killed or injured, the whole group shared in the honor price, which was usually paid in cows. Heads of kin groups, chosen by election, negotiated for the group and represented them in public gatherings.
Fmgein
Irish hero. Common in Irish narratives, Fmgein is the name of several significant healers and some minor kings.
Finn
Irish hero. This name, which like find means "white" or "fair" and refers to wisdom rather than skin tone, was a common name for heroes both male and female; it is a variant of the name given to the greatest of Irish heroes, fionn mac cumhaill. The most prominent Finns were the three identically named triplet brothers who were known as the Three Finns of Emain Macha or Tri Finn Emna, despite their given names of Bres, Nar, and Lothar. Together they impregnated their sister-lover, clothra of connacht, with a son who was born with red stripes dividing the portions of his body inherited from each of his fathers. They then took up arms against their father, king eochaid Fedlech of tara, but were defeated by him, whereupon he died of sorrow at their loss.
Finnabair (Findabar, Fionnuir)
Irish heroine or goddess. The beautiful daughter of medb of connacht may be a double of that goddess-queen, for she has many of the same qualities, including a steely sense of her own worth. She loved the hero fraech and agreed to a tryst with him on an island surrounded by a deep pool. Fraech, swimming naked out to her, had to fight off a fierce sea-monster, which attempted to remove that which would have made their tryst enjoyable. Despite his bravery and his desire for Finnabair, Fraech could not fulfill the dowry demands of Medb and ailill mac Mata, her parents, who coveted the cattle of the other-world that were part of Fraech’s fortune. Many adventures ensued before Finnabair and her lover were united. They were soon parted again when the girl was captured and dragged to a fortress in the Alps, from which Fraech freed her.
During the cattle raid on the northern province of ulster, recorded in detail in the epic TAIN BO CUAILNGE, Medb offered Finnabair to various warriors in return for their willingness to fight against the hero cuchulainn, who was single-handedly holding off the Connacht army. Like other heroes, Fraech took up the challenge; like other heroes, Fraech was killed. Finnabair then died of a broken heart. This heroine is very likely a diminished goddess, as are others who share the name—guinevere in the Arthurian cycle, as well as the Welsh heroine Gwenhwyfar and the Cornish Jennifer.
Finnbennach (Findbennach, Fionn Bhean-nach)
Irish mythological beast. This splendid white-horned bull began his existence as a swineherd named rucht, who served a man called Ochall Ochne and who argued constantly with another swineherd, friuch. Their enmity was so deep-seated that every time they died, they were reborn as enemies. They were ravens, fighting in the air; they were stags, fighting in the woodlands. Finally they were reborn as water-worms in different streams and in distant parts of Ireland. It was difficult for them to wage war upon each other in this lowly form, to say nothing of the miles between them. So they set about preparing to continue their warfare in another incarnation. Rucht whispered to queen medb of connacht that she should wed ailill mac Mata; Friuch similarly whispered to the king of Cuailnge that he should prepare for war that would be waged over a bull. Then the two worms wriggled themselves into position to be drunk up by two cows, thus impregnating them so that they could both be reborn as bulls.
The reborn swineherd became the most magnificent bull in Connacht. Born into Medb’s herd, he felt it beneath him to be owned by a woman and thus joined her husband Ailill’s, making him one bull richer than she was. As this dramatically altered her legal relationship with Ailill, Medb set about finding a bull as superb as Finnbennach, locating the other reborn swineherd in the powerful body of the brown bull donn cuailnge of ulster. Medb’s cattle raid finally brought together the bitter enemies, who immediately set upon each other in a fierce battle in which Finnbennach was killed—but in the process, he gored Donn Cuailnge so that the other bull died as well. This cattle raid was chronicled in the Irish epic tain bo cuailnge.
The shape-shifting and reincarnation that mark this curious story suggest that the two swineherd/water-worm/bulls were originally gods or bards, the two categories of beings most prone to such behavior. If that is so, the explanatory referents are lost, leaving just a vigorous tale of war and battle.
Finnbheara (Finvarra, Fin Varra, Fionvarra, Finbar)
Irish hero. fairyland was more often spoken of as ruled by a queen rather than a king, but Finnbheara is an exception. From his fairy mound at knockma near Tuam in Co. Galway, he ruled all the fairies of the western province of connacht—or, some say, all the fairies of Ireland. Although he had a fairy wife, una, Finnbheara specialized in stealing beautiful women, lulling their suspicions away with the soothing music of fairyland and then snatching them from this world. In the bright beauty of Finnbheara’s palace, these women forgot their earthly lives and danced and sang without sadness or sorrow. Sometimes, as in the story of eithne the Fair, the woman’s body remained behind and she seemed to be in a coma from which she could not be aroused; sometimes she simply vanished. Both Lady Gregory and William Butler Yeats collected tales of Finnbheara; he appears in several of Yeats’s plays and many of his poems as a symbol of the beautiful otherworld.
Finneces
Irish hero. When the great hero fionn mac cumhaill was a small boy, he lived as a student with the druid Finneces. Some say they lived near the mouth of the River Boyne in the east, some say near the falls of assaroe in the west. In either case, they lived near a pool over which magical hazel bushes hung, dropping their nuts into the water and nourishing the salmon that swam there. For seven years Finneces had been waiting for just the right moment to gain the wisdom that the salmon held within itself. When the time was right, the druid caught the fish, who came to his line as though by prearrangement.
Finneces set the fish to cook, leaving the boy Fionn to watch it and warning him not to touch it or taste it. But the salmon sizzled and spattered onto Fionn’s thumb, which he stuck into his mouth to ease the pain. Immediately wisdom flooded him—the very wisdom that the old druid had been hoping to attain. Almost the same story is told of the great Welsh bard tal-iesin, but it is the cauldron of the goddess ceridwen that holds wisdom in that tale; the name of the boy who steals wisdom in that story is gwion, cognate to Fionn. Given the similarity of the names Finneces and Fionn, some have suggested a doubling of one figure; additionally, the salmon is often sometimes called fintan, another similar name.
Finnen (Fennel, Finnine, Fininne)
Irish goddess. One of the fairy queens or goddesses of the significant archaeological region around lough gur in eastern Co. Limerick, Finnen bears a name meaning "white" or "brilliant," parallel to other mythic figures including the great hero fionn mac cumhaill. She forms a pair with another local goddess, aine, "the bright one," suggesting an ancient twin sun goddess.
Finn McCool
Irish and Scottish folkloric figure. Legends and tales of this giant abound in Ireland (especially in the northern province of ulster) as well as in Scotland. Although a degraded form of the great Irish hero fionn mac cumhaill, Finn is also a figure in his own right, a kind of Paul Bunyan, full of reckless energy. The most famous stories told of him are that he created the giant’s causeway, a renowned basalt rock formation, by dropping stones, and that he bested the giant benadon-ner through trickery; other variants say Finn slew the giant who built the causeway.
Fintan
Irish hero or god. "The white ancient" is the meaning of this name, which is worn by several important mythological figures:
• Fintan the salmon, also known as goll Essa Ruaid ("the one-eyed one of the red waterfall"), who swam in the pool at the source of one of Ireland’s rivers, variously the Boyne and the Erne, nibbling the hazel nuts that dropped from magical bushes that surrounded the water. He was caught by the druid finneces and eaten, accidentally, by the great hero fionn mac cumhaill, who thereby gained immense wisdom.
• Fintan mac Bochra, the most ancient of Irishmen, the only one to survive the flood that brought the seafaring queen cesair and her 50 women to Ireland. The women were accompanied by only three men, two of whom "perished of embraces," according to the BOOK OF INVASIONS, while Fintan, to save himself,fled. He then transformed himself into many shapes, including the one-eyed salmon goll Essa Ruaid as well as an eagle and a hawk. Such shape-shifting is seen also in bards such as amairgin and tuan mac cairill, as well as in the stories of several divinities. • Fintan, son of NIALL Nioganach, who plays a minor role in the tale of the intoxication of the ulstermen.
Fiongalla
Irish heroine. This obscure figure is connected with the southwestern province of munster, where the "fair-cheeked one" was bewitched by the powerful woman druid Amerach from ulster, who grew no older despite the passing years. She made Fiongalla vow never to sleep with a man until one brought her magical yew berries, holly boughs, and marigolds. Amerach lost her power over Fiongalla when a hero named Feargal performed the almost impossible task.
Fionnghal nam Fiadh
(Flora of the Deer, Sorch an O-rfhuil, Clara of the Golden Hair, the Crazed One of the Mountains) Scottish heroine. In a story that resembles the Irish tale of the wild woman mis, the beautiful maiden Fionnghal was jilted by her lover, who took his ambitious mother’s advice to marry a richer woman. Fionnghal went mad, running into the mountains naked and screaming. She lived there among the deer, growing hair so that she looked like a member of the herd, who accepted her as one of their own.
Eventually all her kinsmen and other pursuers gave up the chase, save her once-beloved, who kept tracking her despite her madness. At last one day he found her, naked and asleep, in his own campsite. He covered her with his cloak and waited. When she awoke she was sane and thankful but told him that she was dying and, indeed, did so soon thereafter. Her lover brought her body down from the mountains and, as soon as he had delivered it to her kin, died himself. From their adjoining graves, two great weeping willows grew up and entwined themselves.
Fionn mac Cumhaill (Finn Mac Cool, Finn Mac Cumhal, Demne Mael)
Irish hero. There are two great heroes in Irish mythology, each the center of a cycle of myths and connected with an era and a province. The great warrior cuchu-lainn of the ulster cycle is the first; he is described as living at the height of Celtic Ireland’s power (presumably the fifth and sixth centuries c.e.) and is associated with the northwestern province. A later hero is fionn mac cumhaill, whose warrior band, the fianna, recalls the unattached bands of protective warriors common in Ireland through the early Middle Ages. Because their center was at the Hill of Allen (see almu) in Co. Kildare, the Fianna and their leader are linked to the southeastern province of leinster.
Fionn bears the name of his father, cumhall, who died when he was young. Legend varies about why he was left fatherless at an early age. In one tale, Cumhall raped the noble murna and was killed in retaliation by the hero conn of the Hundred Battles, leaving the unfortunate Murna pregnant with Fionn. In another, Cumhall was innocent of wrongdoing but fell into conflict with an opposing clan; the conflict between Cumhall and Fionn’s clan baiscne with their antagonists, clan morna, is the basis for much legend in the fenian cycle. Other variants exist as well, all of which emphasize the early demise of Fionn’s father and the importance of feminine energy in his early life, for it was through his mother Murna that Fionn claimed divine descent from her ancestor nuada of the Silver Hand, king of the mythological tuatha de danann. The most significant influence on Fionn’s childhood was his aunt and foster mother, the druid bodhmall, who nursed him and began his education, which was furthered by luaths lurgann, a warrior woman who trained Fionn in the martial arts and whom he accidentally killed.
As is the case with all such heroes, Fionn’s power was evident early; while still a boy, he acquired all the world’s wisdom and revealed his great skill as a fighter. Sent by his aunt to study with the hermit druid finneces, Fionn (then called Demne Mael or "druid’s tonsure") was left to watch a salmon turning on a spit. That salmon was no ordinary fish but the renowned salmon of wisdom, sometimes called fintan, a bard who had lived in many incarnations and thus gained all possible wisdom. Finneces had been watching for seven years—not coinciden-tally, since the time of Fionn’s birth—for the salmon to rise in the waters of the sacred well (see assaroe), and when it did, he captured it neatly and set it to cook, intending to devour it and thus gain all of Fintan’s vast vision. But the salmon splattered onto Fionn’s thumb, and he stuck it in his mouth to salve the pain. Thus did Fionn gain all the salmon’s wisdom; from then on, all he had to do was suck on his thumb and he would enter an altered, visionary state in which he could see past, present, and future. As all the names of the characters in this story are connected, the salmon has been seen as a triplication or intensification of Fionn himself.
Not only wisdom was Fionn’s from childhood but also strength and skill with weapons. His name derives from his first fight to the death, when after winning an athletic competition he was challenged as victor by a rival, whom he killed, whereupon he was dubbed "the fair boy" or Fionn, a name that stuck. To it was added his father’s name, so that the hero went by the full name of Fionn mac Cumhaill, Fionn son of Cumhall.
From that point, as with all such heroes, Fionn was sent to study his craft further and chose the warrior woman buanann, who is parallel to the Scottish amazon scathach who trained Cuchulainn. But he had a male tutor as well, the warrior cethern mac fintain. By the time he entered manhood, Fionn had all the necessary skills for fame and glory: He was the world’s fastest runner, he never missed the mark with his spear, he could swim across any body of water, and he had the added advantage of being able to suck his thumb and know the whereabouts and weaknesses of his enemy.
Like king arthur gathering the knights of the round table, Fionn gathered a band of warriors to defend his province, Leinster. Such fianna seem to have been a real feature of ancient Irish life; rather than maintaining standing armies, kings relied upon such groups and their leaders for protection against invaders, but they also fought among themselves, as the continual disputes between Fionn’s Clan Ba^scne and the opposing Clan Morna show. Among Fionn’s dearest companions in the Fianna were his hunting dogs bran and sceolan. Many Fenian legends describe Fionn’s prowess in battle, as when he becomes the only hero powerful enough to subdue the monstrous aillen trenchenn, who regularly burned the palace at Tara.
Fionn is now generally believed to have originally been divine, a status made clear in legends that he created the countryside as part of his activities. He is said to have cut mountains in half with his sword and left scratches where he clung to rocks as he climbed. More often the Fenian stories tell of adventures in the human realm. A typical story tells of a slovenly man who approached Fionn when he was traveling in Scotland and gained employment as a carrier of the hero’s baggage. The man revealed a superhuman strength that impressed even Fionn. Not only that, but he could hunt, and every morning caught a deer for breakfast; beyond that, the man could cook, always having the deer nicely grilled by the time warriors of the Fianna were awake. One member of the Fianna was envious and bitter; this man, conan, challenged the slovenly servant to a race to the Hill of Howth and back again, with the loser to be decapitated. The man refused to permit Conan to wager his head but accepted the challenge.
They set off, with the slovenly servant stopping to take pebbles from his shoe and to cut his long trailing cloak. He still reached the goal before Conan, however, and he struck Conan such a blow that his head turned around on his neck. Fionn demanded that Conan’s head be set right, and the servant agreed, but only if Fionn would take him to his home. As they arrived, the servant was transformed into a prince, for the curse he had been laboring under could only be lifted if he entered his home with Fionn mac Cumhaill. Such folktales, which probably were drawn into the orbit of the Fenians from their disparate original sources, are typical of those connected to Fionn in the oral tradition.
The Fenian Cycle places an unusual emphasis on courtship and love for such an apparently masculine sequence of tales. Because Fionn has no single wife, he is linked to one woman after another: sadb, who was turned into a deer, so that Fionn’s brilliant son oisin was born with fawn’s fur for brows; aine, by whom he had two sons; the poetess cred; the unnamed daughter of the king of Greece; the married Maer and the unfaithful Maigneis; and many others. As he grew older, Fionn remained desirous of women but became less desirable himself. In his dotage he was betrothed to the beautiful grainne, who preferred the young hero diarmait; the saga of their elopement and pursuit by Fionn does not show the elder hero in the best of lights, especially when he refused to heal his wounded rival, but it is full of realistic drama.
The story of how Grainne became Fionn’s betrothed is told in the place-lore legends of the cairn-crowned hill slievenamon. Desiring a young partner, Fionn volunteered to impregnate the strongest, speediest girl in munster—the winner to be determined by a footrace. Standing on the cairn atop Slievenamon, Fionn gave a signal, at which point all the young women of the province ran toward him. Competitive and strong, the king’s daughter Grainne outran everyone and reached the hilltop first. But she never, the story says, bore the heroes she had been promised, although some variants say that after her lover’s death, Grainne agreed to fulfill her duties as Fionn’s wife and bore him several children.
Just as there are multiple versions of the story of Fionn’s birth, so there are variants of how Fionn died. Most commonly the hero’s antagonists of the Clan Morna are blamed; the head of that clan, the one-eyed goll mac morna, dealt the death blow. Fionn’s death is said to have happened at numerous locations around both Ireland and Scotland. He may have been reborn as the hero mongan. Or perhaps Fionn did not die at all, but rests with the Fianna, sleeping in a cave somewhere in Ireland until his land needs him again, like the once and future king arthur of Britain.
Fionnuala (Finola, Finnguala, Fionnuala, Fionguala, Finnuala, Fionnula)
Irish heroine. One of the most famous Irish myths centers on this girl, child of king lir and his beloved first wife aeb, who was the daughter of the magician bodb derg. Lir and Aeb were happy together and delighted when Fionnuala and her twin brother aed were born. But then Aeb died giving birth to her second set of twin sons, fiachra and conn, and Lir married his wife’s foster sister aife, hoping to make a happy home for his motherless children.
Affe was jealous of her charges, however, and plotted against them. Convincing Lir that she was desperately ill and needed the attentions of her foster father, Affe set off with the children to Bodb Derg’s home in the west. Along the way, she turned on them and transformed them into swans, cursing them to remain so for 900 years.
Even Bodb Derg’s magic was not enough to undo the damage—although he turned his foster daughter into a demon of the air (in some versions, a crane) in retaliation for her action. But the children of lir were left as swans with human emotions and human voices to sing of their woes. They spent 300 years on Lough Derravaragh in the center of Ireland, then 300 years on the frigid Sea of Moyle to the north, and finally on an island in the far west, off Co. Mayo (although local legend in west Co. Cork also claims they lived there). There the enchantment finally wore off, but the years they had lived caught up with them instantly, and they aged, died, and turned to dust, to be buried in the old way, standing upright in the grave.
Fir Bolg (Gailioin, Fir Domnann)
Irish mythological race. The legendary history of Ireland tells of many invasions—indeed, it is called the BOOK OF INVASIONS. Although the magical and sometimes monstrous races described are clearly mythological, the text does reflect the historical truth that Ireland was settled in multiple migratory waves. Some of these were non-Celtic people, including the unknown earliest settlers and the later Picts. Then came the Celts, not all at one time but in several waves. The earliest were people whose dialect was called P-Celtic; later-comers spoke a Q-Celtic language. It has not been established beyond dispute how many migrations took place, or what tribes came, nor from what area they originated. What is clear is that Ireland was not settled all at once by only one people; nor was there always a peaceful reaction to new people arriving in already occupied lands.
Among these early immigrants or invaders were some that have come into legend as the Fir Bolg; earlier scholars derived their name from the presumed connection with the word for "bag" and called them "men of the bags," but the current understanding is that their name is related to the tribal names Builg or Belgae, the same Celtic tribes that gave their name to Belgium. These peoples may have traced their descent from a hypothesized ancestral divinity named Bolg or Bulg, possibly the ruler of thunder; thus their name would mean "sons of the god/dess Bolg" and would be corollary to the later tuatha de danann, "children of the goddess danu."
Legend has it that the Fir Bolg were descended from the children of nemed or Nemedians, another mythological race who had lived in Ireland generations before the Fir Bolg. Cast out by the fierce fomorians, Nemed’s son starn found himself in Greece, where his descendants were enslaved for 230 years, carrying bags of dirt to build up hills. Eventually they turned these bags into boats and escaped, returning to their ancient homeland.
They arrived on the harvest feast of lugh-nasa under the leadership of Dela, who divided the island among his sons: the southwestern province of munster went to Gann and Sengann; slane took the eastern province of leinster, and Rudraige, ulster to the north.
Dynasties were established and kings began to rule. Among the Fir Bolg kings of note were eochaid mac Eirc, who ruled the middle province with his famed wife tailtiu; Rinnal, who invented spear points; and delga, who built the great fort of dun Delgan, now Dundalk in Co. Louth. Other renowned members of the Fir Bolg were the healer Fingein Fisiochda and the hero sreng. Curiously, there is no mention of the monstrous Fomorians who drove out the Fir Bolg ancestors, although they reappear ultimately to combat the Fir Bolg’s own conquerors.
The Fir Bolg ruled for only 37 years before the Tuatha De Danann arrived, the most magical of Ireland’s mythological races. In the great combat called the first battle of mag tuired, the Tuatha De Danann king nuada drove the Fir Bolg from Ireland, although he lost his arm and his right to the throne in the process (see blemished king). Like later (and possibly earlier) conquered peoples in Ireland, the Fir Bolg retreated to the distant reaches of the Celtic world: the Aran Islands off Ireland’s west coast, where their king Aonghus built the great fort of Dun Aongusa; to islands off the Scottish coast; and to wild Connemara, where their king was said to be named Bola, a possible derivative of their tribal name.
Irish place-names refer to this mythological race: Dun Bolg in Co. Wicklow, Moherbullog in Co. Clare, Moyboulogue in Co. Cavan. If they do represent a Celtic people who were driven to the geographical fringes by later Celtic invaders, it is likely that the inhabitants of those areas descend from the Fir Bolg.
Fir chlis
| Fionn mac Cumhaill |
Which political group imposed dictatoriship in France after the revolution? | Celtic Myth and Moonlight || Celtic Deities
CELTIC DEITIES
The gods and goddesses, or deities of the Celts are known from a variety of sources, these include written Celtic mythology, ancient places of worship, statues, engravings, cult objects and place or personal names. The locus classicus for the Celtic gods of Gaul is the passage in Julius Caesar's Commentarii de Bello Gallico (The Gallic War, 52–51 BC) in which he names six of them, together with their functions. He says that Mercury was the most honoured of all the gods and many images of him were to be found. Mercury was regarded as the inventor of all the arts, the patron of travellers and of merchants, and the most powerful god in matters of commerce and gain. After him the Gauls honoured Apollo, who drove away diseases, Mars, who controlled war, Jupiter, who ruled the heavens, and Minerva, who promoted handicrafts. He adds that the Gauls regarded Dis Pater as their ancestor.
In characteristic Roman fashion, Caesar does not refer to these figures by their native names but by the names of the Roman gods with which he equated them, a procedure that greatly complicates the task of identifying his Gaulish deities with their counterparts in the insular literatures. He also presents a neat schematic equation of god and function that is quite foreign to the vernacular literary testimony. Yet, given its limitations, his brief catalog is a valuable witness. The gods named by Caesar are well-attested in the later epigraphic record of Gaul and Britain. Not infrequently, their names are coupled with native Celtic theonyms and epithets, such as Mercury Visucius, Lenus Mars, Jupiter Poeninus, or Sulis Minerva. Unsyncretised theonyms are also widespread, particularly among goddesses such as Sulevia, Sirona, Rosmerta, and Epona. In all, several hundred names containing a Celtic element are attested in Gaul. The majority occur only once, which has led some scholars to conclude that the Celtic gods and their cults were local and tribal rather than national. Supporters of this view cite Lucan's mention of a god called Teutates, which they interpret as "god of the tribe" (it is thought that teuta- meant "tribe" in Celtic). The multiplicity of deity names may also be explained otherwise – many, for example, may be simply epithets applied to major deities by widely extended cults.
General Characteristics
Evidence from the Roman period presents a wide array of gods and goddesses who are represented by images or inscribed dedications. Certain deities were venerated widely across the Celtic world, while others were limited only to a single religion or even to a specific locality. Certain local or regional deities might have greater popularity within their spheres than supra-regional deities. For example, in east-central Gaul, the local Burgundian healing goddess Sequana was probably more influential in the minds of her local devotees than the Matres, who were worshipped all over Britain, Gaul and the Rhineland.
Supra-Regional Cults
Among the divinities transcending tribal boundaries were the Matres, the sky-god and Epona, the horse-goddess, who was invoked by devotees living as far apart as Britain, Rome and Bulgaria. A distinctive feature of the mother-goddesses was their frequent depiction as a triad in many parts of Britain, in Gaul and on the Rhine, although it is possible to identify strong regional differences within this group. The Celtic sky-god too had variations in the way he was perceived and his cult expressed. Yet the link between the Celtic Jupiter and the solar wheel is maintained over a wide area, from Hadrian's Wall to Cologne and Nîmes.
Local Cults
It is sometimes possible to identify regional, tribal, or sub-tribal divinities. Specific to the Remi of northwest Gaul is a distinctive group of stone carvings depicting a triple-faced god with shared facial features and luxuriant beards. In the Iron Age, this same tribe issued coins with three faces, a motif found elsewhere is Gaul. Another tribal god was Lenus, venerated by the Treveri. He was worshipped at a number of Treveran sanctuaries, the most splendid of which was at the tribal capital of Trier itself. Yet he was also exported to other areas: Lenus has altars set up to him in Chedworth in Gloucestershire and Caerwent in Wales.
Many Celtic divinities were extremely localised, sometimes occurring in just one shrine, perhaps because the spirit concerned was a genius loci, the governing spirit of a particular place. In Gaul, over four hundred different Celtic god-names are recorded, of which at least 300 occur just once. Sequana was confined to her spring shrine near Dijon, Sulis belonged to Bath. The divine couple Ucuetis and Bergusia were worshipped solely at Alesia in Burgundy. The British god Nodens is associated above all with the great sanctuary at Lydney (though he also appears at Cockersand Moss in Cumbria). Two other British deities, Cocidius and Belatucadrus, were both Martial gods and were each worshipped in a clearly defined territories in the area of Hadrian’s Wall. There are many other gods whose names may betray origins as topographical spirits. Vosegus presided over the mountains of the Vosges, Luxovius over the spa-settlement of Luxeuil and Vasio over the town of Vaison in the Lower Rhône Valley.
Divine Couples
One notable feature of Gaulish and Romano-Celtic sculpture is the frequent appearance of male and female deities in pairs, such as Rosmerta and ‘Mercury’, Nantosuelta and Sucellos, Sirona and Apollo Grannus, Borvo and Damona, or Mars Loucetius and Nemetona.
Notable Deity Types
Antlered Gods
A recurrent figure in Gaulish iconography is a cross-legged deity with antlers, sometimes surrounded by animals, often wearing or holding a torc. The name usually applied to him, Cernunnos, is attested only a few times, on a relief at Notre Dame de Paris (currently reading ERNUNNOS, but an early sketch shows it as having read CERNUNNOS in the 18th century), an inscription from Montagnac (αλλετ[ει]υος καρνονου αλ[ι]σο[ντ]εας, "Alleteinos [dedicated this] to Karnonos of Alisontia"), and a pair of identical inscriptions from Seinsel-Rëlent ("Deo Ceruninco"). Figured representations of this sort of deity, however, are widespread; the earliest known was found at Val Camonica in northern Italy, while the most famous is plate A of the Gundestrup Cauldron, a 1st-century-BC vessel found in Denmark. On the Gundestrup Cauldron and sometimes elsewhere, Cernunnos, or similar figure, is accompanied by a ram-headed serpent. At Reims, the figure is depicted with a cornucopia overflowing with grains or coins.
Healing Deities
Healing deities are known from many parts of the Celtic world; they frequently have associations with thermal springs, healing wells, herbalism and light. Brighid, the triple goddess of healing, poetry and smithcraft is perhaps the most well-known of the Insular Celtic deities of healing. She is associated with many healing springs and wells. A lesser-known Irish healing goddess is Airmed, also associated with a healing well and with the healing art of herbalism.
In Romano-Celtic tradition Belenus (possibly from Celtic: *belen- ‘bright’, though other etymologies have been convincingly proposed) is found chiefly in southern France and northern Italy. Apollo Grannus, though concentrated in central and eastern Gaul, also “occurs associated with medicinal waters in Brittany and far away in the Danube Basin”. Grannus's companion is frequently the goddess Sirona. Another important Celtic deity of healing is Bormo/Borvo, particularly associated with thermal springs such as Bourbonne-les-Bains and Bourbon-Lancy. Such hot springs were (and often still are) believed to have therapeutic value. Green interprets the name Borvo to mean “seething, bubbling or boiling spring water”.
Goddesses of Sacred Waters
In Ireland, there are numerous holy wells dedicated to the goddess Brighid. There are dedications to ‘Minerva’ in Britain and throughout the Celtic areas of the Continent. At Bath Minerva was identified with the goddess Sulis, whose cult there centred on the thermal springs. Other goddesses were also associated with sacred springs, such as Icovellauna among the Treveri and Coventina at Carrawburgh. Damona and Bormana also serve this function in companionship with the spring-god Borvo (see above).
A number of goddesses were deified rivers, notably Boann (of the River Boyne), Sinann (the River Shannon), Sequana (the deified Seine), Matrona (the Marne), Souconna (the deified Saône) and perhaps Belisama (the Ribble). While the most well-known deity of the sea is the god Manannán, possible early Irish sea goddesses include Fand, her sister Lí Ban, and the mother-goddess of the Fomorians, Domnu.
Goddesses of Horses
The horse, an instrument of Indo-European expansion, plays a part in all the mythologies of the various Celtic cultures. The cult of the Gaulish horse goddess Epona was widespread. Adopted by the Roman cavalry, it spread throughout much of Europe, even to Rome itself. She seems to be the embodiment of "horse power" or horsemanship, which was likely perceived as a power vital for the success and protection of the tribe. She has insular analogues in the Welsh Rhiannon and in the Irish Édaín Echraidhe (echraidhe, "horse riding") and Macha, who outran the fastest steeds.
The Welsh horse goddess Rhiannon is best known from The Mabinogion, a collection of medieval Welsh tales, in which she makes her first appearance on a pale, mysterious steed and meets King Pwyll, whom she later marries. She was accused of killing and devouring her infant son, and in punishment she was forced to act as a horse and to carry visitors to the royal court. According to another story, she was made to wear the collars of asses about her neck in the manner of a beast. The Irish horse goddess Macha, perhaps a threefold goddess herself, is associated with battle and sovereignty. Though a goddess in her own right, she is also considered to be part of the triple goddess of battle and slaughter, the Morrígan. Other faces of the Morrígan were Badhbh Catha and Nemain.
Mother Goddesses
Mother goddesses are a recurrent feature in Celtic religions. The epigraphic record reveals many dedications to the Matres or Matronae, which are particularly prolific around Cologne in the Rhineland. Iconographically, Celtic mothers may appear singly or, quite often, triply; they usually hold fruit or cornucopiae or paterae; they may also be full-breasted (or many-breasted) figures nursing infants.
Welsh and Irish tradition preserve a number of mother figures such as the Welsh Dôn, Rhiannon (‘great queen’) and Modron (from Matrona, ‘great mother’), and the Irish Danu, Boand, Macha and Ernmas. However, all of these goddesses fulfill many roles in the mythology and symbolism of the Celts, and cannot be limited only to motherhood. In many of their tales, their having children is only mentioned in passing, and is not a central facet of their identity. "Mother" Goddesses may also be Goddesses of warfare and slaughter, or of healing and smithcraft.
Mother goddesses were at times symbols of sovereignty, creativity, birth, fertility, sexual union and nurturing. At other times they could be seen as punishers and destroyers: their offspring may be helpful or dangerous to the community, and the circumstances of their birth may lead to curses, geasa or hardship, such as in the case of Macha's curse of the Ulstermen or Rhiannon's possible devouring of her child and subsequent punishment.
Cult of Lugh
According to Caesar the god most honoured by the Gauls was ‘Mercury’, and this is confirmed by numerous images and inscriptions. Mercury's name is often coupled with Celtic epithets, particularly in eastern and central Gaul; the commonest such names include Visucius, Cissonius, and Gebrinius. Another name, Lugus, is inferred from the recurrent place-name Lugdunon ('the fort of Lugus') from which the modern Lyon, Laon, and Loudun in France and Leiden in The Netherlands derive their names; a similar element can be found in Carlisle (formerly Castra Luguvallium), Legnica in Poland and the county Louth in Ireland, derived from the Irish "Lú", itself coming from "Lugh". The Irish and Welsh cognates of Lugus are Lugh and Lleu, respectively, and certain traditions concerning these figures mesh neatly with those of the Gaulish god. Caesar's description of the latter as "the inventor of all the arts" might almost have been a paraphrase of Lugh's conventional epithet samildánach ("possessed of many talents"), while Lleu is addressed as "master of the twenty crafts" in the Mabinogi. An episode in the Irish tale of the Battle of Magh Tuireadh is a dramatic exposition of Lugh's claim to be master of all the arts and crafts. Inscriptions in Spain and Switzerland, one of them from a guild of shoemakers, are dedicated to Lugoves, widely interpreted as a plural of Lugus perhaps referring to the god conceived in triple form.
The Gaulish Mercury often seems to function as a god of sovereignty. Gaulish depictions of Mercury sometimes show him bearded and/or with wings or horns emerging directly from his head, rather than from a winged hat. Both these characteristics are unusual for the classical god. More conventionally, the Gaulish Mercury is usually shown accompanied by a ram and/or a rooster, and carrying a caduceus; his depiction at times is very classical. Lugh is said to have instituted the festival of Lughnasadh, celebrated on 1 August, in commemoration of his foster-mother Tailtiu. In Gaulish monuments and inscriptions, Mercury is very often accompanied by Rosmerta, whom Miranda Green interprets to be a goddess of fertility and prosperity. Green also notices that the Celtic Mercury frequently accompanies the Deae Matres (see below).
Cult of Taranis
The Gaulish Jupiter is often depicted with a thunderbolt in one hand and a distinctive wheel in the other. Scholars frequently identify this wheel/sky god with Taranis, who is mentioned by Lucan. The name Taranis may be cognate with those of Taran, a minor figure in Welsh mythology, and Turenn, the father of the 'three gods of Dana' in Irish mythology.
Cult of Toutatis
Teutates, also spelled Toutatis (Celtic: "god of the tribe"), was one of three Celtic gods mentioned by the Roman poet Lucan in the 1st century, the other two being Esus ("lord") and Taranis ("thunderer"). According to later commentators, victims sacrificed to Teutates were killed by being plunged headfirst into a vat filled with an unspecified liquid. Present-day scholars frequently speak of ‘the toutates’ as plural, referring respectively to the patrons of the several tribes. Of two later commentators on Lucan's text, one identifies Teutates with Mercury, the other with Mars. He is also known from dedications in Britain, where his name was written Toutatis. Paul-Marie Duval, who considers the Gaulish Mars a syncretism with the Celtic toutates, notes that:
"Les représentations de Mars, beaucoup plus rares [que celles de Mercure] (une trentaine de bas-reliefs), plus monotones dans leur académisme classique, et ses surnoms plus de deux fois plus nombreux (une cinquantaine) s'équilibrent pour mettre son importance à peu près sur le même plan que celle de Mercure mais sa domination n'est pas de même nature.
(“Mars' representations, much rarer [than Mercury's] (thirty-odd bas reliefs) and more monotone in their studied classicism, and his epithets which are more than twice as numerous (about fifty), balance each other to place his importance roughly on the same level as Mercury, but his domination is not of the same kind.” Duval 1993:71)
Gods with Hammers
Sucellos, the 'good striker' is usually portrayed as a middle-aged bearded man, with a long-handled hammer, or perhaps a beer barrel suspended from a pole. His companion, Nantosuelta, is sometimes depicted alongside him. When together, they are accompanied by symbols associated with prosperity and domesticity. This figure is often identified with Silvanus, worshipped in southern Gaul under similar attributes; Dis Pater, from whom, according to Caesar, all the Gauls believed themselves to be descended; and the Irish Dagda, the 'good god', who possessed a caldron that was never empty and a huge club.
Gods of Strength and Eloquence
A club-wielding god identified as Ogmios is readily observed in Gaulish iconography. In Gaul, he was identified with the Roman Hercules. He was portrayed as an old man with swarthy skin and armed with a bow and club. He was also a god of eloquence, and in that aspect he was represented as drawing along a company of men whose ears were chained to his tongue.
Ogmios' Irish equivalent was Ogma, who was impressively portrayed as a swarthy man whose battle ardour was so great that he had to be controlled by chains held by other warriors until the right moment. Ogham script, an Irish writing system dating from the 4th century AD, was said to have been invented by him.
The Divine Bull
Another prominent zoomorphic deity type is the divine bull. Tarvos Trigaranus ("bull with three cranes") is pictured on reliefs from the cathedral at Trier, Germany, and at Notre-Dame de Paris. In Irish literature, the Donn Cuailnge ("Brown Bull of Cooley") plays a central role in the epic Táin Bó Cuailnge ("The Cattle-Raid of Cooley").
The Ram-Headed Snake
A distinctive ram-headed snake accompanies Gaulish gods in a number of representations, including the horned god from the Gundestrup cauldron, Mercury, and Mars.
Table
This table shows some of the Celtic and Romano-Celtic gods and goddesses mentioned above, in Romanized form as well as ancient Gaulish, British or Iberian names as well as those of the Tuatha Dé Danann and characters from the Mabinogion. They are arranged so as to suggest some linguistic or functional associations among the ancient gods and literary figures; needless to say, all such associations are subject to continual scholarly revision and disagreement. In particular, it has been noted by scholars such as Sjoestedt that it is inappropriate to try to fit Insular Celtic deities into a Roman format as such attempts seriously distort the Insular deities.
Interpretatio
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APHRODITE
Aphrodite (Latin: Venus) is the Greek goddess of love, beauty and sexuality. According to Greek poet Hesiod, she was born when Cronus cut off Ouranos' genitals and threw them into the sea, and from the aphros (sea foam) arose Aphrodite. Because of her beauty other gods feared that jealousy would interrupt the peace among them and lead to war, and so Zeus married her to Hephaestus, who was not viewed as a threat. Her unhappiness in marriage caused her to frequently seek out the companionship of her lover Ares. Aphrodite also became instrumental in the Eros and Psyche legend, and later was both Adonis' lover and his surrogate mother. Aphrodite is also known as Cytherea (Lady of Cythera) and Cypris (Lady of Cyprus) after the two places, Cythera and Cyprus, which claim her birth. Her Roman equivalent is the goddess Venus. Myrtles, doves, sparrows, and swans are sacred to her. The Greeks identified the Ancient Egyptian goddess Hathor with Aphrodite.
Origin
Aphrodite has numerous equivalents: Inanna (Sumerian counterpart), Astarte (Phoenician), Astghik (Armenian), Turan (Etruscan), and Venus (Roman). She has parallels with Indo-European dawn goddesses such as Ushas or Aurora. The Hellenes were well aware that her origins lay in the East: according to Pausanias, the first to establish her cult were the Assyrians, after the Assyrians the Paphians of Cyprus and the Phoenicians who live at Ascalon in Palestine; the Phoenicians taught her worship to the people of Cythera. It was said Aphrodite could make any man fall in love with her at his first sight of her. Aphrodite also has many other names, such as Acidalia, Cytherea, Pandemos and Cerigo. These names were used in specific areas of Greece. When the Greek cities combined, these lesser names were abandoned and a single name, Aphrodite, was adopted. Each goddess represented a slightly different religion but with overall similarities.
Aphrodite Ourania and Aphrodite Pandemos
By the late 5th century BC, philosophers might separate Aphrodite into two separate goddesses, not individuated in cult: Aphrodite Ourania, born from the sea foam after Cronus castrated Ouranos, and Aphrodite Pandemos, the common Aphrodite "of all the folk," born from Zeus and Dione. Among the neo-Platonists and eventually their Christian interpreters, Aphrodite Ourania figures as the celestial Aphrodite, representing the love of body and soul, while Aphrodite Pandemos is associated with mere physical love. The representation of Aphrodite Ouranos, with a foot resting on a tortoise, was read later as emblematic of discretion in conjugal love; the image is credited to Phidias, in a chryselephantine sculpture made for Elis, of which we have only a passing remark by Pausanias.
Thus, according to the character Pausanias in Plato's Symposium, Aphrodite is two goddesses, one older the other younger. The older, Urania, is the "heavenly" daughter of Ouranos, and inspires homosexual male (and more specifically, ephebic) love/eros; the younger is named Pandemos, the daughter of Zeus and Dione, and all love for women comes from her. Pandemos is the common Aphrodite. The speech of Pausanias distinguishes two manifestations of Aphrodite, represented by the two stories: Aphrodite Ourania ("heavenly" Aphrodite), and Aphrodite Pandemos ("Common" Aphrodite).
Myths
Birth
"Foam-arisen" Aphrodite was born of the sea foam near Paphos, Cyprus after Cronus cut off Ouranos' genitals and threw them behind him into the sea, while the Erinyes emerged from the drops of blood. Hesiod's Theogony described that the genitals "were carried over the sea a long time, and white foam arose from the immortal flesh; with it a girl grew" to become Aphrodite. Aphrodite floated in on a scallop shell. When she arose, she was hailed as "Cyprian," and is referred to as such often, especially in the poetic works of Sappho. This myth of a fully mature Venus (the Roman name for Aphrodite), Venus Anadyomene ("Venus Rising From the Sea") was one of the iconic representations of Aphrodite, made famous in a much-admired painting by Apelles, now lost, but described in the Natural History of Pliny the Elder. Thus Aphrodite is of an older generation than Zeus. Iliad (Book V) expresses another version of her origin, by which she was considered a daughter of Dione, who was the original oracular goddess ("Dione" being simply "the goddess, the feminine form of Δíος, "Dios," the genitive of Zeus) at Dodona. Aphrodite herself was sometimes referred to as "Dione." Once the worship of Zeus had usurped the oak-grove oracle at Dodona, some poets made him out to be the father of Aphrodite.
In Homer, Aphrodite, venturing into battle to protect her son, Aeneas, is wounded by Diomedes and returns to her mother, to sink down at her knee and be comforted. "Dione" seems to be an equivalent of Rhea, the Earth Mother, whom Homer has relocated to Olympus, and refers to a hypothesized original Proto-Indo-European pantheon, with the chief male god (Di-) represented by the sky and thunder, and the chief female god (feminine form of Di-) represented as the earth or fertile soil. Aphrodite's chief center of worship remained at Paphos, on the south-western coast of Cyprus, where the goddess of desire had been worshipped from the early Iron Age as Ishtar and Ashtaroth. It was said that, as Kythereia, she first tentatively came ashore at Cythera, a stopping place for trade and culture between Crete and the Peloponesus. Thus perhaps we have hints of the track of Aphrodite's original cult from the Levant to mainland Greece. In other tales, Aphrodite was a daughter of Thalassa and Zeus.
Adulthood
Aphrodite had no childhood: in every image and each reference she is born adult, nubile, and infinitely desirable. Aphrodite, in many of the late anecdotal myths involving her, is characterized as vain, ill-tempered and easily offended. Though she is one of the few gods of the Greek Pantheon to be actually married, she is frequently unfaithful to her husband. Hephaestus is one of the most even-tempered of the Hellenic deities; in the narrative embedded in the Odyssey Aphrodite seems to prefer Ares, the volatile god of war. She is one of a few characters who played a major part in the original cause of the Trojan War itself: not only did she offer Helen of Sparta to Paris, but the abduction was accomplished when Paris, seeing Helen for the first time, was inflamed with desire to have her—which is Aphrodite's realm.
Due to her immense beauty, Zeus was frightened that she would be the cause of violence between the other gods. He married her off to Hephaestus, the dour, humorless god of smithing. In another version of this story, Hera, Hephaestus' mother, had cast him off Olympus; deeming him ugly and deformed. His revenge was to trap her in a magic throne, and then to demand Aphrodite's hand in return for Hera's release. Hephaestus was overjoyed at being married to the goddess of beauty and forged her beautiful jewelry, including the cestus, a girdle that made her even more irresistible to men. Her unhappiness with her marriage caused Aphrodite to seek out companionship from others, most frequently Ares, but also Adonis.
Worship
The epithet Aphrodite Acidalia was occasionally added to her name, after the spring she used to bathe in, located in Boeotia (Virgil I, 720). She was also called Kypris or Cytherea after her birth-places in Cyprus and Cythera, respectively, both centers of her cult. She was associated with Hesperia and frequently accompanied by the Oreads, nymphs of the mountains. Her festival, Aphrodisia, was celebrated across Greece but particularly in Athens and Corinth. At the temple of Aphrodite on the summit of Acrocorinth (before the Roman destruction of the city in 146 BC) intercourse with her priestesses was considered a method of worshiping Aphrodite. This temple was not rebuilt when the city was reestablished under Roman rule in 44 BC, but it is likely that the fertility rituals continued in the main city near the agora. Aphrodite was associated with, and often depicted with, the sea, dolphins, doves, swans, pomegranates, apples, myrtle, rose trees, lime trees, clams, scallop shells, and pearls.
Cult of Aphrodite
One aspect of the cult of Aphrodite and her precedents that Thomas Bulfinch's much-reprinted The Age of Fable; or Stories of Gods and Heroes (1855 etc.) elided was the practice of ritual prostitution in her shrines and temples. The euphemism in Greek is hierodule, "sacred servant." The practice was an inherent part of the rituals owed to Aphrodite's Near Eastern forebears, Sumerian Inanna and Akkadian Ishtar, whose temple priestesses were the "women of Ishtar," ishtaritum. The practice has been documented in Babylon, Syria and Palestine, in Phoenician cities and the Tyrian colony Carthage, and for Hellenic Aphrodite in Cyprus, the center of her cult, Cythera, Corinth and in Sicily. Aphrodite is everywhere the patroness of the hetaira and courtesan. In Ionia on the coast of Asia Minor, hierodules served in the temple of Artemis. The practice however is not attested in Athens and can be considered a foreign import.
Aphrodite and Psyche
Aphrodite figures as a secondary character in the Tale of Eros and Psyche, which first appeared as a digressive story told by an old woman in Lucius Apuleius' novel, The Golden Ass, written in the second century A.D.. In it Aphrodite was jealous of the beauty of a mortal woman named Psyche. She asked Eros to use his golden arrows to cause Psyche to fall in love with the ugliest man on earth. Eros agreed, but then fell in love with Psyche on his own, by accidentally pricking himself with a golden arrow.
Meanwhile, Psyche's parents were anxious that their daughter remained unmarried. They consulted an oracle who told them she was destined for no mortal lover, but a creature that lived on top of a particular mountain, that even the gods themselves feared. Eros had arranged for the oracle to say this. Psyche was resigned to her fate and climbed to the top of the mountain. She told the townsfolk that followed her to leave and let her face her fate on her own. There, Zephyrus, the west wind, gently floated her downwards. She entered a cave on the appointed mountain, surprised to find it full of jewelry and finery. Eros visited her every night in the cave and they made passionate love; he demanded only that she never light any lamps because he did not want her to know who he was (having wings made him distinctive). Her two sisters, jealous of Psyche, convinced her that her husband was a monster, and she should strike him with a dagger. So one night she lit a lamp, but recognizing Eros instantly, she dropped her dagger. Oil spilled from the lamp onto his shoulder, awaking him, and he fled, saying "Love cannot live where there is no trust!"
When Psyche told her two jealous elder sisters what had happened, they rejoiced secretly and each separately walked to the top of the mountain and did as Psyche described her entry to the cave, hoping Eros would pick them instead. Eros was still heart broken and did not pick them and they fell to their deaths at the base of the mountain.
Psyche searched for her love across much of Greece, finally stumbling into a temple to Demeter, where the floor was covered with piles of mixed grains. She started sorting the grains into organized piles and, when she finished, Demeter spoke to her, telling her that the best way to find Eros was to find his mother, Aphrodite, and earn her blessing. Psyche found a temple to Aphrodite and entered it. Aphrodite assigned her a similar task to Demeter's temple, but gave her an impossible deadline to finish it by. Eros intervened, for he still loved her, and caused some ants to organize the grains for her. Aphrodite was outraged at her success and told her to go to a field where deadly golden sheep grazed and get some golden wool. Psyche went to the field and saw the sheep but was stopped by a river-god, whose river she had to cross to enter the field. He told her the sheep were mean and vicious and would kill her, but if she waited until noontime, the sheep would go into the shade on the other side of the field and sleep; she could pick the wool that stuck to the branches and bark of the trees. Psyche did so and Aphrodite was even more outraged at her survival and success.
Finally, Aphrodite claimed that the stress of caring for her son, depressed and ill as a result of Psyche's unfaithfulness, had caused her to lose some of her beauty. Psyche was to go to Hades and ask Persephone, the queen of the underworld, for a bit of her beauty in a black box that Aphrodite gave to Psyche. Psyche walked to a tower, deciding that the quickest way to the underworld would be to die. A voice stopped her at the last moment and told her a route that would allow her to enter and return still living, as well as telling her how to pass the three-headed dog Cerberus, Charon and the other dangers of the route. She was to not lend a hand to anyone in need. She baked two barley cakes for Cerberus, and took two coins for Charon. She pacified Cerberus with the barley cake and paid Charon to take her to Hades. On the way there, she saw hands reaching out of the water. A voice told her to toss a barley cake to them. She refused. Once there, Persephone said she would be glad to do Aphrodite a favor. She once more paid Charon, and gave the other barley cake to Cerberus.
Psyche left the underworld and decided to open the box and take a little bit of the beauty for herself, thinking that if she did so Eros would surely love her. Inside was a "Stygian sleep" which overtook her. Eros, who had forgiven her, flew to her body and wiped the sleep from her eyes, then begged Zeus and Aphrodite for their consent to his wedding of Psyche. They agreed and Zeus made her immortal. Aphrodite danced at the wedding of Eros and Psyche, and their subsequent child was named Pleasure, or (in the Roman mythology) Voluptas.
Adonis
Aphrodite was Adonis' lover and a surrogate mother to him. Cinyras, the King of Cyprus, had an intoxicatingly beautiful daughter named Myrrha. When Myrrha's mother commits Hubris against Aphrodite by claiming her daughter is more beautiful than the famed goddess, Myrrha is punished with a never ending lust for her own father. Cinyras is repulsed by this, but Myrrha disguises herself as a prostitute, and secretly sleeps with her father at night. Eventually, Myrrha becomes pregnant and is discovered by Cinyras. In a rage, he chases her out of the house with a knife. Myrrha flees from him, praying to the gods for mercy as she runs. The gods hear her plea, and change her into a Myrrh tree so her father cannot kill her. Eventually, Cinyras takes his own life in an attempt to restore the family's honor. Myrrha gives birth to a baby boy named Adonis. Aphrodite happens by the Myrrh tree and, seeing him, takes pity on the infant. She places Adonis in a box, and takes him down to Hades so that Persephone can care for him. Adonis grows into a strikingly handsome young man, and Aphrodite eventually returns for him. Persephone, however, is loath to give him up, and wishes Adonis would stay with her in the underworld. The two goddesses begin such a quarrel that Zeus is forced to intercede. He decrees that Adonis will spend a third of the year with Aphrodite, a third of the year with Persephone, and a third of the year with whomever he wishes. Adonis, of course, chooses Aphrodite.
Adonis begins his year on the earth with Aphrodite. One of his greatest passions is hunting, and although Aphrodite is not naturally a hunter, she takes up the sport just so she can be with Adonis. They spend every waking hour with one another, and Aphrodite is enraptured with him. However, her anxiety begins to grow over her neglected duties, and she is forced to leave him for a short time. Before she leaves, she gives Adonis one warning: do not attack an animal who shows no fear. Adonis agrees to her advice, but, secretly doubting her skills as a huntress, quickly forgets her warning. Not long after Aphrodite leaves, Adonis comes across an enormous wild boar, much larger than any he has ever seen. It is suggested that the boar is the god Ares, one of Aphrodite's lovers made jealous through her constant doting on Adonis. Although boars are dangerous and will charge a hunter if provoked, Adonis disregards Aphrodite's warning and pursues the giant creature. Soon, however, Adonis is the one being pursued; he is no match for the giant boar. In the attack, Adonis is castrated by the boar, and dies from a loss of blood. Aphrodite rushes back to his side, but she is too late to save him and can only mourn over his body. Wherever Adonis' blood falls, Aphrodite causes anemones to grow in his memory. She vows that on the anniversary of his death, every year there will be a festival held in his honor.
On his death, Adonis goes back to the underworld, and Persephone is delighted to see him again. Eventually, Aphrodite realizes that he is there, and rushes back to retrieve him. Again, she and Persephone bicker over who is allowed to keep Adonis until Zeus intervenes. This time, he says that Adonis must spend six months with Aphrodite and six months with Persephone, the way it should have been in the first place. Adonis, as a dying god archetype, represents the cycle of vegetation. His birth is like the birth of new plants; his maturation like the ripening of the plant. Once the crop is harvested, it dies—like Adonis returning to the underworld. The new seeds are then placed again in the ground, where they grow into new life, like Adonis returning to the earth to be with Aphrodite.
The Judgement of Paris
The gods and goddesses as well as various mortals were invited to the marriage of Peleus and Thetis (the eventual parents of Achilles). Only the goddess Eris (Discord) was not invited, but she arrived with a golden apple inscribed with the word kallistēi ("to the fairest one") which she threw among the goddesses. Aphrodite, Hera, and Athena all claimed to be the fairest, and thus the rightful owner of the apple. The goddesses chose to place the matter before Zeus, who, not wanting to favor one of the goddesses, put the choice into the hands of Paris. Hera tried to bribe Paris with Asia Minor, while Athena offered wisdom, fame and glory in battle, but Aphrodite whispered to Paris that if he were to choose her as the fairest he would have the most beautiful mortal woman in the world as a wife, and he accordingly chose her. This woman was Helen. The other goddesses were enraged by this and through Helen's abduction by Paris they brought about the Trojan War.
Pygmalion and Galatea
Pygmalion was a sculptor who had never found a woman worthy of his love. Aphrodite took pity on him and decided to show him the wonders of love. One day, Pygmalion was inspired by a dream of Aphrodite to make a woman out of ivory resembling her image, and he called her Galatea. He fell in love with the statue and decided he could not live without her. He prayed to Aphrodite, who carried out the final phase of her plan and brought the exquisite sculpture to life. Pygmalion loved Galatea and they were soon married. Another version of this myth tells that the women of the village in which Pygmalion lived grew angry that he had not married. They all asked Aphrodite to force him to marry. Aphrodite accepted and went that very night to Pygmalion, and asked him to pick a woman to marry. She told him that if he did not pick one, she would do so for him. Not wanting to be married, he begged her for more time, asking that he be allowed to make a sculpture of Aphrodite before he had to choose his bride. Flattered, she accepted.
Pygmalion spent a lot of time making small clay sculptures of the Goddess, claiming it was needed so he could pick the right pose. As he started making the actual sculpture he was shocked to discover he actually wanted to finish, even though he knew he would have to marry someone when he finished. The reason he wanted to finish it was that he had fallen in love with the sculpture. The more he worked on it, the more it changed, until it no longer resembled Aphrodite at all. At the very moment Pygmalion stepped away from the finished sculpture Aphrodite appeared and told him to choose his bride. Pygmalion chose the statue. Aphrodite told him that could not be, and asked him again to choose a bride. Pygmalion put his arms around the statue, and asked Aphrodite to turn him into a statue so he could be with her. Aphrodite took pity on him and brought the statue to life instead.
Other Tales
In one version of the story of Hippolytus, she was the catalyst for his death. He scorned the worship of Aphrodite for Artemis and, in revenge, Aphrodite caused his stepmother, Phaedra, to fall in love with him, knowing Hippolytus would reject her. In the most popular version of the story, as told in the play Hippolytus by Euripides, Phaedra seeks revenge against Hippolytus by killing herself and, in her suicide note, telling Theseus, her husband and Hippolytus' father, that Hippolytus had raped her. Hippolytus was oath-bound not to mention Phaedra's love for him and nobly refused to defend himself despite the consequences. Theseus then cursed his son, a curse that Poseidon was bound to fulfill and so Hippolytus was laid low by a bull from the sea that caused his chariot-team to panic and wreck his vehicle. This is, interestingly enough not quite how Aphrodite envisaged his death in the play, as in the prologue she says she expects Hippolytus to submit to lust with Phaedra and for Theseus to catch the pair in the act. Hippolytus forgives his father before he dies and Artemis reveals the truth to Theseus before vowing to kill the one Aphrodite loves (Adonis) for revenge. Glaucus of Corinth angered Aphrodite and she made her horses angry during the funeral games of King Pelias. They tore him apart. His ghost supposedly frightened horses during the Isthmian Games.
Aphrodite and Foreign Goddesses
The Ancient Greeks and Romans often equated their deities with foreign ones. Aphrodite was equated by the Greeks to Egyptian Hathor, Assyrian Mylitta, Canaanite/Phoenician Astarte, Arabian Alilat, and Roman Venus.
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BRIGID
In Irish mythology, Brigit or Brighid ("exalted one") was the daughter of the Dagda and one of the Tuatha Dé Danann. She was the wife of Bres of the Fomorians, with whom she had a son, Ruadán. She had two sisters, also named Brighid, and is considered a classic Celtic Triple Goddess.
Familial Relations
She is identified in Lebor Gabála Érenn as a daughter of the Dagda and a poet. The same passage mentions that she has two oxen, Fe and Men, that graze on a plain named after them, Femen. She also possessed the "king of boars", Torc Triath, and Cirb, king of wethers (sheep), from whom Mag Cirb is named. As the daughter of Dagda, she is also the half sister of Cermait, Aengus, Midir and Bodb Derg.
Associations
In Cath Maige Tuireadh, Bríg (sic) invents keening while mourning for her son Ruadán, after he is slain while fighting for the Fomorians. She is credited in the same passage with inventing a whistle used for night travel.
Divine Responsibilities
In her English translation of Irish myth, Lady Augusta Gregory (Gods and Fighting Men, 1904), describes Brigit as "a woman of poetry, and poets worshiped her, for her sway was very great and very noble. And she was a woman of healing along with that, and a woman of smith's work, and it was she first made the whistle for calling one to another through the night. And the one side of her face was ugly, but the other side was very comely. And the meaning of her name was Breo-saighit, a fiery arrow." Brighid was associated with perpetual, sacred flames, such as the one maintained by 19 nuns at her sanctuary in Kildare, Ireland. The tradition of female priestesses tending sacred, naturally-occurring "eternal flames" is a feature of ancient Indo-European pre-Christian spirituality. Other examples include the Roman goddess Vesta, and other hearth-goddesses, such as Hestia. Her sacred flame at Kildare was said by Giraldus Cambrensis and other chroniclers to have been surrounded by a hedge, which no man could cross. Men who attempted to cross the hedge were said to have been cursed to go insane, die, and/or to have had their "lower leg" wither.
Brighid was also connected to holy wells, at Kildare and many other sites in the Celtic lands. Well dressing, the tying of clooties to the trees next to healing wells, and other methods of petitioning or honoring Brighid still take place in some of the Celtic lands and the diaspora. As one of the most popular goddesses worshipped by the Celtic peoples, including the druids, many of her stories and symbology survive in the persona of Saint Brigid. She is the goddess of all things perceived to be of relatively high dimensions such as high-rising flames, highlands, hill-forts and upland areas; and of activities and states conceived as psychologically lofty and elevated, such as wisdom, excellence, perfection, high intelligence, poetic eloquence, craftsmanship (especially blacksmithing), healing ability, druidic knowledge and skill in warfare. In the living traditions, whether seen as goddess or saint, she is largely associated with the home and hearth and is a favorite of both Pagans and Christians . A number of these associations are attested in Cormac's Glossary. Her British and continental counterpart Brigantia seems to have been the Celtic equivalent of the Roman Minerva and the Greek Athena (Encyclopedia Britannica: Celtic Religion), goddesses with very similar functions and apparently embodying the same concept of 'elevated state', whether physical or psychological.
Maman Brigitte, one of the Lwa of Haitian Voodoo, may be a form of Brigid. It is likely that the concept came to the New World through the Irish who were kidnapped, enslaved and forced to labor in the Caribbean alongside the enslaved Africans. Because of the intermarriage and cultural blending between the Irish and Africans, it is possible that Haitian Voodo is partially influenced by survivals of Celtic polytheism. Maman Brigitte is worshipped as the Lady of the Cemetery; her colors are purple, violet and black. She is the wife of Baron Samedi, and characterised as a hard working, hard cursing woman who can swear a blue streak and enjoys a special drink made of rum laced with 21 hot peppers. People suspected of faking a possession by her may be asked to drink her special rum or rub hot peppers on their genitals, which she occasionally does. Those who are not truly possessed are soon identified.
Festivals
On February 1 or February 2, Brigid is celebrated at the Gaelic festival of Imbolc, when she brings the first stirrings of spring to the land. Roman Catholics, Eastern Orthodox Christians, and some Anglicans mark the day as the Feast of Saint Brigid; the festival is also known as Candlemas and Purification of the Virgin - and also as Imbolc by many.
Other Names and Etymology
Old Irish Brigit came to be spelled Brighid by the modern Irish period. Since the spelling reform of 1948, this has been spelled Bríd . The earlier form gave rise to the Anglicization Bridget, now commonly seen as Brigid.
Brìghde/Brìde (Scotland)
Fraid (Wales) Because of Welsh pronunciation mutations, her name changes to 'Ffraid' when following an [s] sound, such as in the name 'Llansanffraid' = 'Saint Bride's Village'
Breo Saighead ("the fiery arrow" – a folk etymology found in Sanas Cormaic, but considered very unlikely by etymologists)
Brigan
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CERNUNNOS
Cernunnos (also Cernenus and Cern) is a pagan Celtic god whose representations were widespread in the ancient Celtic lands of western Europe. As a horned god, Cernunnos is associated with horned male animals, especially stags and the ram-horned snake; this and other attributes associate him with produce and fertility. Cernunnos is also associated mainly as the God of the Underworld. Everything that we know about this deity comes from two inscriptions from France, one from Germany.
Evidence
Archaeological sources such as inscriptions and depictions from Gaul and Northern Italy (Gallia Cisalpina) have been used to define Cernunnos. The first artifact found to identify Cernunnos was the "Pillar of the Boatmen" (Pilier des nautes), a monument now displayed in the Musée National du Moyen Age in Paris. It was constructed by Gaulish sailors in the early first century CE, from the inscription (CIL XIII number 03026) probably in the year 14, on the accession of the emperor Tiberius. It was found in 1710 in the foundations of the cathedral of Notre-Dame de Paris on the site of Lutetia, the civitas capital of the Celtic Parisii tribe. It depicts Cernunnos and other Celtic deities alongside Roman divinities such as Jupiter, Vulcan, Castor, and Pollux, a combination suggestive of a Gallo-Roman religion.
On the Parisii inscription [_]ernunnos, the first letter of the name has been scraped off at some point, but can safely be restituted to "Cernunnos" because of the depiction of an antlers in the image below the name and that in Gaulish, carnon or cernon means "antler" or "horn". Additional evidence is given by two identical inscriptions on metal plaques from Steinsel-Rëlent in Luxembourg, in the territory of the Celtic Treveri tribe. These inscriptions (AE 1987, 0772) read Deo Ceruninco, "to the God Cerunincos". Lastly, a Gaulish inscription (RIG 1, number G-224) written in Greek letters from Montagnac (Hérault, Languedoc-Roussilion, France) reads αλλετ[ει]υος καρνονου αλ[ι]σο[ντ]εας thus giving the name "Carnonos".
Several images without inscriptions are thought to represent Cernunnos. The earliest known probable depiction of Cernunnos was found at Val Camonica in Italy, dating from the 4th century BC, while the best known depiction is on the Gundestrup cauldron found on Jutland, dating to the 1st century BC. The Cauldron was likely to have been stolen by the Germanic Cimbri tribe or another tribe that inhabited Jutland as it originated from south east Europe.
Etymological Derivations
Cern means "horn" or "bumb, boss" in Old Irish and is etymologically related to similar words carn in Welsh and Breton, and is the probable derivation of "Kernow" (Cornwall), meaning horn'[of land]'. These are thought by some linguists to derive from a Proto-Indo-European root *krno- which also gave the Latin cornu and Germanic *hurnaz (from which English "horn") (Nussbaum 1986) (Porkorny 1959 pp.574-576). The same Gaulish root is found in the names of tribes such as the Carnutes, Carni, and Carnonacae and in the name of the Gaulish war trumpet, the carnyx. The Proto-Celtic form of this theonym is reconstructed as either *Cerno-on-os or *Carno-on-os, both meaning "great horned one". (The augmentative -on- is frequently, but not exclusively, found in theonyms, for example: Map-on-os, Ep-on-a, Matr-on-ae, Sir-on-a.)
Iconography
The depictions of Cernunnos are strikingly consistent throughout the Celtic world. His most distinctive attribute are his stag's horns, and he is usually portrayed as a mature man with long hair and a beard. He wears a torc, an ornate neck-ring used by the Celts to denote nobility. He often carries other torcs in his hands or hanging from his horns, as well as a purse filled with coins. He is usually portrayed seated and cross-legged, in a position which some have interpreted as meditative or shamanic, although it may only reflect the fact that the Celts squatted on the ground when hunting.
Cernunnos is nearly always portrayed with animals, in particular the stag. He is also frequently associated with a unique beast that seems to belong primarily to him: a serpent with the horns of a ram. This creature may have been a deity in its own right. He is associated with other beasts less frequently, including bulls (at Rheims), dogs, and rats. Because of his frequent association with creatures, scholars often describe Cernunnos as the "Lord of the Animals" or the "Lord of Wild Things", and Miranda Green describes him as a "peaceful god of nature and fruitfulness". Because of his association with stags (a particularly hunted beast) he is also described as the "Lord of the Hunt". Interestingly, the Pilier des nautes links him with sailors and with commerce, suggesting that he was also associated with material wealth as does the coin pouch from the Cernunnos of Rheims (Marne, Champagne, France)—in antiquity, Durocortorum, the civitas capital of the Remi tribe—and the stag vomiting coins from Niedercorn-Turbelslach (Luxembourg) in the lands of the Treveri. The god may have symbolised the fecundity of the stag-inhabited forest.
Neopaganism
In Wicca and derived forms of Neopaganism a Horned God is revered, a divinity which syncretises a number of horned or antlered gods from various cultures, including Cernunnos. The Horned God reflects the seasons of the year in an annual cycle of life, death and rebirth. In the tradition of Gardnerian Wicca, the Horned God is sometimes specifically referred to as Cernunnos, or sometimes also as Kernunno.
Modern Druidry, which derives from Celtic culture, honors Cernunnos in his ancient Celto-European form as the guardian of the forests, the defender of the animal tuatha (tribes), the source of the deep forest wisdom, and the masculine half of creative energy. His restorative work in the cycle of the year is particularly celebrated at Beltaine, and is often paired with one or another of the female deities in her maiden aspect. Druids may call upon him in reference to vital, non-violent masculine divinity.
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THE DAGDA
The Dagda (sometimes written with no definitive article; Proto-Celtic: *Dagodeiwos; Old Irish: dag dia; Irish: dea-Dia; all meaning "good god") is an important god of Irish mythology. The Dagda is a father-figure (he is also known as Eochaid Ollathair, or "All-father Haughey") and a protector of the tribe. In some texts his father is Elatha, in others his mother is Ethlinn.
Description
Tales depict the Dagda as a figure of immense power, armed with a magic club and associated with a cauldron. The club was supposed to be able to kill nine men with one blow; but with the handle he could return the slain to life. The cauldron was known as the Undry and was said to be bottomless, from which no man left unsatisfied. He also possessed Daurdabla, also known as "the Four Angled Music", a richly ornamented magic harp made of oak which, when the Dagda played it, put the seasons in their correct order; other accounts tell of it being used to command the order of battle. He possessed two pigs, one of which was always growing whilst the other was always roasting, and ever-laden fruit trees.
The Dagda was a High King of the Tuatha Dé Danann after his predecessor Nuada was injured in battle. The Tuatha Dé Danann are the race of supernatural beings who conquered the Fomorians, who inhabited Ireland previously, prior to the coming of the Milesians. His lover was Boann and his daughter was Breg. Prior to the battle with the Fomorians, he coupled with the goddess of war, the Mórrígan, on Samhain in exchange for a plan of battle. Despite his great power and prestige, the Dagda is sometimes depicted as oafish and crude, even comical, wearing a short, rough tunic that barely covers his rump, dragging his great penis on the ground.
The Dagda had an affair with Boann, wife of Nechtan. In order to hide their affair, Dagda made the sun stand still for nine months; therefore their son, Aengus, was conceived, gestated and born in one day. He, along with Boann, helped Aengus search for his love. Whilst Aengus was away the Dagda shared out his land among his children, but Aengus returned to discover that nothing had been saved for him. Under the guidance of Lugh Aengus later tricked his father out of his home at the Brú na Bóinne (Newgrange). Aengus was instructed to ask his father if he could live in the Brú for a day and a night, and the Dagda agreed. But Irish has no indefinite article, so "a day and a night" is the same as "day and night", which covers all time, and so Aengus took possession of the Brú permanently. In "The Wooing of Étaín", on the other hand, Aengus uses the same ploy to trick Elcmar out of Brú na Bóinne, with the Dagda's connivance.
The Dagda was also the father of Bodb Dearg, Cermait, Midir, Aine, and Brigit. He was the brother or father of Oghma, who is probably related to the Gaulish god Ogmios; Ogmios, depicted as an old man with a club, is one of the closest Gaulish parallels to the Dagda. Another Gaulish god who may be related to the Dagda is Sucellus, the striker, depicted with a hammer and cup. He is credited with a seventy or eighty-year reign (depending on source) over the Tuatha Dé Danann, before dying at the Brú na Bóinne, finally succumbing to a wound inflicted by Cethlenn during the second battle of Magh Tuiredh.
Etymology
The name Dagda may ultimately be derived from the Proto-Indo-European *Dhagho-deiwos "shining divinity", the first element being cognate with the English word "day", and possibly a byword for a deification of a notion such as "splendour". This etymology would tie in well with Dagda's mythic association with the sun and the earth, with kingship and excellence in general. *Dhago-deiwos would have been inherited into Proto-Celtic as *Dago-deiwos, thereby punning with the Proto-Celtic word *dago-s "good".
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DIANA
Diana was the goddess of the hunt, being associated with wild animals and woodland, and also of the moon in Roman mythology. In literature she was the equivalent of the Greek goddess Artemis, though in cult beliefs she was Italic, not Greek, in origin. Diana was worshiped in ancient Roman religion and is currently revered in Roman Neopaganism and Stregheria. Dianic Wicca, a largely feminist form of the practice, is named for her. Diana was known to be the virgin goddess and looked after virgins and women. Along with her main attributes, Diana was an emblem of chastity. Oak groves were especially sacred to her. According to mythology, Diana was born with her twin brother Apollo on the island of Delos, daughter of Jupiter and Latona. Diana made up a triad with two other Roman deities: Egeria the water nymph, her servant and assistant midwife; and Virbius, the woodland god.
Etymology
Diana (pronounced with long 'i' and a') is an adjectival form developed from an ancient *divios, corresponding to later 'divus', 'dius', as in Dius Fidius, Dea Dia and in the neuter form dium meaning the sky. It is rooted in Indoeuropean *d(e)y(e)w meaning bright sky or daylight, from which also derived the name of Vedic god Dyaus and the Latin deus (god), dies (day, daylight).
Theology
The image of Diana is complex and shows various archaic features. According to Dumezil [2] it presents the character of a uranic god of a peculiar nature, referred to in history of religions as 'frame god'. Such gods, while keeping the original features of uranic gods, i.e. transcendent heavenly power and abstention from direct rule on worldly matters, did not face the fate of other uranic gods in Indoeuropean religions of becoming dei otiosi , as they did preserve a peculiar sort of influence over the world and mankind. The uranic character of Diana is well reflected in her connexion to light, inaccessibility, virginity, dwelling on high mountains and in sacred woods. Diana is thus the representation of the heavenly world (dium) in its character of sovereignty, supremacy, impassibility, indifference towards secular matters as the fate of men and states, while at the same time ensuring the succession of kings and the preservation of mankind through the protection of childbirth.
These functions are apparent in the traditional institutions and cults related to the goddess. 1) The institution of the rex Nemorensis, Diana's sacerdos in the Arician wood, who held its position til somebody else challenged and killed him in a duel, after breaking a branch from a certain tree of the wood. This ever totally open succession reveals the character and mission of the goddess as a guarantee of the continuity of the kingly status through successive generations. The same meaning implying her function of bestower of regality is testified by the story related by Livy of the prediction of empire to the land of origin of the person who would offer her a particularly beautiful cow. 2) Diana was also worshipped by women who sought pregnancy or asked for an easy delivery. This kind of worship is testified by archeological finds of votive statuettes in her sanctuary in the nemus Aricinum as well as by ancient sources, e.g. Ovid.
According to Dumezil the function of frame god is to be traced in an Indian epic hero who is the image of Vedic god Dyaus: having renounced the world, i.e. the role of father and king, he has attained the condititon of an immortal being, although he keeps the duty of ensuring that in his dynasty there are always children and one king for each generation. The Scandinavian god Heimdallr performs an analogous function: he is born first and will die last. He too gives origin to kingship and the first king, bestowing on him regal prerogatives. Diana is a female god but has exactly the same functions, preserving mankind through childbirth and king succession. Dumezil's interpretation appears to ignore deliberately James G. Frazer's, who connects Diana in her regal function with male god Janus as a divine couple, whereas his description of the type of the frame god would fit his own interpretation of Italic god Janus equally well. Frazer, however, gives a very different interpretation of the couple Diana-Janus: he identifies it with the supreme heavenly couple Juppiter-Juno and connects these figures to the religious Indoeuropean complex tieing regality to the cult of trees, particularly oaks. In this interpretative line the institution of the Rex Nemorensis and his ritual should be related to the theme of the dying god and the kings of May.
Worship
Diana was initially just the hunting goddess, associated with wild animals and woodlands. She also later became a moon goddess, supplanting Luna. She also became the goddess of childbirth and ruled over the countryside. Diana was worshipped at a festival on August 13, when King Servius Tullius, himself born a slave, dedicated her shrine on the Aventine Hill in the mid-sixth century BC. Being placed on the Aventine, and thus outside the pomerium, meant that Diana's cult essentially remained a 'foreign' one, like that of Bacchus; she was never officially 'transferred' to Rome as Juno was after the sack of Veii. It seems that her cult originated in Aricia, where her priest, the Rex Nemorensis remained. There the simple open-air fane was held in common by the Latin tribes, which Rome aspired to weld into a league and direct. Diana of the wood was soon thoroughly Hellenized, "a process which culminated with the appearance of Diana beside Apollo in the first lectisternium at Rome". Diana was regarded with great reverence by lower-class citizens and slaves; slaves could receive asylum in her temples. This fact is of difficult interpretation. Wissowa proposed the explanation that it might be because the first slaves of the Romans must have been Latins of the neighbouring tribes [14] .
Though some Roman patrons ordered marble replicas of the specifically Anatolian "Diana" of Ephesus, where the Temple of Artemis stood, Diana was usually depicted for educated Romans in her Greek guise. If she is accompanied by a deer, as in the Diana of Versailles (illustration, above right) this is because Diana was the patroness of hunting. The deer may also offer a covert reference to the myth of Acteon (or Actaeon), who saw her bathing naked. Diana transformed Acteon into a stag and set his own hunting dogs to kill him. Worship of Diana is mentioned in the Bible. In Acts of the Apostles, Ephesian metal smiths who felt threatened by Saint Paul’s preaching of Christianity, jealously rioted in her defense, shouting “Great is Diana of the Ephesians!” (Acts 19:28, New English Bible).
Sanctuaries
Diana was an ancient goddess common to all Latin tribes. Therefore many sanctuaries were dedicated to her in the lands inhabited by Latins. The first one is supposed to have beeen near Alba before the town was destroyed by the Romans. The Arician wood sanctuary near the lake of Nemi was Latin confederal as testified by the dedicatory epigraph quoted by Cato .
She had a shrine in Rome on the Aventine hill, according to tradition dedicated by king Servius Tullius. Its location is remarkable as the Aventine is situated outside the pomerium, ie original territory of the city, in order to comply with the tradition that Diana was a goddess common to all Latins and not exclusively of the Romans.
Other sanctuaries we know about are listed here: Colle di Corne near Tusculum where she is referred to with the archaic Latin name of deva Cornisca and where existed a collegium of worshippers; The Algidus Mount, also near Tusculum ; At Lavinium ; At Tivoli, where she is referred to as Diana Opifera Nemorensis ; A sacred wood mentioned by Livy ad computum Anagninum(near Anagni); On Mount Tifata, near Capua in Campania.
Legacy
In Religion
Diana's cult has been related in Early Modern Europe to the cult of Nicevenn (aka Dame Habond, Perchta, Herodiana, etc.). She was related to myths of a female Wild Hunt, close to the Benandantis' struggles against evil witches.
Wicca
Today there is a branch of Wicca named for her, which is characterized by an exclusive focus on the feminine aspect of the Divine. In some Wiccan texts Lucifer is a name used interchangeably (in the story lines) for Diana's brother/husband Apollo. (See "To Ride A Silver Broomstick" and/or Sacred-texts.com).
Stregheria
In Italy the old religion of Stregheria embraced goddess Diana as Queen of the Witches; witches being the wise women healers of the time. Goddess Diana created the world of her own being having in herself the seeds of all creation yet to come. It is said that out of herself she divided into the darkness and the light, keeping for herself the darkness of creation and creating her brother Apollo, the light. Goddess Diana loved and ruled with her brother Apollo, the god of the Sun. (Charles G. Leland, Aradia: The Gospel of Witches)
Since the Renaissance the mythic Diana has often been expressed in the visual and dramatic arts, including the opera L'arbore di Diana. In the sixteenth century, Diana's image figured prominently at the Château de Fontainebleau, in deference to Diane de Poitiers, mistress of two French kings. At Versailles she was incorporated into the Olympian iconography with which Louis XIV, the Apollo-like "Sun King" liked to surround himself.
There are also references to her in common literature. In Shakespeare's play, Romeo and Juliet, many references are made to Diana. Rosaline, a beautiful woman who has sworn to chastity, is said to have "Dian's wit". Later on in the play, Romeo says, "It is the East, and Juliet is the sun. Arise fair sun, and kill the envious moon." He is saying that Juliet is better than Diana and Rosaline for not swearing chastity. Diana is also a character in the 1876 Leo Delibe ballet 'Sylvia'. The plot deals with Sylvia, one of Diana's nymphs and sworn to chastity and Diana's assault on Sylvia's affections for the shepherd Amyntas.
In Jean Cocteau's 1946 film La Belle et la Bête it is Diana's power which has transformed and imprisoned the beast.
In Literature
Diana is also used by Shakespeare in the famous play As You Like It to describe how Rosaline feels about marriage. Dian(a) is used again by Shakespeare in his play about racial identity Othello to describe Desdemona's face metaphorically after he believes she is having an affair with Cassio.
There is also a reference to Diana in Shakespeare's play Much Ado About Nothing where Hero is said to seem like 'Dian in her orb', in terms of her chastity.
The Goddess is also referenced indirectly in Shakespeare's player A Midsummer Night's Dream. The character Hippolyta states "And then the moon, like to a silver bow new bent in Heaven". She refers to Diana, Goddesse of the moon, who is often depicted with a silver hunting bow. In the same play the character Hermia is told by the Duke Theseus that she must either wed the character Demetrius "Or on Diana's alter to protest for aye austerity and sinle life". He refers to her becoming a nun, with the Goddesse Diana having connotations of chastity.
In The Merchant of Venice Portia states "I will die as chaste as Diana, unless I be obtained by the manner of my father's will". (I.ii)
In Language
Both the Romanian word for "fairy", Zână and the Leonese word for "water nymph", xana, seem to come from the name of Diana.
In Beaux Arts
Beaux Arts architecture and garden design (late 19th and early 20th centuries) used classic references in a modernized form. Two of the most popular of the period were of Pomona (goddess of orchards) as a metaphor for Agriculture, and Diana, representing Commerce, which is a perpetual hunt for advantage and profits.
In Parma at the convent of San Paolo, Antonio Allegri da Correggio painted the camera of the Abbess Giovanna Piacenza's apartment. He was commissioned in 1519 to paint the ceiling and mantel of the fireplace. On the mantel he painted an image of Diana riding in a chariot pulled possibly by a stag.
Other
In the funeral oration of Diana, Princess of Wales in 1997, her brother drew an analogy between the ancient goddess of hunting and his sister - 'the most hunted person of the modern age'.
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EPONA
In Gallo-Roman religion, Epona was a protector of horses, donkeys, and mules. She was particularly a goddess of fertility, as shown by her attributes of a patera, cornucopia, and the presence of foals in some sculptures (Reinach, 1895). And H. Hubert suggested that the goddess and her horses were leaders of the soul in the after-life ride, with parallels in Rhiannon of the Mabinogion. Unusually for a Celtic deity, most of whom were associated with specific localities, the worship of Epona, "the sole Celtic divinity ultimately worshipped in Rome itself", was widespread in the Roman Empire between the first and third centuries CE.
Etymology of the Name
Although only known from Roman contexts, the name Epona, 'Great Mare' is from the Gaulish language; it is derived from the inferred proto-Celtic *ekwos 'horse' — which gives rise to modern Welsh ebol 'foal' — together with the augmentative suffix -on frequently, though not exclusively, found in theonyms (for example Sirona, Matrona, 'Divine ?Star', 'Divine Mother'), and the usual Gaulish feminine singular -a. In an episode preserved in a remark of Pausanias, an archaic Demeter too had also been a Great Mare, who was mounted by Poseidon in the form of a stallion and foaled Arion and the Daughter who was unnamed outside the Arcadian mysteries. Demeter was venerated as a mare in Lycosoura in Arcadia into historical times.
Evidence for Epona
Fernand Benoit found the earliest attestations of a cult of Epona in the Danubian provinces and asserted that she had been introduced in the limes of Gaul by horsemen from the east. This suggestion has not been generally taken up. Although the name is in origin Gaulish, dedicatory inscriptions to Epona are in Latin or, rarely, Greek. They were made not only by Celts, but also by Germans, Romans and other inhabitants of the Roman Empire. An inscription to Epona from Mainz, Germany, identifies the dedicant as Syrian. A long Latin inscription of the first century BCE, engraved in a lead sheet and accompanying the sacrifice of a filly and the votive gift of a cauldron, was found in 1887 at Rom, Deux-Sèvres, the Roman Rauranum. The inscription offers to the goddess an archaic profusion of epithets for a goddess, Eponina 'dear little Epona': she is Atanta, horse-goddess Potia 'powerful Mistress' (compare Greek Potnia), Dibonia (Latin, the 'good goddess')", Catona 'of battle', noble and good Vovesia.
Her feast day in the Roman calendar was December 18 as shown by a rustic calendar from Guidizzolo, Italy, although this may have been only a local celebration. She was incorporated into the Imperial cult by being invoked on behalf of the Emperor, as Epona Augusta or Epona Regina.
The supposed autonomy of Celtic civilisation in Gaul suffered a further setback with Fernand Benoit's study of the funereal symbolism of the horseman with the serpent-tailed ("anguiforme") daemon, which he established as a theme of victory over death, and Epona; both he found to be late manifestations of Mediterranean-influenced symbolism, which had reached Gaul through contacts with Etruria and Magna Graecia. Benoit compared the rider with most of the riders imaged around the Mediterranean shores.
Perceptions of native Celtic goddesses had changed under Roman hegemony: only the names remained the same. As Gaul was Romanized under the early Empire, Epona’s sovereign role evolved into a protector of cavalry. The cult of Epona was spread over much of the Roman Empire by the auxiliary cavalry, alae, especially the Imperial Horse Guard or equites singulares augustii recruited from Gaul, Lower Germany, and Pannonia. A series of their dedications to Epona and other Celtic, Roman and German deities was found in Rome, at the Lateran. As Epane she is attested in Cantabria, northern Spain, on Mount Bernorio, Palencia.
A bizarre euhemeristic account of the birth of Epona that does not reflect Celtic beliefs can be found in Plutarch's life of Solon: Giambattista Della Porta's edition of Magia naturalis (1589), a potpourri of the sensible and questionable, remarks, in the context of unseemly man-beast coupling, Plutarch's Life of Solon, in which he "reports out of Agesilaus, his third book of Italian matters, that Fulvius Stella loathing the company of a woman, coupled himself with a mare, of whom he begot a very beautiful maiden-child, and she was called by a fit name, Epona..."
Iconography
Sculptures of Epona fall into five types, as distinguished by Benoit: riding, standing or seated before a horse, standing or seated between two horses, a tamer of horses in the manner of potnia theron and the symbolic mare and foal. In the Equestrian type, common in Gaul, she is depicted sitting side-saddle on a horse or (rarely) lying on one; in the Imperial type (more common outside Gaul) she sits on a throne flanked by two or more horses or foals. In distant Dacia, she is represented on a stela (now at the Szépmüvézeti Museum, Budapest) in the format of Cybele, seated frontally on a throne with her hands on the necks of her paired animals: her horses are substitutions for Cybele's lions.
Epona is mentioned in The Golden Ass by Apuleius, where an aedicular niche with her image on a pillar in a stable has been garlanded with freshly-picked roses. In his Satires, the Roman poet Juvenal also links the worship and iconography of Epona to the area of a stable. Small images of Epona have been found in Roman sites of stables and barns over a wide territory.
The probable date of ca. 1400 BCE ascribed to the giant chalk horse carved into the hillside turf at Uffington, in southern England, is too early to be directly associated with Epona a millennium and more later, but clearly represents a Bronze Age totem of some kind. The English traditional hobby-horse riders parading on May Day at Padstow, Cornwall and Minehead, Somerset, which survived to the mid-twentieth century, even though Morris dances had been forgotten, may have deep roots in the veneration of Epona, as may the English aversion to eating horsemeat. At Padstow formerly, at the end of the festivities the hobby-horse was ritually submerged in the sea.
The Welsh goddess Rhiannon rides a white horse and has many attributes of Epona. A south Welsh folk ritual call Mari Lwyd (Grey Mare) is still undertaken in December - an apparent survival of the veneration of the goddess. The pantomime horse is thought to be a related survival.
Popular Culture
Link, from The Legend of Zelda series games, rides a horse named Epona in three installments: The Legend of Zelda: Ocarina of Time (1998), The Legend of Zelda: Majora's Mask (2000), and The Legend of Zelda: Twilight Princess (2006). In Twilight Princess the player is given the option to change the name of the horse, but Epona is the default name.
In Morgan Llywelyn's novel, The Horse Goddess, Epona is a Celtic woman who possesses Druidic powers. When her people attempt to force her to be a druid, she instead flees, and her exploits on the road give rise to a folklore that eventually turns her into a goddess.
Omnia (a Dutch PaganFolk band) has dedicated a song called 'Epona' to the Celtic goddess, which appears on the album Sine Missione.
Enya also has a song titled 'Epona'.
Epona is known as the protector of horses in the MMORPG 'Dark Age of Camelot'.
French folk/black metal band Heol Telwen have a two part song on their debut album An Deiz Ruz entitled Epona Part I & Epona Part II respectively. .
Epona features in the popular 'Jinny and Finmory' series of children's books by Scottish author Patricia Leitch.
In the late 1990s a group of amateur astronomers and science fiction writers got together to imagine new species of intelligent life for the purposes of practising first contact techniques. The most complete of these scenarios was with the proposal of a world called Epona where a species of pentapod became dominant. Subsequently Isaac Asimov's Science Fiction Magazine wrote an article about it and it was used in a science special on TV.
As part of the European Space Agency Giotto Mission to Halley's Comet, an experiment by Irish Scientists from St. Patrick's College, Maynooth was named EPONA after the beautiful Celtic goddess associated with the commencement of the solar year, this also stood for Energetic Particle ONset Admonitor.
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FIONN MAC CUMHAILL
Fionn mac Cumhaill (earlier Finn or Find mac Cumail or mac Umaill, later Anglicised to Finn McCool) was a mythical hunter-warrior of Irish mythology, occurring also in the mythologies of Scotland and the Isle of Man. The stories of Fionn and his followers, the Fianna, form the Fenian cycle or Fiannaidheacht, much of it supposedly narrated by Fionn's son, the poet Oisín.
Fionn or Finn is actually a nickname meaning "fair" (in reference to hair colour), "white", or "bright". His childhood name was Deimne, and several legends tell how he gained the nickname when his hair turned prematurely white. The name "Fionn" is related to the Welsh name Gwyn, as in the mythological figure Gwyn ap Nudd, and to the continental Celtic deity Vindos.
The 19th century Irish revolutionary organization known as the Fenian Brotherhood took its name from these legends. The Scottish name Fingal comes from a retelling of these legends in epic form by the eighteenth century poet James Macpherson.
Legend
Birth
Most of Fionn's early adventures are recounted in the narrative The Boyhood Deeds of Fionn. He was the son of Cumhall, leader of the Fianna, and Muirne, daughter of the druid Tadg mac Nuadat who lived on the hill of Almu in County Kildare. Cumhall abducted Muirne after her father refused him her hand, so Tadg appealed to the High King, Conn of the Hundred Battles, who outlawed him. The Battle of Cnucha was fought between Conn and Cumhall, and Cumhall was killed by Goll mac Morna, who took over leadership of the Fianna.
Muirne was already pregnant, so her father rejected her and ordered his people to burn her, but Conn would not allow it and put her under the protection of Fiacal mac Conchinn, whose wife, Bodhmall the druidess, was Cumhall's sister. In Fiacal's house she gave birth to a son, who she called Deimne.
Boyhood
Muirne left the boy in the care of Bodhmall and a warrior woman, Liath Luachra, who brought him up in secret in the forest of Sliabh Bladma, teaching him the arts of war and hunting. As he grew older he entered the service, incognito, of a number of local kings, but when they recognised him as Cumhal's son they told him to leave, fearing they would be unable to protect him from his enemies.
The young Fionn met the leprechaun-like druid and poet Finn Eces, or Finnegas, near the river Boyne and studied under him. Finneces had spent seven years trying to catch the salmon of knowledge, which lived in a pool on the Boyne: whoever ate the salmon would gain all the knowledge in the world. Eventually he caught it, and told the boy to cook it for him. While cooking it Fionn burned his thumb, and instinctively put his thumb in his mouth, swallowing a piece of the salmon's skin. This imbued him with the salmon's wisdom. He then knew how to gain revenge against Goll, and in subsequent stories was able to call on the knowledge of the salmon by sucking his thumb.
The salmon's place in this tale displays the esteem in which this particular family of fish is held in many different mythologies. The particular species thought to be referenced in this tale, is the Salmonidae midlandus variant. This species held a special place of esteem in traditional Irish stories due to its strength, its appearance, (significantly more scales than other species, and therefore a more striking range of colours), and its relative scarcity. The story of Fionn and the salmon of knowledge bears a strong resemblance to the Welsh tale of Gwion Bach, indicating a possible common source for both stories.
Adulthood
Every year for twenty-three years at Samhain, the fire-breathing fairy Aillen would lull the men of Tara to sleep with his music before burning the palace to the ground, and the Fianna, led by Goll mac Morna, were powerless to prevent it. Fionn arrived at Tara, armed with his father's crane-skin bag of magical weapons. He kept himself awake with the point of his own spear, and then killed Aillen with it. After that his heritage was recognised and he was given command of the Fianna: Goll willingly stepped aside, and became a loyal follower of Fionn, although in many stories their alliance is uneasy and feuds occur. Fionn demanded compensation for his father's death from Tadg, threatening war or single combat against him if he refused. Tadg offered him his home, the hill of Alan, as compensation, which Fionn accepted.
Love Life
Fionn met his most famous wife, Sadbh, when he was out hunting. She had been turned into a deer by a druid, Fear Doirich. Fionn's hounds, Bran and Sceolan, who were once human themselves, recognised she was human, and Fionn spared her. She transformed back into a beautiful woman, she and Fionn married and she was soon pregnant. However Fear Doirich (literally meaning Dark Man) returned and turned her back into a deer, and she vanished. Seven years later Fionn was reunited with their son, Oisín, who went on to be one of the greatest of the Fianna.
In The Pursuit of Diarmuid and Gráinne, one of the most famous stories of the cycle, the High King Cormac mac Airt promises the now aging Fionn his daughter Gráinne as his bride, but Gráinne falls instead for one of the Fianna, Diarmuid Ua Duibhne, and the pair runs away together with Fionn in pursuit. The lovers are aided by Diarmuid's foster-father, the god Aengus. Eventually Fionn makes his peace with the couple. Years later, however, Fionn invites Diarmuid on a boar hunt, and Diarmuid is badly gored by their quarry. Water drunk from Fionn's hands has the power of healing, but when Fionn gathers water he deliberately lets it run through his fingers before he gets back to Diarmuid. His grandson Oscar threatens him if does not bring water for Diarmuid, but when Fionn finally returns it is too late; Diarmuid has died.
Death
Accounts of Fionn's death vary; according to the most popular, he is not dead at all, rather, he sleeps in a cave below Dublin, to awake and defend Ireland in the hour of her greatest need. A tale of the 10th or 11th century says that Mongán (died circa 625), son of Fiachnae mac Báetáin but also said to be the son of Manannán mac Lir, was Fionn reborn.
Folklore
Many geographical features in Ireland are attributed to Fionn. Legend has it he built the Giant's Causeway as stepping-stones to Scotland, so as not to get his feet wet; he also once scooped up part of Ireland to fling it at a rival, but it missed and landed in the Irish Sea — the clump became the Isle of Man and the pebble became Rockall, the void became Lough Neagh. Fingal's Cave in Scotland is also named after him, and shares the feature of hexagonal basalt columns with the nearby Giant's Causeway in Ireland.
In Newfoundland, and some parts of Nova Scotia, "Fingal's Rising" is spoken of in a distinct nationalistic sense. Made popular in songs and bars alike, to speak of "Fingle," as his name is pronounced in English versus "Fion MaCool" in Newfoundland Irish, is sometimes used as in lieu of Newfoundland or its culture.
In Manx folklore, Fionn is a giant known as Finn MacCooill. One story says that he came to live in the Isle of Man, whereupon a Manx buggane came to fight against the famous Irish giant. Wanting to avoid a fight, Finn hid in the cradle while his wife entertained the buggane, pretending her husband was the baby and trying to scare off their visitor. She gave the buggane a griddle-cake with the iron griddle hidden in it, which he could not eat, and told him that her husband always ate such cakes. Then she gave a second cake to Finn, who easily ate it. Seeing that even the 'baby' was so strong, the buggane thought better of his fight and slunk off. However, later the two did meet and had a great battle at Kirk Christ Rushen. Finn's feet carved out the Channel between the Calf of Man and Kitterland, and the other channel between Kitterland and the Isle of Man. The buggane's feet at Port Erin made the opening for the port there. At last the buggane got the upper hand and the injured Finn had to flee. Finn could walk on the sea, but the buggane could not. Unable to follow, the buggane tore out a tooth and flung it after Finn, where it struck him and fell into the sea to become the Chicken's Rock. Finn turned and shouted a curse on the rock, which is why it is such a hazard to sailors.
Modern Literature
In 1761 James Macpherson announced the discovery of an epic written by Ossian (Oisín) in the Scottish Gaelic language on the subject of "Fingal" (Fionnghall meaning "white stranger": it is suggested that Macpherson rendered the name as Fingal through a misapprehension of the name which in old Gaelic would appear as Finn). In December 1761 he published Fingal, an Ancient Epic Poem in Six Books, together with Several Other Poems composed by Ossian, the Son of Fingal, translated from the Gaelic Language. His cycle of poems had widespread influence on such writers as Goethe and the young Walter Scott, but there was controversy from the outset about Macpherson's claims to have translated the works from ancient sources. The authenticity of the poems is now generally doubted, though they may have been based on fragments of Gaelic legend, and to some extent the controversy has overshadowed their considerable literary merit and influence on Romanticism.
A story of the battle between Fionn MacCumhail, who in this tale is claimed to have resided in the valley of Glencoe, in Scotland, and a Viking host led by Earragan makes an appearance in the book Glencoe: The Story of the Massacre, Secker & Warburg, 1966 by John Prebble. The story tells of the approach of forty Viking galleys up the narrows by Ballachulish into Loch Leven, and the ensuing battle between the Norsemen and the Feinn of the valley of Glencoe, in which Earragan is slain by Goll MacMorna.
Fionn mac Cumhaill features heavily in modern Irish literature. Most notably he makes several appearances in James Joyce's Finnegans Wake, and some have posited that the title, taken from the street ballad "Finnegan's Wake", may also be a blend of "Finn again is awake," referring to his eventual awakening to defend Ireland.
Fionn also appears as a character in Flann O'Brien's comic novel, At Swim-Two-Birds, in passages that parody the style of Irish myths. Morgan Llywelyn's book Finn MacCool tells of Fionn's rise to leader of the Fianna and the love stories that ensue in his life. That character is celebrated in "The Legend of Finn MacCumhail", a song by the Boston-based band Dropkick Murphys featured on their album Sing Loud Sing Proud!:
This mighty soldier on the eve of the war he waged
told his troops of lessons learned from battles fought:
"May your heart grow bolder like an iron-clad brigade"
said this leader to his outnumbered lot.
Known as a hero to all that he knew,
long live the legend of Finn MacCool!
The brave celtic leader of the chosen few,
long live the legend of Finn MacCool!
Contemporary Scottish poet Marie Marshall has written a semi-serious ballad in parody of 19c neo-medievalism "How Finn McCool became Lord of Tara". It deals with how Finn saved the noble house of Tara from the evil spell of Allan-of-the-Harp, an elf-king with a hatred of human prosperity. A sample passage runs thus:
For three and twenty years the hall
Of Tara’s King was razed and burned
On Harvest Eve. But none recall
Who from that eldritch sleep returned
The harping of the evil elf –
In mystery was Tara cloaked –
Until young Finn McCool himself
The right of rest and board invoked
One summer’s end, and joined their feast.
A modest boy of humble mien,
He sat the lowest, ate the least,
Observed the merrymaking scene.
Who hid a spear beneath his cowl
And pressed the blade against his cheek.
Then Allan stalked around the room
And wrathfully began to speak.
“This is brave Goll McMorna’s doom,
That once a year shall Tara fall
And fire her rising towers destroy.
And thus I curse you, one and all!”
At which, up sprang the noble boy…
In the Media
The song The Giant by the Canadian singer-songwriter Stan Rogers, features Fionn mac Cumhaill as 'the giant' Fingal. Fionn mac Cumhaill was featured as a protagonist and ally in the first published adventure for the Buffy the Vampire Slayer RPG, The Dark Druid. The adventure features Fionn and his battle with the druid Fer Doirich in the modern age and posits that the witches Willow and Tara are the reincarnations of his foster mothers Bodhmall and Liath respectively. He is also featured as a character in filmmaker Matthew Barney's film Cremaster 3 (2002).
Finn McCool's is the name of the Westhampton Beach, New York, restaurant that was the subject of the November 14, 2007, episode of the American reality television series Kitchen Nightmares. Dropkick Murphys play a song titled The Legend of Finn Maccumhail. "The youth of Finn MacCool" is a song featuring on Doomsword's Resound the Horn which retells of the story of how Finn spared the deer that turned out to be Sadbh. On the same album the song "Onward into battle" is dedicated to Finn and the Fianna. Finn MacCool appears in the fiction novel The Drawing of the Dark by author Tim Powers. In the novel he is buried in Vienna, Austria with a cistern of beer directly above his grave. His essence gives the oldest of the beer supernatural powers.
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THE FORMORIANS
In Irish mythology, the Fomorians, Fomors, or Fomori (Irish Fomóiri, Fomóraig) were a semi-divine race who inhabited Ireland in ancient times. They may have once been believed to be the beings who preceded the gods, similar to the Greek Titans. It has been suggested that they represent the gods of chaos and wild nature, as opposed to the Tuatha Dé Danann who represent the gods of human civilization. Alternatively, they may represent the gods of a proposed pre-Goidelic population of Ireland.
Etymology
The word fomóire is believed to derive from Old Irish fo muire (Modern Irish faoi muire), "under the sea". This, combined with their association with glass towers in the western ocean, suggests a connection with icebergs. However the mór element may derive from a word meaning "terror", whose Anglo-Saxon cognate "maere" survives in English "nightmare", but not in "morbid" which instead comes from the latin, all from the Proto-IndoEuropean word *mor : "to rub, pound, wear away". However, Mac Bain holds that there are phonetic inconsistencies with both these theories that would prevent derivation of the long ó in the morpheme "-mór" from "muire, mora" ("sea") or from "mor, mar" (terror, death). His educated opinion leaves the conclusions of Zimmer fomóiri > fo-mór "sub-magnus" (giants, small? giants, nearly? giants, huge people?).
Characteristics
They are sometimes said to have had the body of a man and the head of a goat, according to an 11th century text in Lebor na hUidre (the Book of the Dun Cow), or to have had one eye, one arm and one leg, but some, for example Elatha, the father of Bres, were very beautiful. Bres himself carries the epithet "the Beautiful."
In Irish Mythology
The followers of Partholon were said to be the first to invade Ireland after the flood, but the Fomorians were already there: Seathrún Céitinn reports a tradition that the Fomorians, led by Cíocal, had arrived two hundred years earlier and lived on fish and fowl until Partholon came, bringing the plough and oxen. It is possible that this is a memory of Mesolithic hunter-gatherers giving way to Neolithic farmers. Partholon defeated Cíocal in the Battle of Magh Ithe, but all his people later died of plague.
Then came Nemed and his followers. Ireland is said to have been empty for thirty years following the death of Partholon's people, but Nemed and his followers encountered the Fomorians when they arrived. At this point Céitinn reports another tradition that the Fomorians were seafarers from Africa, descended from Noah's son Ham. Nemed defeated them in several battles, killing their leaders Gann (1) and Sengann (1) (note that there were two Fir Bolg kings of the same name), but two new Fomorian leaders arose: Conand son of Faebar, who lived in Conand's Tower on Tory Island, County Donegal, and Morc son of Dela (note that the first generation of the Fir Bolg were also said to be sons of Dela).
After Nemed's death, Conand and Morc enslaved his people and demanded a heavy tribute: two thirds of their children, grain and cattle. Nemed's son Fergus Lethderg gathered an army of sixty thousand, rose up against them and destroyed Conand's Tower, but Morc attacked them with a huge fleet, and there was great slaughter on both sides. The sea rose over them and drowned most of the survivors: only thirty of Nemed's people escaped in a single ship, scattering to the other parts of the world. The next invasion was by the Fir Bolg, who did not encounter the Fomorians.
Next, the Tuatha Dé Danann, who are usually supposed to have been the gods of the Goidelic Irish, defeated the Fir Bolg in the first Battle of Magh Tuiredh and took possession of Ireland. As their king, Nuada, had lost an arm in the battle and was no longer physically whole, their first king in Ireland was the half-Fomorian Bres. He was the result of a union between Ériu of the Tuatha Dé Danann and the Fomorian prince Elatha, who had come to her one night by sea on a silver boat. Both Elatha and Bres are described as very beautiful. However Bres turned out to be a bad king who forced the Tuatha Dé to work as slaves and pay tribute to the Fomorians. He lost authority when he was satirized for neglecting his kingly duties of hospitality. Nuada was restored to the kingship after his arm was replaced with a working one of silver, but the Tuatha Dé's oppression by the Fomorians continued.
Bres fled to his father, Elatha, and asked for his help to restore him to the kingship. Elatha refused, on the grounds that he should not seek to gain by foul means what he couldn't keep by fair. Bres instead turned to Balor, a more warlike Fomorian chief living on Tory Island, and raised an army.
The Tuatha Dé also prepared for war, under another half-Fomorian leader, Lug. His father was Cian of the Tuatha Dé, and his mother was Balor's daughter Ethniu. This is presented as a dynastic marriage in early texts, but folklore preserves a more elaborate story, reminiscent the story of Zeus and Cronus from Greek mythology. Balor, who had been given a prophecy that he would be killed by his own grandson, locked Ethniu in a glass tower to keep her away from men. But when he stole Cian's magical cow, Cian got his revenge by gaining entry to the tower, with the help of a druidess called Biróg, and seducing her. She gave birth to triplets, which Balor ordered drowned. Two of the babies either died or turned into the first seals, but Biróg saved one, Lug, and gave him to Manannan and Tailtiu to foster. As an adult Lug gained entry to Nuada's court through his mastery of every art, and was given command over the army.
The Second Battle of Mag Tuireadh was fought between the Fomorians under Balor and the Tuatha Dé under Lug. Balor killed Nuada with his terrible, poisonous eye that killed all it looked upon. Lug faced his grandfather, but as he was opening his eye Lug shot a sling-stone that drove his eye out the back of his head, wreaking havoc on the Fomorian army behind. After Balor's death the Fomorians were defeated and driven into the sea.
The Tuatha Dé Danann and the Fomorians are closely related. Neit, a war god, is an ancestor of both. In later times any settled pirates or seaborne raiders were labeled Fomorians and the original meaning of the word was forgotten.
List of Fomorians
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GAIA
Gaia "land" or "earth", from the Ancient Greek Gaea or Gea is the primal Greek goddess personifying the Earth, the Greek version of "Mother Nature". Gaia is a primordial deity in the Ancient Greek pantheon and considered a Mother Goddess or Great Goddess. Her equivalent in the Roman pantheon was Terra Mater or Tellus. Romans, unlike Greeks, did not consistently distinguish an Earth goddess (Tellus) from a grain goddess (Ceres).
In Greek Mythology
Hesiod's Theogony (116ff) tells how, after Chaos, arose broad-breasted Gaia the everlasting foundation of the gods of Olympus. She brought forth Uranus, the starry sky, her equal, to cover her, the hills, and the fruitless deep of the Sea, Pontus, "without sweet union of love," out of her own self through parthenogenesis. But afterwards, as Hesiod tells it,
"she lay with her son, Uranus, and bore the world-ocean god Oceanus, Coeus and Crius and the Titans Hyperion and Iapetus, Theia and Rhea, Themis, Mnemosyne, and Phoebe of the golden crown, and lovely Tethys. After them was born Cronus the wily, youngest and most terrible of her children, and he hated his lusty sire."
Hesiod mentions Gaia's farther offspring conceived with Uranus: first the giant one-eyed Cyclopes: Brontes ("thunderer"), Sterodes ("lightning") and the "bright" Arges: "Strength and might and craft were in their works." Then he adds the three terrible hundred-handed sons of Earth and Heaven, the Hecatonchires: Cottus, Briareos and Gyges, each with fifty heads.
Uranus hid the Hecatonchires and the Cyclopes in Tartarus so that they would not see the light, rejoicing in this evil doing. This caused pain to Gaia (Tartarus was her bowels) so she created grey flint (or adamantine) and shaped a great flint sickle, gathering together Cronos and his brothers to ask them to obey her. Only Cronos, the youngest, had the daring to take the flint sickle she made, and castrate his father as he approached Gaia to have intercourse with her. And from the drops of blood and semen, Gaia brought forth still more progeny, the strong Erinyes and the armoured Gigantes and the ash-tree Nymphs called the Meliae. From the testicles of Uranus in the sea came forth Aphrodite. After Uranus's castration, Gaia gave birth to Echidna and Typhon by Tartarus. By Pontus, Gaia birthed the sea-deities Nereus, Thaumas, Phorcys, Ceto, and Eurybia. Aergia, a goddess of sloth and laziness, is the daughter of Aether and Gaia. Zeus hid Elara, one of his lovers, from Hera by hiding her under the earth. His son by Elara, the giant Tityas, is therefore sometimes said to be a son of Gaia, the earth goddess, and Elara. Gaia also made Aristaeus immortal.
Gaia is believed by some sources to be the original deity behind the Oracle at Delphi. She passed her powers on to, depending on the source, Poseidon, Apollo or Themis. Apollo is the best-known as the oracle power behind Delphi, long established by the time of Homer, having killed Gaia's child Python there and usurped the chthonic power. Hera punished Apollo for this by sending him to King Admetus as a shepherd for nine years.
Oaths sworn in the name of Gaia, in ancient Greece, were considered the most binding of all. In classical art Gaia was represented in one of two ways. In Athenian vase painting she was shown as a matronly woman only half risen from the earth, often in the act of handing the baby Erichthonius (a future king of Athens) to Athena to foster (see example below). Later in mosaic representations she appears as a woman reclining upon the earth surrounded by a host of Carpi, infant gods of the fruits of the earth (see example below under Interpretations).
Family Tree
Gaia is the goddess personifying Earth and these are her offspring as related in various myths. Some are related consistently, some are mentioned only in minor variants of myths, and others are related in variants that are considered to reflect a confusion of the subject or association.
Interpretations
Etymologically Gaia is a compound word of two elements. Ge, meaning "Earth", is found in many neologisms, such as Geography (Ge/graphos = writing about Earth) and Geology (Ge/logos = words about the Earth). *Ge is a pre-Greek substrate word that some relate to the Sumerian Ki, also meaning Earth. Aia is a derivative of an Indo-European stem meaning "Grandmother". The full etymology of Gaia would, therefore, appear to have been "Grandmother Earth". Some sources claim that Gaia as the Mother Earth is a later form of a pre-Indo-European Great Mother who had been venerated in Neolithic times, but this point is controversial in the academic community. Belief in a nurturing Earth Mother is often a feature of modern Neopagan "Goddess" worship, which is typically linked by practitioners of this religion to the Neolithic goddess theory. For more information, see the article Goddess.
The goddesses Demeter the "mother," Persephone the "daughter" and Hecate the "crone," as understood by the Greeks, have been interpreted to be three aspects of a former Great Goddess, who could be identified as Rhea or as Gaia herself. Such tripartite goddesses are also a part of Celtic mythology and may stem from the Proto-Indo-Europeans. In Anatolia (modern Turkey), Rhea was known as Cybele, a goddess derived from Mesopotamian Kubau, Hurrian Kebat or Kepa. The Greeks never forgot that the Mountain Mother's ancient home was Crete, where a figure some identified with Gaia had been worshipped as Potnia Theron (the "Mistress of the Animals") or simply Potnia ("Mistress"), an appellation that could be applied in later Greek texts to Demeter, Artemis or Athena. In Rome the imported Phrygian goddess Cybele was venerated as Magna Mater, the "Great Mother" or as Mater Nostri, "Our Mother" and identified with Roman Ceres, the grain goddess who was an approximate counterpart of Greek Demeter, but with differing aspects and venerated with a different cult. Her worship was brought to Rome following an Augury of the Cumaean Sibyl that Rome could not defeat Hannibal the Carthaginian until the worship of Cybele came to Rome. As a result she was a favoured divinity of Roman legionaries, and her worship spread from Roman military encampments and military colonies.
In Other Cultures
The idea that the fertile earth itself is female, nurturing mankind, was not limited to the Greco-Roman world. These traditions themselves were greatly influenced by earlier cultures in the ancient Middle East. The Sumerian mythology concept of Tiamat is similar to the phrase The Deeps in Genesis 1. The title "The mother of life" was later given to the Akkadian Goddess Kubau, and hence to Hurrian Hepa, emerging as Hebrew Eve (Heva) and Phygian Kubala (Cybele). In Norse mythology the earth is personified as Jörð, Hlöðyn, and Fjörgyn and Fjörgynn. The Irish Celts worshipped Danu, whilst the Welsh Celts worshipped Dôn. Hints of their names occur throughout Europe, such as the Don river, the Danube River, the Dnestr and Dnepr, suggest that they stemmed from an ancient Proto-Indo-European goddess. In Lithuanian mythology Gaia - Žemė is daughter of Sun and Moon. Also she is wife of Dangus (Varuna). In Pacific cultures, the Earth Mother was known under as many names and with as many attributes as cultures who revered her for example Māori whose creation myth included Papatuanuku, partner to Ranginui - the Sky Father. In South America in the Andes a cult of the Pachamama still survives (in regions of Bolivia, Peru, Ecuador, Argentina and Chile). The name comes from Pacha (Quechua for change, epoch) and Mama (mother). While ancient Mexican cultures referred to Mother Earth as Tonantzin Tlalli that means "Revered Mother Earth".
In Hinduism, the Mother of all creation is called "Gayatri". Gayatri is the name of one of the most important Vedic hymns consisting of twenty-four syllables. One of the sacred texts says, "The Gayatri is Brahma, Gayatri is Vishnu, Gayatri is Shiva, the Gayatri is Vedas" Gayatri later came to be personified as a Goddess. She is shown as having five heads and is usually seated within a lotus. The four heads of Gayatri represent the four Vedas and the fifth one represents almighty God. In her ten hands, she holds all the symbols of Lord Vishnu. She is another consort of Lord Brahma. Phra Mae Thorani is recognized as the Goddess of the earth in Thailand and other Southeast Asian countries. Only in Egyptian Mythology is the reverse true - Geb is the Earth Father while Nut is the Sky Mother.
Carl Gustav Jung suggested that the archetypal mother was a part of the collective unconscious of all humans, and various Jungian students have argued that such mother imagery underpins many mythologies, and precedes the image of the paternal "father", in such religious systems. Such speculations help explain the universality of such mother goddess imagery around the world. The Upper Paleolithic Venus figurines have been sometimes explained as depictions of an Earth Goddess similar to Gaia. In Native American Indian storytelling, "The Earth Goddess" is one of several Creator-based titles and names given to the Spider Grandmother.
In Neopaganism
Many Neopagans actively worship Gaia. Beliefs regarding Gaia vary, ranging from the common Wiccan belief that Gaia is the Earth (or in some cases the spiritual embodiment of the earth, or the Goddess of the Earth), to the broader Neopagan belief that Gaia is the goddess of all creation, a Mother Goddess from which all other gods spring. Gaia is sometimes thought to embody the planets and the Earth, and sometimes thought to embody the entire universe. Worship of Gaia is varied, ranging from prostration to Druidic ritual. Unlike Zeus, a roving nomad god of the open sky, Gaia was manifest in enclosed spaces: the house, the courtyard, the womb, the cave. Her sacred animals are the serpent, the lunar bull, the pig, and bees. In her hand the narcotic poppy may be transmuted to a pomegranate.
In Modern Ecological Theory
The mythological name was revived in 1979 by James Lovelock, in Gaia: A New Look at Life on Earth; his Gaia hypothesis was supported by Lynn Margulis. The hypothesis proposes that living organisms and inorganic material are part of a dynamic system that shapes the Earth's biosphere, and maintains the Earth as a fit environment for life. In some Gaia theory approaches the Earth itself is viewed as an organism with self-regulatory functions. Further books by Lovelock and others popularized the Gaia Hypothesis, which was widely embraced and passed into common usage as part of the heightened awareness of environmental concerns of the 1990s.
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THE GREAT SPIRIT
The Great Spirit, also called Wakan Tanka among the Sioux, The Creator, or The Great Maker in English and Gitchi Manitou in Algonquian, is a conception of a supreme being prevalent among some Native American and First Nations cultures. According to Lakotah activist Russell Means a better translation of Wakan Tanka is The Great Mystery. The Great Spirit or Great Mystery is generally believed to be personal, close to the people, and immanent in the fabric of the material world. Lakotah prayers refer to Him as Grandfather; however, not all Nations assign gender, or only one gender, to the Great Mystery. Chief Dan Evehema, a spiritual leader of the Hopi Nation, described the Great Spirit as follows:
"To the Hopi, the Great Spirit is all powerful. He taught us how to live, to worship, where to go and what food to carry, gave us seeds to plant and harvest. He gave us a set of sacred stone tablets into which he breathed all teachings in order to safeguard his land and life. In these stone tablets were inscribed instructions, prophecies and warnings."
"Old Man" is how the Great Mystery is "known" by the Blackfoot people. Old Man personally created all things and personally instructed the Blackfoot people on how to attain spiritual wisdom in daily life: OldManAndTheBeginningoftheWorld-Blackfoot . Old Man is NOT an anthropomorphic and anthropopathic god like Jesus, nor a panentheistic deity as in Brahmanism or Judaism out of which the whole fabric of existence is derived. Rather, Old Man is simply acknowledged to exist in the sense of the Aristotelian "prime mover" ("prime mover" idiom provided for the benefit of European audiences) and the traditional teachings are attributed to "him" as a source. There are specific tales regarding Old Man doing this or that or saying this or that but rather than being enshrined in a ritualistic, symbolic, or codified religion, these teachings are more used to guide individuals and communities on a moment-by-moment basis. It is not a set of laws or code of living as much as a cultural lifestyle which focusses on the daily needs of the individual and the nation rather than any "universal" speculation.
"Ababinili" is how the Great Mystery is "known" by the Chickasaw people. Ababinili personally created all things and personally instructed the Chickasaw people on "how to live long and healthy lives:" Ababinili_And_The_Humans-Chickasaw . In Chickasaw tradition Ababinili has extensive talks with various parts of "his" creation regarding the relation of mankind to Creation and how Creation and mankind each ought to behave in each case.
"Spider Woman" is the creative agency among the Hopi who personally created the four "colors" of mankind. "She" attributes to the Sun the power of Creation of all things and origin of all spiritual wisdom and in this way the Sun becomes the living manifestation for the Hopi of the Great Mystery which is personally "known" as Sotuknang: TheCreationofMankind-Hopi . This may sound similar to Constantine's adaptation of Jesus as the physical embodiment of the Pagan Sol Invictus in Christianity but it would be a mistake of similarity of APPEARANCE only. In ALL other regards it is a wholly independent concept which acknowledges real-life physical interdependence and relationships between the real physical Sun and all things in the web of Creation as opposed to allegorical symbolism prevalent in the MidEastern or African national (ethnic, not political) religions. In Hopi tradition, life is defined as a process of change and prevailing and persistent human concepts across time are known as distinct "worlds." This concept of life as a process of change is so prevalent that a person is acknowledged as a new identity each day and there is no such thing as a static personal identity upon which to create such static speculative religious concepts as an eternal Heaven or Hell as a "final destination." The spiritual teachings to the Hopi attributed to Sotuknang are functionally equivalent to those of the Great Mystery as "known" by all other Turtle Island nations in that they specifically guide the individual and the nation as opposed to creating the speculative religious framework for universalism, conquest and domination enshrined in a ritualistic faith or dogmatic religion.
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THE GREEN MAN
A Green Man is a sculpture, drawing, or other representation of a face surrounded by or made from leaves. Branches or vines may sprout from the nose, mouth, nostrils or other parts of the face and these shoots may bear flowers or fruit. Commonly used as a decorative architectural ornament, Green Men are frequently found on carvings in churches and other buildings (both secular and ecclesiastical). "The Green Man" is also a popular name for English public houses and various interpretations of the name appear on inn signs, which sometimes show a full figure rather than just the head.
The Green Man motif has many variations. Found in many cultures around the world, the Green Man is often related to natural vegetative deities springing up in different cultures throughout the ages. Primarily it is interpreted as a symbol of rebirth, or "renaissance," representing the cycle of growth each spring. Some speculate that the mythology of the Green Man developed independently in the traditions of separate ancient cultures and evolved into the wide variety of examples found throughout history.
Types of Green Man
The term "Green Man" was coined by Lady Raglan, in her 1939 article "The Green Man in Church Architecture" in The Folklore Journal. The figure is also often erroneously referred to as Jack in the green. Usually referred to in works on architecture as foliate heads or foliate masks, carvings of the Green Man may take many forms, naturalistic or decorative. The simplest depict a man's face peering out of dense foliage. Some may have leaves for hair, perhaps with a leafy beard. Often leaves or leafy shoots are shown growing from his open mouth and sometimes even from the nose and eyes as well. In the most abstract examples, the carving at first glance appears to be merely stylised foliage, with the facial element only becoming apparent on closer examination. The face is almost always male; green women are rare. Green cats, lions and demons are also found. On gravestones and other memorials, human skulls are sometimes shown sprouting grape vines or other vegetation, presumably as a symbol of resurrection (as at Shebbear, Devon, England). The Green Man appears in many forms; the three most common types have been categorized as:
the Foliate Head - completely covered in green leaves
the Disgorging Head - spews vegetation from its mouth
the Bloodsucker Head - sprouts vegetation from all facial orifices.
Green Men in Churches
Superficially the Green Man would appear to be pagan, perhaps a fertility figure or a nature spirit, similar to the woodwose (the wild man of the woods), and yet he frequently appears, carved in wood or stone, in churches, chapels, abbeys and cathedrals, where examples can be found dating from the 11th century through to the 20th century. To the modern observer the earlier (Romanesque and medieval) carvings often have an unnervingly eerie or numinous quality. This is sometimes said to indicate the vitality of the Green Man, who was able to survive as a symbol of pre-Christian traditions despite, and at the same time complementary to, the influence of Christianity. Rather than alienate their new converts, early Christian missionaries would often adopt and adapt local gods, sometimes turning them into obscure saints.
Later Variations on the Green Man Theme
From the Renaissance onwards, elaborate variations on the Green Man theme, often with animal heads rather than human faces, appear in many media other than carvings (including manuscripts, metalwork, bookplates, and stained glass). They seem to have been used for purely decorative effect rather than reflecting any deeply-held belief. A Swiss engraver, Numa Guyot created a bookplate depicting a Green Man in exquisite detail. It was completed circa 1887. In Britain, the image of the Green Man enjoyed a revival in the 19th century, becoming popular with architects during the Gothic revival and the "Arts and Crafts" era, when it appeared as a decorative motif in and on many buildings, both religious and secular. American architects took up the motif around the same time. The Green Man travelled with the Europeans as they colonized the world. Many variations can be found in Victorian-style Neo gothic architecture. He was very popular amongst Australian stonemasons and can be found on many secular and sacred buildings.
Modern Images
The Green Man image has made a significant resurgence in modern times, with artists from around the world interweaving Green Man imagery into various modes of work. Among some of the artists discussed in Green Man Resurrected (a Master's degree thesis by Phyllis Araneo, available online) are English artist Paul Sivell, who created the Whitefield Green Man, a wood carving worked into a dead section of a living oak tree; David Eveleigh, an English garden designer who created the Penpont Green Man Millennium Maze, located in Powys, Wales (the largest depiction of a Green Man image in the world); and M.J. Anderson, a US based sculptor who created the marble sculpture titled Green Man as Original Coastal Aboriginal Man of All Time from Whence the Bush and All of Nature Sprouts from his Fingers.
Other artists mentioned by Araneo include Ghana-born Jane Brideson, Australian artist Marjorie Bussey, American artist Monica Richards (also known as a singer and composer), and English fantasy artist Peter Pracownik, whose Green Man artwork has been created in several media, including full-body tattoos. These artists and others have continued the path and tradition of the ancient Green Man imagery into modern times, a creation which Araneo calls “an instinctive expression of our relationship with nature.” The modern images have often shown a marked divergence from the face-only images of traditional Green Men, and sometimes reveal a feminine nature, though this is still rare. American artist Rob Juszak, for example, has taken the theme of the Green Man representing Earth’s spiritual protector and turned it into a vision of the Green Man cradling the entire planet; artist Dorothy “Bunny” Bowen, also American, created a kimono silk painting, titled Greenwoman, as an expression of the feminine aspect of the Green Man legend.
Related Characters
Parallels have been drawn between the Green Man and various deities. Many see the Green Man as being connected to many gods such as Osiris, Odin and even the Christian Jesus, as well as later folkloric and literary characters such as the Green Knight, John Barleycorn, the Holly King and Tammuz of the Mesopotamians who is thought by some to symbolize the triumph of Green Life over Winter and Death. In Thomas Nashe's masque Summer's Last Will and Testament (1592, printed 1600), the character commenting upon the action remarks, after the exit of "Satyrs and wood-Nymphs", "The rest of the green men have reasonable voices…". Mythical figures such as Woden, Cernunnos, Sylvanus, Derg Corra, Green George, Jack in the green, John Barleycorn, Robin Goodfellow, Puck, and the Green Knight all partake of the Green Man's nature; it has also been suggested that the story of Robin Hood was born of the Green Man mythology. A more modern embodiment is found in Peter Pan, who enters the civilized world from a nether land, clothed in green leaves. Even Father Christmas, who was often shown wreathed in ivy in early depictions, has been suggested as a similar woodland spirit.
The Green Knight of Sir Gawain and the Green Knight serves as both monster and mentor to Sir Gawain, belonging to a pre-Christian world which seems antagonistic to, but is in the end harmonious with, the Christian one. In the Germanic nations such as Germany, Iceland and England, depictions of the Green Man could have been inspired by deities such as Freyr or Woden, as both have many attributes of the later Green Men from throughout Europe. Etymological research by the University of Wales into the meaning of the names of Celtic gods and goddesses shows that one Celtic deity, Viridios, has a name meaning "Green Man" in both the Celtic languages and Latin.
Neo-Paganism
In Wicca, the Green Man has often been used as a representation of the Horned God, a loose appropriation of ancient pagan gods such as the Celtic Cernunnos and the Greek Pan.
Green Men Outside Europe
In his A Little Book of The Green Man, as well as his website, Mike Harding gives examples of similar figures in Borneo, Nepal, and India: the earliest is a foliate head from an 8th century Jain temple in Rajasthan. He also notes that heads from Lebanon and Iraq can be dated to the 2nd century and that there are early Romanesque foliate heads in 11th century Templar churches in Jerusalem. He tentatively suggests that the symbol may have originated in Asia Minor and been brought to Europe by travelling stonecarvers. Tom Cheetham, an authority on Islamic mysticism, identifies Khidr of esoteric Sufism with the Green Man. In his book about the work of Henry Corbin and others concerning the 12th-century Muslim saint Ibn Arabi, he develops the idea of the Green Man/Khidr as the principle mediating between the imaginary realm and the physical world. On a similar theme, author on spirituality and architecture William Anderson writes:
There are legends of him (Khidr) in which, like Osiris, he is dismembered and reborn; and prophecies connecting him, like the Green Man, with the end of time. His name means the Green One or Verdant One, he is the voice of inspiration to the aspirant and committed artist. He can come as a white light or the gleam on a blade of grass, but more often as an inner mood. The sign of his presence is the ability to work or experience with tireless enthusiasm beyond one's normal capacities. In this there may be a link across cultures, …one reason for the enthusiasm of the medieval sculptors for the Green Man may be that he was the source of every inspiration.
In one of his roles the ancient Egyptian God Osiris is regarded as a corn-deity and is commonly depicted with a green face representing vegetation, rebirth and resurrection. Containers of soil in the shape of Osiris planted with seed ("Osiris Beds") are found in some New Kingdom tombs. The sprouting corn implied the resurrection of the deceased. Other gods depicted green are (in Tibet) Amogha-siddhi and (in Mexico) Tlaloc. In Sanskrit the Green Man is cognate with the gana Kirtimukha or "Face Of Glory" which is related to a lila of Shiva and Rahu. The Face of Glory is often seen in Vajrayana Buddhist Thanka art and iconography where it is often incorporated as a cloudform simulacrum; and depicted crowning the 'Wheel of Becoming' or the Bhavachakra.
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HECATE
Although not a Celtic goddess, Hecate (Greek: "far-shooting" ) Hekate (Hekátê, Hekátē), or Hekat was a popular chthonian goddess attested early in Mycenaean Greece and in Thrace, but possibly originating among the Carians of Anatolia, the region where most theophoric names invoking Hecate, such as Hecataeus or Hecatomnus, progenitor of Mausollus, are attested, and where Hecate remained a Great Goddess into historical times, at her unrivalled cult site in Lagina. While many researchers favor the idea that she has Anatolian origins, it has been argued that "Hecate must have been a Greek goddess." The monuments to Hecate in Phrygia and Caria are numerous but of late date. The earliest inscription is found in late archaic Miletus, close to Caria, where Hecate is a protector of entrances.
Regarding the nature of her cult, it has been remarked, "she is more at home on the fringes than in the centre of Greek polytheism. Intrinsically ambivalent and polymorphous, she straddles conventional boundaries and eludes definition." She has been associated with childbirth, nurturing the young, gates and walls, doorways, crossroads, magic, lunar lore, torches and dogs. William Berg observes, "Since children are not called after spooks, it is safe to assume that Carian theophoric names involving hekat- refer to a major deity free from the dark and unsavoury ties to the underworld and to witchcraft associated with the Hecate of classical Athens." But he cautions, "The Laginetan goddess may have had a more infernal character than scholars have been willing to assume." In Ptolemaic Alexandria and elsewhere during the Hellenistic period, she appears as a three-faced goddess associated with ghosts, witchcraft, and curses. Today she is claimed as a goddess of witches and in the context of Hellenic Polytheistic Reconstructionism. Some neo-pagans refer to her as a "crone goddess"; although this characterization appears to conflict with her original virginal status in ancient Greece, both virgin and crone are often cast in myth as dangerous female beings because of their exclusion or freedom from the reproductive cycle. She closely parallels the Roman goddess Trivia.
Representations
The earliest Greek depictions of Hecate are single faced, not triplicate. Lewis Richard Farnell states:
The evidence of the monuments as to the character and significance of Hekate is almost as full as that of the literature. But it is only in the later period that they come to express her manifold and mystic nature. Before the fifth century there is little doubt that she was usually represented as of single form like any other divinity, and it was thus that the Boeotian poet imagined her, as nothing in his verses contains any allusion to a triple formed goddess.
The earliest known monument is a small terracotta found in Athens, with a dedication to Hecate, in writing of the style of the sixth century. The goddess is seated on a throne with a chaplet bound round her head; she is altogether without attributes and character, and the only value of this work, which is evidently of quite a general type and gets a special reference and name merely from the inscription, is that it proves the single shape to be her earlier from, and her recognition at Athens to be earlier than the Persian invasion.
The second-century traveller Pausanias stated that Hecate was first depicted in triplicate by the sculptor Alkamenes in the Greek Classical period of the late fifth century. Greek anthropomorphic conventions of art resisted representing her with three faces: a votive sculpture from Attica of the third century BCE (illustration, left), shows three single images against a column; round the column of Hecate dance the Charites. Some classical portrayals show her as a triplicate goddess holding a torch, a key, and a serpent. Others continue to depict her in singular form.
In Egyptian-inspired Greek esoteric writings connected with Hermes Trismegistus, and in magical papyri of Late Antiquity she is described as having three heads: one dog, one serpent, and one horse. In other representations her animal heads include those of a cow and a boar. Hecate's triplicity is elsewhere expressed in a more Hellenic fashion in the vast frieze of the great Pergamon Altar, now in Berlin, wherein she is shown with three bodies, taking part in the battle with the Titans. In the Argolid, near the shrine of the Dioscuri, Pausanias saw the temple of Hecate opposite the sanctuary of Eileithyia; He reported the image to be the work of Scopas, stating further, "This one is of stone, while the bronze images opposite, also of Hecate, were made respectively by Polycleitus and his brother Naucydes, son of Mothon." (Description of Greece ii.22.7)
A fourth century BCE marble relief from Crannon in Thessaly was dedicated by a race-horse owner. It shows Hecate, with a hound beside her, placing a wreath on the head of a mare. She is commonly attended by a dog or dogs, and the most common form of offering was to leave meat at a crossroads. Sometimes dogs themselves were sacrificed to her. This is sometimes offered as an indication of her non-Hellenic origin, as dogs very rarely played this role in genuine Greek ritual.
In Argonautica, a third century BCE Alexandrian epic based on early materials, Jason placates Hecate in a ritual prescribed by Medea, her priestess: bathed at midnight in a stream of flowing water, and dressed in dark robes, Jason is to dig a pit and offer a libation of honey and blood from the throat of a sheep, which was set on a pyre by the pit and wholly consumed as a holocaust, then retreat from the site without looking back (Argonautica, iii). All these elements betoken the rites owed to a chthonic deity.
Mythology
Hecate has been characterized as a pre-Olympian chthonic goddess. She appears in the Homeric Hymn to Demeter and in Hesiod's Theogony, where she is promoted strongly as a great goddess. The place of origin of her cult is uncertain, but it is thought that she had popular cult followings in Thrace. Her most important sanctuary was Lagina, a theocratic city-state in which the goddess was served by eunuchs. Lagina, where the famous temple of Hecate drew great festal assemblies every year, lay close to the originally Macedonian colony of Stratonikeia, where she was the city's patroness. In Thrace she played a role similar to that of lesser-Hermes, namely a governess of liminal regions (particularly gates) and the wilderness, bearing little resemblance to the night-walking crone she became. Additionally, this led to her role of aiding women in childbirth and the raising of young men. Hesiod records that she was among the offspring of Gaia and Uranus, the Earth and Sky. In Theogony he ascribed great powers to Hecate:
[...] Hecate whom Zeus the son of Cronos honored above all. He gave her splendid gifts, to have a share of the earth and the unfruitful sea. She received honor also in starry heaven, and is honored exceedingly by the deathless gods. For to this day, whenever any one of men on earth offers rich sacrifices and prays for favor according to custom, he calls upon Hecate. Great honor comes full easily to him whose prayers the goddess receives favorably, and she bestows wealth upon him; for the power surely is with her. For as many as were born of Earth and Ocean amongst all these she has her due portion. The son of Cronos did her no wrong nor took anything away of all that was her portion among the former Titan gods: but she holds, as the division was at the first from the beginning, privilege both in earth, and in heaven, and in sea.
According to Hesiod, she held sway over many things:
Whom she will she greatly aids and advances: she sits by worshipful kings in judgement, and in the assembly whom she will is distinguished among the people. And when men arm themselves for the battle that destroys men, then the goddess is at hand to give victory and grant glory readily to whom she will. Good is she also when men contend at the games, for there too the goddess is with them and profits them: and he who by might and strength gets the victory wins the rich prize easily with joy, and brings glory to his parents. And she is good to stand by horsemen, whom she will: and to those whose business is in the grey discomfortable sea, and who pray to Hecate and the loud-crashing Earth-Shaker, easily the glorious goddess gives great catch, and easily she takes it away as soon as seen, if so she will. She is good in the byre with Hermes to increase the stock. The droves of kine and wide herds of goats and flocks of fleecy sheep, if she will, she increases from a few, or makes many to be less. So, then, albeit her mother's only child, she is honored amongst all the deathless gods. And the son of Cronos made her a nurse of the young who after that day saw with their eyes the light of all-seeing Dawn. So from the beginning she is a nurse of the young, and these are her honors.
Hesiod emphasizes that Hecate was an only child, the daughter of Perses and Asteria, a star-goddess who was the sister of Leto (the mother of Artemis and Apollo). Grandmother of the three cousins was Phoebe the ancient Titaness who personified the moon. His inclusion and praise of Hecate in Theogony has been troublesome for scholars, in that he seems to hold her in high regard, while the testimony of other writers, and surviving evidence, suggests that this was probably somewhat exceptional. It is theorized that Hesiod’s original village had a substantial Hecate following and that his inclusion of her in the Theogony was a way of adding to her prestige by spreading word of her among his readers.
If Hecate's cult spread from Anatolia into Greece, it is possible it presented a conflict, as her role was already filled by other more prominent deities in the Greek pantheon, above all by Artemis and Selene. This line of reasoning lies behind the widely accepted hypothesis that she was a foreign deity who was incorporated into the Greek pantheon. Other than in the Theogony, the Greek sources do not offer a consistent story of her parentage, or of her relations in the Greek pantheon: sometimes Hecate is related as a Titaness, and a mighty helper and protector of humans. Her continued presence was explained by asserting that, because she was the only Titan who aided Zeus in the battle of gods and Titans, she was not banished into the underworld realms after their defeat by the Olympians.
One surviving group of stories suggests how Hecate might have come to be incorporated into the Greek pantheon without affecting the privileged position of Artemis. Here, Hecate is a mortal priestess often associated with Iphigeneia. She scorns and insults Artemis, who in retribution eventually brings about the mortal's suicide. Artemis then adorns the dead body with jewelry and commands the spirit to rise and become her Hecate, who subsequently performs a role similar to Nemesis as an avenging spirit, but solely for injured women. Such myths in which a native deity 'sponsors' or ‘creates’ a foreign one were widespread in ancient cultures as a way of integrating foreign cults. If this interpretation is correct, as Hecate’s cult grew, she was inserted into the later myth of the birth of Zeus as one of the midwives that hid the child, while Cronus consumed the deceiving rock handed to him by Gaia. There was an area sacred to Hecate in the precincts of the Temple of Artemis at Ephesus, where the priests, megabyzi, officiated.
Hecate also came to be associated with ghosts, infernal spirits, the dead and sorcery. Like the totems of Hermes—herms placed at borders as a ward against danger—images of Hecate (like Artemis and Diana, often referred to as a "liminal" goddess) were also placed at the gates of cities, and eventually domestic doorways. Over time, the association with keeping out evil spirits could have led to the belief that if offended, Hecate could also allow the evil spirits in. According to one view, this accounts for invocations to Hecate as the supreme governess of the borders between the normal world and the spirit world, and hence as one with mastery over spirits of the dead. Whatever the reasons, Hecate’s power certainly came to be closely associated with sorcery. One interesting passage exists suggesting that the word "jinx" might have originated in a cult object associated with Hecate. "The Byzantine polymath Michael Psellus speaks of a bullroarer, consisting of a golden sphere, decorated throughout with symbols and whirled on an oxhide thong. He adds that such an instrument is called a iunx (hence "jinx"), but as for the significance says only that it is ineffable and that the ritual is sacred to Hecate."
Hecate is one of the most important figures in the so-called Chaldaean Oracles (2nd-3rd century CE) , where she is associated in fragment 194 with a strophalos (usually translated as a spinning top, or wheel, used in magic) "Labour thou around the Strophalos of Hecate." This appears to refer to a variant of the device mentioned by Psellus. Variations in interpretations of Hecate's role or roles can be traced in fifth-century Athens. In two fragments of Aeschylus she appears as a great goddess. In Sophocles and Euripides she is characterized as the mistress of witchcraft and the Keres.
In the Homeric Hymn to Demeter, Hecate is called the "tender-hearted", a euphemism perhaps intended to emphasize her concern with the disappearance of Persephone, when she addressed Demeter with sweet words at a time when the goddess was distressed. She later became Persephone's minister and close companion in the Underworld. But Hecate was never fully incorporated among the Olympian deities.
The modern understanding of Hecate has been strongly influenced by syncretic Hellenistic interpretations. Many of the attributes she was assigned in this period appear to have an older basis. For example, in the magical papyri of Ptolemaic Egypt, she is called the 'she-dog' or 'bitch', and her presence is signified by the barking of dogs. In late imagery she also has two ghostly dogs as servants by her side. However, her association with dogs predates the conquests of Alexander the Great and the emergence of the Hellenistic world. When Philip II laid siege to Byzantium she had already been associated with dogs for some time; the light in the sky and the barking of dogs that warned the citizens of a night time attack, saving the city, were attributed to Hecate Lampadephoros (the tale is preserved in the Suda). In gratitude the Byzantines erected a statue in her honor. As with many ancient virgin goddesses she remained unmarried and had no regular consort, though in some traditions she is indicated as the mother of Scylla.
Other Names and Epithets
Trimorphe (three-formed)
Goddess of the Crossroads
Cult images and altars of Hecate in her triplicate or trimorphic form were placed at crossroads (though they also appeared before private homes and in front of city gates). In this form she came to be known as the goddess Trivia "the three ways" in Roman mythology. In what appears to be a 7th Century indication of the survival of cult practices of this general sort, Saint Eligius, in his Sermo warns the sick among his recently converted flock in Flanders against putting "devilish charms at springs or trees or crossroads", and, according to Saint Ouen would urge them "No Christian should make or render any devotion to the deities of the trivium, where three roads meet...
Animals
Dogs were closely associated with Hecate in the Classical world. "In art and in literature Hecate is constantly represented as dog-shaped or as accompanied by a dog. Her approach was heralded by the howling of a dog. The dog was Hecate's regular sacrificial animal, and was often eaten in solemn sacrament." The sacrifice of dogs to Hecate is attested for Thrace, Samothrace, Colophon, and Athens.
It has been claimed that her association with dogs is "suggestive of her connection with birth, for the dog was sacred to Eileithyia, Genetyllis, and other birth goddesses. Although in later times Hecate's dog came to be thought of as a manifestation of restless souls or demons who accompanied her, its docile appearance and its accompaniment of a Hecate who looks completely friendly in many pieces of ancient art suggests that its original signification was positive and thus likelier to have arisen from the dog's connection with birth than the dog's demonic associations."
Athenaeus (writing in the 1st or 2nd century BCE, and drawing on the etymological speculation of Apollodorus) notes that the red mullet is sacred to Hecate, "on account of the resemblance of their names; for that the goddess is trimorphos, of a triple form." The Greek word for mullet was trigle and later trigla. He goes on to quote a fragment of verse "O mistress Hecate, Trioditis / With three forms and three faces / Propitiated with mullets". In relation to Greek concepts of pollution, Parker observes, "The fish that was most commonly banned was the red mullet (trigle), which fits neatly into the pattern. It 'delighted in polluted things,' and 'would eat the corpse of a fish or a man'. Blood-coloured itself, it was sacred to the blood-eating goddess Hecate. It seems a symbolic summation of all the negative characteristics of the creatures of the deep." At Athens, it is said there stood a statue of Hecate Triglathena, to whome the red mullet was offered in sacrifice.
The frog, significantly a creature that can cross between two elements, also is sacred to Hecate. In her three-headed representations, discussed above, Hecate often has one or more animal heads, including cow, dog, boar, serpent and horse.
Plants
Hecate was closely associated with plant lore and the concoction of medicines and poisons. In particular she was thought to give instruction in these closely related arts. Apollonius of Rhodes, in the Argonautica mentions that Medea was taught by Hecate, "I have mentioned to you before a certain young girl whom Hecate, daughter of Perses, has taught to work in drugs."
The goddess is described as wearing oak in fragments of Sophocles' lost play The Root Diggers (or The Root Cutters), and an ancient commentary on Apollonius of Rhodes' Argonautica (3.1214) describes her as having a head surrounded by serpents, twining through branches of oak. The yew in particular was sacred to Hecate.
"Greeks held the yew to be sacred to Hecate, queen of the underworld, crone aspect of the Triple Goddess. Her attendants draped wreathes of yew around the necks of black bulls which they slaughtered in her honor and yew boughs were burned on funeral pyres. The yew was associated with the alphabet and the scientific name for yew today, taxus, was probably derived from the Greek word for yew, toxos, which is hauntingly similar to toxon, their word for bow and toxicon, their word for poison. It is presumed that the latter were named after the tree because of its superiority for both bows and poison."
Hecate was said to favor offerings of garlic, which was closely associated with her cult. She is also sometimes associated with cypress, a tree symbolic of death and the underworld, and hence sacred to a number of chthonic deities.
A number of other plants (often poisonous, medicinal and/or psychoactive) are associated with Hecate. These include aconite (also called hecateis), belladonna, dittany, and mandrake. It has been suggested that the use of dogs for digging up mandrake is further corroboration of the association of this plant with Hecate; indeed, since at least as early as the first century CE, there are a number of attestations to the apparently widespread practice of using dogs to dig up plants associated with magic.
Places
Hecate was associated with borders, city walls, doorways, crossroads and, by extension, with realms outside or beyond the world of the living. She appears to have been particularly associated with being 'between' and hence is frequently characterized as a "liminal" goddess. "Hecate mediated between regimes – Olympian and Titan - but also between mortal and divine spheres." This liminal role is reflected in a number of her cult titles: Apotropaia (that turns away/protects); Enodia (on the way); Propulaia/Propylaia (before the gate); Triodia/Trioditis (who frequents crossroads); Klêidouchos (holding the keys), etc.
As a goddess expected to avert demons from the house or city over which she stood guard and to protect the individual as she or he passed through dangerous liminal places, Hecate would naturally become known as a goddess who could also refuse to avert the demons, or even drive them on against unfortunate individuals.
It was probably her role as guardian of entrances that led to Hecate's identification by the mid fifth century with Enodia, a Thessalian goddess. Enodia's very name ("In-the-Road") suggests that she watched over entrances, for it expresses both the possibility that she stood on the main road into a city, keeping an eye on all who entered, and in the road in front of private houses, protecting their inhabitants.
This function would appear to have some relationship with the iconographic association of Hecate with keys, and might also relate to her appearance with two torches, which when positioned on either side of a gate or door illuminated the immediate area and allowed visitors to be identified. "In Byzantium small temples in her honor were placed close to the gates of the city. Hecate's importance to Byzantium was above all as a deity of protection. When Philip of Macedon was about to attack the city, according to the legend she alerted the townspeople with her ever present torches, and with her pack of dogs, which served as her constant companions." This suggests that Hecate's close association with dogs derived in part from the use of watchdogs, who, particularly at night, raised an alarm when intruders approached. Watchdogs were used extensively by Greeks and Romans.
Like Hecate, "[t]he dog is a creature of the threshold, the guardian of doors and portals, and so it is appropriately associated with the frontier between life and death, and with demons and ghosts which move across the frontier. The yawning gates of Hades were guarded by the monstrous watchdog Cerberus, whose function was to prevent the living from entering the underworld, and the dead from leaving it."
Festivals
Hecate was worshipped by both the Greeks and the Romans who had their own festivals dedicated to her. According to Ruickbie (2004:19) the Greeks observed two days sacred to Hecate, one on the 13th of August and one on the 30th of November, whilst the Romans observed the 29th of every month as her sacred day.
Survival in Pre-Modern Folklore
Hecate has survived in folklore as a 'hag' figure associated with witchcraft. Strmiska notes that Hecate, conflated with the figure of Diana, appears in late antiquity and in the early medieval period as part of an "emerging legend complex" associated with gatherings of women, the moon, and witchcraft that eventually became established "in the area of Northern Italy, southern Germany, and the western Balkans." This theory of the Roman origins of many European folk traditions related to Diana or Hecate was explicitly advanced at least as early as 1807 and is reflected in numerous etymological claims by lexicographers from the 17th to the 19th century, deriving "hag" and/or "hex" from Hecate by way of haegtesse (Anglo-Saxon) and hagazussa (Old High German). Such derivations are today proposed only by a minority since being refuted by Grimm, who was skeptical of theories proposing non-Germanic origins for German folklore traditions.
Whatever the precise nature of Hecate's transition into folklore in late Antiquity, she is now firmly established as a figure in Neopaganism, which draws heavily on folkloric traditions associating Hecate with 'The Wild Hunt', hedges and 'hedge-riding', and other themes that parallel, but are not explicitly attested in, Classical sources.
Cross-cultural parallels
The figure of Hecate can often be associated with the figure of Isis in Egyptian myth, mainly due to her role as sorceress. Both were symbols of liminal points. Lucius Apuleius (c. 123 - c. 170 CE) in his work "The Golden Ass" associates Hecate with Isis:
'I am she that is the natural mother of all things, mistress and governess of all the elements, the initial progeny of worlds, chief of powers divine, Queen of heaven, the principal of the Gods celestial, the light of the goddesses: at my will the planets of the air, the wholesome winds of the Seas, and the silences of hell be disposed; my name, my divinity is adored throughout all the world in divers manners, in variable customs and in many names, [...] Some call me Juno, others Bellona of the Battles, and still others Hecate. Principally the Ethiopians which dwell in the Orient, and the Egyptians which are excellent in all kind of ancient doctrine, and by their proper ceremonies accustomed to worship me, do call me Queen Isis.[...]'
Some historians ultimately compare her to the Virgin Mary. She is also comparable to Hel of Nordic myth in her underworld function. Before she became associated with Greek mythology, she had many similarities with Artemis (wilderness, and watching over wedding ceremonies) and Hera (child rearing and the protection of young men or heroes, and watching over wedding ceremonies).
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HERNE THE HUNTER
In English folklore, Herne the Hunter is an equestrian ghost associated with Windsor Forest and Great Park in the English county of Berkshire. His appearance is notable in the fact that he has antlers upon his head. The first literary mention of Herne is in William Shakespeare's play, The Merry Wives of Windsor, though he has appeared in various other books, TV series and other media since. There are several theories attempting to place the origins of Herne as predating any evidence for him by connecting his appearance to pagan deities; one theory proposes that he is based upon the Anglo-Saxon god Woden, whilst another proposes than he is based upon the Celtic god Cernunnos.
The Legend
Herne is said to have been a huntsman in the employ of King Richard II (reigned 1377-1399) in and around Windsor Forest. He saved the King's life when he was attacked by a cornered white hart, but was mortally wounded himself in the process. A local wizard brought him back to health using his magical powers, which entailed tying the dead animal's antlers on Herne's head. In return, however, Herne had to give up his hunting skills. The other king's huntsmen framed him as a thief. As a result he lost the favour of the king. He was found the next day, hanging dead from a lone oak tree. That same oak tree is in the Home Park at Windsor Castle.
The Ghost
The earliest written account of Herne comes from Shakespeare's The Merry Wives of Windsor in 1597:
Sometime a keeper here in Windsor Forest,
Doth all the winter-time, at still midnight,
Walk round about an oak, with great ragg'd horns;
And there he blasts the tree, and takes the cattle,
And makes milch-kine yield blood, and shakes a chain
In a most hideous and dreadful manner.
You have heard of such a spirit, and well you know
The superstitious idle-headed eld
Receiv'd, and did deliver to our age,
This tale of Herne the Hunter for a truth.
— William Shakespeare, The Merry Wives of Windsor
This records several aspects of Herne's ghost which is said to have haunted Windsor Forest (covering all of East Berkshire and parts of south Buckinghamshire, northeast Hampshire and northwest Surrey) and specifically the Great Park ever since his death. Further details have entered local folklore from reported sightings , such as those in the 1920s . He appears antlered, sometimes beneath the tree on which he was hanged, known as "Herne's Oak", but more often riding his horse, accompanied by other wild huntsmen and the captured souls of those he has encountered on his journey. He is thus a phantom of ill omen, particularly for the country and, specifically, the Royal Family. He has a phosphorescent glow and is accompanied by demon hounds, a horned owl and other creatures of the forest.
Herne's Oak
The supposed location of Herne's Oak was, for many years, a matter of local speculation and controversy. Some Ordnance Survey maps show Herne's Oak a little to the north of Frogmore House in the Home Park (adjoining Windsor Great Park). This is generally believed to be the correct site from which the oak of Shakespeare's time was felled in 1796. Queen Victoria, unfortunately, had a replacement planted on a different site. This new tree fell in a gale in 1863 when carved mementoes were made from the timber, including a cabinet for the Queen. The bungle was, however, corrected by her son, King Edward VII, who planted the current Herne's Oak in 1906.
Possible Origins
Various theories have been proposed to account for the origin of the character, none of which have been proved conclusive, and the source for many of the tales told of Herne remain unknown.
Celtic
In his 1929 book The History of the Devil - The Horned God of the West Herne R. Lowe suggests that "Herne" could be the Old English version or pronunciation of the Celtic deity Cernunnos - considering that -os is usually dropped over time, plus, following the Grimms Law rules, the C becomes H (possibly from Indo-European 'horn'). Herne is a very localized figure not found outside Berkshire and the regions of the surrounding counties into which Windsor Forest once spread. Conversely, evidence of belief in Cernunnos has been recovered only in the region near Paris and not in Britain at all.
Anglo-Saxon
In the Dark Ages, Windsor Forest was settled by heathen Angles who worshipped their own pantheon of gods, including Woden, who was depicted as horned, rode across the night sky with his own Wild Hunt and hanged himself on an ash tree in order to learn the runic alphabet. The name Herne is not unlikely to be derived from the name Herian a name used for Woden as leader of the slain (Old Norse "Einherjar") and of the Wild Hunt. Another Wild Hunt-associated folkloric figure, King Herla, started as the Old English Herla cyning, a figure that is usually said to be Woden, but was later re-imagined as a Brythonic king, has a name that has also been connected to Herian and thus also possibly to Herne. It is possible that the name Herne may originate from the Old English hyrne or herne, the Old English for 'horn' or 'corner'.
Tudor
Another view is that Herne is connected to one Richard Horne, a yeoman during the reign of Henry VIII who was caught poaching in the wood.
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THE HORNED GOD
The Horned (or Antlered) God is one of the two primary deities found in neopagan religions. He is often given various names and epithets, and represents the male part of the religions' duotheistic theological system, the other part being the female Triple Goddess.
The term 'Horned God' itself predates Wicca, and is a 20th century syncretic term for a horned or antlered anthropomorphic god with pseudohistorical origins, who, according to Margaret Murray's 1921 The Witch-Cult in Western Europe, was the deity worshipped by a pan-European witchcraft-based cult, and was demonised into the form of the Devil by the Mediaeval Church. Horned and antlered figures appear in various religions and cultures, both ancient and modern, however the suggestion made by Murray that many or all of these represent a single pancultural deity is widely denied by contemporary historians. The Horned God has been analysed in several psychological theories, and it has also become a recurrent theme in fantasy literature since the 20th Century.
Horned God of Wicca
In the neopagan religion of Wicca, the god is seen as the masculine side of divinity, being both equal and opposite to the Goddess. The Wiccan god himself can be represented in many forms, including as the Sun god, the Sacrificed god and the Vegetation god. However it is the Horned god who is both the oldest aspect of the God to be followed by Wiccans, and the most popular.
The pioneers of Wicca, and related forms of neopagan witchcraft, such as Gerald Gardner, Doreen Valiente and Robert Cochrane, all claimed that their religion was a continuation of the pagan religion of the Witch-Cult. Historians who had purported the Witch-Cult's existence, such as Jules Michelet and Margaret Murray, For Wiccans, the Horned God is "the personification of the life force energy in animals and the wild" and is associated with the wilderness, virility and the hunt. Doreen Valiente writes that the Horned God also carries the souls of the dead to the underworld.
Neopagans generally tend to polarise the universe into male and female energies, however in most groups the symbolism of the Horned God is less developed than that of the Goddess. In Wicca the cycle of the seasons is imagined to follow the relationship between the Horned God and the Goddess. The Horned God impregnates the Goddess and then dies during the autumn and winter months and is then reborn by the Goddess in spring. The different relationships throughout the year are sometimes distinguished by splitting the god into aspects, the Oak King and the Holly King. The relationships between the Goddess and the Horned God are mirrored by Wiccans in seasonal rituals. For example, the Horned God dies on October 31, which Wiccans call Samhain, the ritual of which is focused on death. He is then reborn on Winter Solstice, December 21.
In 1959's The Meaning of Witchcraft, Gerald Gardner, the founder of modern Wicca says that The Horned God as an Under-god, a mediator between an unknowable supreme deity and the people. Whilst the Horned God is the most common depiction of masculine divinity in Wicca, he is not the only representation. Other examples include the Green Man and the Sun God. The similarities between images of the devil and the Horned God may encourage some to wrongly believe that the object of worship by Neopagans is satan.
Names of the Horned God
The Horned God is given different names and epithets by different Wiccan groups and traditions. Epithets for the Horned God include The Lord and the Old One. Doreen Valiente, a former High Priestess of the Gardnerian tradition, claimed that Gerald Gardner's Bricket Wood coven referred to the god as Cernunnos, or Kernunno, which is a Gallo-Celtic meaning "the Horned One".
Stewart Farrar, a High Priest of the Alexandrian tradition referred to the Horned God as Karnayna, which he believed was a corruption of the word Cernunnos. In Cochrane's Craft, which was founded by Robert Cochrane, the Horned God was often referred to by a Biblical name, Tubal Cain, who was, according to mythology, the first blacksmith. In this tradition, the God is also referred to as Bran, a Welsh mythological figure, Wayland, the smith in Germanic mythology, and Herne, a horned figure from English folklore.
Influences from Literature
The popular image of the Greek god Pan was removed from its classical context in the writings of the Romantics of the 18th century and connected with their ideals of a pastoral England. This, along with the general public's increasing lack of familiarity of Greek mythology at the time led to the figure of Pan becoming generalised as a 'horned god', and applying connotations to the character, such as benevolence that were not evident in the original Greek myths.
Romano-Celtic Fusion
Georg Luck states that the Horned God may have appeared in late antiquity, stemming from the merging of Cernunnos, a horned god of the Celts, with the Greco-Roman Pan/Faunus, a combination of gods which he posits created a new deity, around which the remaining pagans, those refusing to convert to Christianity, rallied. This deity probably provided the prototype for later Christian conceptions of the devil, and worshippers of the Horned God were cast by the Church as witches.
Fantasy and Science Fiction
In 1908's The Wind In The Willows by Kenneth Grahame, in Chapter 7, The Piper at the Gates of Dawn, Ratty and Mole meet a mystical horned being, powerful, fearsome and kind.
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KOKOPELLI
Kokopelli is a fertility deity, usually depicted as a humpbacked flute player (often with a huge phallus and feathers or antenna-like protrusions on his head), who has been venerated by some Native American cultures in the Southwestern United States. Like most fertility deities, Kokopelli presides over both childbirth and agriculture. He is also a trickster god and represents the spirit of music.
Myths
Among the Hopi, Kokopelli carries unborn children on his back and distributes them to women (for this reason, young girls often fear him). He often takes part in rituals relating to marriage, and Kokopelli himself is sometimes depicted with a consort, a woman called Kokopelmana by the Hopi. It is said that Kokopelli can be seen on the full and waning moon, much like the "rabbit on the moon."
Kokopelli also presides over the reproduction of game animals, and for this reason, he is often depicted with animal companions such as rams and deer. Other common creatures associated with him include sun-bathing animals such as snakes, or water-loving animals like lizards and insects. Because of this, some scholars believe that Kokopelli's flute is actually a blowgun (or started out as one). Alternatively, the "flute" may actually be a pipe for smoking tobacco in a sacred ceremony, or some other device entirely. It is actually very likely that the flute is a change to make Kokopelli "easier" on the public, as well as to perhaps allow for use in business.
In his domain over agriculture, Kokopelli's fluteplaying chases away the Winter and brings about Spring. Many tribes, such as the Zuni, also associate Kokopelli with the rains. He frequently appears with Paiyatamu, another flautist, in depictions of maize-grinding ceremonies. Some tribes say he carries seeds and babies on his back.
In recent years, the emasculated version of Kokopelli has been adopted as a broader symbol of the Southwestern United States as a whole. His image adorns countless items such as T-shirts, ball caps, and keychains. A bicycle trail between Grand Junction, Colorado, and Moab, Utah, is now known as the Kokopelli Trail.
Origins and Development
Kokopelli may have originally been a representation of ancient Aztec traders, known as pochtecas, who traveled to this region from northern Mesoamerica. These traders brought their goods in sacks slung across their backs and this sack may have evolved into Kokopelli's familiar hump (in fact, many tribes make Kokopelli a trader in this way. These men also used flutes to announce themselves as friendly as they approached a settlement. This origin is still in doubt, however, since the first known images of Kokopelli predate the major era of Aztec-Anasazi trade by several hundred years.
Another theory is that Kokopelli is actually an anthropomorphic insect. Many of the earliest depictions of Kokopelli make him very insect-like in appearance. The name "Kokopelli" may be a combination of "Koko", another Hopi and Zuni deity, and "pelli", the Hopi and Zuni word for the desert robber fly, an insect with a prominent proboscis and a rounded back, which is also noted for its zealous sexual proclivities. A more recent etymology is that Kokopelli means literally "kachina hump". Because the Hopi were the tribe from whom the Spanish explorers first learned of the god, their name is the one most commonly used.
Kokopelli is one of the most easily recognized figures found in the petroglyphs and pictographs of the Southwest. The earliest known petroglyph of the figure dates to about A.D. 1000. Kokopelli was one of several kachina dolls sold to tourists. The Spanish missionaries in the area convinced the Hopi craftsmen to omit the phallus from their representations of the figure. As with most kachina dolls, the Hopi Kokopelli was often represented by a human dancer. These dancers apparently had great fun with missionaries and tourists by making obscene and sexual gestures that the foreigners did not understand.
A similar humpbacked figure is found in artifacts of the Mississippian culture of the U.S. southeast. Between approximately 1200 to 1400 AD, water vessels were crafted in the shape of a humpbacked woman. These forms may represent a cultural heroine or founding ancestor, and may also reflect concepts related to the life-giving blessings of water and fertility.
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LUGH
Lugh (modern Irish Lú, earlier Lug) is an Irish deity represented in mythological texts as a hero and High King of the distant past. He is known by the epithets Lámhfhada ("long arm" or "long hand"), for his skill with a spear or sling, Ildanach ("skilled in many arts"), Samh-ildánach ("Equally skilled in many arts"), Lonnbeimnech ("fierce striker" or perhaps "sword-shouter") and Macnia ("boy hero"), and by the matronymic mac Ethlenn or mac Ethnenn ("son of Ethliu or Ethniu"). He is a reflex of the pan-Celtic god Lugus, and his Welsh counterpart is Lleu Llaw Gyffes "Lugh Strong Hand".
Lugh in Irish Tradition
Birth
Lugh's father is Cian of the Tuatha Dé Danann, and his mother is Ethniu, daughter of Balor, of the Fomorians. In Cath Maige Tuired their union is a dynastic marriage following an alliance between the Tuatha Dé and the Fomorians. In the Lebor Gabála Érenn Cian gives the boy to Tailtiu, queen of the Fir Bolg, in fosterage.
A folktale told to John O'Donovan by Shane O'Dugan of Tory Island in 1835 recounts the birth of a grandson of Balor who grows up to kill his grandfather. The grandson is unnamed, his father is called Mac Cinnfhaelaidh and the manner of his killing of Balor is different, but it has been taken as a version of the birth of Lugh, and was adapted as such by Lady Gregory. In this tale, Balor hears a druid's prophecy that he will be killed by his own grandson. To prevent this he imprisons his only daughter in the Tór Mór (great tower) of Tory Island, cared for by twelve women, who are to prevent her ever meeting or even learning of the existence of men. On the mainland, Mac Cinnfhaelaidh owns a magic cow who gives such abundant milk that everyone, including Balor, wants to possess her. While the cow is in the care of Mac Cinnfhaelaidh's brother Mac Samthainn, Balor appears in the form of a little red-haired boy and tricks him into giving him the cow. Looking for revenge, Mac Cinnfhaelaidh calls on a leanan sídhe (fairy woman) called Biróg, who transports him by magic to the top of Balor's tower, where he seduces Eithne. In time she gives birth to triplets, which Balor gathers up in a sheet and sends to be drowned in a whirlpool. The messenger drowns two of the babies, but unwittingly drops one child into the harbour, where he is rescued by Biróg. She takes him to his father, who gives him to his brother, Gavida the smith, in fosterage.
There may be further triplism associated with his birth. His father in the folktale is one of a triad of brothers, Mac Cinnfhaelaidh, Gavida and Mac Samthainn, and his father in the medieval texts, Cian, is often mentioned together with his brothers Cú and Cethen. Two characters called Lugaid, a popular medieval Irish name thought to derive from Lugh, have three fathers: Lugaid Riab nDerg (Lugaid of the Red Stripes) was the son of the three Findemna or fair triplets, and Lugaid mac Con Roí was also known as mac Trí Con, "son of three hounds". In Ireland's other great "sequestered maiden" story, the tragedy of Deirdre, the king's intended is carried off by three brothers, who are hunters with hounds. The canine imagery continues with Cian's brother Cú ("hound"), another Lugaid, Lugaid mac Con (son of a hound), and Lugh's son Cúchulainn ("Culann's Hound").
Lugh Joins the Tuatha Dé Danann
As a young man Lugh travels to Tara to join the court of king Nuada of the Tuatha Dé Danann. The doorkeeper will not let him in unless he has a skill with which to serve the king. He offers his services as a wright, a smith, a champion, a swordsman, a harpist, a hero, a poet and historian, a sorcerer, and a craftsman, but each time is rejected as the Tuatha Dé Danann already have someone with that skill. But when Lugh asks if they have anyone with all those skills simultaneously, the doorkeeper has to admit defeat, and Lugh joins the court. He wins a flagstone-throwing contest against Ogma, the champion, and entertains the court with his harp. The Tuatha Dé are at that time oppressed by the Fomorians, and Lugh is amazed how meekly they accept this. Nuada wonders if this young man could lead them to freedom. Lugh is given command over the Tuatha Dé, and he begins making preparations for war.
The Sons of Tuireann
When the sons of Tuireann, Brian, Iuchar and Iucharba, kill his father, Cian (who was in the form of a pig at the time), Lugh sets them a series of seemingly impossible quests as recompense. They achieve them all, but are fatally wounded in completing the last one. Despite Tuireann's pleas, Lugh denies them the use of one of the items they have retrieved, a magic pigskin which heals all wounds. They die of their wounds, and Tuireann dies of grief over their bodies.
The Battle of Magh Tuireadh
Using the magic artifacts the sons of Tuireann have gathered, Lugh leads the Tuatha Dé Danann in the Second Battle of Mag Tuireadh against the Fomorians. Nuada is killed in the battle by Balor. Lugh faces Balor, who opens his terrible, poisonous eye that kills all it looks upon, but Lugh shoots a sling-stone that drives his eye out the back of his head, wreaking havoc on the Fomorian army behind. After the victory Lugh finds Bres, the half-Fomorian former king of the Tuatha Dé, alone and unprotected on the battlefield, and Bres begs for his life. If he is spared, he promises, he will ensure that the cows of Ireland always give milk. The Tuatha Dé refuse the offer. He then promises four harvests a year, but the Tuatha Dé say one harvest a year suits them. But Lugh spares his life on the condition that he teach the Tuatha Dé how and when to plough, sow and reap. It is widely held by scholars that the battle between Lugh and Balor reflects a common Indo-European motif, the battle between the youthful hero and his tyrant grandfather.
Later Life and Death
Lugh instituted a harvest fair during the festival of Lughnasadh in memory of his foster-mother, Tailtiu, held on 1 August at the town that bears her name (now Teltown, County Meath). He likewise instituted Lughnasadh fairs in the areas of Carman and Naas in honour of Carman and Nás, the eponymous tutelary goddess of these two regions. Horse races and displays of martial arts were important activities at all three fairs. However, Lughnasadh itself is a celebration of Lugh's triumph over the spirits of the Other World who had tried to keep the harvest for themselves. It survived long into Christian times and is still celebrated under a variety of names. Lúnasa is now the Irish name for the month of August.
According to a poem of the dindsenchas, Lugh was responsible for the death of Bres. He made 300 wooden cows, and filled them with a bitter, poisonous red liquid which was then "milked" into pails and offered to Bres to drink. Bres, who was under an obligation not to refuse hospitality, drank it down without flinching, and it killed him. Lugh is said to have invented the board game fidchell. He had a dog called Failinis.
He had several wives, including Buí and Nás, daughters of Ruadri, king of Britain. Buí lived and was buried at Knowth. Nás was buried at Naas, County Kildare, which is named after her. Lug had a son, Ibic, by Nás. His daughter or sister was Ebliu, who married Fintan. One of his wives, unnamed, had an affair with Cermait, son of the Dagda. Lugh killed him in revenge, but Cermait's sons, Mac Cuill, Mac Cecht and Mac Gréine, killed Lugh in return, drowning him in Loch Lugborta. He had ruled for forty years.
Lugh in Other Cycles and Traditions
In the Ulster Cycle he fathered Cúchulainn with the mortal maiden Deichtine. When Cúchulainn lay wounded after a gruelling series of combats during the Táin Bó Cuailnge (Cattle Raid of Cooley), Lugh appeared and healed his wounds over a period of three days.
In Baile in Scáil (The Phantom's Trance), a story of the Historical Cycle, Lugh appeared in a vision to Conn of the Hundred Battles. Enthroned on a daïs, he directed a beautiful woman called the Sovereignty of Ireland to serve Conn a portion of meat and a cup of red ale, ritually confirming his right to rule and the dynasty that would follow him.
In the Fenian Cycle the dwarf harper Cnú Deireóil claimed to be Lugh's son.
The Luigne, a people who inhabited Counties Meath and Sligo, claimed descent from him.
Lugh’s Weapons
Lugh’s sling rod was the rainbow and the Milky Way was called "Lugh's Chain". He also had a magic spear (named Brionac), which, unlike the rod-sling, he had no need to wield since it was alive and thirsted so for blood that only by steeping its head in a sleeping-draught of pounded fresh poppy seeds could it be kept at rest. When battle was near, it was drawn out; then it roared and struggled against its thongs, fire flashed from it, and it tore through the ranks of the enemy once slipped from the leash, never tired of slaying.
Lugh’s Hound
Another of his possessions was a magic hound which an ancient poem, one attributed to the Fenian hero, Caoilte, calls,
“
That hound of mightiest deeds,
Which was irresistible in hardness of combat,
Was better than wealth ever known,
A ball of fire every night.
Other virtues had that beautiful hound
(Better this property than any other property),
Mead or wine would grow of it,
Should it bathe in spring water."
Lugh's Name and Nature
Lugh's name was formerly interpreted as deriving from the Proto-Indo-European root *leuk-, "flashing light", and he is often surrounded by solar imagery, so from Victorian times he has often been considered a sun god, similar to the Greco-Roman Apollo. He appears in folklore as a trickster, and in County Mayo thunderstorms were referred to as battles between Lugh and Balor, so he is sometimes considered a storm god: Alexei Kondratiev notes his epithet lonnbeimnech ("fierce striker") and concludes that "if his name has any relation to 'light' it more properly means 'lightning-flash' (as in Breton luc'h and Cornish lughes)". However, Breton and Cornish are Brythonic languages in which Proto-Celtic *k did undergo systematic sound changes into -gh- and -ch-. This change did not occur in Irish, so it is unlikely that Lugh derives from the root *leuk-, nor is it related to any other Proto-Indo-European root connoting luminosity.
Lugh's mastery of all arts has led many to link him with the un-named Gaulish god Julius Caesar identifies with Mercury, whom he describes as the "inventor of all the arts". Caesar describes the Gaulish Mercury as the most revered deity in Gaul, overseeing journeys and business transactions. Juliette Wood interprets Lugh's name as deriving from the Celtic root *lugios, "oath", and the Irish word lugh connotes ideas of "blasphemy, cussing, lies, bond, joint, binding oath", which strengthens the identification with Mercury, who was, among other attributes, a god of contracts.
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THE MORRIGAN
The Morrígan ("terror" or "phantom queen") or Mórrígan ("great queen") (also known as Morrígu, Morríghan, Mor-Ríoghain, sometimes given in the plural as Morrígna) is a figure from Irish mythology who appears to have once been a goddess, although she is not explicitly referred to as such in the texts.
She is associated with sovereignty, prophecy, war, and death on the battlefield. She sometimes appears in the form of a crow, flying above the warriors, and in the Ulster cycle she also takes the form of an eel, a wolf, and a cow. She is generally considered a war deity comparable with the Germanic Valkyries, although her association with cattle also suggests a role connected with fertility, wealth, and the land. She is often interpreted as a triple goddess, although membership of the triad varies: the most common combination is the Morrígan, the Badb, and Macha, but sometimes includes Nemain, Fea, Anann, and others.
Etymology
There is some disagreement over the meaning of the Morrígan's name. It can be straightforwardly interpreted as "great queen" (Old Irish mór, great; rígan, queen, deriving from a hypothetical Proto-Celtic *Māra Rīganī-s. However it often lacks the diacritic over the o in the texts. Alternatively, mor (without diacritic) may derive from an Indo-European root connoting terror or monstrousness, cognate with the Old English maere (which survives in the modern English word "nightmare") and the Scandinavian mara. This can be reconstructed in Proto-Celtic as *Moro-rīganī-s. Current scholarship mostly holds to Morrígan, often translated as "Phantom Queen" being the older, more accurate form.
Sources
Glosses and Glossaries
The earliest sources for the Morrígan are glosses in Latin manuscripts, and glossaries (collections of glosses). In a 9th century manuscript containing the Latin Vulgate translation of the Book of Isaiah, the word Lamia is used to translate the Hebrew Lilith. A gloss explains this as "a monster in female form, that is, a morrígan". Cormac's Glossary (also 9th century), and a gloss in the later manuscript H.3.18, both explain the plural word gudemain ("spectres") with the plural form morrígna. The 8th century O'Mulconry's Glossary says that Macha is one of the three morrígna. It therefore appears that at this time the name Morrígan was seen as referring to a class of beings rather than an individual.
Ulster Cycle
The Morrígan's earliest narrative appearances, in which she is depicted as an individual, are in stories of the Ulster Cycle, where she has an ambiguous relationship with the hero Cúchulainn. In Táin Bó Regamna (The Cattle Raid of Regamain), Cúchulainn encounters the Morrígan as she drives a heifer from his territory. He challenges and insults her, not realising who she is. By this he earns her enmity. She makes a series of threats, and foretells a coming battle in which he will be killed. She tells him, enigmatically, "I guard your death".
In the Táin Bó Cuailnge queen Medb of Connacht launches an invasion of Ulster to steal the bull Donn Cuailnge; the Morrígan, glossed as equivalent to Alecto of the Greek Furies, appears to the bull in the form of a crow and warns him to flee. Cúchulainn defends Ulster by fighting a series of single combats at fords against Medb's champions. In between combats the Morrígan appears to him as a young woman and offers him her love, and her aid in the battle, but he spurns her. In response she intervenes in his next combat, first in the form of an eel who trips him, then as a wolf who stampedes cattle across the ford, and finally as a red heifer leading the stampede, just as she had threatened in their previous encounter. However Cúchulainn wounds her in each form and defeats his opponent despite her interference. Later she appears to him as an old woman bearing the same three wounds that her animal forms sustained, milking a cow. She gives Cúchulainn three drinks of milk. He blesses her with each drink, and her wounds are healed. As the armies gather for the final battle, she prophesies the bloodshed to come.
In one version of Cúchulainn's death-tale, as the hero rides to meet his enemies, he encounters the Morrígan as a hag washing his bloody armour in a ford, an omen of his death. Later in the story, mortally wounded, Cúchulainn ties himself to a standing stone with his own entrails so he can die upright, and it is only when a crow lands on his shoulder that his enemies believe he is dead.
Mythological Cycle
The Morrígan also appears in texts of the Mythological Cycle. In the 12th century pseudohistorical compilation Lebor Gabála Érenn she is listed among the Tuatha Dé Danann as one of the daughters of Ernmas, granddaughter of Nuada. The first three daughters of Ernmas are given as Ériu, Banba, and Fódla. Their names are synonyms for Ireland, and they were married to Mac Cuill, Mac Cécht, and Mac Gréine, the last three Tuatha Dé Danann kings of Ireland. Associated with the land and kingship, they probably represent a triple goddess of sovereignty. Next come Ernmas's other three daughters: the Badb, Macha, and the Morrígan. A quatrain describes the three as wealthy, "springs of craftiness" and "sources of bitter fighting". The Morrígan's name is said to be Anann, and she had three sons, Glon, Gaim, and Coscar. According to Geoffrey Keating's 17th century History of Ireland, Ériu, Banba, and Fódla worshipped the Badb, Macha, and the Morrígan respectively, suggesting that the two triads of goddesses may be seen as equivalent.
The Morrígan also appears in Cath Maige Tuireadh (The Battle of Mag Tuired). On Samhain she keeps a tryst with the Dagda before the battle against the Fomorians. When he meets her she is washing herself, standing with one foot on either side of the river Unius. In some sources she is believed to have created the river. After they have sex, the Morrígan promises to summon the magicians of Ireland to cast spells on behalf of the Tuatha Dé, and to destroy Indech, the Fomorian king, taking from him "the blood of his heart and the kidneys of his valour". Later, we are told, she would bring two handfuls of his blood and deposit them in the same river (however, we are also told later in the text that Indech was killed by Ogma).
As battle is about to be joined, the Tuatha Dé leader, Lug, asks each what power they bring to the battle. The Morrígan's reply is difficult to interpret, but involves pursuing, destroying and subduing. When she comes to the battlefield she chants a poem, and immediately the battle breaks and the Fomorians are driven into the sea. After the battle she chants another poem celebrating the victory and prophesying the end of the world. In another story she lures away the bull of a woman called Odras, who follows her to the otherworld via the cave of Cruachan. When she falls asleep, the Morrígan turns her into a pool of water.
Nature and Functions
The Morrígan is often considered a triple goddess, but her supposed triple nature is ambiguous and inconsistent. Sometimes she appears as one of three sisters, the daughters of Ernmas: the Morrígan, the Badb and Macha. Sometimes the trinity consists of the Badb, Macha and Nemain, collectively known as the Morrígan, or in the plural as the Morrígna. Occasionally Fea or Anu also appear in various combinations. However the Morrígan also frequently appears alone, and her name is sometimes used interchangeably with the Badb, with no third "aspect" mentioned.
The Morrígan is usually interpreted as a "war goddess": W. M. Hennessey's "The Ancient Irish Goddess of War," written in 1870, was influential in establishing this interpretation. Her role often involves premonitions of a particular warrior's violent death, suggesting a link with the Banshee of later folklore. This connection is further noted by Patricia Lysaght: "In certain areas of Ireland this supernatural being is, in addition to the name banshee, also called the badhb".
It has also been suggested that she was closely tied to Irish männerbund groups (described as "bands of youthful warrior-hunters, living on the borders of civilized society and indulging in lawless activities for a time before inheriting property and taking their places as members of settled, landed communities") and that these groups may have been in some way dedicated to her. If true, her worship may have resembled that of Perchta groups in Germanic areas.
However, Máire Herbert has argued that "war per se is not a primary aspect of the role of the goddess", and that her association with cattle suggests her role was connected to the earth, fertility and sovereignty; she suggests that her association with war is a result of a confusion between her and the Badb, who she argues was originally a separate figure. She can be interpreted as providing political or military aid, or protection to the king - acting as a goddess of sovereignty, not necessarily a war goddess.
There is a burnt mound site in County Tipperary known as Fulacht na Mór Ríoghna ("cooking pit of the Mórrígan"). The fulachta sites are found in wild areas, and usually associated with outsiders such as the Fianna and the above-mentioned männerbund groups, as well as with the hunting of deer. The cooking connection also suggests to some a connection with the three mythical hags who cook the meal of dogflesh that brings the hero Cúchulainn to his doom. The Dá Chich na Morrigna ("two breasts of the Mórrígan"), a pair of hills in County Meath, suggest to some a role as a tutelary goddess, comparable to Danu or Anu, who has her own hills in County Kerry. Other goddesses known to have similar hills are Áine and Grian of County Limerick who, in addition to a tutelary function, also have solar attributes.
Arthurian Legend
There have been attempts by some modern authors of fiction to link the Arthurian character Morgan le Fay with the Morrígan. Morgan first appears in Geoffrey of Monmouth's Vita Merlini (The Life of Merlin) in the 12th century. However, while the creators of the literary character of Morgan may have been somewhat inspired by the much older tales of the goddess, the relationship ends there. Scholars such as Rosalind Clark hold that the names are unrelated, the Welsh "Morgan" (Wales being the source of Arthurian legend) being derived from root words associated with the sea, while the Irish "Morrígan" has its roots either in a word for "terror" or a word for "greatness".
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MOTHER NATURE
Mother Nature (sometimes known as Mother Earth) is a common personification of nature that focuses on the life-giving and nurturing features of nature by embodying it in the form of the mother. Images of women representing mother earth, and mother nature, are timeless. In prehistoric times, goddesses were worshipped for their association with fertility, fecundity, and agricultural bounty. Priestesses held dominion over aspects of Incan, Algonquin, Assyrian, Babylonian, Slavonic, Roman, Greek, Indian, and Iroquoian religions in the millennia prior to the inception of patriarchal religions.
Western Tradition History
The word nature comes from the Latin word, natura, meaning birth or character. In English its first recorded use, in the sense of the entirety of the phenomena of the world, was very late in history in 1662; however natura, and the personification of Mother Nature, was widely popular in the Middle Ages and can be traced to Ancient Greece in origin; though Earth or Eorthe in the Old English period may have been personified as a goddess. Likewise the Norse also had a goddess called Jord Earth. The pre-Socratic philosophers of Greece had invented nature when they abstracted the entirety of phenomena of the world into a single name and spoken of as a single object: physis. Later Greek thinkers such as Aristotle were not as entirely inclusive, excluding the stars and moon, the "supernatural", from nature. Thus from this Aristotelian view—nature existing inside a larger framework and not inclusive of everything—nature became a personified deity, and it is from this we have the origins of a mythological goddess nature. Later medieval Christian thinkers did not see nature as inclusive of everything, but thought that she was created by God, her place lay on earth, below the heavens and moon. Nature lay somewhere in the middle, with agents above her (angels) and below her (demons and hell). For the medieval mind she was only a personification, not a goddess. The modern concept of nature, all inclusive of all phenomenon, has returned to its original pre-Socratic roots, no longer a personification or deity except in a rhetorical sense, a bow to her illustrious traditions.
Greek Myth
Specifically in Greek mythology, the myth of Demeter and Persephone tells the story of a mother who discovers that her daughter has been abducted by Hades, who drags Persephone into the underworld with him. Demeter, goddess of the harvest, whose name originally meant 'earth mother', wreaked revenge upon the earth by refusing to provide any crops, so that the "entire human race [would] have perished of cruel, biting hunger if Zeus had not been concerned" (Larousse 152). She would not permit the earth to bear fruit until she saw her daughter again, and so Hades was forced by Zeus to allow Persephone to live with her mother, but while Persephone had lived in the Underworld, she had been forced to eat seeds of the pomegranate, the food of the dead. When Hermes came to take Persephone back to her mother Hades argued that she had tasted the fruit of the dead, therefore, must remain with him and be queen of the underworld. Zeus made a deal with Hades, for every seed that Persephone ate she would have to stay for a month in the Underworld with Hades; the other months she would remain with her mother. She had eaten six pomegranate seeds and had to spend six months with Hades - six months that represent fall and winter. However, the price humankind pays, according to the myth, is that when autumn winds arrive, and the earth hardens and becomes covered in snow and frost, Demeter is without her daughter, and allows no fecundity or growth; in contrast, the spring and summer months are those of rejoicing, flowers in bloom, and the beginning of months of warmth and fertility.
In this Greek myth, Demeter, the earth mother, has the power to deny humankind fruits of the harvest. A mother so powerful and so vengeful is an ambivalent figure in myth and history. The metaphor of mother nature continues to permeate the imagination of painters and writers, whose perceptions shape their audiences' images of, and beliefs about, mother, nature and women in general..
Indigenous Peoples of the Americas
Algonquin
Algonquin legend says that "beneath the clouds lives the Earth-Mother from whom is derived the Water of Life, who at her bosom feeds plants, animals and human" (Larousse 428). She is also known as Nokomis, the Grandmother.
Incan
In Inca mythology, Mama Pacha or Pachamama is a fertility goddess who presides over planting and harvesting. Pachamama is usually translated as "Mother Earth" but a more literal translation would be "Mother Universe" (in Aymara and Quechua mama = mother / pacha = world, space-time or the universe). Pachamama and her husband, Inti are the most benevolent deities and are worshiped in parts of the Andean mountain ranges, also known as Tawantinsuyu (stretching from present day Ecuador to Chile and Argentina).
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RHIANNON
In the Mabinogion of Welsh mythology Rhiannon is the horse goddess reminiscent of Epona from Gaulish religion. Rhiannon was a daughter of Hefeydd the Old. She was married to Pwyll, and later, Manawydan.
Story of Rhiannon
Pwyll first met Rhiannon when she appeared as a beautiful woman dressed in gold and riding a white horse. Pwyll sent his horsemen after her, but she was too fast. In fact, she was riding no faster than Pwyll and his knights; her horse's swiftness was a mirage she created for Pwyll's and her benefit. After three days, he finally chased her himself. When he spoke, asking her to stop, Rhiannon told him she would rather marry him than the man she was being forced upon, Gwawl. She made a tryst with Pwyll and after a year from that day, he won her from Gwawl by following Rhiannon's advice to trick Gwawl into climbing into a magic bag that Rhiannon had given to Pwyll, striking an agreement to free him in exchange for Rhiannon.
Rhiannon gave birth to a son after three years of their rule; however, on the night of the birth, the child disappeared while in the care of six of Rhiannon's ladies-in-waiting. They feared that they would be put to death, and to avoid any blame, smeared blood from a puppy on the sleeping Rhiannon, and lay its bones around her bed. Pwyll's counselors imposed a penance on Rhiannon for her crime, to remain in the court of Arberth for seven years, and to sit every day near a horse-block outside the gate telling her story to all that passed. In addition, she was to carry any willing guest to the court on her back.
The child appeared outside a stable of Teyrnon, whose mares had just given birth but the foals had disappeared. Teyrnon had been watching his stables when he saw a mysterious beast coming to take the foal; Teyrnon stopped the beast by cutting off its arm at the elbow, and found the child outside the stable. He and his wife adopted him. The child grew to adulthood in only seven years and was given the foal which had led Teyrnon to the stable. Teyrnon realized who the child was and returned him to Pwyll and Rhiannon, who named him Pryderi (care).
Pryderi married Cigfa and became Prince of Dyfed after his father died. He then invited Manawydan (his stepfather) to live with him in Dyfed. Soon, Dyfed turned into a barren wasteland and only Rhiannon, Pryderi, Cigfa and Manawydan survived. Manawydan and Pryderi, while out hunting, saw a white boar which they followed. Pryderi and his mother, Rhiannon, touched a golden bowl that the boar led them to and became enchanted. Manawydan and Cigfa were unable to help them until they captured a mouse which was actually the wife of Llwyd, Rhiannon's enemy (seeking revenge for her treatment of Gwawl), and the spell was lifted.
Etymology
"What does the name Rhiannon mean?" and "Who was Rhiannon?" are two distinct questions. Unfortunately, many websites devoted to babies’ names seem to confuse the two issues: Rhiannon was not a nymph and was not a witch; and the name certainly does not mean ‘nymph’ or ‘witch’, as proven below. The name appears to be derived from the Proto-Celtic root *rīganī meaning "queen" in combination with the augmentive suffix -on. The Romano-British form of this name, if it had existed at that stage, would likely have been *Rīgantonā. This is supported by a number of academic authors.
According to Professor Proinsias Mac Cana of University College Dublin and Visiting Professor of Celtic Studies at Harvard University Rhiannon derives ‘from *Rīgantonā Divine Queen’ . Dr Anne Ross gives Rhiannon’s derivation as, "Welsh Riannon from Rigantona, great queen". Professor Miranda Green of the University of Wales gives two meanings, combining the above derivations: "Her name may derive from that of a pagan goddess Rigantona ('Great – or Sacred – Queen')" . In answer to the question, "Who was Rhiannon?", Proinsias Mac Cana states: "[Rhiannon] reincarnates the goddess of sovereignty who, in taking to her a spouse, thereby ordained him legitimate king of the territory which she personified". According to Professor Green, "Rhiannon conforms to two archetypes of myth ... a gracious, bountiful queen-goddess.:
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MANANNAN MAC LIR
In Celtic mythology, Manannán mac Lir is the god of the sea. He is often seen as a psychopomp, and considered to have strong connections to the Otherworld islands of the dead, as well as to weather and the mists between the worlds. He is usually counted as one of the Tuatha Dé Danann, although most scholars consider him to be of an older race of deities. He features, under slightly varying names, across early Irish, Scots, Welsh, and Manx myth.
In Mythology and Folklore
Manannán appears in many Celtic myths and tales, although he only plays a prominent role in some of them. In the tale "His Three Calls to Cormac", Manannán tempts the Irish King Cormac mac Airt with treasure in exchange for his family. Cormac is led into the Otherworld and taught a harsh lesson by Manannán, but in the end his wife and children are restored to him. Also, Manannán rewards him with a magic cup which breaks if three lies are spoken over it and is made whole again if three truths are spoken. The tale "Manannan at Play" features the god as a clown and beggar who turns out to be a harper. Manannán, here in his trickster guise, plays a number of pranks, some of which resulting in serious trouble; by the end of the tale, he compensated for the pranks that got him in trouble.
In the Ulster Cycle tale, Serglige Con Culainn ("The Sickbed of Cúchulainn") Manannán's wife, Fand, has an ill-fated affair with the Irish warrior Cúchulainn. When Fand sees that Cúchulainn's jealous wife, Emer is worthy of him (and accompanied by a troop of armed women), she decides to return to Manannán, who then shakes his magical cloak of mists between Fand and Cúchulainn so that they may never meet again. In the Voyage of Bran, Manannán prophesied to Bran that a great warrior would be descended from him. The 8th-century saga Compert Mongáin recounts the deeds of a legendary son, Mongán mac Fiachnai, fathered by Manannán on the wife of Fiachnae mac Báetáin.
Associations
Manannán has strong ties to the Isle of Man, where he is referenced in a traditional ballad as having been the nation's first ruler. On Midsummer, the Manx people offer bundles of reeds, meadow grasses and yellow flowers to Manannán in a ritual "paying of the rent", accompanied with prayers for his aid and protection in and fishing. He is also believed to have been a magician who could make an illusory fleet from sedge or pea shells in order to discourage would-be invaders.
According to the Book of Fermoy, a Manuscript of the 14th to the 15th century, "he was a pagan, a lawgiver among the Tuatha Dé Danann, and a necromancer possessed of power to envelope himself and others in a mist, so that they could not be seen by their enemies." [8] It was by this method that he was said to protect the Isle of Man from discovery.
Manannán was associated with a "cauldron of regeneration". This is seen in the tale of Cormac mac Airt, among other tales. Here, he appeared at Cormac's ramparts in the guise of a warrior who told him he came from a land where old age, sickness, death, decay, and falsehood were unknown (the Otherworld was also known as the "Land of Youth" or the "Land of the Living").
As guardian of the Blessed Isles as well as Mag Mell he also has strong associations with Emhain Abhlach, the Isle of Apple Trees, where the magical silver apple branch is found. To the Celts, the Blessed Isles that lie beyond the sea are the gateways to the Otherworlds, where the soul journeys to after death. Manannán is the guardian of these gateways between the worlds. He is the Ferryman, who comes to transport the souls of the dead through the veils.
Mannanán's powerful role in the cycle of life and death is also expressed in his possession of magic swine whose flesh provides food for feasting by the gods, and then regenerates each day, like that of Odin's boar Sæhrímnir in Scandinavian myth.
Familial Relations
As his name suggests, Manannán's father is the sea-god Lir, whose role he seems to take over. According to Táin Bó Cúailnge (the Cattle Raid of Cooley), his wife is the beautiful goddess, Fand ("Pearl of Beauty" or "A Tear" - later remembered as a "Fairy Queen", though earlier mentions point to her also being a sea deity). Other sources say his wife was the goddess Áine, though she is at other times said to be his daughter. Manannán had a daughter, whose name was Niamh of the Golden Hair. It is also probable that another daughter was Cliodna, but sources treat this differently. Either way, she is a young woman from Manannán's lands, whose surname is "of the Fair Hair". Mongán mac Fiachnai is a late addition to the mac Lir family tree. The historical Mongán was a son of Fiachnae mac Báetáin, born towards the end of the 6th century. According to legend Fiachnae, who was at war in Scotland, came home with a victory because of a bargain made with Manannán (either by him, or by his wife) to let Manannán have a child by his wife. This child, Mongán, was supposedly taken to the Otherworld when he was very young, to be raised there by Manannán. The Compert Mongáin tells the tale.
Despite not being the biological father of many children, Manannán is often seen in the traditional role of foster father, raising a number of foster children including Lugh of the great hand and the children of Deirdre.
Magical Possessions
Manannán had many magical items. He gave Cormac mac Airt his magic goblet of truth; he had a ship that did not need sails named "Wave Sweeper"; he owned a cloak of mists that granted him invisibility, a flaming helmet, and a sword named Fragarach ("Answerer" or "Retaliator") that could never miss its target. He also owned a horse called "Enbarr of the Flowing Mane" which could travel over water as easily as land. In some sources he is described as driving his chariot over the sea as if over land, and through fields of purple flowers.
Manx legends also tells of four items that he gave to Lugh as parting gifts, when the boy went to aid the people of Dana against the Fomorians. These were: "Manannan's coat, wearing which he could not be wounded, and also his breastplate, which no weapon could pierce. His helmet had two precious stones set in front and one behind, which flashed as he moved. And Manannan girt him for the fight with his own deadly sword, called the Answerer, from the wound of which no man ever recovered, and those who were opposed to it in battle were so terrified that their strength left them." Lugh also took Enbarr of the Flowing Mane, and was joined by Manannan's own sons and Fairy Cavalcade. When he looked back on leaving, Lugh saw "his foster-father's noble figure standing on the beach. Manannan was wrapped in his magic cloak of colours, changing like the sun from blue-green to silver, and again to the purple of evening. He waved his hand to Lugh, and cried: 'Victory and blessing with thee!' So Lugh, glorious in his youth and strength, left his Island home."
Other Names and Etymology
The Irish name, Manannán, derives from an earlier name for the Isle of Man. The patronymic mac Lir may have been metaphorical and meant 'son of the sea' (ler is Manx for 'sea' and lear is Irish for 'sea'). On the Isle of Man itself, Manannán is known as Mannan beg mac y Leir/"little Manannan son of the sea" (beg is Manx for "small"). In the Irish manuscript, The Yellow Book of Lecan, there are said to be "four Manannans". The name given for the "first Manannan" is:
Manandan mac Alloit, a Druid of the Tuath De Danann, and in the time of the Tuath De Danann was he. Oirbsen, so indeed, was his proper name.... Oirbsen over the land, so that from him (is named) Loch Oirbsen. This was the first Manannan.
Manannán's Welsh equivalent is Manawydan fab Llyr.
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SANTA CLAUS
The modern portrayal of Santa Claus frequently depicts him listening to the Christmas wishes of young children. Santa Claus, or Santa, is a figure in the culture of North America, The United Kingdom, Ireland,Australia, New Zealand and more who reflects an amalgamation of the Dutch Sinterklaas, the English Father Christmas, and Christmas gift-bringers in other traditions. Santa Claus is said to bring gifts to the homes of good children during the late evening and overnight hours of Christmas Eve, December 24. Santa Claus in this contemporary understanding echoes aspects of hagiographical tales concerning the historical figure of gift-giver Saint Nicholas, the man from whom the name of Santa Claus derives and in whose honor Santa Claus may be referred to as Saint Nicholas or Saint Nick.
Santa Claus is generally depicted as a plump, jolly, white-bearded man wearing a red coat with white collar and cuffs, white-cuffed red trousers, and black leather belt and boots (images of him rarely have a beard with no moustache). This image became popular in the United States and Canada in the 19th century due to the significant influence of caricaturist and political cartoonist Thomas Nast. This image has been maintained and reinforced through song, radio, television, children's books and films. The North American depiction of Santa Claus as it developed in the 19th and 20th century in turn influenced the modern perceptions of Father Christmas, Sinterklaas and Saint Nicholas in European culture.
According to a tradition which can be traced to the 1820s, Santa Claus lives at the North Pole, with a large number of magical elves, and nine (originally eight) flying reindeer. Since the 20th century, in an idea popularized by the 1934 song "Santa Claus Is Coming to Town", Santa Claus has been believed to make a list of children throughout the world, categorizing them according to their behavior ("naughty" or "nice") and to deliver presents, including toys, and candy to all of the good boys and girls in the world, and sometimes coal to the naughty children, on the single night of Christmas Eve. He accomplishes this feat with the aid of the elves who make the toys in the workshop and the reindeer who pull his sleigh.
Predecessor Figures
Saint Nicholas of Myra is the primary inspiration for the Christian figure of Sinterklaas. He was a 4th century Greek Christian bishop of Myra (now Demre) in Lycia, a province of the Byzantine Anatolia, now in Turkey. Nicholas was famous for his generous gifts to the poor, in particular presenting the three impoverished daughters of a pious Christian with dowries so that they would not have to become prostitutes. He was very religious from an early age and devoted his life entirely to Christianity. In Europe (more precisely the Netherlands, Belgium, Austria and Germany) he is still portrayed as a bearded bishop in canonical robes. In 1087, the Italian city of Bari, wanting to enter the profitable pilgrimage industry of the times, mounted an expedition to locate the tomb of the Christian Saint and procure his remains. The reliquary of St. Nicholas was desecrated by Italian sailors and the spoils, including his relics, taken to Bari where they are kept to this day. A basilica was constructed the same year to store the loot and the area became a pilgrimage site for the devout, thus justifying the economic cost of the expedition. Saint Nicholas was later claimed as a patron saint of many diverse groups, from archers, sailors, and children to pawnbrokers. He is also the patron saint of both Amsterdam and Moscow.
Influence of Germanic Paganism and Folklore
Numerous parallels have been drawn between Santa Claus and the figure of Odin, a major god amongst the Germanic peoples prior to their Christianization. Since many of these elements are unrelated to Christianity, there are theories regarding the pagan origins of various customs of the holiday stemming from areas where the Germanic peoples were Christianized and retained elements of their indigenous traditions, surviving in various forms into modern depictions of Santa Claus.
Odin was sometimes recorded, at the native Germanic holiday of Yule, as leading a great hunting party through the sky. Two books from Iceland, the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier sources, and the Prose Edda, written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson, describe Odin as riding an eight-legged horse named Sleipnir that could leap great distances, giving rise to comparisons to Santa Claus's reindeer. Further, Odin was referred to by many names in Skaldic poetry, some of which describe his appearance or functions. These include Síðgrani, Síðskeggr, Langbarðr, (all meaning "long beard") and Jólnir ("Yule figure").
According to some traditions, children would place their boots, filled with carrots, straw, or sugar, near the chimney for Odin's flying horse, Sleipnir, to eat.[citation needed] Odin would then reward those children for their kindness by replacing Sleipnir's food with gifts or candy. This practice still survives in Germany, Belgium, and the Netherlands and became associated with Saint Nicholas since Christianization. In other countries it has been replaced by the hanging of stockings at the chimney in homes.
Originating from pre-Christian Alpine traditions and influenced by later Christianization, the Krampus is represented as a Companion of Saint Nicholas. Traditionally, some young men dress up as the Krampus in the first two weeks of December and particularly on the evening of December 5 and roam the streets frightening children (and adults) with rusty chains and bells.
Dutch Folklore
In the Netherlands, Belgium and Luxembourg, Saint Nicolas, ("Sinterklaas", often called "De Goede Sint" — "The Good Saint") is aided by helpers commonly known as Zwarte Piet in Dutch ("Black Peter") or "Père Fouettard" in French. His feast on December 6 came to be celebrated in many countries with the giving of gifts. However, in the Netherlands the Dutch celebrate on the evening of December 5, with a celebration called "pakjesavond". In the Reformation in 16th-17th century Europe, many Protestants and others changed the gift bringer to the Christ Child or Christkindl, and the date for giving gifts changed from December 6 to Christmas Eve.
Tradition holds that Saint Nicholas (Sinterklaas) and his aides arrive each year by steam boat from Spain in mid November carrying a book that contains notes on all children that indicate whether the child has been good or naughty during the year and gifts, chocolate letters and spice nuts to be handed to the well-behaved children. During the subsequent three weeks, Saint Nicholas is believed to ride a white-grey horse over the rooftops at night, delivering gifts through the chimney to the well-behaved children, while the naughty children risk being caught by Saint Nicholas' aides that carry jute bags and willow canes for that purpose.
In contrast to Santa Claus, Sinterklaas is an elderly, stately and serious man with white hair and a long, full beard. He wears a long red cape or chasuble over a traditional white bishop's alb and sometimes red stola, dons a red mitre, and holds a gold-coloured crosier, a long ceremonial shepherd's staff with a fancy curled top. He carries a big book that tells whether each individual child has been good or naughty in the past year. He traditionally rides a white gray. In Netherlands and Belgium the character of Santa Claus, is known as de Kerstman in Dutch ("the Christmas man") and Père Noël ("Father Christmas") in French. Although for kids Sinterklaas is the predominant gift-giver in the Netherlands in December (36% of the population only give presents on Sinterklaas day), Christmas is used by another fifth of the Dutch population to give presents. (21% give presents on Christmas only). Some 26% of the Dutch population give presents on both days. In Belgium, presents are given to children only, but to almost all of them, on Sinterklaas day. On Christmas Day, everybody receives presents, but often without Santa Claus' help.
Scandinavian Folklore
In the 1840s, an elf in Nordic folklore called "Tomte" or "Nisse" started to deliver the Christmas presents in Denmark. The Tomte was portrayed as a short, bearded man dressed in gray clothes and a red hat. This new version of the age-old folkloric creature was obviously inspired by the Santa Claus traditions that were now spreading to Scandinavia. By the end of the 19th century this tradition had also spread to Norway and Sweden, replacing the Yule Goat. The same thing happened in Finland, but there the more human figure retained the Yule Goat name. But even though the tradition of the Yule Goat as a bringer of presents is now all but extinct, a straw goat is still a common Christmas decoration in all of Scandinavia.
Father Christmas
Father Christmas dates back at least as far as the 17th century in Britain, and pictures of him survive from that era, portraying him as a jolly well-nourished bearded man dressed in a long, green, fur-lined robe. He typified the spirit of good cheer at Christmas, and was reflected as the "Ghost of Christmas Present", in Charles Dickens's festive classic A Christmas Carol, a great genial man in a green coat lined with fur who takes Scrooge through the bustling streets of London on the current Christmas morning, sprinkling the essence of Christmas onto the happy populace.
History
Origins
Pre-modern representations of the gift-giver from church history and folklore, notably St Nicholas and Sinterklaas, merged with the British character Father Christmas to create the character known to Britons and Americans as Santa Claus. In the British colonies of North America and later the United States, British and Dutch versions of the gift-giver merged further. For example, in Washington Irving's History of New York, (1809), Sinterklaas was Americanized into "Santa Claus" (a name first used in the American press in 1773) but lost his bishop's apparel, and was at first pictured as a thick-bellied Dutch sailor with a pipe in a green winter coat. Irving's book was a lampoon of the Dutch culture of New York, and much of this portrait is his joking invention.
19th Century
In 1821, the book A New-year's present, to the little ones from five to twelve is published in New York. It contains Old Santeclaus, an anonymous poem describing an old man on a reindeer sleigh, bringing presents to children. Some modern ideas of Santa Claus seemingly became canon after the publication of the poem "A Visit From St. Nicholas" (better known today as "The Night Before Christmas") in the Troy, New York, Sentinel on December 23, 1823 anonymously; the poem was later attributed to Clement Clarke Moore. Many of his modern attributes are established in this poem, such as riding in a sleigh that lands on the roof, entering through the chimney, and having a bag full of toys. St. Nick is described as being "chubby and plump, a right jolly old elf" with "a little round belly", that "shook when he laughed like a bowlful of jelly", in spite of which the "miniature sleigh" and "tiny reindeer" still indicate that he is physically diminutive. The reindeer were also named: Dasher, Dancer, Prancer, Vixen, Comet, Cupid, Dunder and Blixem (Dunder and Blixem came from the old Dutch words for thunder and lightning, which were later changed to the more German sounding Donner and Blitzen).
As years pass, Santa Claus evolves in popular culture into a large, heavyset person. One of the first artists to define Santa Claus's modern image was Thomas Nast, an American cartoonist of the 19th century. In 1863, a picture of Santa illustrated by Nast appeared in Harper's Weekly.
The story that Santa Claus lives at the North Pole may also have been a Nast creation. His Christmas image in the Harper’s issue dated December 29, 1866 was a collage of engravings titled Santa Claus and His Works, which included the caption "Santa Claussville, N.P." A color collection of Nast's pictures, published in 1869, had a poem also titled "Santa Claus and His Works" by George P. Webster, who wrote that Santa Claus’s home was "near the North Pole, in the ice and snow". The tale had become well known by the 1870s. A boy from Colorado writing to the children's magazine The Nursery in late 1874 said, "If we didn't live so very far from the North Pole, I should ask Santa Claus to bring me a donkey."
The idea of a wife for Santa Claus may have been the creation of American authors, beginning in the mid-1800s. In 1889, the poet Katherine Lee Bates popularized Mrs. Claus in the poem "Goody Santa Claus on a Sleigh Ride". "Is There a Santa Claus?" was the title of an editorial appearing in the September 21, 1897 edition of the New York Sun. The editorial, which included the famous reply Yes, Virginia, there is a Santa Claus, has become an indelible part of popular Christmas lore in the United States and Canada.
20th Century
L. Frank Baum's The Life and Adventures of Santa Claus, a 1902 children's book, further popularized Santa Claus. Much of Santa Claus's mythos was not set in stone at the time, leaving Baum to give his "Neclaus" (Necile's Little One) a wide variety of immortal support, a home in the Laughing Valley of Hohaho, and ten reindeer—who could not fly, but leapt in enormous, flight-like bounds. Claus's immortality was earned, much like his title ("Santa"), decided by a vote of those naturally immortal. This work also established Claus's motives: a happy childhood among immortals. When Ak, Master Woodsman of the World, exposes him to the misery and poverty of children in the outside world, Santa strives to find a way to bring joy into the lives of all children, and eventually invents toys as a principal means.
Images of Santa Claus were further popularized through Haddon Sundblom's depiction of him for The Coca-Cola Company's Christmas advertising in the 1930s. The popularity of the image spawned urban legends that Santa Claus was invented by The Coca-Cola Company or that Santa wears red and white because they are the colors used to promote the Coca-Cola brand. Historically, Coca-Cola was not the first soft drink company to utilize the modern image of Santa Claus in its advertising – White Rock Beverages had already used a red and white Santa to sell mineral water in 1915 and then in advertisements for its ginger ale in 1923. In fact, Santa Claus had already appeared in red and white on the cover of Puck magazine at the start of the century.
The image of Santa Claus as a benevolent character became reinforced with its association with charity and philanthropy, particularly by organizations such as the Salvation Army. Volunteers dressed as Santa Claus typically became part of fundraising drives to aid needy families at Christmas time. In some images from the early 20th century, Santa was depicted as personally making his toys by hand in a small workshop like a craftsman. Eventually, the idea emerged that he had numerous elves responsible for making the toys, but the toys were still handmade by each individual elf working in the traditional manner. The 1956 popular song by George Melachrino, "Mrs. Santa Claus", and the 1963 children's book How Mrs. Santa Claus Saved Christmas, by Phyllis McGinley, helped standardize and establish the character and role of Mrs. Claus in the popular imagination. Seabury Quinn's 1948 novel Roads draws from historical legends to tell the story of Santa and the origins of Christmas. Other modern additions to the "story" of Santa include Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer, the 9th and lead reindeer immortalized in a Gene Autry song, written by a Montgomery Ward copywriter.
Chimney tradition
The tradition of Santa Claus entering dwellings through the chimney may reach back to the tale of Saint Nicholas tossing coins through a window, and, in a later version of the tale, tossing coins down a chimney when he finds the window locked. In Dutch artist Jan Steen's painting, The Feast of Saint Nicholas, adults and toddlers are glancing up a chimney with amazement on their faces while other children play with their toys. The hearth was held sacred in primitive belief as a source of beneficence, and popular belief had elves and fairies bringing gifts to the house through this portal. Santa's entrance into homes on Christmas Eve via the chimney was made part of American tradition through Moore's A Visit from Saint Nicholas where the author described him as an elf.
In popular culture
By the end of the 20th century, the reality of mass mechanized production became more fully accepted by the Western public.[citation needed] That shift was reflected in the modern depiction of Santa's residence—now often humorously portrayed as a fully mechanized production and distribution facility, equipped with the latest manufacturing technology, and overseen by the elves with Santa and Mrs. Claus as executives and/or managers. An excerpt from a 2004 article, from a supply chain managers' trade magazine, aptly illustrates this depiction:
Santa's main distribution center is a sight to behold. At 4,000,000 square feet (370,000 m2), it's one of the world's largest facilities. A real-time warehouse management system (WMS) is of course required to run such a complex. The facility makes extensive use of task interleaving, literally combining dozens of DC activities (putaway, replenishing, order picking, sleigh loading, cycle counting) in a dynamic queue...the DC elves have been on engineered standards and incentives for three years, leading to a 12% gain in productivity...The WMS and transportation system are fully integrated, allowing (the elves) to make optimal decisions that balance transportation and order picking and other DC costs. Unbeknownst to many, Santa actually has to use many sleighs and fake Santa drivers to get the job done Christmas Eve, and the transportation management system (TMS) optimally builds thousands of consolidated sacks that maximize cube utilization and minimize total air miles.
Many television commercials, comic strips and other media depict this as a sort of humorous business, with Santa's elves acting as a sometimes mischievously disgruntled workforce, cracking jokes and pulling pranks on their boss. For instance, a Bloom County story from December 15, 1981 through December 24, 1981 has Santa rejecting the demands of PETCO (Professional Elves Toy-Making and Craft Organization) for higher wages, a hot tub in the locker room, and "short broads," with the elves then going on strike. President Reagan steps in, fires all of Santa's helpers, and replaces them with out-of-work air traffic controllers (an obvious reference to the 1981 air traffic controllers' strike). In Kyrgyzstan, a mountain peak was named after Santa Claus, after a Swedish company had suggested the location be a more efficient starting place for present-delivering journeys all over the world, than Lapland. In the Kyrgyz capital, Bishkek, a Santa Claus Festival was held on December 30, 2007, with government officials attending. 2008 was officially declared the Year of Santa Claus in the country. The events are seen as moves to boost tourism in Kyrgyzstan, which is predominantly Muslim. The Guinness World Record for the largest gathering of Santa Clauses is held by Derry City, Northern Ireland. On September 9, 2007. A total of 12,965 people dressed up as Santa or Santa's helper brought down the previous record of 3,921, which was set during the Santa Dash event in Liverpool City Centre in 2005. A gathering of Santas in 2009 in Bucharest, Romania attempted top the world record, but failed with only 3,939 Santas.
Traditions and Rituals
The North American traditions associated with Santa Claus are derived from a number of Christmas traditions from various countries. Some rituals (such as visiting a department store Santa) occur in the weeks and days before Christmas while others, such as preparing snacks for Santa, are specific to Christmas Eve. Some rituals, such as setting out stockings to be filled with gifts, are age-old traditions while others, such as NORAD's tracking of Santa's sleigh through the night skies on Christmas Eve, are modern inventions.
Parades, Department Stores, and Shopping Malls
Santa Claus appears in the weeks before Christmas in department stores or shopping malls, or at parties. The practice of this has been credited to James Edgar, as he started doing this in 1890 in his Brockton, Massachusetts department store. He is played by an actor, usually helped by other actors (often mall employees) dressed as elves or other creatures of folklore associated with Santa. Santa's function is either to promote the store's image by distributing small gifts to children, or to provide a seasonal experience to children by listening to their wishlist while having them sit on his knee (a practice now under review by some organizations in Britain, and Switzerland). Sometimes a photograph of the child and Santa are taken. Having a Santa set up to take pictures with children is a ritual that dates back at least to 1918.
The area set up for this purpose is festively decorated, usually with a large throne, and is called variously "Santa's Grotto", "Santa's Workshop" or a similar term. In the United States, the most notable of these is the Santa at the flagship Macy's store in New York City - he arrives at the store by sleigh in the Macy's Thanksgiving Day Parade on the last float, and his court takes over a large portion of one floor in the store. The Macy's Santa Claus is often said to be the real Santa. Essayist David Sedaris is known for the satirical SantaLand Diaries he kept while working as an elf in the Macy's display, which were turned into a famous radio segment and later published. Quite often the Santa, if and when he is detected to be fake, explains that he is not the real Santa and is helping him at this time of year. Most young children seem to understand this, as the real Santa is extremely busy around Christmas. At family parties, Santa is sometimes impersonated by the male head of the household or other adult male family member.
There are schools offering instruction on how to act as Santa Claus. For example, children's television producer Jonathan Meath studied at the International School of Santa Claus and earned the degree Master of Santa Claus in 2006. It blossomed into a second career for him, and after appearing in parades and malls, he appeared on the cover of the American monthly Boston Magazine as Santa. There are associations with members who portray Santa; for example, Mr. Meath is a board member of the international organization called Fraternal Order of Real Bearded Santas.
Letter Writing to Santa
Writing letters to Santa Claus has been a Christmas tradition for children for many years. These letters normally contain a wishlist of toys and assertions of good behavior. Some social scientists have found that boys and girls write different types of letters. Girls generally write longer but more polite lists and express the nature of Christmas more in their letters than in letters written by boys. Girls also more often request gifts for other people. Many postal services allow children to send letters to Santa Claus. These letters may be answered by postal workers and/or outside volunteers. Writing letters to Santa Claus has the educational benefits of promoting literacy, computer literacy, and e-mail literacy. A letter to Santa is often a child's first experience of correspondence. Written and sent with the help of a parent or teacher, children learn about the structure of a letter, salutations, and the use of an address and postcode.
According to the Universal Postal Union (UPU)'s 2007 study and survey of national postal operations, the United States Postal Service (USPS) has the oldest Santa letter answering effort by a national postal system. The USPS Santa letter answering effort started in 1912 and since 1940 has been called "Operation Santa" to ensure that letters to Santa are adopted by charitable organizations, major corporations, local businesses and individuals in order to make children's holiday dreams come true from coast to coast. Those seeking a North Pole holiday postmark through the USPS, are told to send their letter from Santa or a holiday greeting card by December 10 to: North Pole Holiday Postmark, Postmaster, 4141 Postmark Dr, Anchorage, AK 99530-9998. In 2006, according to the UPU's 2007 study and survey of national postal operations, France's Postal Service received the most letters for Santa Claus or "Père Noël" with 1,220,000 letters received from 126 countries. France's Postal Service in 2007 specially recruited someone to answer the enormous volume of mail that was coming from Russia for Santa Claus. Other interesting Santa letter processing information, according to the UPU's 2007 study and survey of national postal operations, are:
Countries whose national postal operators answer letters to Santa and other end-of-year holiday figures, and the number of letters received in 2006: Germany (500,000), Australia (117,000), Austria (6,000), Bulgaria (500), Canada (1,060,000), Spain (232,000), United States (no figure, as statistics are not kept centrally), Finland (750,000), France (1,220,000), Great Britain (750,000), Ireland (100,000), New Zealand (110,000), Portugal (255,000), Poland (3,000), Slovakia (85,000), Sweden (150,000), Switzerland (17,863), Ukraine (5,019). In 2006, Finland's national postal operation received letters from 150 countries (representing 90% of the letters received), France's Postal Service from 126 countries, Germany from 80 countries, and Slovakia from 20 countries. In 2007, Canada Post replied to letters in 26 languages and Deutsche Post in 16 languages. Some national postal operators make it possible to send in e-mail messages which are answered by physical mail. All the same, Santa still receives far more letters than e-mail through the national postal operators, proving that children still write letters. National postal operators offering the ability to use an on-line web form (with or without a return e-mail address) to Santa and obtain a reply include Canada Post (on-line web request form in English and French), France's Postal Service (on-line web request form in French), and New Zealand Post (on-line web request form in English). In France, by 6 December 2010, a team of 60 postal elves had sent out reply cards in response to 80,000 e-mail on-line request forms and more than 500,000 physical letters.
Canada Post has a special postal code for letters to Santa Claus, and since 1982 over 13,000 Canadian postal workers have volunteered to write responses. His address is: Santa Claus, North Pole, Canada, H0H 0H0. (This postal code, in which zeroes are used for the letter "O" is consistent with the alternating letter-number format of all Canadian postal codes.) Sometimes children's charities answer letters in poor communities, or from children's hospitals, and give them presents they would not otherwise receive. In 2009, 1,000 workers answered 1.1 million letters and 39,500 e-mail on-line request forms from children in 30 different languages, including Braille.
In Britain it was traditional for some to burn the Christmas letters on the fire so that they would be magically transported by the wind to the North Pole. However this has been found to be less efficient than the use of the normal postal service, and this tradition is dying out in modern times, especially with few homes having open fires in their homes.[60] Recently the national postal service Royal Mail has extended its delivery service to include Santa Claus' address, and allocated it a postcode. In 2010 the full address is: Santa Claus, Reindeer Land, SAN TA1.
In 2010, the Brazilian National Post Service, "Correios" formed partnerships with public schools and social institutions to encourage children to write letters and make use of postcodes and stamps. In 2009, the Brazilian National Post Service, "Correios" answered almost two million children's letters, and spread some seasonal cheer by donating 414,000 Christmas gifts to some of Brazil's neediest citizens.
Through the years, the Finnish Santa Claus (Joulupukki or "Yule Goat") has received over eight million letters. He receives over 600,000 letters every year from over 198 different countries with Togo being the most recent country added to the list. Children from Great Britain, Poland and Japan are the busiest writers. The Finnish Santa Claus lives in Korvatunturi, however the Santa Claus Main Post Office is situated in Rovaniemi near the Arctic circle. His address is: Santa Claus' Main Post Office, Santa's Workshop Village, FIN-96930 Arctic Circle. The post office welcomes 300,000 visitor a year, with 70,000 visitors in December alone. Children can also receive a letter from Santa through a variety of private agencies and organizations, and on occasion public and private cooperative ventures. An example of a public and private cooperative venture is the opportunity for expatriate and local children and parents to receive postmarked mail and greeting cards from Santa during December in the Finnish Embassy in Beijing, People's Republic of China,[62] Santa Claus Village in Rovaniemi, Finland, and the People's Republic of China Postal System's Beijing International Post Office. Parents can order a personalized "Santa letter" to be sent to their child, often with a North Pole postmark. The "Santa Letter" market generally relies on the internet as a medium for ordering such letters rather than retail stores.
Santa Tracking, Santa Websites and E-mail to and from Santa
Over the years there have been a number of websites created by various organizations that have purported to track Santa Claus. Some, such as NORAD Tracks Santa, the Airservices Australia Tracks Santa Project, the Santa Update Project, and the MSNBC and Bing Maps Platform Tracks Santa Project have endured. Others, such as the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport's Tracks Santa Project, the Santa Retro Radar – Lehigh Valley Project, and the NASA Tracks Santa Project, have fallen by the wayside.
In 1955, a Sears Roebuck store in Colorado Springs, Colorado, gave children a number to call a "Santa hotline". The number was mistyped and children called the Continental Air Defense Command (CONAD) on Christmas Eve instead. The Director of Operations, Colonel Harry Shoup, received the first call for Santa and responded by telling children that there were signs on the radar that Santa was indeed heading south from the North Pole. A tradition began which continued under the name NORAD Tracks Santa when in 1958 Canada and the United States jointly created the North American Air Defense Command (NORAD). This tracking can now be done via the Internet and NORAD's website.
In the past, many local television stations in the United States and Canada likewise "tracked Santa Claus" in their own metropolitan areas through the stations' meteorologists. In December 2000, the Weather Channel built upon these local efforts to provide a national Christmas Eve "Santa tracking" effort, called "SantaWatch" in cooperation with NASA, the International Space Station, and Silicon Valley-based new multimedia firm Dreamtime Holdings. In the 21st century, most local television stations in the United States and Canada rely upon outside established "Santa tracking" efforts, such as NORAD Tracks Santa.
Many other websites are available year-round that are devoted to Santa Claus and purport to keep tabs on his activities in his workshop. Many of these websites also include e-mail addresses which allow children to send e-mail to Santa Claus. Most of these websites use volunteer living people as "elves" to answer e-mail sent to Santa. Some websites, such as Santa's page on Microsoft's Windows Live Spaces, however have used or still use "bots" to compose and send e-mail replies, with occasional unfortunate results. In addition to providing holiday-themed enetrtainment, "Santa tracking" websites inspire children around the world to think about how space technology and exploration play an increasingly important role in daily life, teach them about geography. and encourage them to take an interest in science.
Christmas Eve Rituals
In the United States and Canada, children traditionally leave Santa a glass of milk and a plate of cookies; in Britain and Australia, he is sometimes given sherry and mince pies instead. In Sweden, children leave rice porridge. In Ireland it is popular to give him Guinness or milk, along with Christmas pudding or mince pies. In Hungary, St. Nicolaus (Mikulás) comes on the night of December 5 and the children get their gifts the next morning. They get sweets in a bag if they were good, and a golden colored birch switch if not. On Christmas Eve "Little Jesus" comes and gives gifts for everyone. In Slovenia, Saint Nicholas (Miklavž) also brings small gifts for good children on the eve of December 6. Božiček (Christmas Man) brings gifts on the eve of December 25, and Dedek Mraz (Grandfather Frost) brings gifts in the evening of December 31 to be opened on New Years Day.
British, Australian, Irish, Canadian and American children also leave a carrot for Santa's reindeer, and were traditionally told that if they are not good all year round, that they will receive a lump of coal in their stockings, although this practice is now considered archaic. Children following the Dutch custom for sinterklaas will "put out their shoe" — that is, leave hay and a carrot for his horse in a shoe before going to bed—sometimes weeks before the sinterklaas avond. The next morning they will find the hay and carrot replaced by a gift; often, this is a marzipan figurine. Naughty children were once told that they would be left a roe (a bundle of sticks) instead of sweets, but this practice has been discontinued.
Other Christmas Eve Santa Claus rituals in the United States include reading Clement Clark Moore's A Visit from St. Nicholas or other tale about Santa Claus, watching a Santa or Christmas-related animated program on television (such as the aforementioned Santa Claus Is Comin' to Town and similar specials, such as Rudolph the Red-Nosed Reindeer, among many others), and the singing of Santa Claus songs such as "Santa Claus is Coming to Town", "Here Comes Santa Claus", and "Up on the Housetop". Last minute rituals for children before going to bed include aligning stockings at the mantelpiece or other place where Santa cannot fail to see them, peeking up the chimney (in homes with a fireplace), glancing out a window and scanning the heavens for Santa's sleigh, and (in homes without a fireplace) unlocking an exterior door so Santa can easily enter the house. Tags on gifts for children are sometimes signed by their parents "From Santa Claus" before the gifts are laid beneath the tree.
Criticism
Christian Opposition
Despite Santa Claus's mixed Christian roots, he has become a secular representation of Christmas. As such, some Protestants dislike the secular focus on Santa Claus and the materialist focus that gift giving brings to the holiday. Such a condemnation of Christmas is not a 20th century phenomenon, but originated among some Protestant groups of the 16th century and was prevalent among the Puritans of 17th century England and colonial America who banned the holiday as either pagan or Roman Catholic. Christmas was made legal with the Restoration but the Puritan opposition to the holiday persisted in New England for almost two centuries.
Following the Restoration of the monarchy and with Puritans out of power in England, the ban on Christmas was satirized in works such as Josiah King's The Examination and Tryal of Old Father Christmas; Together with his Clearing by the Jury (1686). Rev. Paul Nedergaard, a clergyman in Copenhagen, Denmark, attracted controversy in 1958 when he declared Santa to be a "pagan goblin" after Santa's image was used on fund-raising materials for a Danish welfare organization. One prominent religious group that refuses to celebrate Santa Claus, or Christmas itself, for similar reasons is the Jehovah's Witnesses. A number of denominations of Christians have varying concerns about Santa Claus, which range from acceptance to denouncement. Some Christians prefer the holiday focus on the actual birth of Jesus, believing that Christmas stemmed from pagan festivals such as the Roman Saturnalia and Germanic Yule that were subsumed within ancient Christianity. An even smaller subset of Reformed Christians actually prefer the secularized version of the holiday for the same reasons, believing that to relegate Christ's birth to Christmas is wrong.
Symbol of Commercialism
In his book Nicholas: The Epic Journey from Saint to Santa Claus, writer Jeremy Seal describes how the commercialization of the Santa Claus figure began in the 19th century. "In the 1820s he began to acquire the recognizable trappings: reindeer, sleigh, bells," said Seal in an interview. "They are simply the actual bearings in the world from which he emerged. At that time, sleighs were how you got about Manhattan." Writing in Mothering, writer Carol Jean-Swanson makes similar points, noting that the original figure of St. Nicholas gave only to those who were needy and that today Santa Claus seems to be more about conspicuous consumption:
"Our jolly old Saint Nicholas reflects our culture to a T, for he is fanciful, exuberant, bountiful, over-weight, and highly commercial. He also mirrors some of our highest ideals: childhood purity and innocence, selfless giving, unfaltering love, justice, and mercy. (What child has ever received a coal for Christmas?) The problem is that, in the process, he has become burdened with some of society's greatest challenges: materialism, corporate greed, and domination by the media. Here, Santa carries more in his baggage than toys alone!"
In the Czech Republic, a group of advertising professionals started a website against Santa Claus, a relatively recent phenomenon in that country. "Czech Christmases are intimate and magical. All that Santa stuff seems to me like cheap show business," said David König of the Creative Copywriters Club, pointing out that it is primarily an American and British tradition. "I'm not against Santa himself. I'm against Santa in my country only." In the Czech tradition, presents are delivered by Ježíšek, which translates as Baby Jesus.
In the United Kingdom, Santa, or Father Christmas; was historically depicted wearing a green cloak. More recently, that has been changed to the more commonly known red suit. One school in the seaside town of Brighton banned the use of a red suit erroneously believing it was only indicative of the Coca-Cola advertising campaign. School spokesman Sarah James said: "The red-suited Santa was created as a marketing tool by Coca-Cola, it is a symbol of commercialism." In reality, the red-suited Santa was created by Thomas Nast.
Controversy About Deceiving Children
"The adults they count on to provide reliable information about the world introduce them to Santa. Then his existence is affirmed by friends, books, TV and movies. It is also validated by hard evidence: the half-eaten cookies and empty milk glasses by the tree on Christmas morning. In other words, children do a great job of scientifically evaluating Santa. And adults do a great job of duping them."
Woolley posits that it is perhaps "kinship with the adult world" that causes children not to be angry that they were lied to for so long. The criticism about this deception is not that it is a simple lie, but a complicated series of very large lies. The objections to the lie are that it is unethical for parents to lie to children without good cause, and that it discourages healthy skepticism in children. With no greater good at the heart of the lie, it is charged that it is more about the parents than it is about the children. Writer Austin Cline posed the question: "Is it not possible that kids would find at least as much pleasure in knowing that parents are responsible for Christmas, not a supernatural stranger?" Others, however, see no harm in the belief in Santa Claus. Psychologist Tamar Murachver said that because it is a cultural, not parental, lie, it does not undermine parental trust. The New Zealand Skeptics also see no harm in parents telling their children that Santa is real. Spokesperson Vicki Hyde said, "It would be a hard-hearted parent indeed who frowned upon the innocent joys of our children's cultural heritage. We save our bah humbugs for the things that exploit the vulnerable." It can also be advocated that, although Santa Claus isn't real, the Christmas spirit is real. Dr. John Condry of Cornell University interviewed more than 500 children for a study of the issue and found that not a single child was angry at his or her parents for telling them Santa Claus was real. According to Dr. Condry, "The most common response to finding out the truth was that they felt older and more mature. They now knew something that the younger kids did not". The other side of the debate concludes with another referenced quote of: "There are three stages of a man's life: He believes in Santa Claus, he doesn't believe in Santa Claus, he is Santa Claus" (author unknown). A further advantage of the Santa Claus deception is that it has provided a useful model for explaining that other beliefs in the supernatural might be equally false; one should not blindly accept any belief.
Santa's Home
Santa Claus's home traditionally includes a residence and a workshop where he creates - often with the aid of elves or other supernatural beings - the gifts he delivers to good children at Christmas. Some stories and legends include a village, inhabited by his helpers, surrounding his home and shop. In North American tradition (in the United States and Canada), Santa lives on the North Pole, which according to Canada Post lies within Canadian jurisdiction in postal code H0H 0H0 (a reference to "ho ho ho", Santa's notable saying, although postal codes starting with H are usually reserved for the island of Montreal in Québec). On December 23, 2008, Jason Kenney, Canada's minister of Citizenship, Immigration and Multiculturalism, formally awarded Canadian citizenship status to Santa Claus. "The Government of Canada wishes Santa the very best in his Christmas Eve duties and wants to let him know that, as a Canadian citizen, he has the automatic right to re-enter Canada once his trip around the world is complete," Kenney said in an official statement.
There is also a city named North Pole in Alaska where a tourist attraction known as the "Santa Claus House" has been established. The US postal service uses the city's zip code of 99705 as their advertised postal code for Santa Claus. A Wendy's in North Pole, AK has also claimed to have a "sleigh fly through". Each Nordic country claims Santa's residence to be within their territory. Norway claims he lives in Drøbak. In Denmark, he is said to live in Greenland (near Uummannaq). In Sweden, the town of Mora has a theme park named Tomteland. The national postal terminal in Tomteboda in Stockholm receives children's letters for Santa. In Finland, Korvatunturi in has long been known as Santa's home, and two theme parks, Santa Claus Village and Santa Park are located near Rovaniemi.
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THOR
Thor (Old Norse: Þōrr, Þunarr; Icelandic: Þór Old English: Þunor, Þūr; Old Saxon: Þunær; Frisian: Tonger, Old Dutch: Donar; Old High German: Donar; Proto-Germanic: *Thunaraz) is the red-haired and bearded god of thunder in Germanic mythology and Germanic paganism, and its subsets: Norse paganism, Anglo-Saxon paganism and Continental Germanic paganism.
Most surviving stories relating to Germanic mythology either mention Thor or focus on Thor's exploits. Thor was a much revered god of the ancient Germanic peoples from at least the earliest surviving written accounts of the indigenous Germanic tribes to over a thousand years later in the late Viking Age.
Thor was appealed to for protection on numerous objects found from various Germanic tribes. Miniature replicas of Mjöllnir, the weapon of Thor, became a defiant symbol of Norse paganism during the Christianization of Scandinavia.
Etymology
Proto-Germanic *thunaraz, "thunder" gave rise to Old Norse Þorr, German Donner, Dutch donder as well as Old English Þunor whence Modern English thunder with epenthetic d. Swedish tordön and Danish and Norwegian torden have the suffix -dön/-den originally meaning "rumble" or "din." The Scandinavian languages also have the word dunder, borrowed from Middle Low German. Both the God and "thunder" are related to the Celtic taranis (modern Irish tarann), the term for thunder as well as the name of the God Taranis.
Characteristics
Family
In the Poetic Edda and Prose Edda, Thor is the son of Odin and the giantess Jörd (Jord, the Earth). His wife is called Sif, and little is known of her except that she has golden hair, which was cut off by Loki. With his mistress, the giantess Járnsaxa, Thor had two sons, Móði and Magni. With Sif he had his daughter Thrud.
The euhemeristic prologue of the Prose Edda also indicates he has a son by Sif named Lóriði, along with an additional 17 generations of descendants, but the prologue was meant to give a plausible explanation on how the Aesir came to be worshipped even though they were more like giants than gods. Thor also has a stepson called Ullr who is a son of Sif. Skáldskaparmál mentions a figure named Hlóra who was Thor's foster mother, corresponding to Lora or Glora from Snorri Sturluson's prologue, although no additional information concerning her is provided in the book but there is an urban myth of the foster mother how Thor once raped her.
Mjöllnir
Thor owns a short-handled hammer, Mjöllnir, which, when thrown at a target, returns magically to its owner. His Mjöllnir also has the power to throw lightning bolts. To wield Mjöllnir, Thor wears the belt Megingjord, which boosts the wearer's strength and a pair of special iron gloves, Járngreipr, to lift the hammer. Mjöllnir is also his main weapon when fighting giants. The uniquely shaped symbol subsequently became a very popular ornament during the Viking Age and has since become an iconic symbol of Germanic paganism.
Chariot
Thor travels in a chariot drawn by goats Tanngrisnir and Tanngnjóstr, sometimes with his servant and messenger Þjálfi and Þjálfi's sister Röskva. The skaldic poem Haustlöng relates that the earth was scorched and the mountains cracked as Thor traveled in his wagon. According to the Prose Edda, when Thor is hungry he can roast the goats for a meal. When he wants to continue his travels, Thor only needs to bless the remains of the goats with his hammer Mjöllnir, and they will be instantly restored to full health to resume their duties, assuming that the bones have not been broken.
Bilskirnir
Bilskirnir, in the kingdom Þrúðheimr or Þrúðvangr, is the hall of Thor in Norse mythology. Here he lives with his wife Sif and their children. According to Grímnismál, the hall is the greatest of buildings and contains 540 rooms, located in Asgard, as are all the dwellings of the gods, in the kingdom of Þrúðheimr (or Þrúðvangar according to Gylfaginning and Ynglinga saga).
Stories
According to one myth in the Þórsdrápa and the Prose Edda, Loki was flying as a hawk one day and was captured by Geirröd. Geirröd, who hated Thor, demanded that Loki bring his enemy to Geirröd's dwelling without his magic belt and hammer. Loki agreed to lead Thor to the trap. On the way there they stopped at the home of the giantess Grid. She waited until Loki left the room, then told Thor what was happening, and gave him her iron gloves and magical belt and staff. In the Prose Edda's version of the story, as Thor approached Geirrod's home one of his two daughters, Gjálp and Greip, straddled a river and caused it to flood; Thor was saved by clinging to a rowan tree. At Geirrod's home, the daughters again tried to kill him using a chair that shot towards the ceiling, but by bracing himself with the staff he broke their backs and killed them. Thor then killed Geirröd by throwing a lump of molten iron at him through a pillar, and all other frost giants he could find.
According to Alvíssmál, Alviss, a dwarf, claimed that Thrud had been promised to him in marriage. Thor devised a plan to stop Alviss from marrying his daughter: he told Alviss that, because of his small height, he had to prove his wisdom. Alviss agreed, and Thor made the tests last until after the sun had risen — all dwarves turned to stone when exposed to sunlight, so Alviss was petrified.
On one of his expeditions to Giantland, Thor was tricked in several ways by the magic of a giant king, Útgarða-Loki. First, as he, Loki, Þjálfi, and Röskva were on their way to his castle, they spent a night in a strangely-shaped hall that turned out to be the glove of a huge giant who gave his name as Skrymir. Skrymir suggested pooling their provisions, but after he bedded down for the night, they discovered he had tied the bag so tightly that they could not open it. Enraged, Thor hit him on the head three times with Mjöllnir, but he awoke saying he had felt acorns falling on his head. After parting from Skrymir they came to the castle, where Útgarða-Loki tricked them several times in contests. He tricked Thor by racing Thought itself against Thor's fast servant, Þjálfi (nothing being faster than thought). Then Loki was challenged by to an eating contest with Logi, one of his servants. Loki lost. The servant even ate up the trough containing the food. The servant was an illusion of "Wild-Fire," no living thing being able to equal the consumption rate of fire. Útgarða-Loki also called Thor weak when he only lifted the paw of a cat, the cat being an illusion of the Midgard Serpent. Thor was challenged to a drinking contest, and could not empty a horn which was filled not with mead but was connected to the ocean. This action started tidal changes. And finally, Thor wrestled an old woman, Elli, who was Old Age, something no one can beat, to one knee. The next morning Thor and his companions left humiliated, but Útgarða-Loki went out with them and once they were away from the castle, revealed the trickery he had used - starting when he had appeared to them in disguise calling himself Skrymir and had tied the bag with wire and placed a hill between himself and Thor. He showed the god the three deep indentations in it from the hammer-blows and said that he had been truly afraid at their performance and would never again risk coming near Thor.
Another noted story involving Thor, told in Þrymskviða and the Prose Edda, was the time when Þrymr, King of the Giants, stole his hammer, Mjöllnir. Thor went to Loki, hoping to find the culprit responsible for the theft, then Loki and Thor went to Freyja for counsel. Freyja gave Loki the Feather-robe so that he could travel to the land of the giants, to speak to their king. The king admitted to stealing the hammer, and would not give it back unless Freyja gave him her hand in marriage. Freyja angrily refused, so the gods decided to think of a way to trick the King. Heimdall suggested dressing up Thor in a bridal gown, so that he could take Freyja's place. Thor at first refused to humiliate himself in such a way, but Loki insisted that he do so or the Giants would attack and defeat Asgard since he did not have his hammer to defend it. So Thor, disguised as a bride in one of Freyja's gowns and a veil and accompanied by Loki as his attendant, rode to the wedding feast. The king noted that his bride ate and drank significantly more than he would expect. Loki explained that she had gone without food for eight days and nights in her eagerness to marry him. He then asked why his bride's eyes gleamed like fire, and Loki responded similarly, that she had not slept for eight days and nights in her excitement. Then the giant commanded that the hammer be brought to his wife and placed in her lap to bless her. Once it was in Thor's possession, he threw off his disguise and killed all the giants in the room. The giants were careful not to try the same trick again.
In a story told in Hymiskviða and the Prose Edda, Thor went fishing for the Midgard Serpent with the giant Hymir as his reluctant companion, killing his best ox to use its head for bait, rowing his boat out far beyond where the giant considered safe, then once he had hooked the gigantic monster, hauling so hard on the line to bring its head within range of a killing blow that both his feet went through the bottom of the boat and he was bracing himself against the sea-bottom. Hymir, terrified, cut the line and Thor knocked him overboard head-first and waded ashore with the boat.
According to Völuspá and the Prose Edda, Thor will face Jörmungandr again at Ragnarök (doom of the gods and end of the cosmos). The two mortal enemies will be locked in combat and though Thor will slay the great serpent, he will only be able to take nine steps before falling dead from the venom.
Literary Sources
Eddic Depictions
The two largest sources of information regarding Thor are the Poetic Edda, compiled in the 13th century from earlier oral tradition, and the Prose Edda, written by in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson. Both are from Iceland, although some of the poems were composed in Norway.
Sagas
Thor is also mentioned in numerous sagas, which made use of skaldic poetry and oral traditions.
Old Saxon Baptismal Vow
Thor, as Donar, is mentioned in an Old Saxon Baptismal vow in Vatican Codex pal. 577 along with Woden and Saxnot. The 8th or 9th century vow, intended for Christianizing pagans, is recorded as:
ec forsacho allum dioboles uuercum and uuordum, Thunaer ende Uuöden ende Saxnote ende allum them unholdum the hira genötas sint
Which translates to:
I renounce all the words and works of the devil, Thunear, Woden and Saxnôt, and all those fiends that are their associates.
Gesta Danorum
In the 12th century, Saxo Grammaticus, in the service of Archbishop Absalon in Denmark, presented in his Latin language work Gesta Danorum euhemerized accounts of Thor and Odin as cunning sorcerers that, Saxo states, had fooled the people of Norway, Sweden and Denmark into their recognition as gods:
"There were of old certain men versed in sorcery, Thor, namely, and Odin, and many others, who were cunning in contriving marvellous sleights; and they, winning the minds of the simple, began to claim the rank of gods. For, in particular, they ensnared Norway, Sweden and Denmark in the vainest credulity, and by prompting these lands to worship them, infected them with their imposture. The effects of their deceit spread so far, that all other men adored a sort of divine power in them, and, thinking them either gods or in league with gods, offered up solemn prayers to these inventors of sorceries, and gave to blasphemous error the honour due to religion. Some say that the gods, whom our countrymen worshipped, shared only the title with those honoured by Greece or Latium, but that, being in a manner nearly equal to them in dignity, they borrowed from them the worship as well as the name. This must be sufficient discourse upon the deities of Danish antiquity. I have expounded this briefly for the general profit, that my readers may know clearly to what worship in its heathen superstition our country has bowed the knee." (Gesta Danorum, Book I)
Archaeological Record
Thor was a very popular deity to the Germanic people and a number of surviving depictions of not only him but also his exploits have survived many years of natural and intentional destruction.
Nordendorf Fibula
Dating from the 7th century, the Nordendorf fibula, an (Alamannic) fibula found in Nordendorf near Augsburg (Bavaria) bears an Elder Futhark inscription mentioning Donar, the Western Germanic tribes' name for Thor.
Emblematic Mjöllnir Replicas
Widely popular in Scandinavia, Mjöllnir replicas were used in Blóts and other sacral ceremonies, such as weddings. Many of these replicas were also found in graves and tended to be furnished with a loop, allowing them to be worn. They were most widely discovered in areas with a strong Christian influence including southern Norway, south-eastern Sweden, and Denmark. By the late 10th century, increased uniformity in Mjöllnir's design over previous centuries suggest it functioned as a popular accessory worn in defiance of the Christian cross.
Icelandic Statue
A seated bronze statue of Thor (about 6.4 cm) known as the Eyarland statue from about AD 1000 was recovered at a farm near Akureyri, Iceland and is a featured display at the National Museum of Iceland. Thor is holding Mjöllnir, sculpted in the typically Icelandic cross-like shape. It has been suggested that the statue is related to a scene from Þrymskviða where Thor recovers his hammer while seated by grasping it with both hands during the wedding ceremony.
Rune and Image Stones
Most runestones were raised during the 11th century and so they coincided with the Christianization of Scandinavia. There are approximately six runic inscriptions that appear to refer to him and five of them do so in invocations to consecrate the stones. Three of the inscriptions are found in Sweden (the Rök Runestone, Sö 140 and the Velanda Runestone) and three in Denmark (Dr 110, Dr 220 and the Glavendrup stone). There are also runestones upon which has been interpreted as hammers of Thor are carved.
Thor's struggle with the Midgard Serpent as recorded in Hymiskviða can be found depicted on a number of image stones and runestones located in England, Denmark and Sweden respectively. In the English village of Gosforth, Cumbria, the remains of a 10th century stone depicting Thor and Hymir fishing can be found alongside numerous other Norse carvings.
In Denmark, a church in the small Northern Jutlandic town of Hørdum houses the remains of the Hørdum stone which depicts Thor and Hymir's fishing trip for the Midgard Serpent. Thor is wearing the distinct pointed helmet he is portrayed with in other found depictions and has caught the Midgard serpent while Hymir sits before him.
Sweden has two stones depicting this legend. Created sometime between the 8th and 11th centuries, the bottom left corner of the Ardre VIII stone in Gotland has often been interpreted as depicting not only the fishing trip but also references to the slaughter of the ox prior to using it as bait, potentially as part of an earlier version of the tale. The Altuna Runestone in Uppland depicts Thor fishing for the Midgard serpent. Though lacking Hymir, it notably displays Thor's foot breaching the floor of the boat during the intense struggle.
Canterbury Charm
The Canterbury Charm is a runic charm discovered inserted in the margin of an Anglo-Saxon manuscript from the year 1073. The charm is translated as:
Cyril wound-cause, go now! You are found. May Thor bless you, lord of ogres! Gyril wound-causer. Against blood-vessel pus!
The charm is intended for use against a specific ailment, described as "blood-vessel pus." MacLeod and Mees (2006) note that while Thor is not revered in surviving sources for his medical abilities, he was well attested as harboring enmity towards giants and as a protector of mankind. MacLeod and Mees compare the charm to the 11th century Kvinneby amulet (where Thor is also called upon to provide protection), the formula structure of the Sigtuna amulet, and a then-recently discovered rib bone featuring a runic inscription also from Sigtuna, Sweden.
Kvinneby Amulet
The Kvinneby amulet is an amulet that includes a runic inscription from around A.D. 1000. There are competing theories about the exact wording of the inscription but all agree that Thor is invoked to protect with his hammer. According to Rundata, this inscription reads:
Here I carve(d) protection for you, Bófi, with/... ... ... to you is certain. And may the lightning hold all evil away from Bófi. May Þórr protect him with that hammer which came from out of the sea. Flee from evilness! You/it get/gets nothing from Bófi. The gods are under him and over him.
The amulet was found in the mid-1950s in the soil of the village Södra Kvinneby in Öland, Sweden. The amulet is a square copper object measuring approximately 5 cm on each side. Near one edge there is a small hole, presumably used for hanging it around the neck.
Skog Church Tapestry
A part of the Swedish 12th century Skog Church Tapestry depicts three figures. They are most often interpreted as the Scandinavian saint-kings Olaf, Eric and Canute, but has also been suggested to allude to Odin, Thor and Freyr. The figures coincide with 11th century descriptions of statue arrangements recorded by Adam of Bremen at the Temple at Uppsala and written accounts of the gods during the late Viking Age. The tapestry is originally from Hälsingland, Sweden but is now housed at the Swedish Museum of National Antiquities.
Places Associated with Thor
Thor's Oak
Thor's Oak was an ancient tree sacred to the Germanic tribe of the Chatti, ancestors of the Hessians, and one of the most important sacred sites of the pagan Germanic peoples. Its felling in A.D. 723 marked the beginning of the Christianization of the non-Frankish tribes of northern Germany.
The tree stood at a location near the village of Geismar, today part of the town of Fritzlar in northern Hessen, and was the main point of veneration of the Germanic deity Thor (known among the West Germanic tribes as Donar) by the Chatti and most other Germanic tribes.
Temple at Uppsala
Between 1072 and 1076, Adam of Bremen recorded in his Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum that a statue of Thor existed in the Temple at Uppsala. Adam relates that:
Thor takes the central position, with Wotan and Frey on either side. Thor, according to their beliefs, governs the air with its thunder, lightning, wind, rain, and fair weather. He is depicted carrying a scepter, much as our people depict Jove.
Statue at Hundorp
A temple with a great statue of Thor was standing at Hundorp in Gudbrandsdalen, Norway. The statue was destroyed by Saint Olaf in 1015.
Thursday
Thor gave his name to the Old English day Þunresdæg, meaning the day of Þunor, known in Modern English as Thursday. Þunor is also the source of the modern word thunder. The Germans borrowed the idea of a seven day week from the Romans - and they translated dies Jovis ("the day of Jupiter") to "the day of Thor".
"Thor's Day" is Þórsdagr in Old Norse, Doresdak [ðorestak] in Northern Sami, Torsdag in Norwegian, Swedish, Danish and Southern Sami,Hósdagur in Faroese, except for Suðuroy, where it's called Tórsdagur, Thursday in English, Donnerstag in German (meaning "Thunder's Day"), Donderdag in Dutch (meaning Thunder day) and Torstai in Finnish.
The day was considered such an important day of the week that as late as the seventh century Saint Eligius reproached his congregation in Flanders for continuing their native practice of recognizing Thursday as a holy day after their Christianization. As late as the nineteenth century in Scandinavia the Thursday night was considered to be the best time for performing magic rituals.
Parallels
Many writers identified Thor with Jupiter. The comparison can be borne: both are the god of thunder and lightening, both are the most powerful sons of the King of the Gods of their panthaeons, both have twin children by a goddess, and were at some time considered the most powerful of the gods. The oak tree was sacred to both gods and they had mysterious powers. Thor is to kill Jörmungandr and Jupiter, the dragon Typhon. Tacitus identified Thor with the Greco-Roman hero-god Hercules because of his force, aspect, weapon and his role as protector of the world, slaying many monsters. They also fight Giants and are the key to the protection of the Gods Hercules being the scion of Olympus said to stand guard at the gates of Olympus for oncoming threats to the gods. This parallel is seen in media such as television, comics and many more. The Legendary Journeys of Hercules, Hercules (1998 TV Series), and Hercules (Marvel Comics) and Thor (Marvel Comics). In several stories they even battle each other, usually ending in draws.
Parallels with varying degrees of closeness can be found in other northern mythologies, such as Taranis (Celtic), Perkunas (Baltic), Dorq/Torq (Armenian) and Perun (Slavic), connected either to thunder, to oaks or to both. Additionally parallel either to Thor or Tyr are Finno-Ugric gods Torum, Thurms, Tere etc. - see Tharapita.
Portrayal in Modern Popular Culture
Thor, under the German form of his name, "Donner" (literally, "thunder"), appears in Richard Wagner's opera cycle, Der Ring des Nibelungen. This has led to many portrayals based on Wagner's interpretation, although some are closer to pre-Wagner models. Since Wagner's time, Thor has appeared, either as himself or as the namesake of characters, in comic books, on television, in literature and in song lyrics.
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TRIPLE GODDESS
The Triple Goddess is one of the two primary deities found in the neopagan religion of Wicca. She comprises three separate goddesses united; a Maiden Goddess, a Mother Goddess and a Crone Goddess, each of which symbolises a separate stage in the female life and lunar cycles. She represents the feminine part of the religion's duotheistic theological system, the other part being the male Horned God, although in the tradition of Dianic Wicca only the female deity is worshipped.
Neopaganism
According to historian Ronald Hutton, the concept of the Triple Goddess with Maiden, Mother and Crone aspects and lunar symbology was Robert Graves' contribution to modern pagan witchcraft. Many witches and other neo-pagans believe in the "Triple Goddess" of maiden, mother, and crone that originated with the first neo-pagans in mid-twentieth-century England. In their view, sexuality, pregnancy, breastfeeding—and other female reproductive processes—are ways that women may embody the Goddess, making the physical body sacred.
The Maiden represents enchantment, inception, expansion, the promise of new beginnings, birth, youth and youthful enthusiasm, represented by the waxing moon.
The Mother represents ripeness, fertility, sexuality, fulfillment, stability, power and life represented by the full moon.
The Crone represents wisdom, repose, death, and endings represented by the waning moon.
Many neo-Pagans and Wiccans believe that women can identify with the deity in ways unachievable by patriarchal religions by echoing the normative model of the female life-cycle which is represented by the Triple Goddess. This model is also seen to encompass a personification of all the characteristics and potential of every woman who has ever existed. Other beliefs held by worshippers, such as D. J. Conway include that reconnection with the Great Goddess is vital to the health of humankind "on all levels" and that the Goddess stood for unity, cooperation, and participation with all creation, while in contrast male gods represent dissociation, separation and dominion of nature. These views have been criticised by some neopagans and scholars as re-affirming gender stereotypes and symbolically being unable to adequately face humanities current ethical and environmental situation.
Most neopagans assert that the worship of the Triple Goddess dates to pre-Christian Europe and possibly goes as far back as the Paleolithic period. Consequently, many believe that their religion is a surviving remnant of ancient beliefs. They believe the Triple Goddess is an archetypal figure which appears though various different cultures at throughout human history, and that many individual goddesses can be interpreted as Triple Goddesses. This multiplicity of identity has led to neopagans adopting the images and names of culturally divergent deities for ritual purposes.
Drawing Down the Moon
One of the graver rituals of Wicca, "Drawing down the Moon", involves the high priestess either going into a reverie and speaking as the Goddess, or recites dramatic prose (different branches of Wicca have different rationales and methodologies). Slightly different rituals are performed at the different phases of the moon. The priestess is assumed to be functioning as a prophetess of the Goddess or her corporeal form. Mel D. Faber explains this in psychological terms of attempting to re-unite with the protective mother fantasy of the psyche.
Origins
Robert Graves popularized the term Triple Goddess in his The White Goddess (1948). Graves wrote about an archetypal goddess triad which he referenced to several European mythologies, and his theories are popular with many neopagans due to the similar Victorian-synthesis approach to myth and history. The theme of the goddess trinity can also be found in the works of Jane Ellen Harrison, who initially formulated and published the idea in (1912), which was to later inform the origins of Wicca and influence Graves.
The White Goddess has been seen as a poetic work where Graves gives his notion of mans subjection to women in love an 'anthropological grandure' and further mythologises all women in general (and several of Graves lovers in specific) into a three-faced moon goddess model. However, Graves' intention was that the work should be read as an authentic work of history that rather than a personal poetic vision. Graves' value as a poet aside, elements of Graves' scholarship such as poor philology, use of inadequate texts (for example, the 'pseudo-Celtic' Canu Taliesin from the 19th century which he believed to represent an ancient document ), and use of out-dated archeology have been criticised. Scholars, particularly archeologists, historians and folklorists generally do not receive the work favourably. Graves was disappointed that his work was "loudly ignored" by the majority of Celtic scholars, however it was accepted as history by many non-scholarly readers and, according to Hutton, The White Goddess remains a major source of confusion about the ancient Celts and influences many un-scholarly views of Celtic paganism. While Graves made the association between Goddesses and the moon appear 'natural' , it was not so to the Celts or other ancient peoples. Some neopagans have been bemused and upset by the thorough debunking that the 'Triple Goddess' has received in recent years from such scholars whilst others have appreciated its poetic insight but never accepted it as a work of historical veracity.
Graves continued to be inspired by his Triple Goddess concept, and it found its way into many of his subsequent works. In his novel Watch the North Wind Rise (1949) Graves extrapolated his theory further into a future world where the present Monotheistic religions are discarded and the Triple Goddess rules supreme (one of the Goddess' manifestations is called "Mari", asserting that the Mary of Christianity is a disguised form of the same Goddess). In the anthology The Greek Myths (1955) Graves systematically applied his convictions enshrined in The White Goddess to Greek mythology, exposing a large number of readers to his Goddess mysteries. Some classicists and scholars in comparative mythology have called the work a compendium of misinterpretations.
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TUATHA DE DANANN
The Tuatha Dé Danann ("peoples of the goddess Danu") are a race of people in Irish mythology. In the invasions tradition which begins with the Lebor Gabála Érenn, they are the fifth group to settle Ireland, conquering the island from the Fir Bolg.
They are thought to derive from the pre-Christian gods of Ireland. When the surviving stories were written, Ireland had been Christian for centuries, and the Tuatha Dé were represented as mortal kings and heroes of the distant past, but there are many clues to their former divine status. A poem in the Book of Leinster lists many of the Tuatha Dé, but ends "Although [the author] enumerates them, he does not worship them." Goibniu, Creidhne and Luchta are referred to as Trí Dé Dána ("three gods of craftsmanship"), and the Dagda's name is interpreted in medieval texts as "the good god." Even after they are displaced as the rulers of Ireland, characters such as Lugh, the Morrígan, Aengus and Manannan appear in stories set centuries later, showing all the signs of immortality. They also have many parallels across the Celtic world: Nuada is cognate with the British god Nodens; Lugh is a reflex of the pan-Celtic deity Lugus; Tuireann is related to the Gaulish Taranis; Ogma to Ogmios; the Badb to Catubodua.
Name
The translation of Tuatha Dé Danann as "peoples of the goddess Danu" is necessarily imprecise. Old Irish tuath (plural tuatha) means "people, tribe, nation"; and dé is the genitive case of día, "god, goddess, supernatural being, object of worship" (they are often referred to simply as the Tuatha Dé, a phrase also used to refer to the Israelites in early Irish Christian texts). Danann is also a genitive, for which the nominative case is not attested.
It has been reconstructed as Danu, which by analogy with Anu is taken to be a female name. The name of the river Danube is believed to be Celtic in origin, and Celtic river deities are usually female; and Hindu mythology has a water-goddess called Danu, who may be an Indo-European parallel. However, this reconstruction is not universally accepted. It is also written Donann and Domnann, which may link them with the Fir Domnann ("men of the Domnainn"), a people associated with the Fir Bolg in myth, who are historically attested in Connacht and may be related to the British Dumnonii.
The Danaan Greeks of Homer's Iliad are not known to be connected to the Tuatha Dé Danann. The spelling "Danaan" is a Latinate anglicisation of the Greek Δαναοί (Danaoi) and its similarity to "Danann" is most likely coincidental.
Legendary History
The Tuatha Dé Danann were descended from Nemed, leader of a previous wave of inhabitants of Ireland. They came from four northern cities, Falias, Gorias, Murias and Finias, where they acquired their occult skills and attributes. They arrived in Ireland, on or about May 1 (the date of the festival of Beltaine), on dark clouds, although later versions rationalise this by saying they burned their ships to prevent retreat, and the "clouds" were the smoke produced.
Led by their king, Nuada, they fought the First Battle of Magh Tuiredh (Moytura), on the west coast, in which they defeated and displaced the native Fir Bolg, who then inhabited Ireland. In the battle, Nuada lost an arm to their champion, Sreng. Since he was no longer perfect, he could not continue as king and was replaced by the half-Fomorian Bres, who turned out to be a tyrant. The physician Dian Cecht replaced Nuada's arm with a working silver one and he was reinstated as king. However, Dian Cecht's son Miach was dissatisfied with the replacement so he recited the spell, "ault fri halt dí 7 féith fri féth" (joint to joint of it and sinew to sinew), which caused flesh to grow over the silver prosthesis over the course of nine days and nights.However, in a fit of jealous rage Dian Cecht slew his own son. Because of Nuada's restoration as leader, Bres complained to his family and his father, Balor, king of the Fomorians.
The Tuatha Dé Danann then fought the Second Battle of Magh Tuiredh against the Fomorians. Nuada was killed by the Fomorian king Balor's poisonous eye, but Balor was killed himself by Lugh, the champion of the Tuatha Dé, who took over as king.
A third battle was fought against a subsequent wave of invaders, the Milesians, from the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula (present day Galicia and Northern Portugal), descendants of Míl Espáine (who are thought to represent the Goidelic Celts). The Milesians encountered three goddesses of the Tuatha Dé Danann, Ériu, Banba and Fodla, who asked that the island be named after them; Ériu is the origin of the modern name Éire, and Banba and Fodla are still sometimes used as poetic names for Ireland.
Their three husbands, Mac Cuill, Mac Cecht and Mac Gréine, who were kings of the Tuatha Dé Danann at that time, asked for a truce of three days, during which the Milesians would lie at anchor nine waves' distance from the shore. The Milesians complied, but the Tuatha Dé Danann created a magical storm in an attempt to drive them away. The Milesian poet Amergin calmed the sea with his verse, before his people landed and defeated the Tuatha Dé Danann at Tailtiu. When Amergin was called upon to divide the land between the Tuatha Dé Danann and his own people, he cleverly allotted the portion above ground to the Milesians and the portion underground to the Tuatha Dé Danann. The Tuatha Dé Danann were led underground into the Sidhe mounds by The Dagda.
The Tuatha Dé Danann fought against the witch Carman and her three sons. They are said to have brought chariots and druidry to Ireland.
The Four Treasures of the Tuatha Dé Danann
The Tuatha Dé Danann brought four magical treasures with them to Ireland, one apiece from their Four Cities:
The Dagda's Cauldron
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What was the name of the Kennedy brother who died in World War II, when his plane exploded while on a mission? | MHQ Home Page
Though John F. Kennedy emerged from World War II as a national hero, he thought of the war years as a dark period for his family. “It turned [us] upside down and sucked all the oxygen out of our smug and comfortable assumptions,” he said.
Joseph P. Kennedy, patriarch of the clan and a fierce isolationist, opposed the war and made several missteps that severely damaged his political career, which once seemed destined to climax in a bid for the White House. Appointed in 1938 as President Franklin Roosevelt’s ambassador to Great Britain, he backed the appeasement policy of Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain, describing Czechoslovakia and other nations threatened by Hitler as “disposable countries,” according to Edward Renehan Jr.’s The Kennedys at War. During the Battle of Britain, he declared that democracy was “finished” in England and perhaps America, too. In a line from a speech that Roosevelt censored, he said, “I should like to ask you all if you know of any dispute or controversy existing in the world which is worth the life of your son?”
That line would haunt Kennedy when the three of his nine children who were of age and able—Joe Jr., Jack, and Kathleen—joined the war effort. Kathleen, the fourth of his nine children, volunteered for the Red Cross in London, in part to be closer to Billy Hartington, a wealthy British aristocrat she’d met while her father was ambassador. She and Hartington married in May 1944, but the groom, a captain in the British Army, was killed in combat three months later.
Jack’s near-death misfortune in the Solomons left him in the hospital for months after back surgery. But the biggest Kennedy tragedy of the war was the death of Joe Kennedy Jr. A navy bomber pilot, he flew at D-Day and twice extended his tour of duty in Europe. In August 1944—days before Billy Hartington died—he volunteered for a secret mission testing an experimental drone plane packed with explosives—a weapon the Allies hoped to use as a guided missile. On the first test flight, the explosives detonated prematurely and the plane exploded. Kennedy’s body was never found.
His son’s death shattered Joe Kennedy and fueled his rage at Roosevelt for entangling America in the war. “For a fellow who didn’t want this war to touch your country or mine,” he wrote a friend in Britain, “I have had a rather bad dose—Joe dead, Billy Hartington dead, my son Jack in the Naval Hospital. I have had brought home to me very personally what I saw for all the mothers and fathers of the world.”
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'Thumbelina', a tiny girl not half as big as a thumb, was grown from a beggar's gift to a peasant woman. What was the gift? | Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. - Pilot - Biography.com
Joseph P. Kennedy Jr.
The eldest child in the storied Kennedy family, Joseph P. Kennedy Jr.'s destined path to the U.S. presidency was cut short when he was killed in WWII.
IN THESE GROUPS
Famous People Born in Hull
Synopsis
Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr. was born to Joseph P. and Rose F. Kennedy in 1915 in Massachusetts. As part of the affluent Kennedy family, Joseph P. Kennedy, Jr. attended Harvard University before joining the U.S. Navy during World War II. While serving in the armed forces, he became one of the most experienced fighter pilots in the navy. Unfortunately his time in the navy brought about Kennedy, Jr.'s demise, as explosives that were carried in his plane denotaned early, killing the pilot on August 12, 1944.
Early Life
Joseph Patrick Kennedy Jr. was born on July 25, 1915, in a Hull, Massachusetts, in a house his parents had rented for the summer. He was the firstborn child of Joseph P. and Rose F. Kennedy. His father amassed a large fortune through industries such as real estate and film production. Starting his professional career as a banker, he also made large sums in a then-unregulated stock market.
Joseph Jr. graduated from Choate (now known as Choate Rosemary Hall), a boarding school in Wallingford, Connecticut, in 1933. After Choate, he headed to the London School of Economics briefly before entering Harvard University. He graduated cum laude in 1934 and began studying at Harvard Law. With World War II underway, Kennedy left law school and joined the U.S. Navy in June 1941 and was awarded his aviator wings a year later.
World War II
Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. began flying Caribbean patrols soon after, until he was sent overseas to England in September 1943 to join a B-24 squadron. Within the British Naval Command, he would be among the first pilots to fly B-24s, which were large bombers. As the war went on, Kennedy became one of the most experienced combat fighters in the ranks of the navy, and the sheer amount of missions he had flown gave him the chance to return to the United States.
Kennedy refused to go back, instead persuading his crew to stay on and fly more bombing missions. June and July of 1944 found Kennedy continually in the air, running bombing strikes against the Axis forces, and as August approached he was given the opportunity to head home once again. This time, he decided to stay but told his crew to head back to the States. This would prove to be a fateful decision for the young aviator.
Operation Aphrodite
Kennedy opted to remain in Europe so that he could volunteer for a dangerous, top-secret bombing mission, called Operation Aphrodite, over Normandy, France. On the night of August 12, 1944, he and his crew flew a drone loaded with 21,170 pounds of explosives into the skies over a German V-2 rocket-launching site. At some point, Kennedy and the crew would bail out once two "mother" planes had taken control of the drone via remote control. They would then fly the drone into the German launch site and Kennedy would parachute to safety.
However, the explosives in the Kennedy-piloted drone detonated prematurely in flight, and the aircraft exploded, killing all aboard instantly.
After his death, Kennedy was awarded the Air Medal and Navy Cross for heroism. In December 1945, the navy commissioned a destroyer and named it the USS Joseph P. Kennedy Jr. A year later, Kennedy's younger brother Robert briefly served aboard the ship.
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How many fences in the Grand National are jumped twice? | Course and Fences
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Grand National Course and Fences
The Grand National is the ultimate test of horse and jockey. The race comprises two full circuits of a unique 2� mile (3,600 metres) course, where challengers will face 30 of the most testing fences in the world of jump racing.
It was originally designed as a cross-country steeplechase when it was first officially run in 1839. The runners started at a lane on the edge of the racecourse and raced away from the course out over open countryside towards the Leeds and Liverpool Canal. The gates, hedges and ditches that they met along the way were flagged to provide them with the obstacles to be jumped along the way with posts and rails erected at the two points where the runners jumped a brook.
The runners returned towards the racecourse by running along the edge of the canal before re-entering the course at the opposite end. The runners then ran the length of the racecourse before embarking on a second circuit before finishing in front of the stands. The majority of the race therefore took place not on the actual Aintree Racecourse but instead in the adjoining countryside. That countryside was incorporated into the modern course but commentators still often refer to it as "the country", much to the confusion of millions of once-a-year racing viewers.
Nowadays, around 150 tonnes of spruce branches, sourced and transported from forests in the Lake District, are used to dress the Liverpool course's jump fences. Each fence used to be made from a wooden frame and covered with the distinctive green spruce. However, a radical change for the 2013 renewal saw that frame replaced by a softer, more forgiving material known as "plastic birch", for safety reasons.
Each of the 16 fences on the course are jumped twice, with the exception of The Chair and the Water Jump, which are jumped on the first circuit only. You can take a jockey's eye view of the Grand National course via the video below:
Safety Changes
Following safety reviews after both the 2011 and 2012 renewals, a number of changes were made to the course with some reductions in fences or the drop after fences, plus the levelling of landing zones.
Since 2013, the start of the race is now 90 yards closer to the first fence, reducing the race to four miles and three-and-a-half furlongs, from four-and-a-half miles, while measures were introduced to stop horses getting caught up in the starting tape.
In particular, the start now includes the 'no-go' zone, which is defined by a line on the track, being extended from 15 yards to around 30 yards from the starting tape.
The starter's rostrum has been moved to a position between the starting tape and the 'no-go' zone to reduce the potential for horses to go through the starting tape prematurely.
The tapes themselves are also more user-friendly, with increased visibility, while there is now a specific briefing between the starters' team and the jockeys on Grand National day.
The changes to the start are aimed at slowing the speed the first fence is approached at, while moving the start further away from the crowd reduces noise that can distract the horses.
The makeup of all of the fences changed significantly in 2013. The new fences are still covered in spruce, but wooden posts have been replaced by a softer material known as "plastic birch", and on top of that birch there's a minimum of fourteen to sixteen inches of spruce that the horses can knock off. The outward appearance of the fences remains the same.
Other measures included �100,000 being invested in irrigation to produce the safest jumping ground possible and a new bypass and pen around fence four to catch riderless horses.
The Start
There is a hazard to overcome even before the race starts - the build up, parade and re-girthing prior to the off lasts for around 25 minutes, over double the time it takes for any other race.
With 40 starters, riders naturally want a good sight of the first fence and after the long build-up their nerves are stretched to breaking point, which means the stewards' pre-race warning to go steady is often totally ignored.
The Fences
1 & 17: Thorn fence, 4ft 6in high, 2ft 9in wide - The first often claims many victims as horses tend to travel to it far too keenly. As described above, the drop on the landing side was reduced in 2011.
2 & 18: Almost the same height as the first but much wider at 3ft 6in. Prior to 1888 the first two fences were located approximately halfway between the first to second and second to third jumps. The fence became known as The Fan after a mare refused at the obstacle three years in succession, but it lost that name when the fences were relocated.
3 & 19 Westhead: This is the first big test with a 6ft ditch on the approach guarding a 4ft 10in high fence.
4 & 20: Plain fence, 4ft 10in high and 3ft wide. In 2011, the 20th became the first fence in Grand National history to be bypassed on the second circuit, following an equine fatality on the first. In 2012, it was reduced in height by 2 inches to its current height of 4 foot 10 inches (1.47 metres) after it was shown to be the hardest fence on the course to jump along with Becher�s Brook. Its landing area was smoothed out ahead of the 2013 race.
5 & 21: Spruce dressed fence, 5ft high and 3ft 6in wide. Its landing side was also levelled in 2013. It was bypassed on the final lap for the first time in 2012 so that medics could treat a jockey who fell from his mount on the first lap and had broken a leg.
6 & 22 Becher's Brook: Although the fence looks innocuous from the take-off side, the steep drop on the landing side, together with a left-hand turn on landing, combine to make this the most thrilling and famous fence in the horse racing world. The fence actually measures well over 6 ft on the landing side, a drop of between 5 and 10in from take off. Horses are not expecting the ground the disappear under them on landing, riders need to sit back in the saddle and use their body weight to act as ballast to keep the horses stable.
As described above, there have been a number of alterations to this fence in recent season to try to make it a fairer and safer test for horse and rider, and the whole field managed to clear the obstacle on the first circuit last year.
Becher's Brook earned its name when a top jockey, Captain Martin Becher, took shelter in the brook after being unseated. "Water tastes disgusting without the benefits of whisky" he reflected.
7 & 23 Foinavon Fence: Basically an 'ordinary' fence (4ft 6in high and 3ft wide) that was made famous in 1967 when Fionavon was the only horse to scramble over it at the first time of asking, following a mass pile-up. The jump is the smallest on the course, but coming straight after the biggest drop, it can catch horses and riders out.
8 & 24 Canal Turn: Made of hawthorn stakes covered in Norway spruce, it gets its name from the fact that there is a canal in front of the horses when they land. To avoid it, they must turn a full 90 degrees when they touch down.
The race can be won or lost here, with a diagonal leap to the inside of the jump taking the fence at a scary angle, but reducing the turn on landing. With 30 or more horses often still standing when the field reaches this point on the first circuit, not every rider has the option of taking this daring passage. Before the First World War it was not uncommon for loose horses to continue straight ahead after the jump and end up in the Leeds and Liverpool Canal itself. There was once a ditch before the fence but this was filled in after a m�l�e in the 1928 race.
9 & 25 Valentine's Brook: The third of four famous fences to be jumped in succession, it is 5ft high and 3ft 3in wide with a brook on the landing side that�s about 5ft 6in wide. The fence was originally known as the Second Brook but was renamed after a horse named Valentine was reputed to have jumped the fence hind legs first in 1840. A grandstand was erected alongside the fence in the early part of the 20th century but fell into decline after the Second World War and was torn down in the 1970s.
10 & 26: Thorn fence, 5ft high and 3ft wide that leads the runners alongside the canal towards two ditches.
11 & 27 Booth: The main problem with this fence, which is 5ft high and 3ft wide, is the 6ft wide ditch on the take-off side.
12 & 28: Same size as the two previous fences, but with a 5ft 6in ditch on the landing side, which can catch runners out.
The runners then cross the Melling Road near to the Anchor Bridge, a popular vantage point since the earliest days of the race. This also marks the point where the runners are said to be re-entering the "racecourse proper". In the early days of the race it was thought there was an obstacle near this point known as the Table Jump, which may have resembled a bank similar to those still seen at Punchestown in Ireland. In the 1840s the Melling Road was also flanked by hedges and the runners had to jump into the road and then back out of it.
13 & 29: Second-last fence on the final circuit, it is 4ft 7in high and 3ft wide. This is the other obstacle to have had its landing side smoothed out ahead of the 2013 renewal.
14 & 30: Almost the same height as the previous fence and it is rare for any horse to fall at the final fence in the Grand National.
15 The Chair: The final two jumps of the first circuit form the only pair negotiated just once - and they could not be more different. The Chair is both the tallest (5ft 2in) and broadest fence on the course, with a 6ft wide ditch on the take-off side.
In addition, the landing side turf is actually raised six inches above the take-off ground. This has the opposite effect on horses and riders to the drop at Becher's, as having stretched to get over the ditch, horses are surprised to find the ground coming up to meet them. This is spectacular when horses get it right and equally so, for all the wrong reasons, when they don�t.
This fence is the site of the only human fatality in the National's history, Joe Wynne who sustained injuries in a fall in 1862. This brought about the ditch on the take-off side of the fence in an effort to slow the horses on approach. The fence was the location where a distance judge sat in the earliest days of the race. On the second circuit he would record the finishing order from his position and declare any horse that had not passed him before the previous runner passed the finishing post as "distanced", meaning a non-finisher. The practise was done away with in the 1850s but the monument where the chair stood is still there.
The fence was originally known as the Monument Jump but The Chair came into more regular use in the 1930s.
16 Water Jump: This 2ft 9in fence brings the first circuit to an end and the sight of the runners jumping it at speed presents a terrific spectacle in front of the grandstands. The fence was originally a stone wall in the very early Grand Nationals. On the final circuit, after the 30th fence the remaining runners bear right, avoiding The Chair and Water Jump, to head onto a "run-in" to the finishing post.
The Finish
The 474-yard long run in from the final fence to the finish is the longest in the country and has an acute elbow halfway up it that further drains the then almost empty stamina reserves of both horse and jockey.
For numerous riders over the years, this elongated run-in has proved mental and physical agony when the winning post seems to be retreating with every weary stride.
Don't count your money until the post is reached as with the rest of the Grand National course, the run-in can - and usually does - change fortunes. The likes of Devon Loch, Crisp and Sunnyhillbot have all famously had defeat snatched from the jaws of victory in heat breaking fashion.
Course Walking
No visit to Aintree would be complete without taking the opportunity to see some of these famous fences close up. The whole course can actually be walked on the morning of the race (subject to ground conditions and security requirements). Walkers should leave an hour to do a circuit, which must be completed one hour prior to the first race. Maps, guiding racegoers to the start point, are located around the racecourse.
The famous Becher's Brook with its steep drop on landing - a daunting obstacle
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Who introduced the science of psychoanalysis, the investigation of the unconscious mind? | Grand National Fences - Beechers Brook - The Chair
Grand National Fences
TESTING MENU
Aintree Grand National Fences
The Aintree Grand National Course is run over the most unique race circuit in the country. The wide course is tailor made for the large fields of 40 plus runners which is more like a cavalry charge out of a western movie than a traditional horse race, no wonder it is so popular with the public. The Aintree course is nearly two and a quarter miles in circumference, there are 16 fences and a run in of 494 yards.
The Canal Turn with Ryan Mania
Becher's Brook with Ryan Mania
Aintree Fence-By Fence Guide
Fence 1The first fence comes very quickly after the start and with 40 plus runners going full pelt at speeds of 30 plus miles per hour there are bound to be a couple of causalities at this first fence which is 4 foot 6 inch in height.
Fence 2The second fence come up quickly and is slightly bigger than the first fence standing at 4 foot 7 inch.
Fence 3Next is the first open ditch. The ditches are the first real test for the horses as there is a 6 foot gap between the front of the ditch and the fence itself so the horse has to stand off and really stretch out to make it safely to the other side. This fence is the larger than the first two standing at 5 feet.
Fence 4is back to a standard fence at 4 foot 10 inches.
Fence 5A 5 foot fence. The last regular fence before Bechers.
Fence 6Bechers Brook . The most famous fence on the Aintree Racecourse. (Named after Captain Becher Who fell at this fence ) What is unique about this fence is the brook on the landing side. This fence is a 4 foot 10 inch fence with a 5 foot 6 inch Brook. The experienced jockeys will take there horses wide as the drop is less the wider you jump the fence.
Fence 7The Foinavon fence. One of the easier fences on the course at 4 foot 6 inches, but the fence that caused such carnage in the 1967 National. The fence was named after Foinavon a complete outsider who was the only horse to jump the fence first time and went on to win.
Fence 8The Canal Turn. This is a 5 foot fence. What is important about this fence is that the jockeys need to jump the fence at an angle in order not to lose a lot of ground as there is a 90 degrees angle to the left immediately after jumping this fence.
Fence 9St. Valentines Brook A 5 foot fence with a 5 foot 6 inch Brook. Fence10 A five foot fence.
Fence 11The Booth. An open ditch with a 5 foot fence and a 6 foot ditch.
Fence 12Westhead. A five foot fence followed by a 5 foot 6 inch fence.
Fence 13This is a 4 foot 7 inch fence.
Fence 14A 4 foot 6 inch fence, not a difficult fence but horses are beginning to tire and can make simple errors.
Fence 15The Chair. This is the biggest fence in the National. It is a 6 foot fence with a 5 foot 2 inch ditch.
Fence 16This is the water jump and is a long jump rather than a high jump.
The horses have to jump nearly all the fences twice with 30 fences in all that make up this fantastic horse race. At the end of jumping the 30 fences and running nearly four and a half miles there is the longest run in of any horse race in the UK of 494 yards with an elbow roughly half way up the run in many races have been won and lost on this final scramble to the finishing post. It is just hoped that every year that all the horses return safely to have another go the following year.
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'Gunfight At The OK Corral' in 1957, Burt Lancaster stars as 'Wyatt Earp'. Who stars as 'Doc Halliday'? | Gunfight at OK Corral (1957) - Read expert review at epinions.com
Gunfight at OK Corral (1957)
Review by George_Chabot
in Books, Musical Instruments, Cars & Motorsports, Home and Garden, Movies
in Books, Musical Instruments, Home and Garden, Movies
February, 20 2001
Pros: Lancaster and Douglas, supporting cast, story, photography, direction, score
Cons: Theme song a little tedious but typical of the era
John Sturges directed this, the greatest of Hollywood?s tributes to the legendary gunfight.
The action begins quickly with Wyatt Earp (Burt Lancaster) and Doc Holliday (Kirk Douglas) becoming reluctant allies despite a mutual dislike for each other. You see, Wyatt is the U.S. marshal, and Doc is the town gambler, shootist, and general ne?er do well.
Despite the ordinance against carrying guns in town limits, Ed Bailey (Lee Van Cleef) has a small derringer concealed in his boot. Ed is a gunnin? for Doc Holliday who killed his brother in a fair fight. Doc has his back to the bar but is watching Bailey in the mirror. Wyatt had earlier tipped Doc off to the derringer in a verbal fencing match that set up the relationship between the two lead characters. Bailey stands up with the derringer in his hand. Doc whirls around, produces a knife from his collar, and skewers Bailey. The sheriff quickly arrests Doc and incarcerates him in his hotel room under guard. Wyatt pistol whips the guard and helps Doc escape just before the lynch mob gets to the hotel. From this beginning the two men begin a friendship that ripens to a point where either man is willing to risk his life for the other.
Wyatt is ready to retire and gets ready to settle down with beautiful lady gambler Laura Denbow (Rhonda Fleming). At that exact second a telegram from brother Virgil arrives. He is in trouble and needs help, now! Virgil Earp is the town marshal of Tombstone, in the Arizona Territory.
Wyatt immediately gets his horse, hat, and gun and sets off to meet his date with destiny, much to the chagrin of Ms. Laura Denbow. Along the trail who should show up except Doc Holliday, fresh from a run of busted luck at the poker tables of Wichita. As they stop to camp for the night Wyatt waxes poetic on the virtues of clean mountain air over the stinking saloons that Doc usually inhabits. While they sleep, three villains attempt to assassinate them, but Doc?s ready Colt makes short work of the trio. "Clean mountain air, indeed," fumes Doc.
At Tombstone we meet the rest of the Earp clan, including Virgil and Morgan (Deforrest Kelly) and younger brother James (Martin Milner). It is a real homey atmosphere, one that Wyatt and Doc have sorely missed. But the problem is cattle rustling by the Clanton family and their gang of cowboys, who are not going to let the law stand in their way. There is some preliminary maneuvering, but when the Clantons back shoot James, the brothers resolve to settle it the only way the Clantons will understand. The three brothers set off on that October morning at sunrise. As Wyatt gets his shotgun, Doc Holliday appears at his door, willing to come along. This is a good thing because the odds are now only 6 to 4 in the Clanton?s favor.
The Clantons are already at the Corral, hiding behind a wagon, when the Earps and Holliday arrive. The Earps scatter and hit the dirt. The gunfight consists of fire and maneuver with the Earps prevailing against the more numerous foes.
The Gunfight at OK Corral is the best interpretation of the legendary battle for several reasons: First, the casting of Burt Lancaster as the stern, upright Wyatt Earp and Kirk Douglas as the colorful, rum-soaked Doc Holliday was masterful. Director Sturges eschewed handlebar mustaches in favor of clean shaven Earps, but the power of the leading actors? performances overshadowed that of later versions. The secondary roles were played by competent actors like Earl Holliman, John Ireland, Jo Van Fleet, Jack Elam, and Dennis Hopper. The story, while fictionalized, was accurate as far as the general reasons why the two sides squared off. The dialog was witty, well-written and did not require euphemisms and profanity to get its point across. The sets were more accurate than those in other interpretations, and the geographic location looked like Tombstone, unlike other interpretations. The photography and direction was brilliant with a big blue sky and plenty of interesting camera angles. The weapons sequences were better than other interpretations: six shooters shot six times, shotguns fired twice, and recoil was evident from the shooting. The newer interpretations show a closer affinity to John Woo with zero recoil and 30 shot six shooters!! (snicker) The music by Dimitri Tiompkin is perfectly suited to the action. Even though the Frankie Laine theme song is a little trying at times, it is typical of the era.
As much as I like Tombstone and My Darling Clementine, which are great interpretations of the West's most famous gunbattle, I have to say that Gunfight at OK Corral is the best of the best. Five stars.
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What is the collective name for the sepals of a flower? | Gunfight at the OK Corral Movie | Western Classic Movies
Trivia
“Gunfight at the OK Corral” Dramatizes One of the Old West’s Legendary Showdowns
Directed by John Sturges, “Gunfight at the OK Corral” is a 1957 film about one of the Old West’s most famous and dramatic incidents involving Wyatt Earp, Doc Holliday and the Clanton gang.
In this classic, vividly crafted western, Burt Lancaster plays Wyatt Earp, the legendary lawman hoping to hang up his badge and settle down. Joining his brothers at Tombstone in Arizona Territory, Wyatt Earp is dogged by violence: Trouble in the form of the reckless Clanton gang ensures that his days of enforcing justice aren’t quite over.
Mounting to the famous showdown, the Earp brothers join ranks with the inveterate, malady-wracked gambler Doc Holliday—brought to life by another screen legend, Kirk Douglas—who just so happens to be as lethally handy with a six-shooter as he is fond of the bottle and gambling.
Even while deviating from the actual historical drama of 1881, “Gunfight at the O.K. Corral” provides its own gripping tale about this legendary confrontation between the Earp Brothers, Doc Holliday and the Clantons.
While Burt Lancaster and Kirk Douglas do most of the scenery-chewing, “Gunfight at the OK Corral” also showcases a rich roster of supporting players, including a young Dennis Hopper as Billy Clanton and Jo Van Fleet as Holliday’s flame, Kate Fisher.
• When “Gunfight at the O.K. Corral” was filmed, Burt Lancaster and Kirk Douglas were major stars and very popular with audiences. This western became the ninth highest-grossing box office movie in 1957 (putting it in the Top 10), and part of the reason for this success was attributed to the star power of Lancaster and Douglas.
Together, Burt Lancaster and Kirk Douglas made seven movies with each other and “Gunfight at the O.K. Corral” was the second one. This classic film was also the only western that Burt Lancaster and Kirk Douglas made together. The other six movies that they starred in together were: Seven Days in May (1964), The List of Adrian Messenger (1963), Tough Guys (1986), The Devil’s Disciple (1959), I Walk Alone (1947) and Victory at Entebbe (1976).
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In the film 'Tombstone', Kurt Russell plays Wyatt Earp. Who plays 'Doc Halliday'? | Tombstone (1993) - IMDb
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17 January 2017 4:34 PM, UTC
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A successful lawman's plans to retire anonymously in Tombstone, Arizona, are disrupted by the kind of outlaws he was famous for eliminating.
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Wyatt Earp is a movie about a man and his family. The movie shows us the good times and the bad times of one of the West's most famous individuals.
Director: Lawrence Kasdan
A former gunslinger is forced to take up arms again when he and his cattle crew are threatened by a corrupt lawman.
Director: Kevin Costner
A group of young gunmen, led by Billy the Kid, become deputies to avenge the murder of the rancher who became their benefactor. But when Billy takes their authority too far, they become the hunted.
Director: Christopher Cain
A misfit bunch of friends come together to right the injustices which exist in a small town.
Director: Lawrence Kasdan
A small-time rancher agrees to hold a captured outlaw who's awaiting a train to go to court in Yuma. A battle of wills ensues as the outlaw tries to psych out the rancher.
Director: James Mangold
Edit
Storyline
After success cleaning up Dodge City, Wyatt Earp moves to Tombstone, Arizona, and wishes to get rich in obscurity. He meets his brothers there, as well as his old friend Doc Holliday. A band of outlaws that call themselves The Cowboys are causing problems in the region with various acts of random violence, and inevitably come into confrontation with Holliday and the Earps, which leads to a shoot-out at the OK Corral. Written by Ed Sutton <[email protected]>
Justice Is Coming See more »
Genres:
Rated R for violence | See all certifications »
Parents Guide:
25 December 1993 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
Duel au soleil See more »
Filming Locations:
Did You Know?
Trivia
The scene in which Wyatt throws an abusive card dealer out of a saloon, was to show that Wyatt was a man who used psychology to intimidate. 'Billy Bob Thornton' (qv's lines in the scene were ad-libbed, as he was only told to "be a bully". See more »
Goofs
In Tombstone a 50-star US flag is flying from a building (it should have had 38 stars). See more »
Quotes
[first lines]
Narrator : 1879 - the Civil War is over, and the resulting economic explosion spurs the great migration west. Farmers, ranchers, prospectors, killers, and thieves seek their fortune. Cattle growers turn cow towns into armed camps, with murder rates higher than than those of modern day New York or Los Angeles. Out of this chaos comes legendary lawman Wyatt Earp, retiring his badge and gun to start a peaceful life for his family. Earp's friend, John, Doc Holliday, a southern gentlemen turned ...
For Birgitta C. See more »
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User Reviews
It may not have a deep heart, but its a hell of a lot of fun...
18 January 2004 | by RareSlashersReviewed
(London) – See all my reviews
The 1990s looked set to be a promising decade for the Western genre after the Oscar darlings Unforgiven and Dances with Wolves cleared up the Academy respectively in 90 and 92. Hot on the heels of those modern-day classics came two individual accounts of Wyatt Earp's legendary life as a lawman. Wyatt Earp boasted an interesting cast in Gene Hackaman, Kevin Costner and Dennis Quaid with strong assistance from an excellent ensemble that included Tom Sizemore and Michael Madsen. Although it was a fairly decent effort, offering a consuming account of the gunslinger's whole life from his humble upbringing and the death of his first wife to his renowned battles with Outlaws like the infamous shoot-out at the Ok Corral. It couldn't help but feel plagued by a yawn inducing 183 minute running time and an uncharismatic turn from Costner in the lead. Tombstone on the other hand, begins when Earp and his brothers move to the town named in the title and is - for the most part, a far more direct and satisfying approach.
It opens with Earp ending his stint as a Kansas law officer and heading for Tombstone with his brothers Virgil and Morgan and their families in toe. Upon arrival they meet up with their good friend and Ally Doc Holliday and before long they've acquired a share in a thriving little saloon and card game. A group of ruthless bandits ironically titled 'The Cowboys', also inhabit the town and they take an immediate disliking to the retired lawman's reputation and moral attitudes. So far, Wyatt had done well to keep himself clear of any kind of feuding or trouble, but one fateful night a barbarous act forces him to arrest Curly Bill Brocious the leader of the desperadoes. This eventually results with the historic showdown at the OK Corral and a quest to rid the land from the curse of these malevolent outlaws.
On his audio commentary for the Tom Cruise drama Vanilla Sky, Cameron Crowe describes Kurt Russell as 'Hollywood's best kept secret'. Showing flashes of Clint Eastwood, but without ever looking like he's trying to imitate him, he provides a competent lead and proves that there's certainly a lot of truth to that statement. From his humorous will they won't they yearnings for Jose, to his anguished rage as he screams, `.Hell's coming with me' into the stormy night sky, Russell's on top form. His excellence can't help but play second fiddle to a scene stealing Val Kilmer, who has some of the best dialogue since Mr Blonde shared breakfast with a group of crimms in black suits. Hitting a career high, it's seems surprising that the Academy didn't acknowledge such a worthy portrayal. The camaraderie between he and Earp is one of Cinema's most pleasurable buddy pairings and no one can deny the pathos he creates in his tragic exit. His rivalry with an underused but adequate Michael Biehn as Johnny Ringo is compelling and their dual makes for an irresistible climax. Dana Delaney also shines as the Marshall's 'other' love interest, but frankly with a cast studded with cameos from so many familiar faces - even Charlton Heston - you could give a gibbon the megaphone and the results would probably still feel fairly acceptable!
The set locations are the standard cowboy fare, but director Cosmatos manages to make good use of them. The stormy night scenes when Morgan is attacked are crafted to create an electric atmosphere that is superbly lighted and the same can be said for the suspense made in the neatly staged shoot-outs. Clearly accomplished as an action director, Cosmatos certainly was the right Man for this rootin' tootin' ride through the Wild West. He shows a flare for building tension that runs smoothly throughout the beautifully shot set pieces.
The only complaint that can be made about Tombstone is the lack of any real depth found within the story. Where as genre classics like Unforgiven offer an emotionally charged drama that snuggles so neatly with the always-ungratuitous gunplay, Kevin Jarre's story falls into the 'popcorn western' category. Along with its contemporaries Young guns or The Quick and the Dead, the movie aims more for blockbuster appeal than a deep and endearing dramatic approach. Still, fans of a six-shooter will find plenty to be impressed by - in this admirable character-led mix of gunplay, companionship, romance and even just the right amount of pathos. Fans still ask which is the better of the two accounts of Wyatt Earp's life that were strangely released around the same time. Well I guess the answer really depends on your personnel taste in movies. If you like the more dramatic western and have no problem with an epic runtime, then Costner and co's biopic maybe the one for you. However if you're looking for a 'popcorn' take on the lawman's life then you need look no further. Tombstone's your movie! It may not have a deep heart, but it's a hell of a lot of fun! 8/10
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| Val Kilmer |
O.J. Simpson's trial for murder monopolised the American media. What was his wife's name? | Tombstone | Chicago Reader
Tombstone
Rated R · 130 minutes · 2014
Kurt Russell plays Wyatt Earp and Val Kilmer plays Doc Holliday in this 1993 western based on an old story set in Tombstone, Arizona; Bill Paxton and Sam Elliot costar as Earp's brothers. Written by Kevin Jarre (Glory) and directed by George P. Cosmatos, this has plenty of designer gore to go with its periodic spurts of bloodletting, and a lot of care and attention were obviously devoted to selecting locations, designing sets, and grooming handlebar mustaches. Much less attention went to making one believe that any of the events took place circa 1879, but at least the bursts of action keep coming, and most survive Cosmatos's addiction to smoldering close-ups. For a weepy death scene, Jarre borrows a famous gesture from Only Angels Have Wings, but usually he's content to show how ornery critters like to shoot one another for the fun of it. Robert Mitchum supplied the opening and closing narration. By Jonathan Rosenbaum
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What name is given to the joint at which leaves are borne on a stem? | Stems
Here is a definition of a plant stem:
A stem is the part of a plant
from which shoots and buds arise.
At first glance, that definition sounds a little clumsy. However, below you'll see that sometimes it's not so easy to distinguish certain kinds of stems from roots. Stems can by tricky.
For example, several kinds of stems grow beneath the ground. Sometimes, to figure out whether a plant part is a root or a modified stem, you have to analyze it. You have to notice where the plant's shoots and buds arise. If shoots and buds arise from it, it's a stem.
At the right you see a green onion from my garden. The green shoot above it is arising from the spherical bulb, so, remembering our definition, the bulb must be a much-modified stem, right? That's the case, even though the bulb grew below the soil's surface. The white, hairlike things arising from the bulb's bottom are roots.
The "classical stem" is a tree trunk, which in a no-nonsense manner simply rises from the ground and supports the tree's leafy branches -- like the Winged Sumac shown at the left.
In our backyards, an important variation on this simple theme is that of having multiple stems -- two or more stems arising from the roots, in the manner shown below and to the left by the Chinese Privet bush.
Clumps of grass and certain bushes use this strategy. Clumped stems tend to protect one another from cold wind and hot sun, plus, if one stem breaks, it's less loss to the plant because other stems are available. On the other hand, if a plant invests its energy in many stems, then it's unable to grow as high as it could with only one stem, and therefore may receive less sunlight than its taller neighbors.
Another important stem variation is the climbing stem. In our vegetable gardens, climbing beans have such stems, as do grapevines and morning-glory vines.
At the left you can see Poison Ivy vines climbing up a tree trunk. At the right you can see a Japanese Honeysuckle vine twining around a tree branch. Notice at the top, right in the picture how the vine twists around the tree branch. If you think about it, having a climbing stem is a kind of sneaky adaptation. Essentially it enables the climbing plant to reach toward the sun without having to invest its own energy in building stiff, strong trunks or stems capable of holding themselves erect.
Climbing stems typically wrap themselves around their support-host. Prostrate stems merely trail across the ground, clamber over, or lean upon other plants, rocks, fences, or whatever happens to be in the way. Cucumber, winter squash, and sweet potato vines have prostrate stems.
Before going any further, let's understand the term "node." The bamboo stem shown above is jointed, right? Well, those two thickened joints are nodes, and the smooth, slender zones between the nodes are called internodes. Nodes and internodes are important to know about because the vast majority of flowering-plant stems have them, though they're seldom as obvious as on bamboo stems. Also, since leaves, flowers, and fruits generally arise from buds located at nodes, on stems, the interesting stuff happens at nodes.
At the left you see an example of "interesting stuff happening at a node." This is on the stem of a common, herbaceous plant growing in moist to wet soil. It's Polygonum hydropiperoides, sometimes called Water-pepper. The swollen area where the leaf attaches is the node. But notice that on the stem above the node there's a brownish, cellophane-like membrane with obscure, slender, parallel veins. The membrane surrounds the stem like a cylinder. This is a stipular sheath. Such sheaths are typical of a small number of plant families. In other words, if you are trying to identify a plant and you notice that it has stipular sheathes, you can narrow down the possible names drastically. In North America the family most commonly showing stipular sheaths is the Smartweed Family, the Polygonaceae, and Water-pepper is a member of that family. Stipules, behaving like thin coats, protect young plant parts as they emerge. Stipules occur in many families but usually they fall off soon after they are no longer needed, or else they are like inconspicuous little ears instead of cylinders, as in the case of the Smartweed Family.
Now you may want to look at our stem modifications page, where you'll probably see some things you've already heard of, but didn't know that they were stems!
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Which Polish astronomer put forward the theory that the earth revolved around the sun? | Plant Stem, Parts and Functions
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The plant stem is a component of the shoot system, the portion of the plant body of the angiosperms having phototropic response. Besides the stem, the plant shoot also consists of the leaves and the reproductive organs.
The stem has been described as a “central axis” to which all other parts are attached. In most plants the stems are conspicuous aboveground, but in some species they are hidden below the ground. Based on various criteria, there are other more classifications of the stem.
The first stem that develops from a seed arises from the epicotyl, an embryonic shoot within the seed.
Functions of the Stem
The plant stem including its outermost bark has multiple uses ranging from logs, firewood, lumber, source of pulp for paper making, source of food, fiber, medicine, latex, tannin, dye and many more. It is also the most widely used part for asexual or vegetative plant propagation .
In plant growth and development, the plant stem performs the following functions:
1. It supports the leaves, flowers and fruits and connects them with the roots. In trees and shrubs, the main stem or trunk provides a strong columnar structure from which branches are attached, raising the leaves upward to be exposed more fully to the sun.
2. It conducts water, nutrients and the products of photosynthesis to and from roots and leaves. It accommodates the transport system which is necessary for the vertical and lateral movement of water and sap within the plant body.
3. It helps store water, as in cacti, and the products of photosynthesis, as in the trunk of sago palm (Metroxylon sagu) and sweet palm (Arenga pinnata) which store large stock of starch;
4. Young green stem also performs a minor role in the production of food through the process of photosynthesis, but in some species (e.g. cactus) the stem is the chief photosynthesizing organ.
5. The plant stem serves as a means of asexual reproduction in many plant species ( click here for examples of important crop plants that can be propagated by stem cuttings ).
Parts of the Stem
All stems of the angiosperms, including those which are highly modified, are recognizable from other plant organs by their presence of nodes, internodes, buds and leaves. A node is a point on the stem from which leaves or buds arise. The portion between two successive nodes is the internode.
A bud is an embryonic stem which has the potential for further plant growth. It may develop into a leaf, flower, or both. Such buds are called leaf buds, flower buds and mixed buds, respectively. Many buds remain dormant within a certain duration or they may be embedded in the stem tissue as to become hardly visible. A single bud that is found at the apex of the stem is called terminal bud while lateral buds or axillary buds occur in the leaf axils, the upper angle between the stem and leaves. As a result of injury, adventitious buds may be formed also in the internode of the stems, in leaves, or roots. The “eyes” of the potato tuber are buds.
In trees and shrubs, the shoot consists of the main stem which is commonly called trunk or bole, their main ascending axis, with lateral branches to which smaller branches and branchlets or twigs are attached.
Besides the obvious leaves and buds, other structures may be present. There may be hairs, which are outgrowths of epidermal cells, and spines, which are either modified twigs, leaves, hairs, or stipules.
In woody stems, the following plant structures may be present in addition to the leaves and buds: leaf scars after the leaves fall, at the point of attachment of the leaves to the stem; bundle scars, the tiny raised dots in the leaf scars which are broken ends of vascular bundles connecting the stem to the petiole of leaves; bud scars which are small, narrow, circular marks around a twig left by the falling away of the bud scales; twig scars left by the falling away of twigs; and fruit scars where fruits are previously attached.
Plant Stem Classifications
Most stems grow above ground and are called aboveground or aerial stems but there are some which grow below the ground, and thus called underground, below-ground or subterranean stems. Plants with no obvious stem above ground, but bear only leaves and flower stalks, are called stemless or acaulescent.
In grass plants like rice, corn and bamboo which belong to the botanical family Gramineae or Poaceae, the main stem is specially called culm. Culms are either hollow or solid stems with pronounced nodes and internodes.
The stem is basically cylindrical. However, there are many modified forms of both aerial stems (e.g. crowns, offshoots, stolons, runners, spurs) and subterranean stems (e.g. bulbs, corms, rhizomes, tubers). (Click to read Starchy Rootcrops, Tuber Crops and Corm Crops)
Offshoot is a collective term for the short, thickened lateral shoot or branches with multiple nodes and having rosette-like appearance, growing out of the main stem in certain plants. They are variously called offsets, suckers, slips, pips, etc. A stolon is a stem that grows horizontally along the ground (e.g. Bermuda grass, zoysia grass, mint). A runner is a stolon having long internodes which originate at the base of the crown of the plant (e.g. strawberry). A spur is a stem in woody plants with greatly shortened internodes and restricted growth. They appear laterally on branches. In apple and grape, the production of fruits is largely confined to the spurs. A crown is a compressed stem from which new shoots arise. They are generally found near the surface of the soil (e.g. strawberry, African violet).
As to texture, plant stems are classified as either herbaceous, suffrutescent, or woody. Herbaceous stems, as in the taro or gabi family (Araceae), have no permanent woody tissue, with a short life span, and die soon after flowering. Suffrutescent stems, as in eggplant and jute, are more or less woody or half-woody, usually at the basal part. Woody stems, as in all shrubs and trees, form permanent woody tissue which persist indefinitely. The woody portion of the stem is made of secondary xylem.
As to direction, plant stems are either erect, ascending, decumbent, prostrate, creeping, climbing, or twining. Stems are erect when they grow vertically upward in a direction that is perpendicular from the base; ascending when rising obliquely or in slanting direction; decumbent when more or less reclining on the ground at or near the base; prostrate when lying flat on the ground; creeping when growing flat on the ground and rooting on the nodes; climbing or scandent when rising by clinging to other objects by means of tendrils, rootlets, or other specialized organs; and twining when rising by coiling around other stems or objects.
Based on the arrangement of branches and leaves, plant stems are opposite when two are formed at the same node from opposite sides of the stem; whorled or verticillate when three or more arise from the same node in regular arrangement around the stem; fascicled or fasciculate when two or more arise in cluster from the same node on one side of the stem; alternate when one is formed at each node on one side, and the next above or below on the opposite side of the stem; distichous when regularly arranged in two ranks, one above another in two opposite rows; and secund when all are turned to one side.
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What name is generally given to unglazed porcelain? | Glaze
Glaze
Glaze is used on pottery and porcelain to give it a waterproof finish.
Glaze may be transparent, opaque or coloured.
The main glazes were lead, tin and salt .
Glaze is a form of glass, consisting basically of glass-forming minerals (silica or boron) combined with stiffeners (such as clay and fluxes) and melting agents (such as lead or soda).
In raw form, glaze can be applied either to the unfired pot or after an initial unglazed, or biscuit, firing. The pot is then glaze fired; the glaze ingredients must melt and become glasslike at a temperature that is compatible to that required for the clay.
For glazing, two main materials were used:
Lead: in the form of Lead Sulphide, Galena, was found in Derbyshire and may have been brought from Cumberland and North Wales as well, but Derbyshire was the main source.
Lead glazes are transparent, with traditional types made of sand fused with sulphide or lead oxide. They were used on earthenware by Roman, Chinese, and medieval European potters and are still employed on European earthenware.
Salt: from Cheshire, where at Marbury, near Northwich, salt in the form of brine was mined. Salt glazing was practiced for about 100 years in Staffordshire, so this close source of supply was an important factor.
Tin glazes, opaque and white, were introduced by medieval Islamic potters and were used for Spanish lustreware, Italian maiolica, and European faience and delftware. Eventually the Chinese and Japanese made such glazes for the European market.
Metal oxides give colour to glazes (see also the decorative over glaze technique of enameling ). Copper will make a lead glaze turn green and an alkaline glaze turquoise; a reduction kiln will cause the copper to turn red. Iron can produce yellow, brown, grey-green, blue, or, with certain minerals, red.
Feldspars (natural rocks of aluminosilicates) are used in stoneware and porcelain glazes because they fuse only at high temperatures. The effects of specific glazes on certain clay bodies depend both on the composition of each and on the potter's control of the glaze kiln.
Porcelain fired without a glaze, called biscuit porcelain, was introduced in Europe in the 18th century. It was generally used for figures. In the 19th century biscuit porcelain was called Parian ware. Some soft-paste porcelains, which remain somewhat porous, require a glaze. After the body has been fired, the glaze, usually containing lead, was added and fired to vitrify it. Unlike feldspathic glaze, it adheres as a relatively thick coating.
Painted decoration on porcelain is usually executed over the fired glaze. Because painting under the glaze-that is, on a fired, unglazed body-must be fired at the same high temperature as body and glaze, many colours would "fire away." Thus underglaze painting on porcelain is largely limited to the extremely stable and reliable cobalt blue found on Chinese blue-and-white wares. Most porcelain colours - called overglaze, enamel, or low-temperature colours - are painted over the fired glaze and fired at a much lower temperature.
| Gold Codes |
With what emblem is St. Peter usually portrayed? | Glaze
Glaze
Glaze is used on pottery and porcelain to give it a waterproof finish.
Glaze may be transparent, opaque or coloured.
The main glazes were lead, tin and salt .
Glaze is a form of glass, consisting basically of glass-forming minerals (silica or boron) combined with stiffeners (such as clay and fluxes) and melting agents (such as lead or soda).
In raw form, glaze can be applied either to the unfired pot or after an initial unglazed, or biscuit, firing. The pot is then glaze fired; the glaze ingredients must melt and become glasslike at a temperature that is compatible to that required for the clay.
For glazing, two main materials were used:
Lead: in the form of Lead Sulphide, Galena, was found in Derbyshire and may have been brought from Cumberland and North Wales as well, but Derbyshire was the main source.
Lead glazes are transparent, with traditional types made of sand fused with sulphide or lead oxide. They were used on earthenware by Roman, Chinese, and medieval European potters and are still employed on European earthenware.
Salt: from Cheshire, where at Marbury, near Northwich, salt in the form of brine was mined. Salt glazing was practiced for about 100 years in Staffordshire, so this close source of supply was an important factor.
Tin glazes, opaque and white, were introduced by medieval Islamic potters and were used for Spanish lustreware, Italian maiolica, and European faience and delftware. Eventually the Chinese and Japanese made such glazes for the European market.
Metal oxides give colour to glazes (see also the decorative over glaze technique of enameling ). Copper will make a lead glaze turn green and an alkaline glaze turquoise; a reduction kiln will cause the copper to turn red. Iron can produce yellow, brown, grey-green, blue, or, with certain minerals, red.
Feldspars (natural rocks of aluminosilicates) are used in stoneware and porcelain glazes because they fuse only at high temperatures. The effects of specific glazes on certain clay bodies depend both on the composition of each and on the potter's control of the glaze kiln.
Porcelain fired without a glaze, called biscuit porcelain, was introduced in Europe in the 18th century. It was generally used for figures. In the 19th century biscuit porcelain was called Parian ware. Some soft-paste porcelains, which remain somewhat porous, require a glaze. After the body has been fired, the glaze, usually containing lead, was added and fired to vitrify it. Unlike feldspathic glaze, it adheres as a relatively thick coating.
Painted decoration on porcelain is usually executed over the fired glaze. Because painting under the glaze-that is, on a fired, unglazed body-must be fired at the same high temperature as body and glaze, many colours would "fire away." Thus underglaze painting on porcelain is largely limited to the extremely stable and reliable cobalt blue found on Chinese blue-and-white wares. Most porcelain colours - called overglaze, enamel, or low-temperature colours - are painted over the fired glaze and fired at a much lower temperature.
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From which country does the domesticated cat 'The Ragdoll' originate? | Ragdoll cat - Masterpet
Masterpet
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The Ragdoll is one of the largest domesticated cat breeds with a sturdy body, large frame and proportionate legs. The genes for point coloration are also responsible for the blue eyes of the Ragdoll.
The breed has a plush coat. The Ragdoll has a “pointed” coat colour, meaning that like a Siamese, the extremities are darker than the torso. Ragdolls come in six different colours – seal, (brown points); blue (gray points); flame (orange points); and their corresponding “dilutes” or pastel shades – chocolate, lilac and cream points. Ragdoll kittens are all born white.
They gradually darken and have representative colour at 8 – 10 weeks and full colour and coat at 3 – 4 years. There are three different patterns: colourpoint, mitted and bi-colour.
The Ragdoll is possibly the most laid back of all the domestic cat breeds. They are basically content and undemanding and tolerate most situations. They have an extremely gentle and relaxed nature, and make loyal and devoted pets.
There is an old-wives tale that these cats are immune to pain – this is totally untrue!
The Ragdoll does require regular grooming to keep its striking coat in good condition. If the grooming process is started as a kitten they soon become used to it and enjoy the attention it brings.
Daily attention will prevent a build up of knots and the fight that comes to remove tangles and matts from a neglected coat.
| United States |
Which American President broadcast 'Fireside Chats' to the American people in the 1930's? | Breed Profile: The Ragdoll
Exhibitors
About the Ragdoll
Ragdolls are large, laid-back, semi longhaired cats with captivating blue eyes. The Ragdoll is a pointed breed, which means that the body is lighter in color than the points (the face, legs, tail and ears). The Ragdoll cat is carefully bred to produce large affectionate animals in three patterns, two with white (mitted and bi-color) and one with no white (colorpoint). The ideal Ragdoll is a well balanced cat, with no extreme features. Altered males will usually top the scale at 15-20 pounds; females are proportionately smaller and usually weigh between 10-15 pounds at maturity. Ragdolls are slow-maturing, reaching full coat color at two years, and full size and weight at four.
Ragdoll cats tend to be more interested in humans than some breeds of cats. They are known to run to greet you at the door, follow you from room to room, flop on you, sleep with you, and generally choose to be where you are. Many Ragdolls have been taught to come when called and play fetch. They are gentle cats, and usually play without extending their claws. Ragdolls tend to be floor cats, not jumpers. The Ragdoll’s semi long coat is plush and silky, and requires minimal grooming to keep it looking its best. They should be combed with a steel comb on a regular basis to find and remove any loose hair or tangles. Quality coats consist mainly of long, soft guard hairs. Ragdolls, just like all breeds of cats, will shed, usually with the change of seasons.The absence of the thick, dense, insulating undercoats results in reduced shedding and matting. In all, Ragdolls are well behaved, and easy to care for – perfect for our modern, busy, lifestyles.
There are four patterns: bi-color, van, mitted and colorpoint. Patterns come in six colors: seal, blue, chocolate, lilac, red, and cream. Points may be solid, lynx, tortie, or torbie (tortie and lynx). If you do the math, you can see that there are quite a large number of different combinations possible! CFA accepts bi-color and van patterns, mitted and colorpoints for showing in the full array of color combinations.
Colorpoint Ragdolls have the classic pointed markings with no white anywhere in their coat. Mitteds have white feet in the front and white boots that go all the way up and around the hock in the back, a white chin and belly stripe. Mitted Ragdolls may have a blaze, star or hourglass shaped patch of white on their forehead and nose. Bi-colors have more white; all four paws, their underbodies, chest, and an upside-down ‘V’ marking on their faces are white. They may have a splash or two of white on their backs. Only their tails, ears, and the outer part of their masks show the darker markings. In the Van pattern, only the top of the mask, ears, and tail, and perhaps a few spots on the body, show darker markings.
Ragdolls were developed in the 1960’s by Ann Baker; a breeder in Riverside California. The origin of the Ragdoll breed consisted almost entirely of free-roaming cats. Ann bred Josephine, a domestic longhaired white female that was found running loose in her neighborhood, to other cats she owned or found. The offspring of this female had unique temperament traits that were very endearing. By selecting individuals with the look, temperament and criteria she wanted for her breeding program, she created the Ragdoll breed.
Pricing on Ragdolls usually depends on type, applicable markings and bloodlines distinguished by Grand Champion (GC), National Regional winning parentage (NW or RW) or of Distinguished Merit parentage (DM). The DM title is achieved by the dam (mother) having produced five CFA grand champion/premier (alter) or DM offspring, or sire (father) having produced fifteen CFA grand champion/ premier or DM offspring. Usually breeders make kittens available between twelve and sixteen weeks of age. After twelve weeks, kittens have had their basic inoculations and developed the physical and social stability needed for a new environment, showing, or being transported by air. Keeping such a rare treasure indoors, neutering or spaying and providing acceptable surfaces (e.g. scratching posts) for the natural behavior of scratching (CFA disapproves of declawing or tendonectomy surgery) are essential elements for maintaining a healthy, long and joyful life. For more information, please contact the Breed Council Secretary for this breed.
Ragdoll Links
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St. Peter was the leader of the 'Apostles', he was given this name by Jesus. What did it mean? | Saint Peter the Apostle | Christian Apostle | Britannica.com
Saint Peter the Apostle
Alternative Titles: Cephas, Simeon, Simon
Saint Peter the Apostle
Saint Calixtus I
Saint Peter the Apostle, original name Simeon, or Simōn (died c. ad 64, Rome ), disciple of Jesus Christ , recognized in the early Christian church as the leader of the disciples and by the Roman Catholic church as the first of its unbroken succession of popes. Peter, a fisherman, was called to be a disciple of Jesus at the beginning of his ministry. He received from Jesus the name Cephas (i.e., Rock, hence Peter, from the Latin petra).
St. Peter the Apostle, stained-glass window, 19th century; in St. Mary’s Church, Bury St. Edmunds, …
© Ronald Sheridan/Ancient Art & Architecture Collection
The man and his position among the disciples
The sources of information concerning the life of Peter are limited to the New Testament: the four Gospels, Acts, the letters of Paul, and the two letters that bear the name of Peter. He probably was known originally by the Hebrew name Simeon or the Greek form of that name, Simōn. The former appears only twice in the New Testament; the latter, 49 times. At solemn moments (Gospel According to John 21:15) he was called “Simon, son of John.” The Gospel According to John prefers Simon (17 times) or the compound , rarely found elsewhere, of Simon Peter. Though Paul has a distinct preference (8 times out of 10) for the Greek transliteration Kēphas (Latinized as Cephas) of the Aramaic name or title Kepha, meaning “rock,” the Gospels and Acts use the Greek translation Petros approximately 150 times. From the Synoptic Gospels (Gospel According to Matthew 8:14) and Paul (First Letter of Paul to the Corinthians 9:5), there is indirect evidence that Peter was the son of John and was married. His family originally came from Bethsaida (John 1:44), but during the period of Jesus’ ministry he lived in Capernaum , at the northwest end of the Sea of Galilee, where he and his brother Andrew were in partnership as fishermen with James and John, the sons of Zebedee (Gospel According to Luke 5:10).
Much can be learned about Peter from the New Testament—either explicitly from the statements made by and about Peter or indirectly from his actions and reactions as revealed in a number of episodes in which he figures prominently. He was at times vacillating and unsure, as in his relations with the church of Antioch when he at first ate with the Gentiles and later refused to do so (Letter of Paul to the Galatians 2:11–14); he could also be resolute (Acts of the Apostles 4:10; 5:1–10). Occasionally he is depicted as rash and hasty (Luke 22:33, etc.) or irritable and capable of great anger (John 18:10). Often he is pictured as gentle but firm and, as in his professions of love to Jesus, capable of great loyalty and love (John 21:15–17).
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The New Testament reports that Peter was unlearned in the sense that he was untrained in the Mosaic Law (Acts 4:13), and it is doubtful that he knew Greek. He apparently learned slowly and erred time and time again, but later, when entrusted with responsibility, he demonstrated that he was mature and capable.
The Gospels agree that Peter was called to be a disciple of Jesus at the beginning of his ministry, but when and where the event took place is recorded differently in the several Gospels. Luke (5:1–11) scarcely mentions James and John and omits Andrew while emphasizing the call of Peter. Matthew (4:18–22) and Mark (Gospel According to Mark 1:16–20) note the call of the four men and—with Luke—agree that the event took place at the Sea of Galilee . The Gospel According to John places the call in Judaea (1:28) and states that Andrew—who had been a follower of John the Baptist (1:35) and had heard John indicate that Jesus was the Lamb of God—left John and introduced Peter to “the Messiah,” who at that time gave him the name (or title) Cephas (i.e., Peter, or Rock).
Saints
The Synoptic Gospels (Matthew, Mark, and Luke) are probably correct in recording that the call to Peter was extended in Galilee when Jesus first began his work in that area. The Gospel According to John is here, as elsewhere, perhaps more theologically than historically motivated; the author of John wishes to stress that Peter recognized Jesus’ Messiahship from the beginning and that Jesus had seen Simon as the rock from their first meeting.
The Synoptic Gospels largely agree in the amount of emphasis each gives to the leadership of Peter among the Twelve Apostles, but there are differences also. For example, in one case Matthew and Luke note that Peter was the speaker in questioning Jesus about a parable, but Mark has attributed these words to the group of disciples (see Matthew 15:15; Luke 8:45; and Mark 7:17). With differing degrees of emphasis, the Synoptic Gospels agree that Peter served as spokesman, the outstanding member of the group, and enjoyed a certain precedence over the other disciples. Whenever the disciples are listed, Peter is invariably mentioned first (Matthew 10:2–4; Mark 3:16–19; Luke 6:14–16; Acts 1:13; compare only Galatians 2:9). Although it is not certain whether or not this priority is due primarily to reading back into the Gospel narrative Peter’s importance in the apostolic church, his forceful personality was surely a factor.
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Those not belonging to the immediate followers of Jesus also recognized the authority of Peter, such as when the collectors of the temple tax approached him for information (Matthew 17:24). Again, with characteristic quickness he sought a clarification from Jesus on behalf of the disciples concerning the meaning of a parable (Matthew 15:15) or of a saying (Matthew 18:21). As both an individual and representative of the Twelve Apostles, he made a plea for personal preference in the Kingdom of Heaven as a reward for faithful service (Matthew 19:27, 28).
On several occasions Peter alone is mentioned by name, and others are indicated as merely accompanying him (Mark 1:36; Luke 8:45). Even when the three disciples closest to Jesus (the “pillars”—Peter, James, and John) figure in a particular incident, it is frequently Peter alone who is named. When the three are named, Peter’s name invariably appears first (as in Matthew 17:1, 26:37). It was his home in Capernaum that Jesus visited, when he cured Peter’s mother-in-law (Matthew 8:14); it was Peter’s boat that Jesus used when he instructed the crowd (Luke 5:3). It was Peter who possessed remarkable insight and displayed his depth of faith in the confession of Christ as the Son of God (Matthew 16:15–18; Mark 8:29; Luke 9:20); and it was Peter who rebuked and in turn was rebuked by Jesus when the Master prophesied that he would suffer and die (Mark 8:32, 33). It was also Peter who manifested the momentary weakness of even the strongest in the denial of his Lord (Matthew 26:69–75; Mark 14:66–72; Luke 22:54–61). Later, however, with greater maturity, he discovered strength and, as he was charged by Jesus (Luke 22:31, 32), effected the strengthening of others. Finally, Peter, who survived his denial, was permitted to be the first witness of the Resurrection (Luke 24:34).
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In the Fourth Gospel, the prominence of Peter is challenged in the person of John , the “Beloved Disciple.” Though Peter receives mention in John 37 times (out of a total of 109 times in the four Gospels), one-third of the references are found in the appendix (chapter 21), and he appears in only 9 incidents. The Gospel According to John attempts to show the close relationship between John and Jesus while still reserving to Peter the role of representative and spokesman. The fact that Peter is emphasized in John and charged by Jesus to “tend my sheep” and “feed my lambs” (John 21:15,16) at the same time that the role of the disciples as a whole is being deemphasized attests to the prestige of Peter in the apostolic church. But throughout the Fourth Gospel Peter shares his prominence with John (13:24; 18:15; 19:26, 27, etc.). Among the purposes of chapter 21 in emphasizing Peter may well be an attempt to restore the disciple who denied his Lord to the position he enjoyed in the Synoptic Gospels.
Incidents important in interpretations of Peter
Out of the many incidents in which Peter figures prominently in the Gospels, three should be separately considered; for each is important, contains problems of interpretation, and is controversial.
In Mark (8:29) and Luke (9:20), to a question of Jesus concerning his essential identity, about which he pressed the disciples for an opinion, Peter answered for them all that Jesus is the “Messiah” or “God’s Messiah.” In adjuring them to be silent, Jesus rejected the response as perhaps too partial, too political. In the Matthean version (16:13), expanding upon the narrative in Mark, Peter answered for himself and presumably for the other disciples, “You are the Christ, the Son of the living God.” A new dimension of understanding was thus reached, and this heightened awareness of Jesus’ divinity was approved by Jesus and occasioned Peter’s “ordination.”
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In what may be a grouping of Petrine material (Matthew 16:18, 19)—the confession, naming, and receiving of authority—Jesus gave to Simon the title of Cephas, or Peter (Rock). Though in the past some authorities have considered that the term rock refers to Jesus himself or to Peter’s faith, the consensus of the great majority of scholars today is that the most obvious and traditional understanding should be construed, namely, that rock refers to the person of Peter. In John the title was granted at what may have been their first meeting (1:42). Thus when the name was given is open to question, but that the name was given by Jesus to Peter seems fairly certain. Matthew continues that upon this rock—that is, upon Peter—the church will be built. The word church in the 1st-century Gospel According to Matthew is to be understood as referring to the community of the faithful rather than to a definite ecclesiastical organization.
The authenticity of the uniquely Matthean material (Matthew 16:16–19) of this narrative has been and is widely discussed and has been challenged on the bases (1) that verses 16–19 are found only in Matthew, or (2) that the inclusion of the word church suggests a level of organization acquired only at a later period. Though these and other arguments against authenticity are given most careful consideration, the general consensus is that at some time—and more likely at the end of his career—these words were spoken by Jesus.
If Peter’s confession demonstrates his faith and insight, his denial that he knew Jesus demonstrates a weakness of will (even if momentary), capability of inaction, and a tendency toward vacillation, but not a loss of faith. Prior to the denial, out of his deep love for Jesus and his overestimation of his own capabilities, he had sought to overrule Jesus’ prophecy of his denial and declared that, even if the other disciples deserted Jesus, he would suffer death rather than disown his Lord (Matthew 26:33–35; Mark 14:29–31; Luke 22:31–34; John 13:37–38). As the drama unfolded, Peter fled when Jesus was arrested but did find his way to the palace of the high priest where Jesus had been taken. When confronted in the courtyard with the danger of admitting association with Jesus, he chose to deny (Matthew 26:69–75; Mark 14:66–72; Luke 22:54–61; John 18:15–18, 25–27). The degree of his shame and the depth of his love were revealed when he later realized that the prophecy had been fulfilled, and he wept bitterly (Matthew 26:75; Mark 14:72).
The fact of Peter’s denial did not destroy the love and trust that Jesus felt for him. It was to Peter—who had confessed the Sonship of Jesus (Matthew 16:16), who had been commissioned earlier to “lend strength” to his brothers (Luke 22:32), who had hesitated in his resolution at one crucial point (Mark 14:66–72), and who on the morning of the Resurrection “ran to the tomb” (Luke 24:12)—that the Resurrected Christ first appeared. The earliest report of Peter’s priority as a witness to the Resurrection is found in the letters of Paul (1 Corinthians 15:5), and this most probably is the intent of Luke (24:34). An initial appearance to Peter in Galilee may have been included in the original ending of Mark (16:6–8).
The silence concerning this important matter of priority in Matthew and John is remarkable. It may be, however, that Matthew 14:27, 28 represents a misplaced post-Resurrection narrative, and John 21 may contain an echo of the tradition preserved by Paul (1 Corinthians 15:5). Whether or not Jesus appeared first to Peter after the Resurrection, he was a witness, which Peter declared to be a criterion of apostleship ( Acts 1:22).
The position of Peter in the Apostolic Church
Given the information supplied by the Gospels, it is not unexpected that Peter should emerge immediately after Jesus’ death as the leader of the earliest church. For approximately 15 years after the Resurrection, the figure of Peter dominated the community. He presided over the appointment of Matthias as an Apostle (Acts 1:23–26) to take the place of Judas, who had betrayed Christ and later died. It was Peter who first “raised his voice” and preached at Pentecost , the day when the church came into being (Acts 1:14–39). It was Peter who served as an advocate for the Apostles before the Jewish religious court in Jerusalem (Acts 4:5–22). And it was he who exercised the role of judge in the disciplining of those who erred within the church (Acts 5:1–10).
Peter led the Twelve Apostles in extending the church “here and there among them all” (Acts 9:32). He went first to the Samaritans (Acts 8:4–17), “who received the Holy Spirit”; in Samaria he encountered the magician and faith healer Simon Magus ; then he went to Lydda , in the plain of Sharon (Acts 9:32–35), where he healed the paralyzed Aeneas; and then at the Mediterranean coastal town of Joppa (Acts 9:36–43) he effected the cure of Tabitha (Dorcas) in the name of Christ.
He went farther north on the Mediterranean coast to Caesarea (Acts 10:1–11:18), where, through the conversion of Cornelius, “a centurion of what was known as the Italian Cohort” (Acts 10:1), Peter introduced Gentiles into the church. According to Jewish requirements, a Gentile convert must first become a Jew through the rite of circumcision and be acceptable as a proselyte. In accepting Cornelius and the others—who may have had some informal connection with the synagogue (Acts 10:1)—and ordering “them to be baptized in the name of Jesus Christ” (Acts 10:48) without submission to the prior rite of circumcision, Peter introduced an innovation that insured the opposition of the Jewish Christians and others. This independent course set by Peter with the blessing of “the Spirit” (Acts 10:10–15) was possibly a factor in Herod’s beheading of James (the brother of John) and in the arrest of Peter (Acts 12:2, 3). In prison (c. ad 44) Peter was visited by an “angel of the Lord. . . . And the chains fell off his hands,” and he made his escape (Acts 12:1–8). He went immediately to “the house of Mary, the mother of John whose other name was Mark” (Acts 12:12). After asking them to report his escape “to James and to the brethren,” he “went to another place” (Acts 12:17).
At this point the unchallenged leadership of Peter in Jerusalem came to an end. It is not at all clear where Peter went, but it is not probable that the words to another place refer to a different home in the same general area that would provide temporary refuge.
The later work of Peter is not covered in Acts, perhaps because the author of Luke–Acts had planned a third book that would have included such a discussion, but the book was never written or was written and later lost. Perhaps the events would have included unedifying material such as the internal jealousy within the church alluded to in the First Letter of Clement 4–6, or perhaps the author died before completion of his work. Whatever momentary glimpses into the period of the later ministry of Peter remain can only be noted in a discussion of his relationship with the two other outstanding Apostles of the time, James and Paul.
Peter was the most prominent figure in the Jerusalem Church up to the time of his departure from Jerusalem after his imprisonment by King Herod and his subsequent release in the New Testament account (Acts 12:1–17). For example, Paul went up to Jerusalem to consult with Peter three years after he had been converted and remained with him for two weeks (Galatians 1:18, 19). When Peter left Jerusalem, however, it appears clear to many New Testament scholars (although unconvincing to others) that he assumed a missionary role while the actual leadership of the church devolved upon James, “the brother of the Lord.” This sequence of authority is suggested by Peter’s obedience to the wishes of “certain persons who came from James” and hence his ceasing to eat with Gentile Christians at Antioch (Galatians 2:11–14); by a final “summing up” of decisions made in the so-called apostolic Council of Jerusalem (Acts 15:7) by James; and later, when Peter made his departure from the home of the mother of John whose other name was Mark, by the word of explanation or “report” of his whereabouts left primarily for James (Acts 12:17).
Paul first met with Peter at Jerusalem three years after his conversion. In the record of this meeting the name of Cephas (Peter) precedes that of James, although Galatians notes that in another meeting 14 years later the name of James precedes that of Cephas (Galatians 2:9). Paul also emphasized an incident involving himself and Peter at Antioch. Apparently, Paul had achieved some success in the difficult matter of welding the Jewish and Gentile Christians of Antioch into one congregation. The Jewish Christians saw the sharing of food with Gentiles as quite alien to their tradition. In the absence of Paul, Peter, perhaps in his capacity as missionary, visited Antioch and ate with the united group. Later, “certain persons came from James” and opposed the united congregation’s custom of eating together. In apparent deference to James, Peter “drew back and began to hold aloof,” and the Jewish Christians did likewise. The unity of the group had been destroyed. When Paul returned, he upbraided Peter for what he may have considered Peter’s vacillation or perhaps even purposeful disruption (Galatians 2:11–14). This incident may have occasioned the Jerusalem Council (ad 49 or 50), in which it was settled that hereafter Paul should be “entrusted with the gospel to the uncircumcised” (Galatians 2:7) and Peter “for the mission to the circumcised” (Galatians 2:8).
In passing, Paul refers to a party of Cephas (Peter) in 1 Corinthians 1:12 that suggests that a group in the church of Corinth was especially devoted to Peter (leading some to assume a residence of Peter in Corinth) and in 1 Corinthians 9:5 to Peter as carrying on missionary activity accompanied by his wife. A missionary journey to Asia Minor may be suggested in the First Letter of Peter 1:1.
Tradition of Peter in Rome
The problems surrounding the residence, martyrdom, and burial of Peter are among the most complicated of all those encountered in the study of the New Testament and the early church. The absence of any reference in Acts or Romans to a residence of Peter in Rome gives pause but is not conclusive. If Peter did write 1 Peter, the mention of “Babylon” in 5:13 is fairly reliable evidence that Peter resided at some time in the capital city. If Peter was not the author of the first epistle that bears his name, the presence of this cryptic reference witnesses at least to a tradition of the late 1st or early 2nd century. “Babylon” is a cryptic term indicating Rome, and it is the understanding utilized in Revelation 14:8; 16:19; 17:5, 6 and in the works of various Jewish seers.
It may be said that by the end of the 1st century there existed a tradition that Peter had lived in Rome. Further early evidence for the tradition is found in the Letter to the Romans by Ignatius, the early 2nd-century bishop of Antioch. It is probable that the tradition of a 25-year episcopate of Peter in Rome is not earlier than the beginning or the middle of the 3rd century. The claims that the church of Rome was founded by Peter or that he served as its first bishop are in dispute and rest on evidence that is not earlier than the middle or late 2nd century.
Words of John 21:18, 19 clearly allude to the death of Peter and are cast into the literary form of prophecy. The author of this chapter is aware of a tradition concerning the martyrdom of Peter when the Apostle was an old man. And there is a possible reference here to crucifixion as the manner of his death. But as to when or where the death took place there is not so much as a hint.
The strongest evidence to support the thesis that Peter was martyred in Rome is to be found in the Letter to the Corinthians (c. ad 96; 5:1–6:4) of Clement of Rome:
Peter, who by reason of wicked jealousy, not only once or twice but frequently endured suffering and thus, bearing his witness, went to the glorious place which he merited (5:4). . . . To these men [Peter and Paul] who lived such holy lives there was joined a great multitude of the elect who by reason of rivalry were victims of many outrages and tortures and who became outstanding examples among us (6:1).
These sources, plus the suggestions and implications of later works, combine to lead many scholars to accept Rome as the location of the martyrdom and the reign of Nero as the time.
As part of the general question of Peter’s residence and martyrdom in Rome, debated since the appearance of the Defensor pacis of Marsilius of Padua (c. 1275–c. 1342), the particular question of where Peter was buried has been argued. There is not the slightest hint at a solution in the New Testament. The earliest evidence (c. ad 200) is found in a fragment of a work by Gaius (or Caius) witnessing to a tradition at least a generation earlier (c. ad 165) that the “trophy” (i.e., tropaion, or monument) of Peter was located at the Vatican . Though difficult to interpret, the use of the word trophy indicates that in this period the Vatican area was associated with either the tomb of the Apostle or simply a monument erected in the area of Peter’s victory (i.e., his martyrdom).
Some scholars find support for a tradition that the Apostle was buried “Ad Catacumbas” ( “at the catacombs” of San Sebastiano) on the Via Appia in an inscription of Damasus (pope, 366–384), composed in such ambiguous terms that it was certain to foster such misinterpretations as are found in the letter of Gregory the Great to Empress Constantina and the notice of Cornelius in the Liber Pontificalis. Apart from the aforementioned, later literary tradition is unanimous in indicating the Vatican Hill as the place of burial. See Peristephanon, XII, of Prudentius, various notices in the Liber Pontificalis, and The Salzburg Itinerary. Liturgical sources such as the Depositio Martyrum, Martyrologium Hieronymianum, though interesting, add nothing to the literary evidence.
Excavations were begun in the late 19th century in order to substantiate the theory that the burial of Peter and Paul was “Ad Catacumbas.” After a half century of investigation, it now seems reasonable to concede that a cult of the Apostles existed there about ad 260, though Christian influence may have been exerted as early as ad 200. None of the excavations, however, in all of the areas indicated at various times as the resting place of the apostolic relics, have produced any evidence whatsoever that the bodies of Peter and Paul were either buried there originally or brought there at a later time after earlier burials elsewhere.
In the early 4th century, the emperor Constantine (d. ad 337) with considerable difficulty erected a basilica on the Vatican Hill. The difficulty of the task, combined with the comparative ease with which this great church might have been built on level ground only a slight distance to the south, may support the contention that the Emperor was convinced that the relics of Peter rested beneath the small Aedicula (shrine for a small statue) over which he had erected the basilica. The task before the excavators was to determine whether or not the belief of Constantine accorded with the facts or was based merely upon a misunderstanding.
The excavation of this site, which lies far beneath the high altar of the present Church of St. Peter, was begun in 1939. The problems encountered in excavation and interpretation of what has been discovered are extremely complex. There are some scholars who are convinced that a box found in one of the fairly late sidewalls of the Aedicula contains fragments of the remains of the Apostle, fragments which at an earlier time may have rested in the earth beneath the Aedicula. Others are most definitely not convinced. If a grave of the Apostle did exist in the area of the base of the Aedicula, nothing identifiable of that grave remains today. Furthermore, the remains discovered in the box that until comparatively recently rested in the sidewall do not lead necessarily to a more positive conclusion. Archaeological investigation has not solved with any great degree of certainty the question of the location of the tomb of Peter. If it was not in the area of the Aedicula, perhaps the grave rested elsewhere in the immediate vicinity, or perhaps the body was never recovered for burial at all.
The feast of St. Peter
Five festivals in the calendar of the Roman Catholic church involve honour paid to Peter. And in each, the name of Paul is also associated. First chronologically, on January 18 is celebrated the festival of the “Cathedra Petri” at Rome, and on February 22 at Antioch. June 29 marks the festival of Peter and Paul, ranking among the 12 most important celebrations of the Roman Catholic church. The escape of Peter from his chains is noted in the feast of August 1. Last, the dedications of the basilicas of Peter and Paul, commemorating their construction by the emperor Constantine, are celebrated in the festival of November 18.
| The Rock |
From which country does 'Belleek' porcelain come? | St. Peter, the Rock, the Keys, and the Primacy of Rome in the Early Church
St. Peter, the Rock, the Keys, and the Primacy of Rome in the Early Church
St. Peter, the Rock, the Keys, and the Primacy of Rome in the Early Church
based on my "unfinished" refutation of James G. McCarthy's book The Gospel According to Rome
Historical Commentary on St. Peter and the "Primacy of Rome"
CATECHISM OF THE CATHOLIC CHURCH
553. Jesus entrusted a specific authority to Peter: 'I will give you the keys of the kingdom of heaven, and whatever you bind on earth shall be bound in heaven, and whatever you loose on earth shall be loosed in heaven' [Matt 16:19]. The 'power of the keys' designates authority to govern the house of God, which is the Church. Jesus, the Good Shepherd, confirmed this mandate after his Resurrection: 'Feed my sheep' [John 21:15-17; cf. 10:11]. The power to 'bind and loose' connotes the authority to absolve sins, to pronounce doctrinal judgments, and to make disciplinary decisions in the Church. Jesus entrusted this authority to the Church through the ministry of the apostles [cf. Matt 18:18] and in particular through the ministry of Peter, the only one to whom he specifically entrusted the keys of the kingdom.
816. "The sole Church of Christ [is that] which our Savior, after his Resurrection, entrusted to Peter's pastoral care, commissioning him and the other apostles to extend and rule it...This Church, constituted and organized as a society in the present world, subsists in (subsistit in) the Catholic Church, which is governed by the successor of Peter and by the bishops in communion with him" [Vatican II LG 8].
861. "In order that the mission entrusted to them might be continued after their death, [the apostles] consigned, by will and testament, as it were, to their immediate collaborators the duty of completing and consolidating the work they had begun, urging them to tend to the whole flock, in which the Holy Spirit had appointed them to shepherd the Church of God. They accordingly designated such men and then made the ruling that likewise on their death other proven men should take over their ministry" [LG 20; cf. Acts 20:28; St. Clement of Rome, Ad Cor 42,44].
881. The Lord made Simon alone, whom he named Peter, the "rock" of his Church. He gave him the keys of his Church and instituted him shepherd of the whole flock [Cf. Mt 16:18-19; Jn 21:15-17]. "The office of binding and loosing which was given to Peter was also assigned to the college of apostles united to its head" [LG 22; cf. Mt 18:18; Jn 20:21-23]. This pastoral office of Peter and the other apostles belongs to the Church's very foundation and is continued by the bishops under the primacy of the Pope.
882. The Pope, Bishop of Rome and Peter's successor, "is the perpetual and visible source and foundation of the unity both of the bishops and of the whole company of the faithful." "For the Roman Pontiff, by reason of his office as Vicar of Christ, and as pastor of the entire Church has full, supreme, and universal power over the whole Church, a power which he can always exercise unhindered."
883. "The college or body of bishops has no authority unless united with the Roman Pontiff, Peter's successor, as its head." As such, this college has "supreme and full authority over the universal Church; but this power cannot be exercised without the agreement of the Roman Pontiff" [cf. Vatican II, LG 22, 23].
BIBLE COMMENTARY ON "ROCK" OF MATTHEW 16:18
D.A. Carson (Protestant Evangelical) --
"Although it is true that petros and petra can mean 'stone' and 'rock' respectively in earlier Greek, the distinction is largely confined to poetry. Moreover, the underlying Aramaic is in this case unquestionable; and most probably kepha was used in both clauses ('you are kepha' and 'on this kepha'), since the word was used both for a name and for a 'rock.' The Peshitta (written in Syriac, a language cognate with Aramaic) makes no distinction between the words in the two clauses. The Greek makes the distinction between petros and petra simply because it is trying to preserve the pun, and in Greek the feminine petra could not very well serve as a masculine name." (Carson, The Expositor's Bible Commentary [Zondervan, 1984], volume 8, page 368, as cited in Butler/Dahlgren/Hess, page 17-18)
"The word Peter petros, meaning 'rock,' (Gk 4377) is masculine, and in Jesus' follow-up statement he uses the feminine word petra (Gk 4376). On the basis of this change, many have attempted to avoid identifying Peter as the rock on which Jesus builds his church yet if it were not for Protestant reactions against extremes of Roman Catholic interpretations, it is doubtful whether many would have taken 'rock' to be anything or anyone other than Peter." (Carson, Zondervan NIV Bible Commentary [Zondervan, 1994], volume 2, page 78, as cited in Butler/Dahlgren/Hess, page 18)
R.T. France (Anglican/Protestant Evangelical) --
"The name Peter means 'Rock', and Jesus played on this meaning to designate Peter as the foundation of the new people of God. His leadership would involve the authority of the steward, whose keys symbolized his responsibility to regulate the affairs of the household. Peter would exercise his leadership by his authority to declare what is and is not permissible in the kingdom of heaven (to bind and to loose have this meaning in rabbinic writings)....It is sometimes suggested that because the word for 'rock' (petra) differs from the name Petros, the 'rock' referred to is not Peter himself but the confession he has just made of Jesus as Messiah. In Aramaic, however, the same term kefa would appear in both places; the change in Greek is due to the fact that petra, the normal word for rock, is feminine in gender, and therefore not suitable as a name for Simon! The echo of Peter's name remains obvious, even in Greek; he is the rock, in the sense outlined above." (France, New Bible Commentary with consulting editors Carson, France, Motyer, Wenham [Intervarsity Press, 1994], page 925, 926)
Oscar Cullmann (Lutheran) from Kittel's Greek standard Theological Dictionary of the New Testament --
"The obvious pun which has made its way into the Gk. text as well suggests a material identity between petra and petros, the more so as it is impossible to differentiate strictly between the meanings of the two words. On the other hand, only the fairly assured Aramaic original of the saying enables us to assert with confidence the formal and material identity between petra and petros: petra = Kepha = petros....Since Peter, the rock of the Church, is thus given by Christ Himself, the master of the house (Is. 22:22; Rev. 3:7), the keys of the kingdom of heaven, he is the human mediator of the resurrection, and he has the task of admitting the people of God into the kingdom of the resurrection...The idea of the Reformers that He is referring to the faith of Peter is quite inconceivable in view of the probably different setting of the story...For there is no reference here to the faith of Peter. Rather, the parallelism of 'thou art Rock' and 'on this rock I will build' shows that the second rock can only be the same as the first. It is thus evident that Jesus is referring to Peter, to whom He has given the name Rock. He appoints Peter, the impulsive, enthusiastic, but not persevering man in the circle, to be the foundation of His ecclesia. To this extent Roman Catholic exegesis is right and all Protestant attempts to evade this interpretation are to be rejected." (Cullmann, article on "Rock" (petros, petra) trans. and ed. by Geoffrey W. Bromiley, Theological Dictionary of the New Testament [Eerdmans Publishing, 1968], volume 6, page 98, 107, 108)
Herman Ridderbos (Protestant Evangelical) --
"It is well known that the Greek word (petra) translated 'rock' here is different from the proper name Peter. The slight difference between them has no special importance, however. The most likely explanation for the change from petros ('Peter') to petra is that petra was the normal word for 'rock.' Because the feminine ending of this noun made it unsuitable as a man's name, however, Simon was not called petra but petros. The word petros was not an exact synonym of petra; it literally meant 'stone.' Jesus therefore had to switch to the word petra when He turned from Peter's name to what it meant for the Church. There is no good reason to think that Jesus switched from petros to petra to show that He was not speaking of the man Peter but of his confession as the foundation of the Church. The words 'on this rock [petra]' indeed refer to Peter. Because of the revelation that he had received and the confession that it motivated in him, Peter was appointed by Jesus to lay the foundation of the future church." (Ridderbos, Bible Student's Commentary: Matthew [Zondervan, 1987], page 303 as cited in Butler/Dahlgren/Hess, page 35-36)
Craig Blomberg (Protestant Evangelical) --
"Acknowledging Jesus as The Christ illustrates the appropriateness of Simon's nickname 'Peter' (Petros=rock). This is not the first time Simon has been called Peter (cf. John 1:42 [wherein he is called Cephas]), but it is certainly the most famous. Jesus' declaration, 'You are Peter,' parallels Peter's confession, 'You are the Christ,' as if to say, 'Since you can tell me who I am, I will tell you who you are.' The expression 'this rock' almost certainly refers to Peter, following immediately after his name, just as the words following 'the Christ' in v. 16 applied to Jesus. The play on words in the Greek between Peter's name (Petros) and the word 'rock' (petra) makes sense only if Peter is the rock and if Jesus is about to explain the significance of this identification." (Blomberg, The New American Commentary: Matthew [Broadman, 1992], page 251-252, as cited in Butler/Dahlgren/Hess, page 31-32)
William F. Albright and C.S. Mann (from The Anchor Bible series) --
"Rock (Aram. Kepha). This is not a name, but an appellation and a play on words. There is no evidence of Peter or Kephas as a name before Christian times. On building on a rock, or from a rock, cf. Isa 51:1ff; Matt 7:24f. Peter as Rock will be the foundation of the future community (cf. I will build). Jesus, not quoting the OT, here uses Aramaic, not Hebrew, and so uses the only Aramaic word which would serve his purpose. In view of the background of vs. 19 (see below), one must dismiss as confessional interpretation any attempt to see this rock as meaning the faith, or the Messianic confession, of Peter. To deny the pre-eminent position of Peter among the disciples or in the early Christian community is a denial of the evidence. Cf. in this gospel 10:2; 14:28-31; 15:15. The interest in Peter's failures and vacillations does not detract from this pre-eminence; rather, it emphasizes it. Had Peter been a lesser figure his behavior would have been of far less consequence (cf. Gal 2:11ff)." (Albright/Mann, The Anchor Bible: Matthew [Doubleday, 1971], page 195)
Craig S. Keener (Protestant Evangelical) --
"'You are Peter,' Jesus says (16:18), paralleling Peter's 'You are the Christ' (16:16). He then plays on Simon's nickname, 'Peter,' which is roughly the English 'Rocky': Peter is 'rocky,' and on this rock Jesus would build his church (16:18)....Protestants...have sometimes argued that Peter's name in Greek (petros) differs from the Greek term for rock used here (petra)....But by Jesus' day the terms were usually interchangeable, and the original Aramaic form of Peter's nickname that Jesus probably used (kephas) means simply 'rock.' Further, Jesus does not say, 'You are Peter, but on this rock I will build my church'....the copulative kai almost always means 'and'.... Jesus' teaching is the ultimate foundation for disciples (7:24-27; cf. 1 Cor 3:11), but here Peter functions as the foundation rock as the apostles and prophets do in Ephesians 2:20-21....Jesus does not simply assign this role arbitrarily to Peter, however; Peter is the 'rock' because he is the one who confessed Jesus as the Christ in this context (16:15-16)...." (Keener, A Commentary on the Gospel of Matthew [Eerdmans, 1999], page 426-427)
Francis Wright Beare (Presbyterian/Reformed) --
"The play on words -- 'Peter', this 'rock' -- requires a change in Greek from petros (properly, 'stone') to petra. In Aramaic, the two words would be identical -- Kepha the name given to Peter, transliterated into Greek as Kephas (Gal. 2:9), and kepha, 'rock'. The symbol itself is Hebraic: Abraham is the 'rock' from which Israel was hewn, and in a rabbinic midrash, God finds in him a rock on which he can base and build the world..." (Beare, The Gospel According to Matthew [Harper and Row, 1981], page 355)
Eduard Schweizer (Presbyterian/Reformed) --
"The 'rock' is Peter himself, not his confession. Only on this interpretation does the pun make sense." (Schweizer, The Good News According to Matthew [John Knox Press, 1975], page 341)
Ivor H. Jones (Methodist) --
"...in 16.18 Peter is the rock on which the new community could be built, as Abraham was described in rabbinic writings as the rock on which God could erect a new world to replace the old....The arguments have raged across the centuries over the phrase 'on this rock' : does it mean on Peter, or on Peter's confession? But the text is clear: Peter was divinely inspired and this was the reason for his new function and the basis of his authorization. His function was to provide for Jesus Christ the beginnings of a stronghold, a people of God, to stand against all the powers of evil and death...They are God's people, the church...as the church they represent God's sovereign power over evil (18.18b) and rely upon a new kind of divine authorization...This authorization is given to Peter; so Peter is not only a stronghold against evil; he also is responsible for giving the community shape and direction." (Jones, The Gospel of Matthew [London: Epworth Press, 1994], page 99)
M. Eugene Boring (Disciples of Christ) --
"16:18, Peter as Rock. Peter is the foundation rock on which Jesus builds the new community. The name 'Peter' means 'stone' or 'rock' (Aramaic Kepha Cepha; Greek petros).... There are no documented instances of anyone's ever being named 'rock' in Aramaic or Greek prior to Simon. Thus English translations should render the word 'stone' or 'rock,' not 'Peter,' which gives the false impression that the word represented a common name and causes the contemporary reader to miss the word play of the passage: 'You are Rock, and on this rock I will build my church.' Peter is here pictured as the foundation of the church....On the basis of Isa 51:1-2 (cf. Matt 3:9), some scholars have seen Peter as here paralleled to Abraham; just as Abram stood at the beginning of the people of God, had his name changed, and was called a rock, so also Peter stands at the beginning of the new people of God and receives the Abrahamic name 'rock' to signify this." (The New Interpreter's Bible [Abingdon Press, 1995], volume 8, page 345)
Thomas G. Long (Presbyterian/Reformed) --
"Since, in the original Greek, Petros and petra both mean 'rock,' it is easy to spot this statement as a pun, a play on words: 'Your name is "Rock," and on this "rock" I will build my church.' Jesus' meaning is plain: Peter is the rock, the foundation, upon which he is going to erect his church...Jesus spoke Aramaic, however, not Greek. In Aramaic, the words for 'Peter' and 'rock' are the same (Kepha)...the most plausible interpretation of the passage is that Jesus is, indeed, pointing to Peter as the foundation stone, the principal leader, of this new people of God...there is much evidence that he also played a primary leadership role in the early Christian church....For the church, the new people of God, Peter was, indeed, the 'rock,' corresponding to Abraham of old, who was 'the rock from which you were hewn' (Isa. 51:1)." (Long, Matthew [Westminster John Knox Press, 1997], page 185, 186)
Richard B. Gardner (Brethren/Mennonite) --
"The key question here is whether the rock foundation of the church is Peter himself, or something to be distinguished from Peter. If the latter, Jesus could be speaking of Peter's faith, or of the revelation Peter received. It is more likely, however, that the rock on which Jesus promises to build the church is in fact Peter himself, Peter the first disciple (cf. 4:18; 10:2), who represents the whole group of disciples from which the church will be formed. At least four considerations support this view...." (Gardner, Believers Church Bible Commentary: Matthew [Herald Press, 1991], 247)
(A) Peter is the Rock, the foundation stone of Jesus' Church, the Church would be built on Peter personally;
(B) Peter's name means Rock (petros or petra in Greek, Kepha or Cephas in Aramaic);
(C) The slight distinction in meaning for the Greek words for Rock (petros, petra) was largely confined to poetry before the time of Jesus and therefore has no special importance;
(D) The Greek words for Rock (petros, petra) by Jesus' day were interchangeable in meaning;
(E) The underlying Aramaic Kepha-kepha of Jesus' words makes the Rock-rock identification certain;
(F) The Greek word petra, being a feminine noun, could not be used for a man's name, so Petros was used;
(G) Only because of past "Protestant bias" was the Peter is Rock identification denied;
(H) The pun or play on words makes sense only if Peter is the Rock;
(I) Jesus says "and on this rock" not "but on this rock" -- the referent is therefore Peter personally;
(J) Verse 19 and the immediate context (singular "you") shows Peter is the Rock of verse 18;
(K) Peter's revelation and confession of Jesus as the Christ parallels Jesus' declaration and identification of Peter as the Rock;
(L) Peter is paralleled to Abraham who also had his name changed, was a Father to God's people, and was called the Rock (Isaiah 51:1-2; cf. Gen 17:5ff).
BIBLE COMMENTARY ON "KEYS" OF MATTHEW 16:19
M. Eugene Boring (Disciples of Christ), commenting on the "keys of the kingdom of heaven," "binding" and "loosing" from Matthew 16:19 --
"The 'kingdom of heaven' is represented by authoritative teaching, the promulgation of authoritative Halakha that lets heaven's power rule in earthly things...Peter's role as holder of the keys is fulfilled now, on earth, as chief teacher of the church....The keeper of the keys has authority within the house as administrator and teacher (cf. Isa 22:20-25, which may have influenced Matthew here). The language of binding and loosing is rabbinic terminology for authoritative teaching, for having the authority to interpret the Torah and apply it to particular cases, declaring what is permitted and what is not permitted. Jesus, who has taught with authority (7:29) and has given his authority to his disciples (10:1, 8), here gives the primary disciple the authority to teach in his name -- to make authoritative decisions pertaining to Christian life as he applies the teaching of Jesus to concrete situations in the life of the church." (Boring, page 346)
Francis Wright Beare (Presbyterian/Reformed) --
"The 'keys' are probably not to be understood as entrance keys, as if to suggest that Peter is authorized to admit or to refuse admission, but rather to the bundle of keys carried by the chief steward, for the opening of rooms and storechambers within the house -- symbols of responsibilities to be exercised within the house of God (cf. Mt 24:45, etc.). 'Bind' and 'loose" are technical terms of the rabbinic vocabulary, denoting the authoritative declaration that an action or course of conduct is permitted or forbidden by the Law of Moses." (Beare, page 355-356)
Eduard Schweizer (Presbyterian/Reformed) --
"In Jewish interpretation, the key of David refers to the teachers of the Law (exiled in Babylon); according to Matthew 23:13, the 'keys of the Kingdom of heaven' are in the hands of the teachers of the Law. A contrast is here drawn between them and Peter. He is thus not the gatekeeper of heaven, but the steward of the Kingdom of heaven upon earth. His function is described in more detail as 'binding and loosing' ....the saying must from the very outset have referred to an authority like that of the teachers of the Law. In this context, 'binding" and 'loosing' refer to the magisterium to declare a commandment binding or not binding....For Matthew, however, there is only one correct interpretation of the Law, that of Jesus. This is accessible to the community through the tradition of Peter...Probably we are dealing here mostly with teaching authority, and always with the understanding that God must ratify what Petrine tradition declares permitted or forbidden in the community." (Schweizer, page 343)
R.T. France (Anglican/Protestant Evangelical) --
"The terms [binding and loosing] thus refer to a teaching function, and more specifically one of making halakhic pronouncements [i.e. relative to laws not written down in the Jewish Scriptures but based on an oral interpretation of them] which are to be 'binding' on the people of God. In that case Peter's 'power of the keys' declared in [Matthew] 16:19 is not so much that of the doorkeeper... but that of the steward (as in Is. 22:22, generally regarded as the Old Testament background to the metaphor of keys here), whose keys of office enable him to regulate the affairs of the household." (R.T. France, as cited in Butler/Dahlgren/Hess, page 54)
Joachim Jeremias in an extended passage from Kittel's Greek standard TDNT --
"...the key of David is now (3:7) the key which Christ has in His hands as the promised shoot of David. This is the key to God's eternal palace. The meaning of the description is that Christ has unlimited sovereignty over the future world. He alone controls grace and judgment. He decides irrevocably whether a man will have access to the salvation of the last age or whether it will be witheld from him...Materially, then, the keys of the kingdom of God are not different from the key of David...This is confirmed by the fact that in Mt. 16:19, as in Rev. 3:7, Jesus is the One who controls them. But in what sense is the power of the keys given to Peter? ....the handing over of the keys is not just future. It is regarded as taking place now... There are numerous instances to show that in biblical and later Jewish usage handing over the keys implies full authorisation. He who has the keys has full authority. Thus, when Eliakim is given the keys of the palace he is appointed the royal steward (Is. 22:22, cf. 15). When Jesus is said to hold the keys of death and Hades (Rev. 1:18) or the key of David (3:7), this means that He is, not the doorkeeper, but the Lord of the world of the dead and the palace of God...Hence handing over the keys implies appointment to full authority. He who has the keys has on the one side control, e.g., over the council chamber or treasury, cf. Mt. 13:52, and on the other the power to allow or forbid entry, cf. Rev. 3:7...Mt. 23:13 leads us a step further. This passage is particularly important for an understanding of Mt. 16:19 because it is the only one in the NT which presupposes an image not found elsewhere, namely, that of the keys of the kingdom (royal dominion) of God...Mt. 23:13 shows us that the scribes of the time of Jesus claimed to possess the power of the keys in respect of this kingdom...They exercised this by declaring the will of God in Holy Scripture in the form of preaching, teaching and judging. Thereby they opened up for the congregation a way into this kingdom...by acting as spiritual leaders of the congregation....As Lord of the Messianic community He thus transferred the keys of God's royal dominion, i.e. the full authority of proclamation, to Peter...In Rabb. lit. binding and loosing are almost always used in respect of halakhic decisions...The scribe binds (declares to be forbidden) and looses (declares to be permitted)...In Mt. 16:19, then, we are to regard the authority to bind and to loose as judicial. It is the authority to pronounce judgment on unbelievers and to promise forgiveness to believers." (Jeremias from Kittel/Bromiley, Theological Dictionary of the New Testament, volume 3, page 748-751)
The older The Interpreter's Bible --
"19. The keys of the kingdom would be committed to the chief steward in the royal household and with them goes plenary authority. In Isa. 22:22 the key of the house of David is promised to Eliakim. According to Paul, Jesus is the only foundation (I Cor. 3:11), and in Rev. 1:18; 3:7, Jesus possesses the key of David and the keys of death and Hades. But in this passage Peter is made the foundation (cf. Eph. 2:20, where the Christian apostles and prophets are the foundation and Christ is the cornerstone) and holds the keys. Post-Apostolic Christianity is now beginning to ascribe to the apostles the prerogatives of Jesus (cf. 10:40). In rabbinical language to bind and to loose is to declare certain actions forbidden or permitted [a Jewish source Terumoth 5:4 is quoted]...Thus Peter's decisions regarding the O.T. law (e.g., in Acts 10:44-48) will be ratified in heaven." (George Arthur Buttrick, et al The Interpreter's Bible [Abingdon Press, 1951], volume 7, page 453)
Willoughby C. Allen, in a still older commentary that interprets the "rock" of Matthew 16:18 as the "revealed truth" of the Messiahship of Christ, nevertheless writes in his The International Critical Commentary --
"The figure of the gates of Hades suggests the metaphor of the keys. There were keys of Hades, Rev 1:18; cf. 9:1; 20:1. The apocalyptic writer describes the risen Christ as having the keys of Hades, i.e. having power over it, power to enter it, and power to release from it, or to imprison in it. In the same way, 'the kingdom of the heavens' can be likened to a citadel with barred gates. He who held the keys would have power within it, power to admit, power to exclude. In Rev 3:7 this power is held by Christ Himself [quotes Rev 3:7]...The words are modelled on Is 22:22, and express supreme authority. To hold the keys is to have absolute right, which can be contested by none...It would, therefore, be not unexpected if we found the Messiah or Son of Man described as having the keys of the kingdom of the heavens. This would imply that He was supreme within it. But it is surprising to find this power delegated to S. Peter...To S. Peter were to be given the keys of the kingdom. The kingdom is here, as elsewhere in this Gospel, the kingdom to be inaugurated when the Son of Man came upon the clouds of heaven. If S. Peter was to hold supreme authority within it, the other apostles were also to have places of rank...To 'bind' and to 'loose' in Jewish legal terminology are equivalent to 'forbid' and 'allow,' to 'declare forbidden' and to 'declare allowed'...The terms, therefore, describe an authority of a legal nature. If he who has the keys has authority of an administrative nature, he who binds and looses exercises authority of a legislative character....Further, the position of v. 18, with its description of the Church as a fortress impregnable against the attacks of evil (the gates of Hades), suggest irresistibly that 'the keys of the kingdom' mean more than power to open merely, and imply rather authority within the kingdom. And this is confirmed by the 'binding' and 'loosing' which immediately follow...What were the keys thus given? Even if we identify the kingdom with the Church, it is not entirely satisfactory to suppose that the Lord simply foretold that S. Peter was to take a prominent part in the work of opening the door of faith to the Gentiles. His share in that work, though a great, was not an exclusive one....The motive must have been to emphasise the prominence of S. Peter in the Christan body as foretold and sanctioned by Christ Himself...They [the apostles] had left all to follow Christ; but when He sat on the throne of His glory they would sit on twelve thrones, judging the twelve tribes of Israel, 19:18. And amongst them Peter was pre-eminent. He was protos, 10:2." (Allen, The International Critical Commentary [orig 1909, 1985], page 176ff)
Raymond Brown and John Reumann suggest other possible meanings --
"What else might this broader power of the keys include? It might include one or more of the following: baptismal discipline; post-baptismal or penitential discipline; excommunication; exclusion from the eucharist; the communication or refusal of knowledge; legislative powers; and the power of governing." (Brown, Reumann, et al Peter in the New Testament, page 97)
CONCLUSION ON "KEYS" OF MATTHEW 16:19
(A) The keys of the kingdom represent authoritative teaching, and Peter's role as holder of the keys is fulfilled now on earth as Christ's chief teacher;
(B) The keeper of the keys, according to the background of Matthew 16:19, has authority within the house as administrator and teacher (cf. Isaiah 22);
(C) The authority of the keys is likened to that of the teachers of the Law in Jesus' day, and the correct interpretation of the Law given by Jesus is accessible to the early community (the Church) through the tradition of Peter;
(D) The authority of the keys of the kingdom (Matt 16:19) are not different from the key of David (Isaiah 22:22; Rev 3:7), since Jesus controls and is in possession of both;
(E) Therefore, the keys (or "key" singular) represent FULL authorization, FULL authority, PLENARY authority, SUPREME authority;
(F) The keys of the kingdom are NOT to be understood as merely entrance keys (or "opening the door of faith" to the Gentiles), but rather to the bundle of keys carried by the chief steward who regulated the affairs of the entire household (cf. Isaiah 22), which in the New Covenant is Christ's universal Church (cf. Matt 16:18; 1 Tim 3:15);
(G) Peter, as holder of the keys, is not merely the "gatekeeper of heaven" or "doorkeeper" but is therefore the Chief Steward of the Kingdom of Heaven (the Church) on earth;
(H) Further, the power of the keys can represent baptismal or penitential discipline, excommunication, exclusion from the Eucharist, legislative powers or the power of governing the affairs of the Church;
(I) The language of "binding" and "loosing" is Rabbinic terminology for authoritative teaching or a teaching function (or "Halakhic" pronouncements), denoting the authoritative declaration that an action is permitted or forbidden by the law of Moses, and in the Church the authority to pronounce judgment on unbelievers and promise forgiveness to believers;
(J) The "binding" and "loosing" refers to the Magisterium (the teaching authority of the early community, which Jesus was establishing through His apostles in His Church) to declare a commandment or teaching binding or not binding, forbidden or allowed, and God in heaven will ratify, seal, or confirm that decision made on earth (cf. Matthew 16:19; 18:18).
BIBLE COMMENTARY ON "KEYS" OF ISAIAH 22:22
William F. Albright and C.S. Mann are quite certain when they comment on Matthew 16:19 --
"Isaiah 22:15ff undoubtedly lies behind this saying. The keys are the symbol of authority, and Roland de Vaux [Ancient Israel, tr. by John McHugh, NY: McGraw-Hill, 1961] rightly sees here the same authority as that vested in the vizier, the master of the house, the chamberlain, of the royal household in ancient Israel. Eliakim is described as having the same authority in Isaiah; it was Hilkiah's position until he was ousted, and Jotham as regent is also described as 'over the household' [2 Kings 15:5]....It is of considerable importance that in other contexts, when the disciplinary affairs of the community are being discussed [cf. Matt 18:18; John 20:23] the symbol of the keys is absent, since the sayings apply in those instances to a wider circle....The role of Peter as steward of the Kingdom is further explained as being the exercise of administrative authority, as was the case of the OT chamberlain who held the 'keys.' The clauses 'on earth,' 'in heaven', have reference to the permanent character of the steward's work." (Albright/Mann, The Anchor Bible: Matthew, page 196-197)
The Evangelical New Bible Commentary states on Isaiah 22 --
"Eliakim stands in strong contrast to Shebna, over whom he seems to have been promoted when they reappear in 36:3...Godward he is called my servant (20)...manward he will be a father to his community (21)...The key...of David (22) comes in this context of accountability. A key was a substantial object, tucked in the girdle or slung over the shoulder; but the opening words of v. 22...emphasize the God-given responsibility that went with it, to be used in the king's interests. The 'shutting' and 'opening' means the power to make decisions which no one under the king could override. This is the background of the commission to Peter (cf. Mt 16:19) and to the church (cf. Mt 18:18).... Ultimate authority, however, is claimed, in these terms, for Christ himself (cf. Rev 3:7-8)." (NBC page 647)
The Evangelical NIV Study Bible notes on Isaiah 22 --
on verse 15: "...in charge of the palace. A position second only to the king..."; on verse 22: "...key to the house of David. The authority delegated to him by the king, who belongs to David's dynasty -- perhaps controlling entrance into the royal palace. Cf. the 'keys of the kingdom' given to Peter (Mt 16:19) ."
The Lutheran/Catholic ecumenical study Peter in the New Testament comments --
"One suggestion is that the verse [Matt 16:19] is evocative of Isa 22:15-25 where Shebna, prime minister of King Hezekiah of Judah, is deposed and replaced by Eliakim on whose shoulder God places 'the key of David; he shall open...and he shall shut.' The power of the key of the Davidic kingdom is the power to open and to shut, i.e., the prime minister's power to allow or refuse entrance to the palace, which involves access to the king. If this were the background of Matthew's 'keys of the kingdom,' then Peter might be being portrayed as a type of prime minister in the kingdom that Jesus has come to proclaim, and the power of binding and loosing would be a specification of the broader power of allowing or refusing entrance into the kingdom....The prime minister, more literally 'major-domo,' was the man called in Hebrew 'the one who is over the house,' a term borrowed from the Egyptian designation of the chief palace functionary." (Brown, Reumann, et al page 96-97, and footnote referring to Roland DeVaux Ancient Israel)
The Brethren/Mennonite commentary by Richard B. Gardner --
"The image of the keys likely comes from an oracle in Isaiah, which speaks of the installation of a new majordomo or steward in Hezekiah's palace." (Gardner, page 248)
Evangelical scholar F.F. Bruce comments --
"And what about the 'keys of the kingdom' ? The keys of a royal or noble establishment were entrusted to the chief steward or majordomo; he carried them on his shoulder in earlier times, and there they served as a badge of the authority entrusted to him. About 700 B.C. an oracle from God announced that this authority in the royal palace in Jerusalem was to be conferred on a man called Eliakim ....(Isaiah 22:22). So in the new community which Jesus was about to build, Peter would be, so to speak, chief steward." (Bruce, The Hard Sayings of Jesus [Intervarsity Press, 1983], 143-144, as cited in Butler/Dahlgren/Hess, page 41)
Catholic Evangelical convert and Bible teacher Stephen Ray --
"Jesus is intentionally drawing attention to the context of Isaiah's prophecy -- a new steward is being placed over the kingdom of Judah -- as the backdrop for his current appointment of Peter as steward over his kingdom. Jesus ascends the throne of David as the heir and successor of the kings of Israel and Judah, and he too, according to custom and legal precedent, appoints a royal steward over his kingdom. Notice the words used to describe the steward: he has an 'office'; he is 'over the household [vizier]'; 'authority' is committed into his hand; he shall be a 'father' to the people of God; he is given the 'keys' of authority; he has the unquestioned supremacy to open and shut so that no one can oppose him; he is fastened firmly as a peg; he will 'become a throne of honor to his father's house'; and on him will hang the weight of everything in the king's house....The parallels between Peter and Eliakim are striking. The physical kingdom of Israel has been superseded by the spiritual kingdom of God. The office of steward in the old economy is now superseded by the Petrine office with the delegation and handing on of the keys. The office of steward was successive, and so is the Petrine office in the new kingdom." (Stephen K. Ray, Upon This Rock [Ignatius Press, 1999] from "Appendix B: An Old Testament Basis for the Primacy and Succession of St. Peter," page 273-4)
CONCLUSION ON "KEYS" OF ISAIAH 22 AS PARALLEL TO MATTHEW 16
Thus the prime minister or chief steward of the house of David had successors. He is described as being "over the household" and "in charge of the palace" (Isa 22:15; 36:3; 1 Kings 4:6; 18:3; 2 Kings 10:5; 15:5; 18:18); as for his authority "what he shall open, no one shall shut...and what he shall shut, no one shall open" (Isa 22:22; Matt 16:19; Rev 3:7). The prime minister had an incredible amount of authority, what can only be called a supreme or plenary authority beside that of the King. This is the language of the "keys," "binding," and "loosing" that Jesus was using in Matthew 16:19. Peter was given the "keys" just as the prime minister had the "key to the house of David" (Isa 22:22). And this is important in seeing the parallel to Matthew 16:19 -- the prime minister was an office of dynastic succession (Isa 22:19,22). In other words, when the prime minister or chief steward died, another one would be selected to fill the office and take his place. Jesus recognizes the office of prime minister or chief steward ("manager" NIV) in his parables, as one who has been placed in charge and set over the household (Matt 24:45ff; 20:8; Luke 12:42; 16:1ff; cf. Gen 41:40ff; 43:19; 44:4; 45:8ff).
Just as the prime minister or chief steward (other terms include major domo, grand vizier, royal chamberlain, or palace administrator) had the "keys" and the other ministers did not, the Lord made Peter the prime minister in His visible Church, making him the visible head of the apostles over the Church, giving him the "keys of the kingdom" with a special and unique authority in Matthew 16:18-19. The office of prime minister was one of dynastic succession, and this is the language Jesus borrows from Isaiah 22:15ff. While Protestant scholars (such as those I have cited) typically would try to deny the full Catholic conclusions from the passage, it is clear St. Peter did have successors in the Bishops of Rome. That is how the Catholic Church of the earliest centuries came to understand the ongoing ministry and authority of Peter in the Church (the Bishop of Rome was the "Chair [or See] of Peter" or simply "the Apostolic See"). The historical evidence for the unique primacy of Peter and the Bishop of Rome will be discussed next.
HISTORICAL COMMENTARY ON ST. PETER AND THE "PRIMACY OF ROME"
From Anglican scholar J.N.D. Kelly The Oxford Dictionary of Popes (1986) under Peter, St, Apostle (page 5-6)
"The papacy, through successive popes and councils, has always traced its origins and title-deeds to the unique commission reported to have been given by Jesus Christ to Peter, the chief of his Apostles, later to be martyred when organizing the earliest group of Christians at Rome....According to Matt 16:13-20, when Jesus asked the disciples whom they took him to be, Simon answered for them all that he was the Messiah, the Son of the living God; in reply Jesus pronounced him blessed because of this inspired insight, bestowed on him the Aramaic name Cephas (= 'rock'), rendered Peter in Greek, and declared that he would build his indestructible church on 'this rock', and would give him 'the keys of the kingdom of heaven' and the powers of 'binding and loosing' ....
"[In the first half of Acts]...Peter was the undisputed leader of the youthful church. It was he who presided over the choice of a successor to Judas (1:15-26), who explained to the crowd the meaning of Pentecost (2:14-40), who healed the lame beggar at the Temple (3:1-10), who pronounced sentence on Ananias and Sapphira (5:1-11), and who opened the church to Gentiles by having Cornelius baptized without undergoing circumcision (10:9-48). He was to the fore in preaching, defending the new movement, working miracles of healing, and visiting newly established Christian communities...
"It seems certain that Peter spent his closing years in Rome. Although the NT appears silent about such a stay, it is supported by 1 Peter 5:13, where 'Babylon' is a code-name for Rome, and by the strong case for linking the Gospel of Mark, who as Peter's companion (1 Pet 5:13) is said to have derived its substance from him, with Rome. To early writers like Clement of Rome (c. 95), Ignatius of Antioch (c. 107), and Irenaeus (c. 180) it was common knowledge that he worked and died in Rome."
Philip Schaff, History of the Christian Church (Eerdmans, 1910) --
"Rome was the battle-field of orthodoxy and heresy, and a resort of all sects and parties. It attracted from every direction what was true and false in philosophy and religion. Ignatius rejoiced in the prospect of suffering for Christ in the centre of the world; Polycarp repaired hither to settle with Anicetus the paschal controversy; Justin Martyr presented there his defense of Christianity to the emperors, and laid down for it his life; Irenaeus, Tertullian, and Cyprian conceded to that church a position of singular pre-eminence. Rome was equally sought as a commanding position by heretics and theosophic jugglers, as Simon Magus, Valentine, Marcion, Cerdo, and a host of others. No wonder, then, that the bishops of Rome at an early date were looked upon as metropolitan pastors, and spoke and acted accordingly with an air of authority which reached far beyond their immediate diocese." (Schaff, volume 2, page 157)
On St. Clement of Rome (c. 96 AD), reckoned as the fourth Pope from St. Peter, Schaff states --
"...it can hardly be denied that the document [Clement to the Corinthians] reveals the sense of a certain superiority over all ordinary congregations. The Roman church here, without being asked (as far as appears), gives advice, with superior administrative wisdom, to an important church in the East, dispatches messengers to her, and exhorts her to order and unity in a tone of calm dignity and authority, as the organ of God and the Holy Spirit. This is all the more surprising if St. John, as is probable, was then still living in Ephesus, which was nearer to Corinth than Rome." (Schaff, volume 2, page 158)
The succession list of bishops in the apostolic see of Rome of the first two centuries as provided by Schaff (volume 2, page 166) is --
St. Peter (d. 64 or 67)
St. Linus (67-76)
St. Eleutherius (175-189)
St. Victor I (189-199)
"It must in justice be admitted, however, that the list of Roman bishops has by far the preminence in age, completeness, integrity of succession, consistency of doctrine and policy, above every similar catalogue, not excepting those of Jerusalem, Antioch, Alexandria, and Constantinople...." (Schaff, page 166)
Schaff then proceeds to list the Bishops of Rome just as I have them above, along with the corresponding Roman Emperors. St. Irenaeus gives this exact list of successors to Peter as Bishops of Rome up to his time (Against Heresies 3:3:1-3 c. 180-199 AD), as does St. Hegesippus up to his time (about 20 years earlier, c. 160 AD) cited in the first History of the Church by Eusebius.
Catholic historian Philip Hughes writes --
"Ever since the popes were first articulate about the General Council, they have claimed the right to control its action and to give or withhold an approbation of its decisions which stamps them as the authentic teaching of the Church of Christ. Only through their summoning it, or through their consenting to take their place at it (whether personally or by legates sent in their name), or by their subsequent acceptance of the council, does the assembly of bishops become a General Council. No member of the Church has ever proposed that a General Council shall be summoned and the pope be left out, nor that the pope should take any other position at the General Council but as its president...in no council has it been moved that the Bishop of X be promoted to the place of the Bishop of Rome, or that the bishop of Rome's views be disregarded and held of no more account than those of the bishop of any other major see...the general shape is ever discernible of a Roman Primacy universally recognized, and submitted to, albeit (at times) unwillingly -- recognized and submitted to because, so the bishops believed, it was set up by God himself." (Hughes, The Church in Crisis: A History of the General Councils, page 5-6)
From the old Catholic Encyclopedia (1913) --
"History bears complete testimony that from the very earliest times the Roman See has ever claimed the supreme headship, and that that headship has been freely acknowledged by the universal Church. We shall here confine ourselves to the consideration of the evidence afforded by the first three centuries. The first witness is St. Clement, a disciple of the Apostles, who, after Linus and Anacletus, succeeded St. Peter as the fourth in the list of popes....The tone of authority [in his Epistle to the Corinthians] which inspires the latter appears so clearly that [Protestant scholar J.B.] Lightfoot did not hesitate to speak of it as 'the first step towards papal domination' ...Thus, at the very commencement of church history, before the last survivor of the Apostles had passed away, we find a Bishop of Rome, himself a disciple of St. Peter, intervening in the affairs of another Church and claiming to settle the matter by a decision spoken under the influence of the Holy Spirit. Such a fact admits of one explanation alone. It is that in the days when the Apostolic teaching was yet fresh in men's minds the universal Church recognized in the Bishop of Rome the office of supreme head....The limits of the present article prevent us from carrying the historical argument further than the year 300. Nor is it in fact necessary to do so. From the beginning of the fourth century the supremacy of Rome is writ large upon the page of history. It is only in regard to the first age of the Church that any question can arise. But the facts we have recounted are entirely sufficient to prove to any unprejudiced mind that the supremacy was exercised and acknowledged from the days of the Apostles." (volume 12, article "Pope" page 263, 264)
From the New Catholic Encyclopedia (1967) --
"That in the primitive Christian period the Roman Church was credited with an authority superior to that of any other patriarchal see, can be gathered from the letter written by Pope Clement I (c. 92) to the Corinthians in which he made important statements concerning the nature of the Church and laid down principles that in embryonic form contains maxims of government. That in view of its location, the Roman Church was in actual fact credited with preeminence over other sees is a matter of history....Numerous testimonies could be cited to prove the factual preeminence of the Roman Church." (volume 10, article "Papacy" page 952)
To be fair, the NCE goes on to state that in the earliest centuries there was "no doctrinal elaboration of the jurisdictional position of the Roman Church" and this too is "a matter of history." However, the same could be said of the Holy Trinity and the Person of Christ. There was no formal doctrinal elaboration on these (whether the Papacy, the Trinity, or Christology) until the fourth century (e.g. the Council of Nicaea and thereafter). From there the Catholic doctrines (on the Papacy, the Trinity, Christology, Mariology, the sacraments, even the 27-book canon of the New Testament) begin to be formally defined, elaborated upon, and developed in the creed, practice and life of the Church and her liturgy.
Steve Ray writes on the development of doctrine in the early Catholic Church --
"And so the Church developed as she grew but did not change her organic nature or her Christ-established essence. The growth did not contradict what had gone before but rather complemented it in an essential unity with the Church's past stages of development. Under the pressure of increasing size, theological deviations, and persecution in the first century, leadership solidified and became layered, as is essential for the growth of any organization. This process was first developed and set in motion during the life of the apostles. It was a process of maturation that was fundamental to the organism and vital to its growth. The result of that growth in our age is still known as the Catholic Church and is essentially the same as the acorn planted two thousand years ago. The body is now in adulthood and bears the same marks as it did in the first century: oneness, holiness, catholicity, and apostolicity -- in short, the Catholic Church. The development of the Church and of doctrine and leadership is simply part of the expected growth of the organic structure." (Upon This Rock [Ignatius Press, 1999], page 118)
Anglican scholar J.N.D. Kelly in his classic work Early Christian Doctrines sums up how unanimous the Church was in the patristic period, particularly the fourth and fifth centuries where the documentary evidence becomes overwhelming for the primacy and authority of the Papacy --
"Everywhere, in the East no less than the West, Rome enjoyed a special prestige, as is indicated by the precedence accorded without question to it....Thus Rome's preeminance remained undisputed in the patristic period. For evidence of it the student need only recall the leading position claimed as a matter of course by the popes, and freely conceded to them, at the councils of Ephesus (431) and Chalcedon (451). We even find the fifth-century historians Socrates and Sozomen concluding...that it was unconstitutional for synods to be held without the Roman pontiff being invited or for decisions to be taken without his concurrence. At the outbreak of the Christological controversy, it will be remembered, both Nestorius and Cyril hastened to bring their cases to Rome, the latter declaring that the ancient custom of the churches constrained him to communicate matters of such weight to the Pope and to seek his advice before acting. In one of his sermons he goes so far as to salute Celestine as 'the archbishop of the whole world' .....It goes without saying that Augustine [c. 354 - 430 AD] identifies the Church with the universal Catholic Church of his day, with its hierarchy and sacraments, and with its centre at Rome....By the middle of the fifth century the Roman church had established, de jure as well as de facto, a position of primacy in the West, and the papal claims to supremacy over all bishops of Christendom had been formulated in precise terms....The student tracing the history of the times, particularly of the Arian, Donatist, Pelagian and Christological controversies, cannot fail to be impressed by the skill and persistence with which the Holy See [of Rome] was continually advancing and consolidating its claims. Since its occupant was accepted as the successor of St. Peter, and prince of the apostles, it was easy to draw the inference that the unique authority which Rome in fact enjoyed, and which the popes saw concentrated in their persons and their office, was no more than the fulfilment of the divine plan." (Kelly, pages 406, 407, 413, 417)
The Anglican study The See of Peter by James T. Shotwell/Louise Ropes Loomis (NY: Octagon Books, 1965) on the early evidence for the primacy of Rome --
"Unquestionably, the Roman church very early developed something like a sense of obligation to the oppressed all over Christendom....Consequently there was but one focus of authority. By the year 252, there seem to have been one hundred bishops in central and southern Italy but outside Rome there was nothing to set one bishop above another. All were on a level together, citizens of Italy, accustomed to look to Rome for direction in every detail of public life. The Roman bishop had the right not only to ordain but even, on occasion, to select bishops for Italian churches....To Christians of the Occident, the Roman church was the sole, direct link with the age of the New Testament and its bishop was the one prelate in their part of the world in whose voice they discerned echoes of the apostles' speech. The Roman bishop spoke always as the guardian of an authoritative tradition, second to none. Even when the eastern churches insisted that their traditions were older and quite as sacred, if not more so, the voice in the West, unaccustomed to rivalry at home, spoke on regardless of protest or denunciation at a distance....
"The theory of [Pope] Stephen, that kindled his contemporaries to such utter exasperation, was rather that the Church was a monarchy, a congeries indeed of bishoprics but all of them subject to the superior authority of the one bishop who sat upon the throne of the prince of the apostles [Peter]. The Roman See, as distinct from the Roman church, was and sought to be predominant, not for its situation or other wordly advantes, not even for its treasure of doctrine, bequeathed by its two founders, but, primarily and fundamentally, because its bishop was heir in his own person to the unique prerogative conferred upon Peter. To Peter had been granted a primacy among the apostles, so to the Roman bishop was assigned a leadership over the bishops....The Arians, who had ousted Athanasius from Alexandria, offered to submit the case to [Pope] Julius for his judgment. Athanasius himself and other orthodox refugees from eastern sees went directly to Rome as to a court of appeal...
"At the general Council of Sardica [343 AD]...the orthodox Easterners and Westerners stayed behind to issue another, in which they claimed for the Roman bishop an appellate jurisdiction over all the Church in honor of 'the memory of Peter, the apostle.'...[by the time of Pope Damasus]...there can be no doubt that large numbers of eastern Christians had by this time become convinced of the genuine superiority of the Roman See in faith and religious insight. The eastern emperor Theodosius published an edict requiring his subjects to accept the doctrine which Peter had committed to the Romans....it was the trustworthy authority of Peter to which the East paid homage in the fourth century, not the wealth nor the power of Rome....From the time when Eleutherus was asked to condemn the Montanists, through the period when Callistus, Stephen and Dionysius revised and interpreted dogma, down to the days when the Nicene creed was defended on the ground of its Roman origin and Liberius and Damasus endorsed or rejected eastern declarations of faith according as they did or did not measure up to their own standards, the Roman bishops asserted their right to speak for the tradition of Peter." (Shotwell/Loomis, page 217-228)
The Orthodox study The Primacy of Peter (St. Vladimir's Seminary Press, 1992) by John Meyendorff states on St. Clement of Rome and the ante-Nicene period (before 325 AD) --
"Let us turn to the facts. We know that the Church of Rome took over the position of 'church-with-priority' at the end of the first century. That was about the time at which her star ascended into the firmament of history in its brightest splendor...Even as early as the Epistle to the Romans, Rome seems to have stood out among all the churches as very important. Paul bears witness that the faith of the Romans was proclaimed throughout the whole world (Rom 1:8)....we have a document which gives us our earliest reliable evidence that the Church of Rome stood in an exceptional position of authority in this period. This is the epistle of Clement of Rome...We know that Clement was 'president' of the Roman Church...." (Afanassieff from Meyendorff, page 124)
"The epistle [Clement of Rome to the Corinthians] is couched in very measured terms, in the form of an exhortation; but at the same time it clearly shows that the Church of Rome was aware of the decisive weight, in the Church of Corinth's eyes, that must attach to its witness about the events in Corinth. So the Church of Rome, at the end of the first century, exhibits a marked sense of its own priority, in point of witness about events in other churches. Note also that the Roman Church did not feel obliged to make a case, however argued, to justify its authoritative pronouncements on what we should now call the internal concerns of other churches. There is nothing said about the grounds of this priority....Apparently Rome had no doubt that its priority would be accepted without argument." (Afanassieff from Meyendorff, page 125-126)
"Rome's vocation [in the "pre-Nicene period"] consisted in playing the part of arbiter, settling contentious issues by witnessing to the truth or falsity of whatever doctrine was put before them. Rome was truly the center where all converged if they wanted their doctrine to be accepted by the conscience of the Church. They could not count upon success except on one condition -- that the Church of Rome had received their doctrine -- and refusal from Rome predetermined the attitude the other churches would adopt. There are numerous cases of this recourse to Rome...." (Afanassieff from Meyendorff, page 128f, 133)
"It is impossible to deny that, even before the appearance of local primacies, the Church from the first days of her existence possessed an ecumenical center of unity and agreement. In the apostolic and the Judaeo-Christian period, it was the Church of Jerusalem, and later the Church of Rome -- 'presiding in agape,' according to St. Ignatius of Antioch. This formula and the definition of the universal primacy contained in it have been aptly analyzed by Fr. Afanassieff and we need not repeat his argument here. Neither can we quote here all the testimonies of the Fathers and the Councils unanimously acknowledging Rome as the senior church and the center of ecumenical agreement. It is only for the sake of biased polemics that one can ignore these testimonies, their consensus and significance." (Schmemann from Meyendorff, page 163-164)
Kenneth Whitehead asks in his wonderful apologetics book One, Holy, Catholic, and Apostolic: The Early Church was the Catholic Church (Ignatius Press, 2000) --
"We must ask: What Church existing today descends in an unbroken line from the apostles of Jesus Christ (and possesses the other essential marks of the true Church of which the Creed speaks)? Further, what Church existing today is headed by a single, recognized, designated leader under the headship of Peter? To ask these questions is to answer them. Any entity claiming to be the Church of Christ -- his body! -- must demonstrate its apostolicity, its organic link with the original apostles, on whom Christ manifestly established his Church. Nothing less can qualify as the apostolic Church that Jesus founded." (Whitehead, page 36)
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Which East German ice skater was 1984 Olympic Champion and by 1990 had won four World Titles? | Katarina Witt | German figure skater | Britannica.com
German figure skater
Yekaterina Gordeeva
Katarina Witt, (born December 3, 1965, Karl-Marx-Stadt , East Germany [now Chemnitz, Germany]), German figure skater who was the first woman to win consecutive Olympic gold medals (1984 and 1988) in singles figure skating since Sonja Henie in 1936. The charismatic Witt defined the sport in the 1980s with her flirtatious and graceful performances. She won four world titles (1984–85 and 1987–88) and six European championships (1983–88).
Katarina Witt performing her long program at the 1988 Winter Olympic Games in Calgary, Canada.
Mark Cardwell—AFP/Getty Images
Witt began skating at age five and soon attracted the attention of East German sports officials, who placed her in the country’s special training program. She practiced with Jutta Müller, one of the world’s premier figure-skating coaches, who encouraged Witt to express her engaging personality on the ice. In 1981 Witt won her first major competition, capturing the East German national championship, a title she would hold for the next seven years.
Witt entered the 1984 Olympics in Sarajevo , Yugoslavia (now in Bosnia and Herzegovina), as a favourite to medal even though she had never won a world title. Coming from behind during her forte, the long program, Witt defeated American Rosalynn Sumners by only 0.1 point to capture the gold. At the 1988 Olympics in Calgary , Alberta, Canada , Witt faced the only skater to have defeated her in five years, American Debi Thomas. Both women skated to music from Georges Bizet’s opera Carmen in the long program, but Witt’s masterly interpretation of the heroine brought a new style of sensual grace and theatre to the ice, and she retained the Olympic title.
After winning her final world championship in 1988, Witt retired from amateur skating. In 1990 she starred in the television special Carmen on Ice, a performance that garnered her an Emmy Award . In the same year, Witt and Brian Boitano developed a skating show that toured the United States . She also toured with Stars on Ice and Champions on Ice. A change in Olympic rules allowed Witt to return to the ice at the 1994 Olympic Games in Lillehammer , Norway , where she placed seventh. She then returned to her touring schedule and entered many professional competitions. She also worked as a commentator at various national and international skating events.
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Katarina Witt
Katarina Witt (born 3 December 1965) is a retired German figure skater. Witt won two Olympic gold medals for East Germany, first at the 1984 Sarajevo Olympics and the second in 1988 at the Calgary Olympics. She is a four-time World champion (1984, 1985, 1987, 1988) and twice World silver medalist (1982, 1986). A feat only equalled by Sonja Henie among female skaters, Witt won six consecutive European Championships (1983–1988). Her competitive record makes her one of the most successful figure skaters of all time.
Katarina Witt Early life
Witt was born in Staaken in East Germany, just outside West Berlin, which is today part of Berlin. Her mother worked in a hospital as a physiotherapist and her father was a farmer. She went to school in Karl-Marx-Stadt (which today has reverted to its pre-war name of Chemnitz). There she attended Kinder- und Jugendsportschule, a special school for athletically talented children:)
Katarina Witt Competitive career
Witt represented the SC Karl-Marx-Stadt club for East Germany (GDR). Jutta Müller began coaching her in 1977. Witt trained six days a week, sometimes for seven hours a day with three hours spent on compulsory figures.
Witt made her first appearance in a major international competition at the 1979 European Championships, finishing 14th at the event. She placed on a major podium for the first time in 1982, winning silver at both the European and World Championships. The next season, she won her first European title but finished off the World podium in 4th place.
In 1984, Witt was voted "GDR female athlete of the year" by the readers of the East German newspaper Junge Welt. She narrowly won the 1984 Olympic title in Sarajevo, Yugoslavia, over the favoured contender, reigning World champion Rosalynn Sumners of the United States. Witt and Sumners held the top two spots heading into the Olympic free skate, which was worth 50% of the total score. Witt landed three triple jumps in her free skate program, and the judges left room for Sumners to win the event. Sumners scaled back two of her jumps and Witt won the long program by one-tenth of a point on one judge's scorecard. Witt then went on to win her first World title.
Witt successfully defended her World title in 1985 but placed second to American Debi Thomas the following year. In 1987, Witt won her third World title. Although Witt finished fifth in compulsory figures, which meant that Thomas could finish second in both the short and long programs and still retain the World title, Thomas' 7th place in the short program put the two skaters on a level playing field ahead of the free skate. Witt landed five triple jumps, including a triple loop jump. Although Thomas also skated a strong long program, Witt was ranked first by the majority of the nine judges and reclaimed the World title.
In 1988, Witt won her sixth consecutive European Championship, equaling the achievement of Sonja Henie as the most successful skater in ladies' singles at the European Championships. Both Witt's and Henie's number of European titles have been surpassed since by Irina Slutskaya but Witt retains the record of most consecutive European titles, sharing it with Henie.
Both Witt and Thomas were favoured contenders at the 1988 Winter Olympics in Calgary, Canada. Their rivalry was known as the "Battle of the Carmens", as each woman had independently elected to skate her long program to music from Bizet's opera Carmen. They held the top two spots after the compulsory figures and the short program. Witt was third in the compulsories, behind Kira Ivanova and Thomas, before winning the short program with Thomas second. In her long program, Witt landed four triple jumps and downgraded her planned triple loop jump to a double loop. This left room for Thomas to win the long program, but Thomas missed three of her planned five triple jumps. Canadian skater Elizabeth Manley won the long program, but Witt retained her Olympic title based on her overall scores (she had finished ahead of Manley in both the compulsory figures and the short program). Witt became only the second woman in figure skating history (after Sonja Henie) to defend her Olympic title.
To honour Witt and her win in Calgary, North Korea issued miniature sheets with three large pictures of Witt on the ice. Time magazine called her "the most beautiful face of socialism."
In 1988, Witt started a professional career – rare for East German athletes. She spent three years on tour in the United States with Brian Boitano, also an Olympic champion. Their show "Witt and Boitano Skating" was so successful that for the first time in ten years, New York's Madison Square Garden was sold out for an ice show. Later, she continued at Holiday on Ice in the United States and in western Europe. She also became an actress in the film Carmen on Ice (1989), which expanded upon her gold medal free program in Calgary. In 1990, she received an Emmy Award for her role in this film.
In 1994, Witt made a comeback to the competitive skating scene, coached again by Jutta Müller. She finished second at the German Championships behind Tanja Szewczenko with Marina Kielmann third. Witt's first international competition for the reunified country of Germany, following eleven years competing for East Germany, was the 1994 European Championships, where she finished 8th, again ahead of Kielmann who was 9th. She qualified for the 1994 Winter Olympics in Lillehammer, Norway, where she finished 7th. Her free program to the music “Sag mir wo die Blumen sind” (an arrangement of the Pete Seeger folksong "Where Have All the Flowers Gone") included a peace message for the people of Sarajevo, the site of her first Olympic victory. She received the Golden Camera for her Olympic comeback.
Witt's taste in figure skating costumes sometimes caused debate. At the 1983 European Championships, she skated her Mozart short program in knee breeches instead of a skirt. Her blue skirtless feather-trimmed 1988 costume for a showgirl-themed short program was considered too theatrical and sexy, and led to a change in the ISU regulations dubbed the "Katarina rule" which required female skaters to wear more modest clothing including skirts that covered the buttocks and crotch. In 1994, skating a Robin Hood-themed program, she again pushed the boundaries of costume regulations by wearing a short tunic over leggings.[citation needed]
In 1994, Witt published her autobiography Meine Jahre zwischen Pflicht und Kür (My Years between Compulsories and Freestyle). In 1995, Witt was inducted into the World Figure Skating Hall of Fame. Her farewell from show skating tour took place in February and March 2008.
Katarina Witt Personal life
Following the dissolution of East Germany, Ministerium für Staatssicherheit (Stasi) files were found to show that the secret police had worked hard to keep Witt from defecting by giving her cars, accommodations, and permitted travel. Witt found 3,000 pages on her life from the age of eight.
In 1996, Witt had a cameo role in the movie Jerry Maguire. She also starred in a German-language movie called Princess on Ice. Witt provided the vocals for the theme song, "Skate With Me". Witt appeared as herself in two episodes of the TV comedy series Arli$$ that aired in 1997 and 1998.
Witt posed nude for Playboy magazine at age 32, and the pictures were published months later in the December 1998 issue (she turned 33 on 3 December), which was the second ever sold-out issue of the magazine. (The first sold-out issue was the inaugural one including photos of Marilyn Monroe.) Witt said she did not care for the "cute, pretty, ice princess image" of figure skaters and wanted to "change people's perceptions."
In 1998, Witt appeared in the movie Ronin in a small supporting role with several lines of script. Around this time, she also played a villain in an episode of the tongue-in-cheek television series, V.I.P. In November 2005, Witt published a novel, Only with Passion, in which she offers advice to a fictional young skater based on her many years of skating. Since October 2006, she has her own TV show, Stars auf Eis (Stars on Ice), on the German station ProSieben. She was invited to Istanbul as an honoured guest for the skating competition TV show called Buzda Dans (Dance on Ice) on 25 February 2007. On 3 December 2011, Witt was confirmed as a judge on the UK TV show, Dancing On Ice; she made her first appearance on 8 January 2012.
On 7 July 2007, Witt was a compere at the German segment of Live Earth. She headed Munich's unsuccessful bid to host the 2018 Winter Olympics.
In January 2013, Witt appeared on German TV in her first leading role, playing a figure skater who is pursued by a stalker. The made-for-television movie Der Feind in meinem Leben (The enemy in my life) thus has autobiographical elements, as Witt herself had been stalked 20 years ago in the US.
Katarina Witt References
^ Johnson, Rafer (2009). Great Athletes. Salem Press. p.1213. ISBN9781587654862.
^ a b c d McBride, Lorraine (25 March 2012). "Dancing on Ice judge Katarina Wit talks money". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 13 November 2012.
^ a b Witt, Katarina (24 March 2012). "The Stasi watched my every move: Dancing on Ice star Katarina Witt reveals East German secret police spied on her since the age of eight". Daily Mail.
^ USSR Philately (in Russian) (Moscow) (7): 1. July 1989. ISSN0130-5689. Missing or empty |title= (help) — photo of this postage block
^ Hoyt, Alia. "How Competitive Figure Skating Works".
^ Muther, Christopher. "The ice rink becomes the runway for female figure skaters".
^ Paterson, Tony (5 May 2002). "Stasi files reveal Katarina Witt was willing accomplice". The Daily Telegraph. Archived from the original on 25 February 2009.
^ McD, Mike. "The 40 Hottest Female Athletes Of The Decade".
^ "Judging panel revealed for the new series of Dancing On Ice.". ITV. 2 December 2011.
^ "http://www.muenchen2018.org/en". www.muenchen2018.org. Retrieved 2015-11-11. External link in |title= (help)
^ "Kati Witt spielt Stalking-Opfer im TV (German)". Focus. 23 January 2013.
^ "Interview with Katarina Witt – Stalking, Hollywood und zu viele Pfunde (German)". Tagesspiegel. 23 January 2013.
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How many parts of speech are there? | There are nine parts of speech
A noun is a word used to name something: a person/animal,
a place, a thing, or an idea. For example, all of the following are nouns.
Leah, Ignacio, Lan, Marek
Japan, Venezuela, Atlanta, Kroger, the Gap
pencil, store, music, air
biology, theory of Relativity, Pythagorean theory
Hint: They are sometimes preceded by noun markers. Noun markers are also called determiners and quantifiers. They are words like a, an, the, this, that, these, those, each, some, any, every, no, numbers (1,2,3,etc.), several, many, a lot, few, possessive pronouns (his, her, etc). See determiners for more information.
&Nouns are classified in several ways�
Nouns can be singular or plural.
Singular nouns name only one person, place, thing or idea.
One apple, a pencil, the book
Plural nouns name two or more persons, places, things or ideas. Most singular nouns (Not ALL) are made plural by adding �s. For example, (pencil is a singular noun. The word pencils is a plural noun.)
Exception #1: If a noun ends with the �s, sh, ch, or x like the words, kiss, church, ash or box, then they are made plural by adding �es (kisses, churches, ashes, and boxes).
Exception #2:There are also irregular nouns that do not follow any rules. For example, the plural form of the word child is children.
Nouns can be Proper Nouns or Common Nouns
A. Proper nouns refer to specific people, places, things and ideas. A person's name (Leah Graham) is a proper noun, for example. Other examples are names of places (Atlanta, Georgia) and names of things (the Navy). They are always capitalized!
People�s names and titles- King Henry, Mrs. Smith
Names for deity, religions, religious followers, and sacred books- God, Allah, Buddha, Islam, Catholicism, Christians
Races, nationalities, tribes, and languages- African American, Polish-American, Black, Chinese, Russian
Specific Places like countries, cities, bodies of water, streets, buildings, and parks
Specific organizations- Central Intelligence Agency (CIA), �.
Days of the week, months, and holidays,
Brand names of products
Historical periods, well-known events, and documents- Middle ages, Boston Tea Party, Magna Carta
Titles of publications and written documents
b. Common nouns are all other nouns. For example: cat, pencil, paper, etc. They are not capitalized unless they are the first word in the sentence.
Nouns can also be collective.
Collective nouns are nouns that are grammatically considered singular, but include more than one person, place, thing, or idea in its meaning. Words like team, group, jury, committee, audience, crowd, class, troop, family, team, couple, band, herd, quartet, and society.
Generally, collective nouns are treated as singular because they emphasize the group as one unit.
The committee is going to make a decision.
Nouns can also be either count or non-count.
Nouns that are non-count cannot be counted. For example,
one cannot go outside to have two fresh airs. One goes outside for fresh air.
5. Nouns can be Abstract or concrete
Concrete nouns are nouns that you can touch. They are people, places, and some things. Words like person, court, Georgia, pencil, hand, paper, car, and door are all examples of concrete nouns.
Abstract nouns are nouns that cannot be physically held. For example, things like air, justice, safety, Democracy, faith, religion, etc.
6. Nouns can be Gerunds
A gerund is the �ing form of the verb and is used as a noun. For example,
Running is good for you.
Running is the noun/gerund and is is the verb.
My crying upset him.
Crying is the subject and upset is the verb
Note: A noun can fit into more than one of these categories. For example, the noun Angela is a singular, concrete, count, proper noun.
A pronoun is a word that replaces a noun. They eliminate the need for repetition.
For Example:
Instead of Emma talked to Emma's child, you might say Emma talked to her child.
Her is the pronoun. It renames the antecedent, Emma.
& There are several types of pronouns.
Personal Pronouns refer to specific persons or things. Personal pronouns can act as subjects, objects, or possessives.
Singular: I, me, you, she, her, he, him, it
Plural: we, us, you, they, them
I, you, she, he, it, we, and they are used as subjects of sentences.
For example, She knew the grammar rules very well.
The personal pronouns that can be used as objects are:
Me, you, him, her, it, them
For Example:
The teacher gave all of them good grades.
Tommy gave his poetry book to her.
Then, Azra gave it to me.
Them, her and me are personal pronouns used as objects. They are NEVER the subjects of the sentences.
Possessive Pronouns indicate ownership or possession.
Singular: my, mine, your, yours, hers, his, its
Plural: yours, ours, theirs,
For Example: She returned my pencil to me because it was mine.
3. Reflexive Pronouns name a receiver of an action who is identical to the doer of the action.
Singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself
Plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves
For example: Manuela congratulated herself on her good grades.
Here, Manuela is both the doer and the receiver of the action.
Q: So, who did Manuela congratulate? A: Herself.
4. Intensive Pronouns emphasize a noun or another pronoun.
Singular: myself, yourself, himself, herself, itself
Plural: ourselves, yourselves, themselves
For Example: I saw Brad Pitt himself at the mall.
Here, himself emphasizes the antecedent, Bradd Pitt.
5. Reciprocal Pronouns express shared actions or feelings. They are:
Each other One another
Yan Ko and Tai help each other with their homework.
Leon and his girlfriend dance with one another when they go clubbing.
6. Indefinite Pronouns refer to non-specific persons and things.
All, another, any, anybody, anyone, anything, both, each, either, everybody, everyone, everything, few, many, neither, nobody, none, no one, nothing, one, several, some, somebody, someone, something
For Example:
Many believe that UFO�s exist, but nobody can prove it.
No one can be sure if aliens really exist, but only few wonder if Elvis is still alive.
The underlined indefinite pronouns do not refer to any one person. They are referring to people in general.
7. Demonstrative Pronouns are also considered noun markers. They "point" towards nouns.
this, that, these those
That woman attends Gainesville College.
That points out which woman.
The woman attends Gainesville College.
Q: Which woman? A: That woman. 8. Interrogative Pronouns introduce questions.
Who, Whom, Whose, Which, What
For Example:
Who is going on vacation? To whom will the teacher give an "A"?
What are you doing? 9. Relative Pronouns introduce dependent clauses and refers to a person or thing already mentioned in the sentence (i.e. the antecedent).
Who, whoever, whom, whomever, whose, which, that
For Example:
The English that we learn in class will help us pass English 1101.
that we learn in class is the adjective clause that describes English. And, that is the relative pronoun.
Q: Which English?
A: The English that we learn in class�as opposed to the English we learn around our friends.
Note: Adjectives clauses modify nouns or pronouns, and usually answer one of the following questions: Which one? What kind of? They begin with a relative pronoun or a relative adverb (when or where).
An adjective modifies (describes) a noun or pronoun.
Normally in English, the adjective comes before the noun. For example:
The smart student earned an "A".
They also come after linking verbs. For example:
I feel happy.
Adjectives can be used to make comparisons.
For most adjectives of one or two syllables, you can add �er. For example, greater, faster, stronger.
For adjectives longer than two syllables, you should use the word more.
For example, He was more intelligent than his sister was.
Adjectives can also be used as superlatives.
This is usually done by adding �est to the end of an adjective that is one or two syllables.
For example, the loudest, the coolest, the smartest.
If an adjective is three syllables or longer, you must use the words the most. For example:
Katsu is the most intelligent person in the world!
WARNING- Never use both an �er ending and the word more or an
�est ending and the word most.
For example, I am the most happiest when my students learn. Instead, it should be: I am the happiest when my students learn.
There are some irregular adjective and adverb forms. For example:
Adjective
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What type of food is Dunlop? | How Many Parts of Speech Are There? – gwillim
gwillim Leave a comment
In school, we learn that there are eight parts of speech: noun, verb, adjective, adverb, pronoun, preposition, conjunction, and interjection. Modern grammarians recognise a couple of others: determiners and particles.
Phrasal verbs are idioms combining a verb and a particle. Some examples are “slow down,” “stand up,” “turn over.” Those particles (down, up, over) all look like prepositions, but that’s not how they function.
In “Jack and Jill went up the hill,” “hill” is the object of “up”. In “Stand up when a lady enters the room,” there is no object of “up.”
Determiner is a useful basket category that includes articles, and many types of adjectives, such as demonstratives (this, that, these, those), and quantifiers (some, many, all). The reason for making them a separate category is to simplify the statement of some grammar rules. In my computational linguist job, I found that I could get more precise and significant parses of sentences by using those parts of speech. The determiners that you can use with mass nouns (such as milk, patience, and time, are not always the same ones you can use with count nouns (such as book, event, and second). For us, part of speech was just a convenient arbitrary label, to be used in whatever way improved the analysis.
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What was the name of Christopher Columbus' flagship on his expedition of 1492? | 10 Things You May Not Know About Christopher Columbus - History in the Headlines
10 Things You May Not Know About Christopher Columbus
October 5, 2012 By Christopher Klein
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On October 12, 1492, Christopher Columbus set foot on the fine white sands of an island in the Bahamas, unfurled the Spanish royal standard and claimed the territory for King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. Although Columbus thought he was in Asia, he had actually landed in the “New World.” History—for better and worse—would never be the same again. Here are 10 things you may not know about the famed explorer.
1. Columbus didn’t set out to prove the earth was round.
Forget those myths perpetuated by everyone from Washington Irving to Bugs Bunny. There was no need for Columbus to debunk the flat-earthers—the ancient Greeks had already done so. As early as the sixth century B.C., the Greek mathematician Pythagoras surmised the world was round, and two centuries later Aristotle backed him up with astronomical observations. By 1492 most educated people knew the planet was not shaped like a pancake.
2. Columbus was likely not the first European to cross the Atlantic Ocean.
That distinction is generally given to the Norse Viking Leif Eriksson, who is believed to have landed in present-day Newfoundland around 1000 A.D., almost five centuries before Columbus set sail. Some historians even claim that Ireland’s Saint Brendan or other Celtic people crossed the Atlantic before Eriksson. While the United States commemorates Columbus—even though he never set foot on the North American mainland—with parades and a federal holiday, Leif Eriksson Day on October 9 receives little fanfare.
3. Three countries refused to back Columbus’ voyage.
For nearly a decade, Columbus lobbied European monarchies to bankroll his quest to discover a western sea route to Asia. In Portugal, England and France, the response was the same: no. The experts told Columbus his calculations were wrong and that the voyage would take much longer than he thought. Royal advisors in Spain raised similar concerns to King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella. Turns out the naysayers were right. Columbus dramatically underestimated the earth’s circumference and the size of the oceans. Luckily for him, he ran into the uncharted Americas.
4. Nina and Pinta were not the actual names of two of Columbus’ three ships.
In 15th-century Spain, ships were traditionally named after saints. Salty sailors, however, bestowed less-than-sacred nicknames upon their vessels. Mariners dubbed one of the three ships on Columbus’s 1492 voyage the Pinta, Spanish for “the painted one” or “prostitute.” The Santa Clara, meanwhile, was nicknamed the Nina in honor of its owner, Juan Nino. Although the Santa Maria is called by its official name, its nickname was La Gallega, after the province of Galicia in which it was built.
5. The Santa Maria wrecked on Columbus’ historic voyage.
On Christmas Eve of 1492, a cabin boy ran Columbus’s flagship into a coral reef on the northern coast of Hispaniola, near present-day Cap Haitien, Haiti. Its crew spent a very un-merry Christmas salvaging the Santa Maria’s cargo. Columbus returned to Spain aboard the Nina, but he had to leave nearly 40 crewmembers behind to start the first European settlement in the Americas—La Navidad. When Columbus returned to the settlement in the fall of 1493, none of the crew were found alive.
6. Columbus made four voyages to the New World.
Although best known for his historic 1492 expedition, Columbus returned to the Americas three more times in the following decade. His voyages took him to Caribbean islands, South America and Central America.
7. Columbus returned to Spain in chains in 1500.
Columbus’s governance of Hispaniola could be brutal and tyrannical. Native islanders who didn’t collect enough gold could have their hands cut off, and rebel Spanish colonists were executed at the gallows. Colonists complained to the monarchy about mismanagement, and a royal commissioner dispatched to Hispaniola arrested Columbus in August 1500 and brought him back to Spain in chains. Although Columbus was stripped of his governorship, King Ferdinand not only granted the explorer his freedom but subsidized a fourth voyage.
8. A lunar eclipse may have saved Columbus.
In February 1504, a desperate Columbus was stranded in Jamaica, abandoned by half his crew and denied food by the islanders. The heavens that he relied on for navigation, however, would guide him safely once again. Knowing from his almanac that a lunar eclipse was coming on February 29, 1504, Columbus warned the islanders that his god was upset with their refusal of food and that the moon would “rise inflamed with wrath” as an expression of divine displeasure. On the appointed night, the eclipse darkened the moon and turned it red, and the terrified islanders offered provisions and beseeched Columbus to ask his god for mercy.
9. Even in death, Columbus continued to cross the Atlantic.
Following his death in 1506, Columbus was buried in Valladolid, Spain, and then moved to Seville. At the request of his daughter-in-law, the bodies of Columbus and his son Diego were shipped across the Atlantic to Hispaniola and interred in a Santo Domingo cathedral. When the French captured the island in 1795, the Spanish dug up remains thought to be those of the explorer and moved them to Cuba before returning them to Seville after the Spanish-American War in 1898. However, a box with human remains and the explorer’s name was discovered inside the Santo Domingo cathedral in 1877. Did the Spaniards exhume the wrong body? DNA testing in 2006 found evidence that at least some of the remains in Seville are those of Columbus. The Dominican Republic has refused to let the other remains be tested. It could be possible that, aptly, pieces of Columbus are both in the New World and the Old World.
10. Heirs of Columbus and the Spanish monarchy were in litigation until 1790.
After the death of Columbus, his heirs waged a lengthy legal battle with the Spanish crown, claiming that the monarchy short-changed them on money and profits due the explorer. Most of the Columbian lawsuits were settled by 1536, but the legal proceedings nearly dragged on until the 300th anniversary of Columbus’ famous voyage.
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Which novelist when working for the Post Office was responsible for the introduction of the pillar box into Britain? | Christopher Columbus: Voyages to the New World
Voyages to the New World
First Expedition
On Aug. 3, 1492, Columbus sailed from Palos, Spain, with three small ships, the Santa María, commanded by Columbus himself, the Pinta under Martín Pinzón, and the Niña under Vicente Yáñez Pinzón. After halting at the Canary Islands, he sailed due west from Sept. 6 until Oct. 7, when he changed his course to the southwest. On Oct. 10 a small mutiny was quelled, and on Oct. 12 he landed on a small island (Watling Island; see San Salvador ) in the Bahamas. He took possession for Spain and, with impressed natives aboard, discovered other islands in the neighborhood. On Oct. 27 he sighted Cuba and on Dec. 5 reached Hispaniola.
On Christmas Eve the Santa María was wrecked on the north coast of Hispaniola, and Columbus, leaving men there to found a colony, hurried back to Spain on the Niña. His reception was all he could wish; according to his contract with the Spanish sovereigns he was made "admiral of the ocean sea" and governor-general of all new lands he had discovered or should discover.
Second Expedition
Fitted out with a large fleet of 17 ships, with 1,500 colonists aboard, Columbus sailed from Cádiz in Oct., 1493. His landfall this time was made in the Lesser Antilles, and his new discoveries included the Leeward Islands and Puerto Rico. The admiral arrived at Hispaniola to find the first colony destroyed by the indigenous natives. He founded a new colony nearby, then sailed off in the summer of 1494 to explore the southern coast of Cuba. After discovering Jamaica he returned to Hispaniola and found the colonists, interested only in finding gold, completely disorderly; his attempts to enforce strict discipline led some to seize vessels and return to Spain to complain of his administration. Leaving his brother Bartholomew in charge at Hispaniola, Columbus also returned to Spain in 1496.
Third Expedition
On his third expedition, in 1498, Columbus was forced to transport convicts as colonists, because of the bad reports on conditions in Hispaniola and because the novelty of the New World was wearing off. He sailed still farther south and made his landfall on Trinidad. He sailed across the mouth of the Orinoco River (in present Venezuela) and realized that he saw a continent, but without further exploration he hurried back to Hispaniola to administer his colony. In 1500 an independent governor arrived, sent by Isabella and Ferdinand as the result of reports on the wretched conditions in the colony, and he sent Columbus back to Spain in chains. The admiral was immediately released, but his favor was on the wane; other navigators, including Amerigo Vespucci , had been in the New World and established much of the coast line of NE South America.
Fourth Expedition
It was 1502 before Columbus finally gathered together four ships for a fourth expedition, by which he hoped to reestablish his reputation. If he could sail past the islands and far enough west, he hoped he might still find lands answering to the description of Asia or Japan. He struck the coast of Honduras in Central America and coasted southward along an inhospitable shore, suffering terrible hardships, until he reached the Gulf of Darién. Attempting to return to Hispaniola, he was marooned on Jamaica. After his rescue, he was forced to abandon his hopes and return to Spain. Although his voyages were of great importance, Columbus died in relative neglect, having had to petition King Ferdinand in an attempt to secure his promised titles and wealth.
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Tony Brittain and Nigel Havers played father and son doctors in which TV comedy series? | The big interview: Tony Britton - Britton-ia stage rules the; Actor Tony Britton has made us laugh for decades in such comedy classics as Robin's Nest. As he prepares for a more serious role, Jenny Longhurst found out what makes this veteran performer tick. - Free Online Library
The Free Library > Date > 2002 > June > 1 > South Wales Echo (Cardiff, Wales)
The big interview: Tony Britton - Britton-ia stage rules the; Actor Tony Britton has made us laugh for decades in such comedy classics as Robin's Nest. As he prepares for a more serious role, Jenny Longhurst found out what makes this veteran performer tick.
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APA style: The big interview: Tony Britton - Britton-ia stage rules the; Actor Tony Britton has made us laugh for decades in such comedy classics as Robin's Nest. As he prepares for a more serious role, Jenny Longhurst found out what makes this veteran performer tick.. (n.d.) >The Free Library. (2014). Retrieved Jan 18 2017 from https://www.thefreelibrary.com/The+big+interview%3a+Tony+Britton+-+Britton-ia+stage+rules+the%3b+Actor...-a086575176
Byline: Jenny Longhurst
DEBONAIR and with a touch of the Cary Grants, actor Tony Britton comes across as ever the gallant Englishman.
Proud father of Fern, he is more likely to be associated with Professor Higgins, the part he played in My Fair Lady on a former visit to South Wales, than the gruff northerner Henry Horatio Hobson, his character in Hobson's Choice at The New Theatre, Cardiff, next week.
``It's a fascinating departure for me,'' he agreed with a deep chuckle.
``My reaction was `can I play it?' I've been trying for the last 12 weeks.''
In more than 50 years on the boards, Tony Britton has rarely been resting.
His most popular television sitcom Don't Wait Up, with Nigel Havers and Dinah Sheridan, ran to seven series and before that, he played alongside Richard O'Sullivan and Tessa Wyatt in Robin's Nest.
With his 78th birthday coming up on June 9, he may own up to a few aches on the golf course but his charm is unaffected by the years.
``There is no question that work keeps you young,'' he said.
``If you suddenly have leisure thrust upon you, you don't always know what to do with it.
``Everything slows down. I think working is bound to help to keep you younger than you might otherwise have been.''
That view, coupled with long walks, deep breathing plus hours of gardening whenever time allows, provides the stamina for tours like this current one. ``Actors aren't known for getting up early,'' he joked when we spoke at 11am, ``but here I am, bathed, shaved and sentient.''
Tony Britton achieved his childhooddream of going on the stage after spending four-and-a-half years in the Royal Artillery but he took his career one step at a time. He spent a few short spells as a starving newcomer with empty pockets but reveals: ``I never had to wash up in Lyon's Corner House.
``When I started out in the theatre, I thought wouldn't it be wonderful if I could become an actor.
``They were gods and goddesses, belonging to another race.
``Then I was lucky enough to get started and three years later I got a part in the West End.
``That was my first goal, if one could dare to dream of such a thing and I have been very, very lucky ever since.''
He was particularly fond of the TV series Don't Wait Up in which he and Nigel Havers played father and son doctors and Dinah Sheridan his long-suffering wife.
``Dinah and I have played lovers, mistresses, husbands, wives, goodness knows on how many occasions over the years and Nigel and I were doing a play as the series came up. ``When I spoke to the producer I said, I know who my son is going to be.
``It was all great fun.''
With three children and seven grandchildren, Tony is very much the family man.
``How do I feel about Fern?'' he mused, over his daughter who fronts the high profile, This Morning show on ITV.
``There are no words for that.
``Not only has she been wonderfully successful but she deserves it because she is highly intelligent.
``The woman you see on the screen is the woman you get.
``She is one of the loveliest persons in my life.''
He is equally proud of his daughter Cherry, who works behind the scenes as a writer and director.
Both girls are from his first marriage, while Jasper is his son with his second wife, Danish sculptor Eva Castle.
``Jasper is an actor and is currently in a revival of Bedroom Farce in the West End with Dickie Briers and June Whitfield,'' he revealed.
Tony and his wife have bought ``a tiny little cottage'' a weekend-cum-retirement spot on the Somerset Levels.
``It's very remote. We're doing it up. ``It has a wreck of a garden but I'm a rabid gardener so I have lots of plans for it. ``I've always loved plants, all growing things. I'm very aware of nature and although gardening is hard work, I find it hugely relaxing.''
Born in Birmingham, the young Tony was brought up `over the shop' in a series of hotels in the City where his father was manager.
The family later moved to Weston-SuperMare where he joined an amateur dramatic company before going into the Army.
His career proper started in 1947 when he was de-mobbed and found a job as assistant stage manager at the Manchester Library Theatre.
From the lightest of comedy touches to the most dramatic of roles for The Royal Shakespeare Company, Tony's career has spanned a huge range of theatrical experiences.
And with a whole string of plays, television series and films to his name, he remains centre stage in the public domain. He has no problem with the trappings of fame.
``It's a huge compliment to be recognised in the street,'' he said.
``You hear a lot of actors saying, oh no, I must get into the car, I must get dark glasses and all that rubbish.
``It's nonsense. We're not Mussolini or huge figures.
``If people are kind enough to say they've enjoyed something you've done then that's very nice to hear and it makes you feel good.''
CAPTION(S):
VETERAN ACTOR Tony Britton has appeared in classic comedies like Robin's Nest and Don't Wait Up, left. Now he is appearing in Hobson's Choice, below.
COPYRIGHT 2002 MGN Ltd.
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Copyright 2002 Gale, Cengage Learning. All rights reserved.
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Which actor appeared in 'The Paradise Club' and 'Eastenders'? | Leslie Grantham - IMDb
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Leslie Grantham was born on April 30, 1947 in Camberwell, London, England. He is an actor and producer, known for EastEnders (1985), The Paradise Club (1989) and 99-1 (1994). He has been married to Jane Laurie since 1981. They have three children. See full bio »
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With which sport would you associate the name Jasper Parnivik? | They were in Crossroads? | ATV Today
They were in Crossroads?
April 03, 2013 Broadcasting , Flashback , Soapworld Mike Watkins
25 Years ago on Easter Monday, April 4th 1988, the UK’s third most watched soap ended. For most of its life it had been the UK’s second most watched saga behind Coronation Street – an amazing feat considering it was a daytime series, and aired at different times across the country. During its run Crossroads played host to many faces who either had been big stars or went onto primetime success, here’s a run-down from Bob Monkhouse and Ken Dodd to a host of EastEnders and Coronation Street stars.
Set in a fictional Midland village, Kings Oak, with the central focus being a motel it allowed for much more flexible comings and goings of characters who travelled the midland road. (Pictured above in 2011, the building used as the Crossroads Motel from 1964 to 1981.)
Bob Monkhouse, Joe Loss and Billy Wright. On the 18th of August 1966 three celebrities booked into the motel as themselves. Comedian Bob Monkhouse along with former footballer and ATV Sports anchor Billy Wright and musician Joe Loss all arrived in the midlands to perform a variety gig.
Bob liked Crossroads so much he returned to host the Variety Club of Great Britain’s celebration of the motel saga in 1980. In the show he was to perform his stand-up routine, but also found time to criticise the food which Spanish Chef Carlos was none too pleased about. (pictured above, inset, left)
Joe Loss was the youngest son of a Russian furniture maker. He created his first band in 1930 and from then onwards The Joe Loss Orchestra, with Joe at the helm, were still performing well into the 1980s. He appeared as himself brining a touch of music to the motel. (pictured main photograph above)
Billy Wright was the former England football player, and later Head of Sport at ATV, who was compare of the variety evening at the motel. (pictured, above, inset right)
The first big star to stay at Crossroads was within its first few weeks on air as Tony Britton arrived in December 1964. The storyline saw Tony staying at the motel while he was in pantomime in nearby Birmingham. He may be most fondly remembered for his role in the long-running television sitcom, Don’t Wait Up, however Tony has a wide range of film and television credits that span many decades including drama series Holby City.
Tony (pictured above far right with the cast) is the father of television presenter, Fern Britton.
Malcolm McDowell played Motel PR Consultant, Crispin Ryder, the son of Meg’s second husband Malcolm – who tried to murder the motel owner.
It was one of McDowell earliest television roles. Since those black and white days at Crossroads in the late 1960s he went onto become a major international movie star. His film credits are numerous and include A Clockwork Orange, If, The Raging Moon and Star Trek.
Elaine Paige arrived in Kings Oak back in 1968, fresh from drama school, Elaine played waitress Caroline Winthrop from episode 880 onwards. The storyline saw her become one of Sandy’s many girlfriends. Elaine became a noted figure in the theatre circle after finding fame in the stage show, Hair.
Theatre is where she has spent most of her career, although pop chart fame arrived in the 1980s thanks to a hit-song from the musical Chess being released. She has also appeared in a couple of movies in the 1970s and currently is a regular presenter for BBC Radio 2.
The EastEnders Connection
Of course the biggest link between Crossroads and EastEnders is Simon May, composer of the EastEnders theme music and a couple of hits. He while with ATV produced a number of tracks for Crossroads including Born with a Smile on my Face, Summer of my Life, We’ll Find Our Day, Benny’s Theme and More Than In Love.
Appearance wise the most notable EastEnders star to grace the motel would be the late Gretchen Franklin who became the much loved Albert Square resident Ethel Skinner.
In Crossroads she played Myrtle Cavendish, the second wife of Wilf Harvey who worked as a barmaid. Marrying into the Harvey family, in 1974, placed her at the heart of the motel action with the family through marriage being linked to the owners, the Richardsons.
In 1975 Myrtle (pictured above, inset bottom right) died from pneumonia leaving Wilf and his pigeons heartbroken. Another of the Walford residents was Sandy Ratcliff.
Sandy played Barbara Parker the step-mother of Vince Parker – who was the same age. Yes Barbara had married 30-years her senior George – much to the bemusement of his son, village postman, Vince. Vince famously married long running character ‘Miss’ Diane Lawton, but that fell apart when her child to American Frank Adam was kidnapped and Diane turned to booze.
Sandy of course is best known these days as the downtrodden Cafe proprietor in EastEnders, Sue Osman. The nation was gripped when her early story lines saw her young baby die in a cot death incident. (Sandy as Barbara is the main image above)
Lynda Baron starred in the soap as secretary, Phoebe Tompkins. Phoebe was just one of the many women to have a crush on motel boss David Hunter, however he declined her offer of romance.
Along with her role as Linda Clarke in EastEnders Baron is possibly most well-known for her role as Nurse Gladys Emanuel in sitcom Open All Hours – starring opposite Ronnie Barker. She has also starred in soaps Coronation Street and Doctors. (Pictured above in Crossroads top right inset)
Hilda Braid is best remembered as Victoria “nana” Moon in EastEnders however Crossroads was the first of many ‘soap’ roles for the actress. Playing Winnie Plumbtree the kitchen hand she is most famously remembered by fans of the serial for causing chaos in the kitchen when she somehow managed to blow up the industrial dishwasher and flooded part of the motel in 1977. (pictured above, inset top left)
She went on to appear in Emmerdale and Brookside as well as a memorable appearance in sitcom Citizen Smith. We should also note Simon Lowe who played Jason Grice in the later years of the motel saga and has appeared as social worker Derek Evans in ‘Enders a couple of times.
Film stars at the motel who’d made their name before arriving in the saga included Anthony Steel who was during the 1940s and 50s a matinee idol in numerous classic movies. He joined Crossroads – his first major TV role – playing con-man Phillip Warner-Blyth. From the motel onwards he starred in many other television dramas, retiring from the business in 1984. (Pictured above, inset base left)
John Bentley began his film career in British movies before being snapped up by Hollywood. Unhappy with America he returned to the UK to front his own series, African Patrol, before joining Crossroads as businessman Hugh Mortimer in 1965.
In 1975 he married motel owner Meg Richardson, the recording of the ceremony in Birmingham Cathedral brought the city to a halt as thousands turned out to see ‘Meg and Hugh’ on their ‘big day’. (Pictured in the main photograph above)
Jimmy Hanley appeared in numerous films including The Blue Lamp which later spawned BBC drama, Dixon Of Dock Green. In the ATV soap he played artist and old college friend of Meg Richardson, Jimmy Gudgeon, who caused a fuss when he decided to paint a portrait of Meg – but unbeknown to her, it was a nude.
Dawn Addams had been a one-time major film star who appeared in Crossroads for a week during 1978 as the mother of Vicky Lambert – who was played by another busy film star of the time, Judy Matheson. Vicky was Hugh Mortimer’s secretary who also went on to have a romance with Sandy Richardson. Hugh – who moved his secretary into his cottage, much to the charing of wife Meg – also tried to make a pass at Vicky but suffered a heart attack in the process. He begged her not to tell anyone.
Another young movie actress to pop into Kings Oak was Dee Hepburn who joined the cast in 1985 as receptionist Anne-Marie Wade. She became romantically involved with a garage mechanic, but was taken advantage of by a perverted glamour photographer in the meantime. She won the beauty contest Miss Crossroads 1985. (Pictured above, inset top left)
Sue Lloyd (Pictured above, middle inset image) was an actress who appeared in what has become known now as the ‘classic era’ of television and film. Featuring in cult ITC classics such as camp detective series Department S, action thrillers The Saint and The Persuaders. And that is just a handful… Lloyd played the divine Barbara Brady who became Mrs Hunter in the motel series when she married the dishy boss David in 1980. Sue appeared in the midland soap between 1979 and 1985 and Jean Kent first appeared as Jennifer Lamont in 1982, the snobby wife of motel garage boss Reg. She had been a major film and television actress for many years before. Kay Dotrice and her daughter Yvette rolled into the motel to accuse the recently deceased Hugh of being her father. She wasn’t.
The Coronation Street connection
The most famous to go from Kings Oak to Weatherfield is Sue Nicholls. Her television career started on Crossroads in 1964 as motel waitress Marylin Gates. She was sure she’d win Miss Crossroads 1965, until an attractive young girl by the name of Diane Lawton turned up and stole her thunder. The pair eventually became friends when Diane later returned as a waitress at the motel, although they seemed to be forever in men trouble, especially when a platoon of solider rolled up into the village. The choice was just so difficult.
Also in the midland soap she became involved with an interracial storyline when she hooked up with an Asian boyfriend in 1965, was haunted by a ghost in a chalet, almost sold in exchange for a camel while on holiday with the motel staff in Tunisia and eventually was wooed into marriage by the local vicar, with the odd mishap along the way during their courtship – such as falling in a lake.
In 1967 she performed a song Where Will You Be?, penned by Tony Hatch, at a Birmingham nightclub and Marilyn was soon set for a pop career. In the series she released it as a single and in real life it later charted in the top 20. This lead to Sue quitting for a music career, Marilyn however continued in the series into the 1970s with another actress. (Pictured above, Sue as Marilyn in the main photograph)
Bryan Mosley is closely associated to Sue Nicholls thanks to their wonderful on-screen partnership as Alf and Audrey Roberts.
Alf, the corner shop owner, turned Mayor of Weatherfield, twice, was one of the few actors to appear in both Crossroads and Coronation Street at the same time; he commuted between Birmingham and Manchester. Bryan joined the motel saga in episode 501 as a Spanish hotel owner – just one of several parts he would play in the saga. During his 1960s stint at the motel he starred alongside his future Weatherfield wife.
Bryan spoke fondly of his time in Crossroads noting in his memoirs that it saddened him that the programme was often derided by critics that hardly watched it and that he remembered it with great affection. (Pictured above, bottom inset as Alf in Corrie)
Another link to Corrie’s corner shop is Kathy Staff. Kathy played four different roles on Coronation Street, beginning with an uncredited Customer in 1963, however her best known part was that of Vera Hopkins from 1973 to 1975 one member of the family who at that time ran the store on the street.
However her longest running serial role was that of cleaner and kitchen assistant Doris Luke at the Crossroads Motel. Staff joined the series in 1978 and remained on contract until 1985. She revived Doris Luke for the Carlton remake in 2001 for a year. Kathy had also appeared in the soap for a brief stint in 1971 as Mrs Dingwall – as a character who was at the motel to arrange her daughter’s wedding reception.
Kathy, although spending longer in sitcom Last Of The Summer Wine, always said Crossroads was her most favourite show to work on and she never wanted to leave. She also noted she never saw the sets wobble on the ATV series, however she had seen them wobble on Corrie! (Pictured above top right inset)
Stephen Hancock was another one of those actors who departed Kings Oak for Weatherfield. He infamously played Ernie Bishop, Emily’s husband who was shot and killed during an armed robbery at Mike Badlwin’s the clothing factory. Speaking of Baldwin…
Johnny Briggs walked into the motel in 1973 as taxi firm boss Clifford Leyton and wooed recently singled Diane Parker. Other storylines saw him involved in a gambling scam and putting in a deal to take over the Crossroads Garage, which fell through. Despite what the press may have proclaimed the Granada producers and ATV counterparts were not rivals, both shows pulled in millions of viewers to ITV and often executives would talk. One discussion between the Corrie and Crossie bosses saw Briggs being recommended for a part in the primetime serial. Johnny took on the offered role as Mike Baldwin and here he stayed for 30 years. (Pictured above, middle inset)
Jacqueline Pirie is famous for her roles in both Emmerdale and Coronation Street. She spent two years in the Yorkshire Dales as Tina Dingle from 1994, before switching to Weatherfield in 1998 where she hooked up with factory boss Mike Baldwin. She made her first TV acting appearance in Crossroads, aged only 11.
And finally for Corrie Fred Feast became the much loved potman Fred Gee at the Rovers Return, having played a truck driver in Crossroads.
Other serial success, Diane Keen played the motel receptionist Sandra Gould from 1969 to 1973. Her biggest storyline saw her her involved in a car crash which doctors believed she may never walk again. Eventually, complete with sad theme, Sandra took to her feet. She’s best known these days for her long running role in fellow Birmingham produced soap, Doctors. (Pictured above, Diane as Sandra, bottom left inset)
Australian Vincent Ball started his television acting career in the UK on Peter Ling and Hazel Adair’s BBC soap Compact before moving over to Crossroads as motel manager Kevin McCarther. Meg met Kevin while on holiday in Spain. He thought she was rich, she thought he was rich. And a small romance bloomed. It turned out that he wasn’t rich and she wasn’t as well off as he thought. Still they became good friends and Meg invited Kevin to oversee her motel. Ball later returned home to Australia and became a regular in Australian dramas and serials including The Young Doctors and A Country Practice.
Arthur Pentelow undoubtedly will be fondly remembered as the character of Mr Wilkes in Emmerdale Farm – however in January 1965 he arrived at the Crossroads Motel as ‘The President’. ITV keep the scripts locked away these days so what he was doing there we don’t know, but it sounds important.
Another Emmerdale colleague was Richard Thorp who had become a household name in the 1950s and 1960s through his role in Emergency Ward 10 – ITV’s first medical saga. Richard also had a stint in Crossroads during the 1970s as a love interest of regular hairdresser Vera Downend. Thorp’s motel character was a sailor so he was able to come and go freely from the series for long spells – making his last appearance in 1976. Since the 1980s he’s been businessman Alan Turner on the Yorkshire Dales saga. (Pictured above, top inset)
Another businessman Frank Tate in Emmerdale was played by Norman Bowler who had checked into Crossroads as a newspaper journalist Sam Benson who wooed the motel owner at the time. (Pictured above, in the main image, as Sam)
Over at Brookside, Channel 4’s ground breaking soap, Max Farnham was one of the show’s longest running characters, first appearing in 1990 and remaining through to the final episode in 2003. Actor Steven Pinder however had become known to 15 million ITV viewers as Roy Lambert in the revamped Crossroads from 1985 to 1988. In the midland series he arrived first off as a trainee mechanic, later with the help of a rich lady friend, he took over the village store. He also wooed receptionist Anne Marie Wade, played by Dee Hepburn. (Pictured above, centre inset, Steven as Roy) Jeff Stewart is best known as his role as Reg Hollis in cop show The Bill, in 1981 he terrorised Doris Luke when she was mugged and attacked in her own home.
Marjie Lawrence appeared in many sagas including Emmerdale and Corrie, the mother of presenter Sarah Green however arrived in Kings Oak as a fancy woman to one of the regular businessmen and drunk-drive killed regular Arthur Brownlow. And of course Tony Adams who became a ladies heartthrob thanks to his role General Hospital as Doctor Neville Bywaters. In 1978 he checked-in to Crossroads Motel as an accountant and remained, on and off, for a decade.
Comedy connections include David Jason who made one of his earliest television roles in the midland soap. It was his first drama role and as handyman and boxing promoter Bernie Kilroy in 1967 he gave the motel some serious action, he plotted to rob the motel becoming friends with Meg Richardson (Noele Gordon) however was caught in the act and did a runner – until returning three months later to show he’d had a change of ways. Jason will be best known as Del Boy from Only Fools and Horses of course. He speaks fondly of Crossroads in his forthcoming autobiography, ‘My Life’. (pictured above, main photograph)
Ken Dodd, yes even the legendary diddy man has stayed at the Crossroads Motel. Ken is the most famous export from Knotty Ash in Liverpool, Merseyside. One of the greatest all round entertainers in Britain from the past five decades. A popular singer and comedian – Mr Dodd can even act in serious roles as he proved in 1967 when he arrived at the motel as himself. Other later serious roles include a guest part in BBC One’s original Doctor Who. (pictured above, middle inset)
While it was ‘Allo ‘Allo to three of the wartime sitcom stars at the motel with Francessa Gonshaw appearing in 1984 as motel restaurant boss Paul Ross’ illegitimate daughter Lisa Walters also Carmen Sylvera checked-in as a recurring motel guest in the 1970s and Jack Haig had a long running recurring part in Crossroads from 1966 through to 1982 as villager and odd job man Archie Gibbs. (Pictured above, bottom inset)
Funnyman Larry Grayson first came to television screens on ATV’s entertainment series Saturday Variety. Larry proved such a hit with ITV viewers the channel gave him his own series, Shut That Door. During his time with ITV he made numerous appearances in Crossroads. Firstly in 1972 he played himself. Grayson, while supposedly doing a theatre show in Birmingham stayed at the Crossroads Motel – and found the whole experience terrible. However he forgave Meg for the Ferret in his chalet and returned for the Christmas Special where he starred as ‘Santa’ at the motel fancy dress festive party. In 1975 he returned as the wedding chauffeur at Meg and Hugh’s wedding. (Pictured above, top inset)
Wee Georgie Wood appeared as himself in the series, again a famous face that simply stayed at the motel. Georgie was part of a once famous double act. Between 1917 and 1953 Wood appeared with his stage mother Dolly Harmer in many variety stage shows and pantomimes.
And from Last of the Summer Wine there was Jean Furgusson famous for her role of Marina, the elderly tart. Back in the 1970s she played Caroline Herbert in Crossroads, while Jane Freeman best loved as Ivy, the café owner, in the Yorkshire sitcom was Kings Oak villager Emily Burrell – a friend of farmer Ed Lawton, the uncle of regular Diane Parker.
It was Hi De Hi to Jeffrey Holland who a month after making his television debut in BBC police drama Dixon of Dock Green was signed on a six week contract to appear in eleven editions of the midlands saga. He joined the cast as Mike Hawkins, a friend of Crossroads’ regulars Sheila and Roy Mollison as a market fruit stall holder.
Kate Robbins reached number 2 in the UK pop charts thanks to Crossroads with the song, More Than In Love. The track was performed in the soap several times as the storylines saw Kate Lorig become a pop star, her manager staying at the motel. She also had a romance with motel accountant Adam Chance, but she was just one of a string of short-term female interests for the money man. (pictured above, inset top right)
Another comedy legend is Stan Stennett (pictured above, far left) originally a jazz musician who also turned his hand to acting and comedy. While best known for his funnyman career he also turned to serious drama as Hilda Ogden’s brother in Coronation Street. Crossroads first came calling in 1970. He turned up as GI Harry Silver who was on the run from the law. He ended up being sent to prison for 20 years after holding several villagers hostage with a toy gun in the church crypt. He returned to the show in 1982 playing garage mechanic Sid Hooper for seven years.
Barry Evans is best known for his comedy parts in series such as Doctor In The House, but had a serious, verging on sinister role in Crossroads as Trevor Wood, who was involved with the motel garage and hairdresser Vera Downend (pictured above, inset bottom) while Max Wall was one of Britain’s best loved variety performers, his career spanned almost 70 years and one of his final regular TV appearances was that of Walter Soper, cousin of villager Arthur Brownlow and friend of Sid Hooper at the Crossroads motel.
And dear Margaret John best known these days as the saucy old granny in Gavin and Stacey, joined Crossroads in 1978 as a semi-regular and remained with the cast until 1985. (pictured above, far right)
Television Personalities include radio and telly broadcaster Clifford Davis who checked into the motel as himself while ITV political presenter Godfrey Winn was so indignant at the critics snide remarks about the soap he wrote a four page tribute to the programme in the TV Times! He appeared in the soap twice; The first time in 1968 to interview ‘Meg Richardson’ for an ATV programme about hospitality, later returning in 1971 to mark the motel’s anniversary. His latter appearance included screening footage from 1964 of the soap’s launch trailers that within the storyline were passed off an an early report on the opening of the motel. (Pictured above, far left)
Shaw Taylor (pictured above, inset top) became a mainstay presenter at ITV, fronting groundbreaking crime series Police Five, the forerunner to Crimewatch, which also spawned off Crimestoppers for ITV. He also fronted many local programmes for ATV in the 1950s and 60s in the London and Midlands regions. His catchphrase is “Keep ’em Peeled”. Shaw stayed as a guest at the motel as did fellow ATV presenter Alton Douglas. (Pictured above, inset bottom) BBC regional news presenter Stuart White was heard announcing the motel fire on the radio at the motel while BBC Radio West Midlands presenter Ed Doolan was heard twice in the series making general midland chatter. JoAnne Good today is a popular BBC radio presenter, but with Crossroads she became soap’s first female mechanic as Carol Sands.
Another midland icon is Bob Warman who is nationally known to Sky One viewers as the host of its version of quiz show The Price Is Right. But its his four decades in local news, both in the midlands and yorkshire, which he is best known to millions of viewers.
He has presented ATV Today, Central News and YTV Calendar News. Warman appeared as himself in the soap reporting for Central News about the 1985 Crossroads Motel strike and picket protest. (pictured above, far right)
Don McLean checked-in as a himself to stay at the motel, best known as a long running presenter of BBC Radio 2’s Good Morning Sunday programme while Call My Bluff team captain Arthur Marshall raved how he loved the show so much a guest spot was especially written in for him in 1985. (pictured below, top right inset)
Best of the rest include Don Henderson who is no doubt best remembered for his long running role of detective George Bulman across three separate television dramas. He also starred opposite former EastEnders actor Leslie Grantham in BBC series, The Paradise Club, in the early 1990s. Don played investigator Ethan Black in Crossroads in 1979 who had been hired to track down a conman who ended up hiding out at the motel.
Jon Finch starred as Gareth Leyton in the Midland soap, the brother of Johnny Briggs’ character. Finch went onto many other film and TV roles including The New Avengers and Agatha Christie’s Death on the Nile.
Even the Olympics touched Kings Oak when swimmer Duncan Goodhew, the Olympic gold and bronze medalist, appeared as himself in the soap when opening the brand-new motel leisure centre in episode 4,216. There was also time travel, well not quite, but Wendy Padbury – better known for her role in Doctor Who – played the 14-year-old Stevie Harris when she was 17 for a year, the character was almost adopted by Meg – she had a habit of adopting children long before Pippa in Home & Away – but it fell through when she returned to her natural mother. (Pictured above, far left with Noele Gordon)
Softly Softly’s Terence Rigby (pictured above, top inset left) became the new motel owner Tommy Lancaster in early 1987, UFO famed Gabrielle Drake (pictured above, bottom inset right) had previously taken on the motel three years previous as Nicola Freeman, while Ronald Allen had a distinguished career from movies such as A Night To Remember, about the Titanic, to Doctor Who and The Comic Strip Presents. From 1970 to 1985 he appeared as motel boss David Hunter.
Jess Conrad starred as Philip Bailey in 1978. Following the death of his wife at the motel his character turns up looking for answers. During the 1950s and 60s Jess was a popular pop singer, before turning to acting. Some of his hit songs include, Pretty Jenny, This Pullover and Cherry Pie. Conrad has also had a successful stage career performing in musicals. In the 1990s he became a regular ‘special guest’ on The Generation Game. (pictured above, bottom inset left)
Popular character actor Frank Middlemass featured as a guest at the motel in the late 1980s, had a long and varied stage and television career. He became a regular on BBC sitcom As Time Goes By while Andrew Ray – the son of 1950s radio celebrity Ted Ray, – came to Kings Oak as Howard Coates. He went on to star in Tales Of The Unexpected and had previously been seen in classics such as Upstairs Downstairs.
Derek Farr played Timothy Hunter, brother of David, in the 1970s. Timothy was always ‘on the take’ borrowing money from people, including Meg. He was left distraught in 1972 when a car he should have been driving crashed – leaving Meg’s son Sandy unable to walk. The character suffered a stroke in 1978 and wasn’t seen again. Derek had been a well respected film actor since the 1930s and continued to act until his death in 1986. Singer Carl Wayne, best known for his time with sixties group The Move joined as Colin the Milkman, and sung the theme tune within the show. And of course former West End actress turned television personality Noele Gordon featured, but she was a leading lady in the series for 18 years. Noele’s ATV Icon can be found here .
Rather dispels the myth of the tabloid press that no one worked after soap opera…
[Written by Mike Watkins, with research by the official ITV Crossroads Fan Club]
Tagged
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Which Southern African republic has the 'Metical' as its unit of currency? | Metical - paper monetary unit, the note, a denomination, modern money Mozambique
Metical
of 784 090 sq. km
Portuguese (state), etc. dialects
MZ (MOZ) 508
Monetary unit of Mozambique is the metical equal of 100 centavo and manufactured by Bank of Mozambique.
As the native currency of the Mozambique which has received independence in 1975, a metical has been accepted on June, 16th, 1980, having replaced the escudo, reminding of the colonial past of the country, its communications with Portugal. On June, 1st, 2006 the native currency of Mozambique has been subjected denomination in which course of 1000 old, not denominated meticals interchanged for 1 new metical.
In the cash circulation there are notes of denomination of 20, 50, 100, 200, 500 and 1000 meticals.
On face side of a denomination of denomination of 20 meticals (the size - 142 x 65 mm, primary colours - violet and lilac) is represented Samora Mashel, on the back is seated the plotting of a rhinoceros. It is necessary to notice that the portrait of Samora Mashel places on face side of notes of all nominal values.
The Back of a denomination in nominal value of 50 meticals (the size - 145 x 65 mm, primary colours - beige and yellow) contains the plotting of a gazelle. On the back of the note in nominal value of 100 meticals (the size - 147 x 65 mm, primary colours - red and red-brown) is represented a giraffe.
The Plotting of a lion is seated on the back notes of denomination in 200 meticals in the size 149 x 65 mm and coloured mainly in blue, green and dark blue colours. The back of the note in nominal value of 500 meticals (the size - 153 x 65 mm, primary colours - red and purple) is decorated by the plotting of herd of buffalo s. Notes of all nominal values are supplied by protective elements - watermarks, protective strips and hologrammes.
C on October, 1st, 2011, the Bank of Mozambique has entered new family of notes which are similar to notes of a series of 2006, but with the expanded functions of safety into the circulation. Three notes of the least dignity are printed now on polymer while the maximum nominal values remain on paper carriers.
For inhabitants of Mozambique characteristicly very valid relation to the To the native currency, despite its instability. It is connected by that instead of escudo they perceive introduction of a metical as one of the major steps to the national independence of Portugal which were Mother countries of Mozambique.
It is updated 03.2012
| Mozambique |
Who in 1892, was the last heir to the British throne to die before succeeding to it? | Metical - paper monetary unit, the note, a denomination, modern money Mozambique
Metical
of 784 090 sq. km
Portuguese (state), etc. dialects
MZ (MOZ) 508
Monetary unit of Mozambique is the metical equal of 100 centavo and manufactured by Bank of Mozambique.
As the native currency of the Mozambique which has received independence in 1975, a metical has been accepted on June, 16th, 1980, having replaced the escudo, reminding of the colonial past of the country, its communications with Portugal. On June, 1st, 2006 the native currency of Mozambique has been subjected denomination in which course of 1000 old, not denominated meticals interchanged for 1 new metical.
In the cash circulation there are notes of denomination of 20, 50, 100, 200, 500 and 1000 meticals.
On face side of a denomination of denomination of 20 meticals (the size - 142 x 65 mm, primary colours - violet and lilac) is represented Samora Mashel, on the back is seated the plotting of a rhinoceros. It is necessary to notice that the portrait of Samora Mashel places on face side of notes of all nominal values.
The Back of a denomination in nominal value of 50 meticals (the size - 145 x 65 mm, primary colours - beige and yellow) contains the plotting of a gazelle. On the back of the note in nominal value of 100 meticals (the size - 147 x 65 mm, primary colours - red and red-brown) is represented a giraffe.
The Plotting of a lion is seated on the back notes of denomination in 200 meticals in the size 149 x 65 mm and coloured mainly in blue, green and dark blue colours. The back of the note in nominal value of 500 meticals (the size - 153 x 65 mm, primary colours - red and purple) is decorated by the plotting of herd of buffalo s. Notes of all nominal values are supplied by protective elements - watermarks, protective strips and hologrammes.
C on October, 1st, 2011, the Bank of Mozambique has entered new family of notes which are similar to notes of a series of 2006, but with the expanded functions of safety into the circulation. Three notes of the least dignity are printed now on polymer while the maximum nominal values remain on paper carriers.
For inhabitants of Mozambique characteristicly very valid relation to the To the native currency, despite its instability. It is connected by that instead of escudo they perceive introduction of a metical as one of the major steps to the national independence of Portugal which were Mother countries of Mozambique.
It is updated 03.2012
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Which west African has the 'Cedi' as its unit of currency? | Back from the dead: Ghana’s cedi’s is world’s best performing currency, but will it last? | MG Africa
Back from the dead: Ghana’s cedi’s is world’s best performing currency, but will it last?
24 Jul 2015 15:20
Bloomberg
“We acknowledge the progress [Ghana's economy has made] but believe that it’s too early to declare victory”, says an economist.
Ghanaians like to cheer their football team; now they might do the same with their battered currency if it can continue its remarkable recovery. (Photo/James Creegan/Flickr).
LAST year Ghana’s currency, the cedi, was the world’s worst-performing currency. Now, in a remarkable turn-around, it’s the world’s best-performing currency. But beware.
The cedi’s 26% surge this month is based on misplaced optimism about the economy, according to both Morgan Stanley and Rand Merchant Bank, a unit of Africa’s biggest lender.
The median of five analyst forecasts compiled by Bloomberg suggests it could slide all the way back to a record low by the middle of next year, posting the biggest drop of any currency after Venezuela’s bolivar on its way.
The cedi’s fortunes hinge on the West African nation’s ability to meet the terms of a bailout loan it took as demand for its oil and cocoa exports collapsed.
READ: A few years ago Ghana was an African success story; so how did it fall off the wagon?
When the International Monetary Fund (IMF) said last month Ghana was sticking to the conditions of the rescue, the currency started climbing. Now, the government’s own deficit figures suggest the Washington-based organisation was too hasty in its assessment.
“I don’t think this rapid appreciation will be sustained,” said John Ashbourne, an Africa economist at London-based advisory firm Capital Economics Ltd., which forecasts a 20% decline in the cedi by year-end. “The big problems in the economy in terms of the current-account deficit, the budget deficit and inflation are still there.”
Highs, lows
Those shortcomings dragged the cedi to a 26% first- half slump that was the biggest after Belarusia’s ruble among about 150 currencies tracked by Bloomberg.
The cedi reached an all-time low of 4.49 to the dollar on June 29. A day later, it started appreciating after the IMF said Ghana was on track to beat its targets for cutting the budget deficit, touching a five-month high earlier this week.
The rally turned around on Tuesday, when Ghana’s finance minister raised his outlook for the 2015 budget shortfall to 7.3% of gross domestic product (GDP), from an initial estimate of 6.5%. On Friday, the cedi tumbled 7.7% to 3.55 per dollar.
“The much-touted fiscal progress that earned a glowing report from the IMF last month and triggered the strong rally in the cedi was purely based on data for the first four months of the fiscal year,” Michael Kafe, an economist at Morgan Stanley in London, said in a July 20 report. “We acknowledge the progress but believe that it’s too early to declare victory.”
Kafe sees the cedi falling to 4.25 per dollar by year-end. Bloomberg’s strategist survey puts it at 4.3 on Dec. 31 and predicts a slide to 4.53—which would be the weakest level ever—by the middle of 2016.
Foreign earnings
Ghana President John Dramani Mahama secured the IMF loan of almost $1 billion in April as high spending, power cuts and falling prices for oil, gold and cocoa hurt growth. West Africa’s biggest economy after Nigeria relies on these three commodities for about 80% of its foreign earnings. The government also cut its estimate for 2015 GDP expansion this week to 3.5%, from 3.9% previously.
Without a turnaround in the economy, Ghana’s attempts to shore up its currency by spending foreign-exchange reserves aren’t “sustainable,” said Courage Kingsley Martey, an economist at Accra-based adviser Databank Group Ltd.
The central bank already burned through 8% of its holdings from January to May, data compiled by Bloomberg show.
The cedi’s recent gains were due to “a reduction in speculative buying of dollars and pumping of foreign reserves into the market,” said Martey, who predicts the currency will weaken to 3.9 per dollar by year-end. “I don’t see it as a sustainable approach. We need to beef up the economy’s ability to generate more foreign-exchange inflows.”
| Ghana |
Which family of birds, common throughout the world has the family name 'Strigidae'? | Ghanaian cedi
Ghanaian cedi
GH₵1, 2, 5, 10, 20, 50
Coins
1, 5, 10, 20, 50Gp, GH₵1
Demographics
Ghana Statistical Service
The Ghanaian cedi ( currency sign : GH₵; currency code : GHS) is the unit of currency of Ghana . It is the fourth and only legal tender in the Republic of Ghana. One Ghana cedi is divided into one hundred pesewas (Gp).
After it gained independence Ghana separated itself from the British West African pound , which was the currency of the British colonies in the region. The new republic’s first independent currency was the Ghanaian pound (1958-1965). In 1965, Ghana decided to leave the British colonial monetary system and adopt the widely accepted decimal system. The African name Cedi (1965-1967) was introduced in place of the old British pound system . Ghana’s first President Kwame Nkrumah introduced Cedi notes and Pesewa coins in July 1965 to replace the Ghanaian pounds, shillings and pence. The cedi was equivalent to eight shillings and four pence (8s 4d) and bore the portrait of the President.
After the February 14 1966 military coup, the new leaders wanted to remove the face of Nkrumah from the banknotes. The “new cedi” (1967-2007) was worth 1.2 cedi which made it equal to half of a pound sterling at its introduction. After decades of high inflation had devalued the new cedi, it was gradually phased out in 2007 in favor of the “Ghana cedi” at an exchange rate of 1:10,000. In 2007 the largest of the new cedi banknotes, the 20,000 note, had a value of about US$2. By removing four digits the Ghana cedi became the highest-denominated currency unit issued in Africa . It has since lost about 75% of its value.
Contents
Etymology
Cedi with a cowry.
The word cedi is the Akan word for cowry shell which were formerly used as currency in what is now Ghana. The Monetaria moneta or money cowry is not native to West African waters but is a common species in the Indian Ocean. The porcelain-like shells came to West Africa, beginning in the 14th century, through trade with Arab merchants. The shells became an important currency in the slave trade. The first modern coins exclusively used at the Gold Coast was produced in 1796 but cowries was used alongside coins and gold dust as currency until 1901. [1]
History
Reason: inflation
Ratio: 1 third cedi = 10,000 second cedis
The first cedi was replaced in 1967 by a “new cedi” which was worth 1.2 first cedis. This allowed a decimal conversion with the pound, namely 2 second cedis = 1 pound. The change also provided an opportunity to remove Kwame Nkrumah ‘s image from coins and notes.
The second cedi was initially pegged to the British pound at a rate of 2 cedi = 1 pound. However, within months, the second cedi was devalued to a rate of 2.45 second cedi = 1 pound, less than the value of the first cedi. This rate was equivalent to 1 cedi = 0.98 U.S. dollars and the rate to the dollar was maintained when the British pound was devalued in November 1967. Further pegs were set of $0.55 in 1971, $0.78 in 1972, and $0.8696 in 1973 before the currency was floated in 1978. High inflation ensued, and so the cedi was re-pegged at ₵2.80 = $1.00.
Inflation continued to eat away at the cedi’s value on the black market . In the early 1980′s, the government started cracking down hard on the retail of products at prices other than the official established sale price ( price controls ). This had the effect of driving nearly all commerce underground, where black market prices for commodities were the norm, and nothing existed on store shelves. By 1983 the cedi was worth about 120 to one U.S. dollar on the black market, a pack of cigarettes cost about ₵150 (if they could be found), but the bank rate continued at ₵2.80 = $1.00. Finally, with foreign currency completely drying up for all import transactions, the government was forced to begin a process of gradual devaluation, and a liberalization of its strict price controls . This process ended in 1990 with a free float of the cedi against foreign currencies. Inflation continued (see exchange rate chart) until by July 2007, the cedi was worth about 9500 to one US dollar, and a transition to the third cedi was initiated.
In 1979 a currency confiscation took place. New banknotes were issued which were exchanged for old at a rate of 10 old for 7 new. Coins and bank accounts were unaffected.
A second confiscation took place in 1982, when the ₵50 note (the highest denomination) was demonetized. Ghanaians, in theory, could exchange any number of ₵50 notes for coins or other banknotes without loss, but foreigners could not make any exchange. However, many Ghanaians who were hoarding large amounts of cedis feared reprisal if they tried to convert all of it, and so simply burned a lot of their money. Many other Ghanaians received “promise payment notes” from the banks, but never received compensation. This confiscation was publicly justified as a means to create a disincentive for the flourishing black market. However, from a monetary perspective, currency confiscations have the effect of reducing the available cash in the economy, and thereby slowing the rate of inflation. After the ₵50 note confiscation, the ₵20 note was the highest cedi denomination, but had a street value of only about $0.35 (U.S.)
After the ₵50 note confiscation, fears existed that the government could also confiscate the ₵20 or even the ₵10 notes. This fear, along with inflation running at about 100% annually, started causing Ghanaian society to lose its faith in its own currency. Some transactions could only then be done in foreign currencies (although that was technically illegal), and other more routine transactions began to revert to a barter economy.
In 1991, 10, 20, 50, and 100 cedi coins were introduced, followed by 200 and 500 cedis in 1996. These six denominations were still in circulation until 2007. However, the 10 cedis (~0.1 U.S. cents) and 20 cedis (~0.2 U.S. cents) coins were not seen much due to their small value. [2]
Third cedi (GHS), 2007–
Succeeded by:
Current
Because of the rampant inflation in the decades before the exchange the second cedi was only worth a small fraction of its original value. The government decided to “cut” four zeros off the currency by the switch to the third cedi. The new currency was not introduced as the third cedi but is instead officially called the Ghanaian Cedi, in contrast to the second cedi that was officially known as the New Cedi. In the second half of 2007 both the second and third cedi were legal tender as the old currency were being gradually withdrawn. At the end of December 2007 more than 90% of all old coins and notes had been withdrawn. [3] From January 2008 old banknotes could only be exchanged at banks and was no longer legal tender. [4]
On 14 May 2010 a GH₵2 banknote was issued to meet public need for an intermediate denomination and reduce the frequency, and associated cost, of printing large volumes of the GH₵1 banknote. The introduction of the new denomination coincided with the conclusion of the year-long centenary celebrations of the birth of Kwame Nkrumah , Ghana’s first president, and has the commemorative text “Centenary of the Birth of Dr. Kwame Nkrumah”. [5]
The third Cedi has been losing value continuously since it was introduced. In 2014, the inflation rose rapidly as the value of the third cedi fell to a fourth of its original value. [6] The fall was ended in the last quarter of 2014 as the currency stabilized due to a pending IMF bailout of Ghana. [7]
Coins
The Bank of Ghana has been issuing all Ghanaian coins since 1958. [8] Beside the coins in general circulation the bank have also issued commemorative coins [9] These special coins have been issued in shillings (1958), crowns (1965), pounds (1958-1977), sikas (1997-2003) and cedis (2013-). [10] It is unclear if the Bank of Ghana considered commemorative crowns and sikas together with the commemorative pounds that were coined after 1965 as legal tender or simply as medallions. [11]
Only coins that have been or are in general circulation are included in this list. The years of issue does not indicated that the series have been coined every year in the period but that the coin has been issued more than once in the stated period. Some coins are held back and released years after they are issued. This means that in the general circulation there are worn out coins and coins in mint condition from the same issuing year. The Bank of Ghana has never stated if they are simply holding back already stamped coins until they are needed or if they are stamping coins successively with old issue years.
Cedi (1965-67)
Smooth
Ghana cedi
The new coins are 1 pesewa (100 old cedi), 5 pesewas (500), 10 pesewas (1,000), 20 pesewas (2,000), 50 pesewas (5,000), and 1 cedi (10,000). By 2011 the 1 pesewa had fallen out of circulation due to inflation and is mostly kept in bank vaults. [12]
Banknotes
The Bank of Ghana has been issuing all Ghanaian banknotes since 1958. [13] [14] Most of the Ghanaian banknotes have been changed slightly from one years issue to the next years issue in the ongoing technological fight against counterfeit money . The signature of the notes does also change when a new governor takes over the management of the Bank of Ghana. [15] Such changes are plentiful and are not covered in this list. The years of issue does not indicated that the series have been printed every year in the period but that the banknote has been issued more than once in the stated period.
Cedi (1965-67)
| i don't know |
Which internationally respected pianist's real name is Philippe Pages? | · March 25, 2012 ·
Philippe Pagès' name was changed to Richard Clayderman (he adopted his great-grandmother's last name to avoid mispronunciation of his real name outside France),... and the single took off, selling an astonishing 22 million copies in 38 countries. It was called "Ballade pour Adeline".
"When I signed him", says Olivier Toussaint, "I told him that if we sell 10,000 singles it will be marvellous, because it was disco at that time and we could not bet on such a ballad being a winner..... We could not imagine that it would be so big".
It was the start of what has become an outstanding success story, and since that time, Richard Clayderman's distinctive piano style has earned him superstar status all over the world. Today he has recorded over 1, 200 melodies and, in the words of a German journalist, "he has arguably done more to popularise the piano around the world than anyone since Beethoven".
Richard Clayderman has created a "New Romantic" style through a repertoire which combines his 'trademark' originals with classics and pop standards. He has clocked up massive worldwide record sales of approximately 90 million, at the last count, and an incredible 267 Gold and 70 Platinum discs to his credit.
However, "The Prince of Romance" (as he was dubbed by Nancy Reagan) is not simply a recording artist. In fact, despite his natural shyness and reserve, he is completely in his element on stage ; a Richard Clayderman concert is a real 'Spectacular'.
"I love performing live on stage", he says, "because I have direct contact with my audience. In concert, with my 10 musicians or a symphony orchestra, I like to mix different tempos, rhythms and styles to evoke all kinds of emotion".
Clayderman's international success has resulted in a punishing itinerary which, in the past, has seen him play as many as 200 concerts in just 250 days spent outside France. In spite of this, he remains very much a family man.
"My family is extremely important to me", he often says, "my mother, my wife Christine, my daughter, Maud, and my son, Peter....they are what keep me going - my reason for living, apart from my music, of course".
The biggest price Richard Clayderman feels he has to pay for his international stardom is the time he spends away from his family - a sacrifice he acknowledges they all suffer but accept as part of his duty to his millions of fans.
· March 25, 2012 ·
Richard Clayderman has done what virtually no other French act has ever done..... established a truly international career as a best selling recording artist an...d concert performer.
Born Philippe Pagès on December 28th, 1953, he encountered the piano early in his life. His father, a piano teacher, laid the foundation for his son's later success and began teaching him how to play at a very young age. It is said that, at the age of six, Richard Clayderman could read music more adeptly than his native French.
When he was twelve years old he was accepted at the Conservatoire of Music where, at sixteen, he won first prize. He was predicted a promising career as a classical pianist. However, shortly after this, and much to everyone's surprise, he cast aside his classical training and turned to contemporary music.
"I wanted to do something different", Clayderman says, "So, with some friends, I created a rock group; it was a tough time..... a hard time..... and the little money we could make was devoted to buying equipment. In fact, I used to feed myself so badly - mainly on sandwiches - that I had to have an operation for an ulcer when I was only seventeen".
At that time his father was becoming seriously ill and was unable to support his son financially. So, in order to earn a living, Clayderman found work as an accompanist and session musician. "I enjoyed it", he says, "and it paid well at the same time. That is how I drew away from classical music, although it gave me a strong basis for what I do now".
His talent did not go unnoticed and he soon became much in demand as an accompanist to such major French stars as Michel Sardou, Thierry LeLuron and Johnny Halliday. But, when asked about his ambitions at that time, he says, "! really did not want to be a star, I was happy to be an accompanist and to play in groups".
Nevertheless, his life changed dramatically in 1976 when he received a telephone call from Olivier Toussaint, a well-known French record producer, who, with his partner, Paul de Senneville, was looking for a pianist to record a gentle piano ballad. Paul had composed this ballad as a tribute to his new born daughter “Adeline”. The 23 year old Philippe Pagès was auditioned along with 20 other hopefuls and, to his amazement, he got the job.
"We liked him immediately", says Paul de Senneville, "His very special and soft touch on the keyboards combined with his reserved personality and good looks very much impressed Olivier Toussaint and I. We made our decision very quickly".
| Richard Clayderman |
"""She who must be obeyed"" was the wife of 'Rumpole of the Bailey', but what was her Christian name?" | Richard Clayderman / Jean Claude Borelly TV Concert (3/3 ) - YouTube
Richard Clayderman / Jean Claude Borelly TV Concert (3/3 )
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Published on Dec 11, 2014
Richard Clayderman has done what virtually no other French act has ever done..... established a truly international career as a best selling recording artist and concert performer.
Born Philippe Pagès on December 28th, 1953, he encountered the piano early in his life. His father, a piano teacher, laid the foundation for his son's later success and began teaching him how to play at a very young age. It is said that, at the age of six, Richard Clayderman could read music more adeptly than his native French.
Early Success
When he was twelve years old he was accepted at the Conservatoire of Music where, at sixteen, he won first prize. He was predicted a promising career as a classical pianist. However, shortly after this, and much to everyone's surprise, he cast aside his classical training and turned to contemporary music.
"I wanted to do something different", Clayderman says, "So, with some friends, I created a rock group; it was a tough time..... a hard time..... and the little money we could make was devoted to buying equipment. In fact, I used to feed myself so badly - mainly on sandwiches - that I had to have an operation for an ulcer when I was only seventeen".
Accompanist
At that time his father was becoming seriously ill and was unable to support his son financially. So, in order to earn a living, Clayderman found work as an accompanist and session musician. "I enjoyed it", he says, "and it paid well at the same time. That is how I drew away from classical music, although it gave me a strong basis for what I do now".
His talent did not go unnoticed and he soon became much in demand as an accompanist to such major French stars as Michel Sardou, Thierry LeLuron and Johnny Halliday. But, when asked about his ambitions at that time, he says, "! really did not want to be a star, I was happy to be an accompanist and to play in groups".
Delphine
Nevertheless, his life changed dramatically in 1976 when he received a telephone call from Olivier Toussaint, a well-known French record producer, who, with his partner, Paul de Senneville, was looking for a pianist to record a gentle piano ballad. Paul had composed this ballad as a tribute to his new born daughter “Adeline”. The 23 year old Philippe Pagès was auditioned along with 20 other hopefuls and, to his amazement, he got the job.
"We liked him immediately", says Paul de Senneville, "His very special and soft touch on the keyboards combined with his reserved personality and good looks very much impressed Olivier Toussaint and I. We made our decision very quickly".
Ballade pour Adeline
Philippe Pagès' name was changed to Richard Clayderman (he adopted his great-grandmother's last name to avoid mispronunciation of his real name outside France), and the single took off, selling an astonishing 22 million copies in 38 countries. It was called "Ballade pour Adeline".
"When I signed him", says Olivier Toussaint, "I told him that if we sell 10,000 singles it will be marvellous, because it was disco at that time and we could not bet on such a ballad being a winner..... We could not imagine that it would be so big".
Prolific Artist
It was the start of what has become an outstanding success story, and since that time, Richard Clayderman's distinctive piano style has earned him superstar status all over the world. Today he has recorded over 1, 200 melodies and, in the words of a German journalist, "he has arguably done more to popularise the piano around the world than anyone since Beethoven".
Richard Clayderman has created a "New Romantic" style through a repertoire which combines his 'trademark' originals with classics and pop standards. He has clocked up massive worldwide record sales of approximately 90 million, at the last count, and an incredible 267 Gold and 70 Platinum discs to his credit.
However, "The Prince of Romance" (as he was dubbed by Nancy Reagan) is not simply a recording artist. In fact, despite his natural shyness and reserve, he is completely in his element on stage ; a Richard Clayderman concert is a real 'Spectacular'.
World Tours
"I love performing live on stage", he says, "because I have direct contact with my audience. In concert, with my 10 musicians or a symphony orchestra, I like to mix different tempos, rhythms and styles to evoke all kinds of emotion".
Clayderman's international success has resulted in a punishing itinerary which, in the past, has seen him play as many as 200 concerts in just 250 days spent outside France. In spite of this, he remains very much a family man.
Category
| i don't know |
Who along with Ernest Saunders was jointly convicted for their roles in the 'Guiness Scandal'? | Your theory about what happened to Paul | Nothing is Real: Paul was Replaced
Nothing is Real: Paul was Replaced
Post by vOOdOOgurU on Oct 23, 2013 14:14:20 GMT -5
In regards to the George Harrison / John Lennon appearance at Sibylla's.
The captions read as follows: 1) The Family at Sybilla's 2) Champagne was served by six dolly girls, including Ingrid Boulting (left), here with Tony Hicks of The Hollies 3) DJ Kenny Everett with Tony King, John Peel and Johnny Bonding 4) Rob Townsend, The Family's drummer, with Jimmy Miller 5) Response to The Family was fantastic, as Kenny Everett's expression testifies 6) Party host John Gilbert with Bob Reisdorff, head of Liberty Records 7) Mim Scala and Sir William Pigott-Brown with actors Iain Quarrier and Harry Baird. Previous page: rare smiles from Beatles John Lennon and George Harrison.
It was the death knell for the Delta Dogs
So Venus sang her Song of Pearls
The Harlequin sang for his supper
As the Sirens swam in swirls
Iblis played the burning fiddle
As the mountains crumbled to the shore
Adam Soul dug holes for each sandcastle
For Narcissus to adore
dance on you absent friends and lovers of the sable
your footsteps echo in the halls of fred astaire and betty grable ...
archiveshub.ac.uk/data/gb2869-bdc3
Wow. And when you cant find work in the dried up film industry, you just kind of drift to the Foreign Office as deputy head of the inter-allied information office in Mexico and the Caribbean. And then kind of drift into working directly in Moscow during the final throes of the war with Germany. The country you were expelled from when Hitler came to power. Okay!
Last Edit: Oct 23, 2013 17:44:00 GMT -5 by vOOdOOgurU
It was the death knell for the Delta Dogs
So Venus sang her Song of Pearls
The Harlequin sang for his supper
As the Sirens swam in swirls
Iblis played the burning fiddle
As the mountains crumbled to the shore
Adam Soul dug holes for each sandcastle
For Narcissus to adore
dance on you absent friends and lovers of the sable
your footsteps echo in the halls of fred astaire and betty grable ...
Rubber Soul
Posts: 356
Guinness began in the brewery of Arthur Guinness (1725–1803) in Dublin.
It is now owned by the controversial multi-national conglomerate named Diageo.
On 9 May 2008, Diageo announced that breweries in Kilkenny and Dundalk will be closed by 2013.
In September 2009, a court heard that during a flight from India to the UK, Clare Irby, a descendant of the Guinness family had allegedly got drunk, bragged about taking opium, called one crew member a 'bitch' and tossed aside a soiled nappy.
An oversight by the UK's controversial Crown Prosecution Service meant that Irby walked free from the court. (Toff cleared of jet booze charge)
From The Independent on Sunday, 20 September 2009, (Happy birthday Guinness! The Black Stuff at 250.), and other sources, we learn:
1. Three of Arthur Guinness's grandchildren became alcoholics.
2. The third Arthur Guinness was gay and had a brief affair with the young playwright, Dion Boucicault.
The fourth Arthur Guinness (Lord Ardilaun) was probably gay.
He was member of parliament for Dublin in London's House of Commons.
A court case revealed voter bribery (£5 a vote) by his agents.
(Who was Arthur Guinness? It depends on which one you mean. The Guinnesses: The Untold Story of Irelands Most Successful Family , by Joe Joyce).
3. In 1929, Bryan Guinness married Diana Mitford.
Nancy left Guinness and went off with the British fascist leader Oswald Mosley.
4. In 1944 Walter Edward Guinness, the first Baron Moyne, was assassinated in Cairo where he was Resident Minister of State.
5. In 1966, Tara Browne, the 21-year-old son of Oonagh Guinness, died when he crashed his car.
6. Tara's sister, Tessa, died of an asthma attack aged 14.
7. Prince Frederick of Prussia was married to Lady Brigid Guinness. In 1966 Prince frederick drowned.
8. In 1954, Norris and Ross McWhirter were commissioned to compile what became The Guinness Book of Records.
According to The Observer (4 September 1977) Ross McWhirter had close links to G. K.Young, ex Deputy Director of MI6.
In 1975, Ross McWhirter was murdered by the IRA.
9. In 1978, Lady Henrietta Guinness jumped to her death off an aqueduct in Italy.
10. In 1978 four-year-old Peter Guinness died in a car crash.
11. In 1978 Major Denys Guinness died of a drugs overdose.
12. In 1986 Olivia Channon, aged 22, great-granddaughter of Rupert Guinness, died of a drugs overdose.
13. In 1986, Jennifer, the wife of the banker John Guinness, was kidnapped in Dublin.
14. In 1988, Sheridan Hamilton-Temple-Blackwood, son of Maureen Guinness, died of an Aids-related illness in 1988.
15. In 1986, John Guinness died when he fell off Mount Snowdon.
16. In 2004, Robert Hesketh, the husband of Catherine Guinness, died after taking heroin, cocaine and alcohol.
~
The Guinness share-trading fraud was a famous scandal of the 1980s.
It involved an attempt to manipulate the stock market on a massive scale to inflate the price of Guinness shares and thus assist a £2.7 billion take-over bid for the Scottish drinks company Distillers.
A top British Jew called Gerald Ronson became known in the UK as one of the 'Guinness Four' for his part in the Guinness share-trading fraud along with Ernest Saunders and business associates Jack Lyons and Anthony Parnes.
Ronson "was convicted in August 1990 of one charge of conspiracy, two of false accounting, and one of theft, and was fined £5 million and given a one-year jail sentence." - Gerald Ronson - Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
It was the death knell for the Delta Dogs
So Venus sang her Song of Pearls
The Harlequin sang for his supper
As the Sirens swam in swirls
Iblis played the burning fiddle
As the mountains crumbled to the shore
Adam Soul dug holes for each sandcastle
For Narcissus to adore
dance on you absent friends and lovers of the sable
your footsteps echo in the halls of fred astaire and betty grable ...
Nick Gormanston.
Otherwise known as:
Jenico Nicholas Dudley Preston, 17th Viscount Gormanston was born on 19 November 1939.3 He is the son of Jenico William Richard Preston, 16th Viscount Gormanston and Pamela Hanly.1 He married, firstly, Eva Antonie Landzianowska, daughter of Felix Landzianowski, in 1974.4 He married, secondly, Lucy Arabella Fox, daughter of Edward Charles Morice Fox and Clare Tracy Compton Pelissier, in November 1997 at Kensington, London, England.5,6. Jenico Nicholas Dudley Preston, 17th Viscount Gormanston usually went by his middle name of Nicholas.3 He succeeded to the title of 17th Viscount Gormanston [I., 1478] on 9 June 1940.7 He succeeded to the title of 20th Lord Preston of Gormanston [I., 1370] on 9 June 1940.3 He succeeded to the title of 5th Baron Gormanston of Whitewood, co. Meath [U.K., 1868] on 9 June 1940.
His great-grandfather was Sir William Francis Butler of Bansha Castle, County Tipperary, and his great-grandmother was the celebrated Victorian artist Elizabeth Thompson, aka Lady Elizabeth Butler.
He succeeded to the title before his first birthday, when his father died in action at Dunkirk during the Battle of France, 1940. He is a connoisseur of art and lives in Kensington, London. His ancestral seat is Gormanston Castle in County Meath, Ireland, though it is no longer in the family's possession. The castle is fully maintained by the Franciscan Order of Friars Minor (OFM), who bought it circa 1950. Shortly after its purchase, the order opened a boarding school for boys, and more recently a co-educational day school, Gormanston College, was established in the adjacent grounds.
Everybody knows by now that boarding schools for boys and religion don't always mix so well. No accusation is being made.
It was the death knell for the Delta Dogs
So Venus sang her Song of Pearls
The Harlequin sang for his supper
As the Sirens swam in swirls
Iblis played the burning fiddle
As the mountains crumbled to the shore
Adam Soul dug holes for each sandcastle
For Narcissus to adore
dance on you absent friends and lovers of the sable
your footsteps echo in the halls of fred astaire and betty grable ...
Oct 23, 2013 13:52:26 GMT -5 vOOdOOgurU said:
Very interesting! I did not know this.
It is amazing how, that in a city of eight million or so inhabitants like London, the Beatles and the Stones could operate in such a small circle of associates!
An amazingly close circle indeed.
It was the death knell for the Delta Dogs
So Venus sang her Song of Pearls
The Harlequin sang for his supper
As the Sirens swam in swirls
Iblis played the burning fiddle
As the mountains crumbled to the shore
Adam Soul dug holes for each sandcastle
For Narcissus to adore
dance on you absent friends and lovers of the sable
your footsteps echo in the halls of fred astaire and betty grable ...
Interesting snippet from Derek Taylor's Fifty Years Adrift.
Wow!
Do you have this book?
I wish! I remember when it came out, but the price tag even then was too much for a kid with a paper round. The best bet anyone would have truly was a suggestion at the page I found the snippets --- public library might have it. Which I think I should check, because a friend of mine was hounding me last night that I lived in London and had never been in a single library since my arrival. I take it this is my cue.
It was the death knell for the Delta Dogs
So Venus sang her Song of Pearls
The Harlequin sang for his supper
As the Sirens swam in swirls
Iblis played the burning fiddle
As the mountains crumbled to the shore
Adam Soul dug holes for each sandcastle
For Narcissus to adore
dance on you absent friends and lovers of the sable
your footsteps echo in the halls of fred astaire and betty grable ...
Oct 24, 2013 5:13:51 GMT -5 beacon said:
Bailey and Donovan weren't the only photographers on the guest list that night.
The following snippet comes from Mim Scala's book Memoirs of a Teddy Boy. Scala, incidentally, founded the Scala Browne Agency with Sibylla's director Sir William Piggot-Brown.
Vic Singh, who had shot the credits for Alfie, was one of the most remarkable photographers of the early Sixties, the first Asian to break into the mainstream fashion world. His experimental pop videos for Island Records were to set trends. Vic and a young film editor with a promising reputation called Keith Green persuaded the Beatles to let them make a documentary based on the song A Day in the Life, commemorating the untimely death of the Byronic ('He didn't notice that the lights had changed') Tara Browne, a friend of mine as well as theirs. But Vic and Keith never came back from this project, or were so radically changed their careers just seemed to stop. They both suddenly withdrew from the scene, renouncing the material business world. These were heavy psychedelic times, and there were casualties. Vic withdrew to dedicate the next decade to the study of time and light, in search of the perfect photograph, destroying much of his fabulous archive of images which had capturd the major happenings of Sixties fashion and the evolution of the King's Road.
Another interesting tale from this book is Scala's claim that Denny Cordell, who produced the Moody Blues when Denny Laine was a member, was involved in Seltaeb with Nicky Byrne. Seltaeb, of course, was the company formed to licence Beatles merchandise and that was such a disaster that it irrepairably damaged Brian Epstein's reputation and that of David Jacob's too.
That IS a very interesting tale. Kind of sounds like that "Peter Green (and Danny Kirwan) went to a party in Munich and NEVER came back the same way again" story that Mick Fleetwood and John McVie tell. But the way they tell it, doesn't make sense. Not to me at least. But that's a different story. But it involves a couple luring Peter Green into their clutches, in order to obtain access to The Rolling Stones for a gig. Which is odd they'd go for Peter, since Mick Fleetwood would seem a better way of gaining access to the Stones, because he's about to marry Jenny Boyd, the sister of Pattie Boyd, who's married to a Beatle. And considering one of the couple had a romance with Jimi Hendrix, why they need Peter Green is a mystery.
Seltaeb. Whenever I think of Seltaeb, I think of the Caribbean. Don't ask me why.
It was the death knell for the Delta Dogs
So Venus sang her Song of Pearls
The Harlequin sang for his supper
As the Sirens swam in swirls
Iblis played the burning fiddle
As the mountains crumbled to the shore
Adam Soul dug holes for each sandcastle
For Narcissus to adore
dance on you absent friends and lovers of the sable
your footsteps echo in the halls of fred astaire and betty grable ...
Paul is interviewed in this months copy of Mojo magazine in which he claims he is 5'10" with hazel eyes and that he is/was as tall as John.
The printed lies!
Sound like whoever made this chart is pretty slow (lol)... looking at this chart and comparing it to how I know The Beatles (the originals, at least) REALLY looked, it looks as though this info is WAY off.
"...They also replace people with doubles. For many years they recruited look-alikes who would serve their ends. Now they are perfecting cloning technology that will let them replace anybody."
-Abner Whateley from his book, The Illuminati
Always happy to share my sources - this comes from Tiger Beat magazine April 1966
Also contained this interview
Thanx, luv. I enjoyed it. Also love that cover w/ George Harrison (one of them, but that's another subject, LOL) doing that sexy pose thing w/ the phone 'n' all.
I'm also glad you posted that article on Keith Allison; he's GORGEOUS!!! (Lol).
Very Pixie-looking and a cross between [former brief Beatle] Jimmy Nicol and JPM. I also notice [off to the far right] him wearing the same look (brown jacket, Beatles haircut/'do & black turtleneck) as John & Paul did in 1965, mainly Help!. I can understand how the girls mistook him for JPM.
Could he have been (w/ the help of one of those prosthetic masks that we often see on TV & film and on Faul
) one of JPM's doubles? 1) He was already in a band [Buddy Holly & The Crickets, which JPM was a fan of] 2) he has the [good] looks 3) and suitable style. Only thing is he has a square chin (like John), whereas JPM's was rounder. Who knows.
Last Edit: Oct 24, 2013 10:52:48 GMT -5 by NothingIsReal1985
"...They also replace people with doubles. For many years they recruited look-alikes who would serve their ends. Now they are perfecting cloning technology that will let them replace anybody."
-Abner Whateley from his book, The Illuminati
Oct 24, 2013 8:11:12 GMT -5 vOOdOOgurU said:
I wish! I remember when it came out, but the price tag even then was too much for a kid with a paper round. The best bet anyone would have truly was a suggestion at the page I found the snippets --- public library might have it. Which I think I should check, because a friend of mine was hounding me last night that I lived in London and had never been in a single library since my arrival. I take it this is my cue.
The British Library has a copy, I work very close by so I may have to pop in.
Seems odd that if Taylor had such a problem with Paul in 1968 that he would agree to come back to work for Apple?
But if you look at the time frame, which is the summer of 1968 and Taylor having issue with McCartney, well, he's not the only one is he? Because by the end of August, Ringo quits The Beatles. Now, when they tell tale of it now, all you'll get out of Ringo is that "I wasn't feeling like I was up to snuff" story.
In all the reading I've done, and this is speculative, and add that whatever did terry Knight witness during his time in the studio with The Beatles to prompt such a song as St Paul, then my hunch is that McCartney, and whatever his attitude problem was in 1968, affected Ringo enough to cause him to quit. If McCartney can be as bossy as they say, and personally, I believe that 100%, then ---- Taylor was not the only one saying dealing with McCartney by 1968 was becoming a drag.
Harrison's departure in January 1969 can be as much attributed to strained relations with Lennon, moreso than McCartney. In fact I believe his quitting was Lennon related. McCartney takes the "fall" for it though. Which I find interesting. Because here he is, 40 years later still getting blamed from one piece of film showing an argument with Harrison, where Harrison looks to be in the right, but other documentation shows that relations between McCartney and Harrison at the time seemed much better than relations between Harrison and Lennon. During Get Back / Let It Be specific.
So what's Taylor telling us. And do we believe a man who worked with Terry Melcher just in time for that Manson connection to come in, and then leaves Melcher to return to The Beatles just in time for ...
It was the death knell for the Delta Dogs
So Venus sang her Song of Pearls
The Harlequin sang for his supper
As the Sirens swam in swirls
Iblis played the burning fiddle
As the mountains crumbled to the shore
Adam Soul dug holes for each sandcastle
For Narcissus to adore
dance on you absent friends and lovers of the sable
your footsteps echo in the halls of fred astaire and betty grable ...
www.youtube.com/watch?v=lyaKnbFBGM8
Beatles For Sale album, inner gatefold image, the lads in front of a mural at Twickenham Studios. Not only is Paul holding a cigarette in his right hand, a la Abbey Road, and the mural quite similar to the Sgt. Pepper crowd, but next to his head is an image of Jayne Mansfield from the film It Takes a Thief. In Which she plays a car thief named Billie. In 1967 Jayne died in a car wreck and was scalped by the ceiling of the car, thus losing her hair.
Legend has it that the Beatles were inspired to finish recording The White Album after watching The Girl Can't Help It on tv. A film that was a big inspiration to them in their early days.
(was Don't Pass Me By about her?)
Last Edit: Oct 24, 2013 16:04:25 GMT -5 by linus
Usually, when we hear or read something new,
we just compare it to our own ideas.
If it is the same, we accept it and say that it is correct.
If it is not, we say it is incorrect.
In either case, we learn nothing.
~ Thich Nhat Hanh ~
Sherlock Holmes to Watson: "Never theorize before you have data. Invariably, you end up twisting facts to suit theories, instead of theories to suit facts."
Rubber Soul
Posts: 356
| Gerald Ronson |
In Greek legend, a sculptor and craftsman constructed the 'Labyrinth' for Minos, who was he? | Wall Street, Jewish/Israeli Ethics and the World of Fund Raising - Radio Islam
WALL STREET, JEWISH / ISRAELI ETHICS, AND THE
WORLD OF FUND RAISING
* Jewish dictate holds that the Jewish collective community is morally superior to all others and that, throughout history, they are victims of innocence. The next two chapters represent merely the beginning of an inquiry into this enforced myth, a myth represented everywhere in American popular culture as fact.
Among the economic fields in which Jews today are especially visible is investment banking -- "Wall Street," including interconnected networks of lawyers and other legal and economic manipulators stretching deeply into Hollywood and the mass media. Since the 1800s the "Old Crowd" of German-Jewish banking families (the Seligmans, Lehmans, Goldmans, Sachs, Warburgs, Schiffs, Loebs, et al) had predominated the field; a "New Crowd" of Jews has in recent decades taken their place. After World War II, melodramatically note Judith Ehrlich and Barry Rehfeld, "economic power in America and Wall Street was shifting ... Fresh faces came forward as if answering a call ... They were the children and grandchildren of Italian, Irish, Poles, and other Europeans who were not of Anglo-Saxon ancestry. But most of all they were Jews." [EHRLICH, p. 12] This is not to suggest of course that the seminal Jewish American investment firms are today inconsequential. Far from it. In 1999, for instance, Goldman, Sachs and Co. stretched across the world to become the "single largest and controlling shareholder of South Korea's largest bank, Kookmin. [BLOOMBERG NEWS, p. 11]
"In the world of high finance," observed Gerald Krefetz, "Jewish interest is concerned with investment banking, a broad catchall for activities ranging from tendering advice to underwriting securities. The heart of investment banking is public offerings and private placements, the risking of capital -- sometimes ones' own, but more often other peoples' -- to finance new companies, or expand old ones." [KREFETZ, p. 54] The nature of Wall Street entrepreneurship might well be presumed in the title of a 1986 volume by Ken Auletta: Greed and Glory on Wall Street: the Fall of the House of Lehman, or Martin Meyer's Nightmare on Wall Street: Salomon Brothers and the Corruption of the Marketplace (1993). Both Lehman and Solomon are Jewish-founded firms.
A French Jewish commentator, Bernard Lazare, noted Jewish propensities in high finance in the late 1800s:
����� "The man of the lower middle class, the small tradesman at whom��
����� speculation has probably ruined has much clearer ideas of why he
����� is an anti-Semite. He knows that reckless speculation [by financiers],
����� with its attendant panics, has been his bane, and for him, the most
����� formidable jugglers of capital, the most dangerous speculators, are the
����� Jews; which, indeed, is very true." [LAZARE, B., p. 173]
Finance, investment banking, brokerage, and commodities are the speediest ways (short of outright crime) to get rich in America; by 1988 the stock and bond market and linked economic activities totaled 12 trillion dollars a year (six times the value of the assets of Fortune's top 500 companies). "Where the money went," note Ehrlich and Rehfeld, "and what happened to it were greatly influenced by Wall Street power brokers." [EHRLICH, p. 19]� Corporate mergers, acquisitions, and takeovers have become an especially lucrative field. "By the 1980s, says Ehrlich and Rehfeld, "along with [Gentile] T. Boone Pickens, and a few others ... the [Jewish] New Crowd was at the very core of the mergers and acquisitions field." [EHRLICH, p. 15].... [This circle of money men] bought luxurious homes, expensive art, high-priced foreign cars, designer clothes and jewelry; they hosted or appeared at the right parties." [EHRLICH, p. 16] ... The old WASP establishment had seen its wealth eroded by changing tax laws and inflation ... arriviste Jews began to appear on the boards of such time-honored WASP institutions as the Museum of Art, the Metropolitan Opera, and the New York Public Library." [EHRLICH, p. 5] ... The New Crowd broke the stranglehold of the Establishment WASP bankers and [older Jewish] Our Crowd competitors ... and extended profit centers to newer financial activities such as block trading, risk arbitrage, a wide range of retail securities products, financial futures, listed trading of options, and junk bond financing that helped companies expand and made almost every company vulnerable to a takeover, a leveraged buyout that restructured corporate entities and raised critical debt levels." [EHRLICH, p. 394]
In the 1970s, "hostile turnovers," notes James Stewart, "bore an unsavory taint. They generated bad feelings, especially toward those who represented the attackers. This sometimes alienated other clients. Much of the WASP investment banks and loan firms preferred to leave such work to the other firms, many of them Jewish." [STEWART, p. 25] "Various techniques and instruments were used in the Wall Street boom of the 1980s," says Norman Cantor, "but the most consequential -- and lucrative was the floating 'junk' (low grade) bond to provide capital for involuntary takeovers of one company by another ... Fiscal critic Benjamin Stein [sees] the junk bond device as a huge fraudulent Ponzi scheme generating temporary money pools that could be looted by ruthless investment bankers and corporate executives and their overcompensated lawyers." [CANTOR, p. 402]
William Leach traces the influence that those in investment banking have had in shaping America, both economically and in influencing the nation's values:
����� "The growth of investment banking and mass consumption industries
������ were (and still are) closely related developments ... Bankers assisted in
������ undermining the competitive ethos by directing business interest toward
������ concentration and easy economic fixers. They helped local monopolies
������ become major national 'players' almost instantaneously. Banker-inspired
������ megalomania reinforces an already clear pattern in the economy away from
������ 'making goods' to 'making money.'" [LEACH, p. 275]
There is a long list of Jewish entrepreneurs on Wall Street who, as a group, have been influential in literally changing the American economic system. Sanford I. Weill, for instance, "amassed a brokerage empire and eventually became President of American Express;" he was later "recognized as one of the most powerful Jewish businessmen in the nation."� [EHRLICH, p. 13] John Gutfreund rose to become the chairman of Solomon, Inc., "one of the most powerful securities firms in the western world." Felix Rohatyn "perhaps more than any other, was linked with the flood of massive corporate combinations that reshaped American business for much of the past three decades." [EHRLICH, p. 14]� Sanford C. Bernstein & Co., valued at around $3.5 billion and with assets of $90 billion, is "one of the biggest closely held U.S. money managers." It manages $55 billion "for institutions, such as pension funds, endowments and foundations, and $35 billion for wealthy individuals." [BLOOMBERG NEWS, INTL HERALD, p. 10]
Other influential Jewish Wall Street 'players' (financiers, lenders, borrowers, advisers, lawyers, et al) in recent years have included Alan Greenberg, Ira Harris, Bruce Wasserstein, Jerome Kohlberg, Henry Kravis, Peter Cohen, Joseph Flom, Martin Lipton, Victor Posner ("a onetime Baltimore slumlord" [FORBES, p. 45] who was indicted in 1982 for $1.25 million in income tax evasion and filing false tax returns [BRENNER, p. 72]), [Posner is "the flamboyantly wealthy Miami Beach financier [who has] been discredited as one of the most unprincipled and destructive modern corporate raiders." [BIANCO, A., 1991, p. 31], Nelson Peltz, the Belzbergs, and many others. Alan Greenberg is the head of Bear Stearns, Stephen Schwarzman founded the Blackstone Group, a prominent investing firm. Well-known traditional Jewish investment banking houses include Lehman Brothers, Lazard Freres, Goldman Sachs, Salomon Brothers, Bache & Co., and Cantor/Fitzgerald. [SILBIGER, S., 2000, p. 78-79] "Jews took the lead in the '60s," notes Jewish business author Steven Silbiger, "with new investment banking techniques that helped introduce a conglomeration craze by using multipurpose holding companies ... The concentration of Jewish-owned securities firms created well-paying employment opportunities at all levels of the securities industry: securities analysts; portfolio managers; and stock, bond and futures traders; brokers and deal-makers. Among the equity holders of the Jewish investment banking and trading firms on Wall Street are hundreds of Jewish millionaires. Upward mobility based on merit and high salaries has made working on Wall Street a Jewish-friendly career choice ... Although exact figures for the numbers of Jews are not available, they no doubt have a leading and disproportionate role on Wall Street." [SILBIGER, S., 2000, p. 78-80]
In a book entitled, "The Money Machine," about the KKR company (Kohlberg, Kravis, and Roberts), the author address three more Jewish Wall Street members:
������ "Here were three men who started a firm in 1976 with a few million
������� dollars and ten years later had control over what is believed to be the
������� largest corporate empire in the world ... Why did their names arouse
������� such intense emotions, ranging from envy, to awe, to fear?"
������� [BARTLETT, p. x]
By 1999, KKR controlled 23 companies. Among others, its stable included the Amphenol Corporation, Boyd's Collection Inc., Idex Corporation, Kindercare Learning Centers, Primedia Inc, and Gillette. It also made $5.9 billion profit in 12 years of ownership of America's second largest food retailing chain. By the 1980s, the company had "$45 billion in buying power," a sum "greater than the gross national products of Pakistan or Greece." [BURROUGH/HELYAR, p. 130]
A Jewish investment financier, Jeff Beck, has been afforded an entire volume about his life, entitled Rainmaker. "By the end of the 1980s," notes its author, "[Beck] was living a life of deceit so absolute that in effect his true personality had become turned inside out ...[BIANCO, A., 1991, p. 18] ... As money and money-making were glorified in the Reagan years, Beck's pursuit of wealth and the social status derived from it flowered into a full-fledged mania." [BIANO, A., 1991, p. 12]
Another Jewish financier, Carl Icahn "rose from obscurity to become one of the most feared corporate raiders in the country, Chairman of TWA, the largest shareholder in Texaco and USX (formerly US Steel) and a billionaire ...� [EHRLICH, p. 15] ... [Icahn was] perhaps the most successful financial predator of them all." [EHRLICH, p. 290]� Icahn is particularly notable for his repeatedly ruthless campaigns to take over unwilling companies, loot them for obscene profits, and -- successfully taking them over or not -- spitting them out again, leaving a wake of relative ruin. In 1982, for instance, Icahn warred with the whole community of Danville, Virginia, in his hostile bid to takeover a corporation called Dan River. Townspeople unified to resist him, investing retirement money and other savings into company stock. The company finally resisted the financial predator with a leveraged buyout; Icahn, however, managed to strip the town's economic lifeblood of $8.5 million." In another much publicized financial effort, during early attempts [eventually successful] to take over TWA Airlines the company president, then C. E. Meyer, Jr., called Icahn "one of the greediest men on earth." [BROCK, p. 171] By 1998 he was attempting to take over Pan Am airlines.
In an attempt to ward off Icahn's efforts to take over the Phillip's petroleum company, it had to go $4.5 billion deeper in debt, as well as cut hundreds of millions of dollars of capital expenses, sell off $2 billion in assets, limit investor dividends, and tighten budgets. 5,000 fewer employees were working for Phillips by the time Icahn was through. [BRUCK, p. 191] Icahn walked away from Phillips unsuccessful after a 10-week struggle to seize the company, but $52.5 million richer.� "The business establishment took notice [of Icahn's recurrently nasty dealings]," notes Connie Bruck, "One close associate of Icahn recalled that Laurence Tisch [the Jewish] chairman of Loews and now of CBS, Inc., said to him, 'Tell Carl to cut this out. It's not good for the Jews.'" [BRUCK, p. 160]
And what of this sensitivity to issues of Jewish concern on Wall Street, Jewish solidarity, and Jewish economic influence, particularly (but not only) with regard to Israel? In 1974 Stephen Isaacs noted a premiere example:
����� "Gustave Levy [is the] managing partner of the important Goldman,
������ Sachs, and Company investment banking firm ... Many have regarded
������ Levy as the most powerful single individual on Wall Street, able to make
������ or break men and companies almost casually. He personally controls the
������ movement of billions of dollars. 'Gus is very conscious of being Jewish.
������ He's very conscious of the problems it can cause,' said Philip Greer, a
������ one-time stockbroker who had reported on Wall Street ... 'When you
������ talk about Jewish muscle, Gus will back off -- 'I don't make waves, [he
������ says], 'I've got it, and I can use it, and I know how to use it, and I do
������ use it, but I'm not going to talk to you about it because then that redneck
������ in Alabama is going to get very upset and I don't want him to know
������ about it.�.... In the Six Day War Gus was sending money over [to Israel]
������ like crazy. He would have financed the whole war all by himself. And he
������ made no bones about whether you were Jewish or not. 'You need
����� Goldman, Sachs. I need you now. If I don't get you now, you aren't
����� getting me later.' It was as simple as that. He could've raised it from
����� Schwartz or O'Reilly, it didn't make any difference to him, because
����� they're both after the money that Gus controls." [ISAACS, p. 263]
In 1995, Wall Street financier Michael Steinhardt (wizard of the moneymaking device, the "hedge fund") closed his company, Steinhardt Partners, to concentrate more deeply upon spreading the message of Jewish and Israeli identity so dear to him. With a personal fortune of $400 million, he joined as a member of a consortium that bought Israel's Bank Hapoalim and the Maritime Bank. One of his brainchildren, called "Birthright," was by 1998 still in its developmental stages; it is a plan to bring all young American Jews for trips to Israel, to renew their roots to Jewish and Zionist identities. "As part of the birthright of every Jew on this planet, we want to offer free trips to Israel in their formative years," says Steinhardt. [RABINOVICH, p. 20]� A building in Manhattan for renewal of Jewish identity was purchased, and there has been sponsorship of the Jewish Campus Service Corps to pull young Jews to Jewish programs at national campus Hillel centers.
By late 1999, "Birthright" was in progress, at a cost of $210 million. "Funded by the Israeli government, in partnership with Jewish philanthropists and communities abroad," college-age Jews in America competed in a lottery for free-trips to Israel with the expressed purpose of being socialized into deeper identification with the Jewish state. The goal is to transport 50,000 Jews a year to connect to the tenets of Zionism. Not all Jews are happy with the program. The chairman of the World Jewish Congress, for example, Isi Leibler, thought there were many more worthy applications of the funds. Many Jews getting in on the program too, he noted, were already "from affluent homes." [GREENBERG, J., 2000, p. A1]
"It can be said," suggested Gerald Krefetz in 1982, "that Jewish wealth is generated from the financial side rather than the operational side. Many wealthy Jews have climbed the corporate ladder through law, accounting, and investment banking. Apparently, they are more at home massaging numbers than dealing with technical or substantive problems of production ...� [KREFETZ, p. 69].... If Jews are drawn to the financial side, it is probably due to the fact that in the last decade or two the financial tail wags the industrial dog." [KRAFETZ, p. 69]
"Greed knows no bounds," said the New York Director of the Securities and Exchange Commission in 1986, "there's always someone who makes more than you do. Investment banking is the new gold mine." [HOWE, p. 413] In the same year New York psychiatrist Samuel Klagsbann, who had "a lot of lawyers handling mergers and acquisitions" as patients, noted that for these people "business is God." [HOWE, p. 413]
"In the field of takeovers and mergers the sky is the limit," said prominent Jewish financier Felix Rohatyn (later President Bill Clinton's ambassador to France), "Not only in size, but the type of large corporation transactions. We have gone beyond the norms of rational behavior. The tactics used in corporate takeovers, both on offense and defense, create massive transactions that greatly benefit lawyers, investment bankers, and arbitrageurs, but often result in weaker companies and do not treat share holders equally and fairly ... In the long run we in the investment banking business cannot benefit from something that is harmful to our economic system." [EHRLICH, p. ]
In 1986, Dennis Levine was the first to be caught, a "dealmaker" at Drexel Burnham Lambart, for his "insider trading [exploiting confidential company information] which opened the doors to the greatest scandal in Wall Street history, a scandal that "caused grave concern within the Jewish community." [EHRLICH, p. 17]� Not long after, Martin Siegel was also arrested. As the scandal opened up, it was discovered that these wealthy criminals were overwhelmingly Jewish, including all its central players. "What was particularly upsetting from a Jewish perspective," notes Ehrlich and Rehfeld, "was the fact that the [criminal] network began, in part, when one member first introduced another to a third at a United Jewish Appeal function." [EHRLICH, p. 340]
Connie Bruck, a Jewish journalist, notes that
���� "Privately, [lawyer Martin] Lipton expressed another concern, one shared
����� by many of the businessmen and lawyers who were part of the Jewish
����� establishment in New York, and by some of the Drexel contingent as
����� well. They feared that the common strain among these nouveau
����� entrepreneurs and their nouveau banks at Drexel -- an overwhelming
����� majority were Jews -- would unleash a backlash of virulent anti-Semitism
����� ... As one Drexel client ... put it: 'It used to be that the Jews would go [to
����� WASP lenders] and they'd beg for money, and they'd be rejected while
����� the Gentile would come in and they'd all go to lunch and smoke cigars.
����� Now it's a shift of power to the Jews. Drexel is making these huge sums
����� of money and the banks comparatively little. The problem is, all
��� ��the entrepreneurs are Jews with the exception of [T. Boone] Pickens and
����� [Carl] Lindner -- and Lindner, a long time supporter of Israel, is the most
����� Jewish non-Jew I've ever known." [BRUCK, p. 205] (In 1999, Lindner
����� became controlling owner of the Cincinnati Reds professional baseball
����� team.)
"It is hard to grasp the magnitude and the scope of the crime that unfolded beginning in the mid-1970s," wrote a Wall Street Journal editor James Stewart, "in the nation's market and financial institutions. It dwarfs any comparable financial crime, from the Great Train Robbery to the stock-manipulation schemes that gave rise to the nation's securities laws in the first place. The magnitude of the illegal gains was so large as to be incomprehensible to most laymen." [STEWART, p. 115] "[Michael] Milken [and] some of his Drexel colleagues and anointed players," says Connie Bruck, "had made more money in a shorter period of time than any other individuals had done in the history of this country." [BRUCK, p. 20]
"A variety of critics voiced their apprehension about what they saw as greed that had gone out of control," says Ehrlich and Rehfeld, "... over the course of the next three years, it was revealed that more than a dozen insiders -- many of them members of Wall Street's most powerful firms -- as well as one of the hottest houses on the Street, had amassed millions of dollars in illegal profits. The accused were charged with violating securities laws that prohibited insider trading, that is, they used material confidential information primarily about impending merger bids, to profit from securities and transactions." [EHRLICH, p. 338]
"During the crime wave," says Stewart, "the ownership of entire corporations changed hands, often forcibly, at a clip never before witnessed. Household names -- Carnation, Beatrice, General Foods, Diamond Shamrock -- vanished in takeovers that spawned criminal activity and violations of securities laws. Others, companies like Unocal and Union Carbide, survived but were heavily crippled. Thousands of workers lost their jobs, companies loaded up with debt to pay for the deals, profits were sacrificed to pay interest costs on the borrowings, and even so, many companies were eventually forced into bankruptcy or restructurings. Bondholders and shareholders lost millions more. Greed alone cannot account for such a toll. These are the costs of greed coupled with market power -- power unrestrained by the normal checks and balances of the free market place." [STEWART, p. 16]
A major wheeler-dealer in the 1980s scandals was Ivan Boesky, who was (only a year before his 'public disgrace') also the Chairman of the New York area United Jewish Appeal. He also was a member of the board of both Yehsiva University and the Jewish Theological Seminary of America, as well as a self-described "founder and supporter" of the Simon Wiesenthal Center in Los Angeles.� "Boesky's Jewish involvement," noted the Jewish Week, "resurfaced in the media at the time of his sentencing in December, with revelations that he had been taking classes at the Jewish Theological Seminary while awaiting sentencing and that leaders of some organizations that benefited from his gifts had written character references to the court, attesting to his generosity. The letters have sparked a new internecine debate among Jewish activists. Some claimed that Jewish philanthropies were 'going to bat' for a confessed felon because they had 'gotten their cut' from his ill-gotten wealth." [GOLDBERG, JEWISH WEEK, 1-8-88, p. 41] "Many Jews," wrote Ehrlich and Rehfeld, "worried that his trading abuses could cast a pall over the entire Jewish community. Not only was he the most important figure in the scandal, he was deeply involved in Jewish philanthropy." [EHRLICH, p. 341], including a $2.5 million donation to the Jewish Theological Seminary for a library to be named after him and his wife.
This former head of the UJA was a particularly nefarious character. He had been fined for violating New York Stock Exchange trade laws in the 1970s; [EHRLICH, p. 317], his 1985 book Merger Mania was written by a ghost writer, Jeffrey Madrick, and largely patterned (without saying so) on an existing volume by Guy Wyser-Pratte. [EHRLICH, p. 326] Boesky was the time of man who watched his employees throughout his company by a video system in his office; [p. 324] he paid up to $5 apiece for catered lunches so employees wouldn't have to leave their desks, [p. 36] and "screamed at [employees] regularly." His oldest son, Billy, is reported to have called his father "stark raving mad." [p. 40] Upon Boesky's installment as the UJA campaign general chairman, he told his Jewish audience: "We must make an enormous effort to encourage people's sense of responsibility -- to be sure that at the very top we have the right attitudes about giving to the campaign. Attitude filters down." [JEWISH WEEK, 6-29-84, p. 7]
The biggest fish caught in the Wall Street scandal, however, was super billionaire Michael Milken, the "junk bond king," who was charged with racketeering and mail and securities fraud. Milken single-handedly threatened to fulfill in real life the most profound of traditional anti-Semitic nightmare fantasies. A former Milken associate, notes Jewish journalist Connie Bruck, saw in Milken "the force of� ... obsession, the megalomania, the conviction of a cause so just that the end justifies the means and, finally, the conceptualization of the corporate vehicle as a means of extending control nationwide -- and then worldwide." [BRUCK, p. 358] "Many billions of dollars were at his command," notes Bruck, "capital, as Milken had been saying and proving for a long time, was not a scarce resource. The only limits to his power, it seemed, would be the limits of his fertile imagination." [BRUCK, p. 359]� Milken, sometimes present at Simon Wiesenthal functions [BRUCK, p. 313], was well-known for being able to assemble billions of dollars overnight to aid corporate takeovers. At a yearly Milken-centered conference of the world's leading corporate takeover specialists, affectionately called the Predator's Ball, a close Milken associate, Donald Engel, arranged for high-priced prostitutes to service the gathered "predators." [BRUCK, p. 15]
The goal of Milken and his predatory cronies, says Leon Black of Drexel Lambart (the company that was ostensibly Milken's employer) was to finance "the robber barons who would become the owners of major companies in the future." [BRUCK, p. 149]� (Black's father, Eli, was the "rabbinically-trained corporate chieftain of United Brands" who in 1975 jumped out a skyscraper window when it was revealed that he was paying bribes to foreign governments). [BRUCK, p. 65] Among the players in this scenario, Black particularly noted robber barons Carl Icahn, Henry Kravits (who guided a $6.2 billion buyout of the Beatrice company), Samuel Heyman (chairman of GAF who bid $6 billion for Union Carbide), Ronald Perelman, and a lone Gentile, Rupert Murdoch (who was financed by Milken to take over Metromedia). [BRUCK, p. 245]� "By ... 1985...," says Connie Bruck, "Milken was moving his players across the M&A [corporate mergers and acquisitions] field as though it were a chess board." [BRUCK, p. 106]
Ron Perelman's rise is typical. Closely associated with Milken, his mentor's junk bonds supported a variety of Perelman-inspired corporate invasions. Perelman seized a resistant Revlon with a company one-eighth its size, Pantry Pride. (In 1991 he installed Jerry Levin to head it). He also took over a group of tottering Savings and Loans for $315 million, suddenly controlling $7.1 billion in assets. In 1982 Perelman faced a lawsuit in his takeover of Technicolor. "Taken as a whole," says Connie Bruck, "the complaint painted a picture of Perelman allegedly using deceit and secret deals -- money here, position there, whatever it took -- to buy off the necessary people and get the company." [DEALY, p. 308]� In Perelman's hostile takeover of Revlon, he tried to bribe the CEO of that company, Michel Bergerac. [BRUCK, p. 194]
Another key Milken crony was Fred Carr (born Seymour Fred Cohen), head of the Beverly Hills-based First Executive Corporation, described by Benjamin Stein as "the largest insurance catastrophe in the history of the United States." [STEIN, B., p. 86]� Others who made use of Milken junk bonds to build illusorily business empires include Perry Mendel and Richard Grassgreen of the conglomerate Enstar (in Montgomery, Alabama). Enstar eventually went bankrupt, becoming, notes Benjamin Stein, "a source of rage, frustration, and loss for the people of Montgomery. They were taken, and taken badly." [STEIN, B., p. 111]� Mendel and Grassgreen were convicted of fraud in 1991.
Milken has had a powerful hand in a wide range of other attempted corporate takeovers. "He would cause frightened managements," says Bruck, "to focus on short term gains and elaborate defenses rather than research and development that makes for sustained [corporate] growth. It would cause the loss of jobs, as companies were taken over and broken up." [BRUCK, p. 19] Milken aided, for further example, Eli Jacobs' acquisition of the Memorex Corporation in 1986. And during the banking Savings and Loans scandals of the 1980s, Columbia Savings had a branch office one floor above Milken's own office; Columbia CEO Thomas Spiegel eventually purchased about $4 billion of Milken's junk bonds. [DEALY, p. 307] In the early 1980s Saul Steinberg, with Milken financing, had attempted a hostile takeover of the Disney corporation. "Steinberg got calls from friends, Jews and non-Jews alike," notes Joe Flower, "warning him, saying, as Steinberg later characterized it, 'Saul, it's going to be you -- and with the name Saul Steinberg it's clear where you are and what you are -- taking over another white Anglo-Saxon Protestant company. In all the little towns of America they're going to say, 'That Jew took over Walt Disney. What would Walt say?'� But the warnings did not make Steinberg hesitate. 'They just made me angry.'" [FLOWER, p. 112]
In 1969 Steinberg had tried to take over one of the most important banks in America, the $9 billion Chemical Bank. "Those who ... combined against him," noted Connie Bruck, "included not only the director and management of Chemical, but most of the banking business, Governor Nelson A. Rockefeller and the legislature of New York state, and members of the Federal Reserve Board and the Senate Banking and Currency Committee." [BRUCK, p. 36]
Although Milken eventually agreed to accept a six felonies conviction and pay $600 million (a sum larger than the yearly budget of the Securities Commission that sought to prosecute him) [p. 16], the prosecution of fabulously wealthy Milken was no easy matter. There was, for all intents and purposes, no money limit to his personal defense. He and his firm, Drexel, planned to spend up to $650 million to fight his conviction. [STEWART, p. 347] This included a massive $140 million public relations campaign to change his public image from criminal to hero, an effort "revolving around the theme that [he and his company] help[ed] to raise money [that] benefited every American." [STEWART, p. 346] The public relations firm Milken hired referred to him as a "national treasure." [STEWART, p. 377] In an effort to control public discourse about himself, Milken even bought the rights to photographs of him at all the news wire companies. [STEWART, p. 372]� In February 1986 he even offered to pay journalist Connie Bruck to not finish, and publish, a book she was working on about him and his associates. [STEWART, p. 381] Expecting a significant Black presence in the New York City jury that would try him, Milken hired an expert on public relations in the Black community; the wealthy financier suddenly had an interest in the underprivileged and paid for 1,700 ghetto kids to go to a Mets baseball game. [STEWART, p. 400] Milken clients and sycophants even took out full page ads in major papers, including the New York Times, proclaiming, "We Believe in You." [STEWART, p. 418]
Milken ended up spending only a little over two years in prison, a small sacrifice for the staggering amount of wealth he accumulated. He was sentenced, notes Jewish scholar Norman Cantor, "by a Gentile woman judge who was married to a prominent Jewish lawyer. Eventually she found grounds for sharply reducing his sentence ... The skill of some Jewish billionaires in skirting the limits of the law but somehow emerging unscathed, with the aid of high-priced Jewish attorneys, and a compliant press, was remarkable." [CANTOR, p. 404] Milken court fines alone eventually amounted to $1.1 billion. Still on probation, in November 1997 the New York Times noted that "evidence of further illegal behavior since his release might well cause the government to request further sanctions against Mr. Milken, including even his return to prison." [TRUELL, D4] Since prison, Milken has been busy collecting tens of millions of dollars, "counseling" the MCI Communications Corporation, advising principal players in the Time-Warner-Turner Broadcasting mass media merger, and working with financier Ronald Perelman. In 1996 the New York Times noted Milken's presence in Israel in negotiations with a company called the Eisenberg Group. "The Milken Group," said the Times, "might invest in Israel Chemicals, of which the Israeli government owns 48.5%." [NYT, 8-14-96] The Eisenberg Group at the fore of all this is headed by Shaul Eisenberg, the richest man in Israel, who, "says Alan Vorspan, "[is] the shadowy Israeli billionaire who had been brokering Israel defense technology to China for more than ten years ... 'Arms merchant of the world' is not synonymous with a 'light unto the nations.'" [VORSPAN, p. 31] "The arms business," note Andrew and Leslie Cockburn, "was and remains central to [Eisenberg's] operation." [COCKBURN, p. 17]� Other holdings include everything from chemical factories in Korea to projects in Central America. [COCKBURN, p. 12-13]
James Stewart, a non-Jew and an editor at the Wall Street Journal, came under fierce attack for "anti-Semitism" for his book about Milken and the Wall Street scandals, the Den of Thieves� (a title taken from this New Testament verse: "And Jesus went into the temple of God, and cast out all them that sold and bought in the temple, and overthrew the table of the money changers, and the seats of them that sold doves. And say unto them, it is written. My house shall be called the house of prayer; but ye have made it a den of thieves." [MATHEW, 21:12-13])
A lawyer for Milken, a man we have run across before, Alan Dershowitz, tried to use the now standard Jewish defense argument -- an accusation of anti-Semitism -- as a tool to spare his criminal client jail time. Dershowitz published editorial pieces in the Wall Street Journal attacking Stewart. He also paid $45,000 for a full page ad in the New York Times the next day to outline his accusations, and half-page ads in other papers, everywhere charging anti-Semitism. In a letter to the New York Times Book Review section Dershowitz attacked both Stewart and the Review's reviewer of Den of Thieves, Michael Thomas, (a "money" columnist for the New York Observer) for alleged anti-Semitism. "Both," Dershowitz wrote, "seem preoccupied by Jews."
In defense, Thomas (whose novel Hanover Place and its free exploration of Jewish corruption on Wall Street has also been called anti-Semitic) said:
����� "If I point out that 9 out of 10 people involved in street crime are Blacks,
����� that's an interesting sociological observation. If I point out that 9 out of
����� 10 people involved in securities indictments are Jewish, that is an anti-
����� Semitic slur. I cannot sort the difference." [HOYT]
When business journalist Connie Bruck published The Predator's Ball, a volume about Milken and the junk bond world, a Drexel lawyer (where Milken worked) accused her of anti-Semitism. "I remember a lawyer at Chas Gordeon and Reindel screaming at me and accusing me of anti-Semitism," said Bruck later, "And I'm Jewish, so that made it more unpleasant. It all comes from Milken. Milken told friends of his, who repeated it to me, that he believed the government's investigation was fueled by anti-Semitism." [HOYT]
"If Stewart is guilty of anything," wrote Allen Sloan of Newsday, "it's breaking the Cohen Rule when dealing with ethnic groups. It's only safe to identify a person ethnically or racially in a positive context ... Down deep we all understand the rules. But these rules shackle journalists and muffle the truth. They amount to censorship ... By blasting Stewart (a full page ad, for crying out loud!) for doing nothing more than stating the truth, Dershowitz has attempted to discredit his reporting by besmirching his character -- and, in the process, making Milken seem a victim of religious bigotry. Dershowitz's accusations, beside the point and below the belt, is a form of scapegoatism that comes perilously close to what it purportedly condemns." [HOYT]
Across the ocean, England had its own very publicized Jewish financier scandal at about the same time -- sometimes known as the "Guinness Four" affair. It was, noted the (London) Independent, "the most notorious insider dealing fraud of the Eighties," a plot to boost the share value of the Guinness corporation. [BRAID, p. 1] On trial were Gerald Ronson (head of Heron International), Ernest Saunders, Jack Lyons, and Anthony Parnes. They were all convicted, but each received reduced, short-term jail sentences. "All four defendants," noted the Times (of London), "... are Jews ... Any attempt to incite anti-Semitism because of Jewish financial misbehavior has to be deplored and opposed. But any attempt to minimize or excuse the offenses is also unacceptable ... In folk prejudice the 'Jewish banker' is an unkind clich�, but herein lies the problem. He exists ... Quiet voices are to be heard that such [beat the system] attitudes are more common than ought to be any Jewish financier. And recognizing that such a malady exists is the first condition for curing it." [LONGLEY, 9-1-90]
Only a few years earlier, in the 1980s too, was the case of yet another prominent Jewish American entrepreneur, Marc Rich (father's name originally Reich). "In the shadowy, secret world of commodities trading," noted John Ingham and Lynne Feldman, "Marc Rich had no peer ... Appellations for Marc Rich have included 'ruthless tycoon,' 'vengeful businessman,' and 'scheming marketeer.' Often called the most corrupt man in this fraternity of free booting capitalists, Rich was also among the most secretive." [INGHAM/FELDMAN, p. 550] Rich even managed to profit off millions of barrels of oil from Iran during the Iranian hostage crisis. In 1983, he and associate, Pinky Green, fled to Switzerland to avoid a warrant out for their arrest.
(Rich has deep ties to Israel and has been involved over the years in "negotiating the return of captured Israeli soldiers and Jewish dissidents. In a controversial move, President Bill Clinton pardoned Rich's crimes as he left the White House in 2001. "Several Israeli officials wrote Clinton in support of [Rich's] pardon.") [MSNBC, 2-2-2001]
Perhaps Rich had occasion in Europe to run into fellow white collar criminal Gerald Goldwell. Goldwell, notes a volume entitled Organized Crime in Europe, epitomized those involved in "extensive international fraud ... making use of several shell companies and of insolvent firms ... The leader of one of the largest such organizations was Gerald Goldwell, a well-known American fraudster, whose career of 15 years in business crime made him one of the most experienced crime entrepreneurs in his field." [DUYNE, p. 12]� Based in Amsterdam, Goldwell's criminal scope included Bermuda, Dutch Antilles, the Bahamas, Canada, Luxemburg, Germany and Panama.
In 1980, in Switzerland, a Jewish immigrant from Bulgaria, Eli Pinkas, and his wife committed suicide as their swindles began collapsing down upon him. After his death, noted the Washington Post, "it was revealed that the quiet executive was, in fact, a master swindler who created an elaborate portfolio of false documents and records to steal more than $140 million from an international array of banks and industries." The Pinkas scam was noted as the "biggest private financial scandal in recent Swiss history." [BERRY, J., F., 7-20-80, p. A1]
At about the same time in Panama, in an unrelated criminal enterprise, Jewish entrepreneur Isaac Zafrani "in two years time, had become the most powerful video pirate in the world. By selling fraudulent copies of first-run films, Zafrani, more than any other single operation world-wide, posed the greatest threat to legitimate video and theatrical interests." By 1984, his profits in the bootleg business were about $20 million. [FRANKLIN, P., p. 113]�
In fact, the whole Jewish state of Israel is an Isaac Zafrani. As Israel's Institute for Advanced Strategic and Political Studies noted in March 2000:
���� "Israel is known the world over for intellectual properties rights
���� piracy. Indeed, it is likely that Israel will soon be downgraded from
���� the second worst rating of violating countries to the worst by the
���� International Property Alliance (IIPA), the international organization
���� fighting software and intellectual property crimes of piracy."
���� [INSTITUTE FOR ADVANCED STRATEGIC..., 2000]
"In 1998," notes the Israeli newspaper Haaretz, "an American delegation visited Israel to investigate the issue and found Israel to be 'an international center for pirate distribution' -- estimating that the extent of the forgery industry reached tens, maybe hundreds, of millions of dollars. The U. S. delegation threatened to impose sanctions against Israel by increasing duty tax for Israeli imports to the United States. The delegation also noted that the Israeli forgery industry has grown in recent years because of the infiltration of organized crime." [ALON, G., 6-22-01]
The 1980s also highlighted young Jewish swindler Barry Minkow of Reseda, California, whose misdeeds entitled his story to be immortalized in an entire volume, subtitled The Kid Who Swindled Wall Street. Minkow was sentenced to prison. "Barry," notes Daniel Akst, "succeeded in creating not a corporation, but the hologram of one." His ZZZZ Best firm, founded on carpet-cleaning, eventually was worth $200 million. As a result of Minkow's scams, "widows and orphans lost their money. Hard working folks lost their jobs, or had their careers ruined, their lives stained, their hopes turned to ash." The author who recounts Minkow's business career calls him a psychopath, "someone who can act without regard to conscience, victimizing people again and again without remorse." [AKST, D., p. 5, 6, 270] Minkow associates included Maurice Rind, "a stock swindler before financial fraud was fashionable." [AKST, D., p. vii]
In a 1994 case, Martin Wolfe of Baton Raton, Florida, was the "principal figure" in a nationwide investment scam involving pizza vending machines, defrauding some investors of their life savings for nonexistent machines. "You have to plant the seed," Wolfe once told a business audience, "so the seed grows into an oak, and the oak grows into greed, which takes over the whole body. Greed is good." [IWANOWSKI, J., 3-20-94, p. E1] In 1996 investors in California's Pioneer Mortgage firm lost $250 million. As the San Diego Union Tribune observed, "Many got in because Pioneer's Chief Executive -- Gary Naiman -- was very active in his synagogue and activities related to Israel." [BAUDER, D., 1-19-96, p. C2]
In Arizona, in 1997, Ben Friedman "pleaded guilty to 3 of 73 felony charges of securities and tax frauds ... [He] bilked his investors out of more than $2.5 million and the state of Arizona out of more than $5 million in unpaid taxes." After a five year investigation into Friedman's wheelings and dealings, the Arizona State Department of Revenue concluded that "This is the largest tax prosecution involving personal income taxes the department has ever undertaken. All the Arizona personal income tax cases prosecuted to date would not equal what Mr. Friedman evaded." [SILVERMAN, A., 5-14-98]
In 2002, the Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) "accused [Reed] Slatkin [a Jew who became a Scientologist] of running a Ponzi scheme shortly after her filed for bankruptcy in May 2001. (A Ponzi scheme is a phony investment plan in which money provided by later investors is used to pay artificially high returns to the initial investors, with the goal of attracting as many investors as possible). Slatkin's allged scheme is said to be one of the biggest cases of investment fraud in American history." [WEING, G., 1-11-02]
Beginning in 1977, the FBI launched a secret investigation into the world of white-collar crime. Known as "Abscam," the investigation eventually led to
a number of bribe-taking Congressmen. The central player recruited by the FBI sting operation to penetrate the world of white-collar fraud was an expert in the field, life-long swindler Mel Weinberg, "who had worked North America and five other continents, fleecing public officials, movie stars, dictators, generals, mobsters, political terrorists, and ordinary businessmen with democratic impartiality." [GREENE, 1981, p. 2]� Weinberg was set up as a representative for a fake wealthy Arabian oil sheik, Abdul, and his networking for the FBI in the white collar underworld netted people from a number of backgrounds. In the Jewish community, these included Herman Weiss, Joe Meltzer, William Rosenberg ("a picture version of the affluent swindler") [GREENE, 1981, p. 9], Ben Cohen (a Miami lawyer "who once represented the Florida gambling syndicate,") [GREENE, 1981, p. 129], Marvin Rappaport ("who was anxious to supply Abdul with sex films"), [GREENE, 1981, p. 129], and Greg Katz ("who had become a millionaire through a series of corrupt deals with New Jersey Democratic officials spanning thirty years.") [GREENE, p. 162]
In Argentina and other Latin American countries in the late 1970s, notes Jerome Barromi, there were "a series of financial and political scandals involving prominent Jews." Among those charged was Mexican-based "powerful financier" David Gravier; family members him were also arrested and "accused of having laundered and recycled money from the Montoneros, acquired by bank robberies and kidnapping wealthy businessmen." (At least one prominent member in the revolutionary Montoneros organization, wanted by the government, was given refuge, on the basis of his Jewish credentials, in Israel). [SACHER, H., 1985, p. 299] "With several other Jewish investors, most of them Mexican, Gravier used his family bank to purchase controlling shares of the American Bank and Trust, a major New York financial institution. He then skimmed $50 million out of ABT, precipitating its collapse and the liquidation of $180 million of its deposits." Among the depositors were generals in Argentina's military. [SACHAR, H., 1985, p. 304] In 1977, "a new scandal erupted, the bankruptcy of the Jewish-owned (the Argentine Madanes family) aluminum factory, ALUAR." [BARROMI, p. 31] "Then came the [Jose Ber] Gelbar scandal," notes Jewish scholar Howard Sachar, "involving the first Jew to serve in a Peruvian cabinet. "Accused of graft in accumulating the fortune required for purchasing his vast investment [in ALUAR]," he fled to the United States. [SACHAR, H., 1985, p. 304]
In 2001, the Jewish Telegraphic Agency covered a panel discussion about the Jewish situation in Argentina, noting:
"According to Argentine Jewish expatriates in the audience, the Jewish leadership
in the country is entrenched, incompetent and corrupt. They also claimed that
the two Jewish-run banks were linked closely to a corrupt government and played
fast and loose with the community's money. When the banks failed, some $26
million in communal assets were lost overnight. 'My brother can get over losing
his money, but he cannot get over the fact that Jews betrayed other Jews, [Rabbi
Alfredo] Borodowski said." [JORDAN, M., 6-28-01]
In Australia, noted the 1994 American Jewish Yearbook, there were arrest warrants out for
���� "Abe Goldberg and a business associate, Katy Rochelle Boskowitz ...
����� over the multimillion dollar collapse in 1990 of the Linter textile and
����� investment group and alleged fraudulent borrowing and misconduct.
����� Boskowitz was arrested, but Goldberg remained in his native Poland ...
����� which has no extradition treaty with Poland. Robyn Greenberg,
����� convicted of fraud following the demise of a women's investment
����� and finance group in western Australia, was sentenced to 17 years in
����� prison. Some saw the harsh sentence as inspired by anti-Semitism.
����� Others by sexism." [SINGER/SELDIN, 1994, p. 373]
In the wake of the much-publicized Wall Street scandals, in 1987 the New York Jewish Week devoted a seven page "special report" entitled "Are We Facing a Crisis in Jewish Ethics?" to the theme of recurrent Jewish corruption. The newspaper noted that
�������� "Four years ago, Jewish bankers in the Jewish state conspired in what
�������� has become known as Israel's bank shares scandal. Of the four banks,
�������� one was owned by Histradut [Israel's labor federation], one by the
�������� Jewish Agency, and one by Mizrachi. Last year, a New York yeshiva
�������� that was the seat for a grand rabbi was involved in a money-laundering
�������� scheme for area businesses. Some of them were reported to be illegal.
�������� Two officials of the school were indicted and convicted. This year a
�������� prominent Wall Street figure and a lay leader of the New York Jewish
�������� community pleaded guilty to insider trading violations on what is said
�������� to be a massive scale. Several others have since been indicted -- and
�������� most so far are Jewish. And then there are the various corruption
�������� scandals currently plaguing New York: public officials betraying the
�������� public trust by lining their own pockets -- and, or so it would seem,
�������� almost all of them Jewish." [JEWISH WEEK, 5-15-87, p. 25]
Jewish names swirling in New York City scandals in the late 1980s included Alex Liberman, Stanley Friedman, Marvin Kaplan, Michael Lazar, Lester Shafran, Shelley Chevlowe, Victor Botnick, Jay Turoff, Melvin Lebetkin, Geoffrey Lindenauer, Charles Berg, Bernard Sandow (head of New York's Parking Violations Bureau) and Donald Manes (Queens Borough president), among others. [NEWFIELD/BARRETT, 1988; THE RECORD, 3-18-88, p. C22]� Friedman (head of the Bronx Democratic Party), Lazar (City Transportation Administrator) and Shafran (Director of the City Parking Bureau) were convicted of racketeering (involving bribes, kickbacks, et al). Kaplan, who had a $22 million contract with New York City's parking bureau, was convicted of perjury. [LUBISCH, A., p. B3]
In 1998, the tide had not abated: the lament in the Canadian Jewish News was still the same: "In recent years a wave of financial scandals have shaken the Jewish community. How to conduct one's business ethnically is emerging as a central concern among rabbis and responsible community leaders." [CAN JEW NEWS, Business Ethics]� In 1999, the same Jewish newspaper followed up with another article about this insistent subject, saying:
���� "Unfortunately, all too often (once is too often) we hear about ritually
���� observant Jews involved in white collar crimes: tax evasion, money
���� laundering, embezzlement and fraud. Perhaps even worse is the attitude
���� that one so often hears in casual conversation: 'I am only an employee,
���� so I can't write off personal expenses,' or 'Of course I pay my contractor
���� in cash,' thereby helping him evade his tax responsibility and thus stealing
���� from the honest taxpayer ... For some, the phenomenon is culturally
���� based ... [Because of historical discriminations against Jews] Jews had
���� to resort to cheating. This attitude was then carried over to our
���� democracies ... It does not require a very close examination of our
���� general business practices to realize that a serious problem exists...
���� We must continue to work until people stop and say: 'What a wonderful
���� Torah the Jewish people have. Look at the honesty and integrity of
���� of those who keep it." [KELMAN, J., 10-14-99, p. 9]
In 2001, 51 people were indicted for fraud worth millions of dollars in a rigging of McDonald's
promotional
games. "The scheme [involved] friends and close-knit family members, including a husband and wife." Jerome P. Jacobson, the scam ringleader and director of security for Simon Marketing Inc. (the firm contracted by McDonald's to run its promotional games: i.e., Monopoly and Who Wants to Be a Millionaire?), "embezzled more than $20 million worth of winning McDonald's game pieces from his employer." Names of those indicted are hard to come by, but those listed with Jacobson by the Miami Herald were Bernard Weintraub and Adam Zucker. (Unindicted CEO of McDonalds? Jack Greenberg). Attorney General John Ashcroft announced that "the complaint alleges that Jacobson provided the winning game pieces to his friends and associates who acted as recruiters. These recruiters then solicited others who falsely and fraudulently represented that they were the legitmiate winners of the McDonald's games." [MIAMI HERALD, 12-9-01]
[CNN, 8-22-01]
���
In the Jewish homeland, in 1994, Agence France Presse noted that "investigations, scandals, and trials involving securities dealers and the country's biggest banks have shaken Israel's financial markets as they've never been shaken before." [SCHATTNER] This included the arrests of Vladimir Saar and Arie Shafir for securities crimes, as well as the jailing of Amos Weiss, "one of Israel's leading securities dealers." [SCHATTNER]�
In 2001, the Isaeli newspaper Haaretz noted that
Three years later, in 1997, not much had changed in the name of "Jewish ethics" in the Jewish homeland. The Cleveland Jewish News began an article by stating that "Israel seems to be going through a golden age of corruption and criminality," and then listed those in the so-called "Bar-On affair," including Knesset member Arye Deri's trial for accepting bribes; building contractor David Appel's "cheating poor immigrants out of hundreds of thousands of dollars in government compensation"; the investigation into the Prime Minister's chief aide Avigdor Lieberman's falsification of documents; Dror Hoter Isha'i, head of the Israel Bar Association, and his trial for income tax evasion; and an investigation of Jerusalem mayor Ehud Olmert for falsification of election campaign documents. "But that's just in the Bar-On affair," notes the News, "the Israeli government is chockfull of other senior figures who have been accused of corruption and/or malfeasance." [DERFNER, Corruption, p. 8]� These include police investigations of Shas Knesset member Rafael Pinchasi, Internal Security Minister Avigdor Kahalani, former Justice Minister Ya'acov Ne'eman, former Shas Knesset member Yair Levy, Labor Knesset member Binyamin Ben-Eliezer, and National Religious Party member Avner Shaki. "As for the mayors who have gone on trial for corruption and other sorts of crimes," notes the News, "the list is far too long to mention." [DERFNER, p. 8]�
In 1994 the chairman of the Jewish Agency, Simcha Dinitz, had earlier joined the crowd when he was charged with fraudulent use of agency credit cards and other indiscretions, [HOFFMAN, D, p. A12] and in 1996 the Jewish National Fund weathered "a scandal over alleged financial mismanagement." [FORWARD, 3-21-97, p. 4]� In 1997, an Israeli millionaire, Nahum Manbar, was convicted of treason for selling material to Iran that has value in the manufacture of poison gas. A member of Manbar's legal defense team was even found to have had simultaneous affairs with the judge on the case, the Israeli prime minister's media advisor, and a Shin Bet secret police officer. [BORGER, p. 16] That same year, Dudu Topaz, a major Israeli television personality, was exposed for the fraudulent system of his game show.
In 1999, Ofer Nimrodi, chairman of one of the largest newspapers in Israel, Ma'ariv, went to prison for four months "for electronically eavesdropping on his two competitors as well as on other media figures." A former employee, Rafi Pridan, was also reported� "to have tapes of his old boss planning to murder the publishers of two rival newspapers, plus a private eye who once help put Nimrodi -- and Pridan -- in jail for wiretapping." [MAKOVSKY, p. 63]
Recent Israeli military-related scandals include a controversial over an early release date from jail for an air force general, Rami Dotan, who was imprisoned for embezzling $12 million, and Yehuda Gil, a senior Mossad [Israeli CIA] official, who was finally caught inventing -- continually for ten years -- information from an entirely fabricated spy in Syria. Enjoying the status of being a spy legend in Israel, Gil's total fictions nearly brought Israel to war with its Arab neighbor.� [DAVIS, D, p. 10]
In 1999, the Associated Press reported that "several former officials of Israel's biggest bus company are suspected of accepting millions of dollars in bribes" [AP, Israel's] and in another story that "Israeli police have recommended that outgoing Justice Minister Tsahi Hanegbi be charged with corruption." [AP, Police] That same year too, "Israeli police arrested a local official of the ultra-Orthodox Shas party [Yehuda Kehati] -- a key ally of Prime Minister Benyamin Netanyahu -- Saturday over allegations of fraud in connection with Monday's elections for parliament and prime ministership ... Fraud allegations are nothing new in Israeli politics." [AGENCE FRANCE PRESSE, Ultra]� A little while later came losing Prime Minister Netanyahu's turn: "Two months after bowing out of public life, Benyamin Netanyahu was back in the spotlight at the center of a police probe by the national fraud squad. Israel's former first couple are suspected of corruption, abuse of trust, attempting to suborn witnesses, and hindering the investigation, which centers on 100,000 dollars of renovations and other work at two Jerusalem homes." [WEGMAN]
In 2001, the Washington Post noted that, with 1994 changes in Israeli election laws, "as a result many Israeli politicians resorted to a wide range of illegal and semi-legal ways to raise money, including setting up nonprofit organizations, whose records are shielded from public inquiry." [DOBBS, M., 2-21-01] That same year, after a building collapsed in Jerusalem killing 23 people, the Israeli newspaper Haaretz noted that
"Construction regulation in Jerusalem has been under a cloud since November
1999, when a huge corruption scandal exploded under the city's construction
regulation department. After a six month undercover operation, Jerusalem
poolice uncovered a ring of municipality officials who systematically
accepted hundreds of thousands of shekels in bribes from architects
and contractors." [AVRAHAMI, I., 5-27-01]
In 1999, in examining Israeli Likud Party fundraising, the Jewish Week noted that "almost $300,000 appears to have vanished somewhere between the United States and its Israeli charitable destination. And at least under $160,000 -- donated by right-wing philanthropist Dr. Irving Moskowitz to a fund-raiser linked to Likud -- was never reported to the U.S. Internal Revenue Service, as required by law." [COHLER-ESSES, L., 2-19-99, p. 1]
In 2001, "[Israeli] Histradut Teachers Union head Avraham Ben-Shabbat and his deputy Uri Groman, were placed under 14 days' house arrest by Tel Aviv District Court ... after both admitted to fraudulently obtaining academic degrees, then using them to receive higher pay." [SOMMER, A., 12-11-01]
And let us not forget the swindles befalling some of the immigrants to Israel from the former Soviet Union. In 1996, a class action suit was filed against Va'ad (the Ukrainian Jewish immigration umbrella organization), an immigration activist named Yosef Zisels, the Jewish Agency, and the Liason Bureau of the Israeli government. "According to the charges," notes the Jerusalem Post, "the immigrants gave money from their savings and the sale of their property to Zisels to transfer to Israel at the advice of emissaries working for the agency and bureau. However, they claim they were not paid the sums half a year later, as had been stipulated in the contract with the Va'ad." [TSUR, p. 6] Then came the 1999 investigations of "lawyers who reportedly cheated thousands of elderly Israelis out of more than half a billion dollars by offering to help them obtain German pensions. [i.e., Holocaust-era reparations]" [BARSHI]
In November of 1999 the Montreal Gazette noted that
���� "It was scandal, and lots of it, that truly occupies the country's [Israel's]
���� attention. There was a scandal of lust, scandal of greed, scandal
���� of corruption. There was a scandal involving the national soccer
���� team for losing a key match following pregame visits to a house
���� of ill repute. There was a scandal involving former prime minister
���� Benyamin Netanyahu and his wife, Sarah, accused of accepting
���� bribes and stealing valuable state gifts. And there was yeshiva
���� scandal aplenty. So much muck was being raked that the
���� newspaper Yediot Ahronot even ran a full-page scandal guide
���� on Friday, with boxes for every major affair, its suspects, its
���� allegations and the status of its investigation." [SONTAG, D.,
���� 11-28-99, p. 17]
In 2000, nothing had changed. The Jewish Week headlined an article "Israel Sinking in Scandal Swamp: 'Light Unto Nations' Seen Losing Moral Bearing Amid Corruption, Fraud Probes." New scandals included those surrounding Israel's president, Ezer Weizman, who had taken hundreds of thousands of dollars in a secret fund from French Jewish millionaire Edouard Sarousi, and Prime Minister Ehud Barak "who was questioned by state Comptroller Eliezer Goldberg last week about allegations that fictitious associations illegally pumped foreign contributions into his 1999 election campaign." [AIN, S., 1-28-2000, p. 1]
In 2002, Israeli MK (Member of Knesset/Parliament) Michael Kleiner complained that "World Jewish organizations are set to 'rake into their coffers' some $1 billion in unclaimed funds allocated by Swiss banks to compensate for assets from dormant Holocaust-era accounts ... Kleiner accused the [Israeli] government, along with Jewish organizations, of compliance in allowing the Swiss to avoid publishing the lists of bank account and insurance policyholders. The Jewish organizations have a conflict of interests, he said, since they cut a deal under which all unclaimed monies would go to them." [GILBERT, N., 1-15-02]
Scandals in Israel are an old theme. Looking back to the 1970s, notes Richard Rubenstein, "there was a serious loss of public confidence in the Labor government [the then-empowered political party] as a result of revelations of economic corruption and greed among some government leaders, heads of state-owned banks, corporations, and the Histradut labor federation." [RUBENSTEIN, R., p. 229] And as World Zionist Organization president Nahum Goldmann noted about Israel's first prime minister, David Ben Gurion:
�
���� "A promise to him was quite worthless. He did not hesitate to promise
���� one thing and do the opposite. He was absolutely unscrupulous. He
���� never pursued any objective other than realizing the Zionist ideal
���� and satiating his immense ambition." [GOLDMANN, N., 1978, p. 94]
In 2001, a London Guardian reporter noted with outrage that Israel has blatantly "cheated and lied and abused the trust" it had in trade agreements with European nations. "No sooner had the ink dried on [Israeli minister] Shimon Peres's signature [to a Euro-Israeli trade pact]," notes Brian Whitaker,
"than Israel began to cheat. To imagine that this was due to a few bent officials
in the customs department would be a mistake: cheating was built into the
system and it was carried out with the blessing of the Israeli government ...
In 1997, as a result of complaints, the European commission sent a delegation
to Israel to find out why Brazilian orange juice arriving in Europe had been
certified as Israeli in order to qualify for preferential rates. The problem, the
delegation concluded, went way beyond orange juice: Israeli customs officials
simply could not be trusted. The problem was so serious, their report said,
that 'the validity of ALL preferential certificates issued by Israel, for ALL
products,' was in doubt." [WHITAKER, B., 4-3-01]
An Israeli journalist noted the moral tenor of its citizens in 2001, a world view intrinsic to Jewish identity throughout the history of the Jewish diaspora and its traditional circumvention of surrounding Gentile law:
"The Israeli temperament does not accept rules of behavior and rejects
natural obedience to the law. The average Israeli is afraid to feel like
a sucker, so scorns the rules and regulations and regards the law as
an area of ever-expandable space in which to maneuver, outwit, bypass,
and bribe, if necessary, in order to achieve more." [BENZIMAN, U.,
5-27-01]
This theme was repeated again a week later by a Jewish ethnic magazine, The Forward, which wondered if Israel's national "personality trait" of subversion of civil law had roots in Jewish ethics in earlier times in other countries:
"[There is] universal awareness that something is definitely rotten in the state
of Isael. This is, after all, a country in which bending the rules is said to be a
national pasttime, cutting corners a way of life and cheating the authorities
the proof of merit ... Sticklers for the law are ridiculed and abused, where
anyone who works by the book is branded a sap, a 'freier,' the worst insult
in modern Israeli lexicon ... Many people believe Israeli laxity, which borders
on anarchy, is a national personality trait that cannot be eradicated by laws
alone. Some trace the trait all the way back to the historical Jewish Diaspora,
where Jews often found solace in bending the rules imposed by the often
anti-Semitic authorities." [SHALEV, C., 6-1-01]
The same year, Michael Finkel had this to say, about another criminal subject, in the New York Times:
"Moshe lives in Israel, which happens to be one of the more active nations in the
international organ-trafficking market. The market, which is completely illegal, is
so complex and well organized that a single transaction often crosses three
continents ... Yet in Israel and a handful of other nations, including India, Turkey,
China, Russia and Iraq, organ sales are conducted with only a scant nod toward
secrecy. In Israel, there is even tacit government acceptance of the practice -- the
national health-insurance program covers part, and sometimes all, of the cost of
brokered transplants. Insurance companies are happy to pay, since the cost of
kidney surgery, even in the relatively short run, is less than the cost of dialysis.
According to the coordinator of kidney transplantation at Hadassah University
Hospital in Jerusalem, 60 of the 244 patients currently receiving post-transplant
care purchased their new kidney from a stranger -- just short of 25 percent of the|
patients at one of Israel's largest medical centers participating in the organ business.
Relatively few transplant operations, illegal or legal, take place in Israel. Every
proposed kidney transplant in the country between two unrelated people is carefully
screened for evidence of impropriety by a national committee. Therefore, almost
all of these illegal surgeries are performed elsewhere, in nations where the laws are
easier to duck, including the United States. Israel also does not contribute much
to the supply side of the equation. Organ donation is extremely low; an estimated
3 percent of Israelis have signed donor cards .... Paying for an organ has become
so routine in Israel that there have been instances in which a patient has elected not
to accept the offer of a kidney donation from a well-matched relative. 'Why risk
harm to a family member?' one patient told me. Instead, these patients have decided
that purchasing a kidney from someone they've never met -- in almost all cases
someone who is impoverished and living in a foreign land -- is a far more palatable
option ... A few Americans do go abroad for transplants. A man named Jim
Cohan, who lives in Los Angeles, helps organize such trips ... Cohan's price for
a kidney, he says, is $125,000 ... Only a small portion of the money actually goes
to the person selling the organ -- as little as $800 ... [There is a physician] who
has repeatedly been accused by the Israeli media, including one of the
nation's leading daily papers, Haaretz, of paricipating in hundreds of
overseas transplants, many of them in Turkey. The [Israeli] surgeon's name
is Zaki Shapira." [FINKEL, M., 5-26-01]
In 2001, an Israeli newspaper, Ha'aretz, announced that
"Romanian authorities are looking into the possible links between Israeli
adoption agencies and an illegal global conspiracy to sell organs for transplants.
The Romanian embassy in Israel has asked for, and received from the Labor
and Social Affairs Ministry, a list of all children born in Romania who have been
brought to Israel for adoption in recent years. The Romanian officials are trying to
ascertain if all such children arrived in Israel with all their organs in their bodies."
[REZNICK, R., 12-13-01]
In the midst of the growing 1980s Wall Street scandal, the American Jewish Committee held a panel discussion on Jewish ethics at a conference luncheon. The Palm Beach Jewish Journal quoted Rabbi David Gordis as worrying that with all the negative publicity some might see Jews in America broadly "as exploiters of the economy, parasites, profiteers." [EHRLICH, p. 342] Judith Ehrlich and Barry Rehfeld note that
����� "[Pointing] to the dangers to Jews from the prominence of Jewish names
������� in current scandals and the imagery that emerged from the visibility,
������� Rabbi Gordis urged that 'as a people we must look more deeply into
������� the recesses of our traditions, our experiences, our values.'"
������� [EHRLICH, p. 345]
The "crisis in Jewish ethics" in America, epitomized in the Wall Street scandals, was of course nothing new to the 1980s. Well-publicized scandals involving prominent and powerful Jews surface fairly regularly.� Gerald Krefetz, for instance, noted a particularly nasty Jewish-based scandal in the 1970s:
�� ��"Bathed in the merciless lights of Congressional hearings, the witnesses
����� exposed to a national audience the morbid, pathetic, and sordid
����� conditions of senior citizens in nursing and old-age homes. It was as if
����� they had found that a Jew was in charge of a concentration camp. The
����� whole proceedings were a shanda (shame) of the first order, [with] illegal
����� practices of a rabbi and other prominent Jews on a captive population
����� unable to protect itself ... [Rabbi Bernard] Bergman was more than a
����� symbolic figure of evil in the nursing home industry -- he was the
����� industry ... [KREFETZ, p. 128] ... It became clear that Bergman had
����� almost oligopolic powers, with interests in close to a hundred different
���� �homes across the nation. It also became clear that perhaps more than any
����� other industry or service area, Jews dominated the field, that many of the
����� operators were Jewish, including Bergman, Eugene Hollander, and Albert
����� Schwartzberg ... Insensitivity, greed, and human degradation were the
����� hallmark of a majority of the private facilities. And that the chief
����� perpetrator of this terminal inhumanity should be an orthodox rabbi and a
����� prominent Zionist was a mind-boggling reversal of values ... [KREFETZ,
����� p. 129].... One illustration is perhaps typical of Bergman's operations,
����� his persistence, his political connections, and his unabashed use of his
����� 'Jewishness' that he paraded as if he were its victim ... [KREFETZ, p.
����� 131] ... The hypocritical Bergman was using the lethal and explosive
����� charge of anti-Semitism as a foil for his commercial maneuvers."
����� [KREFETZ, p. 132]
Bergman was prominent a number of Jewish Orthodox institutions. "Reputed to be worth $100 million," notes Alan Dershowitz, "he had held the presidency of numerous Jewish philanthropic, religious, and educational institutions." [DERSHOWITZ, 1987, p. 126] He was "one of the richest and most powerful orthodox Jews in the world," notes Robert Friedman, "with close ties to Israel's National Religious Party. He made a fortune from a national conglomerate of Medicaid nursing homes, where infirm patients were left unattended to soak in their own urine ... No doubt Bergman learned his business ethics from his parents who were not only bootleggers, but also were convicted in 1941 of smuggling eight kilos of heroin from France in the bindings of Hebrew prayer books." [FRIEDMAN,� False, p. 17] "In my lifetime in this city," declared another Jewish critic in the Village Voice, "I have never encountered anyone as rotten as Bernard Bergman." Within three months, 62 articles about Bergman were published in the New York Times alone. [DERSHOWITZ, 1987, p. 119]
Sensationally, the judge in the Bergman case, Marvin Frankel, sentenced the rabbi to a term of only four months, a decision that elicited outrage from all corners. A Jewish Congressman, notes Alan Dershowitz, "warned that 'there will be anti-Semitism flowing from the fact' that the judge and defendant were both Jewish." [DERSHOWITZ, p. 120]� Special State Nursing Home Prosecutor Charles Hynes declared the punishment "insubstantial" and that it was "special justice for the privileged." [DERSHOWITZ, p. 120] A second judge, Aloysius Melia, reviewed the case and added a year to Bergman's sentence.
In 1993, when prominent non-Jewish American lawyer Michael Tygar took up the U.S. citizenship case of John Demjanjuk -- after his new client had been exonerated in Israel of being the Nazi operative Ivan the Terrible -- a Jewish faculty member at the Hofstra Law School, Monroe Freedman, publicly rebuked Demjanjuk's new lawyer in a well-known law journal: "Is John Demjanjuk the kind of client to whom you want to dedicate your training, your knowledge, your extraordinary skills?" [MARGOLICK, p. B18] Tigar's response to Freedman's pained moral query was an emphatic yes. Demjanjuk, after all, had never been proven to be guilty of any crime, and he had been cleared of the charge of being Ivan the Terrible. And Monroe Freedman? Freedman had been one of the lawyers for the aforementioned Rabbi Bergman who was found guilty of particularly heinous crimes against the helpless elderly, a client who was widely known as "the meanest man in New York." [MARGOLICK, p. B18]
Other scandals in the 1970s included that which caused non-Jewish actor Cliff Robertson to be blacklisted for four years [MCCLINTICK, p. 518] by the largely Jewish Hollywood crowd [see forthcoming media section] for reporting a forgery by the president of Columbia Pictures, David Begelman. The investigation of Begelman ultimately led to an embezzlement scandal and press investigations into the whole unethical base of the film business itself.� Robertson attracted animosity also because of his public demands for further police investigation into something that he believed to be merely the tip of an iceberg, especially after Begelman was tentatively removed from his post at Columbia, but reinstated. "The entire entertainment community had been shaken [by the scandal]," noted David McClintick in 1982, "Four of the seven major studios -- Columbia, Fox, MGM, and United Artists -- had changed drastically." [MCCLINTICK, p. 518]� As the scandal attracted increased media attention, the Los Angeles Herald Examiner's entertainment columnist noted the essence of the situation: "The Washington Post apparently is incensed because the Hollywood trade press never used the word 'embezzlement' [in referring to the Begelman scandal]. There's a reason for that. Embezzlement is not a sin in Hollywood. It's a way of life." [MCCLINTICK, p. 354]� (Begelman had once been an agent for Judy Garland who believed that he had stolen $200,000 from her). [SHIPMAN, 1993, p. 448]
In 1977, Jewish author Michael Hellerman had his autobiography published. It was entitled "Wall Street Swindler." Criminal associates noted that he was "the master [swindler] of them all" and "when it comes to the big swindle, Hellerman is a genius. He makes us all look like pikers." [HELLERMAN/RENNER, 1977, p. viii] Hellerman grew up "in the bosom of a deeply religious affluent family in the heart of suburban Long Island" but was "driven by an almost insatiable desire for riches and luxury." [HELLERMAN/RENNER, 1977, p. ix] "As a thief," says Thomas Renner,
���� "Hellerman was the very personification of the white-collar criminal.
���� ... Like the men of the Mafia he often dealt with and cheated, Hellerman
���� could and did leave his victims stripped of their dignity, financially
���� destitute, and psychologically traumatized." [HELLERMAN/RENNER,
���� 1977,p. ix]
In the political realm, in 1977 the Jewish governor of Maryland, Marvin Mandel, and four others were "convicted of conspiracy to have the Governor influence race track legislation in return for $380,000 in bribes." [AYRES, B.D., p. A1] Mandel served 19 months of a four year prison sentence. One of those convicted with him, Irwin Kovens, "was a major sponsor of Mr. Mandel's political career. He helped raise millions of dollars for Mr. Mandel's campaign for governor in 1970 and 1974." [NYT, 11-2-89, p. B21] [BALTIMORE JEWISH TIMES, 1-23-98, p. 8]
Shortly thereafter, in 1982, another Maryland Jewish politician was sentenced to prison. Baltimore City Council President Walter Orlinsky pleaded guilty to "one count of extortion ... [He also] conceded that the Government could prove other charges against him." [NYT, 9-23-82, p. A24] [BALTMORE JEWISH TIMES, 1-23-98, p. 8] He was originally indicted on 12 counts of extortion and mail fraud.
In 1999, Donald Warshaw, also Jewish, and Miami's powerful city manager, was fired after nearly two years in the position. He faced a "federal indictment charging he misspent public pension and charity funds on luxurious items." He was accused of "spending $86,563 in pension and charity funds on trips, designer clothes, $21,276 in hockey tickets and other things from 1993 to 1995 while serving as police commissioner ... Warshaw's friend, accountant Ronald Stern, as named as an unindicted co-conspirator. He killed himself in July 1999 after allegations surfaced that he embezzled $500,000 from the pension fund while serving as its auditor and investment adviser. He was also the charity's accountant." [WILSON, C., 10-11-2000]� In 1993, Dade County Commissioner (Miami, Florida) Joe Gersten, also Jewish, was accused of smoking cocaine with a prostitute in a Miami drug den and subsequently fled to Australia. [DE FEDE, J., 3-16-94]
In 1995, Joe Waldholtz, the Jewish husband of non-Jewish Utah Congressman Enid Greene was exposed in a scandal that sent him to prison for 21 months and effectively destroyed his wife's political career. Waldholtz, noted Salt Lake City's Deseret News, "lied and bullied his way to notoriety ... during a scandal that involved Waldholtz's ex-wife, then Congresswoman Enid Greene, check kiting, illegal money transfers, federal election law violations, drug abuse and bizarre behavior ... [He was] convicted of embezzling nearly $4 million from his former father-in-law and illegally funneling most of it into Greene's 1994 election campaign [which she won]." [DILLON, L., 5-29-99, p. A1] Greene, pleading complete innocence, divorced him soon after the scandal.
In Florida, in 1999, State Senator Al Gutman was sentenced to two years in prison for "conspiracy in a Medicare fraud case." Gutman and his wife Marci "secretly owned companies that billed Medicare for health care services that were not performed." He "collected at least $2 million from fraudulent billings while he served in the Legislature." [FIELDS, T., 10-20-99; FIELDS, T., 10-26-99]
In 2000, Paul Adler, a "key" Hillary Clinton political adviser (particularly to the Jewish community) and head of the Democratic Party in New York's Rockland County, was arrested on charges of "public corruption, fraud, extortion, and other charges linked to his real estate transactions." [FORWARD, 9-15-00, p. 15] In 2002, Edward Mezvinsky, a former (Jewish) Congressman from Iowa, "was indicted on 66 counts of fraud and related charges for allegely bilking more than $10 million." Those signing letters trying to get him off easy were Edward Shils (a University of Pennsylvania professor, Jonathan Yarowsky, a former genral counsel to the U.S. House Judiciary Committee, and Rabbi Gerald Wolpe. [MOORE, T., 1-9-02]
In the 1960s, a former Jewish socialist activist turned rich playboy, Bernie Cornfeld, was probably that decade's best known financial swindler, defrauding 250,000 investors in his Investors Overseas Service (IOS) mutual funds company. [NYT, 3-1-95, p. A10]� With a million customers in 26 countries around the world, and employing 20,000 employees, Cornfeld, amassing a personal fortune of over $100 million. He promised millions to Israeli causes and started a mutual fund system at the Tel Aviv stock exchange. "Stories of shady dealings, mismanagement, plain stupidity, what some lawyers were calling outright fraud, were filling the financial pages of newspapers and magazines all over the world," noted one of his former associates, Bert Cantor. [CANTOR, p. 8]� Cantor also had this to say about who ran the corrupt IOS business:
���� "A minor IOS executive in evaluating the company's personnel practices
����� remarked that status in the [company's] hierarchy could be measured in
����� four categories: 1) Nice Jewish boys from Brooklyn who belonged to
����� Bernie's Boy Scout troop, 2) Nice Jewish boys from Brooklyn, 3) Nice
����� Jewish boys, 4) Everyone else." [CANTOR, p. 7-8]
In 1975 Cornfeld was convicted for telephone fraud. In 1990, Forbes magazine reported that the IRS claimed Cornfeld still owed $15 million in taxes going back thirty years. [NYT, 3-1-95]
Another (extremely) noteworthy Jewish fraud of the Cornfeld era was that of Stanley Goldblum. In the 1970s he was sentenced to prison for the 'biggest corporate fraud in United States history," "one of history's greatest hoaxes." His Equity Funding Corporation of America sold $2 billion worth of fake insurance policies --64,000 of them -- to other insurers. In later years he surfaced as a criminal again, arrested in 1999 "in a scheme to operate a number of medical clinics that allegedly bilked the workers' compensation system." [NY TIMES, 3-26-75; GAW, p. C1] [DIRKS/GROSS, p. 3-4]
Also in the 1960s, Australia had a memorable Jewish scandal. Stanley Korman, notes Jewish commentator Leon Gettler,
"shocked and angered the White Anglo-Saxon Protestant pillars of the establishment
back in the 60's. Sure, Korman was a crook. They hated him and sent him and sent
him to jail for fleecing his shareholders. But they hated him even more because
he was Jewish." [GETTLER, L, 2000, p. 27]
More recently, much-publicized Jewish crime figures include the sensationally ostentatious penny-pincher and tax evader, Leona Helmsley (Ms. Helmseley, noted the Economist, "had long been labeled one of the villains of modern America. A witness at her trial testified that she had once said 'only the little people pay taxes' and the little people remembered." [ECONOMIST, 4-25-92, p. 28]� "Helmsley," noted Reuters, "was found guilty ... of writing off a wide variety of personal items as business expenses, including bras, shoes and dresses, a million dollar pool cover that doubled as a dance floor, and a $130,000 stereo system." [APPELSON])�
Another big scandal of the 1980s focused on the Hollywood "madam� trafficker of prostitutes to the stars, Heidi Fleiss, also Jewish and the daughter of a prominent doctor.� "Like Begelman," noted the Los Angeles Times, "the new [Fleiss] scandal stands as a symbol of corruption in Hollywood." [ELLER, p. B8]�� Fleiss, noted Entertainment Weekly, "has given two of the studio chieftains -- executive vice president Michael Nathanson and executive vice president of production Barry Josephson [both Jewish] -- leading roles in the ever-widening Hollywood sex scandal." [KENNEDY, 8-20-93]� "What is obvious is that the potential scandal," said the New York Times, ".... involved heavy use of cocaine and other drugs ... One executive, Michael Nathanson, president of production at Columbia Pictures, denied on Tuesday, through his lawyer, Howard Weitzman, that he had used film-development money to procure prostitutes..." [WEINRAUB, p A4] After Nathanson's denial of involvement in the ring, Ivan Nagy (Fleiss's boyfriend, also arrested for soliciting call girls) leaked a copy of her "black book" to the New York Daily News; it included Nathanson's phone number.
Fleiss was eventually sentenced to prison in 1993 for attempted pandering, tax evasion, and money laundering. She was once quoted as saying that the aforementioned Bernie Cornfeld "was the only real boyfriend in my life." [WASH POST, 3-2-95, p. B4]� Fleiss' father, noted the Los Angeles Times, "a well-known Los Feliz pediatrician who recently examined the newborn daughter of pop star Madonna, was previously sentenced to three years' probation, 625 hours of community service and fined $50,000 for conspiring to hide profits from his daughter's call girl ring." [MCDONNELL, p. B1, B3]�
A kindred soul in professional ethics to Dr. Heiss in the late 1960s and early 1970s was Dr. Max Jacobson. Nicknamed "Dr. Feelgood," his license to practice was eventually suspended for routinely giving amphetamine injections into a large number of celebrities. [SEAMAN, p. 386-388]� Jacobson and another Jewish doctor, Lee Siegel, are cited by one author as famous "drug pushers" for Hollywood studios. There were "stories," notes Dennis McDougal, "about physicians on the TV or movie set who injected stars with 'vitamins' to keep them performing ... It became clear after a while that [movie star] agents did not interfere with the addictions that were killing Allen Ladd, Montgomery Cliff, and Judy Garland." [MCDOUGAL, p. 259] Dr. Robert Feder, another Hollywood physician, "gave amphetamines, or uppers, to some of his patients if they needed to be 'on' for a particular performance or day." In the case of drug-addicted actor John Belushi, Feder fed him uppers through Belushi's agent, Bernie Brillstein [WOODWARD, 1984, p. 244-245]
(Among the great medical fraudsters of the early 20th century was Albert Abrams. Arthur Cramp of the American Medical Association once said that Abrams "easily ranked as the dean of twentieth century [medical] charlatans." Abrams used a variety of invented machines, often based on the radio, that were supposed to diagnose, and even cure, disease.) [YOUNG, J., 1967, p. 138-139]
Doctor Melvyn Rosenstein is also a noteworthy surgeon. Self-described as the "world's leading authority on penile surgery," he spent $250,000 a month in advertising across the country in an effort to entice men to have surgical penis elongation. He reportedly netted $30 million in this practice between 1991 and 1995. By then, however, dozens of men (over 40 in southern California alone) had surmounted their embarrassment to come forward to sue him for malpractice, for misinformation, and for deforming their sexual organs. A California Medical Board spokesman declared that those who had come forward to sue Rosenstein were "the tip of the iceberg." In 1996 Rosenstein was forbidden to further practice his lucrative trade. [HOLDING, R., 4-24-95, p. A9; SHUIT, D., 3-5-96, p. B1] (In the women's world of cosmetic surgery, socialite Joyce Wildenstein -- one of the heirs to the opulent Jewish Wildenstein art gallery dynasty -- has become the much lambasted symbol in the New York media for those who have had face lifts too many times).
Moving along in the generic fraud department, up north, in Ontario, Canada, in 1991 Jewish lawyer Herman Melnitzer parked his Jaguar XJS coupe and "pleaded guilty to one of Canada's biggest cases of fraud." [TYLER, p. A1] He was charged with 43 cases of "forgery, fraud and attempted fraud relating to $1 billion worth of phony stock certificates he used to trick banks into giving him $43 million in lines of credit, $12.3 million which was spent." [TYLER, p. A1]
Also in the 1990s, certainly a rival to the claim of "Canada's biggest fraud,� the Bre-X gold mining scam swept the world's imagination in what the Ottawa Citizen eventually called a "monumental swindle."� It began when a small company (co-owned by David Walsh, Michael de Guzman, and John Felderhof) in Calgary, Canada, claimed to have discovered a huge new source of gold in Indonesia. Soon enough, the head (Peter Munk; also Jewish) of Canada's largest gold producer (Barrick Gold Corporation) was a player in the story. "In the heat of negotiations between [Munk's company] and Bre-X," notes the Citizen,
������ "one of Munk's executives was reluctant to talk business with his boss
������� on Yom Kippur, an important Jewish holiday when Munk would be
������� observing the Day of Atonement. Munk dismissed his vice-president's
������� concerns. 'This is more important to me than anything. I know it. God
������� knows it. And there's no point in trying to fool anyone about it.'"
������� [SHER, p. E4]
While investors clamored to join the group that promised enough gold to rival the gross national product of the nearby Philippines, nothing substantial was ever found.
Steve Gaines notes the case of Jewish mogul Barry Trupin and his Rothschild Reserve International company:
"What made Trupin really rich was his 1976 discovery of a tax loophole
from which he could spin a personal fortune of $300 million, a 'money-
making machine,' he called it. Trupin found that a company could earn
huge tax deductions by leasing computers instead of buying them. Almost
every aspect of the transaction was deductible ... Although perfectly legal,
the dodge was a little cloudy. He began to proclaim himself the 'master of
corporate veil.'" [GAINES, S., 1998, p. 230]
In 1997 Trupin "was indicted by the U. S. government as a tax cheat for the avoidance of $6.6 million in taxes." He was also "convicted in federal district court of receiving, possessing, and selling a stolen painting [by Marc Chagall]." Also, "thirty-nine investors in Trupin's various companies were suing him" and the FBI "launched an investigation into Trupin's interest in a Tustin, California, bank in which he had bought a 62 percent controlling interest and had introduced a number of loans that had to be written off as bad." [GAINES, S., 1998, p. 270]
In 1997, Arnie Zaler was arrested in Arizona for fraud totaling millions of dollars, swindling as many as 60 people.� Earlier, he had been so well-established in the Phoenix community that he was considered a strong Democratic candidate for Congress. The Arizona Republic notes that, when financial troubles began to hit him in 1994,
�
���� "Zaler dropped out of sight. Private investigators hired by investors
����� discovered that he had been laying low in Phoenix and Denver, and
����� occasionally slipping out of the country to spend time in Israel. Zaler
����� had dual citizenship in the United States and Israel. They even learned
����� that Zaler made a large donation to a new temple outside Tel Aviv
����� that was named after him." [MILLER, E., p. A1]
In 1992, Larry Douglas, a well-known Jewish New York City political activist in Democratic mayoral and Presidential campaigns, "disappeared."� The New York Times noted that a city councilman and close friend of Douglas, Robert J. Dryfoos
����� "was embroiled in a Federal tax-evasion scandal, and rumors flew that
������ Mr. Douglas had his own tax problems. He took a plane to Israel and
������ didn't come back until the cases had been dropped." [TOY, Sec1, p.
������ 27]
As noted above, if threatened with exposure and arrest in America, an emergency bailout for Israeli, American-Jewish, or any other international Jewish criminals throughout the world is Israel's Law of Return, in which Jews can essentially rush to Israel for sanctuary.� Israeli law officially forbids the extradition of any Israeli citizen for crimes committed in another country, and any Jew on earth may acquire -- by simple birthright, and an application -- Israeli citizenship. Many American Jews do indeed hold both American and Israeli citizenships. This curious convenience garnered considerable outrage and publicity in the 1997 case of American-born Samuel Sheinbein -- the son of (technically) an Israeli citizen -- who was accused of murder. The teenager fled to Israel and sought refuge under the "law of return" for worldwide Jewry.
Sheinbein's accused crime was particularly heinous: he and another Jewish youth (old friends from the Charles E. Smith Jewish Day School) were charged with murder, including sawing off the Hispanic victim's arms and legs with a chainsaw, and attempting to burn the body. The other teenager accused in the case, Adam Needle, was arrested and jailed; he subsequently committed suicide. Sheinbein, meanwhile, had hurried off to Israel, a place he was visiting for the first time in his life.
Sheinbein's plan of escape rested on his father, Shlomo, who had immigrated to America from Israel with his family in 1950, at the age of 6. This entitled him to perpetual Israeli citizenship. He eventually became a lawyer and was so "American" that he was even employed by the Pentagon. [BALTIMORE SUN, 10-11-97, p. 23]� Ironically, Shlomo's own father had been murdered in Tel Aviv in 1982. The London Guardian notes that
���� "He was shot in the head at close range in his office, from where he was
������ suspected of organizing illegal money transfers between Israel and the
������ United States. He left property valued at pounds 44 million."
������ [BORGER, p. 16]
The American government formally requested from Israel the extradition of Samuel Sheinbein to be tried for murder. As far the Jewish state was concerned, however, if Sheinbein's father was indeed an Israeli citizen, his son must also be considered a citizen -- no matter that he had never been to Israel -- and therefore immune from extradition to America.
In October 1997, the Israeli government formally refused the American extradition request. "He cannot be extradited," declared an Israeli Justice Ministry spokesperson, "He was an Israeli citizen when the crime was committed." [ASSOC. PRESS, p. 62]� This decision elicited an extremely unusual storm of outrage and indignation within the U.S. Congress. Shortly thereafter, members of that legislative body announced that it was postponing a scheduled transfer of $180 million in U.S. aid to Israel. Newly attentive, Israel later suggested a Sheinbein trial in Israel, and eventually a further compromise: Sheinbein could be tried in America, but would serve his prison term in Israel.
In May 1998, U.S. prosecutors rejected such compromise proposals. As Agence France Presse noted:
����� "Justice officials in Maryland had expressed concern that Sheinbein
����� would be released early if he served a term in Israel." [AFP, 5-3-98,
����� ONLINE]
Meanwhile, all the bad press and economic Congressional action forced some major American Jewish agencies to take extremely unusual positions on the case, that is to say, to publicly criticize Israel. "Noting the victim was a Hispanic youth," noted the Jerusalem Post, "the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith has warned that failure [to extradite Sheinbein] will have 'consequences which transcend this case alone.'" [J.P., 10-9-97, p. 8]� Even the Executive Director of the American Jewish Congress, Phil Baum, announced that "Sheinbein's connection to Israel is so patently tenuous as to verge on the fraudulent." [PR NEWSWIRE, 10-9-97, ONLINE]� "Regardless of how it may be presented,� the Jerusalem Post editorialized, "a failure to expedite will be interpreted by many as Israel's willingness to shield people accused of committing heinous crimes." [J.P., 10-9-97, p. 8] "[The] extradition law is part of Israeli law, end of story," noted Stuart Schoffman in the Washington Post, "But alongside this flat formulation runs an age-old protective instinct: You don't surrender a Jew to the gentiles." [SCHOFFMAN, p. B1]
Israel eventually decided that Samuel Sheinbein was not a citizen after all, because of a small technicality:� Israel's Law of Return was suddenly noted to have been created two years after Sheinbein's father left Israel, and therefore not applicable to him and his son. Nonetheless, by a 3-2 vote, in February 1999 the Israeli Supreme Court ruled finally that Sheinbein could claim Israeli citizenship and could not be extradited. "I am disappointed in Israel," said the Maryland lawyer, Douglas Ganser (who is also Jewish), set to prosecute the case in America, "because the [Israeli] ruling didn't make sense. It's not even a close call. It looks bad for the Jewish people." [BESSER, J., 3-5-99, p. 10]
At the same time as the Sheinbein fiasco, the United States government was also trying to extradite Chaim Berger from Israel to stand trial in America too. While the Jewish state was deciding what to do with this case, in May 1999, "despite objections by United States law-enforcement officials, an Israeli court ... approved an unusual $3 million bail agreement" for this founder of a Hasidic community in New York. Under the "personal bond" of two Israeli rabbis and the governments housing minister, Berger was allowed complete freedom from jail in mornings and evenings. "U.S. officials warned Israel against freeing Berger, contending that he fled New York 18 months ago knowing he would be indicted for his part in stealing $20 million in federal and state education and housing grants and subsidies. Four other co-defendants were also indicted in the U.S. -- two of them were yet in hiding. A rabbi in Berger's community complained that "the [Hasidic] community's sense is the government's pound of flesh has been exacted and there's no need to drag a 73-year old Holocaust survivor into this." [GREENBERG, J.J., 3-12-99, p. 12]
In the 1980s, France had its own major run-in with Israel's shielding of international Jewish criminals when Israel's Ministry of Justice delayed for years the extradition of a French Jew, William Nakash. Nakash had been convicted there for murder. "French officials," noted Reuters, "insist that [Nakash was involved in] a gangland killing between rival pimps." [TAYLOR, ONLINE] The Jewish Week noted the mood in Israel, however, about France's extradition request:
������� "Nakash, who claims to be newly Orthodox, has been passionately
�������� defended by Orthodox Jews and right-wing nationalists. They have
��� �����depicted him a hero who killed an Arab in self-defense, a 'nationalistic'
�������� act forced upon him by unbearable harassment by Jew-hating Arabs,
�������� abetted by a climate of rampant anti-Semitism in [the French town of]
�������� Besancon." [EYTAN, p. 3, 34]
A former Deputy Mayor of Besancon, a Jewish lawyer named Jacques Lorach, responded by saying that "Never in my life, and certainly not in my political career, have I heard or been told an anti-Semitic remark." The town even has "one of the largest and most impressive memorials to the Holocaust outside Yad Vashem in Jerusalem and it was financed exclusively by the city and regional authorities." [EYTAN, p. 3, 34]
Nakash was finally only considered eligible for extradition when he proved to be a criminal problem in his new home. As the Chicago Tribune noted,
����� "In 1985, Nakash, by then an Israeli citizen, was arrested near Jerusalem
������ for plotting to rob a senior Christian prelate of 60 bars of gold and $2
������ million in cash. When Israeli police realized Nakash was the same man
������ sentenced for the Besancon murder, two courts, including Israel's
������ Supreme Court, ruled that he was extraditable to France ... [But] mindful
������ of the political damage [in Israel] that Nakash's extradition could cause,
������ Justice Minister Avraham Sharir, an astute Likud politician, ignored the
������ opinion of the Courts and last week barred Nakash's extradition."
������ [BRODER, p. C1]
In 2000, 124 people from the Paris Sentier district were put on trial, accused of embezzling $77 million from French banks. "The Sentier area of Paris [is the] center of the Jewish-run garment industry." [WEBSTER, 12-7-89] "The Sentier garment district in Paris .. is majority-owned by French Jews." [AGENCE FRANCE PRESSE, 7-16-99] The Sentier district "is renowned as the center for the rag-trade and a base for petty criminals." [GRAHAM, R., 2-20-01] "Thirteen of the accused, Israeli nationals or holders of dual Franco-Israeli nationality," noted the Jerusalem Post, "have fled to Israel." Struggling to get the Jewish state to extradite the accused criminals for trial, French prosecutor Francois Franchi complaned that "Israel has put itself beyond the pale of the international community. Its banking system encourages actions which explain what happened in this case."
[LEVEQUE, 2-25-01, p. 4]
"Investigators [into the Sentier affair]," noted Agence France Presse, "also uncovered money laundering networks with Austria, Belgium, and Israel ... most of the defendants are accused of being part of a criminal network." [AGENCE FRANCE PRESSE, 2-20-01] And the implications of the Sentier scandal to the Jewish community at-large? "Leaders of France's 750,000-strong Jewish community," noted the Jerusalem Post, "have privately fretted for months about possible effects on public opinion of the trial, which opened in a courtroom built specially to accommodate the mass of defendants and lawyers." [LEVEQUE, 2-25-01, p. 4]
Meanwhile, France was also trying to extradite Arkadi Gaydamak (Gaidamek), "a billionaire industrialist," from Israel for trial on charges of illegal arms trading. Gaydamak has Israeli, Canadian, French, and Angola passports. Newspaper reports noted that this mogul "had close ties with Danny Yatom, the security adviser to caretaker Israeli prime minister Ehud Barak." Gaydamak "called attacks on his character as 'aimed at a Jew and a Russian who succeeded in business.'" [AGENCE FRANCE PRESSE, 12-29-00]
Also in France, in 2002 "three of Israel's five leading banks [were] under investigation by French authorities as part of a larger, ongoing probe of a money-laundering network between France and Israel. The network used Jewish charitable institutions and cultural institutions based in France to process illegally-acquired money ... In November French officals said there were some 80 suspects in the case, including six rabbis. Six people are reportedly already in jail." [BERGER/STUB, 12-30-01]
Elsewhere, in 1993 Poland requested the extradition of two Polish Jews, Boguslaw Bagsik and Andrzej Gasiorowski, owners of the Art-B Trading Company (which owned 200 other companies), who had fled to Israel in 1991. They were accused, noted Reuters, "of stealing ... $310 million in the country's biggest financial scandal." [REUTERS, 5-20-92] Bagsik was known to have Polish, German, and Israeli citizenship. [REUTERS, 8-16-91, p. 16]� Israeli authorities conceded that at least $85 million had been transferred by Bagsik to the Jewish state. An Israeli newspaper reported that Gasiorowski complained of discrimination in Poland by "people feeling anti-Semitic sentiments." [POLISH NEWS BULLETIN, 8-91, p. 1]� Bagsik was captured in Switzerland the next year and faced 15 years in a Polish jail. Israel refused the extradition of Gasiorowski. [PAP NEWSWIRE, 1-31-97]
In 1994, another newsworthy Polish Jew, Solomon Morel, fled to Israel when Polish authorities sought to question him about his role in "possible postwar crimes against German civilians." [NEWSWEEK, 1-3-94, p. 6] Israel refused to return him to Poland.
Likewise, in 2000, the Israeli government refused to extradite Nahman Dushanski back to Lithuania where he is wanted for taking "part in the murder of Lithuanian prisoners during Soviet occupation in 1941." Lithuania also requested the extradition of Simion Borkov from Israel on similar charges. [MELMAN, 2-10-2999]
In 1992, yet another Jewish predator of the embryonic Polish capitalist state, David Bogatin, made international news for his corrupt bank (with 14 offices) in Poland. "Last month," noted the Montreal Gazette,
���� "a muckraking journalist discovered Bogatin's First Commercial Bank
���� was founded on fraud. Bogatin was unmasked as a con man -- alleged
���� to have connections with United States and Russian criminal syndicates --
���� who fled the United States after conviction on a tax evasion charge."
���� [MCKINSEY, K, 2-13-92, p. A12]
Bogatin, originally from the Soviet Union, had emigrated to the United States in 1977. Starting out as cab driver, by 1985 he was involved in shady business dealings, the Mafia, and major tax evasion. By 1987, he was arrested in Vienna for "carrying counterfeit securities." Bogatin, also noted as "one of [America's] biggest gasoline bootleggers," was eventually extradited to the United States and sentenced to prison for tax evasion. [LEGAL INTELLIGENCER, 5-15-92, p. 5]
From the Ukraine, in 1994 the Jewish acting head of the Ukrainian cabinet, Yefim Zvyagilsky, "was faced with charges of embezzlement of state property [worth $25 million]." [STETSYURA]� After fleeing to Israel, the Jewish state denied the Ukrainian request for his extradition.� "Ukrainian officials," noted Reuters, "say Zvyagilsky, a Jew by origin, acquired an Israeli passport during his two and a half years in Israel but he denies this ... Some top [Ukrainian] government officials, including Foreign Minister Hennady Vdovenko have suggested that Ukrainian authorities might have to think twice before appointing Jews to senior jobs in the future." [REUTERS, 2-12-97]
In April 1997 the Jewish Telegraphic Agency reported an intriguing banking story from Russia:
������� "The head of a large Russian bank who is also a prominent member of
�������� the country's Jewish community has been detained in Moscow on
�������� suspicion of embezzling more than $120 million ... Arkady Angelevich,
�������� who heads Moscow's Montazhspetsbank and is a member of the
�������� presidium of the Russian Jewish Congress, has been in prison since
�������� last week ... Angelevich was arrested on the way to the airport, where
�������� he was planning to leave for Israel, according to news reports."
�������� [KRICHEVSKY, 4-25-97, p. 6]
In 2001, Agence France Presse reported that
"Spain's top criminal court on Monday turned down a request by Russian
media magnate and Israeli-passport holder Vladimir Gusinsky to travel
to Israel to cast his vote in elections ... [Gusinsky faces] extradition to
Russia to face fraud charges." [AGENCE FRANCE PRESSE, 2-5-01]
Gusinsky is the head of the Russian Jewish Congress. Within two weeks, another prominent Russian Jew made the criminal news:
"The arrest of the well-known St. Petersburg businessman and vice-president
of the Russian Jewish Congress [Mikhail Mirilashvili] has caused outrage
in some political circles in Israel." [ST. PETERSBURG TIMES, 2-16-01]
Mirilashvili also has both Russian and Israeli citizenship.
(Another Eastern European Jewish mogul, Vadim Rabinovich, is founder and president of the All-Ukrainian Jewish Congress. He too has known "ties to Russian organized crime.") [BONNER, R., 6-12-01]
Even in war-torn Serbia, in 1994 the (Jewish) Forward noted that there were fears of an anti-Semitic backlash when Jews locally masterminded
������� "a billion dollar embezzlement racket. The scandal, a classic pyramid
�������� scheme, involved two banks, Yugoskandic and Dafiment ... Both
�������� banks claimed close links to Israel, and thousands queued over their
�������� money. Then the banks collapsed. The owner of Yugoskandic
�������� absconded to Israel with his investment money..." [RUBIN, E, p. 1]
This owner, Jezda Yasiljevic, notes the London Sunday Times, "fled to Israel, where he threatened to fund hit squads against politicians who turned against him." [BRANSON]� In 1992, Vasiljevic had purchased an island off the Montenegrin coast, "once the playground of Richard Burton and Sophia Loren," for hundreds of millions of dollars. [BRANSON]� The next year, notes the Christian Science Monitor,
����� "tens of thousands of panicked Belgraders besieged a soccer stadium
������ yesterday where numbered tickets were being given to withdraw money
������ from a private bank. The rush followed the collapse last week of another
������ bank whose owner fled to Israel, leaving a tangle that threatened to bring
������ down the whole economy of the remaining Yugoslavia." [BRANSON,
������ p. 3]�
"Vasiljevic's bank," said Time, "ran a classic Ponzi scheme, using new deposits to pay the interest on old ones." [GREENWALD, p. 58]
A sampling of other newsworthy items about Jews committing crimes throughout the world and then hurrying to Israel for refuge include:
�������� * Members of the Jewish Defense League. Between 1981 and 1987,
����������� the FBI blamed Jewish groups for 24 terrorist acts in the U.S. -- 17
����������� of them were believed to be perpetrated by the JDL. [THORNTON,
����������� p. A19] The Washington Post reported that "the Israeli government
����������� has failed to cooperate with a U.S. investigation of Jewish Defense
����������� League (JDL) members and associates suspected in a series of
����������� bombings and terrorist incidents in this country, according to an
����������� internal Federal Bureau of Investigations memo. The memo ... said
����������� several key suspects in the investigation have fled to Israel."
����������� [THORNTON, p. A19]� In 1992, seven years after the murder by
����������� bombing of Arab-American Alex Odeh, the president of the Arab-
����������� American Anti-Discrimination Organization Albert Mokhiber,
����������� complained that "the American government is asking to interrogate
����������� American citizens [in Israel] on a crime that occurred in America
����������� and the Israeli government is preventing it." [HEDGES, p. A3]
����������� Among others, William Ross, an important philanthropist to the
����������� Meir Kahane and his Kach Party, carried out a mail bomb murder
����������� "not for politics but for his own profit." [TUGEND, 8-19-88, p. 8]
��������� * Gordon Wolfson. In 1985 he was convicted of 34 counts of mail
������������ fraud after cheating investors out of $50 million in a real estate scam.
������������ Five days before Wolfson's sentencing, he paid the Israeli
������������ vice-consul in Miami, David Mordechai, $125,000 to arrange to
������������ get him on an El Al flight to Israel. Mordechai was sentenced two
������������ years later to six years in U.S. prison for aiding the criminal.
������������ "[Mordechai] did something that every Jew hopes to do once
������������ in his lifetime," explained his lawyer, "that is help a Jew go to
������������ Israel." [UPI, 1-10-87]
���������� ��
��������� * Eddie Antar. Head of a chain of electronics stores called Crazy
����������� Eddie, Antar escaped to Israel and lived under the name of "David
����������� Cohen" after a $63 million securities fraud judgment against him by
����������� the Securities Exchange Commission.
����������� [UPI, 6-24-92, ONLINE]
�������� * Dov and Ayala Engel. The two fled to Israel from Brooklyn in 1998
����������� after swindling American banks out of $100 million through their
����������� company Kent International.
(Although eventually brought to justice
in the U.S., in 2001 the New York Post noted that Dov "plans to cut
his 11-year [prison] sentence to less than half by serving time in the
Jewish state ... Under a 1999 extradition-treaty amendment, he can
serve his sentence in that country [Israel], where fraud charges carry
a maximum of five years' imprisonment." [SMITH, K., 12-4-01]
�������� * Michael Vishedsky and Shlomo Wishedsky. These two owners
����������� of a Brooklyn shoe store fled to Israel after committing "the largest
����������� Medicaid fraud ever uncovered in New York state, possibly the
����������� country." [UPI, 4-16-96]
�������� * Michael Schiff. In 1995, known by Chicago-area police authorities
����������� to have both American and Israeli citizenship, he raped and
����������� sodomized a woman who he was interviewing for a (non-existent)
����������� job as a nanny. He then fled to Israel. "Under terms of a U.S.-Israeli
����������� agreement," noted the Chicago Tribune, "the Tel Aviv government
����������� will not extradite one of its own citizens." [HILKEVITCH, p. 3, N]
��������� * Richard Minns -- Minns, is "the former jet-setting health club
������������ owner who was implicated but never charged in connection with the
������������ shooting of his former lover, in October 1980." She sued him for
������������ the injuries suffered and won $42.6 million in 1991. Minns by
������������ now was in Israel: [He] never showed up in court for depositions
������������ [in Texas] in connection with the suit ... [He] lived in Israel at the
������������ time of the trial ... [His lawyer son] says his father disinherited him
������������ ... because he married a woman who was not Jewish..." [SAPINO,
������������ B., 4-6-92]
�������� * Ezra Murad. A diamond dealer, in 1989 he was accused of
���������� defrauding Norway's second largest bank of $3 million.
���������� [HOROVITZ]
�������� * Samuel Dagan. An Israeli, he swindled two American banks out of
����������� $6 million. (Israel relented in this case and extradited him to the U.S.
������������ -- probably because of the problems he caused to Israel itself.
����������� Dagan had 21 earlier convictions in the Jewish state for fraud and
����������� extortion). [UPI, 8-15-90]
�������� * Yosef Lisch.� A Hasidic Jew, in 1998 he fled to Israel after the car
����������� he was driving in a motorcade for a prominent Orthodox rabbi hit and
����������� killed a seven year old Black child in the Crown Heights area of New
���������� York, resulting in local riots and increased Black-Jewish tensions.
����������� [NOEL, p. 27]
�������� * Ronald Carmon. An Israeli-born lawyer, he worked for a New York
����������� City program that offered legal services to the poor. He fled to Israel
����������� after being caught defrauding the city out of $7,000. [UPI, 12-22-88]
�������� * Nahum Vaskevitch. In 1994, this former head of the international
����������� mergers and acquisitions for Merrill Lynch in London absconded to
����������� Israel after an illegal "insider trader" scheme netted him $4 million.
����������� Fellow conspirator David Sofer was also Israeli. [APPELSON]
�������� * Ilan Mayan. In 1987, Mayan murdered a man in Los Angeles and
����������� fled to Israel, but was later arrested in Switzerland. [LA TIMES, 6-
����������� 25-87]
* Daniel Weiz. Weiz fled to Israel from Toronto after being charged
with second-degree murder. "Police have described the case as a random
assault by a group wearing ski masks." [ASSOCIATED PRESS, 12-15-99]
�������� * Natchum Gal. "In Alberta [Canada] in 1982," noted the Toronto
����������� Star, "Dr. Natchum Gal turned off the respirator sustaining a brain-
����������� damaged newborn girl and authorized a nurse to administer 15
����������� milligrams of morphine. The child died 40 minutes later. Gal denied
����������� any wrong doing, but he fled to Israel before facing a murder
����������� charge." [TORONTO STAR, 10-15-94, p. A4]
�������� * "Billy" King. In 1998 the New York Law Journal noted that he
����������� "fraudulently transferred to himself valuable estate properties
����������� consisting of commercial buildings in Manhattan. Subsequently, he
����������� remains a fugitive." [NY LAW, p. 31]
������� * Dror Haim Goldberg, an Israeli. Indicted in 1999 for murdering
���������� Manuela Silverio in a Houston wig shop, "[police] strongly suspect
���������� he has fled to Israel, which prohibits the extradition of its citizens for
���������� prosecution." [HOUSTON CHRONICLE, p. A30]� "It was vicious,"
���������� said Houston police sergeant George Aldreta, "We don't know the
���������� exact reason for it, but we suspect he may have done it for the pure
���������� pleasure of killing somebody." [AP, 2-12-99]
������� * Jeffrey Ashkenazi. Ashkenazi was a doctor in the small town of
�������� ��Greenville, Michigan. He was arrested in 1998, initially on a mail-fraud
���������� charge. Ashkenazi, noted the Associated Press, "had his medical
���������� license suspended after improperly treating 10 patients, one of whom
���������� died ... [He] reserved one-way plane tickets to Israel for himself and
���������� family."� [ASSOCIATED PRESS, 8-11-98]
������� * Paul Stern. Stern was indicted in 1971 for his part in a scam to
��������� defraud insurance companies, including fake care accidents and
��������� medical bills.� He was not arrested until 1997, when he tried to enter
��������� the U.S. from overseas. Stern, noted the Chicago Daily Law Bulletin,
��������� "was believed to have been in Israel the whole time." [STEPHENS,
��������� B., 4-9, 97]
������ * Kenyon Schulman. "Where is Kenyon Schulman?" asked the
��������� Houston Chronicle in 1992, "Harris County prosecutors ... learned
��������� through Schulman's lawyer ... that he's somewhere in Israel, probably
��������� Tel Aviv." Schulman was wanted for questioning when 400 hits of the
��������� drug Ecstasy were found in the trunk of his BMW. He had been
��������� arrested earlier, in 1988, for computer hacking. [MAKEIG, 10-21-92,
��������� p. A23]
������� * Sholam Weiss. He was the kingpin of the "nation's largest-ever
���������� insurance fraud" and, along with three of his four co-defendants
���������� (Jan Schneiderman, Jan Starr, and Keith Pound), was convicted
���������� of "racketeering, fraud, money laundering and other charges." Weiss
���������� was the brains behind criminal looting the National Heritage Life
���������� Insurance Company and was sentenced to "what is believed to be
���������� the largest Federal prison term ever imposed" -- 845 years.� "Many
���������� of the company's 35,000-40,000 policy holders lost most of their life
���������� savings." Most were elderly, living in Florida.� The criminal
���������� investigation against Weiss "followed a five year criminal investigation
���������� across nine states and led to dozens of indictments." On October 18,
���������� 1999, Weiss skipped his $500,000 bail bond and a New York court
���������� sentencing, thereby making the FBI's Most-Wanted list. A reward of
���������� $125,000 was also offered for information leading to his capture.
���������� Weiss was alleged to be in Israel, Austria, Brazil, or Belgium. Some
���������� suspected he was hiding in America. The presiding judge in his case
���������� also fined Weiss over $123 million, the criminal was also ordered to
���������� pay back another $125 million in restitution to insurance policyholders,
���������� and another judgment against him demanded $339 more for his
���������� crimes.
����������������� Weiss was raised in the Borough Park section of metropolitan
���������� New York City in a cloistered ultra-Orthodox community. He was
���������� "educated in a yeshiva [Jewish religious school], where he spoke
���������� Yiddish ... he did not learn to speak English until he was in his late
���������� teens." This criminal also "claimed that he was a victim of company
���������� executives who lured him unknowingly into the conspiracy and took
���������� advantage of his ties to the Jewish community." Weiss was
���������� earlier indicted in 1994 for mail fraud. He was also a co-owner of the
���������� famous Studio 54 nightclub and the Scores striptease joint.
��������� �He "testified that he was involved in several business ventures with
���������� lawyer Michael Blutrich and Lyle Pfeffer, who owned Scores in
���������� secret partnership with the mob." Pfeffer and Blutrich were
���������� sentenced to 25 years in prison for their roles in the National Heritage
���������� insurance fraud.� [RASHBAUM, W., 3-9-2000; RASHBAUM, W.,
���������� 11-22-99; ASSOCIATED PRESS, 11-2-99]
For some reason, Jewish American scamsters Harold and Alan Lieberman chose Chile, and not Israel, as their refuge from the arm of American law. The two fled the U.S. in 1992 to escape prison for fraud. "Their sudden departure," noted the St. Louis Post Dispatch, "came three years after the collapse of Lieberman Corporation, once one of the nation's top home builders." The brothers "left debts of $15 million and a 37-page Federal indictment accusing them of defrauding lenders, customers and contractors. They took with them a reported $6 million." [MIHAOPOULOS, D., 3-1-98]
Living in luxury in Santiago, "the Liebermans enjoyed a daily routine of Spanish lessons and every-Saturday visits to the Jewish temple." In 1997, Alan's wife and another man were caught trying to smuggle $750,000 back into the United State. Ms. Lieberman also had cocaine in her purse. Alan soon returned to America and was sentenced to prison. Brother Harold continued to resist expulsion from Chile, eventually committing suicide. [MIHALOPOULS, D., 3-1-98]
Fugitive (since 1983) Jewish American financier Marc Rich [who merits further discussion later in this chapter] chose Switzerland to escape the arm of American law. Nonetheless, he became an Israeli citizen in 1994 and "has donated about $200 million over the last 20 years to Israel and worldwide Jewish charities." [DOBBS, M., 2001, 2-21-01]
"Maryland con man" Martin Bramson ("the mastermind of one of America's largest insurance fraud schemes") chose Europe to hide. Tracked by Interpol for three years, Bramson was finally arrested in the tiny country of Liechtenstein where he fought extradition back to America to face charges of "money laundering, wire fraud and mail fraud." Bramson had swindled thousands of doctors and laundered money through 588 banks in countries throughout the world, including $43 million in a two-year period in Anguilla alone. Others in his business scams included his father Norman (an optometrist who went to prison in 1980) and his brother Leonard (a lawyer who went to prison in 1990). [JAMES, M., 5-17-95, p. A1; JAMES, M., 12-13-97, p. A1]
In 1997, Ira Einhorn was arrested in France for the 1981 murder of a woman in Philadelphia. He had "vanished" just before his trial was to begin. Einhorn was a "former peace activist," Philadelphia's "most recognized activist, a wildly dressed advocate of psychedelic drugs, communal living, Eastern mysticism and environmental consciousness," and "a friend and guru to prominent Philadelphians in another era." "Peace and love was what he stood for," said one acquaintance. [NEW YORK TIMES, 6-18-97, p. A14]
Yet another Jewish renegade, from Texas, is Alexander Ross (alias Alexander Cohen, or William Cohen), a man who was not a licensed dentist but practiced anyway, eventually a fugitive in 1999 for both sexually molesting young patients and Medicaid fraud. "FBI and police," noted the Houston Chronicle, "have begun an international hunt for Ross. Investigators think he has spent at least several months in Panama." [SMITH, M., 6-27-99, p. A1]
Perhaps Ross knows Jeffrey Gottlieb, wanted by Alaska's State Medical Fraud Unit for over billing Medicaid, stealing drugs from doctors, and selling drugs to drug dealers. "Gottleib told the State licensing board that he attended a medical school in Guadalajara, Mexico, from 1974-77, then went to study religion in Israel, then returned to receive a medical degree in 1986 from American University of the Caribbean on the Island of Monseratt ... One of Gottleib's patients [later arrested] alone received 2 percent of all the controlled drugs prescribed to Medicaid patients in Alaska." [TOOMEY, S., 5-2-2000, p. 1A]
Among other Jewish fraudsters who didn't head for Israel is Hal Kaplan, a master con-man who has used "eight known aliases and been convicted of fraud, theft, forgery, and bigamy."� Married eight times, his favorite ploy, noted the Los Angeles Times in 1993, is to marry rich women to "loot their bank accounts." [GABRIEL, p. 18]� Yet another kindred soul is Charles Ray Lonberger, arrested in 1990, who ran a series of charity frauds, often under the pretense of raising money for the Jewish Federation Council. [MEYER, J., p. J1]� Another, from the early 1980s, was Eduardo Rabiea, son of Iraqi Jews who immigrated to the United States from Israel. Rabiea was described by a New York prosecutor as "a master of deceit and deception who is wanted for fraud all over the world," absconding with over $60 million in swindles. [RAAB, S., p. B1]� A fellow soul is also Britain's Jonathan Kern, also Jewish, who was arrested while entertaining two prostitutes in 1999.� Also wanted for fraud and various scams all over the globe, Kern "has previously impersonated members of the Rolling Stones, and fooled a Park Lane garage into lending him a pounds 44,000 BMW by posing as a record producer." Among other ploys, he has pretended he was a well known British auto race commentator, Jonathan Palmer, creating bills in Palmer's name all over Europe. "You are a persistent criminal and a man who deceives as a way of life," a sentencing judge told Kern. [PRYER, N., 1999]
In a 1994 Toronto Life article entitled "Con Man," the criminal life of Patrick White was explored, stemming from his defrauding of a local newspaper of $20,000. "Charmed by White's affable manner, by his habit of smiling when he spoke," and "by the Torah he displayed on his night table," David Mackin allowed alleged investor Mr. White to take over as Managing Editor of his small newspaper. "White," notes Toronto Life, "was regularly attending Kensington market synagogue and by all appearances was a devoutly religious man." [TORONTO LIFE, 11-94] Once White absconded, it was learned that he was a master fraudster. He had served jail time in Canada in 1978 for "indecent assault," and in 1982 for "a pair of fraud convictions." And there were outstanding arrest warrants for him across North America: Ontario -- theft, Virginia -- sexual assault against a boy, New York -- larceny, Mississippi -- sodomy and sexual assault against a boy, Ontario -- theft, Nova Scotia -- theft and fraud, Virginia -- sexual assault, and Alberta -- sexual asssault. In New Brunswick, he then hired 35 people for nonexistent jobs for a nonexistent night club, charging them each $100 for "uniforms." While in Toronto, White once hired three boys to shovel snow from his sidewalk. Inviting them inside, he showed them pornography. "When police searched the house," notes Toronto Life, "they found a cache of pornography along with religious texts White had borrowed from a local rabbi. It was entitled The Sexual Morality of Young People." [TORONTO LIFE, 11-94]
Another noteworthy con man of Jewish heritage is Stanley Cherry (alias "Stefanos Coreey"). In 1999 a Canadian woman fell in love with him but was the "victim� ... of a fraud artist so diabolical that he left her almost destitute: without savings, without access to credit and in danger of losing her home." Total losses were about $75,000. It was eventually revealed, notes the Montreal Gazette, that "the man had been in and out of jail throughout his adult life. Crime was his profession. It was, you might say, his vocation." Three outstanding warrants for his arrest existed for other crimes. Among the frauds earlier perpetuated by Cherry was that upon another infatuated woman with him. [ABLEY, M., 4-12-99, p. A1]
Former Washington Post book critic Geoffrey Wolff wrote an entire volume about his father. Here's how the book's back-cover blurb describes the the material:
"The Duke of Deception is the unforgettable story of a man whose life was so full of deceit that his love for his son was his only truth. 'Duke' Wolff dragged his family from coast to coast, from luxurious homes to furnished rooms, always looking for the next big break -- and always just ahead of his creditors. No ordinary con man, he used an imaginative set of credentials to pass himself off as a Yaleman and an aeronautical engineer. But his past, his debts, and his flamboyant ways with other people's money finally caught up with him."
Here's how author Wolf describes his father:
"My father was a Jew. This did not seem to him a good idea, and so it was his notion to disassemble his history, begin at zero, and re-create himself. His sustaining line of work til shortly before he died was as a confidence man ... There were some awful consequences, for other people as well as for him. He was lavish with money, with others' money. He preferred to stiff institutions: jewelers, car dealers, banks, fancy hotels ... I wish he hadn't selected from among the world's possibel disguises the costume and credentials of a yacht club commodore ... But it is true, of course, that a confidence man who cannot inspire confidence in his marks is nothing at all, so perhaps his tuneup of his bloodline, educational vita, and war record was merely the price of doing business in a culture preoccupied with appearances ... But for all his pre-occupation with make-believe, he never tried seriously to write it. A confidence man learns early in his career tht to commit himself to paper is to court trouble. The successful bunco artist does his game, and disappears himself." [WOLFF, G., 1986, p. 9]
Here's how Marsha Richman and Katie O'Donnell describe the typical Jewish "con-man":
"THE JEWISH CON MAN. He's just good-looking enough. He went to a name-drop school or two. He's had a name-drop position or two. He moves from position to position, group to group. His only constant attachments are to this mother and his children. He leaves a trail of people behind him who wonder why they didn't see the too many finely tailored shirts, the monograms. Later, you remember he was: a subtle name dropper. A whit too polished (his shoes, his nails, etc.). He borrows the heritage of his married-into family, their friends, their places, their clubs. He plays tennis with name pros like Pancho Gonzales. He collects actors just out of vogue, first editions, antiques, and a sprinkling of just credible folks for whom he has performed some minor service. All of his speeding tickets are fixed. He fixes theater tickets to sold-out shows on a moment's notice. He has a cover-up for everything from larcenty to misedemeanors. He personally knows members of the Mafia."
[Richman/O'Donnell 1979
, p. 12-14]
In 1997, David Missman and his wife Karen were sentenced to prison for ten years and probation, respectively, for swindling investors -- primarily Los Angeles schoolteachers -- out of between $8 and $18 million. Their two "salesmen" were Hank Springer, a former United Teachers-Los Angeles president, and Nate Glazer. The two testified against the Missmans in return for immunity from prosecution. [CARDENAS, p. B5]
In 1997, John Perry, the Jewish editor of an Indian weekly newspaper, The New India-Times, was charged in New York City for eleven counts of conspiracy and mail fraud. Perry called the charges "a witch hunt" and sounded out a possible defense of anti-Semitism from Israel and Jewish American newspapers, and the Anti-Defamation League. [FORWARD, 5-23-97, p. 8]
In 1995 the former Executive Director, Lester Kaplan, of the Jewish Community Center of Greater Washington DC, was imprisoned for embezzling a million dollars from the organization. Three others, including the Chief Financial Officer at the organization, Jay Manchester, were also implicated. Kaplan could have gotten up to 95 years in jail, but was only sentenced to seven years; he was freed after eight months. [RIVAS, p. D5] The State Attorney General's office investigated and prosecuted the crime despite the Jewish organization's decision to avoid publicity and not report the situation to police. [ZOROYA, p. B1] Despite his record, in 1997 Kaplan was hired as a Montgomery County public housing agency supervisor. "Kaplan," noted the Washington Post, "approached HOC [Housing Opportunity Commission] chairwoman Barbara Goldberg-Golden -- a board member at the Jewish Community Center -- and asked her for help [in getting a job]." [PEREZ-RIVAS, p. D5]
In 2001, "Montgomery County prosecutors ... opened up an investigation into the handling of a charity fund at one of the Washington area's largest synagogues [Congregation Beth El in Bethesda, Maryland], after its senior rabbi reimbursed $300,000 to the fund because of questions about how he had used the account." The rabbi, Jonathan Maltzman, "transferred more than $220,000 from the charity fund to his brokerage account at Fidelity; used $7,950 from the fund for his child's b'nai mitzvah parties; and used about $11,500 to pay his self-employment taxes. An additional $62,000 was withdrawn in cash at ATMS ... About $700,000 had passed through the fund during the 11 years Maltzman administered it, [but] only about $20,000 could be identified as having gone to charities." [MURPHY, C., 5-10-01, p. B2]
In 1999, a Cincinnati rabbi, Jacob Lustig of congregation Kneseth Israel, was found guilty of skimming hundreds of thousands of dollars of profits from a series of synagogue bingo games spread across three counties in 19 storefronts. "The instant bingo," noted the Associated Press, "took in more than $1 million in 1996 and 1997, but his congregation received only $250,000 of that. Lustig and his associates (Gerel Payne, Ralph Lipsky, and Sam Semet) avoided prison time, although Lustig was ordered to surrender $920,000. The Cincinnati Enquirer noted that "Judge Cartolano said the lack of cooperation from the congregation, which still supports the rabbi, was a problem for prosecutors." [HORN, D., 6-9-99, p. B5]
In 2000, the Temple Sinai synagogue in Dresher, Pennsylvania, sued its fired Executive Director, Barry Wilf; his wife Barbara who was an assistant bookkeeper at the synagogue; bookkeeper Betty Shusterman; and Shusterman's husband, son, and son's wife. They were accused of embezzling $700,000 over the years through a bank that was also named in the suit. [FELDMAN, S., 5-4-2000, p. 9]
In 1999 too, the Jewish Telegraphic Agency reported that "the Jewish community in Poland is being wracked by a scandal that has forced the country's umbrella Jewish organization to fire its treasurer and downgrade the status of the Jewish communities of Gdansk and Poznan ... Jewish organizations tried to keep the affair quiet." [GRUBER, R., p. 9] That same year, Wolfgang Schnur, founder of the "Democratic Awakening" political party and "a leader of the democracy movement that toppled communism in East Germany 10 years ago," was "detained on fraud charges after trying to cash phony securities at a Berlin bank." An Israeli accomplice escaped. [AP, Former]
In 1997, the Jewish Telegraphic Agency noted a common theme in Germany:
"Jewish community elections in Germany are rarely covered in the German
media. But the upcoming election in Berlin on June 1 has catapulted the city's
Jewish community into the national media spotlight. The stories center on real
estate scandals, alleged financial mismanagement of community funds and
embittered personal rivalries among community officials. The reports ...
cast a shadow on the integrity of some leading members of Germany's
largest Jewish community ... Jewish leaders worry that if the negative
publicity continues, it could weaken community structures and damage
the political influence of Berlin's Jewish community in the German capital."
[BERGER, D., 6-30-97]
In 2002, in England, we had this:
"Stamford Hill-based Hachzokas Torah Vechesed is the latest strictly Orthodox charity to be rapped by the Charity Commission over management issues. An inquiry was launched after commission officials were alerted by the charity's bank to an attempted withdrawal of more than 40,000 [pounds] in cash. Concerned at such a large amount, the commission discovered that the money had been kept "for a visiting rabbi to take to Israel,' according to its official report published this week. 'It was clear that this money was not the charity's property and that the charity had been simply used as a conduit for funds ... Eleven strictly Orthodox charities have been the subject of reports published by the commission in the last two years." [ROCKER, S., 11-8-02, p. 6]
Also in 1999, Reform Rabbi Fred Neulander, of Congregation M'Kor Shalom, the largest synagogue in southeastern New Jersey, was indicted for the 1994 contract murder of his wife. "The subsequent investigation into her murder," noted the Jewish Exponent, "brought to light her husband's involvement in several extramarital affairs." [SILVERSTEIN, p. 15] Later stepped forward an embittered man, Myron Lewin, who also claimed that Rabbi Neulander had also "cheated me" in Levin's purchase of a $16,000 Torah. [AP, 12-19-98]
Somewhat similarly, in 1993, a Jewish author, Michele Samit, wrote an entire book (subtitled The True Story a Rabi's Deadly Affair) about a major sordid scandal in her own synagogue congregation in metropolitan Los Angeles. The husband (Mel Green) of the president
(Anita Green)
of Reform temple Shir Chadash arranged for her to be murdered when she had and affair with center's rabbi, Steven Jacobs, and left her husband. This case, writes Samit, "was the stuff of tabloids and miniseries: a shooting, rumors of sex between two spiritual leaders in the temple setting, accusations, criminal charges, and people lying on the witness stand to save their reputations ... The Los Angeles Jewish community prides itself on its high values, moral superiority and insularity. My temple leaders and members seemed to worry more about this reputation than about what had happened." [SAMIT, M., 1993, p. xxi, xxiii] The victim's mother was outraged that the rabbi seemed to care more about his reputation than his ex-lover: "When the detective told us how to handle the press, and that the police would make all the statements, the rabbi went crazy. He said, 'There can't be any statements. I want to keep a low profile. This can't get out to the press. I'm a rabbi.' All he cared about was himself. He didn't want there to be an arrest or a trial if his name would come up. It made me sick." [SAMIT, M., 1993, p. 210]
In 1992, another rabbi, Austin Yoncy Feld, and his brother were held in a San Francisco-area jail on charges that they planned to murder a Palo Alto child psychiatrist, Saul Wasserman, and his wife. Recently arrived from Jerusalem, police found in the rabbi's car "six plastic handcuffs, two knives, ski masks, detailed floor plans of the house, photographs of the Wassermans, a key to every door in the house, a bouquet of flowers and the location of a shotgun in the house." Police suspected the plan was motivated by the Wasserman's daughter, a student in Israel, who accused her parents of sexually molesting her when she was a child. [MCCABE, M., p. A25]
Looking more deeply into the American Jewish Committee's Jewish self-described "tradition, experience, and values," we can find some very prominent Jewish organizations seemingly going out of their way to try to affirm the classical stereotype that Jews are addicted to money at any moral cost. We have seen already the likes of Ivan Boesky as the chairman of the New York City United Jewish Appeal for two years during his illegal hoarding of tens of millions, and World Jewish Congress President Edgar Bronfman whose family fortune (Seagram's) was built upon illegal alcohol smuggling from Canada (including a deal with major Jewish mobster Meyer Lansky) to the United States during Prohibition. "Though the Bronfmans," says Dennis McDougal, "denied any complicity in the transport of their wares across the U.S. border during the Prohibition, notable gangsters like Abner 'Longie' Zwillman and New York Mafia 'Prime Minister' Frank Costello admitted to the Kefauver Committee that a steady stream of whisky flowed out of Bronfman distilleries and into millions of dry American mouths." [MCDOUGAL, p. 144] (Among many other charitable donations to Jewish organizations, the Bronfman family donated a million dollars for a new wing of the Israel Museum in 1962).
Of course there is also the prominent philanthropist Annenberg family fortune, at least partially based in underworld links decades earlier, and (the later to be discussed) common connections between Jewish-dominated Hollywood and the criminal underworld there. "U.S. smugglers, conmen, and thieves couldn't seem to get enough of the movies and the stars during the first half of the century." [MCDOUGAL, p. 145-146] Then there is Robert Maxwell, the corrupt Jewish/British businessman who manipulated what later became known as "colossal swindles of a particularly nasty kind" [GROSS, p. 380-381, see earlier] who in 1991 went to Israel's Holocaust memorial center to be bestowed Yad Vashem�s "Remembrance Award" for his "dedication to Yad Vashem and all it stands for." [AXELROD, T., p. 41] Seven months after Maxwell's death, his two sons and an American associate, Larry Trachtenberg, formerly a lecturer at the London School of Economics, were arrested in England on charges of fraud and theft of $250 million.� A Washington Post article did not mention their ethnicity, but patriarch Robert Maxwell was described as a "Czech [who] arrived in Britain after World War II almost penniless and made himself one of Britain's biggest media tycoons." [MACASKILL, p. A31]
Elsewhere, in 1995, the largest non-Orthodox Jewish high school in America (located in Los Angeles) raised eyebrows when it renamed itself "Milken High" after a $5 million donation from the Milken Family Foundation. The high school is part of a new multi-million dollar "cultural and artistic showplace" complex which includes the Skirball Museum. Principal Bruce Powell qualified the new high school name, insisting that it was technically named after the "Milken Family Foundation," and not the convicted felon. Powell also told the Los Angeles Times that, besides, he believed Michael Milken was "tried and convicted in the press by innuendo and a politically ambitious prosecutor." [DART, p. B9] "We feel [the Milken High School name] is a non-issue," Shoshana Hirsh, planning director of the San Fernando Jewish Alliance, told the Times. After all, another Jewish complex -- the West Valley Jewish Center in West Hills, California -- already opened in 1987 -- in the midst of Michael Milken's financial scams -- as the Bernard Milken campus, named after Michael's father.
In 1991, Thomas and Joseph Gambino, sons of deceased Mafia leader Carlo Gambino, and recognized organized crime figures in their own right, donated $2.3 million to the Long Island Jewish Medical Center. Tom was at the time under federal investigation for racketeering, extortion, loan-sharking, and murder charges. Joe was indicted a few months earlier for extortion and restraint of trade. Hospital officials announced a new facility to be named the Gambino Medical and Science Foundation Bone Marrow Transplantation Unit. "No amount of money these men give," complained one disgusted hospital trustee, "can offset the damage this incident is doing to the hospital's reputation." [BRUNING, p. 15]
In 1958 media mogul Walter Annenberg proposed to fund what he called the "M.L. Annenberg School of Communications" at the University of Pennsylvania, named in honor of his father, Moses, a man who built the Annenberg fortune in association with a variety of criminal underground figures, including mobster Meyer Lansky. John Cooney writes that:
����� "There had been a loud opposition from faculty members who objected
����� to Penn's honoring a man of Moses' past. Moreover, many faculty
����� members believed that Annenberg wanted to retain control over the
����� school by appointing faculty members himself, a situation they
����� considered intolerable." [COONEY, p. 282]
In 1985 Myron Goodman and his brother-in-law Mordechai Weissman merited an entire volume about the moral fiascos in their company called OPM (The OPM Scandal and the Seduction of the Establishment). Founded in 1971, OPM became the largest purchaser of IBM equipment for their computer leasing company. Clients included AT&T, American Express, Rockwell, Occidental Petroleum, and many others.
In 1980 Goodman and Weissman were found guilty and sentenced to 10-12 years in prison for check kiting, conspiracy, and mail and wire fraud. The company fraudulently obtained nearly $200 million from lenders. Other OPM officials found guilty of criminal actions in the case included Allen Ganz, Manny Friedman, Stephen Lichtman, and Jeffrey Resnick. Kickbacks also went to Jewish executives at Montefiore Hospital (Harry Weiss) and American Express (Martin Shulman). [GANDOSSY, p. 32]� �OPM employed 17 Goodman/Weissman relatives.
"Both Goodman and Weissman were Orthodox Jews," notes Robert Gandossy, "who practiced Jewish dietary laws and refrained from work and travel on the Sabbath. A mezuzah [a Jewish religious artifact] hung on every office door at OPM ... Weissman's faith was so strong that he left OPM in 1973 to fight in the Israeli war in the Middle East." [GANDOSSY, p. 20]� Not surprisingly, Goodman also "gave away millions to charitable organizations, particularly those with Jewish affiliations." [GANDOSSY, p. 20]� This included $1 million to Yeshiva University, where he was elected to be a board member.
In 1996, officials at Beth Israel Hospital and the Hebrew Rehabilitation Center for the Aged wrote testimonial letters on behalf of Jewish philanthropist Simon Fireman to help keep him out of jail. Fireman, Hebrew Rehab's Man of the Year in 1996, (he funded their "Fireman Pavilion" a year earlier) faced a federal court and 74 counts of conspiracy to hide $120,000 in illegal political campaign contributions. [GELBWASSER, p. 5]
In 1999 Garth Drabinsky and Myron Gottleib, co-founders of the giant theatre producer Livent, Inc. (the organization behind popular musicals like Showboat, Ragtime, and Kiss of the Spider Woman) were arraigned for 16 charges of conspiracy and securities fraud in Manhattan. "Some individuals and groups in the non-profit sector," noted the Ottawa Citizen, "particularly in Toronto's Jewish community, are evaluating the impact on past and future funding received from [them]." [MAROTTE, B., p. E3]
In 1997, Roy Rosenbaum, the vice president of development for the Jewish Theological Seminary, defended the practice of accepting money from anyone, no questions asked:
���� "Should a charity accept money from someone who may have earned
����� it by illegal means of any kind? ... I believe that it is appropriate to
����� do so." [KORDOVA, p. 27]
"There's a difference," insisted Rabbi Stephanie Dickstein in the Jewish Theological Seminary's magazine, "between accepting money of a questionable background and the directors of the organization engaging in such behavior themselves." [KORDOVA, p. 27] This disturbing worldview from a preeminent Jewish American theology center essentially sanctions any immoral, unethical practice and any crime if, in the end, the Jewish charity recipients themselves didn't themselves pull the trigger.
Over the years, notes Robert Rockaway in the journal American Jewish History, "Jewish organizations and charities did accept gangster contributions, rarely inquiring as to the source of the money given to them, neither did they discriminate among donors. [Prominent Jewish mobster] Meyer Lansky donated large sums of money to his synagogue, Temple Sinai in Hollywood, Florida, to [the Jewish-founded] Brandeis University, and to causes related to Israel." [ROCKAWAY, p. 237]� "Over the years," adds Stephen Birmingham, "[Jewish mobster Meyer Lansky] has been very generous to Israel -- not only with personal contributions, but also by regularly turning over his Las Vegas hotels and casinos for Bonds for Israel rallies." [BIRMINGHAM, p. 358]
In 1970 Moe Dalitz, "a leading member of the Cleveland crime syndicate," and controller of the Stardust and Desert Inn Las Vegas casinos, was awarded the City of Peace Award of the State of Israel "in recognition of distinguished service to the people and state of Israel." [ROCKAWAY, p. 227] In 1985 the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai B'rith bestowed their "Torch of Liberty" award upon him for his cash support of that group. [ROCKAWAY, p. 227] A gangster associate revealed to a 1947 organized crime commission that Dalitz was in fact the chairman of the Nevada United Jewish Appeal. [ROCKAWAY, p. 227]� In 1982, Dalitz was listed by Forbes magazine as one of the 400 wealthiest people in America. [ROCKAWAY, R., 1993, p. 37] In terms of the criminal underworld, he was also known as "the godfather of Las Vegas." [ROEMER, p. 52]� In 1949, Murray Greenfield was a hero to Israel; he was activist in guiding immigrants to the Jewish state. He connected in Baltimore with the Jewish criminal underworld through a contact at a local United Jewish Appeal function. [ROCKAWAY, p. 231]
Also in Las Vegas, Ze'ev Chafets notes the story of "a local Jewish madam [who] had given a talk to a B'nai B'rith meeting. Prostitution is legal in Nevada, and the madam, a Jewish lady named Beverly Hurel, is a highly regarded businesswoman." [CHAFETS, p. 101]� Other prominent local Jewish activists included Jack Entratter, who was concurrently the president of both the Sands Hotel casino and the Temple Beth Sholam synagogue.
In 1973 Morris (Moishe) Levy, head of the musical recording label Roulette Records, was honored by the UJA music division as its man of the year. [DANNEN, p. 51] "One of the most aboveground institutionalized mob involvements in the [music industry]," noted Steve Chapple and Reebee Garofalo in 1977, "was suggested at Senate hearings in 1973, during the testimony of Gerland Zelmanowitz, a Mafia financier turned informer who said Angelo 'Gyp' DeCarlo, a New Jersey Mafioso, and Tommy Eboli..., another top-level mobster shot and killed in New York, were partners in Roulette Records. The label's president, Morris Levy, says the mob was never in Roulette, but acknowledged Mafia money in Promo Records, which he used to share with Eboli." [CHAPPLE, p. 230]
In roasting Levy at the UJA dinner in his honor, Joe Smith, the head of Elektra records, told the crowd, "The thought of coming up to honor Morris Levy and to introduce him and say something complimentary about this crowd here tonight, is the most difficult assignment I've ever faced.... [There are] two things all these ladies and gentlemen on the dais have in common: They cheated everybody every time they could. And they are the biggest pain in the ass to be around." [DANNEN, p. 51] Turning to address a friend of Levy's in the audience, Hy Weiss, the founder of the Old Town record label, Smith said, "Hymie was assigned not to the table, but to room 328 where he's gonna line up the hookers for a party afterwards." [DANNEN, p. 51-52] "There was laughter and applause to these remarks," says Fred Dannen. "I was the payola [bribe] king of New York," said Weiss later, "Payola was the greatest thing in the world. You didn't have to go out to dinner with someone and kiss their ass. Just pay them, here's the money, play the record, fuck you." [DANNEN, p. 51-52]� In 1988 Morris Levy was convicted of two counts of conspiracy to commit extortion.
In 1982 Roy Cohn (who rose to fame as the right-hand man of Senator Joe McCarthy's anti-communist witch hunt purges in the 1950s) was honored at a State of Israel Bond "testimonial dinner" sponsored by the B'nai B'rith Banking and Finance Lodge. Cohn was awarded the City of Peace Award "for his ongoing advocacy of American economic and political support of Israel." [JEWISH WEEK, 4-15-83, p. 44] Cohn had earlier been honored by the Jewish National Fund and the Federation of Jewish Philanthropies. Cohn was once disbarred from the practice of law for a year and a half for stealing from a client (this client, Lewis Rosentiel, head of the giant Schenley alcohol fortune and a prominent philanthropist for Jewish-founded Brandeis University, was also known to have been involved with the mob); [SUMMERS, A., 1993, p. 248] over a ten year period Cohn was also acquitted in three separate trials involving obstruction of justice, perjury, a stock-swindle scheme, bribery, conspiracy, and filing false documents. "At these trials," notes Thomas Maier, "the testimony revealed some of Cohn's friends and associates included such underworld figures as Moe Dalitz, ... a man described by authorities as an 'under boss' to Mafia chieftain Vito Genovese; and Meyer Lansky, the Miami gangster."� [MAIER, p. 98]
(Cohn's uncle, Bernie Marcus, head of the Bank of the United States, even spent time in prison. Why? "The WASP establishment," says Cohn, "went after the Bank of the United States with a vengeance that was pure in its anti-Semitism.") [ZION, S., 1988, p. 24]
In Miami also, noted Robert Friedman in 2000, "until recently the ringleader of the Russian mob in South Florida," Ludwig Fainberg has held "numerous fundraisers ... for Jewish charities at a restaurant and nightclub he owns called Babushka." [FRIEDMAN, R., 4-10-00]
A lot of Jewish World War II lackies to Nazis ended up working as officials in American Jewish community organizations. As noted Jewish Nazi-hunter Simon Wiesenthal notes:
"I made a [postwar] rule that was approved by the American military government authorities and became known as Lex Wiesenthal: Latin for Wiesenthal's Law.
It was very simple: WHOEVER HAD A FUNCTION OF AUTHORITY IN
THE NAZI PERIOD COULD NOT HAVE A FUNCTION IN POSTWAR
JEWISH LIFE. [Wiesenthal's emphasis] I wasn't saying such a man was a
criminal. I wasn't even looking into whether he was good or bad. But I needed
to protect our Jewish society from more bad surprises' ... Wisenthal noted
that 'in many cases, such people after the war found jobs with Jewish
organizations. Maybe they were trying to atone; maybe they thought this was
the best place to hide. Once, I was going special to Paris to see the director
for Europe of the [Jewish] Joint Distribution Committee, because working for
him was a man -- a Jew! - who had been in a concentration camp the head of
the transports to the death camps. According to Wisenthal, the JDC director,
an American, responded, 'So what? This was a time when everyone had to
serve.'" [LEVY, A., 1993, p. 85]
In 2001, President Bill Clinton found himself in another scandal when he pardoned Jewish American fugitive Marc Rich, wanted since 1983 on "51 counts of tax evasion, racketeering and violating sanctions against trade with Iran." New York mayer Rudolph Giuliani notes that Rich's crimes included "the biggest tax evasion case in United States history." Rich "was also charged with a complex oil scam that exploited America's energy crisis in the early '80s. The 65-count indictment claimed he had secretly bought up millions of barrels of Texas crude oil then under strict price controls and relabeled the oil as decontrolled supplies, ultimately selling it on the open market for huge profits -- reportedly $100 million. And while 52 Americans were held hostage in Iran, Rich's company allegedly made another fortune by trading with the Ayatollah Khomeini's regime in violation of a strict American trade embargo." [DAWSON, P., 2-12-01]
As a fugitive, Rich the wanted criminal had given over $70 million to Israeli causes. Hence, as the Jewish Telegraphic Agency noted about massive international Jewish lobbying efforts to get the pardon:
"The Rich case puts an uncomfortable spotlight on the many Jewish and Israeli
causes, like Birthright Israel [which sends young Jewish Americans to Israel],
that Rich supported. Indeed, a New York Times article noted that the list of
people who wrote letters [to Clinton] supporting Rich's pardon is 'a virtual
Who's Who of Israeli society and Jewish philanthropy.'" [WIENER, J., 2-9-01]
These included Rabbi Irving Greenberg, head of the U. S. Holocaust Memorial Council, who asked Clinton, on Rich's behalf, to do "one of the most Godlike actions that anyone can ever do." "Rich has given to a variety of major institutions in Israel," noted the JTA. [WIENER, J., 2-9-01]
As Jewish commentator Ben Stein lamented:
"The really embarrassing moral disgrace attaches itself to, first, the chairman
of the U. S. Holocaust Memorial Council, Rabbi Irwin Greenberg, who wrote
Clinton urging a pardon for Rich, and to Ehud Barak, who while prime
minister of Israel likewise solicited Clinton ... It's part of the thinking about
the Holocaust that whatever is thought bad by Holocaust experts -- such
as Greenberg -- is bad, and whatever is thought good is good. To spend
such moral capital to get a pardon for Rich is disgusting. To think that
the pity Americans feel for the Holocaust dead and survivors should be
manipulated to aid a man accused of trading with America's enemies for
profit is revolting." [STEIN, B., 2-14-01, p. 15A]
Israeli commentator Ze'ev Chafets was also shamed to comment about the international Jewish lack of morals in the effort to secure pardoning of such a corrupt man:
"The effort of Rich's strategists to turn their client into a modern day Alfred
Dreyfus [a famous French Jew who was falsely tried for disloyalty] --
with the active connivance of some of the world's most prominent Jewish
personalities and institutions -- is a scandal in its own right ... [Abraham]
Foxman is the national director of the Anti-Defamation League of B'nai|
B'rith, America's most prestigious Jewish group. He wrote an official ADL
letter to Clinton, asking him to pardon Rich. I called the ADL to ask why
its director had intervened with the President of the United States on
behalf of a master swindler and member in good standing of the FBI's
most wanted list.
'Humanitarian reasons,' a spokeswoman told me.
What possible humanitarian reason, I wondered, could there be to pardon
a billionaire who lives in a Swiss castle and flies around the world in his
own jet? And what did a crook like Rich have to do with the ADL? ...
As for Foxman, Greenberg and other so-called American Jewish leaders,
they prostituted themselves and their organizations for a rich criminal ...
Foxman's not alone. Led by a Tel Aviv-based former Mossad agent
named Avner Azulay, the Rich team put together a Jewish who's who
of supporters. They got their client character references from famous
rabbis like Shlomo Riskin; from Rabbi Irving Greenberg, chairman of
U.S. Holocaust Memorial Counci; from the chief rabbi of France;
from the directors of a half-dozen Israeli hospitals, and from Marlene
Post, former head of Hadassah [the women's Zionist organization].
Rich also received active support from former Israeli Prime Minister
Shimon Peres; Knesset Speaker Avraham Burg; Israeli Foreign
Minister Shlomo Ben-Ami; ex-Ambassador to Washington Itamar
Rabinovich; former Jerusalem mayor Teddy Kollek; the current
mayor, Ehud Olmert, and dozens of other Israeli politicians ...
By participating in what appears to be an international conspiracy, they
have given life to a classic anti-Semitic fantasy and earned themselves
a place on the Anti-Defamation League's list of enemies of the Jewish
people." [CHAFETS, Z., 2-15-01, p. 51]
It was even eventually revealed that Abraham Foxman, director of perhaps the best-known Jewish organization, the Anti-Defamation League, a powerful enforcer of self-defined public morals (particularly against what it defines as "anti-Semitism") and ardent defender of Israel, had accepted a $100,000 donation to ADL from Marc Rich shortly before Foxman wrote his letter to Clinton in behalf of the criminal. "The ADL," noted the New York Post, "that Foxman and Rich's Israeli representative, former Mossad agent Avner Azulay, met in Paris last February to discuss ways to resolve Rich's legal problems." ADL spokesperson Myra Shinbaum declared that the ADL ("which annually budgets $50 million to fight anti-Semitism") wouldn't be returning the money. [BLOMQUIST, B., 3-24-01]
In 1994, in the (Jewish) Forward's list of the most important Jewish American leaders, Shoshana Cardin was noted as "chief of staff of American Jewry" and "past chairman of almost everything," from the United Jewish Appeal to the National Jewish Center for Learning and Leadership. The Forward also noted that she "stood by her husband [Jerome Cardin] with dignity when he went to prison for his role in a Maryland savings-and-loan scandal." [FORWARD, p. 11-18-94, p. 11] Cardin was released from prison early for medical reasons, but an associate -- Jeffrey Levitt -- spent seven years behind bars.
Levitt, who was active in Jewish charities which fueled his "concurrent rise in Baltimore's Jewish community," was well known in the 1970s "as one of Baltimore's most audacious slumlords." [BAKER, p. A1]� As president of the Old Court Savings and Loan Association, he was involved in what one prosecutor termed as possibly "the largest fraud in the history of the state of Maryland." [BAKER, p. A1]� Likewise, in Boston, as elsewhere, the Realty Lodge of the local chapter of the B'nai B'rith Jewish fraternal organization (which is the parent of the Anti-Defamation League) "represented many of the city's Jewish slumlords." [HILLEL/HARMON, p. 185]
In 1982, Earl Shorris recalled his childhood memories of the kinds of men who headed his synagogue:
"We arrived at the synagogue as a family, three generations led by my grandfather
... My grandfather spoke to his friend Eddie -- Big Eddie, he called him. They
spoke as members of the board of directors of the synagogue, important men,
big donors. My grandfather earned his money from the labor of Italian and Polish
women who sewed clothing in his factories. Big Eddie sold cheap wine and whiskey
to the poor of the town. We did not approve of Big Eddie. His diamond ring and
his fat cigar offended us ... [H]is business offended us. There were fights in front
of his store, stabbings, more than one killing. There were rumors about him.
Some people said he dealt with criminals. It as said that he gave so much to
the synagogue to atone for the way he made his money ... He traded donations
for a position as a director of the synagogue. My grandfather said Eddie wanted
to be president, that he was willing to donate a community center if the directors
would elect him president .... [SHORRIS, E., 1982, p. 3-4] [When Big Eddie
finally strode up at the synagogue to be so honored, "the man our community
commended to God" (p.7)] the color of his flesh was as rich and vulgar as his
suit. [Grandfather,] you were so small, so pale beside him. Jerusalem was
conquered, the Temple was destroyed, and there was no prophet in all of Israel.
After the service I asked my father why it had happened. Money, was all he
said. Sometimes you have to do these things, my grandfather added. A
building doesn't come cheap." [SHORRIS, E., 1982, p. 7]
Israeli scholar Robert Rockaway notes the notoriously ruthless all-Jewish Detroit Purple Gang of the prohibition era:
"[Purple Gang members] were what we would call 'traditional' Jews; they
observed certain religious rituals and traditions such as lighting the Sabbath
candles, eating kohser food at home (and often outside the home), attending
synagogue on Jewish holidays and hosting or attending a Passover seder. Some
of the fathers [of gang members] were active members and even officers of
synagogues ... [O]n one particular Day of Atonement, the FBI sent two agents
to Congregation B'nai David in hopes that some of the wanted Purple gangsters
would show up for services. At the time, the uncle of a leading Purple gangster
was president of the congregation." [ROCKAWAY, R., 2001, p. 113-]
In 2001, Ronald Lauder, heir to the Estee Lauder cosmetics fortune, stepped down as the chairman of the Conference of Presidents of Major American Jewish Americans, the umbrella organization for this country's most prominent Jewish groups. Lauder was known jokingly as the "King of the Jews." That same year the New York Times reported that Lauder's overseas company, Central European Media Enterprises, was "under investigation over allegations that it paid at least $1 million in bribes to Ukrainian officials for a valuable television license, according to lawyers and [U. S.] Justice Department documents." Lauder owned Ukraine's best-known TV station, Studio 1+1, with Jewish crime lords Vadim Rabinovich and Boris Fuchsmann, who, although "known around Kiev for their influence and welath," were "less well known [for] their ties to Russian organized crime, according to reports by the F.B.I. and European law enforcement agencies." [BONNER, R., 6-12-01]
In 1995, Jeanette Nelson and her husband Victor Incenty (honorary co-chairpersons of an American Jewish Committee tribute to the conductor of the Florida Symphony Orchestra) were arrested for an "alleged scam to cheat thousands of investors out of $170 million." [DOUGLAS, R., 5-26-95, p. B6] Vincenty's company, Cascade International, had made Fortune magazine's 1989 list of "companies to watch."
Also in Florida, in 1998, Phillip Scott Plotka was noted to have
"the resume of a prominent insurance agent ... In 1996 he received the Quality of
Life Winner award by the Million Dollar Roundtable Foundation. He serves on the
board of Jewish Vocational Services and on a professional advisory
committee for the insurance industry ... But Wednesday, Plotka gained a
different sort of notoriety. He became the first agent arrested in Miami-Dade county
on charges of insurance fraud solicited through the Internet ... The Florida
Department of Insurance said he solicited clients with the AIDS virus and
instructed them to falsify insurance appications so they would be accepted ...
'This is a particularly onerous case because the individual is a highly regarded
individual in his field,' [Dade Assistant State Attorney Mark] Shapiro said. 'He
sits on an ethics committee." [ACLE, A., 5-7-98]
In Canada, in 1989, Patricia Starr
����� "was facing revelations in the Toronto media that she had channeled
������ more than $82,000 of charitable funds from the local branch of the
������ National Council of Jewish Women, of which she was president, to
������ Liberal and Conservative politicians and to Liberal activists. The Federal
������ Income Tax Act prohibited charities from making such contributions,
������ and Ontario legislation limits the size of individual donations that a
������ politician can accept." [KAIHLA, p. 12]
Starr also pleaded guilty to lying to receive an unwarranted $357,000 from the local government for her Jewish organization, of which she personally stole $33,000. [BRENT, p. A1] The National Council of Jewish Women itself faced 22 court charges for various legal infractions; they were dropped, however, because -- in the words of the government prosecutor: "It would have been like having the same trial [as Starr's] all over again. I don't think that would serve the public interest." [DEVERELL, p. A3]
In 1998, the National Jewish Council of Jewish Women made the news again, this time in Denver, where its treasurer of 14 years, Ellen Bloch, was found to have embezzled over $150,000. [SORAGHAN, p. B12]� In England, that same year, the (London) Independent headlined a story "Chief Rabbi Rocked by Fraud Scandal." Rabbi Jonathan Sacks is "seen by many Jews and non-Jews as the spiritual center of British Jewry ... is technically the Chief Rabbi only of the United Synagogue, the main Orthodox movement with 70 congregations in the United Kingdom." Suddenly he was "embroiled in deepening turmoil." Police were investigating "allegations of fraud at Jewish cemeteries in east London" and "the disappearance of highly valuable texts from a religious library." [KOSSOFF, p. 6]
In 2001, the Jewish Chronicle noted another Jewish cemetery escapade: "an ugly real estate battle between a New Jersey synagogue and its former cantor [that] has begun to focus on a larger question of whether congregants benefitted from unethical business relationships they formed as synagogue benefactors." Harvey Waldman filed suit alleging that the temple's rabbi and other congregants took kickbacks "on a profit of more than $20 million" in a cemetery land scheme. [CATTAN, N., 3-27-01, p. 9]
In 2000, Jean Thorbourn, a bookkeeper and financial consultant for the Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion in Los Angeles was charged with "embezzling more than $1 million from the institution -- some of which was apparently used to finance the production of independent films." [WESTPHAL, S., 3-11-2000, p. B1]
In 2001, rabbis Jacob Bronner and Efroim Stein "pleaded guilty to defrauding the US government of part of a $2.5 million federal grant intended to aid Holocaust survivors." The two men embezzled hundreds of thousands of dollars. [HENRY, M., 2-16-01, p. 4]
In Canada, scrap metal millionaire Morris Lax was the victim of an unsolved murder in 1993. Guy Crittenden notes "the closed-shop nature of the scrap business" and that
"Even Lax supporters don't deny he was crooked (though perhaps not more
so than some others in the business). He pled guilty to criminal charges in the
early 1960's after being caught with stolen brass. On February 16, 1977
he was fined $34,000 after pleading guilty to three counts of falsifying
company records ... Another time police found a portion of four tons of
stolen copper at Lax's property ... People remembered him as an oddball
who was physically filthy and would inadvertently spit upon listeners when
he became animated in conversation. (This was normally Yiddish; Lax
avoided speaking English throughout most of his life in Canada) ... Money
allowed Morris Lax one luxury. He was a prominent supporter of Israel
and, in stunning contrast to his usual crudeness, moved easily in the
highest circles of Israeli political life, counting among his friends Mr.
[Menachem] Begin [Israel's prime minister] (with whom he'd fled Russia)
and Yitzhak Shamir." [CRITTENDEN, G., 2001]
Chester and Morris Waxman, business associates of Lax, built to power "one of the top three scrap-recycling enterprises in Canada." Chester, the Jewish community's Man of the Year in 1979, eventually was involved in a 14-year lawsuit with his brother (who initiated charges) which provided "a veritable parade of witnesses who have leveled accusations of fraud, conspiracy, diversion of funds, racehorse-breeding schemes, evidence tampering and bertrayals of deathbed promises." [CRITTENDON, G., 2000]
"What a bunch of shiksas in here!" proclaimed Bess Myerson, the only Jewish Miss America in history, in 1995 at the sight of a number of blondes in attendance at a gathering of the Women's Division of Israel Bonds of Maryland. Myerson, speaking as a member of the Israel Bonds national board and the board of the Anti-Defamation League, noted that "my greatest source of renewal comes from walking into a room filled of Jews."� The Baltimore Jewish Times also observed that
����� "she did not allude to her well publicized legal troubles over the years,
������ which have included indictments in the mid-1980s on charges of
������ conspiracy, fraud and obstruction of justice for allegedly bribing a judge
������ to reduce support payments to her then-boyfriend's former wife. Ms.
������ Myerson eventually was acquitted of the charges. She was also arrested
������ for shoplifting in Pennsylvania seven years ago." [SHAPIRO, D. p. 36]
Myerson, a millionaire, was in fact arrested twice for shoplifting. The first time was in London. Luckily for her, this fact was not reported. At the time she was the New York City Consumer Affairs Commissioner. [PRESTON, J., p. 85]
Meyerson's non-Jewish boyfriend, Carl Capasso, was already married and was twenty-one years younger than her. Capasso's wife, Nancy, was also Jewish. [PRESTON, p. 147] His "best friend and neighbor was Mafia boss Matthew (Matty the Horse) Ianniello." "Capasso," notes Jack Newfield and Wayne Barrett, "was probably the only cheating husband in history who claimed to be spending his nights with a Mafia boss (Ianniello) when he was really having an affair with Miss America." [NEWFIELD/BARRETT, p. 8] (In 1998, Myerson donated money to the Anti-Defamation League to institute the "Bess Myerson Campus Journalism Awards," conceived by her as "an important tool in reaching students far and wide in the fight against hatred," encouraging "student journalists to think critically about interracial, interethnic, intercultural and interreligious relations." [STRONGWATER, 1998, p. 4] )
In 2001, a Jewish journal, the Forward, featured an article about shoplifting, using actress Winona Ryder, real estate heir Robert Durst, and Bess Myerson as examples of the Jewish wealthy who steal for psychological reasons. In one man's case, his "Holocaust" background is allowed to excuse his thieving behavor. "Sometimes," noted the article,
"the stressor [shoplifter under stress] can be very old. For example, Mr. [William]
Chupchik -- who holds intervention seminars for what he calls 'atypical theft
offenders' -- had a wealthy patient, a Holocaust survivor, who was arrested for
stealing a $15 pair of Dr. Scholl's insoles from a drug store. 'He had no reason,
no excuse for the theft behavior,' he recalled. Still, as Mr. Cupchik spoke to the
man about his past, he learned that the day of the theft was the 50th anniversary
of his liberation from a concentration camp, when 'inmates were awakened at 3
a.m. and were forced to march, most of them without shoes, along a rock-laden
rail line.' 'It was an anniversary reaction, manifested in atypical theft behavior,'
Mr. Cupchik said." [KEYS, L., 12-28-01]
In 1997 the UJA-Federation of New York found itself in an in-house ethical controversy when James S. Tisch, whose family controls the Lorillard Tobacco corporation, was nominated to head the Jewish organization. "Morality, ethics, Jewish law against self-destruction and common sense," said fellow UJA board member Henry Everett," mandate that it would be repugnant for a tobacco executive to be cast as the president and role model of any Jewish federation."� "On an ethical level," Alfred Munzer, a lung specialist and president of the American Lung Association told the New York Times, "a smoking executive is not fit to be the head of a social welfare agency." [MILLER, NYT, p. B3]� In 1994, James Tisch's brother, Andrew, who was then the CEO of Lorillard, stated in Congressional hearings that the widespread scientific information about the relationship between smoking and cancer "has not convinced me that smoking causes deaths." [MILLER, NYT p. B3]� "Several Jewish leaders," noted the Times, "who opposed Mr. Tisch's nomination asked not to be quoted, saying they were afraid that the Tisch family or the UJA-Federation might cut off their [economic] support to their groups ... Most of those who protested said they were concerned about the impact of the appointment [of Tisch] might have on the group's ability to raise money." [MILLER, NYT, B3]
Tisch was formally approved as the Jewish "role model" the next week.
In another ethical area, in the wake of the much-publicized Anita Hill sexual harassment charges in 1991, the Jewish Bulletin of Northern California ran a story written by the Associate Executive Vice President of the National Jewish Community Relations Advisory Council, Diana Aviv, and the Director of National Affairs for the American Jewish Committee, Gary Rubin. They complained that
����� "sexual harassment is also rife within Jewish communal organizations.
������ Since the [Hill] scandal broke, we have been inundated with stories from
������ women who work within Jewish agencies, anxious to share their
������ experiences of sexual harassment by lay and professional men ... These
������ stories could be multiplied almost without end. All the women we spoke
������ with believed that sexual harassment is endemic and deeply engrained in
������ the Jewish community." [AVIV, D., p. 15]
An echo of this has long been a problem in the psychotherapy and psychiatry worlds:� the sexual exploitation of vulnerable patients by predatory therapists. Such fields, as evidenced earlier, are enormously overpopulated with Jewish men. ["That vast apparative of putative concern, psychiatry, is largely a Jewish monopoly." -- Kahn, Roger. The Passionate People, William Morris, Inc., 1968, p. 53 / "All over the world, Jews are drawn to the profession of psychoanalysis and psychoanalytic therapy. The 1990 roster of the International Psychoanalytical Association reads like the membership list of a synagogue." -- Earl Hopper, Psychotherapy and the 'Jewish Experience.' European Judaism, Spring 1996, p. 17-25]�Rapes and other similar incidents are only sometimes reported by patients who have the courage to complain to authorities. A 1994 Boston Globe article noted the great scope of the problem, mentioning the cases against therapists Martin Teicher, Arthur Reider, Lionel Schwartz, Joel Feigon, Jacob Goldberg, Leonard Friedman, and others, including, in 1992, "several accused multiple offenders -- Sheldon D. Zigelbaum, Edward M. Daniels, and Stanley S. Kanter [who] either lost or gave up their licenses [to practice therapy] under pressure ... Though polls have shown that about 8 to 10 percent of psychiatrists admit to having sex with patients, many experts believe the actual frequency is higher, up to 25 percent. Many psychiatrists, they say, are not about to admit to such a clear violation [of therapists' ethical codes], even anonymously." [LEHR, 10-4-94]
Worse, as the Citizens' Commission on Human Rights noted:
"Although only ten percent of psychiatrists admit to sexually abusing patients,
interestingly, 65 percent say new patients tell them of being abused sexually
by their former psychiatrist. In other words, the 10 percent figure can be
considered very, very low. In fact, in an article from the March 12, 1990
edition of U.S. News and World Report, experts put the figure at more
like 25 percent, or one out of every four psychiatrists. And a 1973 study in
California puts the figure at an astronomical 51 percent!" [CITIZENS'
COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS, 2001]
This organization estimates that there are 150,000 women "sexually abused by psychiatrists in the USA." 21,000 try to kill themselves, 1,500 DO kill themselves, and 16,000 end up hospitalized because of the harm caused to them." [CITIZENS' COMMISSION ON HUMAN RIGHTS, 2001]
The innate difficulty of determining how widespread sexual abuse is in psychotherapy is noted by Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson: "Imagine attempting to find out how many men had raped by asking nonconvicted rapists whether they were guilty of rape." [MASSON, p. 181]
In 1993, another Jewish sexual predator, this one especially prominent, Dr. Jules Masserman, began making the news. Masserman has been called "the most prominent psychiatrist in the world." He had a resume of 432 articles and 16 books of his authorship. He was the past president of both the American Psychiatric Association and the American Academy of Psychoanalysts. He was also a vicious sexual predator, one who "admitted that he, over his 50-year career, drugged and sexually molested female patients in his office." [ROZNAFSZKY, p. 10F]� Four women eventually accepted out-of-court settlements of claims against him. Eventually, a dozen women came forward to note similar sexual predations against them by Masserman. Former patient Barbara Noel even authored an entire volume about her experiences with the therapist, underscoring his control over her and the difficulties in getting anyone to initially believe her stories against such a powerful man.
For years, therapist sexual abuse of patients was kept hush in the secretive psychoanalytic community. As Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson noted in 1988:
���� "[The sexual exploitation of patients by therapists was] for many
���� years ... almost never mentioned, except in private. I remember
���� that one of the first seminars I attended when I was a candidate for
���� psychoanalytic training was given by an elderly psychoanalyst from
���� Montreal, who immediately informed us that a major part of his
���� clinical practice consisted of analysts who had had sexual involvement
���� with patients. He told us ten students that many of us, before our
���� careers were finished, would become sexually involved with a
���� patient. Before the [1970s] decade was over, an increasing body of
���� literature addressed the subject. One reason, obviously, was that
���� there were a number of landmark cases in which large awards
���� were made to individuals who sued therapists. There is no sense
���� in pretending to the general public that something never happened
���� which is in the newspaper." [MASSON, p. 168]
By the 1970s, for example, the psychoanalytic practice of John N. Rosen began making the news. Rosen was not obscure; articles about his therapy theories had appeared in various scholarly realms by himself and others. In 1983, he gave up his medical license rather than face trial on 67 counts of violations of the Pennsylvania Medical Practices Act. As part of "therapy," for example, patient Sally Zinman faced the following outrages:
���� "Without a word of explanation, [Rosen] and his main aide, an ex-
���� Marine, tore off all of her clothes except her underpants and began
���� beating her on the face and breasts (the aide held her down while
���� Rosen beat her). She was then tied to her bed, still with no clothes
���� on, and kept her that way for 24 hours under close guard ... [Therapy
���� also included Rosen] suggesting various 'delusions' to her and
���� fondling her breasts when they were alone (often the sessions
���� were in groups), and once even her vagina." [MASSON,
���� p. 136-137]
In the case of another patient, Janet Katkow, Rosen "took off his pants and boxer shorts down over his penis and commanded the plaintiff to suck on his penis." [MASSON, p. 138] This Katkow was required to do "hundreds of times" over a seven year period. "This is what it is all about, this is when a baby is at peace," he told her. [MASSON, p. 141] This patient was also forced to lick his anus "and orally take in as much of his feces as she could, which she did." Katkow was also directed to have cunnilingus with another woman and have sex with an impotent judge. [MASSON, p. 144]
Rosen also had "numerous sexual relations" with patient Julia Blythe. Three other women eventually came forward with similar stories of abuse. [MASSON, p. 145]
Jeffrey Moussaieff Masson, a former psychoanalyst, became profoundly disillusioned with the field and notes, in his volume entitled Against Therapy, the disturbing undercurrent of such stories, that such abuses are part of a perversely authoritarian doctor-patient relationship that is the foundation of the psychoanalytic world itself:
���� "Is Rosen an exception or is there something about psychotherapy,
���� something in the very nature of psychotherapy, that tends toward
���� abuses? A prison warden, a slaveholder, and a psychotherapist have
���� in common the desire to control another person." [MASSON, p. 147]
In late 2000, the Jewish Journal of Greater Los Angeles noted with concern a number of newsworthy cases of sexual abuse by rabbis:
"For those who look up to the American Jewish clergy, it has not been a
good year. Last week, one of the Reform movement's most prominent
rabbis was suspended from the rabbinical movement for past sexual
misconduct ...Rabbi Sheldon Zimmerman, widely respected as a
Jewish thinker and teacher, resigned as president of the movement's
Hebrew Union College-Jewish Institute of Religion ... The wave of
incidents is refocusing on an issue that has come into public view
only in recent years. In the past, rabbinical misconduct -- particularly
sexual misconduct -- was rarely discussed publicly. Many advocates
for victims complained that rabbinical associations were more interested
in protecting their members than the people they hurt." [WIESNER, J.,
12-15-200]
Also noted in the article is the sexual harrassment "by the late charismatic Orthodox leader, Rabbi Shlomo Carlebach," a Reform rabbi in New Jersey who "allegedly hired people to murder his wife," a "Conservative Cantor in the Chicago area [who] was arrested ... for alleged involvement in a prostitution ring," and a "New York rabbi working for [the Orthodox Union's] national youth group [who allegedly] sexually harassed and molested teens." [WIESNER, J., 12-15-00]
In 1996, a Los Angeles Jewish showpiece, the Skirball Cultural Center and Museum (a $65 million cultural center created by Israeli architect Moshe Safdie and founded by Israeli-born president and CEO Uri Herscher), named Robert Kirschner as its Program Director despite his past as the former rabbi of one of northern California's pre-eminent synagogues, Temple Emanu-El in San Francisco. Kirschner resigned his rabbinical post there in 1992 after four women (eventually a total of twelve) came forward with complaints of the rabbi's sexual misconduct, "involving," he publicly apologized, "sexual relations outside my marriage." At least three of the women reportedly "reached settlements with the temple's insurance policy." [LA TIMES, 11-2-96, p. B4]
In 2000, the Miami-Dade Public Schools district paid a million dollar settlement to five women, four of them teachers, who charged that Michael Exelbart, the principal of a school for the handicapped, had sexually harassed them. Two had been "coerced" into sex, including at the site of "a conservative Jewish temple in Kendall where Exelbart was an officer." Exelbart wasn't fired, and continued to make $80,000 a year at another position. [KISSELL, T., 4-20-2000]
In April 2001, Jerrold M. Levy, a rabbi at Temple Beth El in Florida, was arrested for "online solicitation of a juvenile" over the Internet. The synagogue had hired him as an associate rabbi in 1992, even though it was known by those hiring him that he had been arrested on a past sex-related charge:
"Levi mentioned a prior arrest when interviewing in 1992 for associate rabbi
at Temple Beth El in Boca Raton ... [He had pleaded no-contest to ] a
sex-related case involving an undercover police officer in St. Louis-area
public restroom ... Temple leaders decided to give Levy the job anyway,
based on his record as a rabbi, lawyer and member of their synagogue
community."
"He's a wonderful person," said David Beale (the synagogue's vice-president for education and youth) after the rabbi's arrest, "and he conveys love and Judaism to all who come in contact with him." During the yearly Purim celebration, noted the South Florida Sun-Sentinel, "Levy helped lead the service dressed as the cookie monster." [KRAUSE, K., 4-6-01; HAHN, B., 4-9-01]
Two weeks later, in the Boston area, also in April 2001, Eric Hindin was charged with "two counts of rape of a child, two counts of indecent assault and battery, and two counts of statutory rape." Hindin had sexually assaulted and videotaped the crimes with two boys, one of whom "he was matched with through a Jewish Big Brother organization." [ELLEMONT/TWAROG, 4-12-00]
In 1981, the four-term (1968-81) Brooklyn District Attorney, Eugene Gold, "announced he would not seek re-election and planned to devote himself to Jewish charitable causes." In 1983, he was charged with "unlawful sexual conduct" in a hotel with a 10-year old girl. In return for probation, Gold pleaded guilty and would seek "psychiatric treatment in Israel, where he had a home." [NY TIMES, 10-21-83]� In 1992, Sol Wachtler, "chief judge of New York state's Court of Appeals, one of the most prestigious courts in the United States, resigned� ... [He was] the central figure in a scandal involving sex, blackmail and kidnapping threats ... Before his arrest, he was frequently mentioned as a possible candidate for the governor of New York state." The object of Wachtler's sexual attentions and threats was Joy Silverman (a former lover), whose personal friend at the FBI put 80 agents on the case to nab him. [CHISHOLM, P., 1992, p. 56]
In 1995, Frederick Werbell, a rabbi who co-wrote "a best-selling Holocaust book" (Lost Hero: The Mystery of Raul Wallenberg), pleaded guilty to "second-degree sexual abuse" of his cleaning lady. "He sprang naked from the bathroom of his Eastside apartment, grabbed his 39-year old housekeeper and fondled her." He had earlier been sentenced to 17 months in jail for grabbing a woman he was interviewing in his apartment for a job as a receptionist." [BREEN, 7-18-95]
In 2001, Rabbi Pinchas Lew, a Chasidic Lubavitcher (ultra-Orthodox),
"was arrested on misdemeanor assault charges ... after a woman accused him of
repeatedly touching his genitals in front of her. The woman, a housekeeper in
Lew's home, reportedly said Lew had bolted all the doors and that she feared
he planned to assault her. She managed to escape through a back door ...
Lew, married with five children, led religious study and frequently held
services in his home for college students ... Members of the community had
had just learned of Lew's conviction for his part in an Iowa armed robbery
10 years ago ... After the local community learned about [this] incident,
more than 100 members of the local Jewish community attended a meeting
to hear Lew talk about his criminal past. Coincidentally, that meeting
occurred on the same day he allegedly assaulted the woman in his home."
[FLEISHMAN, D., 7-3-01]
Lew is a member of a prominent Chabad family -- "his father was second in command of Chabad in London, a key post in worldwide Lubavitch." [BLOOM, S., 2001, p. 265] The national Chabad community stunned the judge in providing the required $200,000 bond for the arrested and jailed man. This, notes, Stephen Bloom, was based on the Jewish tradition that "observant Jews are compelled to post bail that will allow a fellow Jew 'imprisoned unjustly' to be released. Called in Hebrew pidyon shevuyim, the 'ranson of captives' is a particular obligation of the Hasidic community." [BLOOM, S., 2001, p. 253]
Lew's criminal accomplice was fellow Chabad member Philip Stillman who robbed a smalltown popcorn vendor and shot a grandmother at point-blank range after taking her money. Stillman reportedly accepted an offer from two rabbis to accept a bribe to accept full blame for the crimes. Lev, despite an original sentencing of ten years in prison, was merely put on probation. The judge told a journalist that he was influenced and "impressed by many of the Jews who came [to the Lew trial]. The courtroom had a significant number of rabbis. They were very intellectual individuals. "If the crime had stunned the locals [of Iowa]," says Stephen Bloom, "the double standard of punishment for Stillman and Lev took their breath away." [BLOOM, S., 2001, p. 255-256] Marion Bakken, the woman who was shot, survived and was awarded $1.6 million as settlement for her injuries. She has never been paid. [BLOOM, S., 2001,p. 274]
Secular Jewish journalist Stephen Bloom believes that ultra-Orthodox disdain for Gentiles contributed to the robberies and attempted murder:
"The attitude shared by many Postville Hasidim toward the locals nourished
a destructive environment of contempt and scorn providing a setting for Stillman
and Lew. While the Hasids would not encourage unprovoked violence against
gentiles, their everyday us-against-them mentality helped set the stage for two
cocky fellowers to fantasy into reality. For more than a year, the Hasidic Jews'
imperious attitude toward the Postville locals had stuck in my craw. As a Jew,
I was embarrassed by their take-it-or-leave-it mentality." [BLOOM, S., 2001, p. 273]
In 1995, a rabbi's assistant, Yehuda Friedlander, pleaded guilty to the charge of sexually molesting a 15-year-old girl sitting beside him, alone, on an international plane flight.� He had also had an earlier arrest for a sexual crime in 1991. A rabbi with him, Israel Grunwald, the leader of New York's Pupa ultra-Orthodox community, was also accused of sexually harassing the girl. He remained under investigation as Friedlander accepted blame.� According to the affidavit filed against both men, substantiated by another passenger who witnessed the incident, Grunwald first fondled the girl's breast, then exchanged seats with Friedlander, who violated her further as she protested and resisted under a blanket, trying to sleep. The two men were returning from Australia where Grunwald had lectured about the Talmud. Later, "about 15 supporters from New York and Los Angeles," noted the Los Angeles Times, "attended the court hearings chanting from prayer books as they waited for the proceedings to begin." [BOXALL/KENNEDY, p. B1; and LOS ANGELES TIMES, 11-1-95, p. B4]
In 1999, Ze'ev Kopolovitch, a rabbi and the principal of Netiv Meir, an all-male yeshiva high school in Israel, was accused of sexually abusing 19 students from 1991-1997. The most disturbing part of the case, noted the Jerusalem Post, was that "investigators say Kopolovitch's alleged behavior was known within the school for several years and tolerated by the governing hierarchy of the religious Zionist movement." [GROSS, N., 1999, p. 28]
In 2001, a "part-time synagogue sexton" in Jerusalem was convicted "for sexually assaulting children who went to synagogue to pray with him ... At least three children were involved, with one, the 13-year-old, being the son of another synagogue official. That boy was so disturbed by the sexual abuse that he took up drugs, and the sexton then exploited that knowledge to blackmail the youth into more sexual intercourse. The other two children were subject to his fondling, often on the back porch of the synagogue dduring prayers, in exchange for sweets." [REINFELD, M., 6-22-01]
In 2001, Chabad rabbi Mordechai Yomtov, a teacher at Cheder Menachem grade school in Los Angeles, was jailed on $500,000 bail for "ten felony counts of committing lews acts with children ... Yomtov was keeping [three boys] alone in the classroom and molesting them while the other children were at recess." [FAX, J., 12-14-01]
In 2000, John Douglas Wynn was arrested for molesting a 12-year old boy in the spa at California's Palo Alto Jewish Community Center. [SAN FRANCISCO CHRONICLE, 5-18-2000, p. A18] In 2000 an unnamed young Jewish woman came forward to press criminal charges against Rabbi Baruch Lanner, the religious director of the National Conference of Synagogue Youth (NCSY), an Orthodox youth group. She claimed she was molested by Lanner on a daily basis for eight months beginning in 1995. [ROSENBLATT, G., 7-10-2000, p. 9] Lanner, noted the Jewish Week,
���� "is widely regarded as one of the most brilliant, dynamic and
���� charismatic educators in Jewish life today ... Reports have continued
���� to circulate that he has harassed, if not abused, many scores of
���� teens sexually, physically and/or emotionally, from the early 1970s to
���� the present ... Those who have elected to tell their stories say they are
���� motivated by anger and frustration over the refusal of the OU, the
���� national central body of Orthodox synagogues, to act decisively on
���� repeated complaints about Rabbi Lanner's behavior." [ROSENBLATT,
���� G., 6-23-2000]
In 2001, two U.S. Congressmen, Tom Lantos and Edolphus Towns were "snookered" into defending an Argentine yoga school against alleged "anti-Semitic" elements (about "50 percent of those involved were of the Jewish faith"). Towns introduced a formal resolution condemning "discrimination against youga enthusiasts by the Argentine government. In the resolution he linked bombing of a Jewish center in Buenos Aires six years ago to a long pattern of Argentine anti-Semitism." As Insight on the News notes, however,
"The Congressmen may have been snookered by those accusations of anti-Semitism.
Their lofty resolution failed to mention some of the other 'practices' of the Escuela
de Yoga. According to reports, the learning center, run by a certain Juan
Percowicz, teaches lessons that are 'sui generis,' in that thye involve practices
that most people would call 'sexual freedom.' There have even been some
allegations of child exploitation, which local police were compelled to
investigate. Since its founding in the 1980s, the school has been raided
by the police more than 300 times. Other charges brought against it include
assault and petty larceny." [NICHOLS/SPUN, 12-7-01]
From Israel, in 1998, 19-year old model Linor Abargil was named "Miss World." Seven weeks earlier she had been raped at knife-point by an Israeli travel agent, Shlomo Nour. [USA TODAY, 1-20-99]� "The 51st year of the Jewish state," noted the Jewish Advocate, "seems to be shaping up as the Year of the Sexual Assault. Or perhaps, more properly, the year when sexual assault is coming out of the closet. Coming out with a vengeance. In the first six months of 1998, rape was up 22% over the previous year ... Teen rape, child rape, homo-sexual rape, rape in the military, intra-family rape, we run the gamut." [MOTRO, H., p. 10]� In 1999, an "expanding" sexual harassment scandal broke out in the Israeli Ministry for Religious Affairs, centering on the division's comptroller, Yehiya Paruz. [SINAI, 1999] That same year, the Los Angeles Times noted that "Long a taboo topic, or dismissed as something women simply had to put up with, sexual harassment in the [Israeli] military is now openly discussed in Israel, thanks to high-profile cases, new rules and a handful of crusading activists. More and more women are coming forward to denounce abuse." [WILKINSON, T., 12-1-99, p. A1]
In 2000, the head of the Defense Ministry's publishing unit, Amnon Tzabari, was charged with sexual harassment for "performing lewd acts on four female workers in his office." This followed disciplinary actions against "long-time ministry spokesman" Dan Weinrich and, in a separate case, the head of the Defense Ministry's media section, Shachar Halevi. "The situation became so bad," noted the Jerusalem Post, "that ministry Director-General Arno Yam gathered all senior officials and warned he was going to uproot the phenomenon." [O'SULLIVAN, A., 9-8-2000]
In 2001, a parliamentary aide to Israeli MK (member of Knessset/Parliament) Ayoub Kara publicly accused him or raping her. Ayoub is Prime Minister Sharon's "liason to Israeli Arabs." [JERUSALEM POST, 2-28-01] In 2000, Israel's Transport Minister, Yitzhak Mordechai, "who deputizes for [Israeli Prime Minister Ehud] Barak in his absence, suspended himself pending an investigation into accustions that he sexually assaulted a female civil servant." [REEVES, P., 3-8-00] In 2001, the director general of the Israel Journalists' Union, Tuvya Sa'ar, was "arrested on suspicion of having intercourse with a minor and coercing her for sexual favors ... In one instance ... he is suspected of promising the girl an appearance on the TV channel for children because of his connections there." Sa'ar is the former director of Israel TV. [ARBELI, A., 8-15-01] Along these general themes, see also historical Jewish pre-eminence in the international prostitution trade , and Jewish dominance of the pornography business (in the Mass Media chapter ]
Another ethical in-house controversy in the Jewish organizational community -- in this case, involving environmental morality -- arose in Houston when Charles Hurwitz, a UJA-Federation official, was noted for his role as a majority stockholder in Maxxam, the company that owns Pacific Lumber which environmentalists were fighting for its plans to cut down some of the last remaining old growth Redwood trees on private land in California. As Benjamin Stein notes, "Charles Hurwitz's catastrophic takeover of Pacific Lumber.... resulted in some of the worst environmental atrocities of all time against first-growth redwood trees." [STEIN, B., p. 114]
Hurwitz's Maxxam rules over 110 subsidiaries, including Kaiser Aluminum, McCullough Oil, and Simplicity Patterns. By 1999, Hurwitz had spent $20 million defending himself against two Federal agencies, government lawsuits that charged that "Texas billionaire Charles Hurwitz bought Kaiser Aluminum with money made while illegally driving a savings and loan into bankruptcy." Hurwitz had purchased United Savings of Texas in 1984, "raided it for cash," and then let it fail in "reckless disregard for the law." The failure cost U.S. taxpayers $1.6 billion. [STEELE, K. D., 10-31-99, p. A1]
In 1999, environmentalists created an activist alliance against Maxxam with a steelworker union which had begun a strike against Kaiser. "I don't think there's a corporation anywhere else in the U.S. that's at the epicenter of so many social issues as Maxxam," said steelworker union official David Foster. [BORRESON, S., 1-3-2000]
Then there is David Koch. Koch heads Koch Industries,
"a conglommerate with major oil and gas holdings, [which] is the second-largest
privately-held company in the United States. It is also the recipient of the largest civil
fine ever imposed on a corporation for violating federal environmental laws. During
the 1990s, the company's leaky pipelines were responsible for more than 300 oil spills
in five states ... Last fall, Koch Industries and four employees were indicted on 97
counts of violating federal clean air and hazardous waste laws. Government
prosecutors accuse the company of intentionally releasing fumes from benzene
-- a suspected carcinogen -- into the atmosphere and then lying about it to state
regulators in Texas. If convicted, the company could be fined up to $352 million."
[MOTHER JONES, 5-3-01]
Samuel Heyman owns 98% of the giant manufacturing firm GAF. As Mother Jones magazine noted about the company:
"Last year, if the Asbestos Compensation Act had passed Congress, Heyman would
have profited handsomely from his anonymity. The bill -- drafted by a Harvard law
professor hired by GAF -- would have denied or delayed compensation to thousands
of victims of asebestos-related diseases, cost tax-payers as much as $150 million
a year, and provided 'unwarranted benefits to asbestos companies,' according
to the U. S. Justice Department. As a former manufacturer of asbestos-laden
building products, GAF found itself in a crushing legal avalanche.' [MOTHER
JONES, 5-3-01]
Likewise, in the pantheon of prominent Jewish organization leaders, there was the case of (the Jewish) Moment magazine's "donor of the month," Bernie Marcus, for his donation of $15 million to the Atlanta UJA fundraising campaign. Marcus, the CEO of Home Depot, only weeks earlier lost an Oakland jury verdict of $1.6 million in damages against his company for "sexual discrimination and retaliation." A class action lawsuit for $65 million also was settled against Home Depot for sex discrimination. [ARON, M.]
"A trustee-for-life of the Atlanta Jewish Federation," notes Mother Jones magazine,
"Marcus says he has integrated Judaic principles into what he likes to call the
'Home Depot family.' For him, helping people understand Judaism is a matter
of marketing. 'I think a lot of it has to do with selling,' he says, 'You've got
to sell the beauties of Judaism." [MOTHER JONES, 5-3-01]
In March 1998, the head of the World Jewish Congress, Edgar Bronfman, also president and CEO of the family-controlled Seagram and Universal Studios, was awarded a conspicuously dubious honor (the Seagram fortune was built to power by the Bronfmans during prohibition, with considerable collusion with Detroit's criminal Jewish Purple Gang who smuggled alcohol over to Windsor).� "A bipartisan political group," noted the Financial Times of London,
���� "launched a new campaign aimed at embarrassing one of the leading
���� lights of the entertainment business. The first ever "Silver Sewer' award,
���� in recognition of its 'outrageous contribution to the degradation and
���� coarsening of our culture and its unswerving dedication to the pursuit
���� of profit above principle' [was awarded in abstentia to Bronfman]."
���� [BAKER, G., 3-21-98, p. 2]
Of particular note to the judges was the Bronfman ownership and promotion of the decadent The Jerry Springer [who is Jewish] Show on television and Marilyn Manson, "perhaps the most shocking of the 'shock rock' groups." William Bennett, a former cabinet member in the Reagan and Bush White Houses, decried Seagrams as "the leading perpetrators of cultural rot" in America. [BAKER, G., 3-21-98, p. 2] Seagrams is noteworthy for many dubious honors, including the fact that in 1997 it "started airing TV commercials for its Crown Royal Whiskey in scattered markets across the United States. The commercials broke a voluntary ban on television advertising that the liquor companies had imposed on themselves in 1948." [FINANCIAL TIMES, 4-7-97] [More about the Bronfmans and Springer later]
In 2001, Irv Rubin, head of the Jewish Defense League, and an associate, Earl Krugel, were arrested by the FBI for plotting to bomb the Los Angeles King Fahd Mosque and the office of Arab-American Congressmen Darrell Issa. [DEUTSCH, L., 12-12-01]
In 1997, the United Jewish Appeal went out of its way to shame the Jewish community by awarding its "Humanitarian of the Year" award to (non-Jewish) media mogul Rupert Murdoch at a fund-raising dinner that raised $2.3 million for the organization. Mother Jones magazine wondered about the surreal moral reasoning behind the award: "The media baron is better known to labor and human rights groups for his union-busting and for catering to the Chinese government (in 1994 he yanked the BBC off his Asian satellite network because officials in Beijing were angered by its reporting on Chinese human rights violations)."� [MJ, 9/10-97, p. 18]
"By what criteria has the UJA chosen the worldwide robber baron for this years' award over, say, Radovan Karadzic [accused of war crimes in Bosnia], or perhaps Larry Flynt [the pornographer]?" wondered Eric Alterman in the Nation, "... Murdoch was chosen, the UJA says, for his 'longtime support of the security of the state of Israel, his friendship for the Jewish people, and his support of UJA.'" [ALTERMAN, p. 6-7]� The Australian-born Murdoch had earlier been honored in 1982 as the "Communications Man of the Year" by the American Jewish Congress. He was presented that award by AJC president Howard Squadron, who was also Murdoch's American lawyer, his guide to visit right-wing politician Ariel Sharon in Israel, and an opinion page writer for Murdoch's New York Post. [GOLDSTEIN, T, p. 69; KIERNAN, T., 1986, p. 262] "The Jewish national cause is one that is extremely important to me, to my family, and to my company," Murdoch told the UJA audience, "... We're also in Israel [Murdoch has investments there] because of my faith in the integrity and worthiness of the Zionist undertaking. I have been accused of being pro-Israel, pro-Zionist, pro-Jewish -- charges to which I plead guilty." [LEON, M., 7-4-97, p. 16]
Matti Golan, a former Israeli government official, calls the massive American Jewish organizational ring to raise money for itself and Israel the "Money Machine." American Jews, notes Golan, have
��������� "created a ruthless, well-oiled machine whose only aim is to collect
���������� money and ... will do anything to do so. Every year [American Jewish
� ���������leaders get] a higher quota to meet and ... stop at nothing to meet it.
���������� If you can't meet your quota, you're out. The only gauge of success,
���������� the one bottom line, is how many dollars you've brought in."
���������� [GOLAN, p. 65]
In 1999, Jewish billionaire Henry Samueli was presented an award by a prominent Jewish American organization. As the Los Angeles Times noted this honor,
�
���� "The Orange County chapter of the American Jewish Committee will
���� present him with its National Human Relations Award ... He's happy
���� to be honored, Samueli said, but he was surprised to find out that a
���� donation to the Committee was part of the package." [CONWAY, A.,
���� 4-13-99, p. E1]
Even Alan Dershowitz concedes that "Jewish organizations sometimes honor the wealthy without inquiry into the sources of their wealth. We sometimes do not make the effort to see what is plainly before our eyes. We are blinded by the facade of money ... " [DERSHOWITZ, Chutzpah, p. 307]
This worldview, so common in the Jewish community, was heralded as an emulative value for Americans at-large in 1995 by a Jewish professor at the University of Chicago, Daniel Fischel, who espoused it -- not surprisingly -- in his book, Payback: The Conspiracy to Destroy Michael Milken and His Financial Revolution, published prominently by HarperCollins. Fischel's introductory paragraph to begin his defense of Milken's vast corruption machine deserves to be quoted in full, as sum of both his book and a widespread moral vacuousness so much at stake here:
����� "Why have the 1980s been so uniformly condemned as the 'decade of
����� greed?' For that matter, what does this disparaging characteristic even
����� mean? The decade's many critics who pontificate against evils of greed
����� have seen no need to define the term. Dictionary definitions of greed --
����� 'inordinate desire for wealth' or 'wanting more than one's proper share' --
����� provide no help but merely restate the question. What is 'inordinate
����� desire for wealth, or the dividing line between one's 'proper' or
����� 'improper' share? With no answers to these questions, how can we
����� possibly know when an individual, let alone a whole country, is guilty of
����� 'greed?' And even if we could somehow identify 'greedy' behavior, why
����� should we care?" [FISCHEL, p. 1]
[See also Chapter 23 for much more evidence on the theme of
the expression of Jewish ethics]
| i don't know |
From which city did the Portuguese Royal Family rule Portugal between 1808 and 1821? | 1808 - Words Without Borders
1808
Nonfiction by Laurentino Gomes
How a mad queen, a fearful prince, and a corrupt court deceived Napoleon and changed the history of Portugal and Brazil forever
At the end of the summer of 1808, exactly 200 years ago, an unusual event took place as the inhabitants of Rio de Janeiro looked on incredulously. Early in the afternoon on March 7, a naval squadron carrying the crown prince of Portugal, Dom João, and the Portuguese Royal family sailed into Guanabara Bay, fleeing French Emperor Napoleon Bonaparte's troops. The sun was shining and the sky was blue. A strong wind was blowing in from the ocean to alleviate the suffocating heat. After a journey of three months and one week, including a five-week stop in Salvador, hundreds of nobleman and illustrious passengers flocked to the ships' rails to contemplate the magnificent vision unfolding before them: a small city with rows of white houses lining the beachfront, perched on the edge of a calm bay framed by tall granite mountains dripping with luxuriant, dark-green forest.
Crossing the Atlantic had been an adventure replete with hardship and suffering. The old, poorly-equipped Portuguese ships and frigates were brimming with people. Overcrowding and the lack of hygiene and sanitation favored the proliferation of pests. On the ship Alfonso de Albuquerque, on which Princess Carlota Joaquina, wife of the crown prince, had traveled, a lice infestation had obliged the noblewomen to shave their heads and throw their wigs into the sea. Their bald heads were anointed with pig fat and dusted with antiseptic powder. This resulted in one of the most comic episodes in the history of the Brazilian court. To protect their heads when they disembarked in Rio de Janeiro, Carlota, her daughters, and other ladies-in-waiting wore turbans. When they saw the princesses dressed like that, the women of Rio de Janeiro assumed it was the latest fashion in Europe. In no time, almost all of them had cut their hair and were using turbans to imitate the Portuguese noblewomen.
Thus began the most noteworthy period of transformation in Rio de Janeiro. The arrival of the Portuguese court was a meeting of two distant worlds hitherto unknown to one another. On one side, there was a European monarchy, stooping under the weight of long velvet coats, shoes with buckles, silk tights, wigs, and decorations, clothes too heavy and dark for the scalding sun of the tropics. On the other side, the colonial, almost African city, whose population was two-thirds Negro, mestizo, and mulatto, replete with slave traders, mule-pack drivers, gold and diamond dealers, sailors, and merchants from the Indies. "Churches, monasteries, forts, and country houses, gleaming white, crown every hill and decorate the bases of their symmetrical, exact peaks, while in the background a curtain of forest overshadows everything," wrote English businessman John Luccock when he arrived in Rio de Janeiro in June of 1808, three months after the arrival of the Portuguese court.
In the early nineteenth century, the city that took in the Portuguese royal family was a major port of call, where practically every ship leaving Europe and the United States stopped before continuing on to Asia, Africa and the recently discovered lands of the South Pacific. A voyage from England to Rio de Janeiro took somewhere from 55 to 80 days. From Rio to Cape Town, in South Africa, it was another 30 to 50 days. To India, 105 to 150 days. To China, 120 to 180 days. To Australia, 70 to 90 days. Protected from wind and storms by the mountains, the calm waters of Guanabara Bay provided ideal shelter for vessel repair and restocking drinking water, jerked beef, sugar, cachaça, tobacco, and firewood. "No colonial port in the world was as well located for general trade as Rio de Janeiro," wrote traveler John Mawe. It was also the largest slave market in the Americas. Its port was always choked with slave ships that had crossed the Atlantic from Africa. According to historian Manolo Garcia Florentino's calculations, no fewer than 850,000 African slaves passed through the port of Rio in the eighteenth century, half of all the Africans brought in captivity to Brazil in the period.
According to the Englishman Luccock, at the time the city had 4,000 homes, with an average of 15 people living in each. That was a total of 60,000 inhabitants. The meticulous Luccock divided the population in the following manner:
16,000 foreigners 1,000 in some way connected with Dom João's court 1,000 public servants 1,000 who lived in the city but whose livelihood came from neighboring lands or ships 700 priests 500 attorneys 200 medical practitioners 40 regular traders 2,000 retailers 4,000 sales clerks, apprentices, and shop attendants 1,250 mechanics 100 tavern owners 300 fishermen 1,000 frontline soldiers 1,000 sailors in the port 1,000 freed black slaves 12,000 slaves 4,000 women as heads of families The population also included approximately 29,000 children, almost half of the total.
From the sea, when the ships sailed into port, it was a peaceful, bucolic village, perfectly integrated with the splendor of the nature around it. From close up, impressions changed quickly. Its problems were its humidity, garbage, and the residents' lack of manners. "The city's cleaning was entirely entrusted to the vultures," wrote historian Oliveira Lima. Alexander Caldcleugh, a foreigner who traveled through Brazil from 1819 to 1821, was impressed by the number of mice infesting the city and surrounding areas. "Many of the best houses are so full of them that it is not uncommon to see them traipsing through dining rooms at meal times," he said.
In the sticky heat of the tropics, laziness and lack of elegance in people's dress and behavior reigned. Emanuel Pohl, a naturalist who accompanied Princess Leopoldina—future Emperor Dom Pedro I's new bride—to Brazil in 1817, observed that the men went around in flip-flops, light pants, and chintz jackets. The women, draped with rosaries and saint pendants, spent most of the day in simple shirts and short skirts. "In happy idleness, they sit around on mats by the windows, with their legs crossed, all day long," wrote Pohl.
Invited to dine at the home of a wealthy family, Luccock was surprised to discover that each person was expected to bring their own knife, "generally broad, sharp, and silver-handled." At the table, he observed that "their fingers are used as often as their forks." Moreover, it was common for someone to serve himself from his neighbor's plate with his hands. "It is considered uncontestable proof of friendship to eat from your neighbor's plate; and, thus, it isn't rare to see the fingers of both simultaneously immersed in a single dish," he said. Fresh meat was a rarity. It came from far away, from distances of up to one thousand kilometers. Traveling along roads in poor conditions, in herds brought from the state of Minas Gerais or the Paraíba Valley, many cattle died along the way from starvation or exhaustion. "Those that made it to the end of the journey arrived at the public slaughterhouse in a pitiful condition," says Luccock. Situated near Rio's city center, the slaughterhouse was a place "of utmost filth." Pork was also sold "in a very unhealthy state." For this reason, the most popular meat was jerked beef, which came from far away, after having being treated with salt and cured in the sun.
In 1803, British naval officer James Tuckey left a curious record of the women of Rio: "Their slightly slanting, big, full, black, shining eyes give a certain degree of vivacity to their dark complexions and lend their countenance some expression. It is, in most cases, the manifestation of an animal vivacity, tempered with the simple and light touch of sensitivity." Tuckey, however, did warn: "Brazilian women have, among others, the awful habit of spitting in public, no matter when, where, or in what situation. Such a habit (. . .) is a powerful obstacle to the reign of female charm."
Healthcare was very poor. "The simplest surgeries were carried out by bloodletters," says historian Oliveira Lima, based on reports by Luccock. In 1798, ten years before the arrival of the Portuguese court, the Rio de Janeiro City Council had proposed a program to a group of doctors to try to eradicate disease in the city. The plan included a study of the illnesses they wished to eliminate. A report by the armada's doctor, Bernardino Antônio Gomes, is shocking: "Endemic diseases in this city include scabies, erysipelas, funguses, yaws, morphea, elephantiasis, pruritus, tungiasis, edemas of the legs, hydroceles, sarcoceles, roundworms, hernias, leucorrhea, dysmenorrhoea, hemorrhoids, dyspepsia, several kinds of convulsions, hepatitis, and different sorts of intermittent and remittent fevers." Researcher Nireu Cavalcanti found documents in the National Archives that provide a notion of what healthcare and medicine were like in Rio de Janeiro in the era of Dom João VI. They are the post-mortem inventories of two doctors, listing their assets. The inventory of Surgeon General Antônio José Pinto, who died in 1798, includes this startling list of "surgical instruments": a large saw, a small saw, a spanner, two straight knives, two pairs of tongs, an eagle's claw, two tourniquets, a monkey wrench, and a large pair of scissors.
Because the water table was quite near the surface, the construction of septic tanks was prohibited. The residents' urine and feces, collected during the night, was taken the next morning to be dumped into the sea by slaves, who carried large barrels of sewage on their backs. Along the way, some of the contents, which were full of ammonia and urea, sloshed onto their skin and, over time, left white stripes on their black backs. For this reason, these slaves were known as "tigers."
Another thing that aroused the curiosity of visitors was the number of Negroes, mulattoes and mestizos in the streets. The slaves did all kinds of manual labor. Among other activities, they were barbers, shoemakers, messengers, basket makers, and sold drinks, desserts, sponge cakes, and coffee. They also carried people and merchandise. In the mornings, hundreds of them would go to fetch water from the fountain at the Carioca Aqueduct, which they transported in barrels similar to the ones they used to carry excrement down to the beach in the late afternoon.
The crown prince went to live in a lovely large palace located in what is now the neighborhood of São Cristóvão, close to the current location of the favela of Mangueira and Maracanã Stadium. The palace was given to the Prince as a present by a prominent slave dealer of the time. His wife, Princess Carlota Joaquina, with whom he did not share the same roof, preferred to stay on an estate next to Botafogo Beach. Even more complicated was finding housing for the court's thousands-strong entourage, who had recently arrived in the still relatively small city of only 60,000 inhabitants. By order of the Count of Arcos, a notorious "lodging" system was created, wherein people's homes had to be handed over to the nobility. The houses chosen had their doors marked with the letters PR, the initials for Príncipe Regente (Crown Prince), which the locals immediately dubbed "Ponha-se na Rua" (Get Out).
With the arrival of the royal family, the city was shaken by a population boom. Between 1808 and 1821 the urban area tripled, as new neighborhoods and parishes were created. The population doubled and the number of slaves tripled, from 12,000 to 36,182. The traffic of animals and carriages became so intense that laws and regulations had to be created to impose discipline. In 1824 Rua Direita became the first street to have numbered houses and two-way traffic with designated lanes. It was a dramatic change for a city that, in 1808, already lacked the space, infrastructure, and services with which to receive the newcomers from Lisbon.
Crime skyrocketed. There were constant robberies and murders. In the port, ships were targeted by pirates. Gangs of hoodlums went through the streets attacking people with knives and blades. Although officially banned, prostitution and gambling took place in broad daylight. "In this city and outlying areas, we have been harassed by thieves," wrote royal archive keeper Luiz Joaquim dos Santos Marrocos in a letter to his father, who had stayed in Lisbon.
Most of the population went around armed. The English consul, James Henderson, was surprised by the number of people who carried knives hidden up their sleeves, "which they take out and use with great skill." Few people risked going out alone after dark. Stone-throwing was a common form of aggression—equivalent to today's stray bullets. In October of 1817, the wife of the American Ambassador, Thomas Sumpter, was struck in the eye by a stone while sitting in her carriage on Rua do Ouvidor. In another incident, during a concert at São João Theater, a stone hit actor Manuel Alves and brought the performance to an end.
The task of imposing order on this chaos was entrusted by Dom João to the court magistrate Paulo Fernandes Viana. Born in Rio de Janeiro and with a degree from the University of Coimbra, Viana was named police superintendent by the judicial writ of May 10, 1808, an office he held until 1821, the year he died. He was "a civilizing agent" in Rio de Janeiro. It was up to him to turn the provincial, uneducated, dirty, and dangerous colonial village into something closer to a European capital, worthy of being the seat of the Portuguese monarchy. His mission included land-filling swamps, organizing the supply of water and food and the removal of trash and sewage, paving and lighting the streets with whale-oil lamps, and building highways, bridges, aqueducts, fountains, promenades, and public squares. It was also his responsibility to police the streets, issue passports, keep an eye on foreigners, inspect the sanitary conditions of slave holding areas, and provide housing for the new inhabitants that the city received with the arrival of the court.
Viana's police officers were relentless and truculent. The most famous of them was Major Miguel Nunes Vidigal. He was the equivalent, 200 years later, of Captain Nascimento in the 2007 film Tropa de Elite (Elite Squad). As commander of the new Royal Guard, Vidigal became the worst nightmare of Rio's criminals. He lay in wait on street corners and popped up out of nowhere at capoeira or percussion sessions, where slaves hung around drinking cachaça until late at night. Not even remotely concerned with legal procedures, he ordered his officers to arrest and beat up any participant in this kind of activity—whether they were a delinquent or just an ordinary citizen having fun. Instead of the military saber, Vidigal's men carried whips with long, heavy handles and strips of leather at the tips. The commander also personally led several assaults on runaway-slave communities in the forests around Rio de Janeiro. In recognition of his services, in 1820, Benedictine monks gave Vidigal land at the foot of the hill known as Morro Dois Irmãos as a present. Invaded by makeshift shacks starting in 1940, the area is now occupied by the favela of Vidigal, which enjoys a privileged view of the beaches of Ipanema and Leblon.
The Gazeta do Rio de Janeiro, the first newspaper published in Brazil, went into circulation on September 10, 1808, printed on machines imported from England. However, it only printed news that was pro-government. Reading the advertisements published in the Gazeta is a fun way to observe how the habits of Rio's population in this period grew more sophisticated. In the beginning, they offered simple services and products, a reflection of a colonial society still closed to the world, which imported little and produced almost everything it consumed. These first advertisements included horses and carriages for hire, land and homes for sale, and certain basic services such as lessons in catechism, Portuguese, history, and geography.
One example of an advertisement published in 1808 read: "Good lead horse for carriages for sale. Interested parties should talk to Francisco Borges Mendes, who lives above the store on the corner of João Baptista Alley."
From 1810, the tone and content of the advertisements changed radically. Instead of houses, horses, and slaves, they started offering pianos, books, linens, silk handkerchiefs, champagne, cologne, fans, gloves, china vases, paintings, watches, and an infinity of other imported goods. In the March 2, 1816 edition of the Gazeta, Frenchman Girard advertised his services as "hairdresser to Her Royal Highness, Dona Carlota, Princess of Brazil; Her Royal Highness, the Princess of Wales; and Her Highness, the Duchess of Angoul'me." He then listed the following services: "The latest women's hairstyles from Paris and London; men's and women's haircuts; men's and women's wigs; dyeing of hair, eyebrows, and sideburns with the utmost perfection, without causing any damage to the skin or clothes; and an ointment to make hair grow and thicken." On November 13 of the same year, Bellard, located at #8 Rua do Ouvidor, claims to have received "a new assortment of real and fake jewelry, ladies' hats, French books, dresses, and accessories for modern women, all kinds of perfumes, pendulums, shot guns, and fans."
The clothes and new habits introduced by the court were paraded on performance nights at the São João Theatre or at Sunday mass. On these occasions, an indisputable status symbol was the number of slaves and servants who accompanied their masters through the streets of Rio de Janeiro. The wealthiest and most powerful had the largest entourages and went out of their way to flaunt them as a symbol of their social importance. Prussian Von Leithold said that even top-class prostitutes—"of which there are many"—proudly paraded their convoys through the streets. Those who didn't have their own private servants hired them for holy days and mass. "It is a question of honor to appear in public with a large retinue. They walk through the streets with self-importance and measured steps."
The Invention of Brazil
No other period in the history of Brazil witnessed such profound, decisive, and swift change as the thirteen years in which the Portuguese court remained in Rio de Janeiro. In the space of just one and a half decades, Brazil went from being a backward, ignorant colony to an independent nation.
200 years ago, Brazil didn't exist. At least not as it is today: an integrated country, with well-defined frontiers and inhabitants that consider themselves Brazilians. On the eve of the arrival of the Portuguese court in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil was just a large farm in service of Portugal, without any notion of national identity. The different provinces were more or less autonomous, with no trade or any other kind of relationship with one another, and the only point of reference was the Portuguese government, whose seat was in Lisbon, on the other side of the Atlantic.
This all changed with the arrival of the court. Dom João and his ministry had to create a country out of nothing. Changes began to take place at a startling rate and were to have a great impact on the future of the country. The most important decision made during their stop in Salvador was to open the ports. When they arrived in Rio de Janeiro, they freed Brazil's trade and manufacturing. This, together with the opening of the ports, represented the end of the colonial system. Brazil had been freed from three centuries of Portuguese monopoly and entered the international system of production and trade.
Countless factories began to spring up all over the country. The first ironworks was founded in 1811. Wheat mills and boat, gunpowder, rope, and textile factories were built. The construction of new highways helped shatter the isolation that had reigned between the provinces until then. Steamboats were introduced in 1818. The most distant regions were explored and mapped. Expeditions traveled up the tributaries of the Amazon to their headwaters and established fluvial communication between the states of Mato Grosso and São Paulo.
Ironically, by moving to Brazil, João VI lost it forever. When the court returned to Portugal in 1821, the new country was ready to walk on its own two legs, out from under Portugal's tutelage. The result was Brazil's independence, in 1822.
August 2009
| Rio de Janeiro |
Which Greek heroine was said to have hatched from an egg? | Napoleon Invades Spain and Portugal | Elpidio Valdes
Napoleon Invades Spain and Portugal
Filed Under America , Colonies , France , history , Napoleon , Portugal , Revolution , Spain , War
Although the processes of modernization and reform set the stage for the wars for independence, it was the Napoleonic wars, and more specifically, Napoleon’s invasion of Spain, that triggered the wars for independence in Spanish America. This outline first looks at the rise of Napoleon and his efforts to dominate Europe. We then closely examine his invasion of Spain and Portugal, the flight of the Portuguese monarchy to Brazil, and the imprisonment of the king and crown prince of Spain. The French occupation of Spain and Portugal sets off a war of skirmishes and a British invasion. These events touch off a series of (mostly) failed wars for independence in Spanish America after 1808. The defeat of Napoleon and the return of Fernando VII in 1814 create another flashpoint that sets off a second series of wars in Spanish America, wars that largely succeed.
Although the processes of modernization and reform set the stage for the wars for independence, it was the Napoleonic wars in Europe, and more specifically, Napoleon’s invasion of Spain, that triggered the wars for independence in Spanish America.
A. Napoleon’s armies invaded Spain and Portugal in 1807–1808, deposing the Iberian monarchies and severing the connections between Iberia and the Latin American colonies.
The Portuguese royal family fled Lisbon for Brazil in 1807, and Napoleon imprisoned the Spanish king and crown prince in 1808.
The Spanish Americans would have to decide how to rule their own lands with their king under French control.
Before we look at these invasions and their consequences, we must first return to the French Revolution and events in Europe.
B. After 1799, Napoleon emerged as the strongman in France; he led his armies across Europe until 1815, deposing monarchs and dominating the entire continent.
Napoleon Bonaparte is one of the more extraordinary figures in the history of the West.
In 1803, Britain declared war on France, and the Austrian and Russian Empires soon joined in a coalition against Napoleon.
Napoleon concentrated on closing off the continent to English trade.
After signing a peace treaty with the young Tsar Alexander I in 1807, Portugal and Spain were the only “holes” in the continental blockade.
The Spanish and Portuguese monarchies reacted in different ways to the Napoleonic invasions in 1807–1808.
A. The Portuguese had long been allies of the English and had been preparing for a French invasion for more than a decade.
The Braganzas had been the ruling family since 1640; Maria I had ascended to the throne in 1777.
With the rise of the French revolutionary army in the 1790s, the Portuguese monarchy secretly began to plan for a possible invasion.
When the French sent forces across Spain into Portugal in late 1807, the royal family chose to evacuate to Brazil under British escort.
The Braganza family would reside in Brazil from 1808–1821, ruling their empire from Rio de Janeiro.
B. Compared to the Spanish Bourbons, the Portuguese Braganzas appear to be one big, happy, and astute royal family.
The Spanish monarch, Carlos IV, had assumed the throne at the age of 40 in 1788 on the death of his father, Carlos III.
In the years leading up to the Napoleonic invasion, Manuel de Godoy (chief minister), the queen, the king, and the crown prince all conspired among themselves, against each other, and with Napoleon at various times.
The wily Napoleon “invited” Carlos and Fernando to visit him in southern France in April 1808.
Napoleon then placed his half-brother Joseph on the Spanish throne.
The Spanish people resisted the French occupation with tenacity and at great cost.
A. The Spanish confronted the overwhelming force of the French with a form of fighting that came to be known as guerrilla warfare.
The great uprisings of May 1808 initiated a six-year struggle to regain Spanish independence.
The Spanish attacked with regular troops and in irregular units that became justly famous.
The British came to the aid of the Portuguese and Spanish to counter the French expansion.
B. Across the country and in the absence of the true king, citizens formed juntas to rule in the name of the imprisoned Fernando VII.
Many of these juntas joined together to form a “supreme” Central Junta.
Across Spanish America, the colonists also formed juntas.
This was a pivotal shift, with the “people” ruling through the juntas rather than the king.
These momentous events in Spain triggered the wars for independence in Spanish America.
A. A first set of wars broke out after 1808, led by the first wave of rebels.
Most colonists were reluctant to break with Spain and chose to remain loyal to Fernando in his absence.
As we shall see in the next series of outlines, some did choose to seize the opportunity of the moment and call for independence from Spain.
The rebellions that broke out were nearly all defeated, with the great exceptions of Paraguay and Argentina.
B. Ironically, the return of Fernando VII to power in 1814 triggered a second set of wars for independence.
Fernando disappointed many loyal colonists by attempting to return to the absolutist, colonial regime of the 18th century, a stupid and disastrous move on his part.
Combined with the great wounds and divisions opened by the first set of wars, Fernando’s rejection of constitutionalism and the Constitution of 1812 sparked the final collapse of Spain’s once-mighty empire in the Americas.
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Peter Schmeichel joined Manchester United, from which football club? | Club: Former players / edit.
Peter Schmeichel. Biography
Peter Bolesław Schmeichel is a retired footballer from Denmark. He was born in 1963 and began to play football at the local club Høje-Gladsaxe. Then he joined the youth system Hero, which then became Gladsaxe-Hero, and after graduating he was promoted to the first team. Between 1984 and 1987 he stayed with Hvidovre and then gave a start to his professional playing career joining Brøndby. There he played until 1991 and throughout that period Brøndby was thrice crowned Danish champion in 1987, 1988 and 1990. In 1989 they won Danish Cup and in 1991 they won Danish Superliga. He had a prolific period with the club and the IFFHS named Schmeichel the World’s Best Goalkeeper in 1991.
After that he moved to Manchester United for a fee of £505,000. Peter Schmeichel spent eight years with Manchester United and helped his side to win Premier League titles in 1992/93, 1993/94, 1995/96, 1996/97 and 1998/99. They won three FA Cup trophies, in 1991/92 they were Football League Cup winners. In 1991 Manchester United won UEFA Super Cup and in 1998/99 they claimed UEFA Champions League victory. Schmeichel proved himself one of United’s best keepers.
At the age of 36 he left England and signed for Sporting CP after the end of the 1998/99 season. There he played until the summer of 2001 and then had a season at Aston Villa, after which he played for Manchester City the last year of his playing career.
Schmeichel retired in 2002 and has worked on TV, being a pundit for the BBC, hosted live matches on the Danish TV channel, he was the host of Dirty Jobs on Discovery and had other activities.
Between 1987 and 2001 the son of Polish father and Danish mother earned 129 caps for the Denmark national team.
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| Brøndby Municipality |
Who was Soviet Foreign Minister from 1957 to 1985? | Schmeichel turns tables: player buys club | Football | The Guardian
Schmeichel turns tables: player buys club
Thursday 30 December 1999 16.34 EST
First published on Thursday 30 December 1999 16.34 EST
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This article is 17 years old
Peter Schmeichel gave up playing for Manchester United this year, but he is not quite ready to give up football. The 36-year-old Danish international goalkeeper has just bought the club that once sold him.
He will be the sole owner of Hvidovre Idraets Forening, three-times Danish champions fallen on harder times. He will be an absentee landlord, at least until 2001 when his contract with Sporting Lisbon expires.
But it is not, he claims, merely a business deal. "To me this is not a matter of money," he explained. "Hvidovre is part of my history."
Hvidovre were Schmeichel's first senior club. He played 94 games there - 88 in the league - and scored seven penalties before leaving to join Brondby, another Copenhagen club, in 1987.
He continued to live in Hvidovre, a south-western Copenhagen suburb, until 1991, when he joined Manchester United. He helped United win five league titles in seven seasons, culminating in the league, FA Cup and Champions League treble this year, before leaving England for Sporting and the less intense demands of the Portuguese league. He captained United in the absence of the injured Roy Keane and lifted the European Cup in his last game.
He has won 118 caps, more than any other Dane, and formed the last line of Denmark's defence when they won the European championship in 1992. In France last year he helped them reach the World Cup quarter-finals before going out 3-2 to Brazil.
He may yet end his playing days at Hvidovre. "I haven't decided whether I'll play two or five more years," he told a press conference yesterday.
He said he wanted to restructure the club financially and bring in players, but did not expect the team to reclaim a place among the elite for some years.
Hvidovre are perilously placed in the lower mid-table of the Danish first division after relegation from the Superleague two years ago. Founded in 1925, they still run 40 teams.
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What was the name of the character played by Kevin Costner in the film, 'Dances With Wolves'? | Dances with Wolves (1990) - IMDb
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Lt. John Dunbar, exiled to a remote western Civil War outpost, befriends wolves and Indians, making him an intolerable aberration in the military.
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Won 7 Oscars. Another 43 wins & 33 nominations. See more awards »
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Storyline
Lt. John Dunbar is dubbed a hero after he accidentally leads Union troops to a victory during the Civil War. He requests a position on the western frontier, but finds it deserted. He soon finds out he is not alone, but meets a wolf he dubs "Two-socks" and a curious Indian tribe. Dunbar quickly makes friends with the tribe, and discovers a white woman who was raised by the Indians. He gradually earns the respect of these native people, and sheds his white-man's ways. Written by Greg Bole <[email protected]>
Inside everyone is a frontier waiting to be discovered. See more »
Genres:
21 November 1990 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
Danza con lobos See more »
Filming Locations:
70 mm 6-Track (70 mm prints)| Dolby SR (35 mm prints)
Color:
Did You Know?
Trivia
Viggo Mortensen was originally cast to play John Dunbar. Mortensen will, however, be playing John Dunbar in the sequel to this movie, The Holy Road . See more »
Goofs
During the beginning of the great buffalo shooting you can clearly hear someone shout, "Here we go" while the camera is focused on Dunbar. (This audio track can be heard on the European (4 hour) version) See more »
Quotes
One of the great ones
27 August 2003 | by ([email protected])
(Texas) – See all my reviews
People who say this movie is long and boring have obviously never sat through, oh, "Lawrence of Arabia," "Patton," "Doctor Zhivago," "The Godfather," "Ran," "Seven Samurai," or probably even "Braveheart." Thank God that not every filmmaker believes that a car must explode every 10 seconds in order for his movie to be a success. Kevin Costner is one of those directors who prefers the long format. David Lean, Francis Coppola and Mel Gibson, to name a very few, also worked in that format, and produced lasting works of art that also packed theaters. There are plenty of options for people who don't like movies that take the time to build character, drama and suspense, movies like "Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle," "Freddy Vs. Jason," and "Weekend at Bernie's." I don't think any of those movies has ever been called "boring," but they sure are crap cinema.
Onward. "Dances With Wolves" thrilled audiences way back in 1990 and made so darn much money precisely because people had forgotten the pleasures of the long narrative, the Western genre, and movies that weren't special effects schlock-fests. It remains an inspiring and moving experience, especially on DVD, which preserves the movie's theatrical sound and picture quality.
Costner's direction is first-rate. He's able to blend intimate drama with big, sprawling action that covers a huge canvas. I'm amazed at how smoothly the film segues from movement to movement -- action, alienation, suspense, social commentary, romance. Heck, Spielberg could take a lesson or two from this movie.
He also gets great performances out of his cast. I don't think of these people as actors, but as the characters they play. That's a compliment not just to the actors themselves, but their director. And, yes, Costner is terrific as John Dunbar.
Sure, it's easy to call "Dances" politically correct w/ reference to the Indians. But it also treats them as people and, better yet, as fictional characters whose lives are made part of a fascinating narrative. I just consider all the complaints about the politics of this movie as total hogwash.
Finally, the movie is beautifully shot, has an unforgettable score, and is very well-written. I've never thought of "Dances" as a Western, but a modern action picture/character study that avoids all the boring cliches of the Western genre. Here is a movie that stands for something, means something, and deserves at least as much respect as some of the overrated dreck we've gotten saddled with lately.
270 of 331 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you?
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Which Premier League side did Daniel Amokachi join after success in the 1994 World Cup for Nigeria? | Dances with Wolves (1990) - IMDb
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Lt. John Dunbar, exiled to a remote western Civil War outpost, befriends wolves and Indians, making him an intolerable aberration in the military.
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ON DISC
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Won 7 Oscars. Another 43 wins & 33 nominations. See more awards »
Videos
Selfish yuppie Charlie Babbitt's father left a fortune to his savant brother Raymond and a pittance to Charlie; they travel cross-country.
Director: Barry Levinson
At the close of WWII, a young nurse tends to a badly-burned plane crash victim. His past is shown in flashbacks, revealing an involvement in a fateful love affair.
Director: Anthony Minghella
The story of the final Emperor of China.
Director: Bernardo Bertolucci
A young Shakespeare, out of ideas and short of cash, meets his ideal woman and is inspired to write one of his most famous plays.
Director: John Madden
An old Jewish woman and her African-American chauffeur in the American South have a relationship that grows and improves over the years.
Director: Bruce Beresford
In 20th-century colonial Kenya, a Danish baroness/plantation owner has a passionate love affair with a free-spirited big-game hunter.
Director: Sydney Pollack
Two British track athletes, one a determined Jew and the other a devout Christian, compete in the 1924 Olympics.
Director: Hugh Hudson
Murderesses Velma Kelly and Roxie Hart find themselves on death row together and fight for the fame that will keep them from the gallows in 1920s Chicago.
Director: Rob Marshall
When Robin and his Moorish companion come to England and the tyranny of the Sheriff of Nottingham, he decides to fight back as an outlaw.
Director: Kevin Reynolds
Ted Kramer's wife leaves her husband, allowing for a lost bond to be rediscovered between Ted and his son, Billy. But a heated custody battle ensues over the divorced couple's son, deepening the wounds left by the separation.
Director: Robert Benton
Los Angeles citizens with vastly separate lives collide in interweaving stories of race, loss and redemption.
Director: Paul Haggis
Retired Old West gunslinger William Munny reluctantly takes on one last job, with the help of his old partner and a young man.
Director: Clint Eastwood
Edit
Storyline
Lt. John Dunbar is dubbed a hero after he accidentally leads Union troops to a victory during the Civil War. He requests a position on the western frontier, but finds it deserted. He soon finds out he is not alone, but meets a wolf he dubs "Two-socks" and a curious Indian tribe. Dunbar quickly makes friends with the tribe, and discovers a white woman who was raised by the Indians. He gradually earns the respect of these native people, and sheds his white-man's ways. Written by Greg Bole <[email protected]>
Inside everyone is a frontier waiting to be discovered. See more »
Genres:
21 November 1990 (USA) See more »
Also Known As:
Danza con lobos See more »
Filming Locations:
70 mm 6-Track (70 mm prints)| Dolby SR (35 mm prints)
Color:
Did You Know?
Trivia
Viggo Mortensen was originally cast to play John Dunbar. Mortensen will, however, be playing John Dunbar in the sequel to this movie, The Holy Road . See more »
Goofs
During the beginning of the great buffalo shooting you can clearly hear someone shout, "Here we go" while the camera is focused on Dunbar. (This audio track can be heard on the European (4 hour) version) See more »
Quotes
One of the great ones
27 August 2003 | by ([email protected])
(Texas) – See all my reviews
People who say this movie is long and boring have obviously never sat through, oh, "Lawrence of Arabia," "Patton," "Doctor Zhivago," "The Godfather," "Ran," "Seven Samurai," or probably even "Braveheart." Thank God that not every filmmaker believes that a car must explode every 10 seconds in order for his movie to be a success. Kevin Costner is one of those directors who prefers the long format. David Lean, Francis Coppola and Mel Gibson, to name a very few, also worked in that format, and produced lasting works of art that also packed theaters. There are plenty of options for people who don't like movies that take the time to build character, drama and suspense, movies like "Charlie's Angels: Full Throttle," "Freddy Vs. Jason," and "Weekend at Bernie's." I don't think any of those movies has ever been called "boring," but they sure are crap cinema.
Onward. "Dances With Wolves" thrilled audiences way back in 1990 and made so darn much money precisely because people had forgotten the pleasures of the long narrative, the Western genre, and movies that weren't special effects schlock-fests. It remains an inspiring and moving experience, especially on DVD, which preserves the movie's theatrical sound and picture quality.
Costner's direction is first-rate. He's able to blend intimate drama with big, sprawling action that covers a huge canvas. I'm amazed at how smoothly the film segues from movement to movement -- action, alienation, suspense, social commentary, romance. Heck, Spielberg could take a lesson or two from this movie.
He also gets great performances out of his cast. I don't think of these people as actors, but as the characters they play. That's a compliment not just to the actors themselves, but their director. And, yes, Costner is terrific as John Dunbar.
Sure, it's easy to call "Dances" politically correct w/ reference to the Indians. But it also treats them as people and, better yet, as fictional characters whose lives are made part of a fascinating narrative. I just consider all the complaints about the politics of this movie as total hogwash.
Finally, the movie is beautifully shot, has an unforgettable score, and is very well-written. I've never thought of "Dances" as a Western, but a modern action picture/character study that avoids all the boring cliches of the Western genre. Here is a movie that stands for something, means something, and deserves at least as much respect as some of the overrated dreck we've gotten saddled with lately.
270 of 331 people found this review helpful. Was this review helpful to you?
Yes
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Which former member of the 'Monty Python' team directed such films as 'Brazil' and 'The Fisher King'? | Directors’ Cuts: Top 5 Terry Gilliam Movies | Nerdist
Directors’ Cuts: Top 5 Terry Gilliam Movies
Posted by Kyle Anderson on February 2, 2015
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Films
Like him or not, there’s no denying the distinctive style and energy of a movie directed by Terry Gilliam . The former animator and the lone American member of Monty Python, Gilliam turned his unique take on material and his penchant for very wide-angle and fish-eye lenses into a filmmaking career that’s spanned over 30 years. While he was co-director on Monty Python and the Holy Grail and he directed the short The Crimson Permanent Assurance that began Meaning of Life, for this list of his five best films, I’m going to focus only on the features that he directed solo. He’s a filmmaker I’ve always liked but have recently come down on the side of really loving, even if the films he makes aren’t always my cup of tea. He knows what he wants and will complain if he doesn’t get it. And for God’s sake, will someone just let him make his Don Quixote movie?
5) Time Bandits (1981)
With his first few films, Gilliam was doing his version of fantasy films. In fact, all of his movies have tended to have an air of the fantastical about them, but have gotten steadily more grown-up as he went. For his second feature, Gilliam and his Python cohort Michael Palin wrote a script full of absurd humor and childlike exuberance with the story of a young boy who gets pulled from his bedroom into a world of time traveling thievery with a group of guys who used to work for God. Yep, that’s what it’s about. And they always seem to ruin everything for our young hero, who gets to meet Robin Hood, King Agamemnon, Napoleon and more. Gilliam’s art direction in this is unmatched and incredibly stark, and his sense of camera timing and movement is incredibly assured. He was an animator, after all; dude knows how to get the visuals he wants. I didn’t love this movie the first time I saw it, but over time it’s really grown on me.
4) Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas (1998)
We go from Gilliam’s most family-friendly film to arguably his least. A startling and disturbing visual representation of Hunter S. Thompson’s landmark gonzo memoir, Fear and Loathing is so viscerally evocative that it makes even the straightest-edge person know what a drug-fueled stupor might feel like. Johnny Depp gives one of his best performances as one of his first nutso-bonkers characters. He makes Raoul Duke both wholly despicable and weirdly likable, especially opposite Benicio del Toro’s psychopathic Dr. Gonzo. Gilliam based a lot of his visuals and effects on Ralph Steadman’s famous illustrations and it truly feels like that in live action, especially the creepy-ass lizard sequence.
3) The Adventures of Baron Munchausen (1988)
This is a film that I hadn’t seen until recently but it’s already skyrocketed in my book. Written by Gilliam and his friend and writing partner Charles McKeown, Baron Munchausen combines Gilliam’s love of historical settings with his knack for colorful characters. The titular Baron (John Neville) arrives in a town in an unnamed European town, somewhere sort of Germanic, that’s been ravaged by a war. A traveling theatre troupe is telling some of the Baron’s famous feats on stage and the old man interrupts to say how inaccurate they are and begins telling what really happened. The very young daughter (Sarah Polley) of the theatre owner takes a shine to the old weirdo. Many of the same actors from the play within the movie show up as members of his old crew, including Eric Idle. This is the perfect story for Gilliam’s brand of practical effects, that all look handmade. A theatre troupe putting on a play would have those kind of effects, and are quite impressive in that respect. This is just a joyfully good time watching a movie, and it makes me wish I’d seen it when I was actually a child.
2) 12 Monkeys (1996)
You can’t have better source material for a movie than a Chris Marker film, and Gilliam’s ode to dystopian fatalism is the better for it. Expanding Marker’s La Jetee, which was a short made out of black and white still images in a sequence, David and Janet Peoples’ script is a paranoid fever dream where we’re in the same boat as Cole (Bruce Willis) by never actually knowing if what we’re seeing is real, or if he’s actually traveling in time or just a crazy person. Gilliam makes the future world as dark and bleak as anything he’d ever shot, and the present/past didn’t look much nicer. This represents Gilliam’s other strong suit, which is creating an oppressively terrifying world where our hero is never safe, and by extension neither are we. Sent back in time (or possibly not) by unseen government people, Cole has to try to find the source of, and ultimately stop, the spread of a deadly virus that destroys most of Earth. But, everybody thinks he’s crazy, which is an idea I’m sure Gilliam felt some kinship with. Causal loops are bad news, bears.
1) Brazil (1985)
This is my favorite Terry Gilliam movie simply because I think this is the most Terry Gilliam a movie has ever been. It has everything – dystopian future, fantasy elements, adventure, bleak outlook, wicked sense of humor, and a main character who we side with but don’t necessarily like entirely. This is the movie that nearly blacklisted Gilliam forever following his feud with Universal head Sid Sheinberg when control over the final edit was taken away from him, and the disastrous “Love Conquers All” cut gutted most of what made the movie so special. A film like that deserves to be seen. Jonathan Pryce plays government middle-man paper pusher Sam Lowry who spends his days watching old films and daydreaming about being a winged and armored hero, and dreaming to fall in love with the woman of his dreams, who he actually meets in the form of a mysterious resistance leader. Things as simple as paperwork become of ultimate importance and a simple misprint can lead to a man’s legally-sanctioned murder. Beginning funny but ending very unfunny, the complete cut of this movie is a perfect vision of Gilliam’s world.
Featured Image Copyright Cedric Arnold
| Terry Gilliam |
What do 'Emetic' drugs induce? | Terry Gilliam apologises for being 'dead', Latest Movies News - The New Paper
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Movies
Terry Gilliam apologises for being 'dead'
Director Terry Gilliam arrives for the screening of the movie A Bigger Splash presented in competition at the 72nd Venice International Film Festival last Sunday (Sept 6).PHOTO: AFP
Sep 10, 2015 02:44 pm
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On Tuesday (Sept 8) Variety announced that director iconic director Terry Gilliam had died.
Gilliam, 74, is famed for mind bending films such as 12 Monkeys, Time Bandits, Brazil and being a member of the seminal Monty Python team.
Also, he is not dead.
The Independent reported that by Tuesday evening, thousands had shared Gilliam's so-called obituary.
The article, titled Monty Python's Terry Gilliam, Director of Brazil, dies at XXX, said:
"Director Terry Gilliam, the only American member of the Monty Python comedy troupe and an Oscar nominee for the screenplay to his film Brazil, has died.
Family-friendly workplaces key to growing birth rate
Jan 20, 2017
"Gilliam directed 12 feature films, often with baroque or surreal themes, including Time Bandits, Brazil and The Fisher King.
"His films inspired intense reactions; several were cult classics with devoted followings, but they were generally flawed enough to inspire loathing from those not on the same bawdy, anarchical comedy wavelength."
Since the Oscar-nominated director was still very much alive, this gaffe gave netizens an excuse to have a field day online.
Netizens got really creative with the false news.
Many quoted the famous Python's Dead Parrot sketch.
"Terry Gilliam is not dead. He's resting... he's stunned... he's pining for the fjords."
Referencing Monty Python and the Holy Gail, Twitter user Scott Linnen wrote: "Terry Gilliam is not dead.
"A witch once turned him into a newt. But he got better."
— Mark Humphries (@humphriesmark) September 8, 2015
Terry Gilliam is not - I REPEAT, NOT - a dead parrot, nor has he joined the bleeding choir eternal.
— Liberal Librarian (@Lib_Librarian) September 8, 2015
According to The Guardian, Variety retracted the article and posted an apology on Twitter:
"Variety incorrectly published an article stating that director Terry Gilliam passed away.
"We're deeply sorry for the mistake."
CORRECTION: Variety incorrectly published an article stating that director Terry Gilliam passed away. We're deeply sorry for the mistake.
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What are the Ellice Islands now called? | Tuvalu Map and Information, Map of Tuvalu, Facts, Figures and Geography of Tuvalu -Worldatlas.com - WorldAtlas.com
Tuvalu Map and Information, Map of Tuvalu, Facts, Figures and Geography of Tuvalu -Worldatlas.com
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Formerly called the Ellice Islands, Tuvalu consists of 5 low-lying coral atolls, 4 islands, and more than 100 islets, all spread over a very large area.
These isolated spots of land, the above water tips of undersea mountains, are famed for their beautiful lagoons, reefs, fabulous fishing, and collectible postage stamps.
The Polynesians first settled the land now called Tuvalu some 2,000 ago. Arrivals included those from Samoa, Tonga and Kiribati.
The Spanish explorer Mendana reportedly sighted the islands in 1568. The first Europeans arrived in the early 19th century, and the islands changed forever. In fact, some islanders were subsequently enslaved and forced to work.
In 1892 the British convinced the islanders to join the Gilbert Islands protectorate; later to be called the Gilbert and Ellice Islands Colony.
Almost fifty years later, during World War II, the U.S. used the islands as a military base to combat Japanese invasions in the Pacific.
In the mid 1970s the islands seceded from the Gilbert Ellise Colony, officially changing their collective name to Tuvalu, and became an independent nation. Its government remains a part of the British Commonwealth as a parliamentary democracy.
The economy of Tuvalu is agricultural based, and though an ideal venue for tourism, the islands are yet to fully develop that industry.
The only airport is located on the Funafuti Atoll, and transportation between islands is by boat.
For additional information regarding the history of Tuvalu, go
Official Name Tuvalu
Population 11,810
Capital Funafuti Atoll (4,492) - Note: The largest island within the Funafuti Atoll is Fongafale, and it is occasionally referred to as the capital as government administration buildings are located there.
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Which film directed by Milos Foreman netted him his second Best Director 'Oscar'? | Tuvalu History
The Islands
The formation of coral islands was a topic of considerable scientific argument in the 19th century. The question that particularly bothered scientists was this: since corals grow only at shallow depths in the sea (rarely below 80 metres), how is it that coral rock, formed from their remains, often extends for hundreds of metres beneath the sea?
In 1842 the famous scientist Charles Darwin, who visited the Pacific in 1835-6, put forward the theory that coral islands had been built on slowly subsiding volcanic rocks. As the volcanic foundation sank, it carried the dead coral down to greater depths. Meanwhile, new deposits of coral were being added to the top of the pile, near the surface, so that the upward growth of the coral kept pace with the subsidence. At some later date another volcanic movement occurred, and pushed some of the coral up to form islands. Thus it was, said Darwin that a solid mass of coral rock could be found above the surface of the sea, and extend from there, through the waters in which it had been formed down to depths at which the coral had never lived.
After many years of discussion on the structures of atolls, the Royal Society of London decided to bore down into the coral and obtain a sample of it from far beneath the surface to see if these samples would contain traces of shallow water organisms. In 1896 an expedition was sent to Tuvalu (Funafuti) which managed to bore to a depth of 33 metres. In 1897 another party of scientists led by Professor Edgeworth David of the University of Sydney carried the boring to a depth of 200 metres while the following year a third group managed to obtain a sample from a depth of 340 metres. All the samples obtained were found to contain traces of shallow water organisms, but the drilling was never able to reach the volcanic base of Funafuti. Another attempt was made in 1911, which was also unsuccessful. The boreholes can still be seen to this day, at the site now called David's Drill.
Mrs. David, the wife of Professor Edgeworth David wrote a book describing her experiences in Funafuti. It was published in 1899 and called Funafuti, Or Three Months on a Coral Island.
Nukufetau Atoll
H.M.S. Porpoise with drilling rig
Image Link:
3d Graphic showing the formation of Funafuti Atoll
Arrival of the Tuvaluans
According to the evidence of linguists, who can work out how old a language is, and hence for how long people had been speaking it, the language of Tuvalu - and hence the settlement of the country - goes back about 2,000 years. The traditional stories and genealogies, however, mostly go back only about 300 years. It seems, therefore, that the story we have today came to us not from the earlier ancestors but from later arrivals in Tuvalu.
It is generally believed that the earlier ancestors came mostly from Samoa, possibly by way of Tokelau, while others came from Tonga and Uvea (Wallis Island). These settlers were all Polynesians with the exception of Nui where many people are descendants of Micronesians from Kiribati.
In 1986, off the northern shore of Nanumaga, scuba divers investigated a local legend of a "large house under the sea". They found and underwater cave more than 40 metres down the wall of the coral cliff. Inside the cave there was evidence of ancient human occupation more than 8,000 years ago, which is sharply at odds with the general view that the Pacific was settled just 4,000 years ago. Climatic evidence of a massive rise in the see level that began 18,000 years ago and stopped 4,000 years ago may have drowned most of the evidence of much earlier human migration to Tuvalu and other Pacific islands. Link: The Caves of Nanumaga
There are three distinct linguistic areas in Tuvalu. The first area contains the islands of Nanumea, Niutao and Nanumaga. The second is the island of Nui where the inhabitants speak a language that is fundamentally derived from I-Kiribati. The third linguistic group comprises the islands of Vaitupu, Nukufetau, Funafuti and Nukulaelae. Today, Tuvaluan and English are both spoken throughout the islands.
According to modern scholars the population of Tuvalu before 1900 was never more than 3000. These opinions are based on early missionary reports and on careful estimates of the population-supporting capacity of Tuvalu food resources. Although they may well be correct these views should not be accepted uncritically, for the written records come from people who were not intimately acquainted with life in Tuvalu. Moreover, there is always a danger that foreign commentators could impose a meaning of what they learned about Tuvalu which is quite different from those who live here.
There are suggestions from archeologists that the ancient population was possibly higher than the scholars will allow. For instance, at Niutao in the early 1930's one of the pastors organized the people to level the village malae. In doing so, they uncovered large numbers of human skulls buried about a metre below the surface. Similarly at Nukufetau numerous human graves can be counted, especially on the islet of Fale.
Further evidence comes from the huge holes that were dug in the ground to grow pulaka. These pits were dug to different depths. Most were from one-third of a metre to six metres deep, but some are deep as twenty metres from the base to the highest point of the soil thrown up. If the population was not above, say, 3000 why did the people build such numerous and deep pits which far exceeded their needs? How could our forefathers, if only a few hundred in number, have dug such pits? Looking at these huge pits it is difficult to avoid the suspicion that there were many thousands of people who needed to be fed from them and who were required to build them.
Moreover, Tuvaluan traditions do not contain any accounts of vast population losses. Certainly many people were killed in wars. Others probably died as a result of droughts or hurricanes. It is of course possible that their ancestors, over centuries, thought it prudent to provide for the possible future needs of their descendants by digging more than they needed for themselves. Apart from that, if there was a massive decline in population, the reason for it is not readily apparent. In 1979 the population of Tuvalu was estimated to be 7349.
The present population of Tuvalu is estimated to be 10,500, and there are growing communities in other countries, mainly Australia, New Zealand and Kiribati.
Woman in traditional skirt, 1894
Page Link:
The Caves of Nanumaga - Evidence of the Earliest Tuvaluans?
Nukufetau man, 1831
Nanumea woman
European Exploration
The first European Explorer to make contact with Tuvalu was Alvaro de Mendana y Neyra, a Spanish explorer. He sailed westward across the Pacific in 1567-8 to discover, explore and name a substantial part of the eastern half of the Solomon Islands. On January 16, 1568 Mendana, with his ship Capitana, sighted his first island, which turned out to be Nui, and named it the Isle of Jesus. Mendana himself reported on Nui ��we found it so small it was not more than six leagues in circumference. The island was very full of trees like palms; towards the north it had a reef...� Although islanders ventured out to the ship no contact was made with them. Gallego, the Chief Pilot, merely recorded that they were �naked and mulattoes� and Sarmiento, the captain of Magellan's flagship, observed that the island "had a large fishery".
A quarter of a century later Mendana once again obtained ships and men to make a second exploration of the Pacific. On August 29, 1595 the atoll of Niulakita was discovered and named La Solitaria. Once again no contact was made and Mendana sailed off in search of the Solomons where on Santa Cruz, he died in October 1595.
Such was the first and only European contact with Tuvalu for almost two centuries. The atolls were ignored until 1781 when the Spanish trader Don Francisco Maurelle was forced well south of the Equator by unfavourable winds on a routine journey from Manila to Mexico.
With inadequate provisions (since cockroaches ate most of the stores) he was forced as far south as the Tongan archipelago. Sailing north, on May 5, 1781 he discovered an island which he called Isla del Cocal, the atoll of Nanumanga. It was impossible to land although islanders who also came onboard attempted to tow his frigate, La Princesa by tying lines to the bows. Maurelle eventually abandoned the attempt and set sail northwestwards, sighting Nanumea, which he named San Augustin, but passing no closer than six leagues. Once again Tuvaluan atolls had been discovered by accident, and once again they provoked little or no interest in their discoverers.
Captain Arent de Peyster, an American, is given credit for the rediscovery of Tuvalu. He was in command of the British brigantine Rebecca, who in May 1819 discovered a group of fourteen islets which appeared to be inhabited. The first atoll was discovered when the Rebecca was only three times her length from the shore. That he avoided shipwreck was fortunate whilst the problem of visibility, plus the isolation of Tuvalu, indicates very clearly the reason for its belated discovery. The atoll was Funafuti and de Peyster called it Ellice's Group after Edward Ellice, the Member of Parliament for Coventry and the owner of the Rebecca's cargo. Ellice was also a London merchant, a financier of wide imperialist interests and a leading figure in the Hudson's Bay Company in Canada. The next morning de Peyster sighted Nukufetau, which he called de Peyster's Group. Eventually, the name Ellice was applied to all nine islands by the English hydrographer A. G. Findlay.
In the next decade more traders and whalers briefly visited Tuvalu, especially after the discovery of the Central Pacific whaling grounds in 1818. Captain George Barrett in the Nantucket whaler Independence II, was the first to sight Nukulaelae, and rediscovered Niulakita on November 6, 1821. Four years later, 1825, Obed Starbuck in the whaler Loper, discovered Niutao and Vaitupu, and Captain Eeg of the Dutch ship Pollux sights Nui again, more than 250 years after Mendana's first voyage
Although few left record of their journey, they did serve finally to establish the location of the atolls on the map of the Pacific. Inadvertent discovery gave way to almost inadvertent incorporation. By the middle of the nineteenth century Tuvaluans had obviously become quite familiar with the unfortunate medical impact of the arrival of increasing numbers of Europeans, so that in 1853 when Captain Pease of the Planter became one of the first Europeans to visit the atoll of Nanumea he was washed and various propitious ceremonies were carried out before he was allowed to step ashore.
Tuvalu's waters are frequented by American whalers in the 1800's. Seamen occasionally deserted and settled ashore, while some of the more adventurous islanders became crewmen. Some Europeans beachcombers become traders and agents for firms in Australia, Germany and the US, and organised the export of coconut oil or copra.
During the 1860s slave traders, or "blackbirders", carried off about 400 islanders, mainly from Funafuti and Nukulaelae, to work in Peru. None of them ever returned. Others were later recruited for plantations in Fiji, Samoa and Hawai'i. European diseases caused many deaths among the islanders.
Alvaro de Mendana
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Nyassaland is a country now known as what? | Nyassaland - definition of Nyassaland by The Free Dictionary
Nyassaland - definition of Nyassaland by The Free Dictionary
http://www.thefreedictionary.com/Nyassaland
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Malawi
Ma·la·wi
(mə-lä′wē)
A country of southeast Africa. Center of the widespread Malawi kingdom from the 1400s to the late 1700s, the region became a British protectorate in 1891 and was known as Nyasaland from 1907 until 1964. It joined Northern and Southern Rhodesia (now Zambia and Zimbabwe) in a federation from 1953 to 1963 and became independent as Malawi in 1964. Lilongwe is the capital and Blantyre the largest city.
Ma·la′wi·an adj. & n.
Malawi
(məˈlɑːwɪ)
n
1. (Placename) a republic in E central Africa: established as a British protectorate in 1891; became independent in 1964 and a republic, within the Commonwealth, in 1966; lies along the Great Rift Valley, with Lake Nyasa (Malawi) along the E border, the Nyika Plateau in the northwest, and the Shire (or Shiré) Highlands in the southeast. Official language: Chichewa; English and various other Bantu languages are also widely spoken. Religion: Christian majority, Muslim, and animist minorities. Currency: kwacha. Capital: Lilongwe. Pop: 16 777 547 (2013 est). Area: 118 484 sq km (45 747 sq miles). Former name: Nyasaland
2. (Placename) Lake Malawi the Malawi name for (Lake) Nyasa
Ma•la•wi
(məˈlɑ wi)
n., pl. -wis, (esp. collectively) -wi.
1. Formerly, Nyasaland. a republic in SE Africa, on Lake Malawi: formerly a British protectorate; became an independent member of the Commonwealth of Nations in 1964; a republic since 1966. 10,000,416; 45,747 sq. mi. (118,484 sq. km).Cap.: Lilongwe.
2. Lake. Formerly, Nyasa. a lake in SE Africa, between Malawi, Tanzania, and Mozambique. 11,000 sq. mi. (28,500 sq. km).
Ma•la′wi•an, adj., n.
ThesaurusAntonymsRelated WordsSynonymsLegend:
Blantyre - city in southern Malawi; largest city and commercial center of Malawi
capital of Malawi , Lilongwe - the capital of Malawi; located in south central Malawi
Zomba - a city in southern Malawi; was the capital until 1971
Africa - the second largest continent; located to the south of Europe and bordered to the west by the South Atlantic and to the east by the Indian Ocean
Lake Malawi , Lake Nyasa - a long lake in southeastern Africa between Tanzania, Mozambique, and Malawi
Cewa , Chewa , Chichewa - a member of the Bantu-speaking people of Malawi and eastern Zambia and northern Zimbabwe
Malawian - a native or inhabitant of Malawi
Translations
| Malawi |
What condition is the drug Amitriptyline usually used to treat? | Malawi travel guide - Wikitravel
History[ edit ]
Established in 1891, the British protectorate of Nyasaland became the independent nation of Malawi on 6 July 1964. Hastings Kamuzu Banda (born in March or April 1898 and died 25 November 1997) was the leader of Malawi and its predecessor state, Nyasaland, from 1961 to 1994. After three decades of one-party rule, the country held multi-party elections in 1994 under a provisional constitution, which took full effect the following year. National multi-party elections were held again in 1999 and 2004 electing Bingu wa Mutharika as president. President Bingu died in office on 5 April 2012 and was succeeded by Mrs Joyce Banda. The next elections are due in 2014.
Climate[ edit ]
Much of Malawi is plateau, often reaching to 1,000m (3,000 ft), and the temperature in these highlands is moderate, with the hottest period occurring during the autumn rainy season and the coolest and chilliest in winter. The hottest region in the country is the lower Shire River Valley well south of Blantyre. Temperatures along scenic Lake Malawi are generally warm, but with a cooling breeze, especially in the evenings. Winters (May till July) are dry. The rainy season begins in mid-October to early November and generally runs until March.
Culture[ edit ]
Malawi’s people are its greatest asset - friendly, welcoming, colourful and vibrant. It's impossible to visit and not become engaged with the people, but there are now opportunities to spend time in real villages (including staying overnight) for a first-hand experience of the cultures, traditions and daily life. This is an option pretty much everywhere in Malawi, and one well worth taking.
There’s also much to see of Malawi’s history, beginning with the pre-history remains of the Karonga district and the Stone Age rock paintings near Dedza. The Cultural & Museum Centre at Karonga is well worth a visit. Elsewhere, the colonial period is preserved in buildings dating from the David Livingstone era and the defeat of the Arab slave trade is well documented in the museums of Blantyre. Among other museums around the country are a Lake Museum at Mangochi, a mission museum at Livingstonia and a postal services museum near Zomba
Cities[ edit ]
Lilongwe - the political capital of Malawi and seat of government
Blantyre - economic capital and largest city; Blantyre's a large and thriving city with an interesting downtown, decent nightlife and music, a range of hotels from the elegant to rest houses, and a vibrant street and market culture
Limbe - largely commercial town next to Blantyre, with some of the best Indian restaurants in Malawi
Mzuzu - largest town in the Northern Region and a staging-post for transport to Tanzania
Karonga - quickly growing spurred on by the recent development of a uranium mine and a charming town, not far from the intriguing Misuku Hills and a short distance from Lake Malawi
Mangochi - medium-sized town, formerly known as Fort Johnston, at the southern end of Lake Malawi where it empties into the Shire River and a jumping-off point for the resorts and hostels up the coast of Lake Malawi, on the way to peninsular Cape Maclear
Monkey Bay - a popular large village as you head up the Lake Road from Mangochi toward Cape Maclear
Nkhata Bay - a rocky bay towards the north of the lake - check into one of the lodges and you could be here for a while.
Nkhotakota on the shores of Lake Malawi in the Central Region, is where the explorer David Livingston sat down with the Swahili Arab slave traders to attempt to negotiate an end to the slave trade. Nkhotakota was a slave entrepot, from which slaves were ferried across Lake Malawi to the eastern shore to resume their travel over land to what is now the Tanzanian coast. Nkhotakota is a compact and fascinating town, old in its way and true to the ethnic diversity of this region of Malawi. The place is renowned amongst the tourists for its unspoilt golden sandy beaches north of Nkhotakota. It is home to several small family-run resorts.
Zomba is the old colonial capital of Malawi and is noted for its British colonial architecture, the University of Malawi, and the remarkable Zomba Plateau which rises immediately west of the city. While in Zomba, visit the extensive market, purchase fabric and handicrafts, and enjoy some of Malawi's best Indian food.
Other destinations[ edit ]
Cape Maclear - laid back fishing village on the tip of a peninsula jutting out into the southern portion of Lake Malawi. The Cape has excellent, sandy beaches and crystal-clear water perfect for swimming, and is a favourite among backpackers, boaters, and sun-seekers.
Nationals of Afghanistan , Bangladesh , Burkina Faso , Burundi , Cameroon , Central African Republic , Chad , Egypt , Ethiopia , Iran , Iraq , Kazakhstan , Lebanon , Libya , Mali , Nigeria , Pakistan , Palestine , Russia , Rwanda , Somalia , South Sudan , Sudan , Syria , Tunisia , Turkey , Ukraine , Uzbekistan and Yemen must apply for a visa from a Malawian embassy prior to departure at a cost of $100 for a 90 day visa, and $70 for a 7 day transit visa.
Nationals of all other nations not specified above may obtain a visa on arrival valid for 90 days. A single entry visa on arrival is good for 90 days and costs US $75, a 7 day transit visa costs $50. Visas on arrival have to be paid for in US dollars.
By plane[ edit ]
Malawi's largest international airport is in Lilongwe , although there are also some flights from Blantyre to regional destinations. Most travellers connect via Johannesburg ( South Africa ), Addis Ababa ( Ethiopia ) or Nairobi ( Kenya ).
State carrier Air Malawi claims to be "Africa's Friendliest Airline", but its limited network covers only nearby countries. They have flights from Blantyre to Lilongwe and back, 7 days a week. Three times a week they fly from both Lilongwe and Blantyre to Johannesburg (Su, W & F). Two times a week there is a flight to Dar es Salaam (Tanzania), from Blantyre and Lilongwe (sun, thu). Lusaka (Zambia) is three times a week (Su, W & F) and Harare (Zimbabwe) is also three times a week (Su, W & Sa).
Swift Air is a privately owned airline operating flights between Johannesburg, Blantyre and Lilongwe. It operates a Boeing 737 aircraft.
The previous international departure tax of USD30 is now included in the air fare.
Nyassa Air Taxi has a shuttle service from USD280 per person from Mfuwe to Lilongwe .
Budget carrier, FastJet, is now offering cheap airfares from Lilongwe to Dar es Salaam.
By train[ edit ]
There are trains twice a week from Blantyre to Cuamba and Nampula in northern Mozambique , although a 77km stretch of track between the Mozambique border and Cuamba is out of commission and must be covered by truck.
Trains are no longer running in Malawi. Minibuses are doing all the stretches of road, and you can catch trains in Mozambique.
By car[ edit ]
The main road (M1) runs from the northern border (Kaporo) through Karonga, Mzuzu, Lilongwe and finally to Mchinji and is in excellent shape. There is an excellent road from Lilongwe to Mchinji on the Zambian border (120km).
By bus[ edit ]
To get into Malawi from Mozambique, in the south, one can take the bus from Tete (north-west Mozambique ) to Zobwe. After crossing, take another bus from the border to Blantyre . This crossing is quite hectic, and it is closed at night, so one should plan on getting there early, and trying to keep it cool with all the border-hawkers.
Direct buses run from Lusaka , Zambia to Lilongwe , but are best avoided (or done in stretches) if 18-20 hours on a bus doesn't sound like your idea of a good time. There is also minibus from Mbeya in Tanzania to the border. From the border in Malawi Side, take a taxi to Karonga . The cost is around MWK400-500 depending on negotiation. From Karonga bus station, take a bus or minibus to other destinations in Malawi. Bus is cheaper than minibus. The easiest way take direct bus from Dar Es Salaam in Tanzania to Mzuzu or Lilongwe .
Note that there are NO direct buses from Mbeya to Malawi although scammers in Mbeya bus station will tell you so, and sell you tickets. You must take a bus to the border and walk across.
By thumb[ edit ]
It is very easy to get into Malawi from the border with Tanzania by thumb. Because of the enormous amount of people importing cars from Dar es Salaam, and the fact that there is only one good road south, all cars and trucks are going the same way. As always with hitchhiking in Africa, most people will expect some kind of payment, but it will most likely be cheaper than public transport. If coming from Dar es Salaam , get a bus that goes to Malawi, like the Taqwa, and buy a ticket to the Kasumulu Border only. If you don't manage to get a ride onwards you can always jump back on the bus which waits the whole day at the border for Customs checks. The best place to wait is the entry gate at left side of the building (coming from Tanzania) where all cars have to pass through. That's the same side where you have to get your visa. A lot of friendly people, people waiting for their cars to be allowed in or even the police will be very friendly and offer to help you finding a ride. Lilongwe will probably cost around MWK4000-5000 (€10 / USD13). Just don't tell any police checkpoints that you are paying your driver. They will see it as illegal taxi business on the drivers part and fine him between MWK5000-10000 on the spot.
Get around[ edit ]
Compared to its neighbours, the main roads in Malawi are in surprisingly good shape and travel times between major destinations should be reasonable. The volume of traffic is low and most people drive reasonably slowly. Road travel after dark is not advisable as road markings are poor to non-existent and not all cars have headlights.
The Malawian police force have check points along many of the major roadways. By and large, they are looking for illegal activities and bribes - but aren't too much of a problem. Expect to be stopped on occasion and asked where you are going. You should not have any problems if you are polite and have the correct documentation (passport, driving licence, permission to use the vehicle, etc.) available if they ask
By car[ edit ]
Like most other former British colonies, traffic moves on the left in Malawi with most cars having their steering wheel on the right. Drink-driving is prohibited in Malawi. It has a zero-tolerance rule meaning that a driver must not consume any alcohol at all.
Local car rental companies:
Sputnik Car Hire, [3] . 4x4s,buses,trucks edit
Transfers You can book a transfer online to or from the airports and between main tourist points.
Unfortunately many car rentals in Southern Africa do not allow you to enter Malawi with their cars. You might have the best chances if you rent a car in Zambia .
By boat[ edit ]
Travelling by boat is surely the most enjoyable mode of getting around in Malawi. The Ilala ferry runs north from Monkey Bay to Chilumba (departs F 10:00, arrives Su 18:30), and back southbound on the same route (departure Chilumba on Monday 02:00, arriving at Monkey Bay on Wednesday at 14:00). Prices are rising with every year, but so is the ferry's reliability: some years back (before its privatization) it was perfectly normal to arrive a day late sometimes. The Ilala thus connects Likoma Island twice a week with the mainland, and the much closer Cobuè in Mozambique , respectively. Prices in January 2006 were about 6000 Malawian kwacha from Monkey Bay to Likoma, and MWK1600 from Likoma to Nkatha Bay . If you are on a schedule and don't mind a more uncomfortable ride, you might be able to catch the Malungo ferry from Nhkata Bay to Likoma on Saturday morning, but make sure to check at the harbor the day before.
By plane[ edit ]
Air Malawi flies small propeller planes between the three big cities of Lilongwe , Mzuzu and Blantyre .
Nyassa Air Taxi is by far the preferred choice to fly guests in and around Malawi.
Swiftair operates scheduled domestic flights between Lilongwe, Mzuzu, Karonga and Blantyre on a twin engine, dual crew Beechcraft 1900
By bus[ edit ]
"Luxury" buses, medium-sized buses, and minibuses all service Malawi. They vary in comfort and price. Vehicle condition can be very poor and road accidents are relatively common.
Probably the best national coach services are provided by AXA Bus Company. They have their main office building very close the the immigration department in Lilongwe. They are also the only company with some sort of a timetable which they follow very well for Malawian standards. AXA coaches go to the bigger cities of Malawi and generally don't stop in small towns.
Other bus companies include UDK Passenger Services, National Bus Company and Restoration Express (Mostly northern region of Malawi). These buses go on a full is go basis. They wait for a full bus and then depart. Not much of a timetable. National Bus Company seems to have the most extensive network in the country, and stops in every small town if required. UDK seems to be the fastest option, after AXA. Prices for Zomba - Lilongwe with UDK are MWK2,500 as of February 2013. Whereas AXA charges you double, for only a little more comfort.
Medium-sized buses tend to be big minibuses, coasters, that stop everywhere just like minibuses. Their seats offer more comfort than minibus seats, although when they fill up, they fill up good and most of your comfort will be squeezed out of you by your neighbours, and their speed will drop incredibly.
By minibus[ edit ]
The cheapest way to get around Lilongwe is by minibus. The cost to get from the old town to suburbs is MWK250-400 depending on time of the day.
Unlike the general idea that minibuses fly over the road, ignoring every traffic sign. They are the slowest mode of transportation. In general, transport in Malawi is slow, but it's not unheard of doing Lilongwe to Zomba in 7 or 8 hours on a minibus whereas most big buses do it in 5 to 6 hours. Also, minibuses are more expensive than the big buses on longer distances.
By taxi[ edit ]
Taxis are available in any city, whether they are licensed or not. Be prepared to negotiate as quoted prices to tourists are generally two to three times the actual going rate. Ask a friendly local or expat what the price should be. Rental cars are also available in these towns. Costs vary depending on vehicle type, but expect a compact car to run about USD60/day.
Talk[ edit ]
The official languages of Malawi are English and Chichewa . English is widely spoken in urban areas and by the well-educated upper class, though outside of that, a few words in Chichewa will go a long way. Chichewa is the first language of the majority of the population, and knowing Chichewa will get you by in most of Malawi though in some very remote areas, learning the local tongue might be essential. Locals always appreciate any attempts by foreigners to speak Chichewa and learning at least a few basic greetings would do well to ingratiate yourself to the locals. Tumbuka is the first language for many people in the north of the country. Chiyao is spoken by the Yao people who live mostly in the Southern District of the country. A multi-cultural country, Malawi has over a dozen indigenous ethnic groups, each with its own distinct language. However, even in those areas, many younger people will be bilingual in the local language and Chichewa. In the northernmost region of the country, Chitipa district, two additional languages are predominant: Chindali and Chilambya. Many people in the rural areas of Chitipa outside of the boma, or towncenter, are not even familiar with Chitumbuka, the language of the northern region.
See[ edit ][ add listing ]
Malawi has a massive diversity of beautiful landscapes. The highest peaks in Malawi touch 10,000 ft (3,000m) while the lowest point is barely above sea level. This range of altitudes in a small area help to make the landscape of Malawi one of the most varied in all Africa. It is generally a green, lush country, with plateaux, highlands, forests, mountains, plains, escarpments and dramatic river valleys.
The Rift Valley is the dominant feature, providing the vast chasm that Lake Malawi fills, and extending to te south of the country following the Shire River that drains the Lake. The flatter areas of the Rift Valley in South Malawi are home to some important wetlands, including Elephant Marsh, down in the Lower Shire Valley.
To the west of the Lake and either side of the Shire Valley in the south is the Central African Plateau. The transition from Rift Valley floor up to the Central African Plateau is characterised by a series of dramatic escarpments, such as at Nkhotakota Wildlife Reserve, a protected area of rugged, unspoiled wilderness. The Central African Plateau itself is gently undulating land between 1,600 ft (490m) and 5,000 ft (1,500m), with the occasional lake (such as Lake Chilwa) and punctuated by more dramatic hills and forests.
It is the widespread highlands and forests that provide the most impressive of the Malawi's varied scenery. Up where the air is fresh and cool are clear mountain streams, heaths, rolling montane grassland and evergreen forests.
The southern part of Malawi has the best known highlands - Mulanje Massif and Zomba Plateau. The former is a massive wilderness plateau of syenite granite rising from the Phalombe Plains. It has a number of peaks, including the highest in both the country and the whole of central Africa: Sapitwa, at 3,000m (10,000 feet). The tea estates that stretch west of Mulanje as far as Thyolo, are also wonderfully scenic. Zomba Plateau is not as high as Mulanje, but none the less impressive. It is slab-like with a gently undulating plateau top which is accessible by road.
The Dedza-Kirk Highlands extend the rise from the Rift Valley on its western edge between Blantyre and Lilongwe. The northern part of these highlands is marked by the Dedza-Salima Forest Reserve and then the Thuma Forest Reserve. South-west of Lilongwe, the Dzalanyama Forest Reserve covers a range of hills at the border with Mozambique. The Dowa Highlands, north of Lilongwe, have their most notable peaks at Dowa and the Ntchisi Forest Reserve.
The Viphya Highlands - undulating hills swathed in evergreen forests - stretch north-south in north Malawi and reach the edge of the Rift Valley. Finally, in north Malawi is the Nyika Plateau, a rolling whaleback grassland plateau unique in Africa. Much of this highest and most extensive high plateau surface in central Africa is gazetted as the Nyika National Park.
Do[ edit ][ add listing ]
For a small country, Malawi has a quite remarkable array of activities to offer its visitors. The magnificent Lake Malawi is a haven for boat activities and water-sports, as well as having some of the best freshwater diving sites in the world, right in Nkhata Bay. Eight land-based national parks and wildlife reserves offer all type of safaris in a wide variety of natural wilderness environments. Liwonde National Park, along the Shire River, has hippos (including an albino one!), crocodiles, lions, elephants and even leopards (apparently). The mixed terrain and varied landscapes also provide for excellent outdoor activities, including trekking and mountain biking, particularly in the highland areas. Those seeking cultural experiences are also well served by sites of historical interest and simple village visits to meet the ever-smiling Malawians in their daily life. You can visit the Carlsberg factory in Blantyre, climb Mt. Mulanje (a series of high hills, mountains - making a good trek), drive up or climb Zomba Plateau, go horseback riding in Kande or Nyika, or just relax on the beaches of Cape Maclear.
Specialist tours/activities include yoga holidays, tea factory tours and art safaris. Pottery classes are available at two centres in Dedza and Nkhotakota. In the summer months of Malawi (September/October) there is the Lake of Stars international music festival on the beaches of Sunbird Nkopola Lodge in Mangochi. 2011's festival included Foals, Freshlyground, The Black Missionnaries, Lucius Banda, Beverley Knight and Chris Baio from Vampire Weekend. 2010's festival included The Noisettes, Get Cape. Wear Cape. Fly. and Oliver Mtukudzi. This is a good festival, where you can relax in the sun on the beach having a few drinks and listening to some good music. Camping is the prominent form of accommodation, however many people do chose to stay in Sunbird Nkopola rooms themselves, or in rooms or cottages of nearby lodges.
Buy[ edit ][ add listing ]
The local currency is the Malawi kwacha, symbolised MWK. The currency is freely convertible (but impossible to get rid of outside Malawi) and, as of September 2016, trades at around MWK729 to the US dollar, MWK819 to the euro and MWK971 to the pound sterling. Forex will also be accepted by almost everybody, particularly for larger purchases.
You can exchange Malawian kwacha into Zambian kwacha at the border, either at the banks or on the black market too.
Larger foreign bills are favoured and can get much higher rates. At times, it can be easier to not even go to the black market and simply make purchases with the foreign currency.
Credit card acceptance is improving. Visa and MasterCard are accepted by larger hotels, and some ATMs. ATMs are becoming much more common and can be used at many banks in major cities, though most notably, Master card and VISA is the card of choice.
Travellers' cheques can be changed in banks, forex bureaus and in some high-end hotels. The number of hotels accepting payment by travellers' cheque seems to be shrinking. Don't rely on them unless you have spoken to the hotel. Also, banks often want to see your original paperwork from your bank when you purchased the traveller's cheques. Without it, you may not be able to exchange them. US dollars cash is your best bet, and it gives a better exchange rate.
Handmade wood and soapstone carvings, wood and cane furniture, colourful textiles, pottery, beadwork have high standards - especially at the Mua Mission to the south of Salima. They have their own shop and traditional musical instruments make good souvenirs throughout Malawi. Australians and New Zealanders will need to factor in the fumigation and quarantine charges when they return home, though.
Eat[ edit ][ add listing ]
Nsima with three relishes: rape and peanut (top left), cabbage (bottom left) and kapenta (bottom right)
Traditional Malawian food revolves around one staple, maize, served in one form, nsima (n'SEE-ma). Nsima is basically a type of thick porridge, rolled into balls with your right hand and dipped into a variety of stews known as relishes. Those who can afford them eat relishes of beef, chicken or fish, but the many who can't make do with beans, tiny dried fish (usipa), pumpkin leaves (chibwabwa) and other vegetables. At breakfast, nsima can be served watered down into a soup, maybe with a little sugar. Local restaurants will serve nsima and relish for less than MWK2000 (USD3).
Food options in the major cities of Lilongwe and Blantyre are good. Fast food — to include burgers, pizza, and fried chicken — is very popular in Malawi. For sit-down meals, ethnic eateries (thanks to a significant ex-pat population) are popular. Do note that, in many restaurants, pork products are not served to accommodate the Muslim population.
Outside the larger cities, however, you might be a little underwhelmed with food options. Along the major roadways, you will find "tuck shops" featuring packaged cookies or Take Away Meals — meat pies or sausage rolls, for instance — which may or may not satisfy you.
Finally, in terms of hygiene outside the major cities, you are unlikely to find a proper washroom with running water. You will probably be given a bowl of water, a piece of soap, and a (damp) towel. Therefore, some travellers bring small bottles of anti-bacterial hand soap with them.
Drink[ edit ][ add listing ]
Tap water in major cities like Lilongwe, Blantyre, Zomba and Mzuzu is generally safe. Ask at the lodge/house you're at. Some travellers with weaker stomachs may be advised to avoid this drinking water. Bottled water is plentiful in all the major shops.
Soft drinks[ edit ]
A traditional local drink worth trying is maheu, a somewhat gritty and vaguely yogurty but refreshing beverage made from maize meal. Factory-produced maheu is sweet, comes in plastic bottles and is available in a variety of flavors including banana, chocolate and orange, while homemade versions are usually unflavored and less sweet.
The variety of soft drinks in Malawi is very popular - there's Coke, Sprite, Tonic, Ginger Ale, Soda Water, Cherry Plum, Cocopina and the very tasty, sugary Fantas (coming in Orange, Grape, Exotic, Passion and Pineapple flavours). These are manufactured by SOBO, the glass bottles are on a deposit system. Expect to pay MK100 extra per bottle unless you bring some 'empties' with you.
Alcohol[ edit ]
The only beers you will generally find are brewed in Blantyre by Carlsberg, and it's products are available in restaurants and stores throughout the country. A normal Carlsberg is known as a 'green', but also come as Special Brew, Stout, Classic, Elephant, Light or Kuche Kuche. You can also buy imported drinks such as Heineken, Kronenbourg, Smirnoff Ice, Barcadi Breezer and some ciders in certain bars. Malawi also produces it's own spirits - notably Malawi Vodka, Malawi Gin, Malawi Rum, Gold Label Brandy and the cane spirit Powers. Malawi Gin & Tonic is a very nice, popular expat drink in the country.
Western-standard hotels can be found in Blantyre , Lilongwe , Zomba and Mzuzu , as well as along the shores of Lake Malawi. The Lake Malawi resort hotels cater primarily to international tourists.
There are high-level five-star resort hotels in some rural areas charging western prices.
Learn[ edit ]
Malawi's largest tertiary education structure at present is the University of Malawi which is made up of Chancellor College located in the heart of Zomba , Blantyre Polytechnic in Chichiri and College of Medicine. Bunda College of Agriculture and Kamuzu College of Nursing are located in Lilongwe. There is also Mzuzu University in the Northern part of Malawi.
Stay safe[ edit ]
Malawi has been known for years as "The Warm Heart of Africa", and Malawians are known for their friendliness and hospitality. Malawi is not known as a particularly dangerous travel destination for western foreigners and expatriates.
Muggings and robberies have occurred in the larger cities, most especially Lilongwe, as well as in some notorious places along the main tourist routes. It is advisable to avoid walking alone at night. If you go out for the evening, make sure you know how you're going back home. Car-jackings happen occasionally so be sure to keep windows shut and doors locked during evening and night journeys (though night driving is not advised - most cars have broken headlights and Malawians tend to walk in the middle of the road at night) and exercise reasonable caution as in any foreign city or rural area. Roads are less safe because many drivers are unlicensed and inexperienced and many vehicles are not inspection-ready; there is also the factor of drunk driving, especially in the evenings so be on the side of caution.
More recently there has been a lot of pickpockets operating in nightclubs and bars. Just exercise caution, don't bring too much money and cameras etc. 10 beers is no more than MWK10000, so don't bring hordes of cash with you.
Homosexuality is officially banned by the law, and homosexual and transgender couples should exercise discretion when traveling to Malawi. It took a presidential pardon to release a couple recently arrested for "homosexuality" (in reality, one of the persons involved was transgender) and sentenced to 14 years of hard prison labour.
Stay healthy[ edit ]
As with its neighbouring countries malaria can be a problem. The lake is freshwater and is prone to bilharzia , especially in the Cape Maclear area. Symptoms of bilharzia can take months to surface, and neither treatment nor tests will have any effect until around two months after being exposed. The treatment for bilharzia is often one dose of praziquantel following blood, urine and fecal tests confirming infection.
The adult HIV prevalence in the country is at 14% or 1 in 7 adults.
Respect[ edit ]
Malawi has both patriarchal and matriarchal ethnicities and cultures. In the cities, men tend to be more respected than women, but the reverse might be true in the rural villages depending on ethnicity. Whites tend to be well-respected, a holdover from colonial times, but this is largely a Malawian's way of being courteous. Accept their hospitality. They are an exceptionally friendly people.
Malawians, especially those from very rural areas where they don't see many whites, can be quite curious when they do come upon a white traveller. To a Western mindset, this might be interpreted as unnecessarily staring at you or talking about you in front of you. Be prepared to be greeted by kids yelling mzungu, mzungu! and to answer lots of questions about yourself. Even relatively mundane items like mechanical pencils can draw a crowd of onlookers.
Malawians are in general extremely courteous, and a part of that courtesy is shaking hands, speaking softly, and referring to travellers and others with respect. Malawians avoid rudeness. It is common for Malawi men to hold hands when they've gathered together to chat, and this shouldn't be given a sexual interpretation when it is encountered.
Culturally, women should not wear shorts or mini-skirts, especially when travelling outside the lodge/camp. A woman in shorts or a short skirt is considered to be provocative, as well as rude. Many female visitors wear wraps that are available in the stores and markets of major cities. These are generally made of bright, coloured patterns and can be extremely attractive. Low-cut tops on women, while discouraged, are not nearly as provocative. Men in the cities tend to wear slacks and not shorts, as shorts are generally worn only by school-age children, so when a man wears shorts it can be viewed by Malawians as rather silly.
Finally, when meeting a Malawian — even to ask a question — you should always say hello and ask how they are. Properly greeting a Malawian is very important. They are uncomfortable with the Western notion of simply "getting to the point." Courtesy is a must, at all times, because not to be courteous is to show disrespect.
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Who was the leader of the cult, who in 1993 committed mass suicide on a farm in Waco, Texas? | 10 Most Notorious Suicide Cults in History
10 Most Notorious Suicide Cults in History
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Halloween is on its way and feeble horror tales are being dished out left, right and center. The following true stories, however, are not only filled with death and gore; they actually happened. Though often brutal and nonsensical, ritual suicide is real and has occurred throughout history. The motives behind mass suicide are varied. In ancient times and during the Dark Ages it was common for entire groups of people to commit suicide to avoid subjugation to enemy invaders, whilst in the past few centuries ritual suicide has been seen within religious offshoots and collectives who follow cults of the occult.
10. Puputan, Bali
Honor and pride were the pillars of ancient kingdoms throughout the world, to the point where death was preferable to subjugation. In 1906 a Balinese ritual mass suicide, known as Puputan, was committed so that its practitioners would avoid being captured and enslaved by the Dutch invaders. The Raja commanded that all valuables be burnt and that everyone from the youngest child to the wives and priests be marched ceremoniously towards the aggressors. When face to face with the Dutch regiment, the head priest thrust a dagger deep into the Raja’s heart signaling the commencement of Puputan. From here the entire group simultaneously began to kill one another while the women mockingly flung money and jewelery onto the stupefied troops. Over 1000 Balinese people committed suicide on that warm September afternoon, leaving little for the Dutch to do. Today children are taught about Puputan and the day is commemorated with make believe street reenactments.
9. Order of the Solar Temple, Switzerland and Canada
The Order of the Solar Temple, headquartered in Switzerland and operating in Canada as well, is the secret society that believes in the continued existence of the Knights Templar. Their aims are to establish correct notions of authority and power in the world, to prepare for the Second Coming of Jesus, and to unify the Christian and Islamic faiths. Their activities include a blend of early Protestant Christianity and New Age philosophy. For many years, murders and suicides have been associated with the cult, including the 1994 Canadian murder of a 3-month-old boy, who was ritually sacrificed because he was identified as the Anti-Christ. Then in October of the same year, 48 adults and children were found dead, shot through the head, victims of a mass suicide in a Swiss underground chapel that was found lined with items of Templar symbolism.
8. Harakiri, Japan
A true tale of terror involving blood, guts and gore comes in the form of the Japanese ritual suicide, known as Seppuku or Harakiri. As part of the Samurai Bushido code of honor, suicide by disembowelment was practiced to retain honor or lessen shame. The individual would take a short sword known as a tanto and plunge it into his abdomen, making an excruciatingly painful and lethal cut. Lastly, to ensure certain death the Samurai’s assistant would decapitate him. It was a common custom during battle by means of which warriors avoided death or torture by the enemy, though it was also used to punish serious offenses. Although capital punishment was abolished in 1873, voluntary Seppuku was recorded well into the 1900s – notably at the end of WWII, when numerous soldiers and civilians publicly performed Seppuku to avoid surrender. Then, in 1970 a group of rebels committed public Seppuku at the Japan Self-Defence Forces headquarters after an unsuccessful attempt to stage a coup d’etat.
7. Sicarii Rebels, Masada, Israel
In 60 AD, a time when spears and catapults were the weapons of war, the Roman conquest of Judea forced 960 zealot Jews to first seize and then barricade themselves atop King Herod’s fortress. The citadel, built on a rock plateau in the Judean Desert, was (and still remains) the site of ancient fortifications and palaces. The group lived there for half a decade, building homes and slowly expanding, until the Roman siege of 72 AD, when Emperor Lucius Flavius Silvius commissioned an enormous ramp with which to breach the walls of the fort and capture the rebels. Little did he know that at its summit were smoldering buildings and the rotting cadavers of those who chose death over surrender. Only two women and five children survived to tell the story of how their people had been exterminated – summed up in the words of the zealot leader, Eleazar ben Yair, in his final speech: "Let our wives be killed before they are abused, and our children before they have tasted slavery, and after we have slain them, let us bestow that glorious benefit upon one another mutually...”
6. Jauhar, Rajput, India
A similar story unraveled in the depths of the Indian subcontinent. Jauhar describes the practice of female mass suicide that occurred in Rajput kingdoms during Mughal times so that women could avoid capture and dishonor at the hands of enemy invaders. In the 14th century, Rani Padmini, the queen of Chittor, led all the royal ladies and their children to jump into a bonfire in order to protect themselves from the Sultan of Delhi’s lustful army. Whilst the women and children would perform self-immolation, the men (fathers, husbands and sons) would charge against the attackers, facing certain death, a practice intended to protect both the sexes’ honor. A second and third Jauhar took place in Chittor during the 16th century, which saw the obliteration of entire Rajput lineages.
5. Self-immolation, Vietnam
Ritual suicide is not always connected to supernatural offerings or salvationist logic as has often been the case in contemporary times. In the case of Buddhist monks in the sixties ritual suicide was a sign of protest against the Vietnam War. Thích Quang Duc fearlessly burnt himself to death in a busy Saigon road in 1963 to protest the persecution of Buddhists by South Vietnam’s administration. Despite being revered as a Bodhisattva (a being that has attained Nirvana) by the world’s Buddhist communities, the government repudiated the action and punished the monks further, many of whom followed Thích Quang Duc’s example by performing self-immolation in public places. Although self-harm is prohibited in the Buddhist religion, self-immolation was perceived as a selfless action by the monks – an act that spread the light of the Dharma and opened the eyes of those around them.
4. Heaven’s Gate, San Diego, California
This next entry is a real life story of horror meets UFO sci-fi, for the 1970s Heaven’s Gate cult based their belief system on a combination of Christian ideas of the apocalypse and elements of science fiction. If their ideas were to be believed, planet Earth was due to be wiped clean by supernatural forces, and the only path to salvation was to escape to the “Next Level”. According to founder Marshall Applewhite, this escape could be achieved through an ascetic existence, which meant detachment from family, friends, jobs, possessions and other trappings of modern existence. In 1997, however, Applewhite announced a fast-track route to the Next Level: boarding a spacecraft that was trailing the comet Hale-Bopp. On March 26th, when the comet was at its brightest, Applewhite and 38 of his followers committed suicide in order to abandon their terrestrial forms and gain access to the UFO.
3. The Branch Davidian Seventh-Day Adventists, Waco, Texas
The “Branch” is (for it still survives) a Protestant sect born in 1959 during a schism with the Seventh-Day Adventist Church, when Florence Houteff announced the Second Coming of Jesus on the summit of a hilltop in Texas. Following the failure of this prophecy, a number of “Prophets” took center stage, the most prominent being Vernon Howell (later renamed David Koresh), who indoctrinated the group into believing that he alone had the responsibility and authorization to prophesize and reproduce the “House of David”. In 1994, after allegations of illegal firearm ownership and child abuse, the ATF obtained a warrant to search the premises; but their offensive strategy was met with barricades and gunfire. After many days of fighting, the FBI was afraid of mass suicides and tried to corner the followers with tear gas. However the compound was set on fire from within, killing 80 people. Whether this was mass suicide or an FBI cover-up remains unclear.
2. Movement for the Restoration of the Ten Commandments of God, Uganda
The MRTC were an apocalyptic Catholic offshoot established in the 1980s after an alleged vision of the Virgin Mary, ordering strict obedience to the Ten Commandments. The sect members spoke very little and sometimes adopted sign language to avoid bearing false witness to their neighbor, they prohibited sex to avoid adultery, and they implemented bi-weekly fasting. As the supposed year of the apocalypse drew near, daily confession was encouraged, the sell-off of possessions was enforced, and work in the fields ceased. However, when 'Judgment Day' failed to occur the followers began to question their leaders’ authenticity, and so a second doomsday was announced for March 17th, whereby all the 1000 followers, adults and children were invited to celebrate their imminent salvation. Little did they know this would culminate in self-immolation and poisoning.
1. People’s Temple Jonestown Massacre, Guyana
This frightening tale of mass suicide was carried out by members of the People’s Temple, a cult born in the 1950s with the supposed objective of practicing Apostolic Socialism. In the 1970s a Caribbean missionary post was established in Guyana; “Jonestown” was allegedly a benevolent communist community and sanctuary for racial and social equality headed by leader and self-styled prophet Jim Jones. However Jones, claiming to be the Messiah, applied mind-control strategies to brainwash the sect and receive full and incontestable devotion; implemented torture holes to solve disciplinary matters (for both adults and children); and had sexual control over women and children.
In November 1978, strange disappearances began to occur, including the murder of inspecting California Congressman Leo Ryan and a number of fugitives from the 'camp'. Afraid of American retaliation, Jones brainwashed his 912 followers into preserving the People’s Temple for eternity by committing the ultimate sacrifice. Poisoning themselves, they thus participated to the largest mass suicide in modern history.
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Who designed the Guggenheim Museum in New York? | 5 20th Century Cult Leaders - History Lists
History Lists
December 10, 2013 By Elizabeth Nix
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5 20th Century Cult Leaders
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In the late 20th century, a series of violent events involving nontraditional religious movements shocked the world. From the jungles of Guyana to the subway system in Japan to a mansion in Southern California, murder, mass suicides and mayhem prevailed. Find out about these controversial cults and their now-notorious leaders, whose influence led to often deadly consequences for their followers and, in some cases, the general public.
Shoko Asahara: Masterminded a deadly attack on Japan’s subway system
On March 20, 1995, members of Aum Shinrikyo (“Supreme Truth”), founded by Asahara in the 1980s, released the poisonous nerve gas sarin on five crowded subway trains during morning rush hour in Tokyo, killing 13 people and sickening thousands more. Aum Shinrikyo targeted the Kasumigaseki station, in the area where many of Japan’s government offices are located, as part of what they thought would be an apocalyptic battle with the government.
Born into a poor family in Japan in 1955, Asahara (real name Chizuo Matsumoto) lost part of his vision at a young age due to illness. He established Aum Shinrikyo as a religious organization that promoted Buddhist and Hindu concepts, along with elements of the Bible and prophecies of Nostradamus. Eventually, Asahara began claiming he could read minds and levitate. In 1990, he and some of his followers ran for parliament but lost. By the early 1990s, Aum Shinrikyo, which attracted members from some of Japan’s top universities, was stockpiling chemical weapons. When the 1995 subway attack took place, the group was estimated to have some 10,000 members in Japan and more than 30,000 around the world, many of them in Russia.
Within several months after the attacks, Asahara was found hiding out at his group’s compound near Mount Fuji and arrested. He was convicted and sentenced to death in 2004 but remains on death row. Aum Shinrikyo, renamed Aleph in 2000, still exists, although its membership is smaller than it was in the mid-1990s.
Jim Jones: Ordered hundreds of his followers to kill themselves as a “revolutionary act”
On November 18, 1978, more than 900 members of an American cult called the Peoples Temple died in a mass suicide-murder directed by Jones at their settlement, known as Jonestown, in the South American nation of Guyana. Jones, a self-ordained Christian minister who was born in Indiana in 1931, founded what became the Peoples Temple church in his home state in the 1950s then relocated his congregation to California in the 1960s. He eventually set up headquarters in San Francisco, where he had a large, racially diverse following and ingratiated himself with a number of political leaders by offering Peoples Temple members as campaign volunteers. In 1976, San Francisco’s mayor appointed the charismatic, power-hungry Jones, who traveled with bodyguards, to the city’s Housing Authority and he soon became its chairman. However, in 1977, following a slew of negative publicity about Temple members being physically and mentally abused by Jones, he relocated with some 1,000 of his followers to the Guyanese jungle, where he promised they would create a utopian community. Instead, the followers were subjected to harsh living conditions and punished if they questioned Jones’ authority.
On November 17, U.S. Representative Leo Ryan of California arrived at Jonestown to investigate claims that Temple members were being held there against their will. Ryan and his small delegation were received cordially, but the next day, as the congressman was waiting at a nearby airstrip with his group, which by then included some Temple members who wanted to defect, they were ambushed by gunmen sent by Jones. Ryan and four others in his party were killed. Later that day, Jones, who by then was in declining mental health and addicted to drugs, ordered his followers to commit what he termed a “revolutionary act” by drinking cyanide-laced juice; those who resisted were forced to do so. Jones died from a gunshot wound to his head. Prior to the 9/11 attacks, the Jonestown tragedy marked the single largest loss of U.S. civilian lives in a non-natural disaster.
Joseph Di Mambro and Luc Jouret: Founded a murderous doomsday cult
Luc Jouret (Credit: Getty Images)
In October 1994, Di Mambro and Jouret, along with 51 of their followers in the Order of the Solar Temple, an apocalyptic cult founded in Europe in 1984, committed suicide or were murdered in Switzerland and Quebec, Canada. The deaths of Di Mambro and Jouret didn’t bring an end to the violence: In December 1995, 16 more members took their own lives or were killed in France, while an additional five committed suicide in March 1997 in Quebec.
Di Mambro, a shadowy figure born in France in 1924, founded the Order of the Solar Temple and made the charismatic Jouret, a homeopathic doctor born in 1947 in the Belgian Congo (present-day Democratic Republic of the Congo), the organization’s public face. The secretive group was believed to have members in Canada, Switzerland, France, Australia and other countries, and Jouret preached about impending environmental disasters and the coming end of the world, along with a belief system that combined elements of New Age philosophy, Christianity and astrology, among other things.
Following the October 1994 deaths of the 53 sect members, whose bodies were discovered at Solar Temple properties that had been set on fire in Cheiry and Les Granges sur Salvan, Switzerland, and Morin Heights, Quebec, investigators estimated at least 30 of the dead had been murdered—either shot or asphyxiated. It was suspected some had been killed because they were considered traitors for criticizing the group’s leaders. The following year, after 16 Solar Temple members were found dead in a forest in southeastern France, investigations again concluded not all had died willingly. The five Solar Temple members who committed suicide in 1997 left a note indicating they believed their lives would continue on a new planet.
Marshall Applewhite: Orchestrated a mass suicide in conjunction with a comet
On March 26, 1997, Applewhite and 38 other members of a cult called Heaven’s Gate were found dead in a mass suicide at a rented mansion in Rancho Santa Fe, California. The group members, who killed themselves by eating applesauce and pudding mixed with drugs, believed that a spaceship following the Hale-Bopp comet (which made its closest approach to Earth on March 22, 1997) would pick them up and take them to a higher plane of existence.
Applewhite, a Texas native born in 1931, worked as a music teacher before co-founding what would become Heaven’s Gate in the 1970s with Bonnie Nettles, a onetime nurse who died of cancer in 1985. The group lived a nomadic, secretive existence and subscribed to a philosophy that combined elements of science fiction and a belief in UFOs with biblical ideas. By the 1990s, some members made money for the group by operating a web design and computer services business. In the fall of 1996, Heaven’s Gate members moved into the Rancho Santa Fe mansion, where they lived a regimented existence. On March 21, 1997, the group went to a local restaurant for what is thought to have been its last meal together; everyone ordered the same thing. The following day, the cult members, 21 women and 18 men ranging in age from mid-20s to early 70s, began killing themselves in shifts. They were dressed in matching black outfits and black Nike running shoes and had a packed suitcase nearby. Investigators later discovered that several months before the mass suicide, Applewhite and six of his followers had themselves surgically castrated as a way, they believed, to reduce unwanted earthly distractions.
David Koresh: Engaged in a bloody battle with federal law enforcement agents
On April 19, 1993, Koresh and more than 70 of his followers, known as Branch Davidians, were found dead after a blaze at their Waco, Texas, compound following a 51-day standoff with federal law enforcement agents. Koresh, born Vernon Wayne Howell in 1959 in Texas, was a high school dropout and musician who in 1981 moved to Waco and joined the Branch Davidians, a splinter group of the Seventh-day Adventists. Koresh, who claimed to be a messiah, eventually became the sect’s leader. In that role, he preached that the end of the world was near, stockpiled weapons, fathered multiple children with sect members and had sex with underage Davidian girls.
On February 28, 1993, after agents from the Federal Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF) went to the Branch Davidian compound to investigate accusations of illegal weapons, a gun battle broke out that left four agents and six Branch Davidians dead. The ensuing standoff lasted until April 19, when government forces launched a tear gas assault on the compound in an effort to make the sect members come out. Instead, a fire broke out, likely set by the Branch Davidians, whose compound burned to the ground. Afterward, the bodies of more than 70 sect members, including Koresh and at least 20 children, were discovered; 9 people escaped the blaze.
In a related story, Timothy McVeigh, a U.S. Army veteran and supporter of right-wing survivalist groups, went to Waco during the siege and was outraged by the government’s actions. On April 19, 1995, the two-year anniversary of the tear gas assault, McVeigh detonated a truck bomb outside the Alfred P. Murrah Federal Building in Oklahoma City, which housed the ATF and other government agencies. The explosion killed 168 people and injured hundreds of others.
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After winning £152,000 in 1961, whose autobiography was entitled 'Spend, Spend, Spend'? | Viv Nicholson goes from 'spend, spend, spend' to 'sell, sell, sell': Sorry tale of pools winner who's auctioning off her memorabilia now she's in a care home | Daily Mail Online
From 'spend, spend, spend' to 'sell, sell, sell': Sorry tale of pools winner who's auctioning off her memorabilia now she's in a care home
Viv Nicholson, 77, won £152,000 in 1961 with her husband Keith
She famously declared that she would 'spend, spend, spend' after the win
But she soon lost all the money, which would be worth £2,870,000 today
Mrs Nicholson, who now lives in a care home, will auction old possessions kept by her brother to raise money for charity
The proceeds will be spent on buying iPads for the elderly
| Viv Nicholson |
Which motor manufacturer makes the 'Getz' model of car? | Pools winner Viv Nicholson dies aged 79 | Daily Mail Online
Britain's most famous pools winner who pledged to 'spend, spend, spend' after winning more than £150,000 has died.
Viv Nicholson, 79, became rich overnight when she scooped £152,319 in 1961 with her husband Keith.
The win, on a football betting pool, in which gamblers predict the results of football games across a season, would be worth up to £5million in today's money.
The pair, from Castleford, West Yorkshire, splurged the cash on flash cars, designer clothes, holidays and partying - frittering away half of their wealth within four years of winning.
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Viv Nicholson, 79, from West Yorkshire, who became rich overnight when she scooped £152,319 in 1961 with her husband Keith (pictured with Bruce Forsyth) has passed away following a lengthy battle with dementia
Mrs Nicholson (above) and her husband splurged the cash - worth about £5million today - on expensive cars, designer clothes, holidays and partying - frittering away at least half of their wealth within four years of winning
However, tragedy struck when Mr Nicholson died at the wheel of his blue Jaguar in 1965, which led to Mrs Nicholson being declared bankrupt, as the tax authorities reclaimed most of her husband's wealth.
She managed to reclaim some of the money after a lengthy legal battle, but lost it all again from poor investments on the stock market.
She later suffered a stroke in 2011, which her son said led to the onset of dementia, and moved into a care home.
Her family confirmed she passed away yesterday following a long battle with the brain disease and requested for donations to be made to Dementia UK in her memory.
In a statement released today, her son Howard said: 'We are saddened to announce the death of our much loved mum, Viv Nicholson.
'After suffering with dementia for five years, she died on April 11 at Pinderfields Hospital with her sons at her side.
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'Viv was a one-off in all ways - a loving and loved mother, a glamorous great grandmother and a friend to many.
Mrs Nicholson lived a fascinating lifestyle, staying true to her word by spending all of the money which she famously won when she was just 25-years-old.
In 2007, she recalled the evening she realised she had won the huge sum of money.
She said: 'We found out on Saturday evening that we'd won the pools, but we couldn't find the coupon. We weren't sure if we'd sent it off or not, but then the winning ticket turned up in Keith's trousers.
'It's unbelievable that I remember the exact amount we won so clearly - it was £152,300, 18 shillings and eight pence. Back then, even the eight pence meant something.
'I walked half a mile to the Post Office to send the telegram to the pools company. Within a couple of days, we were in London and famous.'
Mrs Nicholson, 79, lived a fascinating lifestyle, staying true to her word by spending all of the money which she famously won on the pools in 1961. Pictured: Actress and singer Barbara Dickson with Mrs Nicholson in 1999
Mrs Nicholson (pictured above) previously condemned people who criticised her for spending all of the money she won, saying it was her life and she 'won't be told how to live it'. Right: Newspaper coverage of her win
The couple found themselves being mobbed by reporters at Kings Cross station.
Then the cheque was presented to them by Bruce Forsyth. Asked what she planned to do with it, Viv gleefully replied: 'Spend, spend, spend!'
Back then, there was no network to support or advise big winners - possibly because hardly anyone had ever won that much. Having promised to spend, not save, the naive young couple retreated to Yorkshire and recklessly proceeded to do just that.
They bought a large bungalow in a smart suburb a few miles down the road from where they grew up and she ordered dresses from Harrods, bought a pink Chevrolet and then swapped it for a different luxury car every six months. Keith, a former miner, bought a racehorse and the children were sent to boarding school.
She said: 'We travelled all over the States and Europe.'
However, the money soon started to dwindle and Mr Nicholson died when his car skidded off the A1 just four years after the big win.
Following his death, Mrs Nicholson married four more times, but was widowed again and went on to battle with alcohol and depression.
A short-lived attempt to start a new life in Malta was soon curtailed after she was deported for fighting with a police officer.
In desperation she took to performing 'Big Spender' in a Manchester strip club, but was fired when she refused to take off her underwear.
In 1984, The Smiths asked her to pose for the cover of their hit single Heaven Knows I'm Miserable now.
Her story was turned into a televised BBC play and later a musical - both called Spend, Spend, Spend in honour of her catchphrase. The production even appeared on the West End, netting Mrs Nicholson £100,000 royalties
Mrs Nicholson (pictured outside the home she lived in when she won the pools) married four more times following the death of husband Keith. Her family have asked for donations to Dementia UK in her memory
Her story was turned into a televised BBC play and later a musical - both called Spend, Spend, Spend in honour of her catchphrase.
The production premiered at the West Yorkshire Playhouse in Leeds before a run at London's West End.
Mrs Nicholson received royalties of around £100,000 from the musical, which were spent, and she revealed in an interview with the Mail in 2007 that she was living off of her state pension and seeking work.
At the time, she said she couldn't help but spend her royalties or the money she received from her 1978 autobiography.
'I can't not do, I love to spend,' she said.
She also criticised people who condemned her for splashing her cash and not investing it wisely.
She said: 'People say I should be ashamed of what I spent my money on, and that I could have done so much more.
'But when I lost my last 20 grand on the stock market, I did not cry about it. I had a good whack and enjoyed what I did.
'It may have served me right - maybe I was wild and crazy. But it is my life and I won't be told how to live it.'
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"Which American television presenter said, ""Boy George is all England needs, another queen who can't dress""?" | Joan Rivers Net Worth 2017-2016, Biography, Wiki - UPDATED! - Celebrity Net Worth
A big influence on Canadian comedian Katherine Ryan .
2
Served as an Honorary Director of the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention.
3
Celebrated her 80th birthday on an episode of Fashion Police (2002) and on QVC, on June 8, 2013.
4
Had briefly attended Brooklyn Ethical Culture School in Brooklyn, New York.
5
Before she was a successful actress and comedienne, she was part of "Jim, Jake, and Joan", a comedic musical trio, in 1964.
6
Was merciless with subjects of popular piety.
7
Best remembered by the public as the hostess of The Joan Rivers Show (1989), Fashion Police (2002) and Joan & Melissa: Joan Knows Best? (2011).
8
In 2012, Rivers protested against the warehouse-club Costco because they would not sell her New York Times bestselling book, "I Hate Everyone... Starting with Me". She handcuffed herself to a person's shopping cart and shouted through a megaphone. The police were called to the scene and she left without incident and no arrests were made.
9
Had never retired from comedy.
11
Her father, Dr. Meyer C. Molinsky, who graduated from medical school at Long Island College and in the mid-1930s kept an office at 760 Montgomery Street in Crown Heights, New York, historical records show.
12
Though she was born in Brooklyn, New York, Rivers was also raised in the following cities: Crown Heights and portions of the Prospect Heights and Brownsville neighborhoods of Central Brooklyn.
13
At a very early age, she wanted to be an actress.
14
Attended the funeral of Ernest Borgnine , when the actor passed away in 2012.
15
Her older sister, Barbara Waxler, passed away on June 3, 2013 at age 82.
16
Mentor and friends with Kathy Griffin , Giuliana Rancic , Kelly Osbourne and her daughter Melissa Rivers .
17
Knew Kelly Osbourne when she was only 6, she later worked with her on Fashion Police (2002).
18
Protegee of Phyllis Diller .
19
Friends with: Bob Barker , Wink Martindale , Mike Wallace , Phyllis Diller , Geraldo Rivera , Doris Roberts , Oprah Winfrey , Whoopi Goldberg , Carol Channing , Lauren Bacall , Barbara Bush , Regis Philbin , Kathie Lee Gifford , Donald Trump , Don Rickles , Carol Burnett , Robert Conrad , Larry Manetti , Richard Simmons , Paul Reubens , Ernest Borgnine , Marla Gibbs , Charlotte Rae , Della Reese , Angela Lansbury , Betty White , Dick Van Dyke , Chuck Norris , Florence Henderson , Phil Donahue , Phil McGraw , Gene Siskel , Roger Ebert , Dick Clark , Casey Kasem , Hugh Downs , Joy Behar , Peter Marshall , Joan Collins , Zsa Zsa Gabor , Mickey Rooney and Barbara Walters .
20
Upon her death, her body was cremated at the Garden State Crematory in Union City, New Jersey, and her ashes are in possession of her daughter Melissa.
21
Joan Rivers passed away on September 4, 2014, at age 81. This was a month, after her longtime friend Lauren Bacall had passed away.
22
On August 28, 2014, she was rushed to Mount Sinai Hospital after experiencing complications during throat surgery being performed at a New York City Clinic.
23
She was awarded a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7030 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California on July 26, 1989.
24
Most recently lived in Malibu, California with her daughter, Melissa Rivers , and her grandson, Edgar Cooper Endicott .
25
(June 30, 2004) Announced that she and her daughter, Melissa Rivers , were leaving E! Entertainment to fashion-bash red-carpet-wise over at the TV Guide Channel. They had been with E! Entertainment since 1996.
26
Performed stand-up comedy, prior to hopeful Broadway run, at Club Fez in Manhattan. [June 2002]
27
Used to maintain a residence in Litchfield County, Connecticut adjacent to the former Bill Blass estate.
28
Early in her career, she was a writer for Candid Camera (1953).
32
Her parents, Beatrice (Grushman) and Meyer Molinsky, were Russian Jewish immigrants.
33
Her father, Meyer C. Molinsky, was a doctor.
34
An accomplished author, she has written several candid autobiographies, including "Enter Talking" and "Still Talking". Author of self-help books, including "Bouncing Back: I've Survived Everything... and I Mean Everything... and You Can Too!" and "Don't Count the Candles: Just Keep the Fire Lit!". Author of several comedy books, including "Having a Baby Can Be a Scream" and "The Life and Hard Times of Heidi Abromowitz".
35
Early in her career, she performed as half of the comedy team of "Joanie and Bill". "Bill" was former actor William Perry (1936-2006) who was the nephew of actress Toby Wing .
36
She was an advocate of plastic surgery for older women saying that if a woman can afford it, it is worth it for her self-esteem.
37
The majority of her plastic surgery was performed by Santa Monica surgeon Steven Hoefflin (who also performed plastic surgery on Michael Jackson 's nose). She also received Botox and collagen injections every four months from New York City dermatologist Patricia Wexler.
38
She had her nose thinned in 1983.
39
She had her first cosmetic surgery procedure (an eye-lift) in 1965 at age 32.
40
She was a Phi Beta Kappa Sorority key holder from Barnard College, where she studied anthropology.
41
Started performing as a stand-up comedienne using the stage name Pepper January.
42
Was a vegetarian.
43
Was nominated for Broadway's 1994 Tony Award as Best Actress (Play) for portraying the title character, Sally Marr , in "Sally Marr... and Her Escorts".
44
Was one of the final guests to appear on The Wayne Brady Show (2002).
45
She won a Daytime Emmy Award in 1990 for best talk show host and was nominated for a Tony Award for the play "Donna Marr and Her Escorts" in 1994. She was also nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Comedy Recording in 1985.
46
About 1982, she was appointed the first permanent guest hostess on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (1962). She infuriated Johnny Carson when she left to host her own show, The Late Show (1986) on rival Fox network. Johnny Carson never spoke to her again.
47
Hosted a daily talk show on WOR-AM radio in New York City from 1997 until 2002, syndicated to about 50 stations.
48
Was the national spokesperson for the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation.
49
Said the most difficult celebrity she ever interviewed was Tommy Lee Jones , whom she thought was rude.
50
Collected Faberge eggs.
51
After graduating from college and before getting into show business, she was briefly a shoe buyer for Lord & Taylor, a department store in New York City.
52
Received her Bachelor's degree in English literature and anthropology from Barnard College in New York City (1954).
53
Attended Connecticut College for Women in New London, Conneticut.
54
Attended Adelphi University in Garden City, New York.
55
My sex life is so bad, my G-spot has been declared a historical landmark.
2
All my mother told me about sex was that the man goes on top, and that the woman goes on bottom. For three years, my husband and I slept in bunk beds.
3
I have no sex appeal. If my husband didn't toss and turn, we'd never have had any kids.
4
I wish I had a twin, so I could know what I'd look like without plastic surgery.
5
All I ever heard when I was a kid was,"Why can't you be more like your cousin Sheila?" And Sheila had died at birth.
6
People say that money is not the key to happiness. But I've always figured that, with enough money, you can hire a battering ram.
7
The great thing about irrigating your colon is that sometimes you find old jewelry.
8
My love life is like a piece of Swiss cheese: much of it's missing, and what's there stinks.
9
If you don't want gays in the military, make the uniforms ugly.
10
[on Renee Zellweger] Push her face against a glass door, and you'll see what all babies look like at birth.
11
Want to know why women don't blink during foreplay? Not enough time.
12
[on Justin Bieber ] He looks like the daughter Cher wishes she'd had.
13
At my funeral, I want Meryl Streep crying in five different accents.
14
[on daughter Melissa Rivers ] She and I are very close. We speak every single day. Literally, I call her every day and leave the same message on her answering machine: "Pick the hell up, Melissa. I know you're there, damn it." And she always calls me back with the same response: "Mom, how in God's name did you get this new number?"
15
A study says owning a dog makes you 10 years younger. I'd rescue two more, but who wants to go through menopause twice?
16
There are three things all children should be taught never to do: touch a hot stove; pull lamps off tables; and wake their mother before noon.
17
I hate housework. You make the beds, you do the dishes...and six months later, you have to start all over again.
18
Never be afraid to laugh at yourself; after all, you could be missing out on the joke of the century.
19
Look at Gwyneth Paltrow being named the Most Beautiful this year. Congratulations, Gwyneth! Now look at who she got to vote: Ray Charles , José Feliciano , Helen Keller, Ronnie Milsap , Tom Sullivan , and Stevie Wonder .
20
I haven't missed the Emmys since that year my makeup team was nominated for "Best Special Effects"!
21
The secret of my success is just saying what everybody else has been thinking.
22
My best birth control now is just to leave the lights on.
23
[her trademark line] Can we talk?
24
[on the red-carpet] Who are you wearing?
25
I don't exercise. If God had wanted me to bend over, he would have put diamonds on the floor.
26
[In 2010, on Twitter] With all the plastic surgery I've had, I'm worried that when I die, God won't recognize me!
27
[on antiques] If Louis XIV hasn't sat on it, I don't want it.
28
That awful, vulgar, loud woman on stage, that's not me. I wouldn't want to be her friend.
29
Men who look down my dress usually compliment me on my shoes.
30
New York was the magic city. New York was Oz. All I wanted to do was get out of Brooklyn and get into Oz. We'd go to the theater district -- I saved my money, and I would go with a girlfriend and sit in Sardi's, order an avocado for 60 cents, and wait to be discovered. They must have been thrilled to see us. We went to Howard Johnson's, and my friend smoked a cigarette. We're sitting at the Howard Johnson's, and we're smoking cigarettes -- say no more.
31
Boy George is all England needs. Another queen who can't dress.
32
Having my daughter, I screamed for twenty-three hours straight. And that was just during conception.
33
[on reality shows] When was the last time you went to a dinner party where three women got up and slapped each other? Everybody's punching and slapping. This is not reality. We got a second season because everybody that has a parent, a mother, anyone can relate to what really happens between adult children and parents.
34
[on the passing of Elaine Kaufman ] Elaine's was a place you went to let everyone know you were in town. It was first stop L.A./N.Y. You knew your name was above the title when Elaine sat with you. I also loved that the prices changed constantly.
35
[Interview with Andrew Scott, June 10, 2010] I've never been in the "in" group. I've never been considered. But that's what keeps me punching, if that makes sense. I'm still in the "I'll show you" mentality.
36
[In an interview, on the British chat show Loose Women (1999) in 2008, on working the red carpet for the E! Channel]: You get someone like Russell Crowe , and you want to say to the camera, he is a piece of - get ready to bleep this - f***ing shit. (Rivers was immediately pulled from the British chat show - they had no bleep.) These idiots came running onto the set, ripped me off my seat and dragged me off, saying, "Let's go, let's go, let's go." When the audience saw my empty chair, I worried that, because of my age, they might think I'd wet it because my diaper leaked. People always ask me, "What haven't you done, Miss Rivers? You've done this and that, been nominated for an Emmy and a Tony. You've hosted shows, you've acted, done stand-up, lost your husband to suicide, been bankrupted by a business partner [who made off with $37m in the 1990s] - what haven't you done?". Well, until today, I'd never been kicked off live television. Assholes.
37
I knew I was an unwanted baby when I saw my bath toys were a toaster and a radio.
38
My husband wanted to be cremated. I told him I'd scatter his ashes at [the department store] Neiman Marcus - that way, I'd visit him every day.
39
One of the earliest jokes I did about my husband was that I was the one who really caused Edgar's suicide, because, while we were making love, I took the bag off my head.
40
There is not one female comic who was beautiful as a little girl. Tell me one funny woman who was ever beautiful. Gwyneth Paltrow , stop, please, stop, I can't stand it. Angelina Jolie ? Men don't want you funny. It's all about coping when you're not being the pretty girl, and you're not being the first one asked to dance, and the bottle spins and lands on you and Stuart Wein doesn't want to kiss you.
41
I was just interviewed for a documentary [ Making Trouble (2007)] on my least favorite subject - women comedians and how we've all been kept out. These two women came to my house, very serious, and asked, "How long did it take for you to get into the room?". I said, "Let me tell you something: if Adolf Hitler had four good jokes, he'd be in the room." It has to do with funny. Then they talked about how women help each other. I said, "I hate to tell you, but if it was between Sarah Silverman and me for a job? I'll kill her and she'll kill me. There's no sisterhood in comedy".
42
[June 29, 2008] One of the reasons I am so happy - there's lots happening again. Four times in my life, I woke up and the diary was empty. That's the worst feeling in the world. My Broadway show and my talk show were canceled on the same Friday. And I went that night to see Barbra Streisand , whom I'd started with, perform for 20,000 people at Madison Square Garden. That was a very bad night. Now I'm doing a pilot, I have two books coming, I have my play, I'm in a series that they've shot and they hope will be successful, I'm doing stand-up and I've got my jewelry company. At this age, to be wanted - you are fighting every single step of the way.
43
[on young female comics]: They all come up to me and say, "Without you, I couldn't be here, the barriers you broke down." I say, "Get the f*** away from me. I still could take every one of you with one hand behind my back. Outta here. Talk like that at my funeral, but not till then".
44
There is not one female comic who was beautiful as a little girl.
45
The only thing that's saving me is my age. Because I don't care. I've been up, I've been down. I've been fired, I've been hired. I've been broke. What are you gonna to do me? Not like me? I don't give a damn.
46
I'm in nobody's circle, I've always been an outsider. I don't have those wonderful dinners with Woody, I've never been asked by Jay. And it makes you sad, because I think it would be wonderful to sit and talk about things that very few people understand. But I'm very competitive, and I'm sure they feel that. I'm jealous of that little slut Paris Hilton . Why? I'm very competitive. And I think that's what has kept me going. I'm not gracious.
47
I want them to know I don't think I'm wonderful, or better than they are. Part of comedy is saying: "I am you and you are me, and we're all feeling the same thing".
48
[on Parkinson (1971), when entering] I am a dyke! And I'm DAMN proud of it!
49
Camilla Parker-Bowles is an earthy, funny woman. You can swear in front of her.
50
Once I was having lunch in a fancy restaurant with Lily Tomlin and Richard Pryor . We were all struggling comics together and the day we had lunch, any one of us could have picked up the check. That's when I knew I'd made it.
51
| Joan Rivers |
Which architect designed the Pompidou Centre in Paris? | Joan Rivers Net Worth 2017/2016 - Celebrity Net Worth
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Joan Rivers Net Worth
How rich is Joan Rivers?
Joan Rivers net worth:
5 ft 2 in (1.575 m)
Profession:
Edgar Rosenberg (m. 1965–1987), James Sanger (m. 1955–1955)
Children:
Joan Rivers net worth & biography:
Joan Rivers net-worth is 50 million dollars as of today which is growing every year. Joan Rivers began her job for a comic in little NY clubs. Her career escalated so quickly that in the 1980’s she previously hosted a show called “The Tonight Show with Jonny Carson”. Furthermore, Joan Rivers has received awards and Grammy nominations for many of her comic act albums. After such a tremendous increase within her path of acting, Joan Rivers hosted numerous TV-shows and now she mostly functions for a preshow Awards host and she’s also a star commentator.
Joan Rivers Net-Worth – 50 Million Dollars
These are her primary jobs where Joan Rivers net-worth comes. For the people she’s well regarded for her loud voice, brash etiquette and Ny accent. Furthermore, she’s really one of the stars whose plastic surgeries are broadly discussed and some folks even credit her to the record of the worst plastic surgeries ever. Her comic performs are adored by many because she’s not scared to mock at herself as well as at other Hollywood stars.
The celebrity graduated in Arts degree in anthropology and English literature, the spheres which appear not in parallel with her genuine career. Nonetheless, it brings enormous amounts to Joan Rivers net-worth and perhaps she wouldn’t be just as loaded as she is at this time if she chose to get profession of her graduated degree. Joan Rivers used to act for a tour-guide in Rockefeller Center, at some marketing business as well as for a fashion expert at Bond Clothing Stores, before she became a comic and an actress.
In Addition, an intriguing truth is the fact that in 1950s Joan Rivers was chosen for a lesbian’s character to be performed in “Driftwood”. Because shortrun play she acted jointly with then unknown Barbra Streisand. Consequently, her career escalated extremely quickly and it appears the celebrity isn’t stopping yet, this means that Joan Rivers net-worth will increase.
More about Joan Rivers:
Joan Rivers: Don't Start with Me
2012
Joan Rivers: Before Melissa Pulls the Plug
2006
CMT: 40 Greatest Done Me Wrong Songs
2004
TV Series additional material - 1 episode
The Joan Rivers Show
TV Series writer - 11 episodes
Joan Rivers and Friends Salute Heidi Abromowitz
1985
TV Movie screenplay / writing supervisor
Saturday Night Live
TV Series guest writer - 1 episode
Husbands, Wives & Lovers
The Girl Most Likely to...
1973
The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson
1965
TV Series writer - 1 episode
Actress
Mostly Ghostly: Have You Met My Ghoulfriend?
2014
Mother Penguin (English version, voice)
Tears and Laughter: The Joan and Melissa Rivers Story
1994
How to Murder a Millionaire
1990
Les Patterson Saves the World
1987
Teenage Girl in Audience (uncredited)
Producer
Joan & Melissa: Joan Knows Best?
2011-2013
TV Series co-executive producer - 26 episodes
Why We Laugh: Funny Women
2013
TV Movie documentary executive producer
In Bed with Joan
Joan Rivers: Don't Start with Me
2012
Louis C.K.: Live at the Comedy Store
2015
TV Series in memory of - 1 episode
Special Collector's Edition
TV Series in memory of - 1 episode
Saturday Night Live
TV Series in memory of - 1 episode
Ryan & Ruby
TV Series short very special thanks - 1 episode
Joan Rivers: Don't Start with Me
2012
Joan Rivers: A Piece of Work
2010
Documentary special thanks - as Ms. Joan Rivers
Spaceballs: The Documentary
Video documentary short special thanks
John Candy: Comic Spirit
Video documentary short special thanks
Welcome to Hollywood
30 Years of 'An Audience With...'
2010
Herself - Guest / Herself / Herself - Guest Host
How'd You Get So Rich?
2009-2010
Wall Street: Money Never Sleeps
2010
The Battle for Late Night
2010
Joan Rivers: A Piece of Work
2010
What's the Name of the Dame?
2009
Comedy Central Roast of Joan Rivers
2009
Söndagsparty med Filip och Fredrik
2009
Make 'Em Laugh: The Funny Business of America
2009
11th Annual the Kennedy Center Mark Twain Prize for American Humor: George Carlin
2008
Kathy Griffin: My Life on the D-List
2005-2008
The 6th Annual TV Land Awards
2008
The 100 Greatest Sex Symbols
2007
The Royal Variety Performance 2007
2007
Mr. Warmth: The Don Rickles Project
2007
8 Out of 10 Cats
2006-2007
Joan & Melissa: Live at the Academy Awards
2007
Joan & Melissa: Live at the Grammy Awards
2007
Golden Globes Fashion Wrap with Joan and Melissa
2007
Joan & Melissa: Live at the Golden Globe Awards
2007
More Dawn French's Girls Who Do: Comedy
2006
The Electric Company's Greatest Hits & Bits
2006
Joan Rivers: Before Melissa Pulls the Plug
2006
The Story of Light Entertainment
2006
Emmy Awards Fashion Wrap with Joan and Melissa
2006
Joan & Melissa: Live at the Emmys
2006
The 58th Annual Primetime Emmy Awards
2006
Academy Awards Fashion Wrap with Joan and Melissa
2006
Joan & Melissa: Live at the Academy Awards
2006
An Audience with Joan Rivers
2006
Dawn French's Girls Who Do: Comedy
2006
The 50 Greatest Comedy Films
2006
Joan & Melissa: Live at the Golden Globes
2005
Joan & Melissa: Live at the Grammys
2005
Joan Rivers: (Still A) Live at the London Palladium
2005
Joan & Melissa: Live at the CMA Awards
2005
The New Paul O'Grady Show
2005
50 Questions of Political Incorrectness
2005
Friday Night with Jonathan Ross
2005
The Royal Wedding of HRH the Prince of Wales and Camilla Parker Bowles
2005
Britain's 50 Greatest Comedy Sketches
2005
Joan & Melissa: Live at the Academy Awards
2005
Late Night with Conan O'Brien
1995-2005
The Big Idea with Donny Deutsch
2005
Ant & Dec's Saturday Night Takeaway
2004
CMT: 40 Greatest Done Me Wrong Songs
2004
Funny Already: A History of Jewish Comedy
2004
The Best of 'So Graham Norton'
2004
Bob Monkhouse: A BAFTA Tribute
2004
E! Live from the Red Carpet
1996-2004
When I Was a Girl
2003
100 Years of Hope and Humor
2003
I'm a Celebrity, Get Me Out of Here!
2003
The Making and Meaning of 'We Are Family'
2002
The 51st Annual Primetime Emmy Awards
1999
The Howard Stern Radio Show
1999
The 50th Annual Primetime Emmy Awards
1998
50 Years of Television: A Celebration of the Academy of Television Arts & Sciences Golden Anniversary
1997
The Daily Show with Jon Stewart
1996
The 48th Annual Tony Awards
1994
Herself - Nominee: Best Leading Actress in a Play
The Annual Friars Club Tribute Presents a Salute to Barbara Walters
1994
The 6th Annual American Comedy Awards
1992
Alan King: Inside the Comedy Mind
1991
Happy Birthday, Bugs!: 50 Looney Years
1990
The Horror Hall of Fame
1990
The 44th Annual Tony Awards
1990
Herself - Presenter: Best Scenic, Costume & Lighting Design
Night of 100 Stars III
1990
The World of Jewish Humor
1990
Christmas at Pee Wee's Playhouse
1988
The 39th Annual Primetime Emmy Awards
1987
The 38th Annual Primetime Emmy Awards
1986
Herself - Presenter: Outstanding Directing in a Comedy Series
NBC 60th Anniversary Celebration
The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson
1965-1986
Herself / Herself - Guest Host / Himself - Host / ...
Joan Rivers: Can We Talk?
1986
George Burns' 90th Birthday Party: A Very Special Special
1986
Joan Rivers and Friends Salute Heidi Abromowitz
1985
Garry Shandling: Alone in Vegas
1984
Johnny Carson Presents the Tonight Show Comedians
1984
Where the Sun Kisses the Ocean
2014
An Audience with Joan Rivers
1984
Herself - Comedienne / Herself - Boardroom Advisor / Herself / ...
The 26th Annual Grammy Awards
1984
The 35th Annual Primetime Emmy Awards
1983
Herself - Host & Presenter: Outstanding Limited Series
Fashion Police
Herself / Herself - Author, Diary of a Mad Diva
The Barbara Walters Summer Special
1982
Late Night with Seth Meyers
2014
Circus of the Stars #5
1980
The 3th Annual People's Command Performance
1979
Late Show with David Letterman
2002-2014
Herself / Herself - Phone Interview / Herself - Co-Host
The Mike Douglas Show
Herself - Comedienne / Herself - Co-Host / Herself / ...
Howard Stern Birthday Bash
Joan & Melissa: Joan Knows Best?
2011-2014
Herself / Herself - Guest / Herself - Co-Host
Bernard Manning in Las Vegas
1978
The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon
2014
The Second Annual Comedy Awards
1976
Live with Kelly and Michael
1999-2014
The Story of the Swimmer
2014
Dean Martin Presents: The Bobby Darin Amusement Co.
1972
Scatter My Ashes at Bergdorf's
2013
Moms Mabley: I Got Somethin' to Tell You
2013
Why We Laugh: Funny Women
2013
Big Morning Buzz Live with Nick Lachey
2013
Team Captain / Herself - Team Captain
Project Runway
Show People with Paul Wontorek
2013
The Sammy Davis, Jr. Show
1966
Once Upon a Coffee House
1965
Herself (as Jim, Jake and Joan)
Katie
Late Night with Jimmy Fallon
2009-2013
Joan Rivers: Don't Start with Me
2012
16th Annual Critics' Choice Movie Awards
2011
Super Bowl's Greatest Commercials 2012
2012
Bob Ross: The Happy Painter
2011
Give It Up for Greg Giraldo
2011
Never Sleep Again: The Elm Street Legacy
2010
Working with Lucy: A Conversation with James E. Brodhead
2010
VH1 News Presents: Plastic Surgery Obsession
2010
2009 World Series of Poker
2009
Herself - 'Pinhead' (segment "Pinheads & Patriots")
CNN Presents
Ellen: The Ellen DeGeneres Show
2007
The Best of the Royal Variety
2006
Comedy Central Presents: 100 Greatest Stand-Ups of All Time
2004
The Award Show Awards Show
2003
Classic Stand-Up Comedy of Television
1996
50 Years of Funny Females
1995
Ed Sullivan All-Star Comedy Special
1995
The Very Best of the Ed Sullivan Show
1991
Captain Kangaroo and His Friends
1985
Johnny Carson's 18th Anniversary Special
1980
E! Live from the Red Carpet
2015
21st Annual Screen Actors Guild Awards
2015
Live with Kelly and Michael
2014
On the Record w/ Greta Van Susteren
2014
Herself - episode of The Ed Sullivan Show
The Improv: 50 Years Behind the Brick Wall
2013
Herself - Host of 'Fashion Police'
CBS News Sunday Morning
The Tonight Show with Jay Leno
2011-2012
GLOW: The Story of the Gorgeous Ladies of Wrestling
2012
For the album "Diary of a Mad Diva" (Won posthumously).
2010
Alliance of Women Film Journalists
Perseverance Award
The Joan Rivers Show (1989)
1989
Star on the Walk of Fame
Walk of Fame
Outstanding Performer in an Animated Program
Arthur (1996)
The Joan Rivers Show (1989)
1993
Outstanding Achievement in Writing - Special Class
The Joan Rivers Show (1989)
The Joan Rivers Show (1989)
1992
Outstanding Achievement in Writing - Special Class
The Joan Rivers Show (1989)
The Joan Rivers Show (1989)
1991
Served as an Honorary Director of the American Foundation for Suicide Prevention.
2
Celebrated her 80th birthday on an episode of Fashion Police (2002) and on QVC, on June 8, 2013.
3
Had briefly attended Brooklyn Ethical Culture School in Brooklyn, New York.
4
Before she was a successful actress and comedienne, she was part of "Jim, Jake, and Joan", a comedic musical trio, in 1964.
5
Was merciless with subjects of popular piety.
6
Best remembered by the public as the hostess of The Joan Rivers Show (1989), Fashion Police (2002) and Joan & Melissa: Joan Knows Best? (2011).
7
In 2012, Rivers protested against the warehouse-club Costco because they would not sell her New York Times bestselling book, "I Hate Everyone... Starting with Me". She handcuffed herself to a person's shopping cart and shouted through a megaphone. The police were called to the scene and she left without incident and no arrests were made.
8
After her death, the friends who attended her funeral on September 7, 2014 were Oprah Winfrey, Whoopi Goldberg, Bernadette Peters, David Letterman, Jimmy Kimmel, Kathy Griffin, Donald Trump, Kelly Osbourne, Howard Stern, Robin Quivers, Kathie Lee Gifford, Rachael Ray, Geraldo Rivera, Sally Jessy Raphael, Sarah Jessica Parker, Judy Sheindlin, Barbara Walters, Rosie O'Donnell, Diane Sawyer and her daughter Melissa Rivers.
9
Had never retired from comedy.
10
Her father, Dr. Meyer C. Molinsky, who graduated from medical school at Long Island College and in the mid-1930s kept an office at 760 Montgomery Street in Crown Heights, New York, historical records show.
11
Though she was born in Brooklyn, New York, Rivers was also raised in the following cities: Crown Heights and portions of the Prospect Heights and Brownsville neighborhoods of Central Brooklyn.
12
At a very early age, she wanted to be an actress.
13
Attended the funeral of Ernest Borgnine, when the actor passed away in 2012.
14
Her older sister, Barbara Waxler, passed away on June 3, 2013 at age 82.
15
Mentor and friends with Kathy Griffin, Giuliana Rancic, Kelly Osbourne and her daughter Melissa Rivers.
16
Knew Kelly Osbourne when she was only 6, she later worked with her on Fashion Police (2002).
17
Protegee of Phyllis Diller.
18
Friends with: Bob Barker, Wink Martindale, Mike Wallace, Phyllis Diller, Geraldo Rivera, Oprah Winfrey, Whoopi Goldberg, Carol Channing, Lauren Bacall, Barbara Bush, Regis Philbin, Kathie Lee Gifford, Donald Trump, Don Rickles, Carol Burnett, Robert Conrad, Larry Manetti, Richard Simmons, Paul Reubens, Ernest Borgnine, Marla Gibbs, Charlotte Rae, Della Reese, Angela Lansbury, Dick Van Dyke, Chuck Norris, Florence Henderson, Phil Donahue, Phil McGraw, Gene Siskel, Roger Ebert, Dick Clark, Casey Kasem, Hugh Downs, Joy Behar, Peter Marshall, Zsa Zsa Gabor, Mickey Rooney and Barbara Walters.
19
Upon her death, her body was cremated at the Garden State Crematory in Union City, New Jersey, and her ashes are in possession of her daughter Melissa.
20
Joan Rivers passed away on September 4, 2014, at age 81. This was a month, after her longtime friend Lauren Bacall had passed away.
21
On August 28, 2014, she was rushed to Mount Sinai Hospital after experiencing complications during throat surgery being performed at a New York City Clinic.
22
She was awarded a Star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame at 7030 Hollywood Boulevard in Hollywood, California on July 26, 1989.
23
Most recently lived in Malibu, California with her daughter, Melissa Rivers, and her grandson, Edgar Cooper Endicott.
24
(June 30, 2004) Announced that she and her daughter, Melissa Rivers, were leaving E! Entertainment to fashion-bash red-carpet-wise over at the TV Guide Channel. They had been with E! Entertainment since 1996.
25
Performed stand-up comedy, prior to hopeful Broadway run, at Club Fez in Manhattan. [June 2002]
26
Used to maintain a residence in Litchfield County, Connecticut adjacent to the former Bill Blass estate.
27
Her publicist was Judy Katz.
29
Grandmother of Edgar Cooper Endicott.
30
Early in her career, she was a writer for Candid Camera (1953).
31
Her parents, Beatrice (Grushman) and Meyer Molinsky, were Russian Jewish immigrants.
32
Her father, Meyer C. Molinsky, was a doctor.
33
An accomplished author, she has written several candid autobiographies, including "Enter Talking" and "Still Talking". Author of self-help books, including "Bouncing Back: I've Survived Everything... and I Mean Everything... and You Can Too!" and "Don't Count the Candles: Just Keep the Fire Lit!". Author of several comedy books, including "Having a Baby Can Be a Scream" and "The Life and Hard Times of Heidi Abromowitz".
34
Early in her career, she performed as half of the comedy team of "Joanie and Bill". "Bill" was former actor William Perry (1936-2006) who was the nephew of actress Toby Wing.
35
She was an advocate of plastic surgery for older women saying that if a woman can afford it, it is worth it for her self-esteem.
36
The majority of her plastic surgery was performed by Santa Monica surgeon Steven Hoefflin (who also performed plastic surgery on Michael Jackson's nose). She also received Botox and collagen injections every four months from New York City dermatologist Patricia Wexler.
37
She had her nose thinned in 1983.
38
She had her first cosmetic surgery procedure (an eye-lift) in 1965 at age 32.
39
She was a Phi Beta Kappa Sorority key holder from Barnard College, where she studied anthropology.
40
Started performing as a stand-up comedienne using the stage name Pepper January.
41
Was a vegetarian.
42
Was nominated for Broadway's 1994 Tony Award as Best Actress (Play) for portraying the title character, Sally Marr, in "Sally Marr... and Her Escorts".
43
Was one of the final guests to appear on The Wayne Brady Show (2002).
44
She won a Daytime Emmy Award in 1990 for best talk show host and was nominated for a Tony Award for the play "Donna Marr and Her Escorts" in 1994. She was also nominated for a Grammy Award for Best Comedy Recording in 1985.
45
About 1982, she was appointed the first permanent guest hostess on The Tonight Show Starring Johnny Carson (1962). She infuriated Johnny Carson when she left to host her own show, The Late Show (1986) on rival Fox network. Johnny Carson never spoke to her again.
46
Hosted a daily talk show on WOR-AM radio in New York City from 1997 until 2002, syndicated to about 50 stations.
47
Was the national spokesperson for the Cystic Fibrosis Foundation.
48
Said the most difficult celebrity she ever interviewed was Tommy Lee Jones, whom she thought was rude.
49
Collected Faberge eggs.
50
After graduating from college and before getting into show business, she was briefly a shoe buyer for Lord & Taylor, a department store in New York City.
51
Received her Bachelor's degree in English literature and anthropology from Barnard College in New York City (1954).
52
Attended Connecticut College for Women in New London, Conneticut.
53
Attended Adelphi University in Garden City, New York.
54
Quote
1
[as reported by Richard Corliss] They all come up to me and say, "Without you, I couldn't be here, the barriers you broke down." I say, "Get the fuck away from me. I still could take every one of you with one hand behind my back. Outta here. Talk like that at my funeral, but not till then.".
2
My best birth control now is just to leave the lights on.
3
[her trademark line] Can we talk?
4
[on the red-carpet] Who are you wearing?
5
I don't exercise. If God had wanted me to bend over, he would have put diamonds on the floor.
6
[In 2010, on Twitter] With all the plastic surgery I've had, I'm worried that when I die, God won't recognize me!
7
[on antiques] If Louis XIV hasn't sat on it, I don't want it.
8
That awful, vulgar, loud woman on stage, that's not me. I wouldn't want to be her friend.
9
Men who look down my dress usually compliment me on my shoes.
10
New York was the magic city. New York was Oz. All I wanted to do was get out of Brooklyn and get into Oz. We'd go to the theater district -- I saved my money, and I would go with a girlfriend and sit in Sardi's, order an avocado for 60 cents, and wait to be discovered. They must have been thrilled to see us. We went to Howard Johnson's, and my friend smoked a cigarette. We're sitting at the Howard Johnson's, and we're smoking cigarettes -- say no more.
11
Boy George is all England needs. Another queen who can't dress.
12
Having my daughter, I screamed for twenty-three hours straight. And that was just during conception.
13
[on reality shows] When was the last time you went to a dinner party where three women got up and slapped each other? Everybody's punching and slapping. This is not reality. We got a second season because everybody that has a parent, a mother, anyone can relate to what really happens between adult children and parents.
14
[on the passing of Elaine Kaufman] Elaine's was a place you went to let everyone know you were in town. It was first stop L.A./N.Y. You knew your name was above the title when Elaine sat with you. I also loved that the prices changed constantly.
15
[Interview with Andrew Scott, June 10, 2010] I've never been in the "in" group. I've never been considered. But that's what keeps me punching, if that makes sense. I'm still in the "I'll show you" mentality.
16
[In an interview, on the British chat show Loose Women (1999) in 2008, on working the red carpet for the E! Channel]: You get someone like Russell Crowe, and you want to say to the camera, he is a piece of - get ready to bleep this - f***ing shit. (Rivers was immediately pulled from the British chat show - they had no bleep.) These idiots came running onto the set, ripped me off my seat and dragged me off, saying, "Let's go, let's go, let's go." When the audience saw my empty chair, I worried that, because of my age, they might think I'd wet it because my diaper leaked. People always ask me, "What haven't you done, Miss Rivers? You've done this and that, been nominated for an Emmy and a Tony. You've hosted shows, you've acted, done stand-up, lost your husband to suicide, been bankrupted by a business partner [who made off with $37m in the 1990s] - what haven't you done?". Well, until today, I'd never been kicked off live television. Assholes.
17
I knew I was an unwanted baby when I saw my bath toys were a toaster and a radio.
18
My husband wanted to be cremated. I told him I'd scatter his ashes at [the department store] Neiman Marcus - that way, I'd visit him every day.
19
One of the earliest jokes I did about my husband was that I was the one who really caused Edgar's suicide, because, while we were making love, I took the bag off my head.
20
There is not one female comic who was beautiful as a little girl. Tell me one funny woman who was ever beautiful. Gwyneth Paltrow, stop, please, stop, I can't stand it. Angelina Jolie? Men don't want you funny. It's all about coping when you're not being the pretty girl, and you're not being the first one asked to dance, and the bottle spins and lands on you and Stuart Wein doesn't want to kiss you.
21
I was just interviewed for a documentary [Making Trouble (2007)] on my least favourite subject - women comedians and how we've all been kept out. These two women came to my house, very serious, and asked, "How long did it take for you to get into the room?". I said, "Let me tell you something: if Adolf Hitler had four good jokes, he'd be in the room." It has to do with funny. Then they talked about how women help each other. I said, "I hate to tell you, but if it was between Sarah Silverman and me for a job? I'll kill her and she'll kill me. There's no sisterhood in comedy.".
22
[June 29, 2008] One of the reasons I am so happy - there's lots happening again. Four times in my life, I woke up and the diary was empty. That's the worst feeling in the world. My Broadway show and my talk show were canceled on the same Friday. And I went that night to see Barbra Streisand, whom I'd started with, perform for 20,000 people at Madison Square Garden. That was a very bad night. Now I'm doing a pilot, I have two books coming, I have my play, I'm in a series that they've shot and they hope will be successful, I'm doing stand-up and I've got my jewelry company. At this age, to be wanted - you are fighting every single step of the way.
23
[on young female comics]: They all come up to me and say, "Without you, I couldn't be here, the barriers you broke down." I say, "Get the f*** away from me. I still could take every one of you with one hand behind my back. Outta here. Talk like that at my funeral, but not till then.".
24
There is not one female comic who was beautiful as a little girl.
25
The only thing that's saving me is my age. Because I don't care. I've been up, I've been down. I've been fired, I've been hired. I've been broke. What are you gonna to do me? Not like me? I don't give a damn.
26
I'm in nobody's circle, I've always been an outsider. I don't have those wonderful dinners with Woody, I've never been asked by Jay. And it makes you sad, because I think it would be wonderful to sit and talk about things that very few people understand. But I'm very competitive, and I'm sure they feel that. I'm jealous of that little slut Paris Hilton. Why? I'm very competitive. And I think that's what has kept me going. I'm not gracious.
27
I want them to know I don't think I'm wonderful, or better than they are. Part of comedy is saying: "I am you and you are me, and we're all feeling the same thing.".
28
[on Parkinson (1971), when entering] I am a dyke! And I'm DAMN proud of it!
29
Camilla Parker-Bowles is an earthy, funny woman. You can swear in front of her.
30
Once I was having lunch in a fancy restaurant with Lily Tomlin and Richard Pryor. We were all struggling comics together and the day we had lunch, any one of us could have picked up the check. That's when I knew I'd made it.
31
| i don't know |
"What was the name of the 'Space-shuttle' from which the record breaking five hour ""space walk"" took place in 1993?" | Human Space Flight: A Record of Achievement, 1961-1998 (Upcoming Monograph 9)
MONOGRAPHS IN AEROSPACE HISTORY Number 9
August 1998
FOREWORD
In December 1991 the Office of Space Flight at NASA Headquarters issued Space Flight: The First 30 Years as NASA pamphlet 150. This short work chronicled each of the human space flights conducted by the United States up to that time. At the time of the fortieth anniversary of NASA, born in the aftermath of the Sputnik crisis of 1957-1958, its it fitting to reflect on the record of achievement in human space flight from those first experimental flights of Mercury through the hubris of the Apollo Moon landings to the current flights of the Space Shuttle. Accordingly, as one of its fortieth anniversary projects the NASA History Division sponsored a revision and updating of that earlier chronology.
This is the ninth in a series of special studies prepared by the NASA History Division. The Monographs in Aerospace History series is designed to provide a wide variety of investigations relative to the history of aeronautics and space. These publications are intended to be tightly focused in terms of subject, relatively short in length, and reproduced in an inexpensive format to allow timely and broad dissemination to researchers in aerospace history. Suggestions for additional publications in the Monographs in Aerospace History series are welcome.
INTRODUCTION
Almost forty years after the Mercury astronauts made their first brief forays into the new ocean of space, Earth orbit has become a busy arena of human activity. In that time, nearly 300 people have traveled into orbit on U.S. spacecraft. The first astronauts went along, stuffed into capsules barely large enough for their bodies, eating squeeze-tube food and peering out at the Earth through tiny portholes. Their flights lasted only a matter of hours. Today we routinely launch eight people at a time to spend a week living, working and exploring on board the Space Shuttle.
The history of space flight has seen not only an increase in the numbers of people traveling into orbit, but a marked improvements in their vehicles. Each successive spacecraft, from Mercury through Apollo and the Space Shuttle, has been larger, more comfortable, and more capable. Scientists working inside the Shuttle's Spacelab have many of the comforts of a laboratory on Earth, none of which were available when human space flight first began.
Some projects, like Apollo, produced stunning firsts or explored new "territory." Others-notably Skylab and the Space Shuttle-advanced our capabilities by extending the range and sophistication of human operations in space. Both kinds of activity are vital to establishing a permanent human presence off the Earth.
Almost forty years after the dawn of the age of space flight, we are learning not just to travel into space, but to live and stay there. That challenge ensures that the decades to come will be just as exciting as the past decades have been.
MERCURY
Project Mercury came into being on October 7, 1958, only a year and three days after the Soviet Union's Sputnik I satellite opened the Space Age. The goal of sending people into orbit and back had been discussed for many years before that, but with the initiation of the Mercury project, theory became engineering reality.
Mercury engineers had to devise a vehicle that would protect a human being from the temperature extremes, vacuum and newly discovered radiation of space. Added to these demands was the need to keep an astronaut cool during the burning, high-speed reentry through the atmosphere. The vehicle that best fit these requirements was a wingless "capsule" designed for a ballistic reentry, with an ablative heat shield that burned off as Mercury returned to Earth.
Mercury capsules rode into space on two different kinds of booster. The first suborbital flights were launched on Redstone rockets designed by Wernher von Braun's team in Huntsville, Alabama. For orbital flights, Mercury was placed on top of an Atlas-D, a modified ballistic missile whose steel skin was so thin (to save weight) it would have collapsed like a bag if not pressurized from within.
The first Americans to venture into space were drawn from a group of 110 military pilots chosen for their flight test experience and because they met certain physical requirements. Seven of those 110 became astronauts in April 1959. Six of the seven flew Mercury missions (Deke Slayton was removed from flight status due to a heart condition). Beginning with Alan Shepard's Freedom 7 flight, the astronauts named their own spacecraft, and all added 7 to the name to acknowledge the teamwork of their fellow astronauts.
With only 12.133 cubic meters of volume, the Mercury capsule was barely big enough to include its pilot. Inside were 120 controls, 55 electrical switches, 30 fuses and 35 mechanical levers. Before Shepard's flight, surrogate "passengers" tested the integrity of the spacecraft design: two rhesus monkeys, Ham the chimpanzee, and an electronic "crewman simulator" mannequin that could breathe in and out to test the cabin environment. Finally, in May 1961, Shepard became the first American in space. Nine months later, John Glenn became the first American to orbit the Earth.
The six Mercury flights (which totaled two days and six hours in space) taught the pioneers of space flight several important lessons. They learned not only that humans could function in space, but that they were critical to a mission's success. Ground engineers learned the difficulty of launch preparations, and found that a worldwide communications network was essential for manned space flight.
By the time of the last Mercury flight in May 1963, the focus of the U.S. space program had already shifted. President John F. Kennedy had announced the goal of reaching the Moon only three weeks after Shepard's relatively simple 15-minute suborbital flight, and by 1963, only 500 of the 2,500 people working at NASA's Manned Spacecraft Center were still working on Mercury-the remainder were already busy on Gemini and Apollo.
But Mercury had taken the critical first step, and had given reassuring answers to a number of fundamental questions:
Could humans survive in space?
Could a spacecraft be designed to launch them into orbit?
Could they return safely to Earth?
At the moment John Glenn's Friendship 7 capsule was placed into its orbital trajectory, fulfilling the primary goal of Project Mercury, one member of the launch team on the ground made a notation in his log: "We are through the gates."
Project Mercury
Vehicles: Redstone and Atlas launchers
Mercury spacecraft
Number of People Flown: 6
Highlights: First American in space
First American in orbit
NASA Sources:
Grimwood, James M. Project Mercury: A Chronology. (NASA SP4001, 1963).
Hansen, James R. Spaceflight Revolution: NASA Langley Research Center from Sputnik to Apollo. (NASA SP4308, 1995).
Link, Mae Mills. Space Medicine in Project Mercury. (NASA SP4003, 1965).
Pitts, John A. The Human Factor: Biomedicine in the Manned Space Program to 1980. (NASA SP4213, 1985).
Swenson, Loyd S., Jr., Grimwood, James M., and Alexander, Charles C. This New Ocean: A History of Project Mercury. (NASA SP4201, 1966).
Non-NASA Sources:
Wolfe, Tom. The Right Stuff. (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1979).
Mercury Astronauts. We Seven. (Simon and Schuster, 1962).
Mercury Missions
Mercury Redstone 3 (Freedom 7)
May 5, 1961
Crew: Alan B. Shepard, Jr.
Alan Shepard's suborbital flight lasted only 15 minutes, but it proved that an astronaut could survive and work comfortably in space, and demonstrated to the 45 million Americans watching on TV that the United States was now in the space flight business. Freedom 7 was a ballistic "cannon shot"-Shepard reached no higher than 187.45 kilometers, and traveled only 486.022 kilometers down range from Cape Canaveral. During his short time in space he maneuvered his spacecraft using hand controllers that pitched, yawed and rolled the tiny Mercury capsule with small thrusters. He found the ride smoother than expected and reported no discomfort during five minutes of weightlessness. Although this first Mercury capsule lacked a window, Shepard was able to look down at the Atlantic coastline through a periscope. His view, though, was in black and white-the astronaut had inadvertently left a gray filter in place while waiting on the pad for liftoff.
Mercury Redstone 4 (Liberty Bell 7)
July 24, 1961
Crew Virgil I. "Gus" Grissom
Grissom's suborbital mission was essentially a repeat of Shepard's, again using the Redstone launcher instead of the more powerful Atlas. Grissom's Mercury capsule had a few minor improvements, including new, easier-to-use hand controllers, a window, and an explosive side hatch, which the astronauts had requested for easier escape in case of an emergency. Since Shepard's flight had been overly busy, Grissom's duties were deliberately reduced, and he spent more time observing the Earth. The only significant failure came at the end of the 15-minute flight, after Liberty Bell 7 had parachuted into the Atlantic Ocean near the Bahamas. While Grissom waited inside the floating capsule to be picked up by helicopter rescue teams, the side hatch opened, filling the tiny spacecraft with seawater. Liberty Bell sank, but a wet Grissom was safely recovered, and the Mercury program was able to move on to orbital flights.
Mercury Atlas , 6 (Friendship 7)
February 20, 1962
Crew: John H. Glenn, Jr.
John Glenn's orbital flight-an American first-lasted four hours, 55 minutes, during which he circled the Earth three times, observing everything from a dust storm in Africa to Australian cities from an altitude of 260.71 kilometers. Glenn was the first American to see a sunrise and sunset from space, and was the first photographer in orbit, having taken along a 35millimeter Minolta purchased from a Cocoa Beach, Florida drugstore. The most nervous moments of the flight came before and during reentry, when a signal received on the ground (erroneously, as it turned out) indicated that the capsule's heat shield had come loose. At one point, Glenn thought his shield was burning up and breaking away. He ran out of fuel trying to stop the capsule's bucking motion as it descended through the atmosphere, but splashed down safely, 64.37 kilometers
short of his target (preflight calculations of the spacecraft's weight had not considered the loss of onboard "consumables"). Glenn returned to Earth a national hero, having achieved Project Mercury's primary goal.
Mercury Atlas 7 (Aurora 7)
May 24, 1962
Crew: M. Scott Carpenter
The focus of Carpenter's five-hour Aurora 7 mission was on science. The full flight plan included the first study of liquids in weightlessness, Earth photography and an unsuccessful attempt to observe a flare fired from the ground. At dawn of the third and final orbit, Carpenter inadvertently bumped his hand against the inside wall of the cabin and solved a mystery from the previous flight. The resulting bright shower of particles outside the capsule-what Glenn had called "fireflies"-turned out to be ice particles shaken loose from the capsule's exterior. Like Glenn, Carpenter circled the Earth three times. Partly because he had been distracted watching the fireflies and partly because of his busy schedule, he overshot his planned reentry mark, and splashed down 402.34 kilometers off target.
Mercury Atlas 8 (Sigma 7)
October 3, 1962
Crew: Walter M. Schirra, Jr.
Schirra's was the first of two longer-duration Mercury missions. After Carpenter's flawed reentry, the emphasis returned to engineering rather than science (Schirra even named his spacecraft "Sigma" for the engineering symbol meaning "summation.") The six-orbit mission lasted nine hours and l3 minutes, much of which Schirra spent in what he called "chimp configuration," a free drift that tested the Mercury's autopilot system. Schirra also tried "steering" by the stars (he found this difficult), took photographs with a Hasselblad camera, exercised with a bungeecord device, saw lightning in the atmosphere, broadcast the first live message from an American spacecraft to radio and TV listeners below, and made the first splashdown in the Pacific. This was the highest flight of the Mercury program, with an apogee of 283.24 kilometers, but Schirra later claimed to be unimpressed with space scenery as compared to the view from high-flying aircraft. "Same old deal, nothing new," he told debriefers after the flight.
Mercury Atlas 9 (Faith 7)
May 15-16, 1963
Crew: L. Gordon Cooper, Jr.
If Schirra's mission was an endurance test, the final Mercury flight was a marathon. Cooper circled the Earth 22 1/2 times, and released the first satellite from a spacecraft-a l52.4-millimeter sphere with a beacon for testing the astronaut's ability to track objects visually in space. Although a balloon for measuring atmospheric drag failed to deploy properly, Cooper finally completed another Mercury experiment when he was able to spot a powerful, 44,000-watt xenon lamp shining up from the ground. (He also claimed to be able to see individual houses from orbit, even smoke from chimneys in the Tibetan highlands.) During his 34 hours in space, Cooper slept, spoke a prayer into his tape recorder and took the best photographs of the Mercury program, including pictures of the Earth's limb and infrared weather photographs. His mission was deemed a "great success-so successful, in fact, that it allowed Mercury officials to cancel a planned seventh flight and move on to the two-man Gemini program.
Gemini
Gemini was not pure pioneering like Mercury, nor did it have the excitement of Apollo. But its success was critical to Kennedy's goal of reaching the Moon "by decade's end."
The program was announced to the public on January 3, l962, after Apollo already was well underway. Gemini's primary purpose was to demonstrate space rendezvous and docking-techniques that would be used during Apollo, when the lunar lander would separate from the command module in orbit around the Moon, then meet up with it again after the astronauts left the lunar surface. Gemini also sought to extend astronauts' stays in space to two weeks, longer than even the Apollo missions would require.
It was during the Gemini program that space flight became routine. Ten piloted missions left the launch pads of Cape Canaveral, Florida, in less than 20 months, and the Manned Spacecraft Center (renamed the Johnson Space Center in 1973) outside Houston, Texas, took over the role of Mission Control. Ground operations became smooth and efficient, due in part to fleetingly short launch windows-the Gemini XI "window" opened for only 2 seconds-dictated by the need to rendezvous with targets already in orbit. Meanwhile, sixteen new astronauts chalked up experience in space.
The Gemini spacecraft was an improvement on Mercury (it was originally called Mercury Mark II) in both size and capability. Gemini weighed more than 3,628.72 kilograms-twice the weight of Mercury-but ironically seemed more cramped, having only 50 percent more cabin space for twice as many people. Ejection seats replaced Mercury's escape rocket, and more storage space was added for the longer Gemini flights. The long duration missions also required fuel cells instead of batteries for generating electrical power.
Unlike Mercury, which had only been able to change its orientation in space, Gemini needed real maneuvering capability to rendezvous with another spacecraft. Gemini would have to move forward, backward and sideways in its orbital path, even change orbits. The complexity of rendezvous demanded two people on board, and more piloting than had been possible with Mercury. It also required the first onboard computers to calculate complicated rendezvous maneuvers.
Gemini rode into orbit on a Titan 2 launch vehicle. The target for rendezvous operations was an unmanned Agena upper stage, which was launched ahead of the Gemini. After meeting up in orbit, the nose of the Gemini capsule then fit into a docking collar on the Agena.
To avoid long delays between flights, Gemini spacecraft were made more serviceable, with subsystems that could be removed and replaced easily. An adapter module fitted to the rear of the capsule (and jettisoned before reentry) carried on-board oxygen, fuel and other consumable supplies.
Gemini gave U.S. astronauts their first real experience with living and working in space. They had to learn to sleep and keep house on long flights in crowded quarters, both of which were difficult. Gemini astronauts also made the first forays outside their spacecraft, which required a new spacesuit design. Space walks proved more difficult than expected-following Ed White's successful solo on Gemini IV, it wasn't until the final Gemini flight that another extravehicular activity went as smoothly as planned.
By Gemini's end, an important new capability-orbital rendezvous and docking-had become routine, and space doctors had gained confidence that humans could live, work and stay healthy in space for days or even weeks at a time. Gemini also completed a long list of onboard science experiments, including studies of the space environment and Earth photography. Above all, the program added nearly 1,000 hours of valuable space-flight experience in the years between Mercury and Apollo, which by 1966 was nearing flight readiness. Five days before the launch of the last Gemini, Lunar Orbiter 2 had been sent to the Moon, already scouting out Apollo landing sites.
Number of People Flown: 20
Highlights: First orbital rendezvous and docking
First U.S. space-walk
Gemini Bibliography
NASA Sources:
Dethloff, Henry C. "Suddenly Tomorrow Came...": A History of the Johnson Space Center. (NASA SP4307, 1993).
Grimwood, James M., and Hacker, Barton C., with Vorzimmer, Peter J. Project Gemini Technology and Operations: A Chronology. (NASA SP4002, 1969).
Hacker, Barton C., and Grimwood, James M. On Shoulders of Titans: A History of Project Gemini. (NASA SP4203, 1977).
Pitts, John A. The Human Factor: Biomedicine in the Manned Space Program to 1980. (NASA SP4213, 1985).
Non-NASA Sources:
Collins, Michael. Carrying the Fire: An Astronaut Journeys. (Farrar, Straus & Giroux, 1974).
March 23, 1965
Crew: Virgil I. "Gus" Grissom and John W. Young
In a playful reference to the Broadway hit The Unsinkable Molly Brown, Grissom nicknamed the Gemini 3 spacecraft "Molly Brown," hoping that it would not duplicate his experience with Liberty Bell 7. (It was the last Gemini to be named by an astronaut. All subsequent flights in the program were designated by a Roman numeral.) The mission's primary goal was to test the new, maneuverable Gemini spacecraft. In space, the crew fired thrusters to change the shape of their orbit, shift their orbital plane slightly, and drop to a lower altitude. The spacecraft was supposed to have enough lift for a precision landing, but reality did not match wind tunnel predictions: Gemini 3 splashed down some 80.47 kilometers short of its intended target. The capsule was designed to land on its side, suspended at two points from a parachute. But during the descent, when the astronauts threw a switch to shift "Molly Brown" to its landing position, they were thrown forward with such force that Grissom's faceplate cracked. Still, the first test of the twoseat spacecraft-and of Gemini ground operations-had been a success.
Gemini IV
June 37, 1965
Crew: James A McDivitt and Edward H. White II
The plan for this four-day, 62-orbit mission was for Gemini IV to fly in formation with the spent second stage of its Titan 2 booster in orbit. On this first attempt, however, space flight engineers learned something about the complication of orbital rendezvous. Thrusting toward their target, the astronauts only moved farther away. They finally gave up after using nearly half their fuel. (On later rendezvous missions, a spacecraft chasing another in orbit would first drop to a lower, faster orbit before rising again.) The mission's highlight was White's 22-minute space walk, the first ever for an American. Tied to a tether and using a handheld "zip gun" to maneuver himself, White swam through space while McDivitt took photographs. Gemini IV set a record for flight duration, and eased fears about the medical consequences of longer missions. It also was the first use of the new Mission Control Center outside Houston, which because of the long duration, had to conduct the first three-shift operations.
August 21-29, 1965
Crew: L. Gordon Cooper. Jr. and Charles "Pete" Conrad, Jr.
Gemini V doubled the space-flight record to eight days, thanks to new fuel cells that generated enough electricity to power longer missions. Cooper and Conrad were to have made a practice rendezvous with a "pod" deployed from the spacecraft, but problems with the electricity supply forced a switch to a simpler "phantom rendezvous," whereby the Gemini maneuvered to a predetermined position in space. Mercury Veteran Gordon Cooper was the first person to travel into space twice. He and Conrad took high-resolution photographs for the Defense Department, but problems with the fuel cells and maneuvering system forced the cancellation of several other experiments. The astronauts found themselves marking time in orbit, and Conrad later lamented that he had not brought along a book. On-board medical tests, however, continued to show the feasibility of longer flights.
Gemini VII
December 4-18, 1965
Crew: Frank Barman and James A. Lovell, Jr.
This 14-day mission required NASA to solve problems of long-duration space flight, not the least of which was stowage (the crew had practiced stuffing waste paper behind their seats before the flight). Timing their workday to match that of ground crews, both men worked and slept at the same time. Gemini VII flew the most experiments-20-of any Gemini mission, including studies of nutrition in space. The astronauts also evaluated a new, lightweight spacesuit, which proved uncomfortable if worn for a long time in Gemini's hot, cramped quarters. The high point of the mission was the rendezvous with Gemini VI. But the three days that followed were something of an endurance test, and both astronauts, heeding Pete Conrad's Gemini V advice, brought books along. Gemini VII was the longest space flight in U.S. history, until the Skylab missions of the 1970s.
December 1516, 1965
Crew: Walter M. Schirra, Jr. and Thomas P. Stafford
A rendezvous and docking with an unmanned Agena target was this mission's original objective, but when Mission Control lost contact with the Agena during an October launch attempt, an alternate mission was substituted: a meeting in space of two Gemini spacecraft. Eight days after the launch of Borman and Lovell's Gemini VII, Schirra and Stafford tried to join them, but their Titan 2 launcher shut down on the pad (the cool-headed Schirra did not eject, even though the countdown clock had started ticking-he felt no motion, and trusted his senses). Three days later, Gemini VI made it into orbit. Using guidance from the computer as well as his own piloting, Schirra rendezvoused with the companion spacecraft in orbit on the afternoon of December 15. Once in formation, the two Gemini capsules flew around each other, coming within 0.3048 meters of each other but never touching. The two spacecraft stayed in close proximity for five hours. One of Gemini's primary goals-orbital rendezvous-had been achieved.
March 16, 1966
Crew: Neil A. Armstrong and David R. Scott
A second major objective of the Gemini program was completed less than six hours after launch, when Neil Armstrong brought Gemini VIII within 0.9144 meters of the prelaunched Agena target, then slowly docked-the first orbital docking ever. What followed, however, were some of the most hair-raising few minutes in space-program history. The Gemini VIII capsule, still docked to the Agena, began rolling continuously. Never having faced this in simulation, the crew undocked from the Agena, but the problem was a stuck thruster on the spacecraft, which now tumbled even faster, at the dizzying rate of one revolution per second. The only way to stop the motion was to use the capsule's reentry control thrusters, which meant that Armstrong and Scott had to cut short their mission and make an emergency return to Earth 10 hours after launch. They were still nauseated after splashdown, as well as disappointed: Scott had missed out on a planned space-walk.
June 36, 1966
Crew: Thomas P. Stafford and Eugene A. Cernan
Stafford and Cernan became the first backup crew to fly in space after the first crew of Elliott See and Charles Bassett died in a plane crash four months before the flight. The highlight of the mission was to have been a docking with a shortened Agena called the Augmented Target Docking Adapter. The docking was canceled, though, after Stafford and Cernan rendezvoused with the target to find its protective shroud still attached, which made it look, in Stafford's words, like an "angry alligator." Cernan also was to have tested an Astronaut Maneuvering Unit (AMU) a jet-powered backpack stowed outside in Gemini's adapter module, to which the spacewalking astronaut was to have strapped himself. But Cernan's spacewalk was troubled from the start. His visor fogged, he sweated and struggled with his tasks, and he had problems moving in microgravity. Everything took longer than expected, and Cernan had to go inside before getting a chance to fly the AMU. The device was not finally tested in space until Skylab, seven years later.
July 18-21, 1966
Crew: John W. Young and Michael Collins
Gemini established that radiation at high attitude was not a problem. After docking with their Agena booster in low orbit, Young and Collins used it to climb another is 482.8032 kilometers to meet with the dead, drifting Agena left over from the aborted Gemini VIII flight-thus executing the program's first double rendezvous. With no electricity on board the second Agena the rendezvous was accomplished with eyes only-no radar. After the rendezvous, Collins space-walked over to the dormant Agena at the end of a 15.24-meter tether, making Collins the first person to meet another spacecraft in orbit. He retrieved a cosmic dustcollecting panel from the side of the Agena, but returned no pictures of his close encounter-in the complicated business of keeping his tether clear of the Gemini and Agena, Collins' Hasselblad camera worked itself free and drifted off into orbit.
September 12-15, 1966
Crew: Charles "Pete" Conrad, Jr. and Richard F. Gordon, Jr.
With Apollo looming on the horizon, Gemini project managers wanted to accomplish a rendezvous immediately after reaching orbit, just as it would have to be done around the Moon. Only 85 minutes after launch, Conrad and Gordon matched orbits with their Agena target stage and docked several times. Conrad had originally hoped for a Gemini flight around the Moon, but had to settle for the highest Earth orbit-1367.94 kilometers-ever reached by an American manned spacecraft. Gordon's first space-walk once again proved more difficult than ground simulations, and had to be cut short when he became overtired. A second, two-hour "stand-up" space walk went more smoothly: Gordon even fell asleep while floating halfway out the hatch. An experiment to link the Agena and Gemini vehicles with a 15.24 meter tether (which Gordon had attached during his space-walk) and rotate the joined pair was troublesome-Conrad had problems keeping the tether taut-but was able to generate a modicum of "artificial gravity." The mission ended with the first totally automatic, computer-controlled reentry, which brought Gemini XI down only 4.506 kilometers from its recovery ship.
November 11-15, 1966
Crew: James A. Lovell, Jr. and Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr.
By the time of the last Gemini flight, the program still had not demonstrated that an astronaut could work easily and efficiently outside the spacecraft. In preparation for Gemini XII, new, improved restraints were added to the outside of the capsule, and a new technique-underwater training-was introduced, which would become a staple of all future space-walk simulation. Aldrin's two-hour, 20-minute tethered space-walk, during which he photographed star fields, retrieved a micrometeorite collector and did other chores, at last demonstrated the feasibility of extravehicular activity. Two more stand-up EVAs also went smoothly, as did the bynow routine rendezvous and docking with an Agena which was done "manually" using the onboard computer and charts when a rendezvous radar failed. The climb to a higher orbit, however, was canceled because of a problem with the Agena booster.
Apollo
The Apollo program had been underway since July 1960, when NASA announced a follow-on to Mercury that would fly astronauts around the Moon. But with President John F. Kennedy's speech of May 25, 1961, declaring the goal of landing an astronaut on the surface of the Moon and returning to Earth by decade's end, Apollo shifted its focus. That goal was achieved with five months to spare, when, on July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong and Edwin "Buzz" Aldrin touched down in the Sea of Tranquillity.
Apollo was one of the great triumphs of modern technology. Six expeditions landed on the Moon, and one-Apollo 13-was forced to return without landing. Before that, there had been two manned checkouts of Apollo hardware in Earth orbit and two lunar orbit missions.
The Apollo lunar module, or LM, was the first true spacecraft-designed to fly only in a vacuum, with no aerodynamic qualities whatsoever. Launched attached to the Apollo command/service module, it separated in lunar orbit and descended to the Moon with two astronauts inside. At the end of their stay on the surface, the lunar module's ascent stage fired its own rocket to rejoin the command/service module in lunar orbit.
The teardrop-shaped Apollo command module, the living quarters for the three-man crews, had a different shape from the conical-nosed Gemini and Mercury. The attached cylindrical service module contained supplies as well as the Service Propulsion System engine that placed the vehicle in and out of lunar orbit.
Boosting the Apollo vehicles to the Moon was the job of the giant Saturn V-the first launch vehicle large enough that it had to be assembled away from the launch pad and transported there. A fueled Saturn V weighed more than 2.7 million kilograms at liftoff, and stood 110.64 meters high with the Apollo vehicle on top. The vehicle had three stages: the S-lC, SII, and S-IVB, the last of which burned to send Apollo out of Earth orbit and on its way to the Moon.
The Apollo program greatly increased the pace and complexity of ground operations, both before launch and during the missions, when ground controllers had to track two spacecraft at the same time. The lunar missions also required extensive training. Apollo astronauts logged some 84,000 hours-nearly 10 man years-practicing for their flights: everything from simulations of lunar gravity, to geology field trips, to flying the lunar lander training vehicle.
On January 27, 1967, just as the program was nearing readiness for its first manned flight, tragedy struck. A fire inside an Apollo command module took the lives of astronauts Virgil "Gus" Grissom, Edward White and Roger Chaffee, who were training inside it at the time. The fire resulted in delays and modifications to the spacecraft, but by October 1968, Apollo 7 was ready to carry three astronauts into Earth orbit. There, they checked out the command/service module (both had been tested in an unmanned mode during the November 1967 Apollo 4 mission, which was also the first flight of the Saturn V). By December 1968, Apollo 8 was ready to try for lunar orbit (on the Saturn V's third outing), and seven months later Apollo 11 made the first lunar landing.
By the time the Apollo program ended in 1972, astronauts had extended the range and scope of their lunar explorations. The final three missions were far more sophisticated than the first three, in large part because the astronauts carried a lunar rover that allowed them to roam miles from their base. Apollo 11's Armstrong and Aldrin spent only two-and-a-half hours walking on the surface. On Apollo 17 the Moon walks totaled 22 hours, and the astronauts spent three days "camped out" in the Moon's Taurus-Littrow valley.
After six lunar landings the Apollo program came to a conclusion (Apollo 18, 19 and 20 missions had been canceled in 1970 because of budget limitations), and with it ended the first wave of human exploration of the Moon.
Project Apollo
Vehicles: Saturn IB and Saturn V launch vehicles
Apollo command/service module
Number of People Flown: 33
Highlights: First humans to leave Earth orbit
First human landing on the Moon
Apollo Bibliography
NASA Sources:
Benson, Charles D. and Faherty, William Barnaby. Moonport: A History of Apollo Launch Facilities and Operations. (NASA SP4204, 1978).
Bilstein, Roger E. Stages to Saturn: A Technological History of the Apollo/Saturn Launch Vehicles. (NASA SP4206, 1980).
Brooks, Courtney G., and Ertel, Ivan D. The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology, Volume III, October 1, 1964January 20, 1966. (NASA SP4009, 1973).
Brooks, Courtney G., Grimwood, James M., and Swenson, Loyd S., Jr. Chariots for Apollo: A History of Manned Lunar Spacecraft. (NASA SP4205, 1979).
Compton, W. David. Where No Man Has Gone Before: A History of Apollo Lunar Exploration Missions. (NASA SP4214, 1989).
Cortright, Edgar. Editor. Apollo Expeditions to the Moon. (NASA SP-350, 1975).
Dethloff, Henry C. "Suddenly Tomorrow Came...": A History of the Johnson Space Center. (NASA SP4307, 1993).
Ertel, Ivan D., and Morse, Mary Louise. The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology, Volume I, Through November 7, 1962. (NASA SP4009, 1969).
Ertel, Ivan D., and Newkirk, Roland W., with Brooks, Courtney G. The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology, Volume IV, January 21, 1966July 13, 1974. (NASA SP4009, 1978).
Fries, Sylvia D. NASA Engineers and the Age of Apollo. (NASA SP4104, 1992).
Hansen, James R. Spaceflight Revolution: NASA Langley Research Center from Sputnik to Apollo. (NASA SP4308, 1995).
Herring, Mack R. Way Station to Space: A History of the John C. Stennis Space Center. (NASA SP4310, 1997).
Levine, Arnold S. Managing NASA in the Apollo Era. (NASA SP4102, 1982).
Morse, Mary Louise, and Bays, Jean Kernahan. The Apollo Spacecraft: A Chronology, Volume II, November 8, 1962September 30, 1964. (NASA SP4009, 1973).
Pitts, John A. The Human Factor: Biomedicine in the Manned Space Program to 1980. (NASA SP4213, 1985).
NonNASA Sources:
Armstrong, Neil A., Collins, Michael, and Aldrin, Edwin E. First on the Moon. (Little, Brown and Company, 1970).
Chaiken, Andrew. A Man on the Moon. (Viking, 1994).
Cooper, Henry S.F. Apollo on the Moon. (Dial Press, 1969).
_____. Moon Rocks. (Dial Press, 1970).
_____. Thirteen: The Flight that Failed. (Dial Press, 1973).
Lambright, W. Henry. Powering Apollo: James E. Webb of NASA. (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1995).
Lewis, Richard S. The Voyages of Apollo: The Exploration of the Moon. (Quadrangle, 1974).
Logsdon, John M. The Decision to Go to the Moon: Project Apollo and the National Interest. (The MIT Press, 1970).
McDougall, Walter A. ...The Heavens and the Earth: A Political History of the Space Age. (Johns Hopkins University Press, rep. ed. 1997).
Murray, Charles A., and Cox, Catherine Bly. Apollo, the Race to the Moon. (Simon and Schuster, 1989).
Pellegrino, Charles R., and Stoff, Joshua. Chariots for Apollo: The Making of the Lunar Module. (Atheneum, 1985).
Wilhelms, Don E. To a Rocky Moon: A Geologist's History of Lunar Exploration. (University of Arizona Press, 1993).
Apollo Missions?
October 1122, 1968
Crew: Walter M. Schirra. Jr., Donn F. Eisele, Walter Cunningham
Apollo 7 was a confidence-builder. After the January 1967 Apollo launch pad fire, the Apollo command module had been extensively redesigned. Schirra, the only astronaut to fly Mercury, Gemini and Apollo missions, commanded this Earth-orbital shakedown of the command and service modules. With no lunar lander, Apollo 7 could use the Saturn IB booster rather than the giant Saturn V. The Apollo hardware and all mission operations worked without any significant problems, and the Service Propulsion System (SPS) the all-important engine that would place Apollo in and out of lunar orbit-made eight nearly perfect firings. Even though Apollo's larger cabin was more comfortable than Gemini's, eleven days in orbit took its toll on the astronauts. The food was bad, and all three developed colds. But their mission proved the spaceworthiness of the basic Apollo vehicle.
December 2127, 1968
Crew: Frank Borman, James A. Lovell, Jr., William A. Anders
The Apollo 8 astronauts were the first human beings to venture beyond low Earth orbit and visit another world. What was originally to have been an Earthorbit checkout of the lunar lander became instead a race with the Soviets to become the first nation to orbit the Moon. The Apollo 8 crew rode inside the command module, with no lunar lander attached. They were the first astronauts to be launched by the Saturn V, which had flown only twice before. The booster worked perfectly, as did the SPS engines that had been checked out on Apollo 7. Apollo 8 entered lunar orbit on the morning of December 24, 1968. For the next 20 hours the astronauts circled the Moon, which appeared out their windows as a gray, battered wasteland. They took photographs, scouted future landing sites, and on Christmas Eve read from the Book of Genesis to TV viewers back on Earth. They also photographed the first Earthrise as seen from the Moon. Apollo 8 proved the ability to navigate to and from the Moon, and gave a tremendous boost to the entire Apollo program.
March 3-13, 1969
Crew: James A. McDivitt, David R. Scott, Russell L. Schweickart
Apollo 9 was the first space test of the third critical piece of Apollo hardware-the lunar module. For ten days, the astronauts put all three Apollo vehicles through their paces in Earth orbit, undocking and then redocking the lunar lander with the command module, just as they would in lunar orbit. For this and all subsequent Apollo flights, the crews were allowed to name their own spacecraft. The gangly lunar module was "Spider," the command module "Gumdrop." Schweickart and Scott performed a space walk, and Schweickart checked out the new Apollo spacesuit, the first to have its own life support system rather than being dependent on an umbilical connection to the spacecraft. Apollo 9 gave proof that the Apollo machines were up to the task of orbital rendezvous and docking.
Apollo 10
May 1826, 1969
Crew: Thomas P. Stafford, John W. Young, Eugene A. Cernan
This dress rehearsal for a Moon landing brought Stafford and Cernan's lunar module-nicknamed "Snoopy"-to within nine miles of the lunar surface. Except for that final stretch, the mission went exactly as a landing would have gone, both in space and on the ground, where Apollo's extensive tracking and control network was put through a dry run. Shortly after leaving low Earth orbit, the LM and the command/service module separated, then redocked, top to top. Upon reaching lunar orbit, they separated again. While Young orbited the Moon alone in his command module "Charlie Brown," Stafford and Cernan checked out the LM's radar and ascent engine, rode out a momentary gyration in the lunar lander's motion (due to a faulty switch setting), and surveyed the Apollo 11 landing site in the Sea of Tranquillity. This test article of the lunar module was not equipped to land, however. Apollo 10 also added another first-broadcasting live color TV from space.
July 16-24, 1969
Crew: Neil A. Armstrong, Michael Collins, Edwin E. "Buzz" Aldrin, Jr.
Half of Apollo's primary goal-a safe return-was achieved at 4:17 p.m. Eastern Daylight Time on July 20, when Armstrong piloted the "Eagle" to a touchdown on the Moon, with less than 30 seconds' worth of fuel left in the lunar module. Six hours later, Armstrong took his famous "one giant leap for mankind." Aldrin joined him, and the two spent two-and-a-half hours drilling core samples, photographing what they saw and collecting rocks. After more than 21 hours on the lunar surface, they returned to Collins on board "Columbia," bringing 20.87 kilograms of lunar samples with them. The two Moon-walkers had left behind scientific instruments, an American flag and other mementos, including a plaque bearing the inscription: "Here Men From Planet Earth First Set Foot Upon the Moon. July 1969 A.D. We Came in Peace For All Mankind."
Apollo 12
November 14-24, 1969,
Crew: Charles "Pete" Conrad Jr., Richard F. Gordon, Jr., Alan L. Bean
The second lunar landing was an exercise in precision targeting. The descent was automatic, with only a few manual corrections by Conrad. The landing, in the Ocean of Storms, brought the lunar module "Intrepid" within walking distance-182.88 meters-of a robot spacecraft that had touched down there two-and-a-half years earlier. Conrad and Bean brought pieces of the Surveyor 3 back to Earth for analysis, and took two Moonwalks lasting just under four hours each. They collected rocks and set up experiments that measured the Moon's seismicity, solar wind flux and magnetic field. Meanwhile Gordon, on board the "Yankee Clipper" in lunar orbit, took multispectral photographs of the surface. The crew stayed an extra day in lunar orbit taking photographs. When "Intrepid's" ascent stage was dropped onto the Moon after Conrad and Bean rejoined Gordon in orbit, the seismometers the astronauts had left on the lunar surface registered the vibrations for more than an hour.
Apollo 13
April 11-17, 1970
Crew: James A. Lovell, Jr. Fred W. Haise, Jr., John L. Swigert, Jr.
The crew's understated radio message to Mission Control was "Okay, Houston, we've had a problem here." Within 321,860 kilometers of Earth, an oxygen tank in the service module exploded. The only solution was for the crew to abort their planned landing, swing around the Moon and return on a trajectory back to Earth. Since their command module "Odyssey" was almost completely dead, however, the three astronauts had to use the lunar module "Aquarius" as a crowded lifeboat for the return home. The four-day return trip was cold, uncomfortable and tense. But Apollo 13 proved the program's ability to weather a major crisis and bring the crew back home safely.
January 31 February 9, 1971
Crew: Alan B. Shepard. Jr., Stuart A. Roosa, Edgar D. Mitchell
After landing in the Fra Mauro region-the original destination for Apollo 13-Shepard and Mitchell took two Moonwalks, adding new seismic studies to the bynow familiar Apollo experiment package, and using a "lunar rickshaw" pullcart to carry their equipment. A planned rockcollecting trip to the 1,000footwide Cone Crater was dropped, however, when the astronauts had trouble finding their way around the lunar surface. Although later estimates showed that they had made it to within 30.48 meters of the crater's rim, the explorers had become disoriented in the alien landscape. Roosa, meanwhile, took pictures from on board command module "Kitty Hawk" in lunar orbit. On the way back to Earth, the crew conducted the first U.S. materials processing experiments in space. The Apollo 14 astronauts were the last lunar explorers to be quarantined on their return from the Moon.
July 26August 7, /971
Crew: David R. Scott, James B. Irwin, Alfred M. Worden
The first of the longer, expedition-style lunar landing missions was also the first to include the lunar rover, a carlike vehicle that extended the astronauts' range. The lunar module Falcon touched down near the sinuous channel known as Hadley Rille. Scott and Irwin rode more than 27.36 kilometers in their rover, and had a free hand in their geological field studies compared to earlier lunar astronauts. They brought back one of the prize trophies of the Apollo program-a sample of ancient lunar crust nicknamed the "Genesis Rock." Apollo 15 also launched a small subsatellite for measuring particles and fields in the lunar vicinity. On the way back to Earth, Worden, who had flown solo on board Endeavor while his crewmates walked on the surface, conducted the first space-walk between Earth and the Moon to retrieve film from the side of the spacecraft.
Apollo 16
April 16-27, 1972
Crew: John W. Young, Thomas K. Mattingly II, Charles M. Duke, Jr.
A malfunction in the main propulsion system of the lunar module "Orion" nearly caused their Moon landing to be scrubbed but Young and Duke ultimately spent three days exploring the Descarres highland region, while Mattingly circled overhead in "Casper." What was thought to have been a region of volcanism turned out not to be, based on the astronauts' discoveries. Their collection of returned specimens included an 11.34-kilogram chunk that was the largest single rock returned by the Apollo astronauts. The Apollo 16 astronauts also conducted performance tests with the lunar rover, at one time getting up to a top speed of 17.70 kilometers per hour.
December 7-19, 1972
Crew: Eugene A. Cernan, Ronald E. Evans, Harrison H. "Jack" Schmitt
At the end of this last Apollo mission Eugene Cernan earned the distinction of becoming the last human to stand on the Moon -- so far. While Ronald Evans circled in America , Jack Schmitt and Cernan collected a record 108.86 kilograms of rocks during three Moonwalks. The crew roamed for 33.80 kilometers through the Taurus-Littrow valley in their rover, discovered orange-colored soil, and left behind a plaque attached to their lander Challenger, which read: "Here Man completed his first exploration of the Moon, December 1972 A.D. May the spirit of peace in which we came be reflected in the lives of all mankind." The Apollo lunar program had ended.
Apollo 17: Splashdown in the Pacific.
Skylab
NASA had studied concepts for space stations, including an inflatable donut-shaped station, since the earliest days of the space program. But it wasn't until the Saturn rocket came into existence in the mid-1960s that the Skylab program was born. Initially called the Apollo Applications Program, Skylab was designed to use leftover Apollo lunar hardware to achieve extended stays by astronauts in Earth orbit.
At first there were two competing concepts: the so-called "wet" workshop, where a Saturn IB would be launched, fueled, and its S IV-B upper stage vented and refurbished in orbit; and the "dry" workshop, where the outfitting of an empty S IV-B stage would be done on the ground beforehand and launched on a Saturn V. In July 1969, while the Apollo 11 astronauts were completing their historic lunar landing mission, program managers made their decision: the "dry" workshop concept won.
The Skylab space station weighed approximately 100 tons. It was placed into orbit by the Saturn V, the last time that giant launcher was used. Three separate astronaut crews then met up with the orbiting workshop using modified Apollo command and service modules launched by smaller Saturn IB rockets.
Skylab had a habitable volume of just over 283.17 cubic meters. It was divided into two levels separated by a metal floor-actually an open grid into which the astronauts' cleated shoes could be locked. The "upper" floor had storage lockers and a large empty volume for conducting experiments, plus two scientific airlocks, one pointing down at the Earth, the other toward the Sun. The lower floor had compartmented "rooms" with many of the comforts of home: a dining room table, three bedrooms, a work area, a shower and a bathroom.
The largest piece of scientific equipment, attached to one end of the cylindrical workshop, was the Apollo Telescope Mount, used to study the Sun in different wavelengths with no atmospheric interference. The ATM had its own electricity-generating solar panels.
Skylab also had an airlock module for space-walks (required for repairs, experiment deployments and routine changing of film in the ATM). The Apollo command/service module remained attached to the station's multiple docking adapter while the astronauts were on board.
The space station itself was launched May 14, 1973, on the unmanned Skylab 1 mission. Beginning only 63 seconds after the launch, however, the workshop's combination meteorite shield and sunshade was torn loose by aerodynamic stress, taking one of the two electricityproducing solar arrays with it and preventing the other from deploying properly. The crew was supposed to have launched the next day, but they waited on the ground for 10 days while a fix was worked out (see Skylab 2).
In the course of the next nine months, three different crews lived on board Skylab for one, two, then three months at a time. The station, which orbited at an altitude of 434.52 kilometers, was deactivated between flights. The nine Skylab astronauts chalked up a total of 513 man-days in orbit, during which they conducted thousands of experiments and observations, studying (in decreasing order of the amount of crew time spent): solar astronomy, life sciences, Earth observations, astrophysics, man/systems studies, Comet Kohoutek observations (Skylab 4 only), materials science and student experiments.
Skylab showed the value of having humans working for long periods in orbit on a wide variety of scientific studies, and proved that they could survive the ordeal. More than five years after the last crew left, the empty Skylab station reentered and burned up in the atmosphere on July 11, 1979.
Saturn IB launch vehicle (for crews)
Number of People Flown: 9
Highlights: Longest duration space flights in U.S. history
NASA Sources:
Compton, W. David, and Benson, Charles D. Living and Working in Space: A History of Skylab. (NASA SP4208, 1983).
Newkirk, Roland W., and Ertel, Ivan D., with Brooks, Courtney G. Skylab: A Chronology. (NASA SP4011, 1977).
Pitts, John A. The Human Factor: Biomedicine in the Manned Space Program to 1980. (NASA SP4213, 1985).
Skylab 2
May 25June 22, 1973
Crew: Charles "Pete" Conrad Jr., Paul J. Weitz, Joseph P. Kewin
The first crew to visit the Skylab space station started their mission with home repairs. Skylab's meteorite and sunshield had torn loose during launch, and one of its two remaining solar panels was jammed (see above). Due to concerns that high temperatures inside the workshop- the result of no sunshield-would release toxic materials and ruin onboard film and food, the crew had to work fast. After a failed attempt to deploy the stuck solar panel, they set up a "parasol" as a replacement sunshade. The "fix" worked, and temperatures inside dropped low enough that the crew could enter. Two weeks later Conrad and Kerwin conducted a space-walk, and after a struggle, were able to free the stuck solar panel and begin electricity flowing to their new "home." For nearly a month they made further repairs to the workshop, conducted medical experiments, gathered solar and Earth science data and returned some 29,000 frames of film. The Skylab 2 astronauts spent 28 days in space, which doubled the previous U.S. record.
July28September 25, 1973
Crew: Alan L. Bean, Jack R. Lousma, Owen K. Garriott
After an early bout of motion sickness, the three-person Skylab 3 crew settled down to a 59-day stay on board the space station. During the flight, Garriott and Lousma deployed a second sun shield on a space-walk lasting six and a half hours- the first and longest of three Skylab 3 space-walks. During their two months in orbit, the astronauts continued a busy schedule of experiments, including a student experiment to see if spiders could spin webs in weightlessness (they could). They also tested a jet-powered Astronaut Maneuvering Unit (AMU) backpack inside the spacious volume of Skylab's forward compartment, which had been carried but never flown on Gemini missions in the 1960s. The AMU proved a capable form of one-man space transportation, and helped engineers design the more sophisticated Manned Maneuvering Unit used on the Space Shuttle in the 1980s.
Skylab 4
November 16, 1973February 8, 1974
Crew: Gerald P. Carr, William R. Pogue, Edward G. Gibson
At 84 days, 1 hour, 15 minutes, and 31 seconds, Skylab 4 remains the longest U.S. space flight to date. To help keep the crew in shape, a treadmill was added to the on-board bicycle like ergometer. As a result of the exercise, the Skylab 4 crew was in better physical condition upon their return to Earth than previous Skylab crews, even though an excessive work pace had caused some tension during the flight. Comet Kohoutek was among the special targets observed by the Skylab 4 crew, as were a solar eclipse and solar flares. The astronauts also conducted four space-walks, including one on Christmas Day to view Kohoutek, and set records for time spent on experiments in every discipline from medical investigations to materials science.
Apollo-Soyuz
The final mission of the Apollo era, in July 1975, was the first in which spacecraft from two nations rendezvoused and docked in orbit. The idea for this U.S./Soviet "handshake in space" had been initiated three years earlier with an agreement signed by U.S. President Nixon and Soviet President Kosygin.
The American crew for this goodwill flight included Thomas Stafford, a veteran of three flights, Vance Brand, who had never flown in space, and Mercury astronaut Deke Slayton, the only one of the original seven astronauts who had never flown (due to a heart condition). The American astronauts traveled into orbit inside a three-man Apollo spacecraft.
Like the Apollo command module, the twoman Soyuz capsule flown by the Soviets had debuted in 1967. On board the Soviet spacecraft were Alexei Leonov, who had made history's first space-walk in 1965, and rookie Valeri Kubasov.
The Apollo-Soyuz mission, aside from its political significance, resulted in a number of technical developments, including a common docking system, which had to be specially designed so that the different spacecraft could connect in orbit. The joint mission also gave both "sides" a view of one another's space programs. In preparation for the flight, Soviet cosmonauts and their backups visited and trained at the Johnson Space Center, and the American crew and their backups paid visits to Moscow. Flight controllers from both nations also conducted joint simulations.
Although Apollo-Soyuz was a one-time-only event, it created a sense of goodwill that transcended the simple "handshake in space" that was its most visible symbol.
ApolloSoyuz Test Project
July 15 - 24, 1975
Crew: Thomas P. Stafford, Vince D. Brand, Donald K. "Deke" Slayton
The Soyuz 19 and Apollo 18 craft launched within seven-and-a-half hours of each other July 15, and docked on July 17. Three hours later, Stafford and Leonov exchanged the first international handshake in space through the open hatch of the Soyuz. The two spacecraft remained linked for 44 hours, long enough for the three Americans and two Soviets to exchange flags and gifts (including tree seeds which were later planted in the two countries), sign certificates, pay visits to each other's ships, eat together and converse in each other's languages. There were also docking and redocking maneuvers during which the Soyuz reversed roles and became the "active" ship. The Soviets remained in space for five days, the Americans for nine, during which the Soviets also conducted experiments in Earth observation.
Apollo-Soyuz Test Project
Vehicles: Saturn IB launcher, Apollo command module
Number of People Flown: 3
Total Time in Space: 9 days
Highlights: First international space mission
ASTP Bibliography
NASA Sources:
Ezell, Edward Clinton, and Ezell, Linda Neuman. The Partnership: A History of the Apollo Soyuz Test Project. (NASA SP4209, 1978).
(MISSING GRAPHICS)
Space Shuttle
Before the Space Shuttle, launching cargo into space was a one-way proposition. Satellites could be sent into orbit, but could not return. The world's first reusable space vehicle changed that, and revolutionized the way people worked in space.
The Space Shuttle was approved as a national program in 1972. Part spacecraft and part aircraft, it required several technological advances, including thousands of insulating tiles able to stand the heat of reentry over the course of many missions, and sophisticated engines that could be used again and again without being thrown away.
The airplane-like orbiter has three of these Space Shuttle Main Engines, which burn liquid hydrogen and oxygen stored in the large External Tank, the single largest structure in the Shuttle "stack." Attached to the tank are two Solid Rocket Boosters, which provide most of the vehicle's thrust at liftoff. Two minutes into the flight, the spent solids drop into the ocean to be recovered, while the orbiter's own engines continue burning until approximately eight minutes into the flight.
The Shuttle was developed throughout the 1970s. Enterprise, a test vehicle not suited for space flight, was used for approach and landing tests in 1977 that demonstrated the orbiter's aerodynamic qualities and ability to land (after separating from an airplane). The first spaceworthy Shuttle orbiter, Columbia, made its orbital debut in April 1981.
The first four missions of the new Space Transportation System (STS) were test flights to evaluate the Shuttle's engineering design, thermal characteristics and performance in space. Operational flights began with STS-5 in November 1982, with a four-person crew on board. Over time the crews grew in size: five people flew on STS-7 in 1983, six on STS-9 later that same year. The first seven-person crew flew on STS 41-C in 1984, and in 1985 eight people-a Shuttle record- flew on STS 61-A.
The Space Shuttle changed the sociology of space flight. With such large crews, Shuttle astronauts were divided into two categories: pilots responsible for flying and maintaining the orbiter, and mission specialists responsible for experiments and payloads. A new class of space traveler, payload specialists-who are not even necessarily career astronauts-also was created to tend to specific onboard experiments.
The reusable Shuttles together make up a fleet, with each vehicle continually being processed on the ground in preparation for its next flight. The second orbiter, Challenger, debuted in 1983, followed by Discovery in 1984 and Atlantis in 1985. A fifth orbiter, Endeavour, joined the fleet in 1991, to make its first flight in 1992.
The Space Transportation System introduced several new tools to the business of space flight. The Remote Manipulator System, a 15.24-meter crane built by the Canadian Space Agency and designed to mimic the human arm, is able to move large and heavy payloads in and out of the Shuttle's 18.29-meter-long cargo bay. The Spacelab module, built by the European Space Agency, provides a pressurized and fully equipped laboratory for scientists to conduct experiments ranging in subject matter from astronomy to materials science to biomedical investigations. The Manned Maneuvering Unit backpack allows space-walking astronauts to "fly" up to several hundred meters from the orbiter with no connecting tether.
The MMU has figured in several of the Shuttle program's most spectacular accomplishments. On STS 41-C in April 1984, the ailing Solar Max satellite was retrieved, repaired, and reorbited by the astronaut crew, all on the same flight. Later that same year, on STS 51-A, two malfunctioning commercial communications satellites were retrieved in orbit and brought back to Earth in the Shuttle cargo bay. Another malfunctioning satellite was fixed in orbit by the crew of STS 51-I in 1985.
Early in the Shuttle program, communications satellites were common payloads, with as many as three delivered into orbit on the same mission. The January 1986 Challenger accident, which resulted in the loss of the crew and vehicle due to a failed seal in one of the two Solid Rocket Boosters, led to a change in that policy, however. Since returning to flight in September 1988, the Shuttle has carried only those payloads unique to the Shuttle or those that require a human presence. The majority of these have been scientific and defense missions. Among those payloads have been some of the decade's most important space science projects, including the Hubble Space Telescope, the Galileo Jupiter spacecraft, and the Gamma Ray Observatory.
In 1995, the Shuttle program added a new capability to its repertoire. In preparation for deployment of the International Space Station, the crew of the Space Shuttle began a series of eight dockings and five crew exchanges with the Russian space station Mir. U.S. astronauts spent time aboard the Mir-sometimes several months at a time-acclimating themselves to living and working in space. They carried out many of the types of activities they would perform on the Space Station and encountered conditions they would possibly encounter.
The Space Shuttle continues today as the nation's most capable form of space transportation. By early 1998, over the course of 89 missions, Shuttle missions had carried 516 people into space, spent a total of 757 days in space, and circled the Earth almost 12,000 times.
Space Shuttle
External Tank, Solid Rocket Boosters
Number of People Flown: 516
(through January 1998)
First in-space satellite repairs and retrievals
Space Shuttle Bibliography
Guilmartin, John F., and Maurer, John. A Space Shuttle Chronology. NASA Johnson Space Center, 1988.
Non-NASA Sources:
Allen, Joseph. Entering Space. (Stewart, Tabori & Chang, 1984).
Cooper, Henry S. F., Jr. Before LiftOff: The Making of a Space Shuttle Crew. (Johns Hopkins University Press, 1987).
Forres, George. Space Shuttle: The Quest Continues. (Ian Allen, 1989).
Furniss, Tim. Space Shuttle Log. (Jane's, 1986).
Gurney, Gene, and Forte, Jeff. The Space Shuttle Log: The First 25 Flights. (Aero Books, 1988).
Jenkins, Dennis. Space Shuttle: The History of Developing the National Space Transportation System. Marceline, KS: Walsworth Pub. Co., 1996.
Joels, Kerry Mark, and Kennedy, Greg. Space Shuttle Operator's Manual. (Ballantine Books, 1982).
Lewis, Richard S. The Last Voyage of Challenger. (Columbia University Press, 1988).
__________. The Voyages of Columbia: The First True Spaceship. (Columbia University Press, 1984).
Nelson, Bill, with Buckingham, Jamie. Mission: An American Congressman's Voyage to Space. (Harcourt, Brace, Jovanovich, 1988).
Stockton, William, and Wilford, John Noble. Spaceliner: Report on Columbia's Voyage into Tomorrow. (Times Books, 1981).
NASA Space Shuttle Astronauts
Columbia
Crew: Young, Crippen
On its debut flight, the Space Shuttle proved that it could safely reach Earth orbit and return through the atmosphere to land like an airplane. In space, Young and Crippen tested the Columbia's onboard systems; fired the Orbital Maneuvering System (OMS) used for changing orbits and the Reaction Control System (RCS) engines used for attitude control; opened and closed the payload bay doors (the bay was empty for this first flight); and, after 36 orbits, made a smooth touchdown at Edwards Air Force Base in California, the landing site for most of the early Shuttle missions.
STS2
Columbia
Crew: Engle, Truly
Originally intended to last five days, the Shuttle's second test flight was cut short when problems developed with one of three onboard fuel cells that produce electricity. Engle
and Truly conducted the first tests of the 50-foot Remote Manipulator System arm and operated the Shuttle's first payload: a package of Earth-viewing instruments stored in the cargo bay.
STS-3
Columbia
Crew: Lousma, Fullerton
The longest of the Shuttle test flights carried space-viewing instruments for the first time. The crew also continued engineering evaluations of Columbia. After rains flooded the dry lakebed at the primary landing site in California, the Columbia made the Shuttle program's only landing to date at White Sands, New Mexico.
STS4
Columbia
Crew: Mattingly, Hartsfield
The last Shuttle test flight was the first mission to carry payloads for the Department of Defense. It also included the first small "Getaway Special" experiments mounted in the cargo bay, and further tested the mechanical and thermal performance of the Columbia, as well as the environment surrounding the spacecraft. Mattingly made the first Shuttle landing on a concrete runway instead of the dry lakebed at Edwards Air Force Base.
Challenger
Crew: Weitz, Bobko, Peterson, Musgrave
Challenger's debut flight included the Shuttle program's first space-walks. Musgrave and Peterson spent more than four hours testing new Shuttle spacesuits and mobility aids, and evaluated their own ability to work outside in the Shuttle's cargo bay. The first of NASA's Tracking and Data Relay Satellites was launched. The communications satellite initially failed to reach its proper orbit due to an upper stage guidance error, but was eventually maneuvered into the correct position.
STS7
Challenger
Crew: Crippen, Hauck, Ride, Fabian, Thagard
Except for Crippen, all the members of this crew were from the "class" of 1978, the first astronauts chosen for the Shuttle program. STS-7 had a record five people on board, including Sally Ride, the first American woman in space. The crew deployed, rendezvoused with and retrieved the German-built SPAS experiment platform, which took the first full pictures of a Shuttle orbiter in space. The crew also released two communications satellites-Anik C-2 and Palapa B-l- into orbit, and activated a series of materials processing experiments fixed in the Challenger's cargo bay.
August 30September 5, 1983
Challenger
Crew: Truly, Brandenstein, Blaford, D. Gardner, W. Thornton
STS-8 featured the Shuttle program's first night launch and landing. The crew launched India's INSAT 1-B communications satellite, conducted the first tests of Shuttle-to-ground communications with the new Tracking and Data Relay Satellite, and exercised the Remote Manipulator "arm" with a test article weighing nearly four tons. Thornton, an M.D., conducted biomedical experiments, and Bluford became the first African-American in space.
November 28December 8, 1983
Columbia
Crew: Young, Shaw, Parker, Garriott. PS: Byron Lichtenberg, Ulf Merbold
The first flight of the European-built Spacelab module was a multidisciplinary science mission, with 71 experiments in a wide range of fields: space physics, materials processing, life sciences, Earth and atmospheric studies, astronomy and solar physics. The record sixperson crew included the first Shuttle payload specialists: Lichtenberg of MIT, and Merbold, a West German physicist who became the first non-U.S. citizen to fly on an American spacecraft.
Challenger
Crew: Brand, Gibson, McCandless, Stewart, McNair
With this flight, the number designations for Shuttle missions changed. The "4" indicates the (originally scheduled) year of the launch-1984. The second digit represents the launch site ("1" for Florida, "2" for California), and the "B" indicates the second launch of the fiscal year. The highlights of the flight were the first untethered space-walks by McCandless and Stewart, who tested new Manned Maneuvering Unit (MMU) backpacks that allowed them to travel as far as 97.54 meters from the orbiter. Two satellites deployed from the Shuttle, Westar VI and Palapa B-2, failed to reach their proper orbits when their PAM upper stages did not ignite. Both were later retrieved and brought back to Earth (see STS 51-A). Challenger made the Shuttle's first landing at the Kennedy Space Center in Florida.
Challenger
Crew: Crippen, Scobee, Hart, van Hoften, Nelson
In the space program's first satellite service call, the crew rendezvoused with and retrieved the Solar Maximum Mission (Solar Max) satellite, which had failed after four years in orbit. With the satellite anchored in Challenger's cargo bay, Nelson and van Hoften replaced a faulty attitude control system and one science instrument, and the repaired satellite was re-released into orbit. The Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF), a passive satellite for testing the effects of space exposure on different materials, also was deployed on the flight. Originally LDEF was to have remained in orbit for only ten months, but it was not returned to Earth until STS-32 in January 1990.
Discovery
Crew: Hartsfield, Coats, Mullane, Hawley, Resnik, PS: Charles Walker
The first flight of Discovery was the first Shuttle mission to deploy three communications satellites: Syncom IV-2, SBS-4 and Telstar 3-C. The crew also experimented with a 31.09-meter-high solar cell array, which was unfurled from a stowage container only 177.8 millimeters deep located in the cargo bay. The experiments included testing the structure's stability when the Shuttle's attitude control engines were fired. Walker, a McDonnell Douglas engineer, was the Shuttle's first commercially sponsored payload specialist, on board to tend to the company's Continuous Flow Electrophoresis System for separating materials in microgravity.
41G
Challenger
Crew: Crippen, McBride, Leestma, Ride, Sullivan. PS: Paul Scully-Power, Marc Garneau
The Shuttle's first seven-member crew included two payload specialists. Scully-Power, a Navy oceanographer, was on board to observe ocean dynamics from orbit. Garneau, the first Canadian in space, operated the multidisciplinary CANEX (Canadian Experiment) package. In Challenger's cargo bay was a suite of instruments dedicated to Earth observationthe primary purpose of this mission. During a three-and-a-half hour space-walk, Sullivan and Leestma also tested connections for an orbital refueling system in the bay. Sullivan was the first American woman to walk in space.
Discovery
Crew: Mattingly, Shriver, Onizuka, Buchli. PS: Gary Payton
The crew for the Shuttle's first flight dedicated to the Department of Defense included payload specialist Gary Payton of the U.S. Air Force. The cargo, as well as details of the mission, was classified.
51-D
Discovery
Crew: Bobko, Williams, Hoffman, Griggs, Seddon PS: Charles Walker, Jake Garn
When a booster attached to Syncom IV-3, the second of two communications satellites released into orbit (the other was Anik C- l ), failed to ignite, the crew, with the help of engineers on the ground, attempted a fix. Hoffman and Griggs took an unscheduled space-walk to attach an improvised "flyswatter" device to the Remote Manipulator System arm, in the hope that it could trip the satellite booster's sequence start lever. The plan failed, however, and the satellite was eventually "jump-started" by STS 51-I astronauts four months later. Utah Senator Jake Garn was the first member of Congress to fly in space.
Challenger
Crew: Overmeyer, F. Gregory, Lind, Thagard, W. Thornton PS: Taylor Wand, Lodewijk van den Berg
The Shuttle's second Spacelab mission included 15 experiments in materials processing, fluid behavior, atmospheric physics, astronomy and life sciences. The crew worked around the clock in shifts, and had trouble with a leaky animal-holding facility making its first test flight. Wang, a Jet Propulsion Laboratory scientist, concentrated on studies of fluid behavior in microgravity, while van den Berg of EG&G, Inc. focused on crystal growth experiments. Lind, an astronaut since 1966, made his first space flight.
51-G
Discovery
Crew: Brandenstein, Creighton, Fabian, Nagel. Lucid PS: Patrick Bandry, Sultan Sa/man Abdul Azziz Al Sa'ud
Baudry of France and Al Sa'ud of Saudi Arabia were the international payload specialists for this flight, which successfully launched three communications satellites into orbit: Morelos-1, Arabsat 1-B and Telstar 3-D. SPARTAN-I, a reusable free-flying payload carrier with astronomy instruments on board, also was released, then retrieved, by the Remote Manipulator System arm. The crew conducted materials science and biomedical experiments and participated in a Defense Department tracking experiment in which a laser beam directed from Hawaii was bounced from a reflector on board Discovery back to the ground.
51-F
Challenger
Crew: Fullerton, Bridges, Musgrave, England, Henize. PS: Loren Acton, John-David Bartoe
The Spacelab 2 mission replaced the Spacelab's enclosed "long module" with open pallets containing 13 instruments dedicated to astronomy. Despite problems with an instrument pointing system, the crew was able to collect data on the Sun and other celestial targets. Earlier in the flight, Challenger made the Shuttle program's first "abort to orbit" when one of its three main engines shut down during the ascent. Henize and England had waited a long time for a space flight-both had been astronauts during the Apollo era. England had resigned from NASA in 1972, only to rejoin the astronauts corps in 1979.
51-I
Discovery
Crew: Engle, Corey, van Hoften, W. Fisher, Lounge
The Syncom IV-3 satellite (also known as "Leasat'') stranded in orbit on STS 5I-D was repaired and re-boosted as a result of two space-walks by van Hoften and Fisher that were among the most challenging in the history of the space program. After van Hoften, standing on the end of the Remote Manipulator System arm, grabbed the satellite manually, he and Fisher worked on the satellite in Discovery's cargo bay. The astronauts attached hardware that allowed ground crews to activate Syncom's still-live rocket motor after van Hoften re-released it into orbit with a shove from the cargo bay. Earlier in the flight, the crew had launched three new communications satellites into orbit: ASC-1,
AUSSAT-I and Syncom IV-4 (nearly identical to the one that was rescued).
Atlantis
Crew: Bobko, Grabe, Hilmers, Stewart. PS: William Pailes
The first flight of Atlantis was the second Shuttle mission dedicated to the Department of Defense. The payload and on-board activities were classified.
61A
October 30November 6, 1985
Challenger
Crew: Hartsfield, Nagel, Bachli, Bluford, Dunbar. PS: Reinhard Furrer, Wubbo Ockels, Ernst Messerschmid
The Spacelab D-1 mission was the first U.S. manned space flight with a primary payload sponsored by another country-West Germany. On board were 76 experiments, including investigations in fluid physics, materials science, plant physiology and human adaptation to weightlessness. Science experiments were directed from a German Space Operations Center in Oberpfaffenhofen, and two of the payload specialists-Furrer and Messerschmid-were German. With eight people working around the clock in shifts, it was the largest Shuttle crew to date.
61-B
Atlantis
Crew: Shaw, O'Connor, Spring, Cleave, Ross, PS: Charles Walker, Rodolfo Neri Vela
After the crew deployed three communications satellites (SATCOM Ku-2, Morelos 2 and AUSSAT-2) Spring and Ross conducted the first construction experiments in space, assembling and disassembling two tinkertoy-like structures called EASE and ACCESS in the cargo bay of Atlantis. The two space-walking astronauts attached beams, nodes and struts to evaluate different methods of assembling large structures in space. Vela was the first Mexican citizen in orbit, while Walker made his third flight with the commercially sponsored electrophoresis experiment.
61-C
Columbia
Crew: Gibson, Bolden, Nelson, Hawley, Chang-Diaz. PS: Robert Cenker, Bill Nelson
Rep. Bill Nelson of Florida was the second member of Congress to fly on the Shuttle. The crew deployed an RCA communications satellite and conducted a number of smaller experiments, including several materials science investigations mounted in the cargo bay of the Columbia. An attempt to photograph Comet Halley through an overhead window was unsuccessful, however, due to problems with the instrument's battery.
51L
Challenger
Crew: Scobee, Smith, Onizuka, Resnik, McNair. PS: Gregory Jarvis, Christa McAuliffe
Challenger and all seven members of the crew-including Jarvis, a Hughes employee, and Christa McAuliffe, the designated "Teacher in Space"-were lost 73 seconds into the flight when the vehicle exploded as the result of a leak in one of two Solid Rocket Boosters. The Shuttle program was delayed for nearly three years while the boosters were redesigned and other safety measures were added. A change in U.S. space policy also resulted from the accident-no longer would the Shuttle carry commercial satellites into orbit.
Crew: Gibson, G. Garner, Mullone, Ross, Shepherd
Classified mission for the Department of Defense.
STS29
Discovery
Crew: Coats, Blaha, Buchli, Springer, Bagian
Six hours into the mission, the crew released the fourth NASA Tracking and Data Relay Satellite into orbit. The astronauts conducted experiments in plant growth, crystal growth and the human body's adaptation to weightlessness, and tested a new Shuttle "fax" machine. They also took large-format IMAX movie pictures of the Earth, and returned clear photographs of the jettisoned external fuel tank in space.
STS30
Atlantis
Crew: Walker, Grabe, Thagard, Cleave, Lee
The Shuttle program's first launch of a planetary spacecraft came on the first day of the mission, when the Magellan Venus Radar Mapper was released from the Atlantis' cargo bay with an Inertial Upper Stage booster attached. The booster fired shortly thereafter to send Magellan to Venus, where it arrived in August 1990 to begin an eight-month mapping mission. Secondary experiments after the deployment included crystal growth studies and a search for thunderstorms in the atmosphere below, called the Mesoscale Lightning Experiment.
Crew: F. Gregory, Blaha, Musgrave, K. Thornton, Carter
Classified mission for the Department of Defense.
STS32
Columbia
Crew: Brandenstein, Wetherbee, Dunbar, Low, Ivins
The Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF), released into orbit on STS 41-C in 1984, was finally retrieved after nearly six years in space. After rendezvousing with the large, cylindrical satellite-one of the most complicated space rendezvous operations ever-the crew photographed the LDEF in orbit, grappled it with the Remote Manipulator System arm, then stowed it in the cargo bay of the Columbia. Scientists who examined the LDEF after landing found evidence of erosion and micrometeorite impacts, as expected. A Syncom satellite also was deployed on the mission. Lasting almost 11 days, STS-32 was the longest Shuttle flight to date.
STS36
Crew: Creighton, Casper, Hilmers, Mullane, Thuot
Classified mission for the Department of Defense.
STS-31
Discovery
Crew: Shriver, Bolden, Hawley, McCandless, Sullivan
The Hubble Space Telescope, the first large optical telescope ever to be placed above the Earth's atmosphere and the first of NASA's "Great Observatories," was released into orbit by the Remote Manipulator System arm on the second day of the flight to begin at least a decade of astronomical observations in space. After the telescope was deployed, the astronauts conducted experiments in crystal growth and monitored the radiation environment on board the orbiter. Because of the need to place the telescope above most of the atmosphere, the Discovery flew the highest Shuttle orbit to date, reaching an altitude of more than 531.08 kilometers.
STS-41
Discovery
Crew: Richards, Cabana, Mellnick, Shepherd, Akers
Deployment of the European Space Agency's Ulysses spacecraft to explore the polar regions of the Sun was the highlight of this four-day mission. On the first day of the flight, the crew sprung Ulysses from Discovery's cargo bay, and on-board rockets fired to send the spacecraft toward a gravity assist at Jupiter. After the deploy, the astronauts conducted a number of secondary experiments, including taking measurements of atmospheric ozone, studying the effects of atomic oxygen on spacecraft materials and evaluating a new "hands-off" voice command system in the Shuttle crew cabin.
STS38
Crew: Corey, Culbertson, Springer, Meade, Gemar
Classified mission for the Department of Defense.
STS35
Columbia
Crew: Brand, Gardner, Hoffman, Lounge, Parker. PS: Ronald Parise, Samuel Durrance
STS-35 was the first Spacelab mission since the Challenger accident, and the first Shuttle flight dedicated to a single discipline: astrophysics. Discovery carried a group of astronomical telescopes called ASTRO-1 in its cargo bay, as well as four Ph.D.'s in astronomy: Hoffman, Parker, Durrance of Johns Hopkins University, and Parise of the Computer Science Corporation. Despite several hardware malfunctions, the crew was able to make observations of a wide variety of astronomical targets, from comets to quasars, with particular attention to x-ray and ultraviolet wavelengths.
STS-37
Atlantis
Crew: Nagel. Cameron. Apt, Godwin, Ross
The Gamma Ray Observatory (GRO), was released by Atlantis Remote Manipulator System arm on the third day of the flight, after Ross and Apt made an unscheduled space-walk to repair an antenna on the spacecraft. The second of NASA's "Great Observatories" designed for a long-term program of astronomical observations from Earth orbit, the GRO was the heaviest science satellite ever launched from the Shuttle. Later in the mission, Ross and Apt returned to the cargo bay to rest rail-mounted mechanical pushcarts planned for use on Space Station Freedom. The two space-walks were the first in more than five years.
April 28 - May 6, 1991
Discovery
Crew: Coats, Hammond, Bluford, Harbaugh, Hieb, McMonagle, Veach
The first unclassified defense-related mission of the Shuttle program included experiments sponsored by the Air Force and the Strategic Defense Initiative (SDI) organization. The studies included extensive infrared, ultraviolet, visible and x-ray observations of the space environment and the Shuttle itself. On-board instruments also returned high-quality images of the Earth's aurora. In an experiment related to ballisticmissile defense, Discovery released a SPAS instrument platform equipped with infrared sensors to fly in formation and observe rocket thruster plumes as the Shuttle performed a complicated series of maneuvers.
Crew: O'Connor. Gutierrez. Bagian.
Jernigan. Seldon PS: F. Drew Gaffney, Millie Hughes-Fulford
The Spacelab Life Sciences (SLS-1) mission was the first dedicated entirely to understanding the physiological effects of space flight. An extensive series of biomedical experiments were conducted on crew members during the nine-day mission, and the results were compared with baseline data collected on the ground before and after the flight. Along with the human subjects, rodents and jellyfish also were on board to test their adaptation to microgravity.
STS-43
Atlantis
Crew: Blaha, Baker, Adamson, Low, Lucid
This mission marked the first scheduled landing at Kennedy Space Center's Shuttle Landing Facility since January 1986. The Tracking/Data Relay Satellite-5 was the mission's primary payload. The satellite became the fourth member of the orbiting TDRS cluster, which now consisted of two operating satellites plus two spares in the space network.
Photo 91-H-707
The Tracking and Data Relay Satellite is loosened from its restraint device and begins to leave the payload bay of the Atlantis.
STS-48
Discovery
Crew: Creighton, Reightler, Brown, Gemar, Buchli
The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite (UARS) was deployed on this mission. The 6,577.2-kilogram observatory would investigate the stratosphere, mesosphere, and lower thermosphere. The satellite had 10 sensing and measuring devices for collecting data on particular aspects of the upper atmosphere that could affect the global environment.
Photo 91-H-767
The Upper Atmosphere Research Satellite in the grasp of the Remote Manipulator System arm. The photo shows deployment of UARS' solar array panel.
STS-44
Atlantis
Crew: Gregory, Henricks, Runco, Voss, Musgrave, PS: T. Hennen
This unclassified Department of Defense mission deployed the Defense Support Program satellite on the first day of the flight. On-board payloads focused on contamination experiments and medical research.
Photo 91-H-901
A 70mm frame showing a pre-deployment view of the Defense Support Payload.
STS-42
Discovery
Crew: Grabe, Oswald, Readdy, Thagard, Hilmers, PS: Roberta Bondar, Ulf Merbold
This mission's primary payload was the International Microgravity Laboratory IML-1, which made its first flight. Working in the pressurized Spacelab module, the international crew split into two teams for 24-hour research on the human nervous system's adaptation to low gravity and the effects of microgravity on other life forms. The crew also conducted materials processing experiments.
Canadian payload specialist Roberta L. Bondar gets into the Microgravity Vestibular Investigation chair to begin an experiment in the International Microgravity Laboratory-1 science module aboard the Discovery.
STS-45
Atlantis
Crew: Bolden, Duffy, Sullivan, Leestma, Foale, PS: D. Frimout, B. Lichtenberg
This mission marked the first flight of the Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science-1 (ATLAS), which was mounted on nondeployable Spacelab pallets in the orbiter's cargo bay. An international team made up of the United States, France, Germany, Belgium, the United Kingdom, Switzerland, The Netherlands, and Japan provided 12 instruments that performed investigations in the atmospheric sciences.
Photo 92-H-260
The forward portion of the Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science (ATLAS-1) payload package.
STS-49
Endeavour
Crew: Brandenstein, Chilton, Melnick, Akers, Hieb, Thornton, Thuot
STS-49 was marked by a number of "firsts." Four space walks, the most ever on a single mission, highlighted the first voyage of the orbiter Endeavour. Two of these were the longest in U.S. space flight history to date, lasting eight hours and 29 minutes and seven hours and 45 minutes. The flight also featured the longest space walk to date by a female astronaut and was the first space flight where three crew members worked outside the spacecraft at the same time. It also was the first time that astronauts attached a live rocket motor to an orbiting satellite. The crew also successfully captured and redeployed the Intelsat-VI satellite, which had been stranded in an unusable orbit since its launch in March 1990.
Photo 92-H-355
The successful capture of the Intelsat VI satellite. Astronauts Richard J. Hieb, Thomas D. Akers, and Pierre J. Thuot have handholds on the satellite.
STS-50
Columbia
Crew: Richards, Bowersox, Dunbar, Meade, Baker, PS: L. DeLucas, E. Trinh
The U.S. Microgravity Laboratory-1 made its first flight on this mission. It was the first in a planned series of flights to advance microgravity research efforts in several disciplines. Mission duration surpassed all previous U.S. crewed space flights to date with the exception of the three Skylab missions in 1973-74.
Photo 92-H-549
Astronaut Bonnie J. Dunbar, payload commander is about to load a sample in the Crystal Growth furnace while payload specialist Lawrence J. DeLucas checks out the multi-purpose glovebox.
STS-46
Atlantis
Crew: Shriver, Allen, Hoffman, Chang-Diaz, Ivins, Nicollier, PS: Franco Malerba
The primary mission objective was deployment of the European Space Agency's European Retrievable Carrier (EURECA) and operation of the NASA-Italian Tethered Satellite System (TSS). After a delay and a shorter-than-planned thruster firing, the satellite was successfully boosted to operational orbit. During TSS deployment, the satellite at the end of the tether reached a distance of only 256 meters rather than its planned 20 kilometers because of a jammed tether line. The satellite it carried was restowed for return to Earth.
STS-47
Endeavour
Crew: Gibson, Brown, Lee, Davis, Apt, Jemison, PS: Mamoru Mohri
Spacelab-J, the first Japanese Spacelab, debuted on this flight. Jointly sponsored by NASA and the National Space Development Agency (NASDA) of Japan, the mission included 24 materials science and 19 life sciences experiments. Test subjects included members of the crew, Japanese koi fish, cultured animal and plant cells, chicken embryos, fruit flies, fungi and plant seeds, and frogs and frog eggs. The crew also included the first African-American woman to fly in space, Mae Jemison the first married couple (Mark Lee and Jan Davis), and the first Japanese person to fly on the Shuttle, Mamoru Mohri.
STS-52
Columbia
Crew: Wetherbee, Baker, Veach, Jernigan, Shepherd, PS: Steven MacLean
The mission deployed the Laser Geodynamic Satellite II (LAGEOS), a joint effort of NASA and the Italian Space Agency, and operated the U.S. Microgravity Payload-1 (USMP-1). LAGEOS was boosted into orbit by the Italian Research Interim Stage (IRIS), its first use. Studies focused on the influence of gravity on basic fluid and solidification processes.
STS-53
Discovery
Crew: Walker, Cabana, Bluford, Voss, Clifford
This was the last Shuttle flight for the Department of Defense. The Discovery deployed a classified payload, after which flight activities became unclassified. Ten secondary payloads were contained in or attached to Get Away Special hardware in the cargo bay or located on the middeck.
STS-54
Endeavour
Crew: Casper, McMonagle, Runco, Harbaugh, Helms
The fifth Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS-6), part of NASA's orbiting communications system, was deployed on this mission. On the fifth day of the flight, mission specialists Runco and Harbaugh spent almost five hours walking in the open payload bay, performing a series of extravehicular activity (EVA) tasks designed to increase NASA's knowledge of working in space. The astronauts tested their abilities to move freely in the cargo bay, climb into foot restraints without using their hands, and simulated carrying large objects in a microgravity environment. A Hitchhiker experiment collected data on stars and galactic gases.
STS-56
Discovery
Crew: Cameron, Oswald, Cockrell, Foale, Ochoa
The primary payload was the Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science-2 (ATLAS-2), which collected data on the relationship between the sun's energy output and the Earth's middle atmosphere and their affect on the ozone layer. ATLAS-2 was one element of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth program. The crew also used the remote manipulator arm to deploy the SPARTAN-201, a free-flying science instrument platform that studied velocity and acceleration of solar wind and observed the sun's corona. Using the Shuttle Amateur Radio Experiment II (SAREX II), the crew also contacted schools around the world and briefly contacted the Russian Mir space station, the first contact between the Shuttle and Mir using amateur radio equipment.
STS-55
Columbia
Crew: Nagel, Henricks, Ross, Precourt, Harris, PS: Ulrich Walter, Hans W. Schlegel
This mission marked the second German Spacelab mission, designated D2. Around-the-clock crews conducted some 88 experiments, covering materials and life sciences, technology applications, Earth observations, astronomy, and atmospheric physics.
STS-57
Endeavour
Crew: Grabe, Duffy, Low, Sherlock, Voss, Wisoff
STS-57 marked the first flight of the commercially developed SPACEHAB, a laboratory designed to more than double pressurized workspace for crew-tended experiments. Altogether, 22 experiments were flown, covering materials and life sciences, and a wastewater recycling experiment for the future Space Station. A five-hour, 50-minute space walk succeeded in retrieving and stowing the 4,275-kilogram EURECA science satellite inside the Endeavour's payload bay. The satellite had been deployed on the STS-46 mission in 1992. Two crew members also carried out maneuvers using the robot arm. During the mission, the crew also spoke with President Clinton.
STS-51
Discovery
Crew: Culbertson Readdy, Newman, Bursch, Walz
The Advanced Communications Technology Satellite (ACTS) was deployed on this mission. The attached Transfer Orbit Stage (TOS) booster was used for the first time to propel the communications technology spacecraft to geosynchronous transfer orbit. The second primary payload, the OERFEUS-SPAS, first in a series of ASTRO-SPAS astronomical missions, was also deployed. The joint German-U.S. astrophysics payload was controlled from the SPAS Payload Operations Control Center at Kennedy Space Center, the first time a Shuttle payload was managed from Florida. Two crew members also performed a space walk that lasted seven hours, five minutes, and 28 seconds. It was the last in a series of generic space walks begun earlier in the year.
STS-58
Columbia
Crew: Blaha, Searfoss, Seddon, McArthur, Wolf, Lucid, PS: Martin Fettman
STS-58 was the second dedicated Spacelab Life Sciences mission. Fourteen experiments were conducted in regulatory physiology, cardiovascular/cardiopulmonary, musculoskeletal, and neuroscience. Eight of the experiments centered on the crew, six on 48 rodents carried on board. With the completion of her fourth space flight, Shannon Lucid accumulated the most flight time for a female astronaut on the Shuttle, 838 hours.
STS-61
Endeavour
Crew: Covey, Bowersox, Musgrave, Hoffman, Thornton, Akers, Nicollier
This Shuttle flight was one of the most challenging and complex missions every attempted. During a record five back-to-back space walks totaling 35 hours and 28 minutes, two teams of astronauts completed the first servicing of the Hubble Space Telescope. On the first space walk, which lasted seven hours and 54 minutes, the two-person team replaced two Rate Sensing Units, two Electronic Control Units, and eight electrical fuse plugs. On the second space walk, which lasted six hours and 35 minutes, two astronauts installed new solar arrays. On the third space walk, the Wide Field/Planetary Camera was replaced in about 40 minutes rather than in the four hours that had been anticipated. This team also installed two new magnetometers at the top of the telescope. On the fourth space walk, crew members removed and replaced the High-Speed Photometer with the Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement unit. During this six-hour, 50-minute EVA, astronaut Akers set a new U.S. space-walking record of 29 hours, 14 minutes. The final space walk replaced the Solar Array Drive Electronics unit and installed the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph Redundancy kit and also two protective covers over the original magnetometers.
STS-60
Discovery
Crew: Bolden, Reightler, Chang-Diaz, Davis, Sega, Krikalev
This first Shuttle flight of 1994 marked the first flight of a Russian cosmonaut on the U.S. Space Shuttlepart of an international agreement on human space flight. The mission also was the second flight of the SPACEHAB pressurized module and marked the 100th Get Away Special payload to fly in space. Also on this mission, the Discovery carried the Wake Shield Facility to generate new semiconductor films for advanced electronics.
STS-62
Columbia
Crew: Casper, Allen, Gemar, Ivins, Thuot
The primary payloads were the U.S. Microgravity Payload-2 (USMP-2) and the Office of Aeronautics and Space Technology-2 (OAST-2). USMP-2 included five experiments investigating materials processing and crystal growth in microgravity. OAST-2's six experiments focused on space technology and space flight. Both payloads were located in the payload bay, activated by crew members, and operated by teams on the ground.
STS-59
Endeavour
Crew: Gutierrez, Chilton, Godwin, Apt, Clifford, Jones
The Space Radar Laboratory-1 was the primary payload. It gathered data on the Earth and the effect of humans on its carbon, water, and energy cycles. It was located in the payload bay, activated by crew members, and operated by teams on the ground. The German Space Agency and the Italian Space Agency provided one instrument, the X-band Synthetic Aperture Radar (X-SAR). This instrument imaged more than 400 sites and covered approximately 38.5 million miles of the Earth, equivalent to 20 percent of the planet.
STS-65
July 8-23, 1994
Crew: Cabana, Halsell, Hieb, Thomas, Walz, Chiao, PS: Chiaki Naito-Mukai
STS-65 was the Columbia's last mission before its scheduled modification and refurbishment. This flight saw the first Japanese woman fly in space-payload specialist Chiaki Naito-Mukai. She also set the record for the longest flight to date by a female astronaut. The International Microgravity Laboratory-2 flew for the second time, carrying more than twice the number of experiments and facilities as on its first mission. Crew members split into two teams to perform around-the-clock research on the behavior of materials and life in near weightlessness. More than 80 experiments, representing more than 200 scientists from six space agencies, were located in the Spacelab module in the payload bay. This flight also marked the first time that liftoff and reentry were captured on videotape from the crew cabin. This flight was the longest Shuttle flight to date, lasting 14 days and 18 hours.
STS-64
Discovery
Crew: Richards, Hammond, Helms, Meade, Lee, Linenger
STS-64 marked the first flight of the Lidar In-Space Technology Experiment (LITE), which was used to perform atmospheric research. It also included the first untethered U.S. extravehicular activity (EVA) in 10 years. LITE involved the first use of lasers for environmental research. During the mission, the crew also released and retrieved the SPARTAN-201 using the remote manipulator system arm.
STS-68
Endeavour
Crew: Baker, Wilcutt, Jones, Bursch, Wisoff, Smith
This mission marked the second 1994 flight of the Space Radar Laboratory, part of NASA's Mission to Planet Earth. Flying the SRL in different seasons allowed investigators to compare observations between the two flights. The mission also tested the ability of SRL-2 imaging radar to distinguish between changes caused by human-induced phenomena such as oil spills and naturally occurring events. Five Get Away Specials were among the other cargo bay payloads. These included two by the U.S. Postal Service that held 500,000 commemorative stamps honoring the 25th anniversary of Apollo 11. STS-68 set another duration record, lasting more than 16-1/2 days.
STS-66
Atlantis
Crew: McMonagle, Brown, Ochoa, Tanner, Parazynski, Clervoy
STS-66 advanced data collection about the sun's energy output, chemical makeup of the Earth's middle atmosphere, and how these factors affect global ozone levels with the third flight of its Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science (ASTRO-3). The other primary payloads were CRISTA-SPAS, which continued the joint NASA-German Space Agency series of scientific missions, and the Shuttle Solar Backscatter Ultraviolet spectrometer. CRISTA-SPAS was released and retrieved using the remote manipulator system arm.
STS-63
Discovery
Crew: Wetherbee, Collins, Harris, Foale, Voss, Titov
This mission had special importance as a precursor and dress rehearsal for the series of missions that would rendezvous and dock with the Russian space station Mir. The orbiter Discovery approached within 12.2 meters of the Mir, then backed off to about 121.9 meters and performed a flyaround. The six-person crew included the second Russian cosmonaut to fly on the Space Shuttle. The mission also deployed the SPARTAN-204, a free-flying spacecraft that made astronomical observations in the far ultraviolet spectrum. The mission also included the third operation of the commercially developed SPACEHAB module, with its array of technological, biological, and other scientific experiments. Two crew members performed a space walk to test spacesuit modifications and demonstrate large-object handling techniques.
STS-67
Endeavour
Crew: Oswald, Gregory, Grunsfeld, Lawrence, Jernigan, PS: Ronald Parise, Samuel Durrance
The second Atmospheric Laboratory for Applications and Science (ASTRO-2) flew on this mission. Its objectives were to obtain scientific data on astronomical objects in the ultraviolet region of the spectrum. Its three telescopes made observations in complementary regions of the spectrum and gathered data that would add to scientists' understanding of the universe's history and the origins of stars. STS-67 set a new mission duration record of 16.6 days.
STS-71
Atlantis
Crew: Gibson, Precourt, Baker, Harbaugh, Dunbar
This flight marked the 100th U.S. human space flight and was the first of a series of flights that docked with the Russian space station Mir. On STS-71, the Atlantis and Mir remained docked for five days. The seven-person Shuttle crew included two Russian cosmonauts who remained on the Mir after the Atlantis returned to Earth. Two other cosmonauts and the U.S. astronaut Thagard, who had flown to Mir aboard the Russian Soyuz spacecraft in March 1995, returned to Earth in the Atlantis. The mission demonstrated the successful operation of the Russian-designed docking system, which was based on the concepts used in the Apollo-Soyuz test program flown in 1975.
STS-70
Discovery
Crew: Henricks, Kregel, Currie, Thomas, Weber
The deployment of the Tracking and Data Relay Satellite (TDRS-7) marked the completion of NASA's TDRS system that provided communication, tracking, telemetry, data acquisition, and command services to the Shuttle and other low orbital spacecraft missions. STS-70 also marked the first flight of the new Block I Space Shuttle main engine. The engine featured improvements that increased the stability and safety of the main engines.
STS-69
Endeavour
Crew: Walker, Cockrell, Voss, Newman, Gernhardt
STS-69 deployed the Wake Shield Facility, which, flying separately from the Shuttle, produced an "ultra vacuum" in its wake and allowed experimentation in the production of advanced, thin film semiconductor materials. The SPARTAN spacecraft also was deployed and retrieved. The space walk on this mission was the 30th Shuttle extravehicular activity.
STS-73
Columbia
Crew: Bowersox, Rominger, Thornton, Coleman, Lopez-Alegria, PS: Fred Leslie, Albert Sacco
The second United States Microgravity Laboratory was the primary payload on STS-73. Some of the experiments on USML-2 resulted from the outcome of investigations on the first USML mission that flew aboard the Columbia on STS-50.
STS-74
Atlantis
Crew: Cameron, Halsell, Hadfield, Ross, McArthur
STS-74 was the second in a series of Mir linkups. The mission marked the first time that astronauts from the European Space Agency, Canada, Russia, and the United States were in space on the same complex at one time.
STS-72
Endeavour
Crew: Duffy, Jett, Chiao, Barry, Scott, Wakata
The crew of STS-72 captured and returned to Earth a Japanese microgravity research spacecraft, the Space Flyer Unit, which had been launched by Japan in March 1995. The mission also deployed and retrieved the OAST-Flyer spacecraft, the seventh in a series of missions aboard reusable free-flying SPARTAN carriers. The flight also included two space walks by three astronauts to test hardware and tools that will be used in the assembly of the Space Station.
STS-75
Columbia
Crew: Allen, Horowitz, Hoffman, Cheli, Nicollier, Chang-Diaz, PS: Umberto Guidoni
This mission was the 50th Shuttle flight since NASA's return to flight following the Challenger accident and the 75th Shuttle flight. Its mission was a reflight of the Tethered Satellite System (TSS). The tether broke three days into the mission.
Atlantis
Crew: Chilton, Searfoss, Godwin, Sega, Clifford, Lucid
This mission featured the third docking between the Space Shuttle Atlantis and the Russian Space Station Mir. It included a space walk, logistics operations, and scientific research. More than 862 kilograms of equipment were transferred from the Atlantis to the Mir, including a gyrodyne, transformer, batteries, food, water, film, and clothing. Astronaut Shannon Lucid, the second U.S. astronaut and the first U.S. woman, began what would turn out to be a marathon stay on the Mir.
STS-77
Endeavour
Crew: Casper, Brown, Bursch, Runco, Garneau, Thomas
During this flight, the six-person Endeavour crew performed microgravity research aboard the commercially owned and operated SPACEHAB module. The crew also deployed and retrieved the Sparton-207/IAE (Inflatable Antenna Experiment) satellite. A suite of four technology experiments called the Technology Experiments for Advancing Mission in Space (TEAMS) also flew in the Shuttle's payload bay.
STS-78
Columbia
Crew: Henricks, Kregel, Helms, Linnehan, Brady, PS: J. Favier, R. Thirsk
The Life and Microgravity Spacelab (LMS) mission, building on previous Shuttle Spacelab flights dedicated to life sciences and microgravity investigations, studied the effects of long-duration space flight on human physiology and conducted the type of experiments that would fly on the Space Station. The length of this flight surpassed the longest Shuttle flight to date, lasting almost 17 days.
STS-79
Atlantis
Crew: Readdy, Wilcutt, Akers, Apt, Walz, Blaha, Lucid
On this mission, astronaut Shannon Lucid set the world's women's and U.S. record for length of time in space: 188 days and five hours. The mission was the fourth Shuttle docking with the Mir space station. Astronaut Lucid returned to Earth on the Atlantis and astronaut Blaha replaced her on the Mir.
STS-80
November 19-December 7, 1996
Crew: Cockrell, Rominger, Jernigan, Jones, Musgrave
STS-80 marked the third flight of the Wake Shield Facility that flew on STS-60 and STS-69 and the third flight of the German-built ORFEUS-SPAS II. Both the Wake Shield Facility and the ORFEUS-SPAS were deployed and retrieved during the mission, making it the first time that two satellites were flying freely at the same time. The record for the longest Shuttle flight was broken again, with this flight lasting slightly more than 17-1/2 days.
STS-81
Atlantis
Crew: Baker, Jett, Wisoff, Grunsfeld, Ivins, Linenger, Blaha
This mission was the fifth of nine planned missions to Mir and the second involving an exchange of U.S. astronauts. Astronaut Linenger replaced astronaut Blaha aboard the Mir after spending 128 days in space. The Atlantis carried the SPACEHAB double module, which provided additional middeck locker space for secondary experiments.
STS-82
Discovery
Crew: Bowersox, Horowitz, Tanner, Hawley, Harbaugh, Lee, Smith
STS-82 was the second in a series of planned servicing missions to the Hubble Space Telescope (HST). The orbiter's robot arm captured the HST so it could be serviced. In five space walks, the crew replaced the Goddard High Resolution Spectrometer and the Faint Object Spectrograph with the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph and the Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer. Crew members also replaced other hardware with upgrades and spares. HST received a refurbished Fine Guidance Sensor and a refurbished spare Reaction Wheel Assembly (RWA) to replace one of four RWAs. A Solid State Recorder replaced one reel-to-reel tape recorder. The crew members also replaced the HST's insulation, which had deteriorated due to rapid heating and cooling as the telescope moved into and out of sunlight and also due to constant exposure to the molecular oxygen encountered in the upper reaches of the atmosphere.
STS-83
Columbia
Crew: Halsell, Still, Voss, Gernhardt, Thomas, PS: Roger Crouch, Greg Linteris
This mission lasted only four days and returned to Earth 12 days early due to a problem with one of the fuel cells that provided electricity and water to the orbiter. The Microgravity Science Laboratory-1 was rescheduled for a later mission.
Atlantis
Crew: Precourt, Collins, Clervoy, Noriega, Lu, Kondakova, Foale, Linenger
This was the sixth docking with the Mir space station and the third involving an exchange of U.S. astronauts. Astronaut Foale replaced astronaut Linenger, who had been in space for 132 days. The mission resupplied materials for experiments to be performed aboard the Mir and also returned experiment samples and data to Earth.
STS-94
Columbia
Crew: Halsell, Still, Voss, Gernhardt, Thomas, Crouch, Linteris
The reflight of the Microgravity Science Laboratory (MSL-1), which had flown on STS-83, took place on this mission. (STS-83 was cut short due to fuel cell problems.) The mission involved the same vehicle, crew, and experiment activities as planned on the earlier mission. MSL-1 focused on the phenomena associated with the routine influence of gravity, including the behavior of materials and liquids in a microgravity environment. The laboratory was a collection of 19 microgravity experiments housed inside a European Spacelab Long Module.
Discovery
Crew: Brown, Rominger, Davis, Curbeam, Robinson, PS: Bjarni Tryggvason
The primary payload for STS-85 was the second flight of the CRISTA-SPAS-2. It was the fourth in a series of cooperative ventures between the German Space Agency and NASA. CRISTA-SPAS-2 was deployed and retrieved using the Discovery's robot arm. Two other instruments on board also studied the Earth's atmosphere: the Middle Atmosphere High Resolution Spectrograph Instrument (MAHRSI) measured hydroxyl and nitric oxide, while the Surface Effects Sample Monitor (SESAM) carried state-of-the-art optical surfaces to study the impact of the atomic oxygen and the space environment on materials and services. The Technology Applications and Science (TAS-1), the Manipulator Flight Demonstration, supplied by Japan, and the international Extreme Ultraviolet Hitchhiker were other mission payloads.
September 25-October 6, 1997
Atlantis
Crew: Wetherbee, Bloomfield, Parazynski, Titov, Chretien, Lawrence, Wolf, Foale
This was the seventh docking between the Atlantis and the Russian Mir space station and the fourth exchange of U.S. astronauts. The mission included a flyaround of the Mir to determine the location of the puncture on the hull of the Spektr module. The Mir crew pumped air into the Spektr module, and the Shuttle crew observed that the leak seemed to be located at the base of damaged solar panel. U.S. astronaut Foale returned aboard the Atlantis after a stay of 134 days on the Mir. His was the second longest single space flight in U.S. space flight history behind Shannon Lucid's 188-day flight in 1996. The Atlantis also carried the SPACEHAB double module to support the transfer of logistics and supplies for the Mir and the return of experiment hardware and specimens to Earth.
Columbia
Crew: Kregel, Lindsey, Chawla, Scott, Doi, PS: Leonid Kadenyuk
Experiments that studied how the weightless environment of space affected various physical processes and two space walks highlighted STS-87. During this mission, payload specialist Kadenyuk became the first Ukranian to fly aboard the Space Shuttle. The mission was marked by an unexpected event when the attitude control system aboard the free-flying SPARTAN solar research satellite malfunctioned, causing the satellite to rotate outside the Shuttle. Crew members successfully recaptured the satellite and lowered it onto its berth in the payload bay. The capture took place during a space walk that lasted seven hours and 43 minutes. A second space walk that lasted seven hours and 33 minutes tested a crane that will be used in constructing the Space Station and a free-flying camera that will be able to monitor conditions outside the Space Station without requiring space walks.
Endeavour
Crew: Wilcutt, Edwards, Reilly, Anderson, Dunbar, Sharipov, Thomas, Wolf
STS-89 featured the eighth Mir-Shuttle linkup and the fifth crew exchange. Astronaut Wolf, who had been on the Mir since September 1997, was replaced by astronaut Thomas.
Monographs in Aerospace History
Launius, Roger D., and Gillette, Aaron K. Compilers. The Space Shuttle: An Annotated Bibliography. (Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 1, 1992).
Launius, Roger D., and Hunley, J.D. Compilers. An Annotated Bibliography of the Apollo Program. (Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 2, 1994).
Launius, Roger D. Apollo: A Retrospective Analysis. (Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 3, 1994).
Hansen, James R. Enchanted Rendezvous: John C. Houbolt and the Genesis of the Lunar-Orbit Rendezvous Concept. (Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 4, 1995).
Gorn, Michael H. Hugh L. Dryden's Career in Aviation and Space. (Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 5, 1996).
Powers, Sheryll Goecke. Women in Aeronautical Engineering at the Dryden Flight Research Center, 19461994 (Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 6, 1997).
Portree, David S.F. and Trevino, Robert C. Compilers. Walking to Olympus: A Chronology of Extravehicular Activity (EVA). (Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 7, 1997).
Logsdon, John M. Moderator. The Legislative Origins of the National Aeronautics and Space Act of 1958: Proceedings of an Oral History Workshop (Monographs in Aerospace History, No. 8, 1998).
Updated February 8, 2005
| Endeavour |
When Roy Jenkins became a Lord, where did he become Lord Jenkins of? | HubbleSite - Team Hubble - Servicing Missions
Servicing Missions
Shuttle flights enable on-orbit repairs and instrument upgrades.
Making Hubble Even Better
The Hubble Space Telescope is both a national asset and a complex machine, so NASA astronauts have visited it regularly to keep it running smoothly and extend its life. On-orbit servicing ensures that this unique scientific resource continues to make exciting discoveries as we explore the universe.
Shuttle astronauts have visited the Hubble Space Telescope every several years. During these service calls they replaced gyroscopes, electronic boxes, and other limited-life items and installed state-of-the-art science instruments — creating, essentially, a more capable observatory.
Because the Hubble Space Telescope was designed for periodic servicing, the items being replaced are easily accessible. Ranging in size from a shoebox to a telephone booth, most of these items can be removed or installed using special wrenches and power tools.
Servicing missions have ensured Hubble's health and productivity into the 21st century.
Servicing Mission 4
Mission Video Coverage
Find out what goes into reviving the telescope after a mission, read Q&A's with two of the people behind the scenes, and learn how Hubble�s first new images are chosen.
Servicing Mission 4 (SM4), launched on May 11, 2009, was the culmination of a long effort to provide the telescope with one more servicing mission.
Originally scheduled for 2004, SM4 was postponed and then cancelled after the loss of the Space Shuttle Columbia. Following the successful recovery of the shuttle program and a re-examination of SM4 risks, NASA approved another mission. SM4, also known as STS-125, was perhaps Hubble's most challenging and intense servicing mission, with a multitude of tasks to be completed over the course of five spacewalks.
Wide Field Camera 3 (center white panel) is nestled into the Hubble Space Telescope during Servicing Mission 4. Enlarge image
New Instruments
Astronauts, carried to Hubble by the Space Shuttle Atlantis, installed two new instruments on Hubble during Servicing Mission 4: Wide Field Camera 3 (WFC3) and the Cosmic Origins Spectrograph (COS).
WFC3 sees three different kinds of light: near-ultraviolet, visible and near-infrared, though not simultaneously. The camera's resolution and field of view is much greater than that of previous instruments. Astronauts removed Hubble's Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) to make room for WFC3.
COS, a spectrograph that breaks light into its component colors, revealing information about the object emitting the light, sees exclusively in ultraviolet light. COS improves Hubble's ultraviolet sensitivity at least 10 times, and up to 70 times when observing extremely faint objects.
COS took the place of the device installed in Hubble during the first servicing mission to correct Hubble's flawed mirror, the Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement (COSTAR). Since the first servicing mission, all of Hubble's replacement instruments have had technology built into them to correct Hubble's marred vision, making COSTAR no longer necessary.
An Urgent Replacement
In late September 2008, only two weeks before the mission was to launch, a malfunction occurred in one of the systems that commands the science instruments and directs the flow of data within the telescope. The problem was fixed by switching to a backup system, but NASA was unwilling to leave the telescope without a spare. The mission was delayed until May while engineers and scientists tested and prepared an existing and nearly identical system. Astronauts were able to install the spare Science Instrument Command and Data Handling unit in addition to all previously scheduled tasks.
Meeting a Challenge
During Servicing Mission 4, astronauts accomplished a feat never envisioned by the telescope creators - on-site repairs for two instruments: the Advanced Camera for Surveys (ACS) and the Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS). Both had stopped working; ACS after an electrical short in 2007, and STIS after a power failure in 2004. To perform the repairs, astronauts had to access the interior of the instruments, switch out components, and reroute power. The successful completion of this task, along with the addition of the two new instruments, gave Hubble a full complement of five functioning instruments for its future observations.
Preparing for the Future
Since SM4 is expected to be the last astronaut mission to Hubble, one of the goals was to reinforce and reinvigorate the telescope's basic spaceflight systems. Astronauts replaced all of Hubble's batteries, which were 18 years old, with new, improved ones. Astronauts installed six new gyroscopes , which are used to point the telescope, and a Fine Guidance Sensor , which locks onto stars as part of the pointing system . They covered key Hubble equipment bays with insulating panels called New Outer Blanket Layers, to replace protective blankets that had broken down over the course of their long exposure to the harsh conditions of space. And they installed a new device, the Soft Capture Mechanism. This simple device will allow a robotic spacecraft to attach itself to Hubble someday, once the telescope is at the end of its life, and guide it through its descent into Earth's atmosphere.
President Obama Calls the Crew
Listen in on the conversation.
SM3B Website The Hubble Project: SM3B (external link)
Better Than Ever
On March 1, 2002, NASA launched the space shuttle Columbia into an orbit 360 miles above Earth, where its seven-member crew met with the Hubble Space Telescope to perform a series of upgrades. Servicing Mission 3B, also known as STS-109, was the fourth visit to Hubble. NASA split the original Servicing Mission 3 into two parts and conducted the first part — Servicing Mission 3A — in December 1999.
A Bigger, Sharper View
The highly trained astronauts performed five spacewalks. Their principal task was to install a new science instrument called the Advanced Camera for Surveys , or ACS. The first new instrument to be installed in Hubble since 1997, ACS brought the nearly 12-year-old telescope into the 21st century. With its wide field of view, sharp image quality, and enhanced sensitivity, ACS doubled Hubble's field of view and collects data ten times faster than the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 , the telescope's earlier surveying instrument.
A More Efficient Power System
Hubble gets its power from four large flexible Solar Array Panels . The 8-year-old panels were replaced with smaller, rigid ones that produce 30 percent more power. Astronauts also replaced the outdated Power Control Unit, which distributes electricity from the solar arrays and batteries to other parts of the telescope. Replacing the original unit, which has been on the job for nearly 12 years, required the telescope to be completely powered down for the first time since its launch in 1990.
Restoring Hubble's Infrared Vision
During the last spacewalk, astronauts installed a new cooling system for the Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer , or NICMOS, which became inactive in 1999 when it depleted the 230-pound block of nitrogen ice that had cooled it since 1997. The new refrigeration system, which works much like a household refrigerator, chills NICMOS's infrared detectors to below —315º F (—193º C).
New Steering Equipment
Astronauts replaced one of the four Reaction Wheel Assemblies that make up Hubble's Pointing Control System . Flight software commands the reaction wheels to "steer" the telescope by spinning in one direction, which causes Hubble to spin in the other direction.
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Servicing Mission 3A
SM3A Website Hubble Space Telescope: SM3A (external link)
Long Distance House Call
On December 19, 1999, seven astronauts boarded the space shuttle Discovery to pay the Hubble Space Telescope a special holiday visit. After a successful launch and several trips around Earth, the crew caught up with Hubble and hauled it into the shuttle's cargo bay. Six days and three 6-hour spacewalks later, the crew had successfully completed Part A of the two-part Third Servicing Mission, which had them replacing worn or outdated equipment and performing several critical maintenance upgrades.
Servicing Mission 3A (STS-103) was a busy one. The most pressing task was the replacement of gyroscopes , which accurately point the telescope at celestial targets. The crew, two of whom were Hubble repair veterans, replaced all six gyroscopes — as well as one of Hubble's three Fine Guidance Sensors (which allow fine pointing and keep Hubble stable during observations) and a transmitter.
The astronauts also installed an advanced central computer , a digital data recorder, an electronics enhancement kit, battery improvement kits, and new outer layers of thermal protection. Hubble was as good as new.
The Discovery crew deployed Hubble back into orbit on Christmas Day and returned to Earth, landing safely on December 27. Once the mission ended, scientists "turned on" the telescope's science instruments, which were taken offline during the servicing mission, and took "test" pictures to make sure the instruments were functioning properly.
Why the Rush?
NASA decided to split the Third Servicing Mission (SM3) into two parts, SM3A and SM3B, after the third of Hubble's six gyroscopes failed (Hubble needs three gyroscopes to observe a target). The second part of the mission, SM3B, took place March 1-12, 2002.
On November 13, 1999, the Hubble Space Telescope was placed into "safe mode" after the failure of a fourth gyroscope. In safe mode Hubble could not observe targets, but its safety was preserved. This protective mode allows ground control of the telescope, but with only two gyros working, Hubble cannot be aimed with the precision necessary for scientific observations of the sky. Controllers closed the aperture door to protect the optics and aligned the spacecraft to ensure that Hubble's solar panels would receive adequate power from the sun.
SM2 Photos Human Space Flight Gallery (external link)
Expanding Hubble's Universe
There is no question that Hubble's "first generation" cameras gave us remarkable views of very distant galaxies. However the light from the most distant galaxies is shifted to infrared wavelengths by the expanding universe. To see these galaxies, Hubble needed to be fitted with an instrument that could observe infrared light.
During the 10-day Second Servicing Mission (STS-82) in February 1997, the seven astronauts aboard the space shuttle Discovery installed two technologically advanced instruments. The Near Infrared Camera and Multi-Object Spectrometer (NICMOS) would be able to observe the universe in the infrared wavelengths. The second instrument — the versatile Space Telescope Imaging Spectrograph (STIS) — would be used to take detailed pictures of celestial objects and to hunt for black holes.
Both instruments had optics that corrected for the flawed primary mirror. In addition, they featured technology that wasn't available when scientists designed and built the original Hubble instruments in the late 1970s — and opened up a broader viewing window for Hubble.
The new instruments replaced the Goddard High Resolution Spectrograph and the Faint Object Spectrograph.
Also installed during the Second Servicing Mission were:
A refurbished Fine Guidance Sensor — one of three essential instruments used to provide pointing information for the spacecraft, to keep it pointing on target, and to calculate celestial distances
A Solid State Recorder (SSR) to replace one of Hubble's data recorders (An SSR is more flexible and can store 10 times more data)
A refurbished, spare Reaction Wheel Assembly — part of the Pointing Control Subsystem.
SM1 Photos Browse Shuttle photos: STS-061 (external link)
Restoring Hubble's Vision
As the first in a series of planned visits to the orbiting Hubble Space Telescope, the First Servicing Mission (STS-61) in December 1993 had a lot to prove and a lot to do. The mission's most important objective was to install two devices to fix Hubble's vision problem. Because Hubble's primary mirror was incorrectly shaped, the telescope could not focus all the light from an object to a single sharp point. Instead, it saw a fuzzy halo around objects it observed.
Once astronauts from the space shuttle Endeavour caught up with the orbiting telescope, they hauled it into the shuttle's cargo bay and spent five days tuning it up. They installed two new devices — the Wide Field and Planetary Camera 2 (WFPC2) and the Corrective Optics Space Telescope Axial Replacement (COSTAR). Both WFPC2 and the COSTAR apparatus were designed to compensate for the primary mirror's incorrect shape.
Once Hubble received its corrective "eyeglasses," it began seeing more clearly.
Also installed during the First Servicing Mission were:
New solar arrays to reduce the "jitter" caused by excessive flexing of the solar panels during the telescope's orbital transition from cold darkness into warm daylight
New gyroscopes to help point and track the telescope, along with fuse plugs and electronic units.
This successful mission not only improved Hubble's vision — which led to a string of remarkable discoveries in a very short time — but it also validated the effectiveness of on-orbit servicing.
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In 1995, which probe sent back the first major pictures of Jupiter? | Spacecraft Galileo: To Jupiter and Its Moons
Spacecraft Galileo: To Jupiter and Its Moons
By Elizabeth Howell, Space.com Contributor |
November 26, 2012 04:55pm ET
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An artist;s conception of the Galileo spacecraft, which was launched in 1989 for a mission to Jupiter.
Credit: NASA
Galileo was the first spacecraft to examine Jupiter and its moons for an extended period.
It launched from the payload bay of space shuttle Atlantis in 1989, got some speed boosts by swinging past Earth twice and Venus once, then arrived at Jupiter at last in 1995.
Circling the solar system's most giant planet for eight years, Galileo beamed back a string of discoveries to Earth despite encountering several mechanical problems.
It discovered evidence of saltwater below the surfaces of three moons – Europa , Ganymede and Callisto – and also got close to the infamous "pizza moon" Io as its volcanoes belched into the atmosphere.
When Galileo was almost out of fuel, NASA deliberately sent the spacecraft on a suicide plunge into Jupiter on Sept. 21, 2003. The sacrifice, the agency said, was necessary to protect Europa – which likely has a subsurface ocean that could contain life .
The case for Jupiter
Jupiter was a target of interest for NASA for decades before Galileo's launch. Four spacecraft had flown by the giant planet before – Pioneer 10 and Pioneer 11 , and Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 .
Pioneer 10, when it zoomed by the planet in 1973, discovered Jupiter's radiation was far less than scientists had anticipated. This made a long-term mission to Jupiter more feasible, since the spacecraft wouldn't need to be as heavily shielded (making it more expensive to launch.)
NASA was intrigued by the thought of a Jupiter mission, but the idea went through years of budgetary discussions and management changes, as well as machinations in Congress.
By 1977, NASA was far enough in its planning to propose a "Jupiter orbiting probe" in its budget, but the idea was thrown out by a congressional appropriations subcommittee with oversight of the agency. That decision was reversed after a massive lobbying effort by the scientific community, and Congress approved the project later that year.
It would take another 12 years to get Galileo off the ground. There were continual government funding threats to the mission and even the existence of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory , where it was being built. Debates also arose about Galileo's planned launch vehicle. Then, just as the probe was readying for a space shuttle mission, Challenger exploded and killed seven astronauts in 1986, grounding the fleet for two years.
Named for astronomer Galileo Galilei , the spacecraft launched at last on Oct. 18, 1989, from the payload bay of space shuttle Atlantis. To save on fuel, the probe whipped by Venus once and Earth twice to pick up speed, with the aim to reach Jupiter in 1995.
Solving problems in space
Operating missions for the long duration can be a marathon for both humans and spacecraft alike. As components on the spacecraft break down, it's up to the people on the ground to figure out how to resurrect them – or do without them.
Galileo spacecraft observations: a three-color global scale view of Io obtained on 3 July 1999 (Orbit 21) with a resolution of 1.3 km per pixel is shown on the left. The corresponding infrared image on the right was taken at 4.7 μm on October 16 2001 in daytime and has a spatial resolution of 30 km/pixel obtained . The near infrared picture shows the active volcanoes glowing thermal radiation.
Credit: NASA/JPL/University of Arizona
Galileo's most prominent failures were a high-gain antenna that failed to open – threatening the transmissions of data back to Earth – and a data tape recorder that temporarily jammed during the final approach to Jupiter.
The sticky antenna, shaped somewhat like an umbrella, lay stowed on the spacecraft for nearly two years after launch. NASA determined it might be risky to set it free when Galileo was closer to the sun during its gravity assist by Venus.
On April 11, 1991, controllers sent a command for Galileo to unfurl the antenna. The motors ran for eight minutes at higher power levels than expected, which indicated there might be a problem. The spacecraft then failed to send a signal to Earth saying the antenna had opened.
A fault analysis determined that some of the antenna's "ribs" got stuck. Managers did everything from rapidly spinning the spacecraft to exposing the antenna to sunlight, with no luck.
To get around the problem, they came up with ways to compress data so that Galileo could send back more information to Earth, which helped save the crippled mission.
NASA now relied on Galileo's on-board data recorder and low-gain transmission antennas to bring information back to Earth. That worked well until the recorder jammed for 15 hours while rewinding on Oct. 11, 1995 – just as the spacecraft was finally closing in on Jupiter.
Fortunately, NASA found a work-around and was able to resume work a few weeks later. The tape recorder acted up in future years, though, necessitating more fixes.
"Among the Galileo mission’s memorable achievements were the repeated successes of its staff in solving serious technical problems," wrote Michael Meltzer in the NASA publication Mission to Jupiter: A History of the Galileo Project.
"In each instance, the team attacked potentially mission-ending problems and found ingenious ways to keep the spacecraft operational and productive."
Entering Jupiter's system
One of Galileo's first science targets was Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 . Jupiter's gravity had pulled the comet towards the planet and broken it up into more than 20 pieces. When the shards slammed into Jupiter in July 1994, the astronomical community eagerly watched. Galileo was en route to Jupiter at that time and snapped some shots of the hits.
The spacecraft encountered "interplanetary dust storms" on its way to Jupiter, possibly from particles coming from within the Jovian system. At one point, Galileo was tracking 20,000 dust particles a day , compared to a typical one particle every three days.
Galileo was still flying at Jupiter when in July 1995, it released a probe to smack the planet's atmosphere in December. When the probe finished its descent, NASA was surprised at its measurements of helium – half of what they expected – and the dryness of the region in which the probe flew.
"These initial findings are encouraging scientists to rethink their theories of Jupiter's formation and the nature of planetary evolution processes," wrote NASA in a January 1996 press release .
Planetary, moon and asteroid science
Galileo itself reached Jupiter on Dec. 7, 1995, beginning its years of circling the planet and its moons.
These images show the trailing hemisphere of Jupiter's moon Europa taken by the Galileo spacecraft at a distance of about 677,000 km. The left image shows Europa in approximately true color and the right image shows Europa in enhanced color to bring out details. The bright feature towards the lower right of the disk is the 45 km diameter crater Pwyll.
Credit: NSSDC Photo Gallery
In the early days, Galileo took a close look at the faint rings of Jupiter to find out how they formed. Data from the spacecraft determined that meteoroids, crashing into small moons around Jupiter, were sending dust up around the planet . Over time, the dust coalesced into rings.
While Galileo was often called a mission to Jupiter, the spacecraft also made extensive observations of the planet's largest moons.
It found evidence of a liquid ocean underneath Europa's surface, sparking questions about what sort of life could lie underneath. From watching volcanoes at Io , Galileo's data showed the moon's volcanic activity could be as much as 100 times more than what is seen on Earth. And at Ganymede, Galileo found the first magnetic field around a moon.
Galileo even made a few side discoveries. When taking pictures of the asteroid Ida, it discovered there was a smaller object orbiting around it . Later called Dactyl, this was the first confirmed satellite of an asteroid.
In 2003, the aging spacecraft – battling radiation problems and other mechanical issues – was running low on fuel. NASA chose to send Galileo straight into Jupiter rather than leave it in orbit, just in case the spacecraft accidentally crashed into Europa and disrupted possible life there.
Galileo broke up in Jupiter's atmosphere on Sept. 21, 2003.
— Elizabeth Howell, SPACE.com Contributor
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Jupiter
Jupiter is the largest planet in the solar system. Its diameter is 88,846 miles (142,984 kilometers), more than 11 times that of Earth, and about one-tenth that of the sun. It would take more than 1,000 Earths to fill up the volume of the giant planet. When viewed from Earth, Jupiter appears brighter than most stars. It is usually the second brightest planet -- after Venus.
Jupiter is the fifth planet from the sun. Its mean (average) distance from the sun is about 483,780,000 miles (778,570,000 kilometers), more than five times Earth's distance. Ancient astronomers named Jupiter after the king of the Roman gods.
Astronomers have studied Jupiter with telescopes based on Earth and aboard artificial satellites in orbit around Earth. In addition, the United States has sent six space probes (crewless exploratory craft) to Jupiter.
Astronomers witnessed a spectacular event in July 1994, when 21 fragments of a comet named Shoemaker-Levy 9 crashed into Jupiter's atmosphere. The impacts caused tremendous explosions, some scattering debris over areas larger than the diameter of Earth.
Physical features of Jupiter
Jupiter is a giant ball of gas and liquid with little, if any, solid surface. Instead, the planet's surface is composed of dense red, brown, yellow, and white clouds. The clouds are arranged in light-colored areas called zones and darker regions called belts that circle the planet parallel to the equator.
Orbit and rotation
Jupiter travels around the sun in a slightly elliptical (oval-shaped) orbit. The planet completes one orbit in 4,333 Earth days, or almost 12 Earth years.
As Jupiter orbits the sun, the planet rotates on its axis, an imaginary line through its center. The axis is tilted about 3¡. Scientists measure tilt relative to a line at a right angle to the orbital plane, an imaginary surface touching all points of the orbit.
Jupiter rotates faster than any other planet. It takes 9 hours 56 minutes to spin around once on its axis, compared with 24 hours for Earth. Scientists cannot measure the rotation of the interior of the giant planet directly, so they have calculated the speed from indirect measurements. They first calculated the speed using an average of the speeds of the visible clouds that move with interior currents, except for a more rapid zone near the equator.
Jupiter sends out radio waves strong enough to be picked up by radio telescopes on Earth. Scientists now measure these waves to calculate Jupiter's rotational speed. The strength of the waves varies under the influence of Jupiter's magnetic field in a pattern that repeats every 9 hours 56 minutes. Because the magnetic field originates in Jupiter's core, this variation shows how fast the plant's interior spins.
Jupiter's rapid rotation makes it bulge at the equator and flatten at the poles. The planet's diameter is about 7 percent larger at the equator than at the poles.
Mass and density
Jupiter is heavier than any other planet. Its mass (quantity of matter) is 318 times larger than that of Earth. Although Jupiter has a large mass, it has a relatively low density. Its density averages 1.33 grams per cubic centimeter, slightly more than the density of water. The density of Jupiter is about 1/4 that of Earth. Because of Jupiter's low density, astronomers believe that the planet consists primarily of hydrogen and helium, the lightest elements. Earth, on the other hand, is made up chiefly of metals and rock. Jupiter's mix of chemical elements resembles that of the sun, rather than that of Earth.
Jupiter may have a core made up of heavy elements. The core may be of about the same chemical composition as Earth, but 20 or 30 times more massive.
The force of gravity at the surface of Jupiter is up to 2.4 times stronger than on Earth. Thus, an object that weighs 100 pounds on Earth would weigh as much as 240 pounds on Jupiter.
The atmosphere of Jupiter is composed of about 86 percent hydrogen, 14 percent helium, and tiny amounts of methane, ammonia, phosphine, water, acetylene, ethane, germanium, and carbon monoxide. The percentage of hydrogen is based on the number of hydrogen molecules in the atmosphere, rather than on their total mass. Scientists have calculated these amounts from measurements taken with telescopes and other instruments on Earth and aboard spacecraft.
These chemicals have formed colorful layers of clouds at different heights. The highest white clouds in the zones are made of crystals of frozen ammonia. Darker, lower clouds of other chemicals occur in the belts. At the lowest levels that can be seen, there are blue clouds. Astronomers had expected to detect water clouds about 44 miles (70 kilometers) below the ammonia clouds. However, none have been discovered at any level.
The planet Jupiter's Great Red Spot is a huge mass of swirling gas. At its widest, it is about three times the diameter of the Earth. Image credit: NASA
Jupiter's most outstanding surface feature is the Great Red Spot, a swirling mass of gas resembling a hurricane. The widest diameter of the spot is about three times that of Earth. The color of the spot usually varies from brick-red to slightly brown. Rarely, the spot fades entirely. Its color may be due to small amounts of sulfur and phosphorus in the ammonia crystals.
The edge of the Great Red Spot circulates at a speed of about 225 miles (360 kilometers) per hour. The spot remains at the same distance from the equator but drifts slowly east and west.
The zones, belts, and the Great Red Spot are much more stable than similar circulation systems on Earth. Since astronomers began to use telescopes to observe these features in the late 1600's, the features have changed size and brightness but have kept the same patterns.
Temperature
The temperature at the top of Jupiter's clouds is about -230 degrees F (-145 degrees C). Measurements made by ground instruments and spacecraft show that Jupiter's temperature increases with depth below the clouds. The temperature reaches 70 degrees F (21 degrees C) -- "room temperature" -- at a level where the atmospheric pressure is about 10 times as great as it is on Earth. Scientists speculate that if Jupiter has any form of life, the life form would reside at this level. Such life would need to be airborne, because there is no solid surface at this location on Jupiter. Scientists have discovered no evidence for life on Jupiter.
Near the planet's center, the temperature is much higher. The core temperature may be about 43,000 degrees F (24,000 degrees C) -- hotter than the surface of the sun.
Jupiter is still losing the heat produced when it became a planet. Most astronomers believe that the sun, the planets, and all the other bodies in the solar system formed from a spinning cloud of gas and dust. The gravitation of the gas and dust particles packed them together into dense clouds and solid chunks of material. By about 4.6 billion years ago, the material had squeezed together to form the various bodies in the solar system. The compression of material produced heat. So much heat was produced when Jupiter formed that the planet still radiates about twice as much heat into space as it receives from sunlight.
Magnetic field
Like Earth and many other planets, Jupiter acts like a giant magnet. The force of its magnetism extends far into space in a region surrounding the planet called its magnetic field. Jupiter's magnetic field is about 14 times as strong as Earth's, according to measurements made by spacecraft. Jupiter's magnetic field is the strongest in the solar system, except for fields associated with sunspots and other small regions on the sun's surface.
Scientists do not fully understand how planets produce magnetic fields. They suspect, however, that the movement of electrically charged particles in the interior of planets generates the fields. Jupiter's field would be so much stronger than Earth's because of Jupiter's greater size and faster rotation.
Jupiter's magnetic field traps electrons, protons, and other electrically charged particles in radiation belts around the planet. The particles are so powerful that they can damage instruments aboard spacecraft operating near the planet.
Within a region of space called the magnetosphere, Jupiter's magnetic field acts as a shield. The field protects the planet from the solar wind, a continuous flow of charged particles from the sun. Most of these particles are electrons and protons traveling at a speed of about 310 miles (500 kilometers) per second. The field traps the charged particles in the radiation belts. The trapped particles enter the magnetosphere near the poles of the magnetic field. On the side of the planet away from the sun, the magnetosphere stretches out into an enormous magnetic tail, often called a magnetotail, that is at least 435 million miles (700 million kilometers) long.
Radio waves given off by Jupiter reach radio telescopes on Earth in two forms -- bursts of radio energy and continuous radiation. Strong bursts occur when Io, the closest of Jupiter's four large moons, passes through certain regions in the planet's magnetic field. Continuous radiation comes from Jupiter's surface as well as from high-energy particles in the radiation belts.
Callisto, a moon of Jupiter, is covered with craters produced when asteroids and comets struck its icy surface. Beneath the surface may be an ocean of salty liquid water. Image credit: NASA
Satellites
Jupiter has 16 satellites that measure at least 6 miles (10 kilometers) in diameter. It also has many smaller satellites. Jupiter's four largest satellites, in order of their distance from Jupiter, are Io, Europa, Ganymede, and Callisto. These four moons are called the Galilean satellites. The Italian astronomer Galileo discovered them in 1610 with one of the earliest telescopes.
Io has many active volcanoes, which produce gases containing sulfur. The yellow-orange surface of Io probably consists largely of solid sulfur that was deposited by the eruptions. Europa ranks as the smallest of the Galilean satellites, with a diameter of 1,945 miles (3,130 kilometers). Europa has a smooth, cracked, icy surface.
The largest Galilean satellite is Ganymede, with a diameter of 3,273 miles (5,268 kilometers). Ganymede is larger than the planet Mercury. Callisto, with a diameter of 2,986 miles (4,806 kilometers), is slightly smaller than Mercury. Ganymede and Callisto appear to consist of ice and some rocky material. The two satellites have many craters.
Ganymede, a moon of Jupiter, has craters and cracks on its surface. Asteroids and comets that hit Ganymede made the craters. The cracks are due to expansion and contraction of the surface. Image credit: NASA
Jupiter's remaining satellites are much smaller than the Galilean moons. Amalthea and Himalia are the next largest. Potato-shaped Amalthea is about 163 miles (262 kilometers) in its long dimension. Himalia is 106 miles (170 kilometers) in diameter. Most of the remaining satellites were discovered by astronomers using large telescopes on Earth. Scientists discovered Metis and Adrastea in 1979 by studying pictures that had been taken by the Voyager spacecraft.
Rings
Jupiter has three thin rings around its equator. They are much fainter than the rings of Saturn. Jupiter's rings appear to consist mostly of fine dust particles. The main ring is about 20 miles (30 kilometers) thick and more than 4,000 miles (6,400 kilometers) wide. It circles the planet inside the orbit of Amalthea.
The impact of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9
In March 1993, astronomers Eugene Shoemaker, Carolyn Shoemaker, and David H. Levy discovered a comet near Jupiter. The comet, later named Shoemaker-Levy 9, probably once orbited the sun independently, but had been pulled by Jupiter's gravity into an orbit around the planet. When the comet was discovered, it had broken into 21 pieces. The comet probably had broken apart when it passed close to Jupiter.
Calculations based on the comet's location and velocity showed that the fragments would crash into Jupiter's atmosphere in July 1994. Scientists hoped to learn much about the effects of a collision between a planet and a comet.
Scars from the crash of Comet Shoemaker-Levy 9 appear on Jupiter's surface as a series of maroon blotches in this photo. The comet broke into 21 pieces before it hit Jupiter in 1994. Image credit: Hubble Space Telescope Comet Team and NASA
Astronomers at all the major telescopes on Earth turned their instruments toward Jupiter at the predicted collision times. Scientists also observed Jupiter with the powerful Hubble Space Telescope, which is in orbit around Earth; and the remotely controlled space probe Galileo, which was on its way to Jupiter.
The fragments fell on the back side of Jupiter as viewed from Earth and the Hubble Space Telescope. But the rotation of Jupiter carried the impact sites around to the visible side after less than half an hour. Scientists estimate that the largest fragments were about 0.3 to 2.5 miles (0.5 to 4 kilometers) in diameter. The impacts were directly observable from Galileo, which was within about 150 million miles (240 million kilometers) from Jupiter. However, damage to certain of the probe's instruments limited its ability to record and send data.
The impacts caused large explosions, probably due to the compression, heating, and rapid expansion of atmospheric gases. The explosions scattered comet debris over large areas, some with diameters larger than that of Earth. The debris gradually spread into a dark haze of fine material that remained suspended for several months in Jupiter's upper atmosphere. If a similar comet ever collided with Earth, it might produce a haze that would cool the atmosphere and darken the planet by absorbing sunlight. If the haze lasted long enough, much of Earth's plant life could die, along with the people and animals that depend on plants.
Flights to Jupiter
The United States has sent six space probes to Jupiter: (1) Pioneer 10, (2) Pioneer-Saturn, (3) Voyager 1, (4) Voyager 2, (5) Ulysses, and (6) Galileo.
Pioneer 10 was launched in 1972 and flew within 81,000 miles (130,000 kilometers) of Jupiter on Dec. 3, 1973. The probe revealed the severe effects of Jupiter's radiation belt on spacecraft. Pioneer 10 also reported the amount of hydrogen and helium in the planet's atmosphere. In addition, the probe discovered that Jupiter has an enormous magnetosphere.
Pioneer-Saturn flew within 27,000 miles (43,000 kilometers) of Jupiter in December 1974. The craft provided close-up photographs of Jupiter's polar regions and data on the Great Red Spot, the magnetic field, and atmospheric temperatures.
Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 flew past Jupiter in March and July 1979, respectively. These craft carried more sensitive instruments than did the Pioneers, and transmitted much more information. Astronomers used photographs taken by the Voyagers to make the first detailed maps of the Galilean satellites. The Voyagers also revealed sulfur volcanoes on Io, discovered lightning in Jupiter's clouds, and mapped flow patterns in the cloud bands.
Ulysses was launched in October 1990 and passed by Jupiter in February 1992. The European Space Agency, an organization of Western European nations, had built the probe mainly to study the sun's polar regions. Scientists used the tremendous gravitational force of Jupiter to put Ulysses into an orbit that would take it over the sun's polar regions. As Ulysses passed by Jupiter, it gathered data indicating that the solar wind has a much greater effect on Jupiter's magnetosphere than earlier measurements had suggested.
Galileo began its journey to Jupiter in October 1989. The craft released an atmospheric probe in July 1995. In December 1995, the probe plunged into Jupiter's atmosphere. The probe penetrated deep into the cloud layers and measured the amount of water and other chemicals in the atmosphere. Also in December 1995, Galileo went into orbit around Jupiter. Over the next several years, the craft monitored Jupiter's atmosphere and observed the planet's major satellites. Galileo's mission was extended in 1997 and again in 1999. Eventually, however, the craft ran low on fuel. In September 2003, mission managers intentionally crashed Galileo into Jupiter's atmosphere to avoid any risk of the craft crashing into and contaminating Jupiter's moon Europa. Galileo's observations of Europa had shown that it might have an ocean below its surface capable of supporting life.
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What was the last Grand National winner ridden by an amateur, before 'Mr. Fisk'? | Mr Frisk and Mr Armytage strike another blow for amateurs riders in record time | Sport | The Guardian
Mr Frisk and Mr Armytage strike another blow for amateurs riders in record time
Amateur jockey makes record time with win
Mr Frisk holds off Durham Edition to win in 1990. Photograph: Getty Images.
Richard Baerlein
Monday 9 April 1990 10.24 EDT
First published on Monday 9 April 1990 10.24 EDT
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Marcus Armytage achieved his lifetime ambition to ride the winner of the Seagram Grand National at Aintree on Saturday at the early age of 25, steering the 16-1 chance Mr Frisk to a threequarters of a length victory over Durham Edition in a time that beat Red Rum's 1973 record by almost 14 seconds.
It was the first National to be run in under nine minutes.
Not many amateurs are successful in this hardest of all National Hunt contests, and Dick Saunders, at the age of 48, 23 years older than Armytage, won in 1982 on Grittar, the last successful favourite, while the American amateurs, Charlie Fenwick won on Ben Nevis in 1980 and Tommy Smith on Jay Trump in 1964, but the race really took me back to the days of Reynoldstown in 1935/36.
Reynoldstown was owned by Major Frank Furlong and was ridden to his first win by his son, the amateur, Frank Furlong, and on the second occasion by Frank's friend, Fulke Walwyn. Walwyn became a successful professional but Marcus Armytage says he is too heavy ever to join the paid ranks.
To be a success in racing one has to overcome all the hazards on the way and Mr Frisk did so. When Kim Bailey bought him on behalf of the American, Mrs Lois Duffey, he apologised at first for buying her a stumer. Under the tuition of Kim's wife, Tracey, he gradually became tractable and Saturday's victory was his 14th in all.
Mr Frisk is one of those rare chasers that are at their best on firm ground. On Saturday he was one of the few that really relished the conditions.
It was obvious he would be in the van for the first circuit but I doubted his ability to stay there.
He, Polyphemus, Uncle Merlin, Rinus and the favourite, Brown Windsor, were among the early leaders. After jumping the Chair, Mr Frisk went up to join Uncle Merlin and actually headed him. They went out on the second circuit together but it was not long before Uncle Merlin resumed a two length lead.
Although no horses were hurt at the dreaded Bechers second time, the fence may well have altered the result of the race. Uncle Merlin was three lengths in front and although he jumped the fence cleanly, stumbled as he put his foot down for a second stride, lowering his head, and Hywel Davies was thrown.
Davies had gone over towards the inside to save ground. Richard Dunwoody did exactly the same in 1985 on West Tip but when he returned the next year Dunwoody aimed for the middle of the fence and won the race. I expect that policy will be adopted next time on Uncle Merlin.
That left Mr Frisk 15 lengths in front and with no visible challengers, although Rinus was in second and Durham Edition not far behind. From that point, past the Canal Turn and Valentine's, Armytage kept Mr Frisk measuring his fences perfectly.
Chris Grant, who had come over the last fence on Durham Edition two years ago with what appeared to be an unassailable lead only to be run out of it by Rhyme 'n' Reason, and had finished fifth on soft ground last year, was determined not to come too soon on Durham Edition this time.
Grant put in his challenge between the last two, having judged it to perfection. Jumping the last two lengths behind Mr Frisk , he had joined him by the elbow with just about half a length to make up.
Armytage, however, got every ounce out of Mr Frisk on the run-in, using just hands and heels on his father's advice and this sealed the fate of Grant and Durham Edition once again as they just missed by threequarters of a length. Nobody, however, could criticise either after such splendidly judged performances.
Hywel Davies was the only rider to produce a bad-luck story. 'There is no doubt Uncle Merlin would have won but for the fall at Bechers. He will come back here and next time he will win.'
That may well be so, but he would have had to break the record by about 15 seconds to have done so on Saturday and that is an arguable point.
Uncle Merlin won the formidable four mile Maryland Hunt Cup, as did Jay Trump and Ben Nevis before their Aintree triumphs. There is no doubt that the American race is a wonderful test for the Grand National, but the English weather may not be so kind to Uncle Merlin a year hence.
At least, with a handicap of 8st 13lb in this year's race, Tim Forster has plenty of leeway for a number of victories with Uncle Merlin before his weight rises over and above 10st. From start to finish on Saturday it was a three horse race, with only Uncle Merlin, Mr Frisk , and Durham Edition in contention.
Rinus was about 20 lengths back in third, enabling his rider, Neale Doughty, to complete the course for the seventh time running.
Cheltenham did, in the end, supply the winner, but not from the three winners at the Festival meeting, with Brown Windsor finishing fourth, Bigsun sixth, and Call Collect seventh.
Mr Frisk had finished fourth in the race won by Mr Bob on the opening day. It was surprising to hear Richard Dunwoody say Bigsun, backed down to 8-1, was taken off his feet by the fast pace because he had set a record over three miles at Cheltenham. Brown Windsor gave the impression that he failed to stay.
Twenty finished the course, with Bob Tisdall last. Bonanza Boy, totally unsuited by conditions, finished 16th against eighth last year.
West Tip, ridden by Peter Hobbs, got round for the fifth year running and after a wonderful career will be retired.
The Grand National day attendance was 67,235, almost 7,000 doqwn on last year's figure.
Course spokesman David Donald said: 'The reduction was due to restrictions which were placed on the numbers allowed in the County enclosure and because of a reduction in the number of coach parties which attended.'
Total attendance for the three days was 98,287, compared with 102,000 the previous year.
Coincidentally, a Mister Frisky was performing with equal distinction in America. He silenced his doubters by tying a record set by Citation and sounding the now-familiar warning to Kentucky Derby hopefuls everywhere.
The victory was the 16th for the unbeaten Mister Frisky, equalling Citation's score for the longest modern winning streak in North America. His next race will be the Kentucky Derby on May 5.
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Aintree Grand National – Stats and History
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Thirty Fences, Two Circuits; Endless Joyous Racing Memories!
As the National Hunt season bubbles away nicely, many of us have our eyes set firmly on the end-of-season festivals we’ve come to cherish as each racing calendar comes to fitting climax.
With many inches dedicated to the Cheltenham Festival on our blog throughout the past year, it’s time to turn our attention to the Aintree Festival!
With the 2015 edition of the Grand National scheduled for April 11th, there’s plenty of time to whet our appetite and see which horses bob and flow in and out of contention in the betting for the main event, so let’s take a canter down memory lane and analyse this great race in finer detail, with a nice Grand National infographic to boot.
Highlighting some of the more poignant moments along with a few lesser-known nuggets of wisdom in it’s long and illustrious history, here’s our take on Aintree’s very own spectacular annual event.
Facts and Stats on Racing’s Greatest Challenge
The Grand National is a handicap steeplechase over 30 fences and a distance of 4 miles 3½ furlongs.
No horse priced higher than 50/1 won the National for over half a century between 1950 and 2008. Then Mon Mome (100/1) and Auroras Encore (66/1) won it within a four year period.
Irish-trained horses had a purple patch at the turn of the 20th century, when six won the National in eight years. But there has been no Irish winner since 2007, and there was also a 24-year drought between 1975 and 1999.
Although outsiders do not generally triumph at the National, favourites have not fared particularly well either. Only five of the last 33 races have been won by the favourite.
The seventies were a great time for prolific owners in the National; whichever century you’re dealing with. Only two owners have won the national three times, Noel Le Mare in the 1970s, and James Machell in the 1870s.
Nigel Twiston-Davies is the only current trainer to have won the Grand National more than once. He won with Earth Summit (1998) and Bindaree (2002).
Tony McCoy and Ruby Walsh are the only active jockeys to have won all four nationals – the English, Scottish, Irish and Welsh.
Defining Moments which make The Grand National truly unique
The course record time at the Grand National was set in 1990 by Marcus Armytage abroad Mr. Fisk. Armytage was an amateur at the time.
Only two grey horses have ever won the Grand National, and only one in virtually the last 150 years. Nicolaus Silver was the last grey winner in 1961.
Amateur Dick Saunders remains the oldest winning jockey in the race, when he rode Grittar to victory at the age of 48 in 1982.
Many people believe the 1967 Grand National to be the best of all-time, when the 23rd fence (now officially called the Foinavon Fence) created havoc allowing 100/1 outsider Foinavon to win.
The only horse to win back-to-back Nationals in the post-war period is Red Rum (1973-4). The previous before that was Reynoldstown (1935-6).
Red Rum is noted for winning three nationals and being the last horse to win the race consecutively. But he also finished in the top two places for five years in succession between 1973 and 1977.
Red Rum and Reynoldstown also share the distinction of being the last two horses in the race’s history to carry top weight to victory.
The last jockey to pull off the Gold Cup / Grand National double was Jim Culloty in 2002.
Jenny Pitman was the first woman to train a Grand National winner when Corbiere won in 1983. Pitman also trained the most unlucky horse in National history. Esha Ness crossed the line first in the voided 1993 race.
The most runners saddled by a single trainer is ten, which was achieved by Martin Pipe in 2001.
Fred Winter is the only person to have won the Cheltenham Gold Cup, Champion Hurdle and Grand National as both a trainer and a jockey.
The only Welsh-trained horse to win was Kirkland in 1905.
No French-trained horse has won the National since 1867.
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